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STONEHENGE:

TO-DAY AND YESTERDAY

 [Illustration: Stonehenge as it probably was. Plan & Bird'seye View. ]

STONEHENGETODAY & YESTERDAY

BY

FRANK STEVENS

Curator of the Salisbury Museumwith Plans and Illustrations by

HEYWOOD SUMNER. F. S. A. 

[Illustration]

LONDON:Sampson Low, Marston & Co. LtdPrice 1s net1916. 

FOREWORD

The interest that has always attached itself to Stonehenge has, without doubt, been in a great measure due to the mystery as to theorigin of this unique monument of bygone time. But the carefulinvestigations carried out by the modern school of archæologists, asinstanced in the work of General Pitt Rivers, Mr. Gowland, and others, every excavation being carried out with great care and scientificaccuracy, have had good results; little by little the history ofStonehenge has been unravelled; a fact that Mr. Stevens has clearlydemonstrated in the present volume. We now know how, when, and who, built this remarkable temple. One point, however, still remains amystery, viz. Whence the so-called foreign stones were obtained?Clearly, as geology shows, from no spot in Wiltshire. 

Amongst the many rude stone circles scattered over Great Britain, Stonehenge is unique, in the fact of having its sarsen stonescarefully though roughly worked; and also in the introduction of thehorseshoe within the circles, in the design or plan of the building. As in the present day, our churches, in their design, symbolise theCross, so we may fairly infer that the horseshoe at Stonehenge had itsown special meaning, as it still has in the East. 

I would advise all interested in the subject, after reading Mr. Stevens' lucid and comprehensive account, to visit this weird monumentand judge for themselves; take Omar's sound advice, "_To-day_" viewthe "_Dead Yesterday_, " wait not for the "_Unborn To-morrow_. "

 H. P. BLACKMORE. SALISBURY. _March 1, 1916. _

CONTENTS

 PAGEFOREWORD v

STONEHENGE SUMMARISED FOR VISITORS 1

SALISBURY PLAIN 8

STONEHENGE 12

THE LITHOLOGY OF STONEHENGE 15 1. The Story of the Sarsens 17 2. The Foreign Stones 20

THE STONES WITHOUT THE CIRCLE 27 1. The Hele Stone or Friar's Heel 28 2. The Legend of the Friar's Heel 29 3. The "Slaughtering Stone" 31 4. The Earthwork 34

THE BUILDING OF STONEHENGE 36 1. Dressing the Stones 40 2. Tenons and Mortices 42 3. The Process of Erection 45 4. Raising the Foreign Stones 49

WHEN WAS STONEHENGE ERECTED? 51

WHAT WAS STONEHENGE? 57

THE DRUID QUESTION 67

THE BARROWS OF SALISBURY PLAIN 70 1. The Round Barrows 73 2. The Men of the Barrows 87

VALEDICTORY 92

 [Illustration: Stonehenge, Today--Looking West. ]

STONEHENGE: TO-DAY AND YESTERDAY

STONEHENGE SUMMARISED

USEFUL FACTS, FOR THE ATTENTION OF VISITORS

Each statement is furnished with a reference to the particular pagesin this book, where fuller information and arguments "for and against"may be found. 

I. WHEN AND BY WHOM STONEHENGE WAS BUILT

(_a_) Stonehenge was erected about the year 1700 B. C. (See page 51. )

(_b_) It was built by a race or men who had only a slight knowledgeof the use of bronze, and no knowledge of iron. (See pages 40-49. )

II. STONEHENGE CONSISTS OF

(_a_) A circular earthwork, 300 feet in diameter. (See page 34. )

(_b_) An avenue bounded by earthworks approaching it on thenorth-east. (See page 34. )

(_c_) One large unworked Sarsen Stone, called the "Hele Stone, " or"Friar's Heel. " (See page 28. )

(_d_) A recumbent slab within the earthwork called the "SlaughteringStone. " (See page 31. )

(_e_) Two small unhewn Sarsens lying north-west and south-east of theCircle of Stones. (See page 27. )

(_f_) A ring of hewn Sarsen stones with "imposts" or lintels mortisedto them. The lintels are fitted together with toggle joints. Sixteenout of the original thirty uprights of these "Trilithons" are nowstanding. 

The diameter of this circle is about 108 feet, or that of the dome ofSt. Paul's. (See page 12. )

(_g_) A ring of less perfectly hewn "Foreign Stones" (_i. E. _ stonesnot to be found in Wiltshire at the present day). 

These numbered between thirty and forty. Only seven are standingto-day, nine are overthrown. (See page 20. )

(_h_) Five great Trilithons, arranged in a horseshoe, with the openingto the north-east. These Trilithons rise gradually in height towardsthe south-west. The largest group of stones fell A. D. 1620. Those nextto the great Trilithon on the north-west, fell on January 3rd, 1797. 

To-day only two of the Inner Trilithons are standing. One upright ofthe great Trilithon (raised and made secure in 1901) is erect. (Seepage 17. )

(_i_) A horseshoe of less perfectly hewn Foreign Stones. Originallythere were fifteen or more of these monoliths averaging eight feethigh. (See page 20. )

(_j_) A simple recumbent slab of micaceous sandstone called the "AltarStone. " (See page 14. )

III. WHERE THE STONES CAME FROM

(_a_) The Sarsen Stones are the remains of a cap of Tertiary Sandstonewhich once covered the plain. (See page 17. )

(_b_) The Foreign Stones are still a matter of debate. They haveassuredly been brought from a distance. This is unusual; megalithicstructures are usually built of materials found close at hand. (Seepage 20. )

 [Illustration: Stonehenge. Looking towards the South East. ]

IV. HOW THE MONUMENT WAS ERECTED

The large monoliths of Sarsen Stone were first of all roughly shapedas they lay _in situ_ on the Plain and then transported to the chosensite. 

The Foreign Stones were also dressed on the spot before erection. 

The entire work was performed with stone tools of the roughestdescription, weighing from half a pound to over sixty pounds. (See p. 40. )

The only trace of metal discovered in 1901, was a small stain ofbronze on one stone, caused by contact with the stone of some verysmall bronze object, possibly an ornament. (See page 53. )

The large Trilithons were erected from the centre of the site. 

The Foreign Stones were placed in position afterwards. (See pages45-49. )

V. STONEHENGE AND THE SUMMER SOLSTICE

It is a notable fact that the sun rises immediately over the summit ofthe "Hele Stone, " in a line with the axis of Stonehenge on the SummerSolstice. 

Sir Norman Lockyer and Mr. Penrose, working on astronomical grounds, fix the date of the circle at 1680 B. C. , with a possible error of 200years on either side. 

Much has been said as regards Sun Worship at Stonehenge. The exactuse to which the circle was put is at present a matter of conjecture. (See page 57. )

VI. STONE CIRCLES GENERALLY, AND STONEHENGE

1. Stonehenge is probably the latest, and is certainly the mostelaborate, stone circle in England. 

2. It is the only one in which the stones are squared, dressed, andprovided with lintels or imposts. 

3. It is the only circle which contains a "horseshoe" arrangement ofstones. 

4. Most of the stone circles in the South of England face towards thenorth-east. Stonehenge is one of these. 

5. Monuments of the Stonehenge type, but ruder, are found in thefollowing neighbouring counties in South Britain: Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorset, Somerset, Wiltshire. 

6. Though Wiltshire only contains four such monuments, two of them, Avebury and Stonehenge, are the most remarkable in the kingdom. 

Avebury, the older of the two, has been almost destroyed, but whenperfect was one of the largest. 

Stonehenge, the later, is the most finished example of a megalithiccircle in England. 

VII. DRUIDS

There seems to be no valid reason for supposing that Stonehenge waserected by the Druids. (See page 67. )

VIII. THE BARROWS NEAR STONEHENGE

The Barrows round Stonehenge were the burial places of a bronze-usingrace, of almost the same date as the Circle; they were erected mostlyafter the building of Stonehenge, and are more numerous in this spotthan in any other part of England. (See page 73. )

SALISBURY PLAIN

 "We passed over the goodly plain, or rather sea of carpet, which I think for evenness, extent, verdure, and innumerable flocks, to be one of the most delightful prospects in nature. "--"Evelyn's Diary, " 1654. 

There is not a county in England which does not pride itself upon someoutstanding characteristic which places it in a category by itself. And if there be a thing particularly characteristic of Wiltshire, itis "the Plain" of which John Evelyn above quoted has written sokindly. 

The word Plain is somewhat misleading, for the surface of theSalisbury Downland is anything but even, as poor Samuel Pepys found tohis cost when he traversed it in 1668, and on his journey encounteredsome "great hills, even to fright us. " The actual truth lies midwaybetween the "evenness" of Evelyn and the "great hills" of Pepys, andto the man of Wilts that word "Plain" will ever summon up a vision ofrolling downs, a short, crisp, elastic turf dotted with flocks, andbroken here and there by some crested earthwork or barrow, which rearsitself from the undulating Down, and breaks the skyline with itssharp outline. It has been estimated that fully one-half of Wiltshireconsists of these high bare chalk downs which rise in bold roundedbluffs from the valleys which thread their way through the county. Itis impossible to escape them. The Cotswold shepherd looks downward ontheir folds, and marks the gleaming white of the occasional chalk pitwhich breaks the surface of their scarp. 

The huntsman in the Vale of the White Horse, and the farmer on thefringe of the shady depths of the New Forest alike live in thepresence of the Wiltshire Downs. There is something of grandeur in theimmensity of their broad unbroken line stretching as they do, or did, for mile upon mile, limited only by the horizon, a rolling sea ofgreen pasture. 

And the very heart of the Downs is the Plain of Salisbury, that broadstretch which is bounded on the west by the wandering valley of theriver Nadder, and on the east by the trickle of the Bourne, betweenwhich the "Hampshire" Avon divides the area with almost mathematicalaccuracy in two equal triangles; and Salisbury lies at the apex ofeach. 

The pasturage of the Downs, and the rich woodland of these valleysmust have been important factors in those old days, when the buildersof Stonehenge pushed inland from the coast, seeking a spot whereinthey might settle. As a general rule, it may be held withconsiderable certainty, not only in Wiltshire, but also in other partsof England, that our early settlers from the Continent elected to liveon the downland rather than in the valleys. Go where you may over thePlain, its turfy surface is scored by terraces or "lynchets, " tellingthe tale of the ancient ploughman's furrows on the slopes, and side byside with them lie the scars of what were once cattle enclosures, farms, and stockaded villages. Nor is the explanation far to seek, forthe valleys afforded shelter to the wolves, and were in placesobstructed by undrained marshes, unhealthy and unfitted for theherdsman and his flocks, and impenetrable as regards roads. 

Midway between the valleys of the Nadder and the Avon lies"Stonehenge, " a Megalithic Monument without an equal in this country, about which the legend of the peasant, as well as the speculation ofthe _savant_ have gathered in an ever-increasing volume. 

