Textiles and Clothing BY KATE HEINTZ WATSON GRADUATE ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN DOMESTIC ART LEWIS INSTITUTE LECTURER UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO [Illustration: American School of Home Economics seal] CHICAGO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 1907 COPYRIGHT 1906, 1907, BY HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION THE LIBRARYOFHOME ECONOMICS A COMPLETE HOME-STUDY COURSE ON THE NEW PROFESSION OF HOME-MAKING AND ART OF RIGHT LIVING; THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE MOST RECENT ADVANCES IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES TO HOME AND HEALTH PREPARED BY TEACHERS OF RECOGNIZED AUTHORITY FOR HOME-MAKERS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NURSES, DIETITIANS, PROFESSIONAL HOUSE MANAGERS, AND ALL INTERESTED IN HOME, HEALTH, ECONOMY AND CHILDREN TWELVE VOLUMES NEARLY THREE THOUSAND PAGES, ONE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS TESTED BY USE IN CORRESPONDENCE INSTRUCTION REVISED AND SUPPLEMENTED [Illustration: American School of Home Economics seal] CHICAGO AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 1907 Copyright, 1907 by Home Economics Association Entered at Stationers' Hall, London _All Rights Reserved. _ AUTHORS ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M. Professor of Household Science, University of Illinois. Author U. S. Government Bulletins, "Development of The Home Economics Movement in America, " etc. ALICE PELOUBET NORTON, M. A. Assistant Professor of Home Economics, School of Eduction, University of Chicago; Director of the Chautauqua School of Domestic Science. S. MARIA ELLIOTT Instructor in Home Economics, Simmons College; Formerly Instructor School of Housekeeping, Boston. ANNA BARROWS Director Chautauqua School of Cookery; Lecturer Teachers' College, Columbia University, and Simmons College; formerly Editor "American Kitchen Magazine;" Author "Home Science Cook Book. " ALFRED CLEVELAND COTTON, A. M. , M. D. Professor Diseases of Children, Rush Medical College, University of Chicago; Visiting Physician Presbyterian Hospital, Chicago; Author of "Diseases of Children. " BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. B. Professor in Home Economics in Hartford School of Pedagogy; Author of U. S. Government Bulletins. KATE HEINTZ WATSON Formerly Instructor in Domestic Economy, Lewis Institute; Lecturer University of Chicago. MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE Editor "The Mothers' Magazine;" Lecturer Chicago Froebel Association; Author "Everyday Essays, " "Family Secrets, " etc. MARGARET E. DODD Graduate Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Teacher of Science, Woodard Institute. AMY ELIZABETH POPE With the Panama Canal Commission; Formerly Instructor in Practical and Theoretical Nursing, Training School for Nurses, Presbyterian Hospital, New York City. MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B. Director American School of Home Economics; Member American Public Health Association and American Chemical Society. CONTRIBUTORS AND EDITORS ELLEN H. RICHARDS Author "Cost of Food, " "Cost of Living, " "Cost of Shelter, " "Food Materials and Their Adulteration, " etc. , etc. ; Chairman Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics. MARY HINMAN ABEL Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, "Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking, " "Sale Food, " etc. THOMAS D. WOOD, M. D. Professor of Physical Education, Columbia University. H. M. LUFKIN, M. D. Professor of Physical Diagnosis and Clinical Medicine, University of Minnesota. OTTO FOLIN, Ph. D. Special Investigator, McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass. T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN, M. D. , LL. D. Author "Dust and Its Dangers, " "The Story of the Bacteria, " "Drinking Water and Ice Supplies, " etc. FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN Architect, Boston, Mass. ; Author of "The Five Orders of Architecture, " "Letters and Lettering. " MRS. MELVIL DEWEY Secretary Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics. HELEN LOUISE JOHNSON Professor of Home Economics, James Millikan University, Decatur. FRANK W. ALLIN, M. D. Instructor Rush Medical College, University of Chicago. MANAGING EDITOR MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B. Director American School of Home Economics. BOARD OF TRUSTEESOF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS MRS. ARTHUR COURTENAY NEVILLE President of the Board. MISS MARIA PARLOA Founder of the first Cooking School in Boston; Author of "Home Economics, " "Young Housekeeper, " U. S. Government Bulletins, etc. MRS. MARY HINMAN ABEL Co-worker in the "New England Kitchen, " and the "Rumford Food Laboratory;" Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, "Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking, " etc. MISS ALICE RAVENHILL Special Commissioner sent by the British Government to report on the Schools of Home Economics in the United States; Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, London. MRS. ELLEN M. HENROTIN Honorary President General Federation of Woman's Clubs. MRS. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF President National Congress of Mothers. MRS. LINDA HULL LARNED Past President National Household Economics Association; Author of "Hostess of To-day. " MRS. WALTER McNAB MILLER Chairman of the Pure Food Committee of the General Federation of Woman's Clubs. MRS. J. A. KIMBERLY Vice President of National Household Economics Association. MRS. JOHN HOODLESS Government Superintendent of Domestic Science for the province of Ontario; Founder Ontario Normal School of Domestic Science, now the MacDonald Institute. [Illustration: DRESS MAKING IN MEXICO] CONTENTS Primitive Methods 3 Weaving 14 Fibers 29 Cotton 29 Wool 37 Flax 43 Silk 53 Modern Methods 59 Weaving 69 Weaves 72 Bleaching and Dyeing 78 Printing 81 Finishing 83 Cotton Goods 85 Linens 86 Woolens and Worsteds 88 Silks 90 Names of Fabrics 94 Bibliography on Textiles 103 Hand Sewing 107 Ornamental Stitches 114 Hems 123 Tucks and Seams 128 Plackets 135 Sewing on Bands 138 Fastenings 141 Patching 149 Darning 155 Mitering Embroidery, Joining Lace 158 Machine Sewing 162 Dressmaking 167 Patterns 171 Making Seven-Gored Skirt 172 Making Shirt Waists 182 Lined Waist 186 Sleeves 194 Collars 198 Seamless Yokes 200 Pressing 201 Construction and Ornament in Dress 203 Ornament of Textiles 212 Color 214 Children's Clothes 216 Care of Clothing 219 Cleaning 221 Repairing 225 Bibliography on Sewing and Dressmaking 229 References: History of Costume; Ornament and Design 234 Program for Supplemental Study 236 Index 241 [Illustration: "THE THREAD OF LIFE" Spinning with the Distaff and Spindle. From a Painting. ] TEXTILES AND CLOTHING [Sidenote: Origin of Textile Arts] Spinning and weaving are among the earliest arts. In the twisting offibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb andfingers, palms of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have theoriginal of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; inthe roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth. The need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led tobinding, fastening, and sewing. The wattle-work hut with its roof ofinterlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails orsinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crudebeginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day. [Sidenote: Primitive Methods] Nothing is definitely known of the origin of these arts; all isconjecture. They doubtless had their beginning long before mention ismade of them in history, but these crafts--spinning andweaving--modified and complicated by inventions and, in modern timestransferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman'semployment. The very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was tofasten the strands of goats' hair or wool to a stone which was twirledround until the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound uponthe stone and the process repeated over and over. [Illustration: ITALIAN WOMAN SPINNING FLAX Spindle and Distaff. From Hull House Museum. (In This Series of Pictures the Spinners andWeavers Are in Native Costume. )] [Illustration: RUSSIAN SPINNING Flax Held on Frame, Leaving Both Hands Free to Manage the Thread andSpindle. From Hull House Museum. ] [Sidenote: Spinning with the Spindle] The next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stickeight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound aftertwisting. At first it had a cleft or split in the top in which thethread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. Thespindle is yet used by the North American Indians, the Italians, and inthe Orient. The bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand;with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the endfastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. Awhirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenientpart of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, whichis wound on the upper part of the spindle. Another bunch of fibers isdrawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on thespindle, and so on. [Sidenote: Spindle Whorl] A spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily, steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the nextimprovement was the addition of a _whorl_ at the bottom of the spindle. These whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep thespindle steady and promote its rotation. The process in effect isprecisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only thespinning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for theoperation. [Illustration: SPINNING WITH CRUDE WHEEL AND DISTAFF Distaff Thrust Into the Belt. ] [Illustration: "GOSSIP" IN THE OLDEN TIMES] [Illustration: COLONIAL WOOL WHEEL The Large Wheel Revolved by Hand Thus Turning the Spindle and Twistingthe Yarn, Which Is Then Wound on the Spindle; Intermittent in Action. ] [Illustration: COLONIAL FLAX WHEEL Worked by a Foot Treddle; Distaff on the Frame of the Wheel; "Fliers" onthe Spindle, Continuous in Action; Capacity Seven Times That of HandSpindle. ] [Illustration: DUTCH WHEEL Spinner Sits in Front of the Wheel Spinning Flax at Hull House. ] [Sidenote: Distaff] Later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or otherfibers. It was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound theraw material. The other end of the distaff was held in the hand, underthe arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. When held thus, one handwas left free for drawing out the fibers. [Illustration: Graphic Diagram Showing Time During which DifferentMethods of Spinning Has Been Used. ] [Sidenote: Wheel Spinning] On the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of thewheel bench in front of the "fillers"; this left both hands free tomanage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers. [Illustration: SYRIAN SPINNING Spinner Sits on the Floor, Wheel Turned by a Crank; Spindle Held inPlace by Two Mutton Joints Which Contain Enough Oil for Lubrication. AtHull House. ] The flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented inthe early part of the sixteenth century and was a great improvementupon the distaff and spindle. This it will be seen was a comparativelymodern invention. The rude wheel used by the natives of Japan and Indiamay have been the progenitor of the European wheel, as about this timeintercourse between the East and Europe increased. These wheels wereused for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until Hargreaves'invention superseded it. WEAVING Someone has said that "weaving is the climax of textile industry. " It isan art practiced by all savage tribes and doubtless was known before thedawn of history. The art is but a development of mat-making andbasketry, using threads formed or made by spinning in place of coarserfilaments. [Illustration: PUEBLO WOMAN WORKING HEDDLE IN WEAVING A BELT] [Illustration: A NAVAJO BELT WEAVER] [Illustration: ZUNI WOMAN WEAVING CEREMONIAL BELT] [Illustration: PRIMITIVE HEDDLES] [Sidenote: The Heddle] In the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched betweenconvenient objects on the ground or from horizontal supports. At firstthe woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warpthreads as in darning. An improvement was the device called the "heald"or "heddle, " by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawnaway from the others, making an opening through which the filling threadcould be passed quickly. One form of the heddle was simply a straightstick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warpthreads were run. Another form was a slotted frame having openings or"eyes" in the slats. This was carved from one piece of wood or othermaterial or made from many. Alternate warp threads passed through theeyes and the slots. By raising or lowering the heddle frame, an openingwas formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle, was thrown. The next movement of the heddle frame crossed the threadsover the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle. At first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primitivebobbin. Later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised. [Illustration: NAVAJO LOOM One on the Earliest Types of Looms. At Hull House. ] [Illustration: SIMPLE COLONIAL LOOM] [Sidenote: The Reed] Before the "reed" was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenlyinto place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped pieceof wood or "batten. " The reed accomplished all this at one time. [Illustration: A JAPANESE LOOM. ] [Illustration: A FOUR HARNESS HAND LOOM Weaving Linen in the Mountains of Virginia. (Photograph by C. R. Dodge). ] [Illustration: TYPICAL COLONIAL HAND LOOM Two Harnesses in Use; Weaving Wool at Hull House. ] [Illustration: DIAGRAM OF A HAND LOOM _A_--Warp Beam; _B_--Cloth Beam; _DD_--Lees Rods; _H_--Harness;_T_--Treddle. ] [Sidenote: Definition of a Loom] It is probable that the European looms were derived from those of Indiaas they seem to be made on the same principle. From crude beginnings, the hand loom of our grandmothers' time developed. A loom has beendefined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements: 1. The lifting of the healds to form an opening, or shed, or race forthe shuttle to pass through. 2. The throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle. 3. The beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to thecloth already formed. This thread may be adjusted by means of thebatten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed. 4 & 5. The winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and theletting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up. [Illustration: SWEDISH HAND LOOM Norwegian Woman Weaving Linen at Hull House. ] [Illustration: DIAGRAM OF THE WORKING PARTS OF A LOOM. _S_--Shuttle for carrying the woof; _R_--Reed for beating up the woof;_H_--Frame holding heddles, with pullies (_P_) making the harness;_T_--Treddles for moving the harness. ] [Sidenote: Colonial Loom] No essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth ahundred years ago. The "harnesses" move part of the warp now up, nowdown, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be drivenhome by the reeds to the woven cloth. Our grandmothers did all the workwith swift movements of hands and feet. The modern weaver has her loomharnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fingers only to keep thethreads in order. If she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, nolonger does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, accordingto the designs. It is all worked out for her on the loom. Each threadwith almost human intelligence settles automatically into its appointedplace, and the weaver is only a machine tender. [Illustration: FLY SHUTTLE HAND LOOM. The Pulling of the Reed Automatically Throws the Shuttle Back and Forthand Works the Harness, Making a Shed at the Proper Time. ] [Sidenote: Primitive Fabrics] No textiles of primitive people were ever woven in "pieces" or "bolts"of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. The cloth was madeof the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it wasdesigned. The mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportionsand was made according to the materials and the use of common forms thatprevailed among the tribes. The designs were always conventional andsometimes monotonous. The decoration never interfered with its use. "Thefirst beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to thetexture and shape of the product. " The uniformity in textile, basketry, or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of. Their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they werefamiliar. [Illustration: PICKING COTTON. From Department of Agriculture Bulletin, "The Cotton Plant. "] FIBERS Both the animal and vegetable kingdoms furnish the materials forclothing as well as for all the textiles used in the home. The fleece ofsheep, the hair of the goat and camel, silk, furs, and skins are thechief animal products. The principal vegetable fibers are cotton, flax, ramie, jute, and hemp. [Sidenote: Chief Fibers] Cotton linen, wool, and silk have heretofore formed the foundation ofall textiles and are the principal fibers used for clothing materials. Ramie or China grass and pineapple fibers are sometimes used asadulterants in the manufacture of silk. When woven alone, they give softsilky textiles of great strength and beauty. COTTON [Illustration: PRODUCTION OF COTTON] Cotton is now our chief vegetable fiber, the yearly crop being over sixbillion pounds, of which the United States raises three-fourths. Texasis the largest producer, followed by Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. The remainder of the world supply comes chiefly from India, Egypt, Russia, and Brazil. The Hindoos were the first ancient people to makeextensive use of the cotton fiber. Not until the invention of the cottongin by Eli Whitney in 1794 did the cotton begin to reach its presentimportance. Only four or five pounds of the fiber could be separated byhand from the seed by a week's labor. The modern saw gins turn out overfive thousand pounds daily. [Sidenote: Native Home] Cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several special ofcotton of cotton plant. It is a native of many parts of the world, beingfound by Columbus growing in the West Indies and on the main land, byCortez in Mexico, and Pizarro in Peru. [Illustration: COTTON FIBER ATTACHED TO SEED] [Sidenote: Sea Island Cotton] The value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of thefiber. In ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch inlength. The sea island cotton grown chiefly on the islands off the coastof Georgia, Carolina, and Florida is the most valuable variety, having afine fiber, one and one-half to two inches in length. Some of theEgyptian cotton belongs to this species. Sea island cotton is usedchiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawnsand muslins. [Sidenote: Upland Cotton] The short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety. It is grown in Georgia, North and South Carolina and Alabama. Texascotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber. Gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton. [Illustration: UPLAND COTTON PLANT WITH FULLY DEVELOPED BOLES From Bulletin No. 31, Georgia Experiment Station. ] [Illustration: COTTON BOLE FULLY DEVELOPED From Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 1903. ] [Illustration: BOLE OPENED, COTTON READY FOR PICKING Year Book of 1903. ] The Brazilian and Peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimesused to adulterate silk and other fibers. Some varieties of this cottonare harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool. [Sidenote: Nankin Cotton] The Nankin cotton grown in China and India and in the southwestern partof Louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. It is used in weavingcloth of various kinds in the "fireside industries" which have becomepopular in the United States and England. [Illustration: COTTON FIBERS _A A_--Unripe Fibers; _B B_--Half-ripe Fibers; _C C_--Ripe Fibers. ] [Sidenote: Spinning Qualities] Very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral characterof the fibers. This twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, beingpresent in no other animal or vegetable fiber. On account of this twist, cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven fromlinen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight. After the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free fromimpurities--5 per cent is the loss sustained by cleaning and bleaching. In its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxysubstance on the surface of the fibers. This must be removed by washing. [Sidenote: Picking and Ginning] Cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe when the pods arefully burst and the fibers expanded. The unripe fiber is glassy, doesnot attain its full strength and resists the dye. After picking, thecotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. It isthen pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds beingthe standard bale in the United States. [Illustration: COTTON BALES] [Sidenote: Physical Characteristics] Purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. It resists the actionof alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid isallowed to dry on the fabric. It is not harmed by high temperature, andso may be ironed with a hot iron. [Illustration: WOOL FIBER AND SUBSTITUTES 1. South American Wool; 2. Noil from the Same; 3. Tangled Waste; 4. Waste Combed Out; 5. Lap Waste; 6. Shoddy. ] WOOL [Sidenote: Character of Fiber] Wool is the most important animal fiber. Strictly speaking the nameapplies only to the hairy covering of sheep, but the hair of certaingoats and of camels is generally classified under the same terms. Thewool fiber is distinguished by its scale-like surface which gives it itsfelting and spinning properties. Hair as distinguished from wool haslittle or no scaly structure being in general a smooth filament with nofelting properties and spinning only with great difficulty. Fur is theundergrowth found on most fur-bearing animals and has in a modified waythe scaly structure and felting properties of wool. [Illustration: MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF WOOL FIBERS] [Sidenote: Value for Clothing] The great value of wool as a fiber lies in the fact that it is strong, elastic, soft, very susceptible to dye stuffs and being woven, furnishesa great number of air spaces, rendering clothing made from it very warmand light. [Sidenote: Quality of Wool] Climate, breed, and food influence the quality of the wool. Where thepasturage is barren and rocky, the wool is apt to be coarse. [Illustration: MERINO RAMS The Variety of Sheep Giving the Finest Wool. ] [Sidenote: Varieties of Sheep] There are supposed to be about thirty distinct varieties of sheep, nearly half of which are natives of Asia, one-third of Africa, and onlyfour coming from Europe, and two from America. Wool is divided into twogeneral classes--long and short staple, according to the average lengthof fiber. The long fiber wool is commonly carded, combed and spun into_worsted_ yarn. The short fiber is usually carded and spun into woolenyarn. The short fiber obtained in combing long staple wool is called"noil. " It is used for woolens. [Sidenote: Goat Wools] Alpaca, Vicuna and Llama wools are obtained from animals which arenative to the mountains of Peru and Chile. The Angora goat, originallyfrom Asia Minor, furnishes the mohair of commerce. This fiber does notresemble the hairs of common goats in any respect. It is a verybeautiful fiber of silky luster, which constitutes its chief value. [Illustration: ANGORA GOATS] [Sidenote: Fur] The fur of beavers and rabbits can be and is used in manufacture, eitherspun into yarn or made into felt. The fibers of both animals enterlargely into the manufacture of felt hats. [Sidenote: Sorting Wool] The fleece of sheep after being sheared is divided into different partsor _sorted_, according to the quality of the wool, the best wool comingfrom the sides of the animal. [Illustration: WOOL FIBERS _a_--Medium Wool; _b_--Camel's Hair; _c_--Diseased Fiber; _d_--MerinoWool; _e_--Mohair. ] [Sidenote: Scouring Wool] As it comes from the sheep, the wool contains many substances besidesthe wool fiber which must be removed before dyeing or spinning. Thiscleansing is called _scouring_. Before scouring, the wool is usuallydusted by machines to remove all loose dirt. The scouring must be doneby the mildest means possible in order to preserve the naturalfluffiness and brilliancy of the fiber. The chief impurity is the woolgrease or "yolk" which is secreted by the skin glands to lubricate thefiber and prevent it from matting. [Illustration: ONE METHOD OF WOOL SORTING 1--The Best Grade; 2--Lowest Grade; 3--Fair; 4--Medium Grade. ] [Sidenote: Scouring Agents] In the scouring of wool, soap is the principal agent. Soft soap madefrom caustic potash is generally used as it is less harmful thanordinary hard soda soap. Potassium carbonate--"pearl ash"--is often usedin connection with the soap. If the water for scouring is hard, it issoftened with pearl ash. The temperature of wash water is never allowedto go above 120° F. The scoured wool weighs from a little over a half toone-third or less of the weight of the fleece. [Sidenote: Hydroscopic Moisture] Wool has the remarkable property of absorbing up to 30 per cent or moreof its weight of water and yet not feel perceptibly damp to the touch. This is called "hydroscopic moisture. " To this property wool owes itssuperiority as a textile for underclothing. [Illustration: WOOL SORTING] The thoroughly cleansed fiber is made up chiefly of the chemicalsubstance keratin, being similar in composition to horn and feathers. Inburning it gives off a characteristic disagreeable odor. It is asubstance very weakly acid in its nature, for which reason it combinesreadily with many dyes. Wool resists the action of acids very well, butis much harmed by the alkalis, being dissolved completely by a warmsolution of caustic soda. High temperature harms wool. FLAX Next to wool and cotton, flax is used most largely in our textilemanufactures. The linen fiber consists of the bast cells of certainspecies of flax grown in Europe, Africa, and the United States. All bastfibers are obtained near the outer surface of the plant stems. The pithand woody tissues are of no value. The flax plant is an annual and toobtain the best fibers it must be gathered before it is fully ripe. Toobtain seed from which the best quality of linseed oil can be made it isusually necessary to sacrifice the quality of the fibers to some extent. [Illustration: FLAX] [Sidenote: Treatment of Flax] Unlike cotton, flax is contaminated by impurities from which it must befreed before it can be woven into cloth. The first process to which thefreshly pulled flax is submitted is that of "rippling" or the removal ofthe seed capsules. Retting, next in order, is the most importantoperation. This is done to remove the substances which bind the bastfibers to each other and to remove the fiber from the central woodyportion of the stem. This consists of steeping the stalks in water. [Illustration: A FIELD OF FLAX IN MINNESOTA The Flax Must Be Pulled Up by the Roots to Give Fibres with Tapered Ends. (Photograph of C. R. Dodge). ] [Sidenote: Retting] (1) Cold water retting, either running or stagnant water. (2) Dew retting. (3) Warm water retting. [Illustration: RETTING TANK _A_--Inlet; _B_--Undisturbed Water;_C_--Bundles of Flax. ] Cold water retting in running water is practiced in Belgium. Retting instagnant water is the method usually employed in Ireland and Russia. Theretting in stagnant water is more rapidly done, but there is danger ofover-retting on account of the organic matter retained in the waterwhich favors fermentation. In this case the fiber is weakened. [Illustration: RETTING FLAX IN THE RIVER LYS, BELGIUM From the Government Bulletin, "Flax for Seed and Fiber. "] In dew retting, the flax is spread on the field and exposed to theaction of the weather for several weeks without any previous steeping. This method of retting is practiced in Germany and Russia. Warm waterretting and chemical retting have met with limited success. When the retting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. Thenext operations consist of "breaking, " "scutching, " and "hackling" andare now done by machinery. [Illustration: FIBERS OF FLAX] Breaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax bybeing passed through a series of fluted rollers. The particles of woodymatter adhering to the fibers are detached by scutching. [Sidenote: Hackling] Hackling or combing still further separates the fibers into their finestfilaments--"line" and "tow. " The "flax line" is the long and valuablefiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and usedfor weaving coarse linen. [Illustration: FLAX A, Unthrashed Straw; B, Retted; C, Cleaned or Scutched; D, Hackled orDressed. (Photograph of C. R. Dodge). ] [Illustration: HACKLING FLAX BY HAND The "Tow" Is Seen at the Left and a Bunch of "Flax line" on the Bench. (Photograph of C. R. Dodge, Special Agent U. S. Department ofAgriculture. )] [Sidenote: Characteristics of Linen] When freed from all impurities the chief physical characteristics offlax are its snowy whiteness, silky luster and great tenacity. Theindividual fibers may be from ten to twelve inches in length; theyare much greater in diameter than cotton. It is less pliant and elasticthan cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. Linen cloth is a betterconductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. Whenpure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose. [Sidenote: Ramie] Besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit fortextile purposes, some superior, some inferior. India alone has overthree hundred plants that are fiber yielding. One-third of these furnishuseful fibers for cordage and fabrics. The next in importance to linenis ramie or rhea, and China grass. China grass comes from a differentplant but is about the same as ramie. The staple is longer and finerthan linen. The great strength of yarn made from it is due to length ofthe staple. The variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long beenrecognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming ofthe fibers have prevented its employment in the manufactures to anygreat extent. The native Chinese split and scrape the plant stems, steeping them in water. The common retting process used for flax is noteffective on account of the large amount of gummy matter, and althougheasy to bleach it is difficult to dye in full bright shades withoutinjuring the luster of the fibers. [Sidenote: Jute and Hemp] Jute and hemp belong to the lower order of bast fibers. The fiber islarge and is unfit for any but the coarsest kind of fabrics. Jute ismainly cultivated in Bengal. The fiber is separated from the plant byretting, beating, etc. [Illustration: JUTE GROWING IN LOUISIANA. From Culture of Hemp and Jute, Report of U. S. Department of Agriculture. ] [Illustration: DRYING HEMP IN KENTUCKY From "Culture of Hemp and Jute. "] [Sidenote: Olona] Olona, the textile fiber of Hawaii, is found to have promisingqualities. This plant resembles ramie and belongs to the nettle familyalso, but it is without the troublesome resin of the ramie. The fiber isfine, light, strong, and durable. The Philippines are rich in fiber producing plants. The manila hemp isthe most prominent, of which coarse cloth is woven, besides the valuablecordage. The sisal hemp, pineapple, yucca, and a number of fiber plantsgrowing in the southern part of the United States are worthy of note. These fiber industries are conducted in a rude way, the fiber beingcleaned by hand, except the pineapple. SILK The silk fiber is the most perfect as well as the most beautiful of allfibers. It is nearly faultless, fine and continuous, often measuringfrom 1000 to 4000 feet long, without a scale, joint, or a blemish, though not of the same diameter or fineness throughout its entirelength, as it becomes finer as the interior of the cocoon is approached. Silk differs from all other vegetable or animal fibers by being devoidof all cellular structure. [Sidenote: Where Produced] Southern Europe leads in the silk worm culture--Italy, southern France, and Turkey, with China and India. Several species of moths, natives ofIndia, China, and Japan, produce the wild silk. The most important ofthe "wild silks" are the Tussah. Silk plush and the coarser varieties ofbuff colored fabrics are made of this silk. While manufacturers do notfavor the wild silk, the coarse uneven weave and softness make it afavorite with artists and it is being used for interior decoration aswell as for clothing. [Sidenote: Silk Worm] The silk of commerce begins with an egg no bigger than a mustard seed, out of which comes a diminutive caterpillar, which is kept in a frameand fed upon mulberry leaves. When the caterpillars are full grown, theyclimb upon twigs placed for them and begin to spin or make the cocoon. The silk comes from two little orifices in the head in the form of aglutinous gum which hardens into a fine elastic fiber. With a motion ofthe head somewhat like the figure eight, the silk worm throws thisthread around the body from head to tail until at last it is entirelyenveloped. The body grows smaller and the thread grows finer until atlast it has spun out most of the substance of the body and the task isdone. If left to itself, when the time came, the moth would eat its way out ofthe cocoon and ruin the fiber. A few of the best cocoons are saved for anew supply of caterpillars; the remainder are baked at a low heat whichdestroys the worm but preserves the silk. This now becomes the cocoon ofcommerce. [Sidenote: Reeling Silk] Next the cocoons go to the reelers who wind the filaments into the silkyarn that makes the raw material of our mills. The cocoons are throwninto warm water mixed with soap in order to dissolve the gum. The outeror coarser covering is brushed off down to the real silk and the end ofthe thread found. Four or five cocoons are wound together, the stickyfibers clinging to each other as they pass through the various guidesand are wound as a single thread on the reels. The silk is dried andtied into hanks or skeins. As the thread unwinds from the cocoon, itbecomes smaller, so other threads must be added. [Illustration: SILK:--CATERPILLAR, COCOON, CHRYSALIS, MOTH] [Sidenote: Organize and Tram] At the mill the raw silk goes to the "throwster" who twists the silkthreads ready for the loom. These threads are of two kinds--"organize"or warp and "tram" or filling. The warp runs the long way of wovenfabric or parallel with the selvage and it must be strong, elastic, andnot easily parted by rubbing. To prepare the warp, two threads of rawsilk are slightly twisted. Twist is always put into yarn of any kind toincrease its strength. These threads are united and twisted together andthis makes a strong thread capable of withstanding any reasonable strainin the loom and it will not roughen. For the woof or tram which iscarried across the woven cloth on the shuttle, the thread should be asloose and fluffy as possible. Several threads are put together, subjected to only a very slight twist--just enough to hold the threadstogether so they will lie evenly in the finished fabric. [Sidenote: Boiling Off] After the yarn leaves the spinners it is again run off on reels to betaken to the dye house. First the yarn is boiled off in soapy water toremove the remaining gum. Now the silk takes on its luster. Before itwas dull like cotton. The silk is now finer and harder and is known as"souple. " [Sidenote: Loading Silk] The silk fiber has a remarkable property of absorbing certain metallicsalts, still retaining much of its luster. This process is known as"loading" or "weighting, " and gives increased body and weight to thesilk. Silk without weighting is known as "pure dye, " of which there islittle made, as such goods take too much silk. [Illustration: REELING SILK] For the weighting of white or light colored silk goods, tin crystals(stanous chloride) are used and for dark shades and black, iron saltsand tannin. By this means the original weight of the fiber may beincreased three or four hundred per cent. This result is not attained, however, except through the weakening of the fiber. [Sidenote: Action of Common Salt] Common salt has a very curious action on weighted silk. It slowlyweakens the fiber. A silk dress may be ruined by being splashed withsalt water at the seashore. Most often holes appear after a dress comesback from the cleaners; these he may not be to blame for, as salt isabundant in nearly all the bodily secretions, --tears, perspiration, urine. [Sidenote: Artificial Silk] Artificial silk is made by dissolving cellulose obtained from cotton. Itis lacking in strength and water spoils all kinds manufactured atpresent. [Sidenote: Characteristics of Silk] Silk, like wool, has the property of absorbing considerable moisturewithout becoming perceptibly damp. Like wool and all the animal fibers, it is harmed by alkalis. The important physical properties of silk areits beautiful luster, strength, elasticity and the readiness with whichit takes dyes. Silk combines well with other fibers, animal andvegetable. [Sidenote: Value of Raw Fibers] A comparison of the relative value of textile fibers may be seen fromthe following approximate prices: Cotton--$. 07 to $. 14 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching 5 per cent. Flax--$. 12 to $. 30 per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about 20 per cent. Wool--$. 15 to $. 30 per pound; loss in scouring 20 to 60 per cent. Raw Silk--$7. 00 to $10. 00 per pound; loss in "boiling off" about 30 per cent which is made up and much more by "loading. " MODERN METHODS All the complex processes and machinery of the textile industry are butdevelopments of the old-time methods of the home. Brief outlines onlywill be given here for the processes are most intricate in detail. SPINNING The spinning of cotton yarn (thread) is typical of all the fibers. Thestages may be divided into-- 1. Opening and picking. 2. Carding. 3. Combing. 4. Drawing. 5. Spinning. [Sidenote: Picking and Carding] The picking and carding have for their object the removal of all foreignsubstances with as little damage to the fiber as possible. The foreignsubstances in cotton are sand, dirt, pieces of leaves, seed, husk, etc. , which have become mixed with the fiber during the process of growing, ginning and transportation. [Sidenote: Cleaning] The cotton bales are opened and thrown into the automatic feeder whichcarries up a layer of cotton on a spiked apron from which it is removedby a rapidly revolving "doffer" underneath which is a screen whichcatches some of the dirt. It is next fed between rolls in front of arapidly revolving blunt-edged knife which throws out more of the dirtthrough a screen. There is a suction of air through the screen whichhelps remove the foreign substances. The cotton passes through severalof such machines, being formed into a soft web or "lap" which is woundinto a roll. [Sidenote: Carding] The carding machine further cleans the fibers and lays them in a generalparallel position. From this machine the web is formed into "sliver, " aloose rope of cotton fiber about two inches in diameter. This isreceived in circular cans. [Illustration: COTTON OPENER AND PICKER The cotton from the bale is thrown into _A_, carried by the spikedaprons _B_ and _C_, evened by _E_, removed from the apron by _F_ (someof the dirt falls through the screen into box _G_) is beaten by therevolving "knife, " _N P_, more dirt being removed through screen _N_, then goes through the flue _C_ to the next machine. ] [Sidenote: Combing] The combing is omitted for short fiber cotton, but is used in worstedspinning and with long staple cotton to remove the short fibers. Cottonto be used for making yarn suitable for hosiery, underwear, sewingthread, lace, and for very fine cotton fabrics is carded. In drawing, from six to sixteen "slivers" are run together and thefibers drawn out in several stages until the soft rope is about aneighth of an inch in diameter, called "roving. " This tends to get rid ofany unevenness and makes the fibers all parallel. From this machine theroving is wound on a bobbin ready for the spinning frame. [Illustration: COTTON CARD The roll of webbing _A_ is beaten and transferred to the cylinder _H H_, carded by the spiked belt _E_, removed by the "doffer" and formed into a"sliver" which runs into the can _M_. ] [Sidenote: Spinning] The spinning frame may have a hundred spindles or more, each one ofwhich is drawing out its supply of "roving" to the required size of yarnand giving it the twist necessary to bind the fibers together. The yarnto be used for the warp is given a harder twist so that it may be strongenough to stand the strain in weaving. The yarn for filling is usuallyleft soft. [Illustration: COTTON COMB, USED FOR LONG STAPLE] [Illustration: RECEIVING THE "SLIVER" AT THE BACK OF THE DRAWINGFRAME. ] [Illustration: DRAWING FRAME Drawing the Roving Finer. ] [Illustration: A FLY SPINNING FRAME The Spools of Roving Above Are BeingDrawn Out, Given the Twist by the Fliers, and Wound on Bobbins Below. ] [Illustration: MULE DRAWING AND SPINNING FRAME Always used for wool. Part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out thethread, which is then twisted. ] [Illustration: MODERN RING SPINNING FRAME FOR COTTON. SIXTY-EIGHTSPINDLES Gives the Largest Production. ] [Illustration: A PLAIN POWER LOOM WEAVING LINEN] The yarn for warp is now usually given a coating or "sizing" of starchand gums so that the thread may not become unwound and break duringweaving. The process of spinning is much the same for flax and for wool, althoughsomewhat differently constructed machines must be used. Flax is usuallyspun wet. WEAVING [Sidenote: Modern Loom] The modern power driven loom is a wonderful piece of machinery. Theprinciple of its operation is essentially the same as the hand loom, butit is almost perfectly automatic in its action, a man or woman beingable to tend from ten to fifteen looms weaving plain cotton goods. [Sidenote: Warping] The yarn coming from the spinning frame is sometimes dyed beforeweaving. The warp is formed by winding as many threads as the width ofthe fabric is to contain on a slowly revolving drum, called a "beam, " inthe same relative position in which they are to appear in the finishedcloth. From its position on the beam at the back of the loom, eachthread is brought through its particular loop or eye with the heddle, then passes through its own slot in the reed, and down to the roller or"cloth beam" that is to take up the woven cloth. This is called "drawingin the warp. " If there is a piece of cloth coming from the loom, thework is very simple, for the ends of the new warp are tied to the endsremaining from the warp that has been woven out. The shuttle with its bobbin, containing the yarn of the filling, is muchthe same as is used in the hand looms, except for form and size, whichvaries according to the requirements and size of the warp being used. Atfirst only one shuttle was used, but in 1760 Robert Kay invented amechanism by which several shuttles containing different grades orcolors of yarn might be used. Each throw of the shuttle across the widthof the goods is called a "pick. " [Sidenote: The Harness] In making a cloth with plain weave, that is, with every threadinterlacing with every other, as in darning, only two harnesses arerequired, but the modern loom may have up to about twenty-four harnessesso that an infinite variety of weaves may be obtained. Various cams andlevers move the harness frame and so raise or lower the threads requiredfor the design. [Sidenote: Jacquard Loom] The Jacquard loom is arranged on a different principle. In this loom, all kinds of fancy weaves may be obtained as in table linen, tapestriesand carpets. Each warp thread is supplied with a separate hook and bymeans of perforated card the desired threads are raised or depressed ateach throw of the shuttle. The cards are worked out by the designer. Aset of a thousand or more cards may be required to produce the desireddesign. Jacquard looms are sometimes to be seen at fairs and expositionsweaving handkerchiefs with some picture design. [Illustration: JACQUARD HAND LOOM Weaving Ingrain Carpet at HullHouse. ] WEAVES The great variety of weaves found in the textiles of to-day aremodifications of a few fundamental weaves invented in the earliesttimes. The chief fundamental weaves are: (1) Plain weave. (2) Twills. (3) Sateen. To which may be added the derivatives-- (4) Rib weave. (5) Basket weave. [Illustration: DIAGRAM OF FANCY KNIT GOODS] These do not include the many fancy weaves, too numerous to classify, and the open work weaves, made in the Leno loom, in which some of thethreads are crossed. Knit goods are made by the interlooping of a singlethread, by hand or on circular knitting machines and lace by ananalogous process, using several systems of threads. Felt is made up ofmatted fibers of fur and wool and has no thread structure. [Illustration: WEAVE DIAGRAMS] [Sidenote: Plain Weave] The plain weave is the most common, nearly all light weight goods beingthus woven. In plain weaving, each thread of both warp and fillingpasses alternately over and under the threads at right angles. Thismakes a comparatively open cloth, requiring the smallest amount of yarnfor the surface covered. This weave is used in nearly all cotton goods, as in muslins, sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin woolen goods. Even in the plain weave variety is obtained by having some of thethreads larger than others, either in warp or filling or both, thusproducing stripes and checked effects. [Illustration: SECTIONS OF WEAVES _a_--Plain weave; _b_--Prunella twill; _c_--Cassimere twill;_d_--Swansdown twill. ] [Sidenote: Twills] After the plain weave the twill is the most common, being much used fordress goods, suitings, etc. , as well as some of the thicker cottons. Inthis weave the intersections of the threads produce characteristic linesdiagonally across the fabric, most often at an angle of 45°. The twillmay be hardly visible or very pronounced. The simplest twills are theso-called "doeskin" and "prunella. " In the doeskin the filling threadspass over one and under two of the warp threads and in the prunellatwill over two and under one. The most common twill is the cassimeretwill in which both the warp and filling run over two and under two ofthe threads at right angles. [Illustration: DIAGRAM OF RIB AND BASKET WEAVE AND DOUBLE CLOTH] [Sidenote: Uneven Twills] A twill made by running both warp and filling under one and over threethreads is called a swansdown twill and the reverse is known as the crowweave. In these the diagonal twilled effect is much more marked. Varioustwills are often combined with each other and with plain weave, making agreat variety of texture. Numerous uneven twills are made, two over andthree under, etc. , etc. [Sidenote: Sateen Weave] In the sateen weave, nearly all of either the warp or the fillingthreads are on the surface, the object being to produce a smooth surfacefabric like sateen. With this weave it is possible to use a cotton warpand silk filling, having most of the silk appear on the surface of thefabric. [Illustration: TEXTILE DESIGN _A_--On cross-section paper; _B_--Graphic diagram. ] [Sidenote: Rib and Basket Weaves] The rib and basket weaves are derivatives of the plain weave, two ormore threads replacing the single strand. In the rib weave, either thewarp or the filling threads run double or more, thus making a cordedeffect. In the basket weave, both warp and filling are run double ortreble, giving a coarse texture. This weave is sometimes called thepanama weave. [Sidenote: Double Cloth] In the thicker fabrics like men's suitings and overcoatings, there maybe a double series of warp threads, only one series appearing on theface of the goods, and in the still thicker fabrics, there may be adouble set of both warp and filling threads, making double cloth, thetwo sides of which may be entirely different in color and design. [Sidenote: Velvet] In weaving plush, velvet and velveteen, loops are made in the filling orwarp threads which are afterwards cut, producing the pile. BLEACHING, DYEING, PRINTING, FINISHING When the cloth comes from the loom it is by no means ready for themarket. Nearly all kinds are washed and pressed and in some classes ofgoods the finishing process is very elaborate. BLEACHING AND DYEING The fiber may be dyed in a loose or unspun state, as is customary withwool; after it has been spun and is in the form of yarn, as in the caseof silk and linen; and when it has been woven to form cloth, as is mostcommonly the case with cotton. [Sidenote: Madder Bleach] The bleaching of cotton involves a number of steps, the most thoroughprocess being called the "madder bleach, " in which the cloth is (1) wetout, (2) boiled with lime water, (3) rinsed, (4) treated with acid, (5)rinsed, (6) boiled with soap and alkali, (7) rinsed, (8) treated withbleaching powder solution, (9) rinsed, (10) treated with acid, (11)finally rinsed again. All this is done by machines and hundreds of yardsgo through the process at a time. The product is a pure white clothsuitable for dyeing light shades and for white goods. When cloth is tobe dyed a dark shade the treatment is less elaborate. [Sidenote: Singeing and Shearing] If the cloth is to be printed for calicoes, before bleaching it issinged by passing through gas flames or over a red hot plate and thensheared in a shearing machine constructed somewhat on the principle ofthe lawn mower, the cloth being run close to the rapidly revolvingknives. Although cotton is usually dyed in the piece, it may be dyed in the formof yarn, as for ginghams, and sometimes before being woven, in the loosestate. [Sidenote: Mordant Colors] Cotton is more difficult to dye than wool or silk. Although there arenow what are called "direct" cotton colors, the usual process is tofirst treat the cotton goods with a "mordant"--various salts ofaluminum, chromium, iron, tin and copper, fixing these on the fiber bymeans of tannin or alkali. The mordanted cloth is then entered into thedye bath and boiled for an hour or longer, until the desired shade isobtained or the dye bath exhausted. The salts of aluminum are used asmordants for the lighter shades, the salts of chromium for the mediumshades, and iron for the dark shades. In general, chromium mordants givethe fastest dyes. [Sidenote: Aniline Dyes] The discovery of the so-called aniline dyes has greatly increased thevariety of colors available. Although some of the first aniline dyes tobe made were not fast to washing or to light and they thus received abad reputation, they are now to be obtained which compare favorably infastness with the natural dye stuffs such as cochineal, madder, etc. , provided sufficient time and care are given to dyeing. The chief troubleis that in the endeavor to furnish cheap goods, processes are hurriedand results are unsatisfactory. [Sidenote: Home Dyeing] Home dyeing is practically confined to the use of direct aniline colors. These are put up in small quantities and sold in many places. Directionsfor their use are given on the packages. The chief precautions are tohave the goods perfectly clean and thoroughly wet before entering intothe dye bath (this is by no means as easy as one might think), and tokeep the goods in motion while dyeing so as to prevent unevenness ofshade. Wool and silk dyes cannot be used for cotton and linen, nor thereverse. Of course cloth already colored cannot be dyed a lighter shadeof the same color and the original shade must be very light to enableone to change the color, say from red to blue, etc. The original coloralways modifies that of the dye somewhat and it is best to experimentfirst with a small portion of the dye and cloth. Rather dark shades areapt to be most successful. [Sidenote: Natural Dyestuffs] Indigo for blue, madder for Turkey red, logwood with fustic for black, cutch or gambia for browns on cotton are about all the natural dyestuffswhich are used to any extent commercially at the present time. Theartificial product alizerin, the active principle of madder, has aboutsuperseded the natural dyestuff, and artificial indigo is gaining on thenatural product. Linen is bleached and dyed in much the same manner as cotton, althoughthe process is more difficult. The process of bleaching weakens linenmore than cotton. [Sidenote: Dyeing Woolen and Silk] Woolen and silk may be dyed directly with a great variety of dyeswithout the addition of a mordant, although they are often mordanted. Both must be well washed or scoured before dyeing. When white ordelicate shades on woolen or silk are desired they are bleached. Thebleaching is usually done with sulphurous acid gas, the cloth or yarnbeing exposed in a damp condition to the fumes of burning sulphur. Were it not for the expense, hydrogen peroxide would be the idealbleaching agent for the animal fibers. PRINTING A great variety of colored designs are produced on the loom by usingdifferent colored warp and filling yarns and different weaves, but inall these the designs are easily made only in somewhat rectangularpatterns. [Sidenote: Block and Machine Printing] Print goods have doubtless evolved from the decoration of fabrics withthe brush. Block printing was first used, the design being engraved inrelief on blocks of wood. These are dipped in the colored paste, spreadthinly, and applied to successive portions of the cloth by hand. Theseblocks are now replaced in the printing machine by engraved copperrolls, the design being such that it is repeated once or a number oftimes in each revolution of the cylinder. There is a printing roll foreach color of the design. Sometimes both the background and the designare printed on the cloth, but the more common process is for the designonly to be printed on the cloth which may be dyed afterwards. In thepaste of the printed design there is some chemical which prevents theportions printed from taking the dye, consequently these remain white ora different color. This is called the "resist" process. Another processis to first dye the cloth and then print on some chemical which, whenthe calico is steamed, discharges the color. This is called the"discharge" process. Sometimes this weakens the goods in the placeswhere the color has been discharged. [Sidenote: Fixing the Print] The color paste used for printing contains both the dye and the mordant. After the calico has been printed it is steamed to develop and fix thecolor, washed, sometimes very slightly bleached, to clear the whites, and usually given a sizing of starch or gum, and then pressed and driedby passing over slowly revolving, steam-heated drums. In general print goods are not so fast to washing and to light as thosethat have been dyed in the regular way, although the better grades arereasonably fast. Prints are sometimes made in imitation of the more costly gingham orother goods in which the color design is made in the weaving. It is easyto detect the imitation as the design of printed fabrics does notpenetrate to the back of the cloth. [Sidenote: Warp Printing] Sometimes the warps are printed before the cloth is woven, thus givingvery pretty indefinite designs, especially in silk. FINISHING [Sidenote: Burling and Mending] The finishing of woolen and worsted goods has much to do with theirappearance. No cloth comes from the loom in a perfect condition, therefore inspection is the first process. Loose threads and knots arecarefully cut off by the "burler" and imperfections in the weavingrectified by the "menders. " The goods may now be singed and sheared. [Sidenote: Fulling] [Sidenote: Flocks] Woolens, and sometimes worsteds, are next "fulled" or felted by beingrun round and round in a machine while moistened with soap. The frictionof the cloth on itself produces some heat which, with the moisture andsoap, causes the goods to shrink in length and width while increasing inthickness. During this process, "flocks" are often added, especially forsmooth finished woolen goods. These flocks are fine fibers of woolobtained from the shearing machine or made by cutting up old woolencloth. They are felted with the fibers of the goods and add weight andfirmness. [Sidenote: Raising the Nap] After the fulling, the goods is washed to remove the soap, dyed, ifdesired, and often "speck dyed" with a special dye which colors the bitsof burs, remaining in the cloth, but not the wool. The next process isthe "gigging" which raises the nap. The cloth is run close to rapidlyrevolving "teazels" and also may be run through a napping machine. Itmay be sheared again and then steamed and pressed. This is but a briefoutline; there are generally more processes. Woolen cloth coming from the loom may be so treated in the finishingroom as to produce fabrics entirely different in appearance. One of thechief objects of the finishing is to give to the cloth as fine anappearance as possible to attract the buyer. Much of the fine finishdisappears through wear, especially with inferior goods made from poormaterials. The wearing quality of the goods is primarily dependent uponthe strength and quality of the fibers of which it is made, so that theyarn of the filling and the warp should be examined when selectingmaterials. In general hard twisted yarn will give the better wearingcloth. FABRICS The present day shops offer such a great variety of fabrics that only afew of the most important can be mentioned here. COTTON GOODS Cotton is cool and heavy, is a non-conductor of heat, crushes easily, but like all vegetable fibers it may be laundered without injury to thefibers. Cotton does not take the darker dyes as well as animal fibersand for this reason it does not combine satisfactorily with wool. As anadulterant it wears shabby and loses its brightness. It is only whencotton does not pretend to be anything else that it is our most usefuland durable textile. The readiness with which cotton takes the lighterdyes and improved methods of ginning, spinning, and weaving have madecotton goods superior to any other for summer use. [Sidenote: Muslin] Muslin, calico, and gingham must always head the list of cotton goods. Muslin is coarse and fine, bleached, unbleached, and half bleached, twilled or plain weave. Under the head of muslin brought to a highdegree of perfection in weave and finish will be found dimity, mull, Indian lawn, organdie, Swiss, and Madras, and a host of others equallybeautiful. Madras muslin has a thin transparent ground with a heavilyraised pattern woven of a soft, thick thread unlike the ground work. Waste is used for the pattern. Organdie muslin is soft, opaque, white, or colored, with raised dots of pattern and plain weave. Dimity has afine cord running with the selvage. Gingham is a smooth, close cotton usually woven in checks or stripes. The yarn is dyed before being woven, making the cloth alike on bothsides, and the weave is either plain or twilled. Ginghams are also wovenof silk and cotton mixed or of silk and ramie. Cretonne, chintz, dress linings, crape, velveteen, and lace are made ofcotton. Flannelette, which is woven to imitate flannel, is soft and light and ispreferred by many who find woolen irritating. It does not shrink aswoolen does and is made in beautiful, soft colors and the best grades donot fade. For nightdresses, underwear, and sheets, during cold weatherthis inexpensive fabric is unequaled. Among the heavier cotton fabrics may be mentioned denim and tickingwhich are now printed in beautiful designs and colors and used forinterior decoration as well as for clothing and bedding. The great variety of fibers, the many different ways of preparing eachfor manufacture, the differences in the preparatory processes inspinning, weaving, or in any of the later processes of finishing producethe varied appearance of the finished product in cotton as in otherfabrics. LINENS Linen is one of the oldest textiles; it was used by the early Egyptiansfor the priests' garments and for the wrappings of mummies. Manyhousekeepers think that there is no material for sheets and pillow casescomparable to linen, but it is not an ideal dressing for beds, for inspite of its heavier body, it wrinkles and musses much more readily thangood cotton. For table service, however, for the toilet, and for minorornamental purposes linen has no equal. Its smoothness of texture, itsbrilliancy which laundering increases, its wearing qualities, itsexquisite freshness, make it the one fabric fit for the table. [Sidenote: Table Linen] Table linen is woven plain and figured, checked and diapered. In thefigured or damask cloth the patterns stand out distinctly. This is dueto the play of light and shade on the horizontal and vertical lines. Insome lights the pattern is scarcely noticeable. When buying a cloth, letit be between the