SKETCHESOF THENATURAL HISTORY OF CEYLON WITH NARRATIVES AND ANECDOTESIllustrative of the Habits and Instincts of theMAMMALIA, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES, INSECTS, &c. INCLUDING A MONOGRAPH OF THE ELEPHANTAND A DESCRIPTION OF THE MODES OF CAPTURING AND TRAINING ITWITH ENGRAVINGS FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS BY SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT, K. C. S. LL. D. &c. 1861 [Illustration] INTRODUCTION. * * * * * A considerable portion of the contents of the present volume formed thezoological section of a much more comprehensive work recently published, on the history and present condition of Ceylon. [1] But its inclusionthere was a matter of difficulty; for to have altogether omitted thechapters on Natural History would have impaired the completeness of theplan on which I had attempted to describe the island; whilst to insertthem as they here appear, without curtailment, would have encroachedunduly on the space required for other essential topics. In thisdilemma, I was obliged to adopt the alternative of so condensing thematter as to bring the whole within the prescribed proportions. But this operation necessarily diminished the general interest of thesubjects treated, as well by the omission of incidents which wouldotherwise have been retained, as by the exclusion of anecdotescalculated to illustrate the habits and instincts of the animalsdescribed. [Footnote 1: _Ceylon: An Account of the Island, Physical, Historical, and Typographical; with Notices of its Natural History, Antiquities, andProductions. _ By Sir JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K. C. S. , LL. D. , &c. Illustrated by Maps. Plans, and Drawings. 2 vols. 8vo. Longman and Co. , 1859. ] A suggestion to re-publish these sections in an independent form hasafforded an opportunity for repairing some of these defects by revisingthe entire, restoring omitted passages, and introducing fresh materialscollected in Ceylon; the additional matter occupying a very largeportion of the present volume. I have been enabled, at the same time, to avail myself of thecorrections and communications of scientific friends; and thus tocompensate, in some degree for what is still incomplete, by increasedaccuracy in minute particulars. In the Introduction to the First Edition of the original work I alluded, in the following terms, to that portion of it which is now reproduced inan extended form:-- "Regarding the _fauna_ of Ceylon, little has been published in anycollective form, with the exception of a volume by Dr. KELAART entitled_Prodromus Faunæ Zeilanicæ_; several valuable papers by Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD in the _Annals and Magazine of Natural History_ for 1852 and1853; and some very imperfect lists appended to PRIDHAM'S compiledaccount of the island. [1] KNOX, in the charming narrative of hiscaptivity, published in the feign of Charles II. , has devoted a chapterto the animals of Ceylon, and Dr. DAVY has described some of thereptiles: but with these exceptions the subject is almost untouched inworks relating to the colony. Yet a more than ordinary interest attachesto the inquiry, since Ceylon, instead of presenting, as is generallyassumed, an identity between its _fauna_ and that of Southern India, exhibits a remarkable diversity, taken in connection with the limitedarea over which the animals included in it are distributed. The island, in fact, may be regarded as the centre of a geographical circle, possessing within itself forms, whose allied species radiate far intothe temperate regions of the north, as well as in to Africa, Australia, and the isles of the Eastern Archipelago. [Footnote 1: _An Historical, Political, and Statistical Account ofCeylon and its Dependencies_, by C. PRIDHAM, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. , London, 1849. ] "In the chapters that I have devoted to its elucidation, I haveendeavoured to interest others in the subject, by describing my ownobservations and impressions, with fidelity, and with as much accuracyas may be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no greaterknowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences than is ordinarilypossessed by any educated gentleman. It was my good fortune, however, inmy journeys to have the companionship of friends familiar with manybranches of natural science: the late Dr. GARDNER, Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD, an accomplished zoologist, Dr. TEMPLETON, and others; and I was thusenabled to collect on the spot many interesting facts relative to thestructure and habits of the numerous tribes. These, chastened by thecorrections of my fellow-travellers, and established by the examinationof collections made in the colony, and by subsequent comparison withspecimens contained in museums at home, I have ventured to submit asfaithful outlines of the _fauna_ of Ceylon. "The sections descriptive of the several classes are accompanied bylists, prepared with the assistance of scientific friends, showing theextent to which each particular branch had been investigated bynaturalists, up to the period of my departure from Ceylon at the closeof 1849. These, besides their inherent interest, will, I trust, stimulate others to engage in the same pursuit, by exhibiting chasms, which it remains for future industry and research to fill up;--and