The bibliography of Stonehenge alone comprises nearly a thousandvolumes, and it is hard to pick up an old magazine or periodical whichdoes not contain some notice of it. County historians, astronomers, Egyptologists, and antiquaries have argued, as old Omar would say, "about it and about" until the man of ordinary tastes who chances tovisit the spot and to study the stones, finds himself confronted withsuch a mass of evidence, of theory, and of fantastic speculation, that he sadly turns aside befogged, or maybe fired by the example ofothers evolves from his inner consciousness yet another theory of hisown to add to the already plethoric accumulation on the subject. Theobject of the following pages is not to propound any new theories, butrather to reduce the existing knowledge of Stonehenge to a compactcompass, and to make it readily accessible to that vast body ofindividuals who take an intelligent interest in the stones, withouthaving the leisure or opportunity of following up the elaborate stagesby which certain conclusions have been arrived at. In short, it is aplain statement of the facts about Stonehenge which may serve eitheras a guide to the visitor, or as a useful remembrance of his visit. 

STONEHENGE

 "Salisbury Cathedral and its neighbour Stonehenge are two eminent monuments of art and rudeness, and may show the first essay and the last perfection in architecture. "--_Dr. Johnson, letter to Mrs. Thrale_, 1783. 

Stonehenge is one of those historical monuments which possesses thedisadvantage of a reputation. The first impression is always one ofdisappointment, the circle appears so much smaller than it really isby reason of its isolated situation. Its proportions are dwarfed bythe wide expanse of downland which surrounds it. This feeling ofdisappointment, however, gradually gives place to one of wonder, asthe stones are approached more closely, and their bulk is seen in trueproportion. The diameter of the outer circle of stones is 108 feet, oralmost exactly that of the internal diameter of the Dome of St. Paul's. A casual glance even at the monument is sufficient to showthat its basic form is intended to be a circle. The earthwork whichgirdles the stones is circular and 300 feet in diameter. Within thisstands the remnant of a circle of 30 upright stones, bearing impostsupon them; within this again is what was once a circle of smallerstones. Inside these three outer circular forms are two others, shapedlike a horseshoe. The first consisted of the five large "Trilithons, "huge pylons of stone, comprising two uprights and an impost; standingseparate, while in front of them is the remnant of a horseshoe ofsmall upright stones, similar to those which comprise the inner circleof the monument. 

 [Illustration: Upright stones shaded--Prostrate stones in outline. ]

At first it may seem difficult to disentangle the chaos of fallenstone which meets the eye; but when once the original design of thestructure is grasped, it becomes easy to piece together again inimagination a work which even in the light of modern and scientificengineering presents very considerable difficulties and problems. 

Lying flat within these concentric circles and horseshoes is a singleflat tabular block generally known as the "Altar Stone. " From thisslab, now almost buried beneath the remains of a fallen Trilithon, thevisitor may look in a north-easterly direction, and through the archesof the outer circle observe the "Hele Stone" or "Friar's Heel, " whichstands at some considerable distance from the main structure. On theSummer Solstice (or "Longest Day"), the sun rises immediately over thetop of this monolith, when viewed from the centre of the Altar Stone. 

Such, then, are the facts which meet the eye when standing withinStonehenge. Each minute the stones appear to increase in bulk, and theproblem of their coming grows more inscrutable. Then if wearied withsuch vastness, the eye may wander over the surrounding plain, brokenin almost every direction by the sepulchral mounds, or Barrows, whichcluster to the number of two hundred or more about the venerable stonecircle. The connection between Stonehenge and the Barrows, seemsalmost irresistible. The hands which raised those huge monoliths mustassuredly have been laid to rest almost within the touch of theirshadow. Stonehenge and the Barrows, each casting light upon theother's origin, confirming and reconfirming each other's existence, knit together to-day as yesterday, by a bond of close union which evenTime and speculations cannot sever. 

THE LITHOLOGY OF STONEHENGE

Weatherworn and overgrown by lichen, it is not possible at the presentday to see clearly the nature of the stones which go to make upStonehenge. For that reason only the barest outline of the monument asit appears to the unknowing eye has been given, in order that theoriginal plan may be grasped thoroughly before entering into thoseimportant issues which help to solve the enigma of its origin. Carefulinvestigation reveals the fact that the stones vary very much inmaterial, and that, further, just as the stones are placed insystematic order, so, too, has the same care been exercised in theselection of the material from which each circle or horseshoe has beenbuilt. Moreover, just as the stones can be divided into groups ofuprights and imposts, or "Trilithons, " and "simple uprights, " so, too, has it been found that while all the Trilithons are composed of a"local" stone, known generally as "Sarsen"; all the "simple uprights"are of "foreign" stone, sometimes classed together roughly as"Syenite. " This latter term must be understood in a very comprehensivesense since the simple uprights show considerable variation inquality, but one and all are foreign to the county of Wiltshire;whereas the larger Sarsen blocks are to be found in considerablenumbers scattered over the Wiltshire Downs. This difference inmaterial seems to present a considerable difficulty; and the questionnaturally arises, How did the foreign stones come to Salisbury Plain?This point will be considered later, as it is one involving othermatters, such as the ethnology of the builders and the probable regionfrom which they obtained these unusual materials. But the Sarsenspresent no problem, and so may be considered first of all, forfamiliar as they are their story is full of interest. 

 [Illustration: The Lithology of Stonehenge. ]

THE STORY OF THE SARSENS

The geologist would probably describe the Sarsen stones of Wiltshireas "masses of saccharoid sandstone, " which in plain English might berendered as boulders closely resembling gigantic lumps of coarsesugar. These huge stones are to be found, though in decreasingnumbers, scattered all over the plain, and particularly along theridges of the Marlborough Downs. The country folk, alwayspicturesquely minded, call them "Grey Wethers, " and indeed in NorthWilts, it is not hard to conjure up their poetic resemblance to aflock of titanic sheep, reclining at ease upon the pasturage of theDowns. The alternative name Sarsen, has an interesting derivation. Itis a corruption of the word "Saracen. " But what have Saracens to dowith Wiltshire? Frankly nothing. The name has come to the stones fromStonehenge itself, and is a part of that ever interesting confusion ofideas, which has been bequeathed to us by our ancestors of the MiddleAges. To them all stone circles and megalithic monuments were the workof heathens, if not of the devil himself. Heathenism and all its workswas roundly condemned, whether it be Celtic, Mahomedan, or Pagan; andthe condemnation was as concise and universal as the phrase "Jews, Turks, Infidels, and Heretics" of the Christian Prayer Book to-day. Inthe early days of the _Moyen Age_, the Saracen stood for all that wasantagonistic to Christianity. Consequently the stones of Stonehengewere Saracen or heathen stones, which the Wiltshire tongue hasshortened in due time to Sarsen. 

This confusion of ideas may seem amusing, but it is not more absurdthan the existing popular idea that Stonehenge is of Druidical origin. The stone circle of Salisbury Plain was many hundred years old whenthose half mythical Celtic priests first set foot in England, and theDruids of yesterday have about as much connection with Stonehenge asthe Salvation Army of to-day. 

The Sarsen well repays a close examination. A glance at one of thesestones as it lies on the Downland, shows that it has suffered greatlyfrom the weather. It is the core, or kernel, of a much larger block offriable sandstone, worn away on all sides by wind and weather. Moreover, these isolated blocks appear on the Downs in a countrydevoid of any rock save chalk. 

How came they in their present position? In one sense they never cameat all; for they existed on the surface of the chalk from the time itrose from the bottom of the sea to its present position. They are, infact, the remains of a great sheet of fine sand and gravel cementedtogether by silex, which formerly overlay the chalk downs, the otherparts of which have been dissolved and worn by wind and rain untilonly the harder cores or kernels survive to tell the tale. And theproof of this is not far to seek. The chalk of the London Basin isstill capped by layers of such sandstone, as may be seen at Purfleetin Essex. The titanic sheep, or Grey Wethers, therefore, are merely asmall residue of that widespread sandy deposit which once covered thewhole of the south of England with its inhospitable sheet, and ofwhich larger patches remain to-day in Surrey, Hampshire, and the Isleof Wight. But though the hand of Time and the buffets of the weatherhave been heavy on the Sarsens, the hand of man has likewise borne itsshare. In a district like the Plain, devoid of building material otherthan flint, these stones have attracted the unwelcome attention of thefarmers. Walls, gateposts, and paving-stones have accounted for many, while in the interest of the road-mender many a noble Grey Wether hasbeen led to slaughter to provide macadam for the roads. Hence it isnot surprising that the number of Sarsen stones to be found on thePlain where Nature placed them is becoming less and less. Indeed, thetime may yet come when they will be as extinct as the Great Bustardwho once strutted among them, and their memory will survive only intheir accidental use in a prehistoric monument like Stonehenge. 

THE FOREIGN STONES

While the Sarsens usually awake the greatest interest by reason oftheir bulk, and the problem of how a primitive people was able to dealwith them, a far greater problem is presented by the small uprights, or Foreign Stones, the like of which cannot be matched within ahundred miles of Salisbury Plain, while some can only be found uponthe continent of Europe. Fragments carefully removed and submitted tomineralogists have made this fact abundantly clear, and consequentlyit is possible to arrive at the very definite conclusion thatStonehenge is certainly not a "Wiltshire" monument, and probably thatit is not even "British" at all. 

Where have the stones come from? One school of writers ventures tosuggest Kildare in Ireland. Others suggest Wales, Cornwall, Dartmoor, Shropshire, or Cumberland, where similar rocks are to be found, thoughperhaps not absolutely identical in character. Yet another theoryadvanced is that the Foreign Stones were transported to the plain asboulders of the "glacial drift. " It has even been stated that thegravels of the district contain small pebbles composed of rock similarto these mysterious Foreign Stones. The statement has indeed beenmade, but as yet no Wiltshire geologist has produced one of thesepebbles of which so much is written, and so little seen. 

These Glacial Drift theorists, further account for the absence ofthese foreign stones elsewhere than at Stonehenge, by yet anothertheory, that they, like most of the Sarsens, have all been used up formillstones, gateposts, and road metal. 

There are many millstones and gateposts in Wiltshire, but where isthere one which corresponds in any way to the upright Foreign Stonesat Stonehenge? The production of pebbles from the gravels of Wilts, orof a specimen gatepost or millstone would at once settle thisquestion. Unhappily this tangible evidence is wanting, so, alluring asthe Glacial Drift theory may appear, it must reluctantly be set asidefor want of convincing evidence. Finally, there seems every reason tobelieve that the small upright stones are "naturalised aliens" fromabroad, and that is why they have been described at the commencementof this section as "Foreign Stones. " It must not be taken for grantedthat the small upright stones at present standing represent all theforeign rocks employed. Probably they are merely the hardest and mostdurable of those used in the original structure, the softer and morefriable examples having disappeared entirely, owing to the action ofthe weather, and possibly also to the assaults of the uncheckedrelic-monger, who until recent years could with his hammer collect_souvenirs_ with impunity. In this connection, there is a story afootthat a hammer was kept upon the mantelpiece of a well-known hotel inSalisbury, which was reserved for the use of those intending to seeStonehenge, who might be wishful to bring back some convincingevidence of their visit. 

In all probability these foreign stones originally numberedforty-five. To-day there are but thirty. 

A complete lithology of the stones made by the late Professor J. W. Judd, in 1901, reveals the following rocks as comprising those used inthe construction of Stonehenge. 

 1. _Sarsens. _--Coarse and fine-grained Sandstone similar to the Woolwich, Reading, or Bagshot beds. This stone is used for the Trilithons, Hele Stone, a recumbent stone known as the "Slaughtering Stone, " and two small stones set north-west and south-east of the circle. It is of local origin. 