observer and the light, for in this position thepattern will show to the best advantage. There is a certain amount ofshade on all horizontal lines or of shadow cast by them, while thevertical lines are illuminated, thus although the warp and woof threadsare of the same color, the pattern seems to stand out from thebackground. Linen should not be adulterated. It should be for use and not for show, for use brightens and whitens it. Linen adulterated with cotton becomes fuzzy through wear because of themuch shorter cotton fibers. The tendency can often be seen by rollingthe goods between the thumb and fingers. Crash of different widths and quality furnishes tea towels, "huck, "damask and other weaves come in various widths and may be purchased bythe yard. Russia crash is best for kitchen towels. WOOLENS AND WORSTEDS [Sidenote: Standard Goods] The many grades of wool with the great variety of weaves and finish makean almost infinite variety of woolen and worsted fabrics. New goods areconstantly being put upon the market, or old goods with new names. Standard goods, such as serges, cashmere, Henrietta cloth, and covertcloth, are always to be found in the shops. These are all twilled goods. The serges are woven of combed wool and are harsh, tough, springy, worsted fabrics of medium and heavy weight, with a distinct twill, rather smooth surface, and plainer back. There are also loosely wovenserges. Cashmere and Henrietta cloth have a fine, irregular twill--thefinest made. They are woven with silk, wool, and cotton warp, but thelatter gives an inferior textile. [Sidenote: Tweeds] Tweeds and homespuns are names given to coarse cloth of which the woolis spun by hand and woven on hand looms. These goods vary according tothe locality in which they are made. The wool is mixed without regard tocolor, the yarn being spun and twisted in the most primitive manner, giving the cloth an uneven, unfinished appearance. These are among thebest wearing cloths on the market and are especially suitable for suitsthat will receive hard wear. Scotland and Ireland are famous for theirtweeds and homespuns and what are known as the "cottage industries" havebeen recently revived in those countries as the products of their handlooms have become deservedly popular abroad. [Sidenote: Harris Tweeds] The "Harris Tweeds, " made on the Island of Lewis and Harris, north ofScotland, are in the old style by the "crofters. " After weaving thegoods are "waulked"--milled or felted--with the bare feet, accompaniedby singing the waulking song and beating time with the feet. The dyeingis done in pots in the old-fashioned way and until recently thedyestuffs were obtained from mosses, lichens, heather, broom, and otherplants. Now, however, some of the best aniline dyes are being used. Apeculiar characteristic of the Harris tweed is the peat smoke smellcaused by the fabric being woven in the crofters' cottages, where thereis always a strong odor of peat "reek" from the peat which is burned forfuel. The ordinary so-called Harris tweeds sold in this country are madeon the southern border of Scotland, in factories, and are but imitationsof the real Harris tweeds. The light colored tweeds--natural color of wool--come from the island ofSt. Kilda. This island stands out in mid ocean, barren and wild, devoidof plants or shrubs of any kind for making dyes. The crofters contentthemselves without dyestuffs. The industry is maintained by nobility tohelp the islanders and the fabrics are fashionable and high priced. Covert cloth is a twilled woven cloth of great beauty and durability. Itis rather heavy, of hard finish and is used for jackets and wintersuits. To this list of woolen goods may be added the crape cloth withcrinkled, rough surface, nun's veiling, flannel which is woven in avariety of ways, broadcloth, wool canvas, and poplins. This listincludes only a few of the fabrics manufactured, but these are always tobe found on the market, are always good in color and are the best of allwool textiles for wear. [Sidenote: Mohair] [Sidenote: Alpaca] Mohair is a material made from the hair of the angora goat, woven withsilk, wool, worsted, or cotton warp. It is a dust-shedding material, does not shrink, and bears hard wear well. Alpaca, on account of itssoftness, elasticity, and exemption from shaggy defects, combinesadmirably with cotton in the manufacture of fine goods, which attainsalmost the glossy brightness of silk. The yarn is used for weavingalpaca linings and light coatings for warm climates. SILKS Many silks can be washed without injury to the fibers, but they cannotbe boiled without destroying the luster. Silks may be had in variouswidths and endless variety of weaves. Many are reversible. [Sidenote: Loading Silk] Silks are adulterated with cotton and ramie fibers. The chemicals usedin "loading" or "dynamiting" to give the weight lost by cleaning orremoving the gum from the raw silk give to the cheaper grades thestiff, harsh feeling and cause the splitting and cracking of the silk, hence the quality of the fiber should be considered when selecting asilk, not the weight. Taffeta is often heavily loaded. Foulard and surah are twilled silks. Corded silks are woven with a cordrunning from selvage to selvage. To this class belong the grosgrains, Ottoman, faille Francaise--a silk resembling grosgrain, but softer andbrighter. Irish poplins and bengalines have wool for the filling insteadof silk. [Sidenote: Wash Silks] Great improvement has been made in the manufacture of wash silks. Theyare fine in color and have a glossy surface. Pongee is a beautiful, durable silk in different shades of natural color. It is woven indifferent widths. This silk is especially valuable for underwear. Thefirst cost is greater, but it outwears muslin or linen. It is also usedfor children's garments and for outside wraps. For many purposes, nobetter textile can be found. Crepe de Chine is an incomparable textile possessing as much softness asstrength. It is always supple, never creases, launders well, and comesin the most beautiful soft shades as well as in black and dark colors. Satin is distinguished by its glossy, lustrous surface, obtained in theweaving. [Sidenote: Piled Fabrics] Piled fabrics are rich, thick materials made of silk, wool, mohair, andcotton, comprising the velvets, velveteens, plushes, corduroys, andwilton and velvet carpets. The soft, raised pile is first woven inloops--Brussels carpet is a good example--and the loops are cut. Theback of the goods is plain. [Sidenote: Velvet] Velvet has always and justly been regarded as the most beautiful oftextiles. No matter how fashions change in regard to other materials, velvet never loses its vogue. For robes and cloaks, for mantles andjackets, for hats and bonnets, for trimming and decoration, velvet hasbeen popular for a greater period than the life of any living mortal, but never before has it been so cheap, so varied and so beautiful as itis now. One can in the passing throng of pedestrians on any crowdedstreet see the use and abuse of this noble material. There is scarcelyan article of dress into whose composition it does not enter and it isworn upon all occasions. Many things have brought about this result. Thetendency of fashion is towards the decorative and picturesque and inthese qualities velvet excels all other fabrics. Silk waste and threadare cheaper than ever before so that velvet costs much less thanformerly. The men behind the looms have evolved more designs andnovelties in the making of velvet than has ever been known and colorsbeautiful in themselves are seemingly enhanced when applied to velvet. [Sidenote: Velveteen] All that has been said in favor of velvet applies equally as well to thebest velveteen, --in fact it is a textile of even greater value andbeauty than velvet. The best grades are not cheap, but they wear betterthan silk velvet, are fine and silky, excellent in color and sheen, launder well, and do not press-mark as does silk velvet. Velveteen takesthe dye so beautifully and finishes so well that it has taken rank withour best standard fabrics. It is made entirely of cotton. It varies inwidth but is always wider than velvet. [Sidenote: Widths of Fabrics] A knowledge of the various widths of textiles is important in buying. Transparent fabrics are usually wider than heavier goods made of thesame fiber. Muslin is wider than calico or ordinary print, and thin silkfabrics such as mull and chiffon are wider than velvet. In wool dress goods various distinct widths are known as single--thirtyand thirty-six inches--double fold (forty-five and fifty-four inches), etc. Silk, velvet, and velveteen are single width. The velvet rangesfrom eighteen to twenty-four inches in width and velveteen twenty-seven. Bodice linings vary from thirty-five to thirty-eight inches; skirtlinings come in both single and double fold. Household linen including bedding varies in width from one yard to twoand one-fourth and two and one-half yards for sheeting and fromthirty-eight to fifty-four inches for pillow case muslin. Table linen is woven in both square and circular cloths of varioussizes, and napkins vary in width from the small sizes to a yard square. No fixed widths can be given for any textile as width often changes withthe weave. NAMES OF FABRICS Textiles usually take their names from the country, city, port, orprovince from whence they originated; from the names of the makers; andmethods of weaving, dyeing, ornamentation, etc. The fixing oflocalities, methods, etc. , is oftentimes guesswork. The textiles ofto-day bearing the same name as those of the middle ages have nothing incommon. Buckram was originally made in and called from Bokkara. In themiddle ages it was costly, fine, and beautiful, used for churchvestments, veils for covering lecterns, cathedral flags, and in the 16thcentury for the lining of velvet gowns. The coarse, heavy, plain-wovenlinen or cotton material known as buckram today is used for stiffening, etc. [Sidenote: Fustian] Fustian, a kind of corduroy or velveteen, was originally woven at Fustaton the Nile. The warp was stout linen, the woof of cotton so twilled andcut that it gave a low thick pile. Chaucer's knight in the fourteenthcentury wore fustian. In the fifteenth century Naples was famous for theweaving of fustians. A cloth made in France at a town called Mustrevilliers was known as"mustyrd devells. " [Sidenote: Damask] China is supposed to be the first country to weave patterned silks. India, Persia, Syria, and Byzantine Greece followed. Those were known as"diaspron" or diaper, a name given them at Constantinople. In thetwelfth century, the city of Damascus, long famed for her beautifultextiles, outstripped all other places for beauty of design and gave theDamascen or damask, so we have in modern times all fabrics whether ofsilk, cotton, wool, or linen, curiously woven and designed, known asdamask, and diaper, which means pattern, is almost forgotten, or only apart of the elaborate design on damask. Bandekin, a costly cloth, tookits name from Bagdad. Dorneck an inferior damask woven of silk, wool, linen, thread and gold, was made in Flanders at the city of Dorneck. [Sidenote: Muslin] From the Asiatic city Mosul came the muslin used then as it is nowthroughout the world. So skilled were its weavers that the threads wereof hair-like fineness. This was known as the invisible muslin, theweaving of which has become a lost art. To this beautiful cloth weregiven many fanciful and poetic names. It was woven with strips of goldand silver. [Sidenote: Calico] Calico derives its name from the city of Calicut in India. The city isscarcely known to-day; it was the first Indian city visited byEuropeans. In the thirteenth century Arras was famous for its areste or tapestry, "the noblest of the weaving arts"; in it there is nothing mechanical. Mechanical weaving repeats the pattern on the cloth within comparativelynarrow limits and the number of colors is in most cases limited to fouror five. Silks and cottons are distinguished through their colors and shades. Tarsus was a purple silk. Other cities gave their name to variousshades, according as they were dyed at Antioch, Alexandria, or atNaples. Watered or moire silk takes its name from the finish. From "canabis, " the Latin name for hemp or flax, we have the word"canvas" to mean any texture woven of hempen thread. To this list of fabrics might be added many others of cotton, linen, wool, and silk with new names, closely resembling the old materials, having greater or less merit. The following lists of fabrics and terms may be helpful for reference: Art linen--With round, hard twisted threads. "Albert cloth"--Named for England's prince, is a reversible all-wool material each side of different colors and so finished that no lining is required. It is used chiefly for overcoats and better known as "golf cloth, " "plaid back, " etc. Armure--A cloth woven in miniature imitation of feudal metal armor plates, heraldic devices, diamonds, birdseye, and seeded effects. Astrakhan--A woolen or silk material with a long and closely curled pile in imitation of the fur from which it is named. Backed-cloth worsteds or other fabrics which are woven with an extra layer of warp or other filling underneath the face, usually for increased weight and bulk. Batiste--The French word for lawn, fine white cotton or linen fabric. Sometimes printed. Batting or padding, cotton or wool prepared in sheets for quilting or interlining. Beaver--Similar to Kersey, but with a longer nap, soft, thick nap inside. Bedford cord--A closely woven woolen or cotton cloth having a raised corded surface similar to pique, used for women's suits. Bonde--A loosely woven fabric with a curly, hairy surface, usually made with a jersey or stockinet body. Bourette--An effect of weaving produced by fancy yarns showing in lumps at intervals over the face of the cloth; used for women's and children's suits. Beverteen--A heavy cotton cloth used for men's hunting garments. Broadcloth--A fine woolen cloth with a glossy finished surface, the better grades being woven with a twilled back. It takes its name from its width. It is used for men's and women's wear. Buckram--A coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton material used for stiffening. Buckskin--A stout doe skin with a more defined twill. Butternut--The coarse brown twilled homespun cloth woven of wool prior to the Civil War--colored brown with dye from the butternut or walnut tree; used for men's wear and for decorative purposes. Cambric--Fine white linen, also made in cotton in imitation. Camel's hair--A beautiful, soft, silky fabric, usually woven like cheviot of hair of camel and goat. Canvas--A linen, cotton, silk, or wool cloth of different weaves and widths, used for many purposes--clothing, as a background for embroidery, hangings, spreads, etc. Canton flannel--A stout, twilled cotton cloth with a nap on one or both sides, used for clothing and decorative purposes. Cassimere--A general term for all-wool fabrics woven either plain or twilled, coarse or fine, of woolen yarn. The pattern is always woven plain and distinct and the cloth is never napped. Castor Beaver--A heavy, milled, face-finished, all-wool cloth lighter in weight than ordinary beaver. Chinchilla--A thick, heavy, double woven fabric with a long napped surface curled up into little tufs in imitation of chinchilla fur; used for coats. Clan Tartan--The plaids of the various highland clans of Scotland. Clay--A name given to serges, worsteds, and diagonals woven after a process of J. & P. Clay of Haddersfield, England. Coating--Those woolen and worsted fabrics most especially adapted to men's dress and overcoats. Corduroy--A thick cotton pile material, corded or ribbed on the surface; used for men's, women's and children's wear. Corkscrew-worsted goods--So-called from its fancied resemblance to the twists of the corkscrew. Cotton worsted--All cotton or part cotton worsted-wove cloth. Cottonade--Stout cotton cloth in imitation of woolen or worsted; used for men's trousers. Covert--A twill-woven cloth sometimes with full face, sometimes sheared to imitate whipcord. Crape cloth--A stout worsted fabric with surface in imitation of silk crape, used for dress coats. Crash--A strong, course linen cloth of different widths, used for towels, suits, table linen, hangings, bed spreads; in fact, there is no end to the uses to which this textile can be adapted. Cravenette--Cloths treated and finished before weaving by an improved process which renders them rainproof. A secret process owned by the Cravenette Company and by Priestly & Company of England and the United States. Crepe--A light weight silk, silk and wool, or all wool or cotton cloth of irregular weave. Diagonal--A worsted cloth with prominent diagonal ridges. Doeskin--A compact twilled woolen, soft and pliable. Drap D'Alma--A fine, close, flat-ribbed, twilled fabric of wool or silk and wool, finished on but one side. Drap D'Ete--A fine, light worsted fabric woven in longitudinal cords. Drilling--General term for various cotton stuffs used for lining men's wear, and general purposes. Empress cloth--A heavy dress goods with napped or corded surface, named for the Empress Eugenia; sometimes called Electrol cloth or Beretz. Etamine--A light woolen cloth similar to batiste and nun's cloth, used for women's and children's wear. Faille Francaise--A soft, lustrous silk of wider cord than grosgrain, but narrower than ottoman. Farmer Satin--A lining of cotton chain or warp and wool filling, finished with a high lustre, also called Italian cloth. Flannel--A soft, light weight woolen fabric of which the yarn is but lightly twisted, plain weave or twilled; used for clothing etc. Flannelette--A half cotton or all cotton flannel-like fabric. Frieze--A thick, shaggy, heavy nap woolen overcoat cloth. Gingham was first manufactured in Gonghamp in France and was known as Madras gingham. Seersucker gingham was originally a thin linen fabric made in the East Indies. Zephyr gingham is a soft fine variety of Scotch and French ginghams, are superior qualities, heavier in weight. Fur Beaver--A long napped cloth imitation fur. Grass cloth--A fine, smooth, linen woven in checks of blue and white, red and white, etc. , used for dish towels; also a thin dress material of ramie and cotton, etc. Grenadine--A thick silk gauze, either plain with a solid design or pattern upon it or combined in stripes with other weaves, as satin, moire, etc. Grosgrain--A close-woven, finely ribbed or corded silk with but little lustre. Haircloth--A cloth woven of horse hair, from which it takes its name, for weft with cotton or linen warp; used for facings, linings, furniture cover, etc. Holland--A stout, plain-wove, unbleached, linen cloth used for linings, window shades, etc. Homespun--A cloth woven on hand looms or made in imitation of such cloth for both men's and women's wear. Hop-sacking--A plain woven canvas dress fabric of wool. Huchaback--A corruption of huckster-back, meaning originally pedler's ware--Toweling made of all linen, linen and cotton, cotton and wool, either by the yard or as separate towels; the part wool huck always separate towels. Irish linen--Full bleached, fine, plain woven linen used for shirts, collars, cuffs, etc. , of different widths. Jersey cloth--Woolen stockinette. Kaikai--A thin Japanese silk. Kersey--A heavy, closely woven cloth with a smooth face and glossy finish. Kerseymere--A fine, twilled, woolen cloth of peculiar texture, one thread of warp and two of wool being always above. Khaki--A light, yellow-brown colored cotton cloth used for army service in hot countries. Ladies' cloth--A fine, wide, wool flannel, slightly napped, similar to broadcloth. Lusterine--A thin, twilled, cotton lining finished with high lustre in imitation of silk. Marseilles--A sort of figured pique, used for women's and children's clothes and for men's coats. Matelasse--A silk and wool or all wool brocade, usually for coats. Melton--A stout woolen cloth, fulled, sheared, and finished without a nap; like Kersey, but without a gloss. Merino--A thin woolen fabric made of the fine wool of the marion sheep, generally used for women's and children's wear, vestings, and underclothing. Mohair--A shiny fabric of great durability, made from the wool of the Angora goat; used for both men's and women's clothing. Moire--The water effect produced on silk, moreen, and like fabrics. The finest watered silks are known as Moire Antique. Moreen is a woolen or mixed fabric to which the same process has been applied. Moleskin--A medium heavy twilled cotton cloth, napped inside; used for men's wear and ornamental purposes. Muslin--A cotton fabric of various classes and names; bleached and unbleached, half bleached, cambric, book muslin, long cloth, mull, organdie, lawns, etc. ; used for all purposes. Nankeen--A peculiar fabric of a pale dull yellow or orange color, woven out of the fibrous tissue which lies between the outer and sap-wood of a tree or shrub that grows in the East Indies and especially in China. The name is derived from the city of Nankin. An imitation is made out of cotton, colored with Annato. The genuine nankeen is never more than eighteen or twenty inches wide and is used for light summer clothing. Overcoating--Fabrics woven especially for overcoats--covert, kersey, melton, beaver, frieze, vicuna, whipcord, cheviot, chinchilla, etc. , made of both wool and worsted. Pique--A heavy cotton cloth having a surface that is corded or having a raised lozenge pattern; used for women's and children's suits, men's vests, etc. Prunella--Lasting cloth. Sateen--A close twilled cotton fabric, soft and glossy, used for lining. Satin--A silk fabric having a high lustre on its face. Satinet--A cheap clothing material similar to cassimere, made with a cotton warp and a filling of short, inferior, shoddy wool which is mixed with enough long wool to enable it to be spun and woven in a way to bring that filling to the surface of the cloth; afterwards fulled, sheared, and the pattern printed on the face. Serge--A lining of cotton or linen warp and a wool or mohair filling, woven three-leaf twill. Serge--A fine, diagonal, twilled, worsted--both all worsted and with a worsted warp and woolen filling; used for men's and women's suits. Shetlands--Very shaggy overcoatings, named from the Shetland pony, the coat of which it is supposed to imitate in appearance. Shoddy--Waste thrown off in spinning--shredded rags, and bits of cloth manipulated into new cloth. Sicilian--A mohair fabric. Silesia--A light, close-woven, fine twilled cotton fabric used for dress linings, etc. Stockinet--A plain, elastic texture made on a knitting frame, used for underwear, etc. Surah--A twilled silk similar to serge; first made in Surat, India. Tricot--A double-twill cloth having both a warp and filling effect. Tweed--Much like homespun in appearance, both being either twilled or plain. They are made from rough worsted yarn spun at home. In tweed the yarn is harder twisted, giving a more distinct twill. It is generally more compact, less rough, and better finished than homespun. Uniform cloth--Cloth suitable for uniforms, usually a stout, fulled, woolen cloth, similar to kersey. Venetian--A cloth milled and cropped bare in finish. Vicuna--A soft twilled cloth similar to cheviot, made of the Andes vicuna, hence its name. Whipcord--A worsted cloth having a small, prominent twill. Yacht cloth--A flannel heavier than ordinary serge or flannel. * * * * * Cord--The general term is applied to any fabric in which the lines run in the same direction as the selvage. Count--In spinning, the number given to any thread or yarn, except silk, to indicate its relative fineness, based on the number of yards required to weigh one pound. Felt--A cloth of wool, hair, fur, etc. , not woven, but felted together; used for hats, slippers, boot tops, etc. Flock--Finely divided woolen waste used in finishing cheap woolens. Kemps--Fibers or hair like structure that sometimes come in wool, always in goat hair. They do not take the dye. Mercerized--A term applied to cotton fabrics of which the yarn is chemically treated with a strong solution of caustic soda, giving the appearance of silk, more or less permanent; named after Mercer, discoverer of the process. Mill ends--Trade term referring to short lengths, seconds, damaged pieces, etc. , of cloth, embroideries, etc. , that accumulate in mills and shops and are usually sold at a nominal price. Narrow cloth--Trade term for fabrics less than 29 inches wide. Wider cloths are called broad cloths. Oil-boiled--Trade term for colors so treated to insure permanence. Oiled silk--The plain silk boiled in oil. Silk boiled in oil and dried, becoming translucent and waterproof; used as a perspiration guard. Pepper-and-salt--A black and white or grayish mixture, effected in weaving. Rubber cloth--Usually cotton sheeting or drilling with a coating of rubber on one side; used as a protective cloth for various purposes. Shepherd check--Tiny checks, usually black and white. Twilled--Woven in such a manner as to produce lines or ribs diagonally or across the surface of the fabric. Woolens--Name of fabrics or carded wool, usually soft woven. Worsteds--Fabrics made of combed wool, usually hard woven. The combing is the process of arranging the fibers of wool, mohair, cotton, linen, into a parallel condition, preparatory to spinning into a smooth, even and regular yarn. The perfected application of the combing principle. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TEXTILES Historical and Art Arts and Crafts Essays $1. 00 Morris, Crane, et al. Postage . 10 Colonial Days in Old New England 1. 25 Alice Morse Earle. Postage . 12 The Primitive Family 1. 25 Starcke. Postage . 12 Man Before Metals 1. 75 Joly. Postage . 14 Origin of Inventions 1. 50 Mason. Postage . 16 Woman's Share in Primitive Culture 1. 75 Mason. Postage . 16 Textiles--The Lesser Arts 1. 00 William Morris. Postage . 10 Industrial Evolution of the United States 1. 25 Carroll D. Wright. Postage . 16 Technical Books Through a special arrangement with the American School of Correspondencewe are able to lend or sell to our students some of their textile books, which are technical though simple. Price 50 cents per part, postage 4c. Textile Chemistry and Dyeing. 4 Parts. Part I. Textile Fibers. Part II. Bleaching. Part III. Mordants and Natural Dyes. Part VI. Artificial Dyestuffs. Cotton Fiber. Cotton Spinning. 5 parts. Weaving. 3 Parts. Textile Design. 5 Parts. Woolen and Worsted Spinning. 4 parts. Woolen and Worsted Finishing. 4 parts. Textile Fibers $3. 50 Mathews. Postage . 16 Textile Fabrics . 90 Rock. Postage . 08 Dyeing of Textile Fabrics 1. 75 Hummell. Postage . 12 Bleaching and Calico Printing 4. 00 Duerr. Postage . 14 _Note. _--Books may be ordered through the School or may be borrowed bymembers for one week. Send postage with request. U. S. Government Publication _Free_ of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. : Flax for Seed and Fiber, Farmers' Bulletin No. 27. Cotton Seed and Its Products, Farmers' Bulletin No. 36. Raising Sheep, Farmers' Bulletin No. 96. The Angora Goat, Farmers' Bulletin No. 137. Silk Worm Culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 165. Essential Steps in Securing an Early Crop of Cotton, Farmers' Bulletin No. 217. The Cotton Seed Industry, Reprint No. 239. The Hemp Industry in U. S. , Reprint No. 254. Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection, Reprint No. 279. The Growing of Long-Staple Upland Cotton, Reprint No. 314. Principal Commercial Plant Fibers, Reprint No. 321. _For sale_ by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Sendcoin or money order, --stamps not accepted: Sheep and Wool, Report No. 66, Office of the Secretary. Price 5c. The Cotton Plant: Its History, Botany, Chemistry, Enemies, and Uses. Bulletin No. 33. Office of Experiment Stations. Price 60c. Cotton Culture in Egypt. Bulletin No. 42. Price 5c. OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS. Uncultivated Bast Fibers. Report No. 6. Price 10c. Cultivation of Ramie. Report No. 7. Price 10c. Culture of Hemp and Jute. Report No. 8. Price 10c. Flax Culture for Seed and Fiber. Report No. 10. Price 10c. TEST QUESTIONS The following questions constitute the "written recitation" which theregular members of the A. S. H. E. Answer in writing and send in for thecorrection and comment of the instructor. They are intended to emphasizeand fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART I READ CAREFULLY. Place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between the answers for the notes of the instructor. _Answer every question fully. _ Read the lesson paper a number of times before attempting to answer the question. 1. Give a brief outline of the craft of spinning, primitive and modern. 2. Outline the same for weaving. 3. Describe the hand loom. 4. Describe the cotton fiber. What kinds are there? 5. Who invented the cotton gin and how did this invention affect thecotton industry? 6. Give the chief characteristics of wool. Name the wool and fur bearinganimals. How does wool differ from hair? 7. Trace briefly the preparation of wool from the fleece to the finishedproduct. 8. Describe flax and outline the method for the preparation of thefibers. What is the name of the manufactured product of flax? 9. Name some other bast fibers and their products? 10. How do the textile fibers compare in the raw state in condition andprice? 11. Give a brief description of silk from the egg to the woven cloth. 12. (a) What is the chief constituent of the vegetable fibers? (b) Howdoes their affinity for dyestuffs compare with wool and silk? (c) How dothe alkalies affect wool? 13. Describe the principal weaves and give examples of each. 14. (a) How are cotton and flax bleached? (b) What is a mordant? (c) Howshould material be prepared for dyeing? (d) State what you know aboutold time methods of dyeing. 15. How are print goods made? Name some printed fabrics. 16. Define woolens and worsteds. 17. Describe the finishing of woolen and worsted cloths. 18. What is noil; shoddy; felt; flocks? 19. With what dress goods have you had experience, and with whatresults? 20. What factors determine the use of fabrics? 