thestudy of the zoology of Ceylon may thus serve as a preparative for thatof Continental India, embracing, as the former does, much that is commonto both, as well as possessing a _fauna_ peculiar to the island, that initself will amply repay more extended scrutiny. "From these lists have been excluded all species regarding theauthenticity of which reasonable doubts could be entertained[1], and ofsome of them, a very few have been printed in _italics_, in order todenote the desirability of more minute comparison with well-determinedspecimens in the great national depositories before finallyincorporating them with the Singhalese catalogues. [Footnote 1: An exception occurs in the list of shells, prepared by Mr. SYLVANUS HANLEY, in which some whose localities are doubtful have beenadmitted for reasons adduced. (See p. 387. )] "In the labour of collecting and verifying the facts embodied in thesesections, I cannot too warmly express my thanks for the aid I havereceived from gentlemen interested in similar studies in Ceylon: fromDr. KELAART[1] and Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD, as well as from officers of theCeylon Civil Service; the Hon. GERALD C. TALBOT, Mr. C. R. BULLER, Mr. MERCER, Mr. MORRIS, Mr. WHITING, Major SKINNER, and Mr. MITFORD. [Footnote 1: It is with deep regret that I have to record the death ofthis accomplished gentleman, which occurred in 1860. ] "Before venturing to commit these chapters of my work to the press, Ihave had the advantage of having portions of them read by ProfessorHUXLEY, Mr. MOORE, of the East India House Museum; Mr. R. PATTERSON, F. R. S. , author of the _Introduction to Zoology_; and by Mr. ADAM WHITE, of the British Museum; to each of whom I am exceedingly indebted for thecare they have bestowed. In an especial degree I have to acknowledge thekindness of Dr. J. E. GRAY, F. R. S. , for valuable additions andcorrections in the list of the Ceylon Reptilia; and to Professor FARADAYfor some notes on the nature and qualities of the "Serpent Stone, "[2]submitted to him. [Footnote 2: See p. 312. ] "The extent to which my observations on _the Elephant_ have beencarried, requires some explanation. The existing notices of this noblecreature are chiefly devoted to its habits and capabilities _incaptivity_; and very few works, with which I am acquainted, containillustrations of its instincts and functions when wild in its nativewoods. Opportunities for observing the latter, and for collecting factsin connection with them, are abundant in Ceylon; and from the moment ofmy arrival, I profited by every occasion afforded to me for observingthe elephant in a state of nature, and obtaining from hunters andnatives correct information as to its oeconomy and disposition. Anecdotes in connection with this subject, I received from some of themost experienced residents in the island; amongst others, from MajorSKINNER, Captain PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY, Mr. FAIRHOLME, Mr. CRIPPS, andMr. MORRIS. Nor can I omit to express my acknowledgments to ProfessorOWEN, of the British Museum, to whom this portion of my manuscript wassubmitted previous to its committal to the press. " To the foregoing observations I have little to add beyond myacknowledgment to Dr. ALBERT GÜNTHER, of the British Museum, for thecommunication of important facts in illustration of the ichthyology ofCeylon, as well as of the reptiles of the island. Mr. BLYTH, of the Calcutta Museum, has carefully revised the Catalogueof Birds, and supplied me with much useful information in regard totheir geographical distribution. To his experienced scrutiny is due theperfected state in which the list is now presented. It will be seen, however, from the italicised names still retained, that inquiry is farfrom being exhausted. Mr. THWAITES, the able Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens atPeradenia, near Kandy, has forwarded to me many valuable observations, not only in connection with the botany, but the zoology of the mountainregion. The latter I have here embodied in their appropriate places, andthose relating to plants and vegetation will appear in a future editionof my large work. To M. NIETNER, of Colombo, I am likewise indebted for many particularsregarding Singhalese Entomology, a department to which his attention hasbeen given, with equal earnestness and success. Through the Hon. RICHARD MORGAN, acting Senior Puisne Judge of theSupreme Court at Colombo, I have received from his Interpreter, M. D. DESILVA GOONERATNE MODLIAR, a Singhalese gentleman of learning andobservation, many important notes, of which I have largely availedmyself, in relation to the wild animals, and the folk-lore andsuperstitions of the natives in connection with them. Of the latter I have inserted numerous examples; in the conviction that, notwithstanding their obvious errors in many instances, these popularlegends and traditions occasionally embody traces of actual observation, and may contain hints and materials deserving of minuter inquiry. I wish distinctly to disclaim offering the present volume as acompendium of the Natural History of Ceylon. I present it merely as a"mémoire pour servir, " materials to assist some future inquirer in theformation of a more detailed and systematic account of the _fauna_ ofthe island. My design has been to point out to others the extremerichness and variety of the field, the