 2. _Ophitic Diabase. _--(Some porphyritic. )

 3. _Highly altered basic Tuffs, and agglomerates_ (calcareous chloritic schists). --Only one stump now remains. 

 4. _Altered Rhyolites and Dacites. _--Only fragments of this rock have been revealed during Mr. Gowland's excavations in 1901. At one time doubtless there was a whole upright of this material, but its striking appearance and fracture has probably led to its demolition by generations of _souvenir_ hunters. Other fragments have been found in the barrows once within sight of Stonehenge, but now destroyed by cultivation. 

 5. _Sandstones, Grits, and Quartzites. _--The "Altar-Stone" belongs to this class. It is interesting to note that Professor Maskelyne has pointed out the similarity between the Altar Stone at Stonehenge, and the "Stone of Destiny" in the Coronation Chair at Westminster Abbey. 

 6. _Grey Wackés. _--Fragments only of these stones have been discovered among the chippings incidental to the dressing of the stones before erection. 

 Their absence at the present day is not a matter for surprise, as stones of this class weather badly, and when exposed to the action of frost and cold rapidly disintegrate. 

 7. _Argillaceous Flagstones and Slates. _--As in the case of the Grey Wackés, fragments only of these stones exist to tell the story of the uprights which have vanished under atmospheric changes. 

 8. _Glanconitic Sandstone_ (possibly Upper Greensand?). --Traces of this rock have been discovered at Stonehenge by Mr. Cunnington. Professor Judd suggests the possibility of a boulder of this material having been found and used by the builders of Stonehenge. 

 9. _Flints. _--These of course are naturally found in abundance throughout the district. Most of those found within Stonehenge are broken fragments struck off in the process of repointing flint chisels during the erection of the circle. 

The above catalogue of stones may not convey very much to the ordinaryvisitor, and has only been inserted for the sake of completeness; orfor the information of geologists who may be concerned with thisaspect of the history of the monument. The conclusions to be drawnfrom such a list, however, are not without interest to the generalreader. From the varied fragments found, it is apparent that some six, or perhaps seven, different classes of stone were used for the smalluprights, but that only the harder and more durable rocks (thediabase, rhyolite, etc. ) have survived. The softer rocks (basic tuffs, grey wackés, flagstones, and slates), being more easily broken, havefallen victims to the souvenir hunter, and to the action of theweather, rain, and frost. Originally, as has already been stated, theforeign stones numbered forty-five, disposed as follows: thirty in theouter circle, and fifteen in the inner horseshoe. To-day only nineteenexist in the outer circle, and eleven in the inner horseshoe. 

A very striking proof that many of these foreign stones havedisappeared, is to be found in the wide gaps which exist to-day incertain parts of the circle. That such gaps were originally filled bystanding stones is beyond question, indeed, the base of a "schistose"stone (see Class 3 in the Lithology above) was actually discovered byMr. Cunnington in the course of his investigations into the nature ofthe rocks composing Stonehenge. It is highly probable that careful andscientific excavation may add greatly to our knowledge in thisdirection. 

There is yet one other point of interest in connection with theseforeign stones. On entering the circle from the north-east (the usualpath taken by visitors) a recumbent foreign stone will be noticed onthe left-hand side, which has two cavities worked in it. This is theonly worked foreign stone in the whole monument, and at first sightthese cavities may possibly suggest themselves as "mortise holes"similar to those on the Sarsen trilithons, to be described later. Ithas even been suggested that the small uprights once carried imposts, or lintel stones similar to the trilithons, on the evidence of thisone stone. Such a theory, however attractive, should be accepted withdue caution, for the cavities on the stone are far from the ends, andsituated too close together to justify a comparison with the existingSarsen trilithons of the outer circle. This stone has never yet beenexplained and its position defined, consequently it is omitted fromthe frontispiece. 

THE STONES WITHOUT THE CIRCLE

Outside the circle of Trilithons stand three stones which have not asyet been described in detail, since they do not fall within thegeometrical arrangement of the circle. They are, however, of thehighest importance, as it is from them, and from their position, thatit is possible to gather some conclusions as to one use to which thestructure may have been put. 

Within the circular earthwork, lying in a line north-west andsouth-east, are two small untrimmed Sarsens, while outside theearthwork stands yet another unworked Sarsen, already referred to asthe "Hele Stone" or "Friar's Heel. " The fact that these three Sarsensare unworked, while all the others show very marked traces of dressingand trimming, is one that should be remembered. These three stonesoccupy no haphazard position either. As already stated, the "HeleStone" marks the rising of the sun on the Summer Solstice. Theremaining two mark both its rising on the Winter Solstice, and itssetting on the Summer Solstice. 

THE HELE STONE OR FRIAR'S HEEL

This stone, as being the largest of this group of three, and such aconspicuous feature in the structure, demands something more than merepassing mention. It is a monolith of unwrought stone standing sixteenfeet high. Such untrimmed stones are to be found all the world over inconnection with religious rites. Even the Jews were not untainted withthis early cult of stone worship. 

"Among the smooth stones of the valley is thy portion; they are thylot; even to them hast thou poured a drink offering, hast thou offereda meat offering, " writes Isaiah. 

In Christian times the custom continued. The Council of Tours as lateas A. D. 657 categorically excluded from Christianity all worshippersof upright stones; while later, Canute forbade the barbarous worshipof stones, trees, fountains, and heavenly bodies. At once, therefore, this huge unwrought monolith suggests religion, and probably one ofthe earliest, and most primitive forms of worship. And thus beingobviously connected with non-Christian rites, it is not surprising tofind that it has a "devil-legend" attaching to it. 

THE LEGEND OF THE FRIAR'S HEEL

The devil, so the story runs, determined one day to undertake somegreat and stupendous work, for the like of which he is famousthroughout the world. In this devil we can still discern theScandinavian "giant" legend, which in later Christian times became"devil" legends. The work had to be great, puzzling, and amazing toall beholders, for as the Wiltshire story-teller adds, "he had let anexciseman slip through his fingers. " In the course of his wanderingsup and down the earth, he had noticed some huge stones in the gardenof an old crone in Ireland; and he determined, therefore, to transportthem to the stoneless waste of Salisbury Plain as being the mostunlikely spot in which to find such things. There yet remained the oldwoman's permission to be obtained before he could commence his labour. His request was at first met with a flat negative, but eventually thedevil so played upon her cupidity, by the assurance that she couldhave as much money as she could count and add up while he was engagedin the work of removal, that she readily gave her consent. As usualthe devil had the best of the bargain, for he, knowing her powers ofarithmetic to be but scanty, handed her a number of pieces of money, whose value was fourpence halfpenny, and twopence three-farthings. The dame had barely managed to add the first two coins together, whenthe devil called upon her to stop, and looking round she saw thestones were all removed, and had been tied with a withe band into aneat bundle which was slung upon his shoulder. Away flew the deviltowards Salisbury Plain, but as he sped onwards the withe cut deepinto his shoulder, so heavy were the stones. He endured it as long ashe could, but just towards the end of his journey, while passing overthe valley of the Avon, he winced, and re-adjusted his burden; in sodoing one of the stones fell down and plunged into the river atBulford, where it remains at the present day, as witness to theveracity of this legend. Right glad to be rid of his burden when hereached the Plain, the devil made haste to set up the stones, and sodelighted was he with the result of his first efforts, and with theprogress he was making, that he cried aloud with glee, "Now I'llpuzzle all men, for no one knows, nor ever will know, how these stoneshave come here. " Unluckily this bold boast was overheard by a holyfriar walking near, who straightway replied in right Wiltshirefashion, "That's more than thee can tell"; and then realising who thebuilder was, turned and fled for his life. Enraged at his discovery bythe friar, and perceiving that his scheme had failed, the devil, whohad just taken up a stone to poise it upon its two uprights, hurledit at the holy man, and struck him on the uplifted heel as he madehaste to run. The friar's sanctity was evidently greater than hispersonal courage, for it was the stone and not the friar whichsuffered most from the impact. Even to-day the huge impress of theFriar's heel is to be seen upon the stone. At this juncture the sunrose, and the devil had perforce to relinquish his task. This accountsfor the present scattered appearance of the stones. 

Turning from fancy to fact, the word Hele, from which the stone takesits name, is probably derived from the Anglo-Saxon verb _helan_ = "toconceal, " and is so applied to the stone because it conceals the sunat rising on the day of the Summer Solstice. 

THE "SLAUGHTERING STONE"

In all matters of archæology it is constantly found that certainquestions are better left in abeyance, or bequeathed to a cominggeneration for solution. The "Slaughtering Stone" appears to be anadmirable example of this class. Just within the area enclosed by theearthwork circle, lies a prostrate Sarsen Stone, to which this namehas been given. The idea of its having been used as a place ofslaughter for the victim intended for sacrifice in the "Temple" ofStonehenge, seems to rest upon a very bare foundation. It is probablya picturesque piece of nomenclature devised by certain bygoneantiquaries to whom Stonehenge was a "Druidical" monument, and who, therefore, having the idea of human sacrifice, and "wicker figures"prominently before them, naturally jumped at the idea of providing aslaughtering stone for the numberless human victims whom they imaginedhad been slain there. Nevertheless, the stone is curious because ofthe row of holes which have been worked across one corner, whichcertainly is unshapely, and which would square up the stone verynicely if it were removed along the line of these holes. Theindentations are somewhat oval, suggesting that they were made by"pecking" with a sharp instrument, rather than drilled by a rotatingone, which would make a circular incision. Having recorded this, however, there is little to add, except that Mr. Gowland, who minutelyexamined the stone in 1901, is of opinion that the oval indentationsreferred to are more recent than the building of Stonehenge. Had theybeen contemporaneous with the erection of the Trilithons, he isconvinced that the action of the water in the holes, combined withfrost, would have caused a very much greater amount of disintegrationthan exists to-day. Yet another difficulty arises. At the meeting ofthe British Archæological Association at Devizes in 1880, a visit waspaid to Stonehenge, and there were, as usual at such gatherings, papers and discussions dealing with it. Mr. William Cunnington, F. S. A. , specially put on record the fact that his grandfather, Mr. H. Cunnington, and Sir R. C. Hoare, remembered this stone as standingerect. Here at all events are three conflicting statements. Underthese circumstances it is well to leave the Slaughtering Stone as aproblem for posterity. 

 [Illustration: Stonehenge. Shewing the Avenue approach & the earthwork surrounding the stone Circle. ]

THE EARTHWORK

Visitors entering Stonehenge are apt in their eagerness to reach thestones to overlook a definite banked Avenue leading from thenorth-east towards the Hele Stone, and entering the circular earthworkenclosure. This earthwork is not very considerable to-day, but in theStonehenge of yesterday it was probably far more marked and imposing. This Avenue extends from Stonehenge in a straight line northwards forabout five hundred yards, where it divides into two branches, onegoing eastward towards the Avon, where there is an ancient ford, theother continuing northward until it joins yet another earthwork, generally known as the Cursus, about half a mile distant. The wholeAvenue has suffered greatly in recent years and is fast disappearingentirely. Both the circular form of the earthwork enclosingStonehenge, as well as the straight and parallel banks of the Avenue, are specially worthy of notice. They belong to a class of earthworkquite unlike the usual planning of cattle enclosures, and defensiveworks, and exhibit a precision in setting out which is only associatedwith the sepulchral and religious earthworks of prehistoric times inthis country. 