21. Of what value is the study of textiles? What have you gained by thestudy of this lesson? _Note. _--After completing the test sign your full name. [Illustration: EMBROIDERED INITIALS _W_ and _L_--Sewed on initials; _B_--Satin stitch in wreath of featherstitches; _C_--Outline and seed work; _D_--Chain and French knots;_H_--Cross stitch; _L_--Chain; _H_--At the right, and the cross stitch_H_ are made over canvas and the canvas threads drawn. ] TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART II HAND SEWING Good sewing, good pressing, well finished ends and corners, lightness oftouch which holds the work without apparently touching it, thus givingto the finished garment a fresh look--all these are importantconsiderations. [Sidenote: Kinds of Sewing] The sewing done on wool, silk, and dresses of all kinds differs fromthat on underwear and white work. Muslin underwear requires frequentwashing and ironing, hence the first essential is durability; close, small stitches, all raw edges carefully turned and stitched securely. Seams that are to come close to the body should lie perfectly flat. Around seam would wear out sooner by coming into frequent contact withthe washboard and iron, besides irritating the skin. In dressmaking, unless the stitching is used for ornamental purposes, it should nevershow on the outside. Periods of beautiful and dignified costume have been periods of fineneedlework--one art leading to and helping on the production of theother. [Sidenote: Plain Stitches] Stitches may be divided into plain and ornamental. The plain stitchesare the (1) basting, (2) running, (3) the running and back stitch, (4)half back stitch, (5) back stitch, (6) overhand or whipping stitch, (7)overcast, (8) hemming, and (9) blind or slip stitch. [Sidenote: Ornamental Stitches] The ornamental stitches most frequently used are (1) outline, (2) chain, (3) cat or herringbone, (4) blanket or loop, (5) feather, coral orbriar, (6) hemstitching, (7) French knots, (8) button hole, and (9)cross stitch. Excepting the cross stitch, these are all variations ofthe plain and button hole stitches. The plain stitches may be used for ornamental purposes. The bastingstitch is known as Queen Anne darned work. The back stitch, known as"seed work, " is used in embroidering letters and monograms. The overhandstitch is used as an ornamental stitch for joining selvages and inhemming. The chain stitch, besides being ornamental, makes one of thebest darning stitches, reproducing the stitch in knitting. The catstitch is also useful in binding down open seams for flannel hems, patching, etc. [Sidenote: Basting] (1) Basting proper is used only in the preparation of work to hold thestuff and lining, or any two or more parts of the work together while itis being stitched, none being left in the finished garment. It is alsoused as a guide for sewing, feather stitching, etc. [Sidenote: Tacking] The slanting basting stitch or "tacking" is used in dressmaking forholding linings. The needle is pointed towards the worker. Even bastingis used for holding several thicknesses of cloth and if the garment isto be fitted, the stitches should be placed rather close. Uneven bastingis used for hems and seams to be machine stitched. Several shortstitches with one long one are used to baste crape and wiry fabrics, for this method holds them better than stitches of equal length. [Illustration: BASTING STITCHES _a_--Even; _b_--Uneven; _c_--For wiry fabrics; _d_--Tacking;_e_--Overcasting; _f_--Double or tailor overcasting. ] [Sidenote: Fastening the Thread] All basting should be fastened at start with a knot or knot and backstitch and finished with two or three back stitches. The length ofthread may be broken or cut from the spool, but should always be cutfrom the work. Breaking weakens the fastening and biting off soilsdelicate work with the moisture from the breath, to say nothing of theinjury to the teeth. Basting for large work should usually be done withthe goods lying flat on the sewing table. [Sidenote: Drawing Basting Threads] For ordinary work, basting threads should be cut every few inches anddrawn out. In velvet, every alternate stitch should be cut and drawn outon the right side with the pile of the goods. In the basting for velvetwhere the slanting stitch is used, only one end of the stitch touchesthe line of the seam--the rest is on the outside of the seam. Silkthread should be used to baste velvet and gauze; the thread should beused for basting. [Illustration: POSITION OF THE HANDS IN RUNNING] [Sidenote: Running Stitch] (2) Running is closely related to basting. It is not used for any seamsthat have to bear great strain, but for joining seams in this material, gathering, tucking, making cords, etc. The stitches are usually of equallength on both sides. Take one stitch in the seam and hold the goodsbetween the thumb and first finger of each hand, as shown in theillustration, with the back of the thimble on the eye of the needle. Then, with as free wrist motion as possible, run or shake the needlethrough the material. The motion of the hand should come from the elbowjoint. Gathering, gauging, casing, etc. , are used for drawing up the fullnessof skirts, ruffles, flounces, etc. , into a given space. The runningstitch is used for these. [Sidenote: Gathering] For gathering, the cloth is held in the same manner as for running. Theneedle, ordinarily, need not be taken out of the work, the stitchesbeing pushed back over the eye as they are made; but for running longskirt seams in delicate material which would crinkle at the line ofsewing and roughen the seam, the needle should be drawn through and theline of sewing smoothed on the thread at each needleful of stitches. [Sidenote: Stroking] Never use a double thread for gathering, as it is apt to knot, but putin two lines of gathering threads--one a full one-eighth of an inchbelow the other--and slip the stitches along the needle as describedabove. This method is a saving of time in the end. When the gatheringthreads are in, remove the needle, place a pin vertically close to thelast stitch, and wind the thread around it a few times in the form of afigure eight. Use a coarse needle for stroking. Hold the work betweenthe thumb and fingers of the left hand with the thumb on the gatheringthreads. To place the gathers, put the point of the needle _under_ thelower gathering thread and press the plait or gather under the thumb, drawing the needle down, or simply pressing on the needle. Care must betaken not to scratch or tear the material. Continue entirely across thegathers, putting the needle under each stitch and holding the plaitfirmly between the thumb and finger: turn the material and stroke the_upper_ edge of the gathers. [Sidenote: Gauging] The gauging stitch is usually longer on the face than on the back, drawsthe material up into distinct plaits, making it easy to dispose of thefullness neatly, regularly and securely by overhanding the top edge ofeach plait to the bottom edge of the band. The right side of the skirtand the right side of the belt are placed against each other and eachgather oversewed to the belt. The space into which the material is to begathered determines the length of the long stitch. The succeeding rowsof stitches should be _directly_ under those of the first. [Sidenote: Running and Back Stitch] (3) The running and back stitch is made by taking a few runningstitches, drawing out the needle and making a back stitch over the lastrunning stitch to strengthen the seam. Care must be taken not to holdthe side next the worker too full and not to miss the under material, but to take the stitches even on both sides. [Sidenote: Half Back Stitch] (4) The half-back stitch is made by taking one stitch and placing theneedle half way back, then bringing it out twice the length of thestitch and placing the needle half way back each time from where thelast stitch ended. The appearance on the right side will be of regularspace as in the running stitch. [Sidenote: Back Stitch] (5) The back stitch is made by placing the needle back to the laststitch, bringing it out once the length of the last stitch, then placingthe needle back into the last stitch, and so on, making the stitchesfollow each other without any space between. This is used in all placesthat are to bear great strain. [Illustration: PLAIN STITCHES _a_--Running; _b_--Running and back;_c_--Half back; _d_--Back stitch. ] [Sidenote: Whipping Stitch] (6) Overhanding, oversewing, whipping, top sewing are one and thesame--small stitches taken over edges, to join folded edges or selvages, for sewing bands on gathers, sewing lace and insertion, and for sewingcarpet strips together. The pieces for an overhand seam should be pinnedcarefully, placing the pins at right angles to the edge. The foldededges or selvages are placed together, the right side of the goodsbeing in. Do not use a knot to begin sewing, but leave the knot end ofthe thread and sew it in with the first stitches, carrying the thread ontop of the seam. To finish off the seam, overhand back over the last fewstitches. [Sidenote: Position in Overhanding] In sewing this seam, the goods should be held between the thumb andfirst finger of the left hand parallel with the chest, not over the endof finger. Point the needle towards the left shoulder, thus giving aslanting stitch. Care should be taken not to pucker or draw the seam. When the seam is finished, it should be opened and pressed flat. [Sidenote: Overcasting] (7) Overcasting is a slanting stitch used to keep raw edges fromravelling. This stitch, like oversewing, may be worked from right toleft or from left to right. The hem stitch and blind or slip stitch will be considered under hems. ORNAMENTAL STITCHES Never use a knot in any embroidery, but start by running a few stitchesalong the line which is to be covered. [Sidenote: Outline Stitch] (1) The outline stitch is the simplest of all embroidery stitches. Takea long stitch on the surface, with the needle pointing towards the chestin the line to be covered, and a short back stitch on the under side ofthe material. The effect of the under or wrong side of the material isexactly that of an ordinary back stitch. The beauty of this stitchdepends upon its regularity and in always keeping the thread on thesame side of the needle. [Illustration: ORNAMENTAL STITCHES _a_--Outline; _b_--Chain; _c_--Cat; _c'_--Catch; _d_--Single Feather;_e_--Double Feather; _f_--Tripple Feather; _g_--Modified Feather;_h_--Double Feather with Knots; _i_--French Knots and Outline;_j_--Herring Bone; _k_--Fancy Feather; _l_--Cat Stitch with FrenchKnots. ] [Sidenote: Chain Stitch] (2) The chain stitch when perfectly done should look like the stitchmade by a single-thread machine. This stitch is made by taking thethread toward the worker, and before the needle is drawn out of thecloth the thread is held by the thumb under the point of the needle, asin a buttonhole, making a loop. The needle is inserted in the last loopfor the next stitch. The chain stitch is used in modern embroidery as anoutline and for darning, but in old embroidery, the outline and chainstitches were used for filling as well. They are found in Persian, Indian, and Italian Renaissance work. Like the feather stitch, the chainstitch is worked towards the worker. [Sidenote: Cat Stitch] (3) The cat stitch or herringbone stitch is an alternate slanting backstitch, the needle being placed first to the right and then to the left. This stitch must be worked evenly to be effective. It is used to finishflannel seams and hems, fasten down linings, opened seams, and canvasfacings and featherbone, in millinery--in fact, this stitch is one ofthe most useful in sewing. The _catch_ stitch is a variation of the catstitch. Instead of pointing the needle towards the chest, the stitch istaken parallel with the chest. It is used for about the same purposes asthe cat stitch. As with the outline stitch, the cat stitch is worked_from_ the worker. [Sidenote: Loop Stitch] (4) Blanket or loop stitch, used to ornament the edge of blankets, etc. , and for finishing the edge of stockinet or web material, is workedfrom left to right, the edge of the material being held towards theworker. Start with three or four running stitches along the edge so theline of stitching will cover them. Insert the needle the desired widthfrom the edge, draw it towards you down over the thread, being carefulnot to draw the thread too tightly over the edge of the flannel. Fastenthe thread by taking running stitches under the last blanket stitch onthe wrong side. [Illustration: _HEM STITCHING_ _a_--Position of Needle; _a'_--Finished Hem Stitch; _b_--Ladder Stitch;_c_--Example of Drawn Work Finished with Loop and Cat Stitches. ] [Sidenote: Feather Stitch] (5) Single, double, and triple feather or coral stitches may be madevery ornamental and are used in all kinds of sewing and on allmaterials. They are always made towards the worker, the stitches beingtaken alternately to the right and left of the line of the design. Thethread should always be carried under the needle as in a buttonholestitch. The design may be varied by taking the stitches diagonally orstraight, by making them close or separated, etc. [Sidenote: Hem Stitch] (6) Hemstitching is used for ornament in making hems and tucks. Thefirst step in hemstitching is the drawing of threads. Rubbing the clothalong the line of threads to be drawn will make the drawing easier ifthe cloth is sized. After the threads are drawn, the hem is turned andbasted even with the lowest edge of the drawn space. Insert the needleinto the edge of the hem and material, taking up a cluster of threadsbring the thread under the needle to form a buttonhole stitch or make asimple stitch in the edge of the fold. The number of threads drawn andthe number in a cluster must be determined by the coarseness orfineness of the material, the greater number being drawn and taken infine material. There are several methods of hemstitching, but theresults are about the same. [Illustration: EMBROIDERY STITCHES Eyelet Embroidery, Embroidery Button Hole, Flat Satin Stitch. ] [Sidenote: French Knots] (7) French knots are used in connection with other stitches for bordersenclosed in outline and chain stitches, in initials, centers of flowers, and as a filling-in stitch. The simplest method is of taking a smallback stitch, bringing the thread from the _eye_ of the needle under thepoint from right to left and drawing the needle perpendicularly fromthe cloth. Place the needle back of the knot and bring the point out inthe place where the next knot is to be made. The size of the thread willdetermine the size of the knot. [Sidenote: Embroidery Buttonhole] (8) The embroidery buttonhole stitch has many possibilities and manyvariations. It is worked from left to right instead of from right toleft as in a buttonhole. The thread from the work is carried under thepoint of the needle from left to right, just the reverse of thebuttonhole. This stitch is used on flannel and in embroidery of allkinds; it may be padded or worked flat and the stitches may be taken adistance apart or near together. [Sidenote: Cross Stitch] (9) The cross stitch is worked on linen, scrim, canvas, or anyopen-meshed material. If done on a flat, smooth surface, it will benecessary to work over canvas, afterwards drawing out the canvasthreads. The canvas should be well basted on the material, the warpthreads of the canvas lying _perfectly straight_ on a line with the warpthreads of the material on which the pattern is worked. The stitchesshould always run the same way. If the first ground stitches are madefrom left to right, from bottom towards the top, the cross stitchesshould be made from right to left from the top towards the bottom. Allthe ground stitches run one way and the cross stitches in the oppositeway. This stitch is used for marking table linen, underwear, and embroiderydesigns. When marking linen and unlined work, make the under side veryneat by running the thread under the stitches already made, instead oftaking a long stitch when beginning in another part of the letter ordesign. [Sidenote: Satin Stitch] (10) The satin stitch is an over and over stitch and is used onmaterials of all kinds for marking linen, etc. The _padding_ is the first step and should be done in long even stitchesplaced closely and over one another in the center. The size andproportions of the figure or letters determine the size of the thread. Fine thread gives the best results. The outline should be run twice;this keeps the edge firm. An even darning or basting stitches, chainstitches or outline stitch may be used if the space is not too small. The padding may be worked in an embroidery hoop to keep it smooth andeven. Scallops may be padded in the same way or worked flat. [Illustration: EMBROIDERY BUTTON HOLE AND BLANKET STITCHES Scallops Outlined and Padded. ] In large figures the stitches are laid closely and exactly parallel theentire length of the form. They may be straight across or at an angle, but the one slant must be maintained throughout. In small curvedfigures, the stitches may be placed more closely at the inner edge andspread slightly at the outer edge. In flat work where the leaf or petalis large, two or three stitches taken in the cloth, back of the facestitch, holds them even and prevents misplacement in laundering. (Allembroidery should be ironed on the wrong side. ) [Illustration: ARROW HEAD, DOUBLE ARROW HEAD AND CROW'S FOOT. ] [Sidenote: Eyelet Embroidery] Eyelet embroidery is a simple over and over stitch forming a smooth, round edge. Like satin stitch, all outlines are run with an even darningstitch, except the very small eyelet holes, made with a stiletto. Longor oval openings must be cut through the center. [Sidenote: Shadow Embroidery] Shadow embroidery is worked on the wrong side of thin material, usingthe cat stitch. The outline of the design only shows on the right side, the body of the design being seen dimly through the material. [Sidenote: Arrow Heads] The arrow head and crow's foot are ornamental fastenings used in finetailoring as endings for seams, tucks, plaits, and at corners. They aremade as shown in the illustration. Mercerized cotton, linen, or any of the embroidery silks can be used forthese stitches, in all sizes and colors, or they can be worked withordinary thread, cotton or linen, sewing silk, or twist. Cotton threadwears better than linen. HEMS [Sidenote: Folding Hems] A hem is a fold of goods twice folded to protect a raw edge. The firstturn or fold of the hem is the most important. It should be straight andeven, _folded to a thread_, for upon it depends the beauty of the hem. The hem should always be turned towards the worker and creased firmly, but never pleated along the fold. First crease the narrow fold, thencrease the second fold the desired width, marking by a measure and bastenot too near the edge. The first fold _along_ the _woof_ threads shouldbe at least one-fourth of an inch in width, as the woof threads give orstretch more than the warp threads; otherwise it will not lie flat. [Sidenote: Sewing Hems] In sewing the hem, the needle should take up only the edge to be hemmeddown and just enough to hold on the cloth or lining. In white work thestitches should be fine, showing as little as possible. [Sidenote: Bias Hem] All bias and curved edges should have the first fold basted. In cloth orsilk this first basting thread should match the material and not betaken out. [Sidenote: Faced hem] A facing or faced hem is also used as a protection to the edge of agarment. A true bias or fitted facing should be used for a facing if theedges of the garment are curved. An extension hem is one in which thewhole width of the hem is used. [Illustration: HEMMING _a_--Shows method of cutting to do away with a clumsey corner. ] [Sidenote: Slip-Stitching] Slip-stitching or invisible hemming is done on silk, wool, and thickmaterial. The hem is pressed with an iron, a stitch as fine as possibleis taken on the surface of the cloth and the needle slipped under andthrough the first fold, drawing the thread lightly. The needle andthread used in this stitch must be very fine. [Illustration: MITERED CORNERS Method of Folding and Cutting. ] [Illustration: ROLLED HEM AND WHIPPED GATHERS _a_--Rolled Hem Gathered; _b_--Whipped Roll; _c_--Double Whipped;_d_--Roll Hemmed; _e_--Gathers Sewed to Band. ] [Sidenote: Rolled Hem] Rolled hem and whipped gathers are made with the wrong side of thematerial next the worker. Make a tiny roll of the edge towards theworker, using the left thumb and index finger, rolling an inch at a time(and no more) before hemming. Make fine, even stitches in the roll andgoods. Keep the hem perfectly round, firm and not too large. This hem isadapted only to fine material and the edge across the warp is the moreeasily rolled. [Sidenote: Whipped Gathers] To gather, whip the rolled hem without hemming, making overcastingstitches towards you, even and not too fine. Use coarser thread than forhemming. This gathering thread is used to hold down the edge as well asfor drawing up the gathers and it not to be taken out, as is theordinary gathering thread. It should _not_ catch in the roll. Have thethread the length of the plain space to which it is to be sewed andregulate the gathers as you do the gathering. After the edge is rolled, whipped and gathered, it is sewed to the garment by the little scallopsor raised parts made by the whipping. This is used only for makingruffles or gathering on very fine hand work. [Sidenote: French Hem] The French hem is used for table linen. Fold as in an ordinary hem, thenfold the hem back on the right side and overhand the edge formed, takingfine stitches. Press the hem flat from the right side. [Sidenote: Flannel Hems] Flannel hems should _not_ be twice folded, for there will be a ridgeinstead of a flat surface after the garment has been laundered, owing tothe felting properties of the wool. Hems on flannel should not bestitched by hand or machine, but cat stitched on the wrong side andfinished on the right side with any ornamental stitch. Hems in infants' clothing may be turned on the right side and madeornamental by feather stitching. No selvage should ever be used on a hem. The selvage is more closelywoven and will draw or pucker in laundrying. TUCKS Tucks are folds made on thin material for ornament, to shorten or toprovide for lengthening a garment. If done by hand, a card measure ispreferable to a tape measure for marking the space and width of thetucks. The folds should be creased to a thread, basted and sewed with arunning stitch showing but little on the face, or stitched on themachine. Fine thread should be used. SEAMS A seam is the line of sewing that joins material; it may be plain orornamental. The most important are the overhand, felled, French, slot, lapped, flannel, and beaded. The overhand seam is described under the overhand stitch. [Sidenote: Felled Seam] A fell is a seam hemmed down to the goods to protect the raw edge. It isusually made in night dresses, drawers, corset covers, etc. Baste withthe piece farthest from the worker extended one-eighth of an inch beyondthe other and sewed _with the grain_ of the goods, beginning at thewidest part of any bias. Press the seam with the nail on the right side, turn the wide edge down flat to cover the raw edge and line of sewing, and hem flat either by hand or machine. Care should be taken to keep theseam flat on the right as well as on the wrong side. If the felling isdone with the machine hemmer, the wide edge must be on the oppositeside. The seam may be basted with both edges even if preferred, cuttingoff one edge after stitching. [Illustration: SEAMS _a_--Full; _b_--French Screen. ] [Illustration: BEADED AND TAPED SEAMS _A_--Tape basted on one edge, and the other edge turned and stitched;_B_--Beading whipped to the folded edges; _a_--Stitched hem; _b_--Hemfinished with feather stitching. ] [Sidenote: French Seam] A French seam is sewed twice--first on the right side as near the rawedge as possible. Cut off all frayed edges, turn the material by folding_on the seam_ or line of sewing, so the seam is folded inside and thesecond sewing is on the wrong side below the raw edges. This is not agood seam for underwear worn next the body, as it leaves a ridge on thewrong side, but it is useful for skirts of thin material, etc. It ismore easily made than a fell. [Sidenote: Beaded Seam] Beaded seams used for fine white work have a line of beading overhandedbetween gores, hems, or gathers. The hem along the seam should be foldedon the right side, leaving a perfectly flat surface to iron on the wrongside, and finished with an ornamental stitch covering the hem. [Sidenote: Slot Seams] The slot seam, used in cloth dresses and jackets, requires exact bastingwith silk or very fine thread with small, even stitches. If a coarsethread is used, the material will be badly marked. After basting, pressthe seam open as if it had been stitched, and baste the strap or understrip of the dress material (which has been cut perfectly straight andeven) over the wrong side of the seam, having the center of the seam onthe center of the strap. Stitch any width desired beyond the centerthrough the three thicknesses. This will hold the seam in position. Nowremove the bastings from the seam and the slot effect is complete. Ifdesired, there may be a double row of stitching, an extra row on theedge of the fold or plait. These seams may be finished at the bottomwith arrow heads or stitched designs. The lines of machine stitchingshould not end without some ornament to _appear_ to hold the plait. [Illustration: SLOT SEAM FINISHED WITH ARROW HEAD] [Illustration: FLANNEL SEAMS AND HEMS Finished with various Ornamental Stitches. ] [Sidenote: Lapped Seam] In the lapped seam the edges are folded each within the other or oneover the other so that both sides are alike. If made of heavy material, the raw edges are left unturned; in muslin or linen the edges areinturned, lapped, basted and the hem stitched on both edges or hemmeddown on both sides by hand. [Illustration: PLACKETS _A_--Made by folding a wide hem over a narrow one; _B_--Tape facedsewing for the purpose of a gusset. Method of folding the tape shown. ] [Sidenote: Flannel Seams] Flannel seams should be stitched, opened and pressed _flat_, either onthe right or wrong side of the garment. If on the right side, taffetaribbon should be basted over the seam, so that the raw edges of flannelwill not show, and cat stitched or buttonhole stitched on both sides ofthe ribbon, or any fancy stitch--not too long--may be used. This is theDorothy seam. For the seam on the wrong side, the edges should be catstitched with fine thread. Any ornamental stitch may be used on theright side of the seam. Always press flannel seams and hems beforefinishing. Flannel should never be hem stitched. PLACKETS A placket is an opening in a garment allowing it to be put on. Thesimplest placket is made by cutting a slit and folding a wide hem over anarrow one turned on the face of the goods; this makes a pleat below thevent. There should be a double line of stitching across the bottom ofthe hem to strengthen the placket. [Sidenote: Tape Faced Placket] The tape faced placket is stronger and may be used in children'sdrawers, etc. , in place of a gusset to strengthen the end of theopening. A single piece of tape folded back as for a loop is stitchedalong all edges, making an opening without a lap. This offers as muchresistance as a gusset and is more quickly done. [Illustration: FACED PLACKET _A_--Wrong side, opened, showing tape; _B_--Right side showing on-setpiece; _aa_ and _bb_ the same ends of the tape; 1-2 method of foldingand cutting end of on-set piece. ] [Sidenote: Faced Placket] In a third kind of placket, the opening is faced with a continuous pieceof tape on both sides and finished with a piece of material on theoutside. See illustration. This makes a strong and simple placket. Whena tape cannot be used, a hem or facing may be made on the under side ofthe opening and a facing on the upper side, over which the on-set pieceis stitched. The on-set piece and facing may be cut from one piece, butthe fitting is more troublesome. In figured goods, the piece set onshould match the pattern exactly. [Illustration: SKIRT PLACKET WITH LAP] A simple placket for underwear is made from a single strip of the goodsput on like an extension hem. On drawers it may be turned in at thebuttonhole end, but not stitched down except at the band. The placket of a skirt should have an underlap extending well below theopening. SEWING ON BANDS [Sidenote: Gathering] Divide the top of unhemmed edge of the garment in halves and mark with across stitch, notch or pin. Gather from the placket to the middle of thefront gore, if a skirt, apron, or dress. Take a new thread and gatherthe remainder. Put in a second gathering thread one-eighth to one-fourthof an inch below the first. Two gathering threads are better than oneand they should be longer than the length of space to be gathered. Stroke or lay the gathers above and below the threads. Divide the bandand pin the middle to the center of the garment, placing the right sideof the band on the wrong side of the garment. Pin in the middle and ateach end, secure the gathering threads by winding around the pin, adjustthe gathers, and baste between the gathering threads. Stitch just belowthe line of basting. Fold the band over on the right side, press, basteover the line of stitching, press again, then stitch on the right sideafter having turned in both ends and over-sewed. Turn the _top_ of theband over on the right side one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch andstitch securely. This upper fold keeps the edge from wearing andstretching and is a stay for children's skirts and drawers where buttonholes are used and serves as a finish for the top of the band. [Illustration: FINISHES _a_--Bias Facing; _b_--Band on Gathers; _c_--Corded edge. ] For flannel, pleating or gathers may be used to put fullness into aband. Two rows of gathering threads should be used and the stitchesshould not be too fine. The band should be made of cotton or at leastlined with it to avoid clumsiness and prevent shrinking. Ruffles are setin hems, etc. , in the same manner. [Illustration: DRAW TAPE FINISH FOR UNDER SKIRT] [Sidenote: Drawing Tapes] In finishing the top of an underskirt, many like to dispense with theplacket and fitted band. This may be done by using drawing tapes at theback. The upper edge is faced with a piece of material which should bebias in front to accommodate it to the curve, but may be straight acrossthe back. Work a button hole at each side of the back, insert a tapethrough one button hole and draw it over an inch beyond the opposite oneand fasten securely by two lines of stitching across the tape. A secondtape is put through the other button hole and fastened in the same way. By pulling the tape on each side the fullness may be adjusted. [Sidenote: Bias Facings] All facings around curves, such as arm holes and neck, should be a truebias which is cut by holding the warp threads diagonally across the woofthreads. These strips for facings, pipings, ruffles, etc. , should be cutexactly even in width. All bands, ruffles, etc. , of serge, twilled, ordiagonal materials should be cut _across_ the twill and not with