facility of exploring it, and thecharms and attractions of the undertaking. I am eager to show how muchremains to do by exhibiting the little that has as yet been done. The departments of _Mammalia_ and _Birds_ are the only two which can besaid to have as yet undergone tolerably close investigation; althougheven in these it is probable that large additions still remain to bemade to the ascertained species. But, independently of forms andspecific characteristics, the more interesting inquiry into habits andinstincts is still open for observation and remark; and for theinvestigation of these no country can possibly afford more invitingopportunities than Ceylon. Concerning the _Reptilia_ a considerable amount of information has beenamassed. The Batrachians and smaller Lizards have, I apprehend, beenimperfectly investigated; but the Tortoises are well known, and theSerpents, from the fearful interest attaching to the race, andstimulating their destruction, have been so vigilantly pursued, thatthere is reason to believe that few, if any, varieties exist which havenot been carefully examined. In a very large collection, made by Mr. CHARLES REGINALD BULLER during many years' residence in Kandy, andrecently submitted by him to Dr. Günther, only one single specimenproved to be new or previously unknown to belong to the island. Of the _Ichthyology_ of Ceylon I am obliged to speak ill very differentterms; for although the materials are abundant almost to profusion, little has yet been done to bring them under thoroughly scientificscrutiny. In the following pages I have alluded to the large collectionof examples of Fishes sent home by officers of the Medical Staff, andwhich still remain unopened, in the Fort Pitt Museum at Chatham; but Iam not without hope that these may shortly undergo comparison with thedrawings which exist of each, and that this branch of the island _fauna_may at last attract the attention to which its richness so eminentlyentitles it. In the department of Entomology much has already been achieved; but anextended area still invites future explorers; and one which the Notes ofMr. Walker prefixed to the List of Insects in this volume, show to be ofextraordinary interest, from the unexpected convergence in Ceylon ofcharacteristics heretofore supposed to have been kept distinct by thebroad lines of geographical distribution. Relative to the inferior classes of _Invertebrata_ very little has asyet been ascertained. The Mollusca, especially the lacustrine andfluviatile, have been most imperfectly investigated; and of theland-shells, a large proportion have yet to be submitted to scientificexamination. The same may be said of the _Arachnida_ and _Crustacea_. The jungle isfrequented by spiders, _phalangia_[1], and acarids, of which nothing isknown with certainty; and the sea-shore and sands have been equallyoverlooked, so far as concerns the infinite variety of lobsters, crayfish, crabs, and all their minor congeners. The _polypi, echini, asterias_, and other _radiata_ of the coast, as well as the _acalephæ_of the deeper waters, have shared the same neglect: and literallynothing has been done to collect and classify the infusoriæ and minuterzoophytes, the labours of Dr. Kelaart amongst the Diatomaceæ being thesolitary exception. [Footnote 1: Commonly called "harvest-men. "] Nothing is so likely to act as a stimulant to future research as anaccurate conception of what has already been achieved. With equalterseness and truth Dr. Johnson has observed that the traveller whowould bring back knowledge from any country must carry knowledge withhim at setting out: and I am not without hope that the demonstration Inow venture to offer, of the little that has already been done forzoology in Ceylon, may serve to inspire others with a desire to resumeand complete the inquiry. J. EMERSON TENNENT London: November 1st, 1861. CONTENTS. * * * * * CHAPTER I. MAMMALIA. Neglect of zoology in Ceylon Labours of Dr. Davy Followed by Dr. Templeton and others Dr. Kelaart and Mr. E. L. Layard Monkeys The Rilawa, _Macacus pileatus_ Wanderoos Knox's account of them Error regarding the _Silenus Veter (note)_ Presbytes Cephalopterus Fond of eating flowers A white monkey Method of the flight of monkeys P. Ursinus in the Hills P. Thersites in the Wanny P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie No dead monkey ever found Loris Bats Flying Fox, _Pteropus Edwardsii_ Their numbers at Peradenia Singularity of their attitudes Food and mode of eating Horse-shoe bat, _Rhinolophus_ Faculty of smell in bat A tiny bat, _Scotophilus foromandelicus_ Extraordinary parasite of the bat, the _Nycteribia_ _Carnivora_. --Bears Their ferocity Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms (_note_) Leopards Erroneously confounded with the Indian _cheetah_ Curious belief Anecdotes of leopards Their attraction by the smallpox Native superstition Encounter with a leopard Monkeys killed by leopards Alleged peculiarity of the claws Palm-cat Civet Dogs Cruel mode of destroying dogs Their republican instincts Jackal Cunning, anecdotes of The horn of the jackal Mungoos Its fights with serpents Theory of its antidote Squirrels Flying squirrel Tree-rat Story of a rat and a snake Coffee-rat Bandicoot Porcupine Pengolin Its habits and gentleness Its skeleton _Ruminantia_. --The Gaur Oxen Humped cattle Encounter of a cow and a leopard Draft oxen Their treatment