 [Illustration: Stonehenge, Yesterday--Looking South East. ]

THE BUILDING OF STONEHENGE

The question is often asked, "How did they build Stonehenge?" There isa refreshing simplicity about that indefinite word "they, " but for thepresent, whoever "they" may be, it is possible to some extent, at allevents, to furnish an answer to this ever recurring query. In thefirst place, however, it may be well to recapitulate very briefly theconclusions already arrived at, before entering into a more detaileddescription of the tools which were employed in the work of erection, and the methods by which the huge Sarsens were reared into position. 

Stonehenge is a circular monument, enclosed by a circular earthwork, and approached by an avenue lying north-east and south-west. Withoutthe circle lie four Sarsen stones. The Hele Stone, and two smallerstones _unworked_, occupying definite sites with reference to therising and setting of the sun at the Summer and Winter Solstices; andthe so-called Slaughtering Stone, the use of which is at present amatter of speculation. The monument proper, consisting of a circle ofSarsen Trilithons, enclosing a circle of upright foreign stones. Within these, five detached Sarsen Trilithons, of graduated height. These five Trilithons are set horseshoe wise. Before them a standinghorseshoe of foreign stones, and in the front of the great Trilithon aflat slab or altar stone. From this stone it is possible to lookoutwards towards the Hele Stone, which lies in line with the axis ofthe monument drawn through the centre of the Altar Stone. The Sarsenstones were obtained from the immediate neighbourhood, the foreignstones must have been imported from a very considerable distance. Allthe stones, with the exception of the four specially indicated, havebeen worked. The question naturally arises how were they worked? Theanswer to this may be given without the least hesitation: with stonetools. For many years the method of working the stones was a matter ofgreat debate, and the uncertainty then prevailing permitted manytheorists to speculate on the "Roman" origin of the structure. Now, however, the entire absence of any metal which resulted from Mr. Gowland's excavations in 1901, at once precludes the possibility ofthe builders being anything but a primitive people, to whom the useof metal was unknown, or only partly known. The stone tools in use inthe construction of Stonehenge were of four kinds. 

i. Axes of rude form roughly chipped, and with a cutting edge. 

ii. Hammer-axes, chipped to an edge on one side and flat on the other. 

iii. Rounded hammer-stones; many of which show signs of bruising andhard wear. The material used in these three classes was flint. All ofthese tools would have been used in the hand, and not set in a handle. 

iv. Rounded hammer-stones of Sarsen, varying from one pound to sixand a half pounds in weight. They would have been used for the surfacedressing of the stones, to which reference will be made later. 

v. Mauls of compact Sarsen weighing between thirty-six and sixty-fourpounds. The broadest side of these was more or less flat, and whenwielded by two or three men they were capable of giving a veryeffective blow. Their use would have been for breaking the rude blocksinto more or less regular forms; and consolidating the rubblefoundations. It is specially notable that no ground or polished stoneimplements were found among them. 

 [Illustration: Flint implement from Stonehenge. ]

 [Illustration: Stag's horn pick from Stonehenge. ]

In addition to the stone tools, picks of deer horn were employed forquarrying the chalk when making the foundations of the uprights. Thosewho are familiar with the antlers of the deer, will recall the sharppointed tine, known as the "brow tine, " which projects forward fromthe horn above its core or socket. This was the tooth of the pick, allother tines being sawn off; thus transforming the antler into a veryrough implement closely resembling a pick, with a single point. Manysplinters from these picks were found actually embedded in the chalkof the foundations, and one entire discarded example was discoveredshowing great signs of use, the brow tine being worn away to aconsiderable extent. 

DRESSING THE STONES

There can be little doubt that the Sarsens were first of all roughlyhewn into shape, before they were conveyed to the site. It stands toreason that a primitive race, when faced with the problem oftransporting a vast mass of stone, would first of all reduce its bulkto the approximate proportions which it would have when finished anderected. Moreover, the chippings and mason's waste discovered in theexcavations of 1901 reveal comparatively little Sarsen stone, and onlya few large fragments, such as must have been broken off in finallyreducing the "Grey Wethers" to monolithic pillars and lintels. It mustnot be forgotten either, that the Sarsens occur naturally in tabularblocks, well adapted to the purpose of the builders. The surface ofthese blocks is often soft, and sugary, while the body of the stoneis dense. The nature of their composition is such that no two stonesare quite alike in hardness, some can be disintegrated easily, evenwith the fingers, while others are dense, and will resist blows with ahammer and chisel. 

But in any case the natural structure of the stone made it an idealmaterial for the Trilithons, or, it may be, that the Trilithons werethe natural outcome of the physical peculiarities of the rock. Thepreliminary dressing may very possibly have been effected by lightingsmall fires along the proposed line of fracture, and heating thestone, and then by pouring cold water upon it, which would originate acleavage in the grain, which would readily break away under blows fromthe heavy mauls referred to in Class V. Of the Implements. Sides andends could thus be roughly squared. 

The next point was the transportation of the rough ashlar to the site. Here the problem is not so formidable as it appears, when it isremembered that time was no object to the builders, that labour wasabundant, and that in all probability the work was undertaken underthe stimulus of religion. 

Labour, tree trunks, and stout ropes of twisted hide would have provedsufficient. It is only necessary to consider very briefly themegalithic monuments in Egypt, Assyria, and elsewhere, to see thatsuch tasks were well within the capacities of a race emerging fromcomparative savagery. There exists on the wall of a tomb at El Bershehin Egypt a very characteristic illustration of the transport of aColossus; such as are to be seen _in situ_ in Egypt to-day. Theapproximate date of this is B. C. 2700-2500, and prior to Stonehenge byabout 1000 years. 

Arrived at the site, the more skilled work of final dressing wascompleted. A close examination of the face of some of the fallenstones reveals several shallow grooves on the face with a rib orprojection between them. It has been suggested that the rough stonewas violently pounded with the heavy mauls until the surface wasbroken up and reduced to sand for a considerable depth, and the_débris_ brushed away. The projecting ridge resulting from this couldthen be cut away by hammer and stone chisel, or even by the hammeralone. 

TENONS AND MORTICES

Hitherto no word has been said as to the arrangement of mortice andtenon, by which the Trilithons are keyed together. This has been donepurposely, in order that the constructional questions relating toStonehenge should, as far as possible, be dealt with together, and indue order. In the outer circle of Trilithons each upright had twotenons worked on its apex, to bear the two lintels or horizontalstones which rested upon it. Corresponding mortices were sunk inthose stones to admit the tenons. In the case of the Trilithons of theInner Horseshoe, only one tenon on each upright was necessary. Further, the ends of the lintels of the outer circle were shaped so asto dovetail into one another, and form what is known as a "toggle"joint. This can easily be seen to-day, in the group of threeTrilithons which lie between the Altar Stone and the Hele Stone. Thiscareful arrangement, of mortice, tenon, and toggle, has doubtless verymuch to do with the comparative stability of Stonehenge at the presentday. Had these simple but effective measures not been taken, it wouldnot be exceeding the bounds of possibility to say that to-day the ruinwould have presented a mass of fallen stones, and the task of theirreconstruction would be well-nigh impossible. 

 [Illustration]

Evidently the early mason found the cutting of these tenons by nomeans an easy task, for, with two exceptions, the workmanship is notremarkable. Luckily for the observer to-day the tenon on the remainingupright of the Great Trilithon is very strongly marked, and stands outboldly on its apex, thus affording a clue to those existing on otherstones. The mortice holes were easier to accomplish. A smalldepression may have been made first of all, and then a round stoneinserted with sand and water. In this way a smooth hollow could soonbe worn. This principle is and has been applied by stone-using peoplesin all quarters of the globe. The rough dovetailing of the lintels ofthe outer circle would present no difficulty to users of the toolsalready mentioned. 

To-day the surfaces of the Sarsens bear undoubted signs of weather, but in the Stonehenge of yesterday the Sarsens were beautifullyfinished with rough tooling all over their surface. This final finishwas achieved by the Quartzite Hammers (Class IV. ). A very beautifulpiece of this work was discovered by Mr. Gowland in 1901. In theprocess of raising the upright of the Great Trilithon, a thin slab ofthat part of the stone which had been buried in the foundation becamedetached. The tooling upon this fragment is absolutely perfect, and asclean and sharp as it was when it left the hand of the craftsman aboutfour thousand years ago. So remarkable was the workmanship thatexperiments were made on pieces of Sarsen with various materials toendeavour to secure the same quality of surface, during which it wasfound that whereas the ordinary masons' chisels of to-day failed toproduce the effect, a quartzite pebble used as a tool at oncereproduced the character and surface of the original finish on theTrilithon. 

The foreign stones appear to have been treated in a very similarmanner, but it is not possible to discuss this with the same detail asin the case of the Sarsens, for the body of the rock to be dealt withvaried vastly in quality and fracture. The method of dressing bypounding was probably not adopted. Quantities of small chippings fromthe foreign stones were found in 1901, so many indeed as to justifythe claim that these stones were actually dressed on the spot, and notpartly shaped before being transported to the circle, as in the caseof the Sarsens. This at once disposes of a popular and ingenioussuggestion that the foreign stones were originally a temple elsewhere, and that in migrating to Salisbury Plain, the tribe had brought theirtemple with them. 

THE PROCESS OF ERECTION

Contrary to another cherished belief, the Sarsen Trilithons wereerected first, followed by the foreign stones. The building of thegroup was continuous and no gap separates the Trilithon from theforeign upright. Of this abundant ocular proof was forthcoming in1901, when the foundations of the great Trilithon were laid bare, andthe leaning upright restored to its original perpendicular position. When the ground was opened it was found that each upright had beendifferently bedded in the earth--and for a very good reason. The onewas twenty-nine feet eight inches long, while the other was onlytwenty-five feet. Obviously they were the two finest "grey wethers"obtainable in the flock, and because of that, they were set aside forthe most prominent place in the enclosure. The master builder decidedthat the height of this central Trilithon should be the equivalent oftwenty-one feet at the present day. Therefore it was necessary to bedone stone deeper than the other, in order that their two summitsshould be level to receive the lintel, or impost. One stone, therefore, was sunk to a depth of four feet, while the other extendeddownwards eight feet three inches. To compensate for the lack of depthin the shorter stone, its base was shaped into an irregular projectingboss to give it a greater bearing area. It was decided to raise thelarger stone first, and the foundation was dug as follows: A slantingtrench was cut with the deer's horn picks through the earth and chalk, having at its deeper end a perpendicular chalk face against which theSarsen could rest when upright. Rubble and chalk were cleared away, and the stone carefully slid down the plane to its foundation. Toraise it, now that its base rested against a solid wall of chalk, wasnot a great matter. The same ropes of hide and tree trunks which hadserved for its transport would again have come into play. Slowly itwould be levered up, and packings or wedges of wood or stone inserted. Thus inch by inch, probably, it rose higher and higher, strutted up, perhaps, by strong saplings as it reared its head above the busy crowdof builders. Blocks of Sarsens were packed beneath it to equalise thebearing, and then the excavation was filled in with chalk and rubble, which doubtless was well rammed down and consolidated with the bigsixty-pound mauls. Among the packing of chalk and rubble were found aconsiderable number of the rough implements already referred to. 