it, inorder to have the ruffle hang well. FASTENINGS The standard fastenings are buttons and button holes, hooks and eyes orhand made loops, lacings through rings and eyelet holes, loops overbuttons, and fancy frogs, clasps, studs, ball and socket, "notta-hooks, "etc. [Sidenote: Making Button Holes] Button holes should be carefully measured and marked before cutting. They should be a little longer than the diameter of the button for flatbuttons and one and one-quarter the diameter for round buttons. Havingdecided upon the distance apart they are to be placed, cut a marker froma piece of cardboard and measure off the space, marking with pins, French chalk, pencil, or thread. The distance from the edge (one-fourthinch), as well as the length of the button hole may also be marked withthe card. The scissors should be sharp, the hand must be steady, and thecut should be made with one firm slash, not with two or three jerks. Great care must be taken that each button hole is of the same length. The goods should be cut to a thread, for it is impossible to make a neatbuttonhole if it is improperly cut. In cutting a round end buttonholefor thick goods, a punch may be used for the end, after which theremainder of the buttonhole is cut directly on a line with the center ofthe circle. The same marker may be used to mark the position for the buttons. Allmarkings for buttons and buttonholes, or for hooks and eyes, should bemade at one time. [Sidenote: Overcasting Buttonholes] After cutting, the button holes are overcast. This should always be donedirectly after cutting, especially if the goods ravels easily, otherwiseit will be impossible to work a neat buttonhole. Overcasting should bedone with very fine thread (No. 150 for white goods), split silk forwool and silk. Three overcast stitches on each side are sufficient foran ordinary size buttonhole. A very good plan to follow in cutting a buttonhole in heavy material ormaterial that frays easily is to chalk the position and length of thebuttonhole, then stitch a row of machine stitching each side of thismark, the two rows being a little more than one-eighth of an inch apart. This holds all the thicknesses together and the buttonhole may then becut easily. It also serves as a guide in working the buttonholestitches. [Illustration: BUTTONS, BUTTON HOLES, EYELETS, LOOPS] The buttonholing is begun at the inner side of the slit. Always placethe knot on the outside of the garment a short distance to the right ofthe buttonhole, leaving a long stitch underneath which can be cut offwhen the buttonhole is finished. A buttonhole should be completed withone thread if possible as it is difficult to mend the thread securelyand neatly. Letter D for twist is usually employed. [Sidenote: Making Buttonholes] Insert the needle in the edge of the material and when half way through, take the two threads at the eye of the needle, bringing them towards youat the right and under the point of the needle, and draw the thread fromyou, making the purl or loop stitch directly on the edge of thebuttonhole. The stitches should be about the width of the needle apartto allow for the purl. Be careful to complete each stitch with a uniformmovement so that the line will be perfectly straight and not wavy. Thestitches are placed more closely together in the rounded end of thebuttonhole where the chief wear comes. [Sidenote: Staying] Many workers, particularly tailors, always "stay" or "bar" around abuttonhole before working. This may be done with several threads oftwist or with a cord so that the worked edge of the buttonhole will befirm and distinct. Tailors usually use a cord as this makes the edgesheavier. It is always well to stay buttonholes in heavy material as itstrengthens them very much and improves their appearance. [Sidenote: Bar Tack] When the buttonhole has been worked all around, the end is completedwith a bar tack made by taking two or three stitches across the end ofthe buttonhole, drawing the edges closer together. This bar is coveredwith buttonhole stitches worked close together. The thread is fastenedsecurely on the wrong side. [Sidenote: Large Buttonholes] After very large buttonholes are finished, their straight edges shouldbe closely basted together by an over and over stitch and then pressedunder a damp cloth. Before they are dry, a bodkin or stiletto should bepushed vigorously up through each eyelet until that opening becomesperfectly round and the stitches on its edges are regular and distinct. When the basting is removed, the buttonhole will be symmetrical inappearance. Buttonholes which are to bear a strain are cut in the direction of thepull, but sometimes they are cut in the opposite direction, as for ashirt waist. Such a buttonhole may be completed with a bar tack on eachend. [Sidenote: Sewing on Buttons] Ordinary buttons should never be sewed down tightly, but the threadshould be loose so that it may be wound around at the end, thusprotecting the holding threads from wear. The shank prevents thebuttonhole from being crowded out of shape. Loose sewing can most easilybe done by placing a pin or needle across the top of the button andsewing over it. If a button is much concaved, the pin may be placedunderneath. The pin is removed before winding. In sewing on a four-hole button, the stitches should be madesymmetrically, either parallel or crossed, but not both. If parallel orin a two-holed button the stitches should run in the line of thebuttonhole. The thread should always be fastened at the beginning and atthe end of the work. Place the knot upon the outside of the garmentwhere it may be cut off when the button is sewed securely. The knot issometimes placed under the button. [Sidenote: Cloak Buttons] In sewing buttons on a cloak or coat an extra strip of canvas or silesiaover the canvas interlining should be placed the entire length of thebuttoning for strength. This should be applied before the work on thegarment is too far advanced and if cut sufficiently wide, will allow anyslight alteration. The sewing should go through the canvas facing andstay, but not through the under side or facing of the material. In sewing buttons on bodices a tape should be sewed over the frontbasting for a stay. If sufficient material has not been allowed for alap, this should be added, as a lap is necessary under the opening ofsuch buttonholes. Buttons may be sewed through lining having a small button on the wrongside. This method prevents the cloth from tearing and makes anornamental finish as well as a substantial one. Buttons which are supplied with wire shanks should be sewed down firmlyas the shank already provided permits the buttons to set up well fromthe material. They should be placed in such a position that the wireshank will run parallel with the buttonhole and not cross it. [Sidenote: Hooks and Eyes] The position for hooks and eyes should be marked before sewing on. Thesimplest, though least desirable, method of sewing-on these fasteningsis to place the eye at the edge of the seam or facing and the hooksufficiently far back from the opposite side to give a lap. A muchpreferable method is to baste a bias strip of crinoline along thepositions to be occupied by the hooks and eyes; this gives strength tothe finish. Sufficient material should be allowed for folding over theshanks after the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, or they may becovered with silk ribbon, slipping the edge under the beak of each hookand then catstitched in position. The hooks and eyes are sewed securely through the crinoline and onethickness, but the stitches should not show on the outside. Over andover stitches are taken through the small rings in the line of the fulland again on each bar of the eye and on the shank of the hook so thatthey may be held in position securely. In many cases, it is advisable tohave an underlap of the material. This should be slip-stitched inposition on the garment after the eyes have been sewed in place. [Illustration: HOOKS AND EYES Sewed on tape, Shanks covered with taffeta tape and with fold of thegoods. ] [Sidenote: Eyelets] Eyelet holes are made with a stiletto which forces the threads aside, but does not cut them. The edge is finished with over and over stitchesplaced closely together, or with a buttonhole stitch making the purl onthe outer edge of the stitches. Loops are made by buttonholing veryclosely over several foundation threads, making the purl on the outsideedge. The needle may be run under the loop eye first if preferred. PATCHING [Sidenote: Underset Patch] With the underset patch have the part to be patched pressed smooth, baste the patch on the wrong side of the garment before cutting out theworn place. (If the garment or article to be mended is worn or faded andshrunken by laundering, boil the piece in soap, soda and water to fadethe patch, if of cotton or linen. ) After basting, cut away all the worncloth, making a square or oblong hole. Cut to a thread. Cut each corner, diagonally, one-eighth or one-quarter of an inch, turn all four edges ofthe garment towards the wrong side. Begin at the center of one side andhem all around the square, taking slanting even stitches, not too closetogether. Remove the basting, trim the edges of the patch, press thepatch on the wrong side and catch stitch to the garment. This shows lesson the right side and does not make a hard line as if the patch wereturned back on the edge. If the cloth has a pattern or stripe, match itperfectly, having the warp threads of both running the same way. Cutboth hole and patch square. An oval or round patch is unworkmanlikeand does not wear well. Keep the corners square and hem down well. Theobject of pressing is to keep both garment and patch flat and even. Flannel patches should be cat-stitched on the right side. No flanneledges should ever be inturned. [Illustration: UNDERSET PATCH, RIGHT SIDE, EDGE TURNED AND HEMMED TOPATCH] [Illustration: WRONG SIDE OF PATCH, CAT STITCHED] [Illustration: WRONG SIDE OF PATCH IN TABLE CLOTH--RAW EDGE OVERCAST] [Sidenote: Onset Patch] The onset patch is used on lined garments and linings. The patch shouldbe rectangular and larger than the worn place. Fold the four edges onthe wrong side of the patch, place the patch with its wrong side on theright side of the garment directly over the center of the hole. Thiswill bring the folded edges of the patch between the two pieces of clothand both right sides towards the worker. Do not baste, but pincarefully. After the garment has been folded back until there are twofolded edges side by side, overhand the seam with even slantingstitches. See that the corners are well sewed, that warp and woofthreads run in the same direction, that pattern and stripes match. [Illustration: LINEN PATCH; CROSS STITCH INITIAL] [Illustration: RIGHT SIDE OF FLANNEL PATCH Edge cat stitched but not turned, back cat stitched in the same way. ] The worn part of the garment under the patch is cut away, leavingone-fourth of an inch on the three sides. Cut the corners diagonally andturn back the edge quarter of an inch, overcast and press. If this patchis sewed on a lining, the worn part is not cut away. If this patch isused to repair skirts near the band, only three sides are oversewed, theupper edge should be gathered into the band. A large patch is lessconspicuous than a small one. [Sidenote: Patch for Trowsers] An onset patch may be used for the seats of trousers by shaping thepatch like the pieces on the seats of bicycle trousers and stitching onthe machine. Heavy cloth will need no inturned edges. The sameprecautions are necessary regarding warp and woof, pattern, etc. DARNING [Sidenote: Thread for Darning] Darning is usually done with a running stitch, with or without a pieceof net or cloth underset. Thread for darning should be as near aspossible the size of the threads in the garment. Whenever it can bedone, a warp thread of the garment should be used. No sewing silk isfine enough to use without separating the thread and using one of thestrands. Never use the thread as it is, as it is too hard twisted. Cotton and linen thread of the finest quality, untwisted, should be usedfor darning stockings and underwear. Linen may be darned with linen ormercerized cotton. Cotton is preferable. A long slender needle with a large eye should be used. Darning shouldnever be commenced with a knot, nor finished with a back stitch. [Sidenote: Bias Darn] A bias or diagonal cut and a three-cornered tear are the most difficultto repair. If the place is badly pulled and frayed, a piece of the samematerial should be basted on the wrong side of the material and darnedin even stitches. Always darning _parallel_ with the warp threads andthe woof threads. In the diagonal tear, as the threads are cutdiagonally, to prevent drawing apart, the darning threads must crosseach other. The stitches around any darn should not end in a stiff even line; thismakes a hard edge which does not wear and is unsightly, anduncomfortable if on underwear. [Sidenote: Darning a Three Cornered Tear] The three-cornered tear may be darned in two ways. Begin by darningdiagonally through the center, darning back and forth towards the end ofthe tear until one-half has been finished; then begin at the center andwork in the opposite direction. At the corner, the stitches should formthe shape of a fan. The other method, which is the stronger, is done bydarning a square in the angle, first with the warp threads, then withthe woof threads and finishing each end across the tear. Stocking darning may be done on the right side. Begin by picking up thestitches and drawing the edges together. This should always be done inany kind of stocking darning, but not so close as to make a wrinkle. [Illustration: STOCKINET DARNING OVER NET Interlaced Stitches and Chain Stitches. ] In knees and heels of stockings, or knitted underwear, a piece of netlarge enough to extend beyond the thin part should be basted carefully;then darn down the outer edges of the net and finally the hole or thinplace. This makes a strong, neat piece of mending. If the hole is large, the net may be covered with the chain stitch, thus imitating theknitting stitch. This should be done on the right side of the garment. If the hole is to be filled in with the interlaced stitches, draw theedges together, darn beyond the thin places lengthwise of the knittedgarment, making each line of stitches longer until the center of thehole is reached, then decrease in the same manner, making a diamond inshape. Darn across the hole in the same way, taking up every alternatestitch as in weaving. Leave a tiny loop at the end of each row ofdarning, so that the threads will not draw. [Sidenote: Machine Darning] Darning, satisfactory for some purposes, may be done quickly on a doublethread sewing machine. It is best done in an embroidery ring, firstdrawing the edges together. Loosen the tension on the presser foot, usefine thread with light tension. Sew back and forth, first along the warpthreads and then at right angles along the woof threads. The machinewill be sewing backwards part of the time, but if the pressure is light, there will be no difficulty. For large holes, paper may be placedunderneath. MITERING EMBROIDERY OR LACE The mitering of lace or embroidery is often necessary in making collarsand in finishing corners. Before applying, plan carefully and select ascallop or portion of the embroidery which will produce the best effectswhen finished. This can be accomplished by folding the embroidery overat various portions of the pattern until a suitable point is found. Fold over at right angles and mark along the line to be mitered. Thetriangle may now be cut, but an extra width must always be allowed forthe seam, as there is frequently a slight unevenness and one side mayhave to be held a little full or stretched to make a perfect match. Themitered seam is over-sewed. [Illustration: MITERING AND JOINING EMBROIDERY _A_--Finished with a stitched seam; _B_--Edge hemmed down and cloth cutaway underneath; _C_--Joined with lapped seam. ] After the corner is properly made, cut away the cloth of the embroidery, allowing only enough for an inturned seam on the edge. This seam may bestitched on the machine on both edges, or oversewed to the goods, or theembroidery may be securely sewed on the plain part, after which theunderlying cloth may be cut away. This will make an almost perfectcorner. Lace may be matched and mitered in a similar way. MATCHING AND JOINING LACE In joining lace, avoid a seam if possible. Select portions of the designthat will match, placing one pattern of the same design over the other. Cut away a portion of the thick part of the pattern underneath and hemthe edges and inner part of the design down with fine thread. Smyrna or Torchon lace is more difficult to hem or join when very openor very fine. A small, felled seam is better than lapping and trying tomatch the pattern. Embroidery can be matched in the same way. Never let two heavy designslap over each other. The one on the wrong side should be cut out andthe edge sewed securely to the upper part of the design. [Illustration: INSERTION WITH MITRED CORNER, TAPED AND FACED; EMBROIDERYROLLED WHIPPED AND GATHERED] The plain material above the embroidery can be joined by a lapped seam, turning first the right side and then the wrong side and hemming on bothsides of the seam. MACHINE SEWING The sewing machine has taken away much of the drudgery of home sewing, but its use does not lessen the need of skill in hand work. No machinecan finish ends of belts, collars, sew on trimmings, fastenings, andlike work and the finish has much to do with the general appearance of agarment. [Sidenote: Types of Machines] All the prominent makes of sewing machines were invented in the decadefollowing Howe's patent in 1846. The two chief types of machines are thelock stitch, using double thread, and the chain or loop stitch, using asingle thread. Whatever the make of machine it should be run inaccordance with the rules accompanying it. The worker should familiarizeherself with the directions for setting and threading the needle, winding the bobbin, regulating the tension and the stitch and all othertechnicalities of the particular machine she has to operate. Agencies ofthe various machines usually have skilled workers to give instruction tobeginners. While it is not always an economy of time to use theattachments for hemming, tucking, etc. , unless much work is to be done, it is worth while to know how to use them if desired. As much or moreskill is required for neat machine work as for hand sewing. Results willnot be satisfactory without careful basting. [Sidenote: Care of the Machine] The machine should be kept well oiled, free from dust and gum and itshould he run evenly. In case it becomes "gummed" a drop of kerosene onthe parts that have been oiled will cut the gum. Remove the shuttle andrun the machine rapidly for a moment, then wipe off all the kerosene andoil the machine carefully with good machine oil--only the best should beused. A machine should always be wiped thoroughly before any work isplaced upon it. [Sidenote: Needles and Thread] As in hand sewing, needles and thread should be selected with care. Ablunt or bent needle should never be used, it should have a fine sharppoint and the eye should be sufficiently large to carry the threadeasily. The needle and thread should be suitable for the material to besewed. Glazed thread should never be used in a machine. The best qualityof thread and silk should be purchased but only enough for immediateuse, as it loses strength with age, chiefly because of the action of thedyes and chemicals. Even white thread may become "tender" from thechemicals used in bleaching it. Sewing silk and cotton should be kept ina closed box to exclude the light and air. For sewing cotton or linen the best cotton thread should be used. Woolen, silk, and velvet should be stitched with the best machine silk. The thread should match the material in color. Cotton thread fades orloses its brightness when exposed to the light, therefore for stitchingthat will show it is always better to use silk. The thread on the bobbinshould be wound evenly and carefully to insure an even stitch and thetension of both threads should be equal, otherwise the stitch will notbe perfect. As a lock stitch machine requires two threads while in handsewing only one is used, the two need not be as coarse as the singlethread. For ordinary home sewing, underwear, thin gowns and the like, No. 70 to No. 100 will be found satisfactory. Finer thread may be usedwhen the materials demand it, but no coarser than No. 50 should be usedin the machine and this only with the coarsest material. [Sidenote: Fastening Threads] Much time may be saved in fastening the threads at the ends of tucks, hems on sheets, towels, etc. , by careful manipulation of the machine. For example, on sheets begin to stitch along the hem at the selvage, orif the end of the hem is over-sewed, begin an inch from the edge andstitch the hem towards the selvage, then lift the presser-foot so as toturn the work, and retrace the bit of stitching, continuing across thewhole hem. When the end is reached, release the presser-foot, turn thework, and stitch back for an inch or more in the same line, as was doneat the beginning of the hem. By this method the threads are fastenedmuch more easily and quickly than by drawing them through on to thewrong side and tying or sewing them by hand and, of course, it is moresatisfactory than the "shop" way of cutting them off short. Tucks orseams may be fastened in the same way. If fine thread is used the doublestitching at the ends is hardly noticeable. [Sidenote: Bias Side Next Feed] When stitching a seam having one bias and one straight side, let thebias side come next to the feed, that is, on the underside. This isespecially important in thin materials. If the material is very sheer, strips of soft paper--newspaper will answer for ordinarypurposes--should be sewed in the seam. This will insure a seam free frompuckers and when finished the paper can be pulled away easily. [Sidenote: Stitching Gathers] In sewing gathers on a band they should also come next the "feed, " as ittakes up the side next to it a little faster than the upper side. Whenthe bias, or cross-way side of the seam, or gathers are next to the"feed" the material runs along smoothly, but if the straight side istowards it there is apt to be a pucker. Stitching can be done more easily on the right of the presser foot withthe bulk of the material lying to the left. The tendency of the "feed"or teeth is to crowd the work off the edge as well as forward and thestitching may be guided better on the right side. All straight seams should be stretched to the full extent of theirstraight edge in stitching, as the work passes under the presser foot. When a large amount of machine sewing is to be done--such as householdlinen, sheets, pillow cases and underwear--it is a good plan to do allthe basting and hand work first and keep the machine stitching for arainy or a damp day, as the thread is then less apt to break. A currentof air or a breeze from an open window on a dry day will often cause thethread to snap. For the same reason the machine should never stand nearthe fire or radiator. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART II READ CAREFULLY. This test consists of two parts, --answers to the questions and the making of models. Both should be sent to the School for inspection and correction. All models should be made about 4 by 6 inches so that they may be put into the envelope provided without being folded. Two series of models are given; either or both may be made. 1. What instruction have you ever had in sewing? (b) Has the subject any educational value? 2. What are the common basting stitches, and for what are they used? 3. Can you make the running stitch properly? How is it done? 4. For what purpose may the cat stitch be used? 5. Hems and Seams: Describe the different kinds for thick and thinmaterials, including those for flannel and state when they should beused. 6. Describe three kinds of plackets. 7. How are gathers made, and how sewed into a band? 8. What can you say of fastenings? 9. With what sewing machine are you most familiar, and what are itspeculiarities? 10. What stitches or methods described in this lesson are new to you? Note: After completing the answers, sign your full name. MODELS, FIRST SERIES I. STITCHES. On a piece of cotton about 4 by 6 inches, make with colored thread (1) a line of even basting stitches, (2) uneven basting stitches, (3) tacking, (4) running, (5) back stitch, (6) running and back, (7) half back. With embroidery silk make a row each of (1) cat stitch, (2) single feather, (3) double feather, (4) chain, (5) rows of French knots with border of outline stitch. Make your initial in one corner, using any stitch preferred. Overcast one long edge of the model, double overcast the opposite side, finish one end with plain loop or blanket stitch, and the other end with some fancy loop stitch. Fasten all threads as described in the text. II. SEAMS AND HEMS. (a) Join two pieces of fine cotton with a French seam at the long edge, about 2 by 5½ inches, with warp running lengthwise. (b) Cut a piece of muslin on a true bias and attach the bias edge to _a_ with a felled seam. (c) Trim the model and hem all sides so that the finished model may measure 4 by 6 inches. III. DARNING AND PATCHING. (a) In gingham or figures cotton, make an underset patch of a square hole, matching the goods. (b) Darn a three-cornered tear. IV. FASTENINGS. The proper distance from the edge of folded goods make (a) button hole, one end rounded and the other finished with a bar tack. (b) Under it make a partly finished, _barred_ buttonhole. (c) Below this make an eyelet hole, (d) below the eyelet hole a loop, and sew on an eye. On a second piece of folded goods opposite the first buttonhole, (a) sew a four-hole button, corresponding in size to the buttonhole. (b) Opposite the second buttonhole sew on a two-hole button; (c) below, sew on two hooks corresponding in position to the loop and eye. Make the two parts of the model so that the corresponding fastenings will join. V. APRON. Using fine muslin, make a doll's apron, gathering into band at top. Above hem at the bottom, make two clusters of tucks of three each. MODELS. SECOND SERIES. FOR EXPERIENCED WORKERS I. ROLLED HEM; HEM STITCHING. Make a doll's apron of fine muslin, attach top to band with rolled, whipped gathers. Make two clusters of tucks of three each at the bottom and hem stitch the bottom hem. II. SLEEVE PLACKET. Make a taped sleeve placket as shown in the illustration. III. MAKE A SLOT SEAM, using dress goods and finish with an arrow head. (b) Make a large cloak buttonhole. IV. MITRE EMBROIDERY and finish as shown in the illustration. (b) Match and join the same. V. EMBROIDERY: Make something small and useful--a doily, stock, collar--illustrating some style of embroidery, or make a model of the first series which will afford you the most new experience. [Illustration: MAKING MEXICAN DRAWN-WORK] TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART III DRESSMAKING [Sidenote: Good Tools Necessary] The greatest obstacle to home sewing of any kind is the failure toprovide suitable materials with which to do the work. To do goodwork--to make attractive gowns--the simple tools which the work requiresmust be provided. First, there should be needles and pins of the bestquality and make. They should be fine and well pointed. The needleshould be suitable to the material to be sewn and sufficiently large tocarry the thread easily. A blunt or bent needle should never be used. Long or milliner's needles are preferred by many for basting. [Sidenote: Thread] A good supply of thread should be kept on hand--not too great aquantity, but the stock should be added to as it is used. There shouldbe both silk and colored cotton, also twist for button holes, loops andarrow heads and knitting silk to sew on and finish feather bone. [Sidenote: Scissors] Two pairs of scissors are required--one with long, sharp blades, and apair of medium sizes for snipping machine stitches. Among the other necessary articles are a tape measure, cake of wax, pencils or tailor's chalk, tracing wheel, emery, lap board. Canvas, scrim, or any like material should be kept in the sewing room, as these are invaluable for facings, linings of collars, cuffs, etc. Hooks, eyes, buttons, tape, linings, featherbone and shields arerequisites not to be forgotten. [Sidenote: Tapes] Tape is constantly needed. Linen tape is thinner and makes a neaterfinish for some purposes than cotton tape. The bias tape or binding nowkept by the larger stores is very useful for binding curved edges andfor other purposes. [Sidenote: Cutting Table] If a regular cutting table is not available, the dining room tableshould be used. Skirts, bodices, ruffles, and bias bands should be cuton firm, even, and large surfaces. If cut upon the floor or bed andpressed on a coarse crash towel, the garment will have the undesirablehome-made look. [Sidenote: Pressing Board] A good pressing board should be provided and if possible a sleeve board. In the process of garment making of any kind too much stress cannot belaid upon constant and careful pressing. The ironing board should have for its outside cover a _finely_ woven, perfectly smooth cloth, tightly stretched, free from wrinkles, andsecurely tacked. Where there is gas, a small, portable stove should be kept near thesewing table with a medium-sized flat iron. Lacking gas, one of thesingle burner oil stoves may be used. An electric flat iron isespecially convenient. [Sidenote: Bust Form] A bust form is a great convenience in fitting and almost a necessityfor one who does much home dressing. These may be purchased atdepartment stores. Some kinds are adjustable, but it is always best tomake a carefully fitted lining for it and pad out to the correct shapeand size. The pattern should be one that extends well over the hips andheavy unbleached muslin may be used. After padding firmly, the frontopening should be oversewed. Special care should be taken with shouldersand neck and the neck band should be carefully adjusted on the figure. [Illustration: PADDED BUST FORM (From Dressmaking Up-to-Date, Butterick Co. )] A padded sleeve lining is also very useful in making sleeves. Dressmaking never should be begun until each needed article required forthe work has been purchased. The sewing room should be in order; themachine well oiled and wiped before any work is undertaken. [Sidenote: Skill and Taste] If the finished garment is to be perfect, careful attention must begiven to _every_ detail of the cutting and making up. To possessmechanical skill alone is not sufficient. A successful