 [Illustration: The central Entrance of Stonehenge. Looking S. W. ]

The shorter upright was next set on end. A shallower excavation had tosuffice in this case, but the base of the stone, as has been alreadyintimated, was wider, and to secure greater stability blocks of Sarsenwere provided for the stone to rest on, other blocks being packed incarefully as it was raised, and curiously enough among the firmpacking were several large stone mauls, fitted in to make the wholemass solid and compact. There is no direct evidence as to the actualmethod of placing the imposts upon the uprights. It has beensuggested, and with every show of reason, that one extremity of theimposts would be raised and packed with timber. The opposite endwould then be similarly treated. In this way, by alternately raisingand wedging first one side and then the other, the impost could havebeen brought, in time, level with the summit of its upright, andlevered over on to the tenons. 

Such a method is employed by primitive races to-day. 

RAISING THE FOREIGN STONES

The five Sarsen Trilithons already mentioned were raised into positionfrom the inside of the circle. Investigation has shown this to be afact. It therefore stands to reason that the Foreign Stones wereerected last, and not first as has so often been supposed. 

This is a hard saying, for it at once negatives the picturesque legendthat the Foreign Stones were a stone circle brought from Ireland, anderected by a colonial tribe, who afterwards gave dignity to theirprimitive temple by the erection of stately Trilithons. Furthermore, the _débris_ of the ancient mason reveals chippings of Sarsen andForeign Stone intermingled so thoroughly as to preclude any idea oftwo separate periods of building. Stonehenge, therefore, was erectedat one date and continuously. It is a question, as yet, if the outerSarsen Trilithons were erected from the outside or the inside of thecircle. 

It has not been possible, in the foregoing brief description, toenter into minute detail, but it is hoped that sufficient has beensaid to show the stages by which the work of building was approached. 

First, the rough trimming of the Sarsen, as it lay upon the Down, thenits transport to the spot, its final dressing, and the preparation ofits foundation, followed by those anxious days during which thebuilders toiled as they raised it aloft; the feverish haste with whichthey rammed and packed the loose rubble about its foot, casting intheir mauls and implements to wedge and fix it securely on its base:and last of all, the final effort of raising the impost on its woodenbed, rising now on this side, now on that, as the packings wereinserted beneath the levered stone. What a contrast to the Stonehengeof to-day--abandoned and silent on the fast vanishing Plain ofSalisbury. Yesterday, it was the workplace of a teeming hive ofmasons, the air filled with the tap of the smaller hammers dressingthe stone faces, with the sullen thud of the big maul pounding theface of a newly arrived Sarsen, while the faint muffled "peck" of thedeer's horn told of trench workers dressing down a chalk face toreceive the thrust of the monolith, while high above the steady tap ofthe picks and hammers came the sounds of an unknown tongue raised nowin command, now in argument, or encouragement as the work went on. 

WHEN WAS STONEHENGE ERECTED?

Until comparatively recent years, the date of Stonehenge was a subjectfor speculation, and so fascinating did it prove that it attracted theattention of a vast number of minor authorities, who in the face of nodefinite data on which to base their theses, set the date ofStonehenge at almost any period except that to which it has beenproved to belong. 

Many decided definitely that it was of Roman origin. For the mostpart, these speculations have not been based upon the tangibleevidence of the Stones, the Tools, and the Barrows, but rather uponthe records of early historians, whose evidence in those days wasprobably not a question of first-hand information. 

After all, the objects actually exhumed from the foundations of theStones, must of necessity be the evidence of greatest importance. Whatare these objects? The following is a complete list taken from Mr. Gowland's report. 

_Excavation I. _ (Seven feet deep. )--A Roman coin of Commodus and apenny of George III. At eight inches below the turf. 

A flint hammer-stone, and a splinter of deer's horn embedded in thechalk, at a depth of two and a half feet (below datum line). 

_Excavation II. _ (Eight feet deep. )--Two, edged hammer-stones offlint, and two rounded ones of the same material, at a depth of threefeet (below datum). 

_Excavation III. _ (Eight feet three inches. )--A halfpenny of GeorgeI. , just below the turf. 

A Roman coin (sestertius of Antonia) ten inches below the turf, and apewter farthing of James II. At the same depth. 

Below this, at a depth varying from two feet to four feet, weretwenty-six axes and hammer-stones of flint, two hammer-stones ofSarsen, and a large maul of the same material weighing over sixty-fourpounds. 

A fourth excavation, known as Excavation Q, yielded at a depth ofthree feet six inches to four feet six inches, ten flint axes, onesandstone axe, nine edged flint hammer-stones, four rounded flinthammer-stones, ten Sarsen hammers, and seven mauls, weighing fromthirty-six to fifty-eight and a half pounds. Large numbers of deer'shorn splinters were discovered in this excavation. 

_Excavation V. _ (Eight feet deep. )--Four axes of flint, one of Sarsen, three edged hammer-stones of flint, one Sarsen and one Diabasehammer-stone, were found at depths varying between two feet and fourfeet. 

One Sarsen hammer-stone was found under the base of the foreignupright, which stands in front of the upright monolith of the GreatTrilithon, at a depth of six feet below datum. 

In this last excavation, at a depth of about seven feet, the slab oftooled Sarsen already referred to was discovered, and on it a verysmall stain of copper carbonate. The depth at which this stone wasdiscovered precludes the possibility of metal being thus sunk by molesor rabbits. 

This list, like the details of the foreign stones, may not be ofgeneral interest, but it affords a very powerful argument for the dateof the structure. 

To summarise the "finds. " The metal objects found consist of variouscoins ranging from Roman to recent times, about half a dozen innumber, all coming from the surface, and none at a greater depth thanten inches. In other words, they may be classed as "superficial"finds, of very little value; the more so, as some of the more recentcoins were found at a greater depth than those of earlier date. Theonly other trace of metal is the small green stain upon the slab ofSarsen already alluded to. This stain can only have been caused by thecontact with the stone of a small fragment of copper, which appears tohave been entirely decomposed, as no traces of it could be found. Itmust have been very minute, since had it exceeded one-eighth of aninch, it could not have escaped the mesh of the sieve employed insearching for it. Clearly, therefore, it could not have been animplement; perhaps it was an ornament. 

On the other hand, the Stone Implements discovered number one hundredand fifteen, and were found scattered through the excavations at alldepths, and even under the foundations of one of the foreign stones. 

Probably the entire area of Stonehenge, if opened up, would yield overseven thousand examples. 

The evidence of the Stone Implements goes far to give the date of thebuilding. Horn picks similar to those employed at Stonehenge have beenfound in considerable numbers at Grimes Graves, where they were usedfor excavating chalk in order to win flint for implement making. Otherpicks have been found at Cissbury, near Worthing, where similar chalkworkings existed. This resemblance between the finds at Stonehenge, Cissbury, and Grimes Graves, does not, however, end with the picks; itis repeated in the similarity of the Implements of Stone, those atStonehenge being in some cases the counterpart of those found in theother localities. 

The Cissbury Implements have been assigned "to the Stone Age, or atany rate to the Age of Flint manufacture" by General Pitt Rivers, whodiscovered and reported upon them. Canon Greenwell describes theImplements from Grimes Graves as belonging to "a period when bothmetal and stone were in use. "

It is obvious, therefore, that the similarity between the tools usedin the construction of Stonehenge, and those used in other parts ofEngland for similar purposes, and definitely assigned to their periodin the history of Man, demonstrates very clearly that the date of thebuilding of Stonehenge may fairly be placed at a time when the use ofstone was continuous with a partial use of bronze; and that ifStonehenge is not a Neolithic structure, it must certainly belong tothe Early Bronze period. It might be urged that the roughness of theTools, coupled with the marked absence of bronze, indicates an evenearlier period than that already stated, but it must be rememberedthat the form of the implement is not always a criterion of its age. Moreover, bronze tools were not necessary for the dressing of theStones, though had they been plentiful, it is more than probable thatsome might have been either lost or dropped during the work, and wouldhave come to light during the excavations. 

Yet another sidelight upon the date of Stonehenge is to be found inthe presence of chippings of foreign stone found inside some of theneighbouring Bronze Age barrows, which prove conclusively that thebarrows must have been built at a date later than the erection ofStonehenge. 

To many people, the mention of a period of culture, such as the EarlyBronze Age, may not convey very much. To give a date in years, on theother hand, is not always easy. The march of culture in those days wasslow, and the gradation from the use of one material to another veryprolonged, often reaching into centuries. Consequently any date mustonly be approximate and given under great reserve. The late Sir JohnEvans has suggested that the Bronze Age in this country might be setat 1400 B. C. Continental authorities set the age for countries inEurope somewhat earlier, at about 2000 B. C. This is a perfectlynatural conclusion, for it is an ascertained fact that the flow ofcivilisation was from East to West, as has always been the case, andthat, therefore, it is only to be expected that the Bronze Age of theContinent would ante-date that of England by some centuries. 

But, it is obvious from our present knowledge of Stonehenge that theBronze Age was hardly established in the sense as used by Sir JohnEvans. Probably at the time of the building of Stonehenge bronze wasonly known as a rare substance, whose very scarcity would make itvaluable as material for ornaments. It would not, therefore, beinconsistent with existing evidence to set the date of Stonehengeroughly at from 1700-1800 years B. C. 

WHAT WAS STONEHENGE?

The Megalithic Stone structures, which exist not only in this countrybut also throughout the Continent of Europe, are a special feature ofthat period known as the Neolithic Age. As has already been shown, Stonehenge represents a very late type, erected at a time when thebronze culture had begun to overlap that of polished stone(Neolithic). 

These stone structures can be roughly divided into three classes. 

1. Single upright stones, or _menhirs_ (Celtic = "high stone"), whichmay be commemorative of some great event or personage. 

2. _Dolmens_ (Celtic = "table stone"), in which a stone slab is settable-wise on three or four uprights. 

3. _Cromlechs_ (Celtic = "stone circle"). Circles enclosing barrows ordolmens. 

Stonehenge is a highly specialised example of this last class. Roundthese cromlechs popular myth and superstition have crystallisedthemselves into tales of the devil and his works (as in the case ofStonehenge), ogres, giants, dwarfs, Sabbath breakers, and infidels, turned to stone. In nearly every case there is some story of thesupernatural, which cannot be accidental, but which must have its rootin past religious observance. 

It is a recognised fact that the worship of stones is more widelydistributed than any other primitive cult. Its almost universaldistribution can be referred to the tendency of the half savage mindto confuse persons and things, and from seeming likeness of theinanimate to the animate, to endue the lifeless object with the virtueand power of the living object. This mental outlook is betterunderstood in practice than in theory. A Melanesian native may comeacross a large stone, lying upon the top of a number of smallerstones. It suggests to him a sow with her litter of pigs, and he atonce makes an offering to it, in the hope that he will secure pigs. Indetermining the function of Stonehenge, therefore, it will be usefulto compare it with similar existing stone circles. The largest ofthese in this country is Avebury, not many miles distant fromStonehenge. Unluckily, to-day it is so ruined that its formergreatness is hardly to be distinguished by the unskilled observer. Formerly comprising some hundreds of unhewn Sarsen stones, barely ascore remain in position at the present day. In Avebury, as it was, can be found the early typic model of which Stonehenge is the finalproduct. The use of the circle as a basic form is common to both. InAvebury the Sarsen is a rough unhewn monolith; in Stonehenge it issquared, dressed, and crowned with its lintel. All evidences of a slowevolution from Neolithic to Bronze culture. But whereas the circlealone is used at Avebury, Stonehenge has in addition the horseshoeseries of Trilithons and foreign uprights, and in this particulardiffers from all other Cromlechs in this country. It is the climax ofthe Megalithic monument, and its use very certainly must have beenconnected with the religion of the race which set it up. It was, inshort, a religious structure, probably used for the observation of thesun, and possibly connected with "nature worship. "

The fact that the sun rises over the Hele Stone on the SummerSolstice, and that it can be observed in direct alignment with thecentre of the Great Trilithon, can hardly be due to accident. Chancemight bring two stones into such a position on the Solstice, but, inthis case, the entire monument is so arranged as to place the risingsun in a due line with its axis on this particular day. 