garment dependsnot only upon the dexterity with which the worker manipulates the actualtools of her craft, but upon all her faculties and her power of applyingthem. She must have a comprehension of the laws of beauty in dress, construction, ornament, color, selection, economy. The artisan knows thetechnical part only, and looks upon each dress--each piece of lace andvelvet--as so much material to be snipped and cut and sewed, copyingfrom the fashion plate, making gown after gown alike. The artist, on theother hand, makes the gown to suit the individual wearer, consideringeach dress no matter how simple--and the simpler, the more artistic--asa creation designed to suit the woman for whom it was planned. People who study economy from principle will never adopt anythingextreme in weave, or color, or make. These extreme fashions are neverlasting; they are too conspicuous and are vulgarized by bad copies, while a thing which is known to be good and beautiful once will remainso for all time. Those who are beginners in the art of dressmakingshould select plain designs until skill is acquired. The making up andfinishing of new fabrics and new or untried methods are problems thatoften dismay even the most experienced dressmaker. PATTERNS [Sidenote: Selection of Patterns] The makers of good and reliable patterns are many. Always buy patternsof firms that make proportion of figure as well as fashion a study. These patterns state length of skirt, waist and hip measure and quantityof material required in all widths. Buy a skirt pattern with correct hipsize, as it is much more difficult to change this than to alter thedimensions of a waist. Adjust the pattern to the figure for which thegarment is to be cut and see that it is right in all of its proportions. Always follow the notches indicated in the seams of the pattern, andthus avoid putting wrong pieces together. Be sure that the pattern isplaced correctly upon the material with the _straight grain_ or warpthreads of the goods running directly on a line with the _straightperforations_ indicated in the pattern. Lay the entire pattern upon thecloth. This gives an idea just where every piece is to come out. [Sidenote: What the Pattern Gives] All patterns give one-half of the bodice and the skirt, from center ofback to center of front. The plain waist pattern consists of back, curved side piece, under arm piece (sometimes these two pieces are inone) front, upper and under sleeve, collar or neck band. Some patternsallow for seams--others do not. Skirt patterns give only one-half of thefront gore. The _seam_ edges of front gore are marked by _one_ notchnear the waist line. The front or straight edge of the _first_ side gorehas one notch, and two on the back edge of side gore. All the gores maybe distinguished from the edges of the back gores by the lesser numberof notches. This is true of all skirt patterns. If the patterns arestudied carefully, all skirt cutting becomes very easy. The object of goring a garment is to take out unnecessary fullness atthe top; reducing the weight, making the garment less clumsy, and givinga nicety of finish which could not be done in heavy material if all thegoods were left to fit into a band. Skirts may be lined or unlined, gored or full. SEVEN-GORED SKIRT The style may vary with the fashion, but a well-fitting skirt shouldhang even around the bottom edge, should fit easily around the hipswithout being strained or defining the figure too closely, or "ride up"when sitting, should flare slightly from hips to the bottom of theskirt, should not fall in between the feet, the back should fall wellbehind the figure. For heavy goods, as little material as possibleconsistent with the prevailing style should be used. PLAN OF SKIRT MAKING Shortening or lengthening of pattern if necessary. Placing of goods. Pinning on of pattern so there is no waste. Cutting. Removing and care of patterns. Pinning, basting, or tacking of skirt to lining. Joining of seams, fitting. Stitching. Pressing. Finishing of seams and placket hole. Making and putting on waist-band. Marking length and finishing the bottom. Fastenings, loops, braids, hooks and eyes. [Sidenote: Lengthening or Shortening Patterns] To lengthen or shorten a skirt pattern, measure the figure and regulatethe length of the patterns by making a fold in each gore two-thirds ofthe way from the top of the pattern if too long. This is for thesimplest skirt pattern. The shape of the skirt may require two folds, one two-thirds from the top and a small fold near the bottom to preservethe outline. If too short pin the pattern on the material, cut around the top ofgore and on each side two-thirds of the distance from the top of gore. Unpin and draw the pattern down to the bottom and cut the requiredlength. Except for wash material, do not turn a gored skirt up at thebottom to form a wide hem, as the fullness made by turning is hard todispose of neatly and the right curve at the bottom of the skirt may belost. Another way to lengthen the pattern is to cut it in two, two-thirds thedistance from the top. See that all pleats or tucks are exactly the samewidth and at the exact distance from the top or bottom of the gore, alsothat all seams are of the right length. A shorter skirt must beproportionately narrower. [Sidenote: Testing Patterns] It is well to test the skirt and waist patterns by using inexpensivematerials, such as calico, gingham, or cheap lining. Cut, baste, fit, and make this as carefully as if it were the best cloth or silk. If theskirt and waist are satisfactory, the pattern will do duty for severalseasons. The plain waist pattern is the foundation for _any_ waist andmany changes can be made easily with a well-fitting skirt and plainwaist pattern as a basis. [Sidenote: Cloth Patterns] As paper patterns soon wear out, after a waist and skirt have beenperfectly fitted, it is a good plan to cut an exact pattern of cambric, both skirt and waist, tracing seams and notching the parts. This willenable the home dressmaker to cut and make all ordinary dresses withlittle trouble and with but one trying on. It is always well to try ononce, as materials differ in texture and a slight change may benecessary. [Illustration: PLACING PATTERNS At the left, on plain or symmetrical designs; at the right, on figuredor napped goods. _a_--Half of front gore; _b_--Second gore; _c_--Thirdgore; _d_--Back gore; _e_--Front waist; _f_--Under arm piece; _g_--Sideback; _h_--Back; _i_--Outside sleeve; _j_--Under sleeve; _c'd'_--Piecing of gores _c, d_. ] [Sidenote: Placing Patterns] If the material is plain, has no nap, or if the design is perfectlysymmetrical, the gores may be alternated, the top of one gore comingopposite the bottom of the next. The half pattern of the front gore isalways laid on a _lengthwise fold_ of the goods. If the goods is wide, the other gores may be cut double with the cloth folded lengthwise. Withnarrow goods, the cloth may be folded end to end after the middle gorehas been cut out, and the other gores cut double. Care should be takenthat the line of holes in the middle of the gores runs exactly in a linewith the warp of the material, i. E. , parallel to the selvage. If the goods has a figure, the design should run upwards. Any nap shouldrun downward, except with velvet or velveteen, in which it should runupwards. With such goods, the gores if cut double must be placed on alengthwise fold, with the lengths running the same way. If the goods isnarrow, the gores may have to be cut single, reversing the pattern(turning it over) so that both pieces may not be for the same side. [Sidenote: Pinning Patterns] Pin the middle of the pattern to the goods and smooth towards each end, pinning securely at top and bottom. Avoid too many pins and pincarefully, otherwise the pattern will be displaced. [Sidenote: Cutting Out] After the pattern is securely pinned, cut out the gores, using long, sharp shears. Care should be taken not to lift the material from thetable, not to have jagged, uneven edges, as both time and material willbe wasted in straightening them. Open the shears as wide as possible, taking a long sweep of the material, and do not allow the points of theshears to come together. Mark all notches with basting thread, tailor'schalk, or notch the goods if it does not ravel. The back gores should be cut in the same way. They are usually widerthan the front gores and may require piecing, which should be done alongthe warp threads. Now remove the pattern, pin carefully all pieces together and fold aslittle as possible. The trinity--_pin_, _baste_, _press_--should bewritten in large letters in every sewing room, for much of the beauty ofthe gown depends upon these three. [Sidenote: Joining the Skirt] To join the skirt, pin the side gores to the front gores, beginning atthe top, with pins running across the seams, then begin at the top ofthe skirt and baste downward, allowing all unevenness to come out at thebottom. Baste straight and evenly, taking one stitch at a time. Severalstitches should never be taken at once on thick or piled goods, as theside next to the sewer is apt to be fuller in that case. When all seamsare basted, try on the skirt and make all changes necessary beforestitching. Both the outside skirt and any under or "drop" skirt shouldbe fitted as carefully as a waist. [Sidenote: Lined Skirt] If the skirt is to be lined the lining should be made and fitted first, then ripped and the outside carefully basted on the lining, being wellstretched over the lining, care being taken to have the warp of theoutside and the lining run the same way. This will prevent the liningfrom drawing the goods. [Sidenote: Stitching Skirts] A stitch of medium length should be used on all seams whether whitegoods or cloth. If the stitch is too long, the seam will "gap" and willshow the thread; if too short, the seam is apt to draw. The line ofstitching must be absolutely parallel inside or outside of the bastingor the curve will be ruined. Use silk or the best cotton for stitchingskirts and be sure that the needle is not too coarse. [Sidenote: Finishing Seams] After stitching, all bastings along the seams should be taken out bycutting the thread in several places. Never pull a basting the length ofthe skirt. The seams should be opened and pressed according todirections. The seams may be finished with a taffeta binding, overcast, stitched flat or notched, as the case demands. [Sidenote: Stiffening] If stiffening is used at the bottom of a lined skirt it should be fittedto each lining gore separately and securely stitched. A light weightcanvas should be stitched to a heavy cloth skirt at the bottom, ifseveral rows of stitching or braid are to finish the bottom of theskirt. [Sidenote: Placket] The placket may be finished before the two back gores are pinned to thefront, if preferred. If done before joining the gores the placket can bepressed better and the front is not so liable to be crushed. On the leftside of the skirt sew an underlap of sufficient length to extend wellbelow the end of the opening. Face the right side of the opening with apiece of the goods, or tape not too wide, hem or cat-stitch to theskirt, and finish with hooks and eyes, loops, or any fastening that willsecure the placket. [Sidenote: Putting on Band] The skirt is now ready for the band, which should be narrow. Always cutparallel with the selvage and the length of the underlap longer than thewaist measure, allowing for turning at the ends. The band should neverbe thick and clumsy and not too tight. Try on the skirt and fit the bandcarefully, marking the seam with pins, a line of basting, or chalk. Holdthe skirt easy on the band and baste with small stitches, then stitch onthe machine. If the skirt is too tight around the hips the plaits willfall apart at the back. If the skirt is stretched on the band the seamswill not fall in a straight line. After the band is securely stitchedand finished with hooks and eyes adjust the length by turning under atthe bottom and pinning, after which baste all around and try on again tomake sure that the length is correct. [Sidenote: Finishing the Bottom] A gored outside garment should be finished with a true bias or a fittedfacing, carefully stitched on. It is possible to finish the bottom of asimple house dress or thin skirt with a hem if the fullness made byturning is disposed of in gathers or fine pleats. A bias facing, however, is always preferable. If of heavy or lined goods the finishshould be velveteen or braid the same color as the skirt. These bindingscome in different widths and grades. Braids should always be shrunken bywetting and drying thoroughly; one wetting is not enough. Velveteenshould be applied loosely, so as not to shrink or draw after it becomesdamp on the skirt. [Sidenote: Applying Velveteen Binding] The right side of the velveteen should be carefully basted with small, even stitches to the edge of the facing. It may be hemmed to the facingor machine stitched just inside the basting, which need not be removed. It is then turned, allowing a very narrow portion to show below theedge, and basted with close stitches, pressed, hemmed down to the facingby hand, or cat stitched without turning the edge. Be careful not to letthe stitches show on the right side, nor let the binding twist orpucker. The joining of the velveteen should be near the seam in theback. Another method is to cut off the bottom edge of the skirt a quarter ofan inch from the turning line; apply the wrong side of the velveteen tothe right side of the skirt, baste carefully close to the edge andstitch on the machine through velveteen, cloth, and lining (or facing)just inside the basting which is left in. The bottom of the raw edge isturned up, basted close to the edge allowing the velveteen to show avery little. The upper edge of the velveteen is secured as before byturning and hemming or catstitched without turning. The illustrationshows this method of applying the velveteen which is first stitched tothe lining and turned with the edge. This makes a firm, rather stifffinish. [Sidenote: Braid] Braid is stitched on to the bottom of a skirt with a narrow edgeshowing, or it may be applied like the velveteen, with a doubled edge atthe bottom. The doubled edge will wear better. [Sidenote: Finish of Wash Skirts] Skirts that are to be washed and therefore which are very likely toshrink must be finished at the bottom with a wide hem--at least sixinches--the fullness made by turning being disposed of carefully inpleats or gathers. [Illustration: APPLYING VELVETEEN BINDING] If desired, the bias seam down the back of the skirt may have a narrowwoven tape or selvage of thin goods stitched in with the seam. Thisstrengthens the seam and prevents dragging. The skirt when finishedshould always be longer in front than in the back. All cloth dresses demand every detail of finish to make them completeand able to stand hard usage, but simple house dresses and thin summerdresses do not require such careful finish. SHIRT WAISTS [Sidenote: Trace Seams] In planning a waist the same rules should be observed in placingpatterns, etc. , as described for skirts, except that the lines and seamsshould be traced with a tracing wheel or marked carefully. In making awaist of any kind care must be taken to cut all the pieces the properway of the material. [Sidenote: Baste Lavishly] The difficulty of putting garments together after they have been cutproperly is due to undue haste, lack of care in details and insufficientpressing. The apparently simple act of basting is really of primalimportance, particularly in the making of a waist. One need never beafraid of basting too much or too carefully. Economize cloth and time incutting, but use basting lavishly. [Sidenote: Altering Waist Patterns] The waist pattern may be made shorter by laying folds across both backand front. The fold across the back should be two inches above the waistline and across the front two inches below the arm's eye (in the back). Securely pin or baste the folds in the pattern. If the pattern is ofnearly the correct size it may be only necessary to make the waistshorter and smaller. The neck and arm's eye will seldom need altering. The sleeves may be shortened in the same way by laying folds in thepattern, above and below the elbow. PLAN FOR MAKING A SHIRT WAIST After the waist is cut, remove and care for the patterns. Make the sleeves, cuffs and collar band first. Make box plait on right or left side as liked by the wearer and hem on the other side or face. Baste shoulders and under-arm seams. Try on the waist, making all changes necessary by enlarging or taking up seams. Pin for neck band and mark for seams. Fit sleeves and mark places for seams. Arrange fullness and place tape at back of waist line. [Sidenote: Making Plain Sleeve] If the pattern is for a plain, one-seam sleeve with the cuff opening atthe end of the seam, hem each side of the opening one or two inches fromthe bottom, gather the bottom between the notches, lay the gathers, baste the right side of the sleeve band or cuff to the wrong side of thesleeve, stitch and _press_, fold in a hem on all edges of the cuff, foldthe cuff over on the wrong side of the sleeve, baste, oversew the endsof the cuff, _press_ and stitch the cuff close to all edges. After thusattaching the cuff, baste and stitch the long seam of the sleeve andgather at the top between notches. The cuff is usually cut in thedirection of the warp of the goods. The sleeve described is the simplest that can be made. If the sleeve isto open at the back and finished with a tape, with a placket, strap orfancy lap, the seam in the sleeve is stitched first and the cuffafterward adjusted. [Illustration: PLAIN SLEEVE WITH CUFF, SHOWING GENERAL METHODS OF SEWINGON BANDS] The box plait is made if desired and the under arm and shoulder seamsbasted when the shirt waist is ready to try on. Make any change in theseams necessary. The neck band is put on in the same way as the cuffs, sleeves sewed in, fullness arranged at the back and a tape placed at thewaist line. Three hooks or other fastenings should always be placed atthe back to attach to corresponding fastenings in the skirt band. Thebottom edge of the waist may be finished by overcasting. [Sidenote: Bottom Finish] If it is desired to have the fullness cut away at the waist line infront, determine the length, allowing sufficient for a blouse, gatherthe waist at the bottom and sew the fullness on to a band. Sometimesthis band is carried entirely around the waist. [Sidenote: Fit of Collar] The fit of the collar or neck band is very important in any kind of awaist. Both the front and the back may be cut higher than the pattern, as it is easy to cut off in adjusting and more goods cannot be added. To the unskilled the simplest garment is sufficiently difficult. It iswiser to make two or three perfectly plain garments before attempting tomake an elaborate one. After the pattern has been tested, fitted and all necessary changesmade, cut a pattern from the fitted waist of cambric or cheap _new_muslin and mark or trace all seams. (Never use old, worn-out sheets fromwhich to cut a pattern. ) After this permanent pattern has been made, donot change a single line. [Sidenote: Tucked Waist] [Sidenote: Full Busted Waist] If a plaited or tucked waist is to be made, all plaiting and tuckingshould be done first, after which the same order of making is to befollowed for a plain waist. No waist should draw or strain across thebust. This is especially important in tucked or pleated waists. To guardagainst this tendency, a graduated tuck can be pinned on either side ofthe front, beginning with nothing at the shoulders and widening at thewaist line. This is done before the pattern is cut and will allow forespecially full bust. The fold should be _on a thread_ of the goods. LINED WAISTS The plain, closely fitted, lined waist, with the curved back and sideforms is the most difficult to make and requires the greatest nicety inhandling from beginning to finish. [Illustration: TYPICAL BODICE PATTERNS (_a_) Front. (_b_) Under Arm Piece. (_c_) Side of Back. (_d_) Back. (_e_) Collar. (_f_) Outside Sleeve. (_g_) Inside Sleeve. ] The pattern for a bodice of this kind should be of such a shape that ineach part the woof threads will go as straight around the waist aspossible. This makes the warp threads perpendicular and will give almosta perfect bias on the current seams in the back. Do _not_ cut the sideforms out of _any_ piece that is big enough, without regard to the warpand woof threads. If this is done, the threads in each will rundifferently and all ways but the right one. In a well-designed patternthe back forms should be nearly as wide at the arm's eye as they are atthe waist line. The swell of bust and shoulders should be accommodatedby the back and front forms. When material is to be cut on the bias be careful to have a _true_ bias(the diagonal of a square) around the waist and up the front and backseams. PLAN FOR MAKING FITTED, LINED WAIST. Pin pattern to lining, cut out trace seams. Baste all seams on traced lines. Try on lining. Make changes. Rip lining, baste on outside and cut by fitted lining. Baste seams and try on. Make changes if necessary. Mark the turn for hem down the front, face and mark for fastenings. Stitch and finish seams. Put on featherbone. Put on collar; sew in sleeves. Finish. [Sidenote: Finish Lining First] In making a lined waist, the lining is cut, basted, and fitted beforethe outside is cut. After fitting, the lining is ripped apart and theoutside cut by it. For all firm, heavy materials the lining should beslightly fuller than the outside, that is, the dress goods should bewell stretched over the lining, just as in a lined skirt, and bastedclosely and evenly, the warp and the woof threads of the outside andlining corresponding. In laying the pattern for cutting the lining, just as much attentionshould be paid to the direction of the threads as in cutting a stripedor figured goods. [Sidenote: Marking Seams] All seams should be traced on the lining with the tracing wheel, with aslow backward and forward movement, making the perforations clear anddistinct. Soft spongy goods that cannot be traced may be marked with aline of basting, tailor's chalk or by taking stitches with a pin alongthe line to be marked and twisting them in the goods. This will makeholes that can be seen, but the twisting does not harm the goods. Alwaystrace or mark the waist line, as this is the starting point from whichto pin or baste. Bodice seams should never be begun at the top orbottom, but at the marks or notches that show the waist line, workingtowards the top and bottom. After the lining is cut out, the seams should be basted exactly alongthe traced lines, with seams out, when it is ready to be tried on. [Sidenote: Making Changes in Straight Seams] If the pattern has been cut or drafted by the correct bust measure, theback seams should never be changed. If possible, make all changesrequired by letting out or taking in on the straight under-arm seams, leaving the curved ones and the darts untouched. [Sidenote: Pinning and Basting] Pins should be used plentifully while the fitting is being done, butthey should be replaced with regular basting as soon as they areremoved. Do not be afraid of taking up fullness in the lining by dartscrosswise at the top of the corset or where the fullness naturally fallsin front or back. Such darts should be basted, stitched and pressedflat. If the lining is too short, it may be lengthened by letting outthe shoulder seams. [Sidenote: Outside Cut by Lining] After the lining is fitted, it is ripped apart, the outside cut, bastedto it and the seams are basted, beginning at the waist line. Never use along thread in basting and always use short, even stitches, especiallywhere any curved seams are to be stitched on the machine. This rule mustbe followed invariably if puckering is to be avoided. [Illustration: WAIST LINING BASTED, SEAMS OUT] [Sidenote: Shoulder Seams] The pattern at the shoulder seams should be shorter in front than at theback. In joining this seam, pin the two portions so that the ends of theseam meet exactly at the neck and arm's eye. In basting, stretch thefront piece to fit the back, holding it in or puckering it if need be. Pressing will banish the pucker and give an easy seam that will hug thecurve of the shoulder, as in a man's coat. [Sidenote: Fitting] When the waist is on the figure, pull it well down to the waist line, pin the front linings together beginning with the neck, then lift thewaist a little in front to give fullness and pin to the waist line. Markfor the hem down the front, finish the edge with a well-fitted facingunder which is a thin bias strip of canvas interlining for buttons orhooks and eyes. Marks showing the position of fastenings should be madeat this time. [Sidenote: Fitting of Neck and Sleeves] The neck and arm's eye should be fitted by making slashes in thecurve--never cut around the curve. For the collar or neck band have atrue bias of thin canvas or crinoline and draw it around the neck andpin with the ends _out_, towards the worker. (Never lap any edges ofwaist, belt or collar when fitting. ) Mark on the waist where the loweredge of the neck band touches. Draw the sleeve on the arm, pin and markwhere it sets right, seeing that the elbow fullness is in the rightplace and that it does not twist at the hand. As in the lining, all changes necessary in fitting should, if possible, be made in the straight seams, as it is difficult to preserve the properlines of the curved ones. The shoulder seams should be the last one tobe basted. After all faults are remedied, the seams are carefully stitched alongthe line or basting, the bastings removed, the seams pressed andfinished. The last seam to be stitched securely should be the one at theshoulder. By leaving this open, all fullness can be smoothed upwards andany trimming can be let into the seam. [Illustration: BACK OF WAIST, WELL MATCHED] [Sidenote: Boning] Sew in featherbone by cat stitching to the seam, first finishing theends by button-holing. All seams should be stretched well when sewing onbones of any kind. Curved seams should be notched every one or two inches at the curve andbound or overcast. This allows them to lie flat. [Sidenote: Draped Waist] In a draped waist the lining is made separate and not stitched into anyseam of the outside except at the shoulder. In fitting the outside theback is pinned on to the lining firmly, then the front and finally atthe underarm seams. The seams are then basted, the waist tried on again, alterations made, if necessary, seams stitched and the bottom finishedwith the lining, as desired. Three eyes or other fastenings should always be sewed at the seams inthe waist line at the back to secure the skirt to the waist, thuspreventing it from sinking below the waist line. [Sidenote: Finish of Bottom of Waist] The finish of the lower edge of the waist is often a problem. If thewaist is to be worn under the skirt, just how to finish or whether tofinish it at all is a question. The first step is to trim the edgesevenly. A line of stitching and simple overcast will show less through aclose-fitting skirt of light weight material. When binding is used, itshould lie perfectly flat, twice stitched and pressed well. If the waist is to be worn outside the skirt, a narrow bias strip ofcanvas should be basted on the wrong side, the waist turned up over thisas directed for sleeve and collar finish. Over this a bias facing ofsilk may be hemmed or cat-stitched. [Sidenote: Fitting Irregularity of Figure] In spite of careful measuring and all care in cutting, the waist may notfit, owing to some deformity or peculiarity of the figure. Such figuresrequire especially careful fitting and the hollow place should be filledout with wadding. This needs to be done with the greatest care andnicety. [Illustration: MAKING BIAS STRIPS FOR FACINGS] Avoid too frequent fittings. The bias portions of the bodice are liableto stretch out of shape and too much handling of the waist takes awaythe freshness. This is one reason why it is advisable to make thesleeves and collar first in order that the whole waist may be fitted atonce and all alterations made to fit both sides. A perfect figure is theexception rather than the rule and the side that is not developed shouldbe well fitted, whether sleeve or bodice. COAT OR TIGHT FITTING SLEEVES [Sidenote: Altering Patterns] If it is necessary to lengthen the sleeve, say two inches, cut thepattern at right angles to the lines indicated by the dots, above andbelow the elbow. The slashing should be done exactly at the samedistance apart in the upper and under portions of the sleeve in order toretain the proper shape and size of the top and bottom. Separate theparts, allowing one inch above and one inch below the elbow. To shorten the sleeve, lap the slashed part or lay a fold in the patterninstead of slashing. In either case, care should be taken that the foldor lap is of even width all the way across, so that the original shapeof the sleeve will not be lost. [Sidenote: Placing of Patterns] Too much care cannot be taken in arranging the pattern of the sleeveaccording to the thread of the goods. Especially is this the case in thetwo-piece or coat sleeve. Generally the top part of the outside seam andthe lower part of the same side should be placed at the edge or fold ofthe goods, so that the two run in the same straight line. In all cases, the foundation sleeve or lining should be cut and fitted before theouter portion is adjusted. Ample time should be given to the fitting andbasting of the sleeve. The "set" of the sleeve is very oftenunsatisfactory because the cutting and original basting was done in acareless manner. Remember that greater care is required in sleeve makingthan in any part of the garment. Each sleeve is complete in itself andone must not deviate from the other in size, arrangement or ornament, or general appearance. They should be cut, basted and fitted alike andif the arms differ in size or length the sleeves must be so adjusted asto conceal the inequality. The sleeves should be made at the same time and before the cuffs, thenthe cuffs, puffs, or whatever special trimming is to be applied to themshould be put on both sleeves at the same time. If the second sleeve isnot made or trimmed until after the first is finished, it will be muchmore difficult to secure exactly the same effect. If it is impossible tocomplete both sleeves at one time, make the sleeves one day and thecuffs or trimming the next day. In making the coat sleeves the general methods are the same, but eachseason brings out new styles which the maker will have to understandbefore proper making and finishing can be acquired. Always master thesimple and standard patterns