It will be well to consider the facts which must have been within theknowledge of the builders of Stonehenge, and to trace as far as may betheir reasoning in the building of it. 

To begin with, it is almost certain that at the time of building, there existed some primitive form of priesthood, or body of "wisemen. " This is quite compatible with the culture of the period. Theexistence of the Neolithic Long Barrows is sufficient evidence thatman had, by this time, arrived at that particular culture which graspsthe existence of a "spirit. "

Death only terminated the existence of the body, and not that of thespirit. It was even able to return and enter another body, say that ofa new-born infant, an animal, or tree. And being after the manner ofhuman beings, spirits could understand human language and becomeaccessible to human petitions. Thus a spirit might even prove apowerful friend or enemy. And the dwellings of these spirits would bethose great powers which meant so much to a primitive people; the sun, moon, stars, rivers, forests, and clouds; from which arose the twogreat classes of spirit, the "ancestral" and the "spirit of nature. "From this general body was developed a regular hierarchy of good andevil spirits, gradually ascending to the conception of one greatcreative spirit, or superior deity. 

 [Illustration: Stonehenge. Looking N. E. From the altar stone towards the hele stone. ]

To these early men, therefore, there was always the problem ofmaintaining diplomatic relations with the unseen forces about them, and for this purpose a primitive priesthood became necessary. Thechieftain would manage the temporal affairs of the tribe, thosespiritual would be relegated to a special body of wise men, orintermediaries. These men would certainly, from the nature of theircalling, be not so much men of action as men of learning, therecorders of history and tradition, students of the natural phenomena, and of all those signs and portents which concerned the good of thecommunity. One of the earliest facts which impressed itself upon themmust have been the horizon. It was above that horizon that the sunrose in the morning, and below that horizon that it sank to rest atnight; further, when the sun had set the moon and stars peeped up fromthat line, and sank below it, all in due course. These were factseasily apprehended. The common people even had grasped them, but thewise men learned more. As the link between man and the spirits of thestars, sun, and moon, they came to recognise that the sun did not riseover the same spot on the horizon every day. In the summer it roseroughly in the north-east and set in the north-west. In the winter, onthe other hand, it rose in the south-east and set in the south-west. Moreover, these variations would be found to be regular and recurring. The sun would appear to move every day after the Solstice towards theeast, and from the east towards the south, back again towards theeast, and once more northwards. A staff set in the ground woulddetermine the range of the sun's apparent journey and its extremelimits or turning points. This would fix the Summer Solstice in thenorth-east, and the winter Solstice in the south-east. Even suchsimple learning as this was probably beyond the capacity of thetribesman, whose daily duties took him afield early and late. But itwas to his interest that all such observations should be entrusted toindividuals who could keep definite count, and know exactly at whatpart of the horizon the sun might be expected to appear. In this waythe solar year might be mapped out and divided into Solstices andEquinoxes. Nor was this a mere arbitrary arrangement. The good of thecommunity depended upon it. The agriculturalist depended upon the sunfor his crops. It was essential that he should know the correct timeto plough, to sow, and to reap. Without the aid of the "wise men" hehad no means of knowing what day it was, or how much longer he couldcount upon the sun for his primitive agriculture. The "wise man, " onhis side, realised the importance of his knowledge, and doubtless usedit to his own advantage, thus winning support and respect from hissimple followers. 

Temples, or stone circles corresponding to temples, might face eitherto the north-east or south-east, for the Summer or Winter Solstice, marking the end of the sun's journey, or they might be directedtowards the east, when the sun would appear in the appointed spottwice in the year; once in his journey southward, and once on hisreturn; in other words, at the two Equinoxes. Stonehenge is soarranged as to mark the sun at its Summer Solstice. 

But, interesting as these speculations of the Sun Temple theory maybe, the facts recorded by Sir Norman Lockyer in 1901 are even more so, as by independent calculations he has arrived at the same date forStonehenge as the archæologist. Briefly his task was to calculate theextent of the change in the obliquity of the ecliptic since thebuilding of Stonehenge. The whole process involves a certain knowledgeof astronomical operations and calculations, and the reader isreferred to Sir Norman Lockyer's book for the actual steps taken toarrive at his conclusion. But on astronomical grounds pure and simplehe was able to fix the date of Stonehenge as "lying between 1900-1500B. C. "

It is at all events interesting that his results should tally withthose of Mr. Gowland who, working on entirely different lines, came topractically the same conclusion. 

Having proceeded thus far it is well, however, not to insist toostrongly on the "Sun Temple" theory, on the lines already sketchedout. It should be always remembered that the "Hele Stone" is anunworked stone, which stands without the circle, and does not form asymmetrical integer in the structure. Being unwrought it may have beenerected at an earlier date, and might belong to an earlier culture. It is possible that Stonehenge may have been a later addition to theHele Stone. Many of the arguments relating to the "wise men" and theobservation of sunrise are matters of analogy rather than directproof, and though coincidences are ever suggestive and fascinating, they cannot always be entirely accepted as proof. While it is quitepossible that the Hele Stone was erected to mark the Solstice and toafford a definite means of determining the year, this may not justifythe theory that the entire structure was an astronomical observatoryand dedicated entirely to sun worship, with elaborate ramifications, and "observation" mounds for celestial phenomena. Weighing, therefore, the archæologist's and astronomer's evidence, it is fairly safe toconclude that Stonehenge can be dated at about B. C. 1700, and that itsuse was religious; probably a temple, in which the sun may have beenadored in some way. As yet, however, the actual nature of that worshipis a matter for speculation. It is of the utmost importance in dealingwith a question like this, to observe the greatest caution and tomaintain a strictly detached position. The astronomer, archæologist, geologist, and anthropologist have each their share in the solution ofthe problem, but each also has the bias due to his own specialscience. The mineralogist solves the problem of the Foreign Stones bysuggesting a "glacial drift" without reference to the geologist, whowill tell him that the local gravels contain no pebbles which belongto those classes of stones known as Foreign Stones. The astronomer, inhis quest for alignments, will convert barrows into observationmounds, without reference to their uses and contents, and withoutallowing for the ignorance of the period, while the anthropologistoften allows his imagination to carry him beyond the limits of actualfact. Time, and constant careful investigation, will pierce some ofthe mists which must always shroud the origin of Stonehenge, but thetrue solution will be for the field archæologist, rather than to theweaver of theories or the student in his library. 

The circular form, the horseshoe form, the unhewn Hele Stone, allbespeak religious origin. These are actual, visual facts, as is thesunrise on the Solstice. Around these arises a clamour of conflictingclaims, each possibly containing much of real importance, eachprobably expressing some clue to guide the future worker on his way, but none containing that element of finality which is once and for alltime to quell the storm of controversy which has ever raged about thisancient monument of the plain. 

THE DRUID QUESTION

Perhaps one of the most persistent traditions which has been passed onfrom generation to generation is that which connects Stonehenge withthe Druids. There is, indeed, a vast literature on the subject ofDruidism, but the actual knowledge of the subject is limited, and theentire question is very obscure. Much of the information existing isderived from a time when Christianity had long been established. Theearly Celtic religion has in fact been overlaid and embellished by somany later theories as to be particularly confusing to the modernstudent. Benedictine historians have discovered in Druidism traces ofrevealed religion by the simple process of confusing similarity withidentity. The Gaul adored the oak tree, therefore this must have beena far-off remembrance of the plains of Mamre. 

Another class of writers have invented for the Druids the mission ofpreserving in the West the learning of Phoenicia and Egypt. The cultsof Baal and Moloch have been grafted upon them, and so forth, untilthe very Druid himself is lost in a mass of crystallisations fromwithout. The insular Druids, to which our national traditions refer, were far more likely to be mere "wise men, " or "witch doctors, " withperhaps a spice of the conjuror. This, at all events, seems to be thecase at the time when we first acquire any positive informationconcerning them. Theirs it would be to summon the rain clouds and toterrify the people by their charms. The Chief Druid of Tara, deckedout in golden ear-clasps and his torque of heavy gold, is shown us asa "leaping juggler" as he tosses swords and balls in the air, "andlike the buzzing of bees on a beautiful day is the motion of eachpassing the other. "

Amazing as is the bulk which has been written about the Druids, theirbeliefs, knowledge, and ethics, it seems even more remarkable that somuch should have been said to connect them with the building of thestone circles which they are credited with having constructed asastronomical observatories and temples. As has already been indicated, Stonehenge belongs to an epoch far earlier than any Druidism of whichrecord remains. This fact rests upon the evidence of both thearchæologist and the astronomer. It is, therefore, not a littlepuzzling that Sir Norman Lockyer, after fixing the date of Stonehengeat about 1700 B. C. , should cite the Druids and their late Celtic cultin dealing with a monument which, on his own showing, was built inearly Bronze times. There must exist a very wide gap of anything fromseven hundred to a thousand years between the "May Year" Druids ofwhom he writes, and the builders of Stonehenge, and an intervalpossibly as great or even greater between Stonehenge and Avebury andthose other north-east and south-east temples to which he attributes aDruidic form of worship. It is even a matter of grave question if therace who built the Stone Circles was not entirely different to thelate Celtic inhabitants of the plain. Avebury has been classed as aNeolithic monument, built by the "long-headed" race whose remains areusually found in the Long Barrows; Stonehenge belongs to a bronzeperiod, but at a very early date in that culture; its builders wouldprobably belong to the round-headed type of man whose barrows arestudded very closely round about it. 

THE BARROWS OF SALISBURY PLAIN

It is impossible to approach Stonehenge without passing numbers ofburial mounds or Barrows. North, south, east, or west they meet theeye, some singly, some in groups. In the immediate neighbourhood ofStonehenge there are two Long Barrows and three hundred Round ones, or, in other words, one-fourth of the Barrows in Wiltshire are to befound within a short distance of the Altar Stone of Stonehenge. Thiscannot altogether be accidental. The suggestion at once rises to themind that these burial places clustering about the circle ofStonehenge are strongly reminiscent of the graveyard about the villagechurch of to-day. The Rev. William Gilpin, writing in 1798, when asyet the Plain was unbroken by the plough and cultivation, recognisedthis fact at once. "All the Plain, at least that part of it nearStonehenge, is one vast cemetery. . . . From many places we counted abovea hundred of them at once; sometimes as if huddled together, withoutany design, in other places rising in a kind of order. Most of themare placed on the more elevated parts of the Plain, and generally insight of the great Temple. " At one time it was considered that theseBarrows were the monuments erected to the memory of warriors who hadfallen in battle. Though this popular conception is still current, itseems hardly likely that a victorious army would tarry after the daywas won to erect these laborious monuments, all of which are designedand laid out with no little skill. A far more reasonable hypothesis, and one more in accordance with fact, is that they represent thegraves of exalted personages, and that their erection extended over aconsiderable period. 