and the minor changes dictated byfashion--new fancies and effects--will not be difficult to acquire aftera little experience has been gained. The lining for both sleeves should be fitted and the outside cut bythem. [Sidenote: Joining the Parts] After economical cutting, trace the seams carefully, and baste theoutside to the lining, basting both uppers before the under sections. Join the under and upper parts by pinning and basting, the outside seamfirst, beginning in the middle of the sleeve and working toward eachend. The outside seams should be begun at the notch at the elbow, working toward each end. Where the sleeve calls for gathering thefullness should be distributed between the notches and the two portionsof the sleeve should be secured at this point, before or after bastingthe upper or lower portions of each sleeve. [Illustration: FINISHING OF SEAMS Notched at Curves and Bound or Overcast. ] Stitch the seams just outside the basting, then remove the line ofbasting along the seam and press. Trim off all rough edges. The insideseam is opened and notched at the bend of the elbow and an inch or twoabove and below and bound with silk binding ribbon or evenly overcastwith twist or mercerized cotton. [Sidenote: Adding Cuffs] If an elaborate cuff or trimming is to be added to the sleeve, whetherfull or plain, it should be made separately and blind stitched to thefaced sleeve. In case the sleeve is gathered the fullness can be putinto a narrow band, the exact size of the cuff, the cuff then sewed onthe band. [Sidenote: Putting in Sleeves] In putting the sleeve in the armhole, be sure that both seams are at thesame point, that both have the same amount of fullness at the top, andthat the plaits or gathers are equally distributed from front to back. The sleeve should be held next to the worker and should lie easy fromseam to seam at the under arm. Baste with close, even stitches or backstitch with coarse cotton or twist the same color as the waist. Stitchin the sleeves on this line of basting, keeping the armholes curvedwhile the stitching is being done. Trim off edges and finish withbinding or close overcasting. The most careful binding is clumsycompared to the overcast finish. Turn the seam toward the shoulder andhem to the lining over the shoulders. This will do away with thestand-up look that sleeves sometimes have. [Sidenote: Finish at Wrist] For the sleeve finished plainly around the wrist, a piece of biascrinoline should be fitted at the hand. To do this, turn the sleeve_right_ side out and slip the crinoline in the sleeve over the left handand adjust by moving the fingers until the crinoline shapes itself tothe sleeve perfectly, then pin and baste at the top and bottom. In thisway the crinoline will be neither too short nor too loose and allwrinkling will be prevented. Turn the sleeve inside out and cut off thecrinoline one-fourth of an inch from the edge, keeping a perfectly trueedge, turn the sleeve over the crinoline, baste the outside part of thesleeve and cat-stitch to the crinoline, then cat-stitch the crinoline tothe lining. Remove the lower basting and press. A bias strip of silksufficiently wide to cover the crinoline is hemmed at the lower edge andto the sleeve lining just above the interlining. Whenever it is possibleto do so use the cat-stitch. It is a neat finish, easily and quicklydone, takes less time than hemming, besides being less bulky. If the bottom of a coat sleeve is to be left open at the back orslashed, an interfacing of light weight canvas will be necessary. Turnthe outside portion of the sleeve over the canvas, care being taken toturn all corners at the slash, and curves, press and stitch, face afterthe stitching is done. It may be stitched better if the back seam isleft open. [Sidenote: Pressing Sleeves] In the coat sleeve both seams are curved and should be pressed on acurved board. A rocking chair inverted, with the rocker covered withsoft cloth, makes a good board on which to press the curved seams of asleeve. COLLARS The shaped, standing collar is worn with waists of all kinds and isalways a popular neck finish. In a close-fitting collar made of heavymaterial an interlining of canvas or crinoline is necessary. Theinterlining should be cut one-fourth of an inch smaller all around ifthe collar is to be blind stitched to the waist. If it is to be sewedto the neck, in a seam, the lining should be the same size as the collarat the neck. Baste this interlining to the collar material, cut out thecorners of the material, and hem the extended portion to theinterlining. The interlining should always be cut bias, whether theoutside is bias or straight. Hem the collar lining to the collar. [Sidenote: Putting on Collars] To sew the collar to the neck of the garment, first pin, beginning atthe back seam and baste towards the end. The lining may be left free atthe lower edge and felled over the neck edge after the collar has beenstitched to the garment, or the lining may be stitched in the seam, theseam pressed open and a bias facing of silk or light weight materialhemmed on over the seam. The beauty of collars and cuffs depends largely upon the exact turningof corners and finish of ends. These should never be left bulky orclumsy. If preferred, the lining and outside of collar may be seamed andturned. Place the right sides of outside and lining together, theinterlining next to the lining, stitch around both ends and top ofcollar, then turn and press. These rules may be followed in makingsailor or any lined collars. Collars made of all over embroidery shouldbe faced with tape on the wrong side before the trimming is applied tocover the edge of ruffle or lace. The plain or shirt waist pattern will do duty for many garments--corsetcover, night dress, dressing jacket, etc. The upper part of the waistwill answer for yoke pattern of different shapes. SEAMLESS YOKES [Sidenote: Pattern for Yoke] To make a pattern for a seamless yoke baste together the shoulder seamsof the fitted waist pattern, place the upper part of the pattern oncambric or stiff paper, with the front of waist on straight edge or foldof paper, trace the shape of the neck yoke any desired depth below theneck line. The lower edge can be cut in any shape, the neck either highor low, round or square. This perfectly fitted yoke pattern can be usedfor a foundation for lace, velvet, ribbon, net, or any thin material. The circular yoke made of lace and ribbon or bias strips can be made toopen in front or back. The strips of inserting and ribbon should bebasted on the paper pattern and joined by fancy stitches or over sewed. The parts next the neck will need to be held fuller than the outsidecurve of the inserting. All yokes to be worn under the gown should be made on a well-fittedlining. Never trust to pinning, basting, or hooking the yoke to thewaist. The finish of collar, cuffs, girdle and placket are hallmarks of gooddressmaking. Well finished ends and corners, the careful adjustment offastenings, shields carefully fitted to the arm's eye and caughtsmoothly to the lining--all these are little things that count for morethan money spent in expensive ornament. PRESSING [Sidenote: Pressing Board] The success of the finish of every garment depends upon the pressing, whether the material be heavy or light, cotton or wool. Garments arealways pressed on the wrong side, when being made. The iron used shouldneither be too hot nor too heavy and the work should be done on aperfectly smooth, well-covered board. For pressing black or dark cloth, the cover of the board should be dark and free from lint, while aperfectly clean light cover should be substituted when white or lightgoods are to be pressed. [Sidenote: Placing the Iron] The whole face of an iron should never be put down on a seam or any partof a waist, but the side or point should be used, care being taken _not_to stretch a curved seam. A small rolling pin, a broom stick, a chairrocker, or any rounded stick well covered can be used for pressingcurved seams or sleeves. This lessens the danger of marking the seams onthe right side. These are only makeshifts; a regular half round sleevebound should be obtained if much work is to be done. In pressing, the iron should never be shoved or pushed, as in ironing. Only heavy materials require great strength. It is possible to press toomuch as well as too little. Whatever the material, pressing is work thatrequires to be done carefully and slowly. Allow the iron to touch onlythe center of the seam, the edges of the seam will not then be outlinedupon the goods. Piled goods require infinite care. Uncut velvet, crape, etc. , should _never_ be pressed with the iron flat on the seam. The seamshould be opened carefully and over the rounded surface of the board, covered with very soft cotton flannel into which the pile can sinkwithout being flattened. Run the iron with the pile, or the iron may beplaced on the side or flat end and the seams drawn slowly along the edgeof the iron the same way the pile runs--only the edge of the irontouching the edge of the seam. Corded seams should be pressed in thesame way to avoid flattening the cord. [Sidenote: Wet Pressing] Very heavy cloths and chinchilla should have a small stream of watercarried along the seam, followed by the iron; or the seam may bedampened by a soft cloth--very wet. This is the "wet pressing" used bytailors, which is adapted to the requirements of materials used by them, such as serge, tweeds, etc. Pressing on the right side under a dampcloth is apt to give marks if the cloth gets too dry or if the iron istoo hot, but is necessary on finished wool garments. Silk scorches easily and should be pressed very carefully with a cooliron, light in weight. Some light colors fade or change in pressing. Try a piece of the goodsbefore pressing the garment. If the color does not come back when coldor when exposed to the light, do not use a hot iron on the garment. CONSTRUCTION AND ORNAMENT FOR DRESS [Sidenote: Principles of Ornament] Many of the principles governing architecture and art apply equally aswell to art in dress. Both in architecture and dress, constructionshould be decorated--decoration should never be purposely constructed. It is by the ornament of a building that one can judge more truly of thecreative power which the artist has brought to bear upon his work. Thegeneral proportion may be good, the mouldings accurate, but the instantornament is attempted, the architect or the dressmaker reveals how muchof an artist he is. To put ornament in the right place--where it servesa purpose--is indeed difficult; to render that ornament at the same timean added beauty and an expression of the desired unity is far moredifficult. [Sidenote: Purpose of Ornament] All decoration should be planned to enrich--not to assert. All jewelryor ornament should form a note in the general harmony of color--adecorative touch to add beauty and to be subordinated to the objectdecorated. It should serve the purpose of seeming to strengthen thewhole or to protect the parts receiving most wear. Ornament iseverywhere attempted. We see ornament at every turn--good and badalike--in our homes, on clothes, linen, and kitchen utensils. Carlyletells us that "The first want of barbarous man is decoration. " We haveno record of when this need was felt first. Primitive man aftersupplying his actual needs, seemed to develop a longing for thebeautiful, so he ornamented his own body, scratched rude patterns on histools and weapons and gradually developed the artistic sense. This loveof ornament dates back to the beginnings of the human race and there areno records of a race or a period devoid of it. [Sidenote: Errors in Ornamentation] We see gowns totally lacking in good results because too much has beenattempted. The wearer has not considered the effect as a whole, but hasgratified her liking for a multiplicity of ornaments and color which, perhaps would be good in themselves, if applied separately, but whichbecomes an incongruous mixture when brought together on one garment. Garments which seem to have required great effort in the making andwhich appear complex in construction should be avoided, for the effectis not pleasing. The gown should set off the wearer, not the wearer thegown. To avoid committing errors against good taste it is essential first toconsider the use of any garment and see if it answers the purpose forwhich it was designed. If any part appears meaningless, this is a sureindication that it is wanting in grace and beauty. The ornament shouldharmonize with the materials, use, and construction of the object towhich it is applied. The color must be massed with effect and detailedwith care. [Sidenote: Embroidery] There can be no ornamentation equal to that which is worked into thematerial, such as embroidery. The design should be appropriate in formand color and always conventional. Flowers are used most frequently forembroidery and passementerie and the simple, single flowers are themost effective, such as the daisy, the wild rose, and the flowers of thelily family. These simple flowers are the best because they radiate froma central point, have strong forms and decided proportions, can be mostfully expressed in a few stitches requiring the fewest shades of color, and are admirably adapted for amateur workers. [Sidenote: Flowers as Ornament] Old Indian stuffs, jewelry, and enamels are rich in suggestions ofconventionalized flowers. The simple, single flowers are repeatedconstantly, the daisy appearing to be the favorite in these beautifulornaments. The most beautiful of all conventional flower work, jewelstudded, is found in samples of work of the fifteenth century. Theysimply suggest the forms of nature. The repetition of the same flower inall its aspects is more pleasing and less tiresome to the eye than avariety of flowers or figures. [Sidenote: Geometrical Designs] We find upon analysis that the simple forms are the basis of alldecorative art work. Geometrical designs and arabesques are the mostdifficult, requiring the most exacting and careful work. Narrow bands, braided, outlined, or chain-stitched in simple designs are effective, easily done, and wear well. Braids and any of these stitches may becombined, making durable and effective trimming for sleeves and neck. These simple designs are also appropriate for children's frocks. TheFrench knots are ornamental and durable. All embroidery andpassementerie should be rich, close, and continuous. It should not becut up into pieces and sewed on where it does not serve, or appear toserve, a purpose. [Illustration: PASSEMENTERIE OF GOOD DESIGN] [Illustration: POOR DESIGN, WEAK CONNECTION] [Sidenote: Passementerie] There is very little passementerie that is at all suitable for formingedges, as it is not sufficiently substantial, but when it can be foundfirm and of the right shade it is one of the most beautiful ornaments toedge neck and sleeves. It may be allowed to extend beyond the dressmaterial, so that the flesh tints may show through the design, thusgradually softening the outline. Often a narrow passementerie can befound with one strong edge and a good border can be made by joining thetwo. This cannot be done where the pattern is united by a band runningthrough the center of the ornament. [Illustration: JOINING NARROW PASSEMENTERIE TO FORM A BORDER] [Sidenote: Bands] A band of velvet or cloth embroidered in outline stitch and French knotsof same shade as the garment is a satisfactory edge. Except for yokes, the knots should always be held together with the outline edge. The rich silk braids and passementeries are made of silk wound or wovenover cotton and should be used only on dresses which are not intendedfor hard wear. Such trimmings are, of course, inappropriate on sergesand homespuns and soon become shabby if given much rough service. [Sidenote: Use of Laces] Laces, like all trimmings, have defined limits within which they shouldbe used, though they are often worn indiscriminately. Machine madelaces, often good in make and design, are now very common, but the bestmachine-made laces are not cheap in price. [Sidenote: Design of Lace] Handsome lace should be applied rather plainly, as the pattern is oftenlost in the gathers. Fine laces are out of harmony with heavy or coarsematerials. When lace is desired for flounces that with running patternswhich neither advance nor retreat, except in the folds which may bemade, will be found most pleasing. Distinct objects, such as baskets, crowns, vases, etc. , which suggest weight, are unsuitable patterns forso light a fabric as lace. [Sidenote: Placing of Decorations] Attention to details is essential in the placing of these decorations, as in the selection or making of them. The worker should take intoconsideration the shape and size of the bands or pieces of trimming andshould note carefully the chief characteristics of the design and aboveall the junction of leaves, flowers, arabesques, especially in thefinishing of the corners of collars and cuffs. [Sidenote: Simplicity and Harmony] Those at all skillful with the use of the needle can attain the mostbeautiful and artistic results if right laws in color and design areadhered to, even by the use of the simplest stitches, for the beauty ofdress lies not so much in the richness and variety of material used asupon simplicity and harmony--a fact too often disregarded. [Sidenote: The Bow] Perhaps no ornament is more abused than the bow. In order not to appearintrusive, ribbons require the most delicate handling. The only excusefor a ribbon as an ornament is when it makes a pretense of tying. Whenused as a sash where folds or gathers are confined, the tone of theribbon should, in general, vary scarcely from that of the dress. [Sidenote: Fitness of Place] Whatever the ornament used, whether embroidered band, a ribbon, a cordthat laces, a diamond pin, or a jeweled buckle, though it may possessgreat intrinsic value and beauty, it cannot be considered of real worthas an ornament unless it fulfills the most important condition--fitnessof place. Although the art of dress admits of innumerable variations, like allother arts it is subject to the three rules of beauty--order, proportionand harmony. Ornaments are appropriate on the hems or edges of garments where itserves the purpose of strengthening and protecting the parts most worn, and not simply where fancy or fashion dictates. [Sidenote: Natural Centers] The natural fastenings and fold centers should be along the axis orcenter of the body. Any jewelry, buckle, brooch, or ornament used tofasten, secure, or strengthen these centers or to hold bands ofembroidery, collar, or folds together should be sufficiently strong toserve the purpose. There must be a reason for position and the purposeof its use must be apparent to satisfy the eye. The eye is unconsciouslyand irresistibly drawn to these natural centers and demands some objectthere on which to rest--some substance from which the fold emanate--somereason for their detention. If this ornament at the throat or waistfastening collar or holding folds by a girdle or clasp is omitted, theeye is disappointed. This does not mean that the ornament, jewel, passementerie, or embroidery should always be placed in the axis orcentral line of the figure--this may be carried too far. Slightirregularities often give an effect to hat or gown that is charming. [Illustration: PASSEMENTERIE COVERING FACING] [Sidenote: Trimming] Remember that trimming is not intended to cover up, but to beautify andstrengthen. When, for economy's sake, it is used to cover worn places orother defects, it must be selected and applied with great care or itwill loudly proclaim its mission. [Sidenote: Unity in Dress] Trimming should mean something--whether jewelry or passementerie. Bandsthat bind nothing, straps, bows, buckles, or pins that confine nothingoffend the taste. A girdle should seem, even if it does not, to beltin fullness; it has no use on a close-fitting, plain waist. No draperiesshould be invisibly held; supply some apparent means of confining thegathers. To preserve the lines of the figure there should be unity inthe dress. A tight-fitting skirt below a gathered waist or a full, gathered skirt below a plain waist gives the appearance of two portionsof the body instead of the oneness desired. The figure should never be cut across, either above or below thewaist-line with contrasting colors, different shades of the same color, or bands of different texture. Below the waist-line the figure shouldsuggest the elements of strength and these horizontal bands cut thelines of the figure at an angle of opposition, destroying the rhythm andgrace of the lines. Much experience is required in placing horizontal lines of ornament on askirt effectively. In general, rows of tucks or ornament should diminishin width from the bottom towards the top. The plain spaces should begreater than those ornamented. When ornament gives absolute evenness ofspace division in skirt or waist the effect is apt to be monotonous andunsatisfactory. The natural places of support for garments are the neck, shoulders andwaist. Ornamentation which emanates from these centers or when used forborders, if appropriate in design, is usually successful. ORNAMENT OF TEXTILES In addition to ornament added to garment, the ornament in the textileitself must be considered. [Sidenote: Appropriate Designs] Textiles may be beautiful in weave, but spoiled by the design. Quite asimportant as intrinsic beauty is appropriateness of pattern. How oftendo we see woven on our curtains, carpets, and garment materials fans, bunches of roses tied with ribbons--bows with long, flutteringends--landscapes, snow scenes, etc. Nothing is beautiful out of itsplace. A fan suggests coolness and grace of motion, but woven in ourtextiles it gives the same impression as a butterfly mounted on apin--something perverted, imprisoned, or robbed of its natural use. Nothing is or ever can be beautiful without use--without harmony. Decorations on textiles are not to tell stories. There is a differencebetween landscape painting and using landscapes as a motive fordecorating textiles or pottery. In one case the aim is to annihilatesurface by producing the impression of distance; in the other, theobject is to glorify the surface only. [Sidenote: Advantage of Plain Material] For the woman of limited income it is wiser to select plain material ofgood texture and weave. Such material is never conspicuous, can be madeover, and is always restful and may be interesting. Any good textilemust impress itself upon the mind by its suggestiveness and beauty ofcolor. There is a difference between what may be called artistic anddecorative embellishment of textiles. Each has its place in the worldof beauty, but one is the poetry, the other the prose of the art. [Sidenote: Stripes] There is a dignity and restfulness in plain material which is neverobtained by varied patterns. When a stripe is used to vary the material, the style of the textile is changed, elongated if the stripe isvertical, and widening if it is horizontal. If the main stripe is cut atright angles with a second stripe, the textile appears more complicatedand repose is lost. The same is true of checks, but no pattern is moredistracting than large plaids, especially when used for waists, becausethe regularity of the design renders very conspicuous any inequalitiesin the shoulders or bust, and the great variety of colors detracts fromthe dignity of the dress. With small checks and narrow, self-coloredstripes the effect is different, causing the texture to appear onlyshaded and not destroying the unity. [Sidenote: Conventionalized Designs] On garment fabrics the ornamentation should be flat, without shadow orrelief. The pattern must enhance and not mar the figure. If flowers, foliage, or other natural objects are used for the designs, they shouldbe conventionalized--not direct copies of nature. A figured textilerequires more careful planning than plain material. It may be beautifulwhen used properly, but it will appear hideous if distorted in themaking. A conventional fleur-de-lis pattern, or a long dash whichappears and disappears when used in long, graceful folds, adds to theapparent height. These same figures wrongly used spread out awkwardly orbecome distorted. [Sidenote: Size of Design] The size of the design should be regulated by the material--smallpatterns being used for close, thick fabrics and larger designs, withmore delicate colors, for thin material of open texture. Thick, heavyfabrics require rich, warm colors and the pattern likewise should berich and decorative. Velvets, velveteens, and heavy cloths for dressesare beautiful in themselves and should not be marred by patterns ortrimmings. Spirals or curved lines running crosswise on textiles distort thenatural curves of the figure by making seeming undulations where noneshould be and accentuating the prominence of hips and bust. Suchpatterns should not be used in folds. COLOR [Sidenote: Texture and Color] Much is to be considered in choosing colors and it is folly to suggest aparticular shade for a person without taking into account texture of thetextile. Though the color may be good, the weave may destroy what mightotherwise have been a success. Not only must color in itself be studied, but quality of color intextiles as well. A shade of red, for example, in dull silk orlusterless material may be most unbecoming for a woman of a certaintype, while it may be worn successfully if made in rich velvet or glossysilk. Some women maintain that they cannot wear green, but nearly all candress becomingly in this color if the shade and texture is selectedcarefully. The same may be said of other colors for the many variationsshould be taken into consideration. The average woman in selecting materials for gowns or house furnishingsis apt to be influenced too much by details, as she would judge themerits of a fine piece of needlework, hence the value of good, broadcolor schemes fails to appeal to her. The chenille curtain, perhaps, suits her because it is full of complex decoration. [Sidenote: Harmony Not Contrast] After having determined the prevailing color of a costume, the detailsshould be in _harmony_, rather than in _contrast_ with it. Differenttones of one color are more satisfactory than striking contrasts, andeven strong patches of light and shade of the same color should beavoided, as well as patches of crude and vivid color. The pleasingcontrasts found in nature cease to be happy when attempted in textiles. Use few colors, avoid bright shades except in small quantities. Allbright colors should be placed near the face, rather than on or near thebottom of skirts or the edge of sleeves. Avoid strong contrasts; thebrighter the color and the greater the contrast with other colors, thelouder and cruder will be the effect. "No color harmony is of a highorder unless it involve indescribable tints. " CHILDREN'S CLOTHES [Sidenote: Infants' Clothing] Plainness, purity, softness of texture rather than elaborate ornamentshould be the main consideration for infants' clothes. The finest andsoftest of French and Scotch flannels, French linen, dimity, nainsook, and India silk are always dainty and they should be made up very simplywith little trimming, but that of the finest. Hems and seams should be small and neatly done with, perhaps, thedaintiest beading inset by hand and feather stitched. Hemstitching isalways beautiful, but makes a weak spot which is apt to give out in theconstant laundering necessary for children's clothes. The skirt and shirt made in one piece, with sleeves to slip into thelittle outside garment, both to open down the back so that all may beslipped on at the same time without worry to either nurse or baby, willbe found a great convenience. [Sidenote: Stockinet Undergarments] Stockinet or webbing, all wool, partly wool, or all cotton, is preferredby many to the plain cloth. The cotton is non-shrinkable, easily made, and finished. This garment fabric has reached such a high degree ofperfection that for infants and children of larger growth nothing bettercan be desired for shirts, skirts, drawers, and tights. It may be had ineither light or heavy weight, is easily laundered and elastic, havingall the qualities desired in undergarments. Garments made of thismaterial in the manner described give perfect freedom for all organs, besides evenness of covering for the body and lightness of weight--allimportant considerations in infants' and children's clothing. There should be the same simplicity in construction and material in thegarments of children of larger growth. The design should be smaller, more realistic and the color brighter than for grown people. [Sidenote: Children's Dresses] For children's dresses, the pretty ginghams in small checks, chambray, dimity, serge, flannels, cashmere are appropriate and serviceable. In making up these simple materials nothing better can be suggested thanthe plain, straight waist, fitting easily, to which a full skirt isfastened. The sleeves may be of any fashion to add variety. Such a frockis simple and dignified and has a certain archaic beauty and quaintnessthat the huge, ugly collars and like ornament can never give. With the plain body the grace of the childish form is not lost. The bodymay be short or long, with the trimming at the bottom or edge of theskirt. The gathers fall in long lines or folds, no element of oppositiondestroying the rhythm and grace of the figure contour, when the trimmingis placed at the bottom of the frock instead of several bands dividingthe skirt. The waist should always be wider in front than in the back. Thediscomfort and injury caused by ill fitting garments, graded accordingto age instead of according to size, thus restricting the expansion ofthe chest and the play of the lungs, cannot be estimated. With the proper kind of frock a child can indulge in any game withoutbecoming in the least disordered. Dresses for little girls may havedrawers made of the same material, thus permitting them the same freedomas the boys. The life of the child is play. Unfortunate is the childwhose clothing is too good to play in. Of course there should be frocksfor gala occasions. Children are sensitive to color and receive muchinnocent enjoyment from being prettily dressed. A child may be madeunhappy and timid by ugly clothes, but plainness need not mean ugliness. There are many artistic and simple patterns now being put on the marketand many of the ready-made frocks found in the best shops aresatisfactory. CARE OF CLOTHING Ruskin says, "Clothes carefully cared for and rightly worn, show abalance of mind and self respect. " [Sidenote: Little Attentions] The freshness of gown or wrap may be preserved by the little attentionsbestowed upon it each time it is worn, which take but a few