The Barrows may be roughly divided into two classes: (i) the LongBarrow; (ii) the Round Barrow, with its three variants, the Bowl, theBell, and Disc Barrow. 

The Long Barrow is the older form, and may usually be referred to theNeolithic Age. Wiltshire is specially rich in Long Barrows. There areno fewer than seventy-two within its limits, and fourteen others havebeen destroyed within the past century. They are usually foundstanding alone, and very seldom is it possible to find two of themwithin sight. They are also, as a rule, found upon rising ground. Their construction is somewhat curious. They vary from two to fourhundred feet in length, thirty to fifty feet in breadth, and fromthree to twelve feet in height. The earth of which they are composedwas dug out from a trench on either side of the mound. This trenchdid not, however, continue round the two ends of the barrow. They lieusually, but not always, east and west, and the eastern end is higherthan that at the west. Within the higher end is the sepulchraldeposit. 

 [Illustration: A Map of Stonehenge Down]

Two such Long Barrows are within a short distance of Stonehenge. Nometal objects have been found in these Long Barrows, thoughleaf-shaped flint arrow-heads, most delicately chipped, are almostinvariably met with, and occasionally rough, hand-made, undecoratedpottery. Most Long Barrows have been used for "secondary interments, "_i. E. _ other bodies at a later date have been buried in them. Thesesecondary interments are sometimes associated with bronze or eveniron. Interesting as the Long Barrows are, however, they are onlymentioned as being, so far as present information goes, the earliestform of regular sepulture in this country. It is highly improbablethat they have any connection with Stonehenge, which must have beenerected at an age when the Long Barrow with its inhumed body waspassing away, and the plain was being peopled with a new race, the"round-headed" people, whose method of burial was considerablydifferent. 

THE ROUND BARROWS

The visitor to Stonehenge has only to turn his back to the "Friar'sHeel, " as he stands on the Altar Stone, and he will see a typical"group" of Round Barrows, seven in number. Let him remember, then, that Wiltshire boasts of two thousand similar sepulchral mounds; andthat he can, within an easy distance of Stonehenge, find three hundredof them, while in the same radius he will only encounter two LongBarrows. 

The proportion, therefore, of round to long is considerable, viz. 1:150. The figures of round and long for the entire county areeighty-six Long to two thousand Round Barrows, or 1:24. In other wordsthere are five times more Round Barrows in the Stonehenge District, than there are anywhere else in Wiltshire, taking Long and RoundBarrows together. This disproportion in distribution cannot altogetherbe the result of accident; it must bespeak a special attraction forthe spot by the builders of the Barrows, and from the very fact thatStonehenge was erected at a time when these people were first arrivingon Salisbury Plain, it does not seem extravagant to claim that theyhad some reason for wishing their remains finally to rest within easydistance of what must have been to them a sacred spot. 

As already noted, these Round Barrows can be divided into threeclasses: 1. The simple Bowl-shaped Barrow, that most frequentlyencountered, having a diameter of from twenty to sixty feet, and aheight of from three to five feet. 2. The Bell-shaped Barrow whichreaches its highest development on the plain round Stonehenge, and ismore common and more beautiful in Wiltshire than in any other part ofEngland. 

 [Illustration: Plans and Sections of Bowl Bell & Disc barrows. ]

Indeed, the Stonehenge Bell Barrows are the very crown of theSepulchral Mound on Salisbury Plain. Unlike the Long Barrow, they areentirely surrounded by a circular ditch, from which material for theMound has been excavated; within the ditch is a circular area levelwith the turf, from which the mound rises from five to fifteen feet ina graceful conical form. The diameter will be upwards of one hundredfeet, so that the entire structure is considerably larger and moreimpressive than the Bowl Barrow. 

3. "The Disc Barrow, " so named by Dr. Thurnam, the great Barrowexpert, from its resemblance to a flat dish surrounded by a deep rim. It consists of a circular area, level with surrounding turf, having adiameter of about one hundred feet. This circular area is enclosed bya ditch with a bank on the outside, both usually very regular and wellconstructed. Within, at the centre, is a mound not more than a foothigh containing the sepulchral deposit. Occasionally there are morethan one of these minute mounds, which often escape notice by reasonof their insignificance. 

It is very significant that the Disc Barrow is more plentiful aroundStonehenge than in any other part of Wiltshire. Elsewhere they arecomparatively rare. 

In the "Round" Barrows it is not uncommon to find that the body hasbeen cremated before interment. In the Bowl and Bell types, aboutthree out of every four bodies have been so disposed of. In Dorset therelative interments, by cremation or otherwise, is four out of five, while in Cornwall cremation is almost universal. 

Almost without exception, however, the Disc Barrows contain onlycremated remains. The existing impression is that these three forms ofRound Barrow were in use at one and the same time, but that the BowlBarrow was the earliest, followed by the Bell, and that the Disc isthe latest form of all. From construction, if for no other reason, this hypothesis seems perfectly tenable. 

The Barrows on the Plain were built of the materials most easilyaccessible, mould, chalk, and flints, with occasional fragments ofSarsen. As has already been recorded, fragments of Foreign Stone fromStonehenge have been found in one of those forming the group which layimmediately south-west of the circle, but now destroyed bycultivation. The method of procedure was simple. A grave would in manycases be dug sufficiently long to contain the body if buried byinhumation in a crouching position. This grave would vary in depthfrom a few inches to six feet. Sometimes blocks of Sarsen would bebuilt over the body to protect it. The crouching posture is speciallynoteworthy. The knees are drawn up to the trunk and the legs bent onthe thighs, while the arms are closed towards the chest, and the handsover the face. There has been some speculation as to the significanceof this particular attitude. Some have seen in it that of an unborninfant, others the natural position in death, others again havemaintained it was the primæval posture of sleep. It seems quitepossible, however, that the position may be due to mere utilitarianmotives as being more compact for the purpose of burial. The lie ofthe inhumed skeleton is usually with the head to the north; exceptionsshow that the east, south-east, and south-west, have sometimes beenselected, but never due south. Interments with the head to the west, as in Christian burial, are very rare. 

When burial by cremation took place, it is evident that the actualrite of burning took place elsewhere, and that the calcined remainswere brought to the plain for burial. In some cases the ashes wereconveyed to the spot wrapped in skins, or possibly in some rude formof cloth; more frequently in Wiltshire they were deposited in cineraryurns. The proportion of urn burial is as three to one. This method ofconducting the cremation at one spot, and the subsequent removal ofthe ashes to another, generally considered sacred, is not uncommon, even at the present day. 

 [Illustration: The 'Stonehenge Urn'. ]

The urns were sometimes placed upright, at others they were inverted, the latter being the more common custom. The mouths of these urns werefrequently stopped with clay, or closely packed flints. The urns varyin size considerably from nine inches to fifteen in height, and fromabout a pint to more than a bushel in capacity. A veritable giantrather over two feet high, the largest of its kind hitherto found inWiltshire, is preserved in the Salisbury and South Wilts Museum. Another only two inches less in height was recovered from a Barrowwithin a third of a mile from Stonehenge. 

In most cases various objects were found associated with theseinterments, such as drinking-cups, food vessels, incense-cups, weaponsand ornaments. 

 [Illustration: Beaker. Normanton Dn. ]

 [Illustration: 'Grape' Cup. Normanton Down. ]

The fictile vessels are all of a very primitive nature, being entirelymoulded by hand, and showing no trace of the use of the potter'swheel. The body consists of a mixture of clay mixed with fine pebbles, or pounded flint, and sometimes ground chalk or shells. For finer worksharp sand has been employed. The firing is most primitive andimperfect. After drying in the sun the vessel was probably baked inthe ashes of a fire of brushwood piled over and about it. Thedecoration, like the other processes, bespeaks a simple culture. It isusually in the nature of lines, or dots, varied now and then by thumbmarks, many exhibit the impress of the thumbnail. A pointed stickwould produce lines on the soft body of the vessel, so would a twistedcord, while a rude comb of points inserted in a stick, gave a finedotted line. Circles, animal forms, or arabesques do not appear atall. 

 [Illustration: Unique variety of 'Incense cup'. Normanton Down. ]

The Cinerary Urns and Incense Cups were strictly sepulchral; the FoodVessels and Drinking Cups seem also to have been reserved for funeralrites, as they are not found apart from the Barrows, and placed besidethe dead ceremonially, to contain provision for the Spirit in itsvoyage to the distant land to which it had departed. Both Food Vesselsand Drinking Cups are rare in Wiltshire. Two were presented to theSalisbury Museum in 1915, both of which came from Hampshire. A similarvessel was found at Bulford in 1910, and is in the same collection. 

The "finds" in the Round Barrows are not, however, confined topottery. Weapons, some of stone, some of bronze, and occasionalornaments of gold and amber shed further light upon this departed raceof Salisbury Plain. Although this people has been referred to as a"Bronze Age" people, it does not follow that their weapons were madeexclusively of that material. In all ages there is a perceptibleoverlap from the former culture. In much later days the bow and arrowlingered on long after the introduction of fire-arms; so, too, inthese early times, the stone implement was used side by side with themore recent metal one. Axes both perforated and unperforated have beenfound, but it is distinctly significant of an advancing culture, thatthe perforated axes outnumber the older form. Several of these stonehammer-axes have been found associated with bronze daggers and celts, showing that the use of stone and bronze was contemporaneous. 

Dagger blades of flint have also been found in barrows, though notcommonly. Four such blades, which might perhaps have been javelinheads, were found in one barrow at Winterbourne Stoke. They representa very high standard of workmanship, and elegance of form and finish. Three are of a delicate leaf-shape, while the fourth islozenge-shaped. Flint arrow-heads when found are always finely barbed. The bronze objects, however, are in excess of those of stone, thusshowing that the new bronze was displacing the older flint implement. Moreover, all the bronze weapons are of an early type. This is of someconsiderable importance, since it would seem to indicate that theBarrows were erected very shortly after Stonehenge, which it will beremembered has been referred to an early period of the Bronze Age. Certainly only a very short interval separates the completion ofStonehenge and the building of the Barrows; or to put it in otherwords, before Stonehenge was built there only existed two, or perhapsthree, Long Barrows upon the Plain; but when it was finished, Barrowsto the number of three hundred grew up around it, and all theseBarrows, from their contents, belong to a period almost identical withthat of the Stone Circle itself. 

 [Illustration: Flint dagger. Stonehenge Dn. ]

 [Illustration: Hammer of oolitic stone. ]

 [Illustration: Flat bronze celt. Normanton Down. ]

No other Barrows in Wiltshire have been so productive of bronzedaggers as those about Stonehenge. In some cases it has been possibleto recover portions of the ornamental sheaths in which they lay. Theirhandles were of wood, strengthened occasionally with an oval pommel ofbone. In some cases, gold pins have been hammered into the wood toform a zig-zag pattern. 

Personal ornaments also occur among the Barrow finds; more usuallythey are of amber, sometimes of gold, and occasionally of bronze. 

Ornaments of amber have been found in thirty-three barrows; thequality of the material is usually red and transparent, thoughsometimes a paler variety has been employed. These ornaments aremostly necklaces, either of beads, or of graduated plates perforatedand strung together. One found at Lake consisted of nearly two hundredbeads and plates, and when worn must have extended halfway down to thewaist. 

 [Illustration]

 [Illustration: Gold plated cone. ]

 [Illustration: Gold Plate. Normanton Down. ]

Ornaments of gold were found in seven barrows. Many of these werebuilt up upon a wooden mould, the gold being hammered on, and fastenedby indentation. 

THE MEN OF THE BARROWS

It is only natural that the appearance of the men who lived at thisremote age should attract some attention. Were they tall or short, dark or fair? What manner of man was it who went armed with the bronzedagger and wore the ornaments above described? Of the crematedremains, of course, nothing can be said; but the burials by inhumationwhich took place concurrently with those of the Cinerary Urn, furnishcertain data from which it is possible to gather some idea as to thephysical stature of the man of that day. Taking fifty-two measurementsof bodies as a basis, the man of the Long Barrow would stand five feetsix inches, while the man of the Round Barrow would be three inchestaller. But it is in the shape of the head, even more than in theheight, that the people of the Long Barrow differ from those of theRound. The man of the Long Barrow was long-headed (_dolicocephalic_)while those of the Round Barrows were round-headed (_brachycephalic_). It must not, however, be imagined that there is any special connectionbetween a long head and a long barrow, or a round head and a roundbarrow. The point of special importance is that the Long-Headed Racewas the earlier, and that it was followed by a Round-Headed Race. Sucha state of things is after all perfectly within the range of facts asknown to-day. The early race, comparatively short, and armed only withstone weapons, must in the struggle for existence, have given place toa taller and more powerful people, provided with metal and possessedof a higher culture. There is no proof that the early race wasexterminated by the bronze-using people. It is far more probable thata similar condition existed to that which obtains to-day in America, where the stone-using aborigines are slowly vanishing, and givingplace to an Eastern invasion which has gradually displaced them. Andwhence came this powerful dominant race? It may safely be assumed thatit came from the East. In this country the wave of Conquest has alwaysflowed from east to westwards. Further, the man of the Long Barrowhimself came from the East and displaced the earlier Palæolithicdweller about the close of the last Glacial Epoch, only in his turn togive place to the succeeding wave of taller and more alert settlerswho followed him. These again melted away before the Roman, the Saxon, the Dane, and Norman, who in due course swept westward to these Isles, and similarly displaced one another. There is a recognised "MegalithicRoute, " as it is called, marked by huge stone monuments of the natureof Stonehenge, which, starting in India, can be traced to Persia, Palestine, Arabia, Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Spain, Portugal, andBrittany, finally crossing the Channel to Devon and Cornwall. It mustnot be understood that these circles were all of them temples, or thatthey all belong to the Bronze Age. Many of them were merely stones setup round a Long Barrow. Aristotle states that the Iberians were in thehabit of placing as many stones round the tomb of a dead warrior as hehad slain enemies. A similar practice existed among the Australianaborigines. At all events the practice of erecting circular stonestructures in all parts of the world seems to link together allprimitive peoples of every age into one common chain of ideas, and ofthose customs which are the natural outcome of them. The chain itselflengthens till it touches the higher and more specialised builders, inwhose highly-finished work the early ideal may yet be traced. 

The early race which built the vast circle or cromlech of Aveburyfinds a very fitting echo in the later race which set up Stonehenge;just as in Brittany the rude and unhewn menhir of yesterday, set up tocommemorate a fallen chieftain, finds its elaborated and wroughtcounterpart in the Nelson column of to-day. 

Some light is cast upon the existence of these two peoples, thelong-headed and the round-headed, by Cæsar, who refers to the formeras an aboriginal pastoral people, while the latter are described ascolonists from Belgic Gaul, and agriculturists. This distinctionbetween the herdsman and the agriculturalist is quite in accordancewith the stages of culture known and recognised by the archæologist. Apastoral race is ever more primitive and lower in the scale than onewhich has solved the problem of husbandry and acquired the verymaterial advantages of a settled habitation, in contradistinction tothe nomadic existence of the shepherd. 

Tacitus also describes these two races, and points out that while theherdsmen were fair, the tillers of the soil were dark and that theirhair was curly. He was particularly struck, too, by the physicalresemblance between the inhabitants of Iberia and the fair-haired raceof the south and south-east of Britain, while he considered thedark-haired race was more akin to the people of the opposite coast ofGaul. 

Certainly the Iberian skull inclines to length, while that of Gaul isbroad and short, and these physical peculiarities, much modifiedperhaps, prevail even to-day. It would seem, therefore, that thepractice of building stone circles originated with the fair-hairedpastoral race which had passed over from Europe to the West ofEngland, but that Stonehenge is the work of a later dark-haired peoplewho arrived from Gaul, with a higher and more organised civilisation, and that it is due to this that Stonehenge possesses those specialfeatures of wrought stone, and the horseshoe, which are not to befound in any of the earlier monuments of the shepherd race. Havingerected Stonehenge, and possessed themselves of the land, thereligious associations of the spot very probably impelled them tosleep their last sleep within easy distance of it. It must not besupposed that by so doing they regarded Stonehenge as a definiteSepulchral Monument: rather would it have been somewhat of the samespirit which even at the present day led to the burial of the heart ofa well-known peer in the Garden of Gethsemane. 

Subsequently other forms of worship, such, for example, as Druidism, may have been practised at Stonehenge; but of these it is beyond thequestion to speak. These priests, whatever they may have been, werenot the originators or builders of the circle, they merely used it fortheir own purposes; and their usages will in no way affect the centralfacts of the Stonehenge of Yesterday. 

VALEDICTORY

There is a certain sense of relief, not untinged with reluctance, onlaying down the pen after dealing seriously with so solemn a subjectas Stonehenge. The feeling of relief is akin to that of the schoolboywhose task is done, and who is free to give vent to his animal spiritsunchecked by the hand of his master. The feeling of reluctance is thatwhich this same master must feel when he finally takes off his cap andgown and becomes as other men, his brief authority gone with them. Capand gown are laid aside, and the present writer can now speak with hisreaders freely, and offer perhaps some few words of practical advice. The foremost question will surely be "How shall I get to Stonehenge?"

The answer largely depends upon the constitution and habits of thequerist. For the motorist, the way is clear: he will choose the bestroad, or his chauffeur will do it for him; but it is possible evenwith a motor to secure a little variety on the road. An excellentroute is to follow the main road from Salisbury to Amesbury, passingOld Sarum, a very considerable earthwork of Roman if not earlierorigin. This road will give the motorist a fine idea of what thePlain once was, with its wide expanses of undulating land. Militaryrequirements have broken up what the farmer had spared, but evento-day the Plain has a character of its own, and forms a fittingprelude to a visit to the "Stones. " Passing through Amesbury, thecircle is soon within sight. Unluckily the Stones do not appear toadvantage from this approach. The best view of them is from Lake Down, which may be obtained if the return journey is made along the AvonValley by Normanton and Wilsford, Woodford, and Durnford. In any casebarrows will be seen on every side, particularly in the neighbourhoodof Normanton and Wilsford. 

Those who can walk, and who are able to be afoot for about ten miles, should follow the road up the valley from Stratford-sub-Castle, crossing the river either at Stratford or Upper Woodford, visitingStonehenge and then Amesbury, thence by train to Salisbury. Allowanceshould be made for the fact that the railway station is some distancefrom the town. 

Is there anything else to see? Plenty. As already stated there is OldSarum, which is perhaps rather too big an undertaking to be crowdedinto the same day as Stonehenge. All the churches along the valley areinteresting. Stratford has its quaint hour-glass stand in the villagepulpit. Heale House, where Charles II. Lay in the "hiding-hole" somefour or five days. Great Durnford Church, with its fine Norman doors. Amesbury, home of the adorable Kitty Bellairs, Duchess of Queensbury, and patron of Gay, who wrote the Beggar's Opera under her roof, andthe church (early English) all make pleasant breaks in the journey. 

The bulk of the objects found at Stonehenge, and in the Barrows on thePlain, belong to the Wiltshire Archæological Society, and arepreserved in their collection at Devizes. Visitors to Salisbury willfind the journey by train somewhat lengthy, but it should not beneglected by the antiquary. 

Some very fine cinerary urns and Barrow pottery from the Plain, together with models, and a reconstruction of Stonehenge afterStukeley, are to be found in the Salisbury, South Wilts, and BlackmoreCollections, at Salisbury. 

It is seldom that the eye of the artist, as well as that of thearchæologist is to be found in one and the same individual. Mr. Heywood Sumner, F. S. A. , to whom I am indebted for far more assistancein this volume than his beautiful and characteristic penwork, hasseldom been so happy in his choice of illustration, for Stonehenge isone of those subjects which belongs to him of right, by virtue of thatunderstanding draughtsmanship which he has applied with such valuableresults to the "Earthworks of Cranbourne Chase" and elsewhere. Readers are specially asked to give his plans kindly attention. Theyare based upon the Ordnance Survey Maps, with the sanction of theController of H. M. Stationery Office. They are far more interesting, and less fatiguing, than the usual guide book production. Thebibliography of Stonehenge is frankly too heavy a subject to attempteven briefly. A complete bibliography arranged under authors' namesalphabetically by W. Jerome Harrison, F. G. S. (1901, Devizes), will befound quite solid reading in itself. Readers anxious to extend theirinformation, would do well to study Mr. Gowland's Report in"Archæologia, " 1902, side by side with Sir Norman Lockyer's Report tothe Royal Society, of the same date. The two leading schools ofthought can thus be contrasted at first hand. The Wilts ArchæologicalMagazine _passim_, and particularly 1883 and 1876 should be consulted, the latter article by Mr. W. Long has stood the test of publicity forforty years, without appreciable damage. A curious writer to whom Mr. Sumner is specially indebted is Mr. H. Browne of Amesbury; whoseconclusions must not be taken seriously, but who has lovinglyillustrated his work with restorations and sketches: it is all themore pleasant therefore to render thanks to a painstaking but notalways appreciated worker. Last of all--greatest of all--Sir RichardColt Hoare, whose "Ancient History of South Wilts, " 1812, remainsto-day a classic. These grand volumes mark the dawn of the new era ofthe field archæologist. The foregoing names are few, but they are asold and tried friends, to whom reference can be safely made, andseldom in vain. When Hoare and Long have been digested, few authorshave much else to offer, including the writer of the present lines. 

A most pleasant debt of obligation is to the new owner of Stonehenge, Mr. C. H. E. Chubb, who has rendered great assistance in the compilationof this little handbook. Himself a citizen of New Sarum, and aWiltshireman by birthright, he can well be trusted faithfully todischarge his duty to the grand old Cromlech. A constant visitor toStonehenge, he has already given a foretaste of his policy in revisingthe rates of admission to the military; a very gracious act, based ona common-sense appreciation of the usual condition of the pockets ofH. M. Forces. Landlords are not always as liberal. 

Last of all, my sincere thanks to Dr. H. P. Blackmore, HonoraryDirector of the Salisbury and Blackmore Museums, for reading andrevising my manuscript. 

 FRANK STEVENS. 

THE MUSEUM, SALISBURY. _April 1, 1916. _

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PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES. 

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