minutes andmean so much in all departments of dress. By carefully brushing andshaking into folds, removing all spots, hanging right side out, pickingand pulling straight flowers, bows, and ribbons as soon as removed, adding buttons and taking up dropped stitches when needed, --all theselittle attentions if given promptly will keep a wardrobe fresh and ingood order. New braid on the bottom of skirts, sponging and pressing, little alterations and addition of new trimming to collar and cuffs, will help to preserve the original freshness of the gown and cause thewearer to appear well dressed. Waists should be turned wrong side out when removed and allowed to airnear a window. Shields should be cleansed with alcohol and water. Ribbons should be rolled up immediately when taken off and if treated inthis way will last much longer and look much daintier. Clothing if moist and dusty and tossed into a dark corner of a closet ortrunk can never appear fresh again, and will betray the character of thewearer. It is not the wearing of clothes which tells so sadly upon them, but the manner in which they are cared for. A few garments nicely made, well fitted and properly cared for are far preferable to twice thenumber of inferior quality and make. [Sidenote: Ruffled Skirts] Skirts of thin material having ruffles around the bottom should be hungupside down by loops sewed under the ruffles at the seams. By hanging inthe opposite direction from which they fall when worn, ruffles regaintheir freshness. [Sidenote: Packing Away Clothing] All clothing for the season should be put away in perfect order to beready for any sudden emergency which may arise. No clothing of any kindshould be stored for the season without thorough cleaning and repairingwhere necessary. Garments that are outgrown should be disposed of, instead of packing them away. Wool garments should be carefully brushedand hung in the sun to remove and destroy any eggs of moths which may bepresent. They may be hung in tight cotton bags or packed in tight boxeswith all openings posted over as a protection against moths. Tailors'boxes which come flat are not expensive and are useful for this. Theyshould be plainly labeled with their contents. [Sidenote: Folding Garments] To fold, lay all articles on the bed or table and fold on the seams ifpossible. Particular attention should be given to sleeves and collars. Coat lapels should be turned to lie flat, collars turned up, and thecoat folded directly through the center seam. Skirts and coats with bias seams are not improved by hanging as the biasparts are apt to stretch out of shape. [Sidenote: Remove Pins] No clothing should be put away for the night, even, without firstremoving all steel pins, as the least dampness may cause rust spots. [Sidenote: Hangers] Clothes forms and hangers are so inexpensive that every gown and coatshould have its own. Skirts should be hung exactly on the form and nopart of the band should be allowed to sag. If fancy waists are put in drawers or boxes, they should have thesleeves filled with tissue paper and the collars and bows should bepulled straight. CLEANING Large garments require the greatest care in handling and in order to bedone successfully, they should be sent to the professional cleaner. [Sidenote: Fruit and Wine Stains] All stains and spots should be removed as soon as possible. Fruit andwine stains may be removed by stretching the fabric over a vessel andpouring boiling water through the cloth from a height of a foot or two. The water _must_ be boiling. [Sidenote: Ink Stains] Ink stains can be taken out of clothing by dipping the cloth in milk, squeezing the blackened milk into one dish and dipping immediately intoclear milk until the stain has disappeared. Then finish by washing thecloth in warm water and in soapy water to remove the fat in the milk. [Sidenote: Iron Rust] Iron rust may be removed from linen and cotton by using lemon juice andsalt. Wet the spot with the juice of a lemon, cover with salt and lay inthe sun, repeating the operation until the stain is removed, then rinseout the lemon and salt thoroughly. This of course cannot be used oncolored fabrics, as it fades the color. [Sidenote: Grease Spots] Grease is one of the worst foes to garments and the greatest care isneeded to remove such spots from delicate fabrics. If not done at once, the dust and grease together often prove ruinous. When the color andfabric will not be injured by it, warm water and soap is the best agent, otherwise absorbents may be used. French chalk or magnesia powdered, placed upon the spot, and allowed to remain for a time will often absorbthe grease effectually. If the first application is not effective, brushoff, and apply again until the spot disappears. Where water can be usedwithout injuring the cloth, the chalk or magnesia can be made into apaste and spread over the spot. When dry, brush off with a soft brush. In removing fresh grease spots, blotting paper with a warm iron mayoften be used effectively. If the heat changes the color of the cloth, the iron should be held above the goods. [Sidenote: Blood Stains] Blood stains may be removed by making a paste of starch and applying itto the spot. Several applications may be necessary. [Sidenote: Solvents] [Sidenote: Cleaning Garments] [Sidenote: Soap and Ammonia with Gasoline] Only the best and purest benzine, naphtha, gasoline, and turpentineshould be used for cleaning garments. For removing paints from coarsecloth, pure turpentine is useful, while for silks, velvets and woolens, benzine, naphtha and gasoline are to be preferred. The secret of successin the use of any of these cleansing agents lies in immersing thegarments in _large quantities_ of the liquid. Not less than a gallonshould be used for a waist and two gallons will do the work far moresatisfactorily. An effort should be made to remove all the worst spotsbefore immersing the whole garment. Those which have not disappearedshould then be marked with white thread, colored thread may leave amark. It is a good plan to enclose the spot with a line of basting. Soakthe garment for some time in the liquid, then soap all spots thoroughlyand rub gently between the hands until they disappear. Finally wash andrinse the garment in clear liquid and hang in the open air until allodor has passed away. Soap may be used freely with gasoline with goodeffect. Some professional cleaners use a little of the strongest ammoniain their gasoline tanks. The goods should be shaken well and all foldspulled out straight with the threads of the goods. Velveteen, corduroy, and like piled fabrics can be cleaned successfully if not too much worn, but no amount of cleaning will restore the pile that is worn off. If allowed to stand until the impurities have settled and the clearliquid poured into clean bottles, it may be used for a number of times. This should always be done in the open air. Chloroform may be used for cleaning the most delicate silks, though thisis rather expensive. [Sidenote: Absorbing Pad] Whenever any of these liquids are used to remove spots alone, the spotsshould be placed upon a soft pad of several thicknesses of old cloth orblotting paper to absorb the surplus liquid and the spot should berubbed from the outside towards the center. A hole may be cut in verysoft cloth or blotting paper and placed around the spot to absorb thesolvent around the stain and prevent the dark ring being formed. Thecloth should be rubbed lightly and briskly until it is dry. If thefabric is light colored, a sponge or a soft piece of light cloth shouldbe used, while for dark fabrics, the cloth used for rubbing the spotshould also be dark and free from lint. The rubbing should be donelightly so as not to wear or injure the texture of the fabric. Theblotting paper or cloth underneath should be changed frequently untilthe spot has entirely disappeared. [Sidenote: Cleaning Velvet] Velvet hats and bonnets, after all trimming is removed, may be cleanedby repeated dippings in benzine or gasoline. The vessel used should belarge enough to hold a sufficient quantity of the liquid to completelycover the hat. Of course all dust should be carefully brushed off andall folds ripped and loosened before putting the hat into the liquid. The secret of success lies in having the article entirely free from dustand using a large quantity of the benzine or gasoline. [Sidenote: Before Sending to Cleaners] Before sending out garments to be dyed or cleaned, be sure that they arein good condition. All worn places should be mended carefully and allbuttons should be removed. Garments that are ripped should have all cutthreads pulled out and be free from dust. Dust silk fabrics with a pieceof clean flannel and woolen material with a brush or broom. REPAIRING [Sidenote: Economical Mending] Fabrics are so much cheaper and so much easier to obtain that patchinghas almost become one of the lost arts. The twentieth century womanfeels that her time is too valuable to be spent in mending the oldclothes and that she can better afford to buy new. However that may be, no one disputes the utility of mending. Like so many other duties, mending is half done when well begun. A well made garment of goodmaterial should not be discarded when slightly worn, for a patch wellput in or a neat piece of darning detracts in no way from the value of agarment and may even be a work of art. The children's clothesparticularly should be kept in good order, for they are madeuncomfortable by wearing garments that are out of repair, to say nothingof the demoralizing effect upon their characters. [Sidenote: Laundering and Repairs] Laundering is the great ally to tears and not only doubles the size ofthe hole, but pulls the threads apart so that it is impossible to makethe mended place neat and smooth, therefore all clothing should bemended before washing. Stockings and woven underwear are much worn bythe rubbing on the washboard and thin places going into the washingfrequently come out as holes, so that it is true economy of effort andtime to "run" or darn the thin places before they are worn through. Itrequires much less time and the garments last longer. It is a good plan, especially in knees of stockings and knittedunderwear, to baste a piece of fine net over a worn or broken place anddarn over it. (See Darning. ) Thread used for darning should be as nearas possible the size of the threads in the garment. Darning cotton, linen, wool, and silk of all shades can be bought, so that the problemof matching is no longer a difficult one. [Sidenote: Boys' Trowsers] In mending the knees of boys' trousers a round patch should never beused. The seams should be ripped and the piece set in then, if the seamsare pressed well, the patch will scarcely be noticeable. [Sidenote: Sleeves] When bodices are worn under the arm, rip the seams and set in a new"under arm" piece. A good plan for one whose dresses are apt to wearthrough quickly is to have the under arm pieces and the adjacent partsof the front made of two thicknesses of the goods; then, as the outsidewears through, the edges can be hemmed down or taken into the seam. [Sidenote: Table Cloths] When table cloths begin to wear in the middle fold or along the edge ofthe table, a few inches cut off one end and one side of the cloth willchange the fold and the place where it falls over the table and give ita new lease of life. If the hem is turned down once and cat stitched, itwill resemble the selvage more than a twice turned hem. [Sidenote: Lengthening Garments] In repairing or lengthening garments that have become too short, muchcan be done by adding to the bottom of the skirt and sleeves material ofdifferent texture. A cloth or serge skirt may be lengthened by facingwith velvet of the same shade, covering the line of sewing with cord, braid, or passementerie of the same shade or black. There should be anunderfacing of light-weight crinoline to make the bottom of the skirtfirm and to give strength. The same facing and passementerie may be usedat neck and sleeves. [Sidenote: Extension Hem and Tucks] Thin gowns of lawn, dimity, etc. , can be lengthened with a faced orextension hem, the line of sewing to be covered with feather stitch orany of the fancy stitches of white or colored thread. If the lawn ordimity has a colored figure, the embroidery silk or cotton may matchthis. Under skirts and drawers may be lengthened in the same way or rowsof tucks may be added. [Sidenote: Waist Repairing] In waist repairing, the sewing silk should match the material. Set thepatch into the seams when possible and trust to careful pressing. If thematerial begins to wear near the end of the bones, cut off the bones aninch and take in the dart or seam. If the silk wears off around thehooks and eyes, move them along ever so little. Make a virtue of wornout seams by taking them in and covering them with fancy stitching. Ifthe garment is lined, the outside should be carefully basted to thelining before stitching to take in the seam. It has been said that silkwaists are serviceable as long as the upper parts of the sleeves remaingood. If garments have not been well cared for from the first and beyond acertain point, "making over" is poor economy. Never attempt cleaningand making over old clothes unless the material is good enough to makeit worth while to do the work well. [Sidenote: Mending Baskets] The mending basket is an important adjunct of mending and should be wellsupplied with darning cotton of all colors and sizes, good English tape, black and white, of different widths, linen tape, bias tape, differentkinds and sizes of needles, --sewing, darning, shoe, carpet, and tapeneedles. [Sidenote: Use of Tape] For repairing bands and facings, where buttons have been torn off bywringer or iron, and for strengthening weak places, tape is invaluable. It saves the time required to turn in the edges of the cloth and is lessclumsy and bungling. [Sidenote: Use of Judgment in Mending] The mender should use good judgment as to the amount of work to beapplied to each garment. She should substitute the machine needlewhenever possible and not put tiny stitches by hand into half worngarments or in unseen places. Ripped tucks and bands can be sewed in afew minutes on the machine. Serviceable darning can be done on themachine. Before putting away freshly laundered clothes it is a good plan to takeout the clothes already in the drawers and lay the ones washed last onthe bottom, thus all garments will wear alike, each article in itsregular turn. BIBLIOGRAPHY Home and School Sewing, Frances Patton, ($. 60, postage 6c). School Needlework, Olive C. Hapgood, ($. 75, postage 6c). Sewing Course for Schools, Mary Schenck Woolman, ($3. 50, postage 20c). Progressive Lessons in Needlework, Catherine F. Johnson, ($. 90, postage8c). Sewing and Garment Drafting, Margaret L. Blair, ($1. 25, postage 10c). Manual of Exercises in Hand Sewing, Margaret L. Blair, ($1. 25, postage10c). Dressmaking Up to Date, Butterick Pub. Co. , ($. 25, postage 8c). Note: The above books may be borrowed, one at a time, by members of theSchool. Send the postage given with request. They may be purchased ifdesired. TEST QUESTIONS The following questions constitute the "written recitation" which theregular members of the A. S. H. E. Answer in writing and send in for thecorrection and comment of the instructor. They are intended to emphasizeand fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING PART III READ CAREFULLY. To make this test of greatest value to you, write fully from your personal standpoint and experience. Try as many methods given in the text as your time will allow so that you may ask for explanation if the descriptions are not clear to you. Methods are many; if you do not agree with these given, suggest better ones. 1. (a) What are the requisites for good dressmaking? (b) How doesdressmaking differ from white sewing in make, finish, and ornamentation? 2. From your point of view what do you consider a successful garment? 3. Give methods of altering patterns. 4. Give briefly the cutting and making of a wool garment from patterns:(a) waist, (b) sleeve, (c) skirt, (d) collar, including methods ofstitching, pressing and finish, stating how patterns should be placed onlining and outside materials. 5. How may pressing be done to give the best results? What garmentsrequire little or no pressing, and why? 6. (a) State some of the principles and purposes of ornament. (b) Whatis your idea of ornament applied to garments? (c) Give some errors inornamentation not named in text. 7. Cut from magazines illustrations showing your idea of good and faultyornamentation in dress. Give reason for your opinion. 8. Illustrate in some way, either by picture, drawing, embroidery, braid, or stitching, some design appropriate for ornament work on neckor sleeve. 9. Where should ornament be placed, and why? 10. (a) Give your idea of appropriate design on textiles. (b) Theadvantage and disadvantage of plain materials. 11. Make a color card of silk, wool, paper or raffia showing colors thatcontrast. (b) Colors that harmonize. 12. What colors do you find satisfactory for your own wear, and why? 13. What materials are best suited for infants' garments? (b) What canyou say in regard to children's clothing? 14. What is your opinion of the care of clothing? (b) What experiencehave you had in cleaning (a) cotton, (b) wool, (c) linen, (d) silk, (e)velvet? 15. Do you consider it economy to repair garments? Can you suggestbetter methods than those given in the text? 16. If possible make some garment, shirt waist, skirt, or simple dresswhile studying this lesson and describe in detail how you went about it, the result, time taken, total cost. Tell why you selected the design, the color, the material. 17. Have you found the ready made garments satisfactory in underwear anddresses? 18. Tell of some of your failures in dressmaking and give the reasonsfor your lack of success. 19. What methods, new to you, have you tried in connection with thislesson? What questions have you to ask? 20. Can you add any suggestions that would be helpful to others in thiswork? 21. Wherein have the lessons been of practical value to you? 22. _For Teachers. _ Draw up an outline for a course in sewing to combinetwo considerations: (a) adaptability to the child's interests andcapacities, (b) orderly sequence in the technical part. Note: After completing the answers, sign your full name. REFERENCES: ORNAMENT AND DESIGN Bachelder--Principles of Design in America. ($3. 00. ) Brown--History of Decorative Art. ($1. 25. ) Carter, Mrs. H. J. --Historic Ornament in Color. (15c. A sheet). Prang. Clifford--Period Decoration. ($3. 00. ) Crane--Claims of Decorative Art. (Out of print. ) Crane--Line and Form. ($2. 25. ) Daniels--Teaching of Ornament. ($1. 50. ) Day--Application of Ornament. ($1. 25. ) Day--Nature in Ornament. ($4. 00. ) Day--Ornamental Design. (Out of print. ) Day--Planning of Ornament. (Out of print. ) Day--Decorative Design of all Ages. ($0. 40. ) Day--Ornament and Its Application. ($3. 25. ) Day--Ornamental Design, Anatomy of Pattern, Planning of Ornament. ($3. 00. ) Day--Some Principles of Everyday Art. (Out of print. ) Glazier--Manual of Historic Ornament. (New edition in press. ) Hulme--Birth and Development of Ornament. (Out of print. ) Jones--Grammar of Ornament. ($18. 00. ) Prang--Art and Ornament in Egypt. ($1. 50. ) _Note_--The books out of print may be found in some public libraries. REFERENCES: HISTORY OF COSTUME Earle--Costume of Colonial Times. ($1. 25. ) Earle--Two Centuries of Costume in America, 2 vols. ($2. 50 each. ) Evans--Chapters on Greek Dress. (Out of print. ) Fairholt--Costume of England, 2 vols. ($1. 50 each. ) Hill--History of English Dress. (Out of print. ) McClellan--Historic Dress in America. ($10. 00. ) Planchet--History in British Costume. ($1. 50. ) Quegly--What Dress Makes of Us. ($1. 25. ) Racinet--Costume. ($2. 00. ) Rhead--Chats on Costume. ($1. 50. ) Schild--Old English Peasant Costume from Boadicea to Queen Victoria. (Out of print. ) SUPPLEMENTARY PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS STUDY ON TEXTILES ANDCLOTHING MEETING I (Study pages 1-59) PRIMITIVE METHODS Endeavor to obtain a Colonial spinning-wheel in working order, and get some one to operate it. If possible, obtain samples of weaving done on a hand loom. Examine a hand-loom if possible. They may be seen at the manufacturers of rag and remade carpets. _References:_ Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, Mason, Chapter III, The Weaver. ($1. 75, postage 16c. ) Colonial Days in Old New England, by Earle. ($1. 25, postage 12c. ) TEXTILE FIBRES Collect an exhibit of raw fibres and fibres in process of manufacture. Send to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Department of Botany, Washington, D. C. , for small samples; to manufacturers of thread; to friends in manufacturing towns. Test the various fibres by burning. Examine under a microscope with a small hand-glass, if greater power cannot be obtained. Try warm acid--sulphuric, hydrochloric, or oxalic--on the fibres; let the fibres dry. Also try a solution of caustic soda on the fibres. _References:_ The Textile Fibres, by Matthews. ($3. 50, postage 16c. ) Textile Fibres and Cotton Fibre, pamphlets of the American School of Correspondence. (50c. Each, postage 4c. Each. ) Send for all the Government Bulletins mentioned in the Bibliography, page 104. Note that the _free_ bulletins are obtained simply by addressing the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. , but _the sale_ bulletins only by sending coin or money order to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. MEETING II (Study pages 59-102) MODERN METHODS Visit a textile mill if possible, after studying the text. Practice home dyeing. Read carefully the directions given by the manufacturers of the dyes. See the booklet "Diamond Dyes, " to be obtained at many drug stores, or send for it to Wells Richardson, Burlington, Vermont. _References:_ Text-books of the American School of Correspondence--especially Textile Chemistry and Dyeing. (Parts I, II, III, and IV, postage 4c. Each. ) The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics, by Hummell. ($1. 75, postage 12c. ) Bleaching and Calico Printing (containing samples), by Duerr. ($4. 00, postage 14c. ) WEAVES AND FABRICS Show as many different kinds of weaves as possible. Separate the threads and examine under a hand microscope. Get the local dry-goods or department store to co-operate with you in getting up an exhibit of samples of standard goods--cotton, woolen, worsted, linen, and silk. Label each sample with the width and price. Test some of the samples of wash goods for fastness to washing and light, by washing in warm water and soap (or boiling in the soap and water) and expose to sunlight all day for three or four days. _Keep a part of each sample for comparison. _ (Select a composite set of answers to the Test Questions on Part I andsend to the School, with report on the supplemental work done andMeetings I and II. ) MEETING III (Study pages 107-123) SEWING: PLAIN STITCHES Send to manufacturers for samples showing the process of manufacture of pins, needles, etc. Demonstrate different ways of making the same stitches; discuss best methods. EMBROIDERY Show how all the embroidery stitches are made. Get up an exhibit of all kinds of embroidery, including Oriental, Japanese, old samplers, etc. Have members make Model I, First Series. _References:_ Home and School Sewing, by Patton. ($0. 60, postage 6c. ) School Needlework, by Hapgood. ($0. 75, postage 6c. ) Manual of Exercise in Hand Sewing, by Blair. ($1. 25, postage 10c. ) _Topic:_ Educational Value of Sewing in the Public Schools. Methods. See "A Sewing Course, " by Mary S. Woolman, Introduction ($3. 50, postage 20c. ), and "The Teaching of Domestic Science in the United States of America, " by Alice Ravenhill, pages 9-10, 43-46. ($0. 75, postage 12c. ) MEETING IV (Study pages 123-165) HEMS, SEAMS, FASTENINGS, DARNING, PATCHING Have all members make models II, III, IV, and V. Previously assign members to furnish models or examples of all other hems, seams, fastenings, patches, darns, etc. , illustrated or described in the text, and as many more as possible. MACHINE SEWING Get the local sewing machine agent to give a demonstration of the workings of the attachments of the machine. (Select models and answers to Test Questions on Part II and send them tothe School, with a report of Meetings III and IV. ) MEETING V (Study pages 167-200) DRESSMAKING Get the local dry-goods or department store to lend different kinds of dress forms. Show how patterns are altered to suit the figure. (See text and "Dressmaking Up to Date. ") As many as possible cut out and begin making a simple shirt-waist or skirt. Show finished garment at next meeting, giving accurate account of cost and time spent. _References:_ Dressmaking Up to Date, The Butterick Co. ($0. 25, postage 8c. ) Sewing and Garment Drafting, by Margaret L. Blair. ($1. 25, postage 12c. ) MEETING VI (Study pages 205-228) CONSTRUCTION AND ORNAMENT IN DRESS; COLOR Collect illustrations showing good and faulty ornamentation. Procure samples of fabrics showing good and faulty ornamentation. Make a color card showing contrast and harmony of color. (See Question 11. ) _References_: See list on pages 234 and 235. CHILDREN'S CLOTHING Get up an exhibit of simple and satisfactory clothing for children, including color, material, style and make. Discuss children's clothes in reference to laundering. CARE AND REPAIR OF CLOTHES Show examples of successful repairing. Try some of the methods of cleaning. (See, also _Chemistry of the Household_ pages 73-84. ) (Select answers to Test Questions on Part III and send them to theSchool, with report on Meetings V and VI. ) INDEX Adulteration of linen, 87 Alpaca, 90 Altering sleeve patterns, 194 Angora wool, 39 Aniline dyes, 79 Arrow heads, 123 Back stitch, 112 Basting, 108 Bibliography, 103, 229 Bleaching, 78 Bobbin, 19 Boning waist, 192 Bow, the, 208 Burling, 83 Bust form, 168 Button holes, 141 large, 145 making, 144 Buttons, sewing on, 145 Carding, 59 Care of clothing, 219 Cassimere twills, 73, 75 Cat stitch, 116 Catch stitch, 116 Chain stitch, 116 Checks, 213 Children's clothes, 216, 217 Cleaning, 59, 221 Collars, 198 putting on, 199 Color in dress, 214 Colors, mordant, 79 Combing, 60 Conventional designs, 213 Costumes, references, 234 Cotton, 29 boles, 32 fibers, 34 Cotton goods, 85 home of, 30 Nankin, 34 sea island, 30 upland, 30 Cross stitch, 120 Cuffs, 196 Cutting table, 168 Darning, 155 on machine, 158 over net, 157 Decorations, placing, 208 Distaff, 12 Double cloth, 77 Draped waist, 192 Drawing tapes, 140 Dressmaking, 167 Dyeing, 78 home, 80 Dyes, aniline, 79 Dyestuffs, natural, 80 Embroidery, 204 as ornament, 204 eyelet, 122 shadow, 123 stitches, 114 Extension hem, 227 Eyelet embroidery, 122 Eyelets, 149 Fabrics, 85 list of, 96-102 names of, 94 primitive, 27 width of, 93 Facing, bias, 141 skirt, 179 Fastening the thread, 109 Fastenings, 141 Feather stitch, 118 Fibers, 29 cotton, 29 flax, 43 silk, 53 wool, 37 Finishes, 139 Finishing skirt, 179 seams, 196 waist, 192 Finishing, woolens, 83 Fitting, 173, 193 sleeves, 190 waists, 190 Flax, 43 fibers, 47 hackling, 44, 47 Flocks, 83 Folding garments, 220 French hem, 127 knots, 119 seam, 131 Fulling, 83 Fur, 40 Gathering, 111, 138 Gathers, whipped, 127 Gauging, 112 Gigging, 83 Gingham, 86 Grease spots, 122 Hand sewing, 107 Harmony in dress, 215 Harness, the, 70 Heddle, 17 Hemp, 50 Hem stitch, 118 Hems, 123 bias, 124 faced, 124 flannel, 127 French, 127 folding, 123 Hems, rolled, 126 Herringbone stitch, 116 Home dyeing, 80 Hook and eyes, 147 Hydroscopic moisture, 42 Jacquard loom, 70 Joining lace, 160 Jute, 50 Knit goods, 72 Lace, design of, 208 Laces, use of, 207 Laundering, 225 Lengthening garments, 226 Linen, 86 adulteration of, 87 characteristics of, 47 Lining, cutting, 188 Loading silk, 56 Looms, 17 Colonial, 19, 21, 22 development of, 19 diagram of, 23 fly shuttle, 26 four harness, hand, 21 Jacquard, 70 Japanese, 20 modern, 25, 69 Navajo, 18 Swedish hand, 24 Loop stitch, 116 Madder bleach, 78 Machine darning, 158 sewing, 162 Mending, 83, 225 Mitering embroidery, 158 Modern methods, 59 Mohair, 90 Mordant colors, 79 Muslin, 85 Nankin cotton, 34 Natural dyestuffs, 80 Olona, 53 Ornament, 203 embroidery as, 204 fitness of, 209 flowers as, 205 of textiles, 212 Ornamental stitches, 108, 114 Ornamentation, errors in, 204 Outline stitch, 114 Overcasting, 114, 142 Oversewing, 113 Packing clothing, 220 Passementerie, 206 Patching, 149 Patterns, 171 altering, 173 cloth, 174 lengthening, 173 pinning, 176 placing, 176 selection of, 171 testing, 174 use of, 172 Picking, 59 Piled fabrics, 91 Plackets, 135 faced, 137 Plaids, 213 Plain material, 212 Plush, 77 Pressing, 201 board, 168, 201 wet, 202 Primitive methods, 3 Printing, 81 block, 81 machine, 81 warps, 82 Ramie, 50 Raw silk, 56 Reed, 19 Reeling silk, 54 Repairing, 225 Retting flax, 45 Roving, 61 Running stitch, 110 Sateen weave, 79 Satin, 91 stitch, 121 Scouring agents, 41 Sea island cotton, 30 Seams, 128 beaded, 131 felled, 128 flannel, 135 French, 131 lapped, 133 slot, 131 Serges, 88 Seven-gored skirt, 172 Sewing, hand, 107 machine, 162 Sewing machines, 162 care of, 162 types of, 162 use of, 164 Shadow embroidery, 123 Sheep, 39 Shirt waists, cutting, 182 plan for making, 183 Shuttle, 19 Silk, 53 artificial, 58 boiling off, 56 fiber, 53 loading, 56, 90 production, 53 raw, 56 twilled, 91 Silk, wash, 91 Silk worm, 54 Silks, 90 Singeing, 78 Skirt, 172 band, 179 Skirt binding, 180 braid, 180 making, 177 placket, 178 plan of making, 173 stiffening, 178 Sleeve making, 183 patterns, 194 Sleeves, cutting, 194, 195 finish of, 197 pressing, 198 putting in, 197 Slip-stitching, 125 Slot seams, 131 Speck dye, 83 Spindle, 6 whorl, 6 Spinning, 3, 59 primitive, 3 wheel, 12 with spindle, 6 Stains, 221 Stitches, 107 ornamental, 108, 114 plain, 107 Stockinet undergarments, 216 Stripes, 213 Stroking gathers, 111 Table linen, 87 Teazels, 83 Textile arts, origin of, 3 Textiles, 85, 212 design of, 212 list of, 96, 102 ornament of, 212 weaves, 72 Texture, 214 Trimming, 210 Tweeds, 88 Harris, 89 Twills, 74 Cassimere, 73, 75 uneven, 75 Tucked waist, 185 Tucking, 108 Tucks, 128 Unity in dress, 211 Upland cotton, 30 Velvet, 92 weave of, 77 Velveteen, 92 Waists, 185 lined, 186 plan for making, 187 repairing, 227 tucked, 185 Wash silk, 91 Warping, 69 Weave, 72 diagrams, 73 plain, 73 basket, 76 double cloth, 77 rib, 76 sateen, 76 twill, 74 velvet, 77 Weaving, 14, 69 Wet Pressing, 202 Wheel spinning, 12 Whipping stitch, 113 Whorl, spindle, 6 Widths of fabrics, 93 Wool, 37 characteristics of, 37 fiber, 36 quality of, 38 scouring, 40 sorting, 40 value for clothing, 37 Woolens, 88 Worsteds, 88 Yokes, 20