A _Tavalam_ Attempt to introduce the camel (note) Buffaloes Sporting buffaloes Peculiar structure of the foot Deer Meminna Elk Wild-boar Elephants Recent discovery of a new species Geological speculations as to the island of Ceylon Ancient tradition Opinion of Professor Ansted Peculiarities in Ceylon mammalia The same in Ceylon birds and insects Temminck's discovery of a new species of elephant in Sumatra Points of distinction between it and the elephant of India Professor Schlegel's description _Cetacea_ Whales The Dugong Origin of the fable of the mermaid Credulity of the Portuguese Belief of the Dutch Testimony of Valentyn List of Ceylon mammalia CHAP. II THE ELEPHANT * * * * * _Its Structure_. Vast numbers in Ceylon Derivation of the word "elephant" (note) Antiquity of the trade in elephants Numbers now diminishing Mischief done by them to crops Ivory scarce in Ceylon Conjectures as to the absence of tusks Elephant a harmless animal Alleged antipathies to other animals Fights with each other The foot its chief weapon Use of the tusks in a wild state doubtful Anecdote of sagacity in an elephant at Kandy Difference between African and Indian species Native ideas of perfection in an elephant Blotches on the skin White elephants not unknown in Ceylon CHAP. III. THE ELEPHANT * * * * * _Its Habits_. Water, but not heat, essential to elephants Sight limited Smell acute Caution Hearing, good Cries of the elephant Trumpeting Booming noise Height, exaggerated Facility of stealthy motion Ancient delusion as to the joints of the leg Its exposure by Sir Thos. Browne Its perpetuation by poets and others Position of the elephant in sleep An elephant killed on its feet Mode of lying down Its gait a shuffle Power of climbing mountains Facilitated by the joint of the knee Mode of descending declivities A "herd" is a family Attachment to their young Suckled indifferently by the females A "rogue" elephant Their cunning and vice Injuries done by them The leader of a herd a tusker Bathing and nocturnal gambols, description of a scene by Major Skinner Method of swimming Internal anatomy imperfectly known Faculty of storing water Peculiarity of the stomach The food of the elephant Sagacity in search of it Unexplained dread of fences Its spirit of inquisitiveness Anecdotes illustrative of its curiosity Estimate of sagacity Singular conduct of a herd during thunder An elephant feigning death _Appendix_. --Narratives of natives, as to encounters with rogue elephants CHAP. IV. THE ELEPHANT * * * * * _Elephant Shooting_. Vast numbers shot in Ceylon Revolting details of elephant killing in Africa Fatal spots at which to aim Structure of the bones of the head Wounds which are certain to kill Attitudes when surprised Peculiar movements when reposing Habits when attacked Sagacity of native trackers Courage and agility of the elephants in escape Worthlessness of the carcass Singular recovery from a wound CHAP. V. THE ELEPHANT. * * * * * _An Elephant Corral_. Early method of catching elephants Capture in pit-falls By means of decoys Panickeas--their courage and address Their sagacity in following the elephant Mode of capture by the noose Mode of taming Method of leading the elephants to the coast Process of embarking them at Manaar Method of capturing a whole herd The "keddah" in Bengal described Process of enclosing a herd Process of capture in Ceylon An elephant corral and its construction An elephant hunt in Ceylon, 1847 The town and district of Kornegalle The rock of Ætagalla Forced labour of the corral in former times Now given voluntarily Form of the enclosure Method of securing a wild herd Scene when driving them into the corral A failure An elephant drove by night Singular scene in the corral Excitement of the tame elephants CHAP. VI. THE ELEPHANT. * * * * * _The Captives_. A night scene Morning in the corral Preparations for securing the captives The "cooroowe, " or noosers The tame decoys First captive tied up Singular conduct of the wild elephants Furious attempts of the herd to escape Courageous conduct of the natives Variety of disposition exhibited by the herd Extraordinary contortions of the captives Water withdrawn from the stomach Instinct of the decoys Conduct of the noosers The young ones and their actions Noosing a "rogue. " and his death Instinct of flies in search of carrion (_note_) Strange scene A second herd captured Their treatment of a solitary elephant A magnificent female elephant Her extraordinary attitudes Wonderful contortions Taking the captives out of the corral Their subsequent treatment and training Grandeur of the scene Story of young pet elephant CHAP. VII. THE ELEPHANT. * * * * * _Conduct in Captivity_. Alleged superiority of the Indian to the African elephant--not true Ditto of Ceylon elephant to Indian Process of training in Ceylon Allowed to bathe Difference of disposition Sudden death of "broken heart" First employment treading clay Drawing a waggon Dragging timber Sagacity in labour Mode of raising stones Strength in throwing down trees exaggerated Piling timber Not uniform in habits of work Lazy if not watched Obedience to keeper from affection, not fear Change of keeper--story of child Ear for sounds and music _Hurra! (note)_ Endurance of pain Docility Working elephants, delicate Deaths in government stud Diseases Subject to tooth-ache Question of the value of labour of an elephant Food in captivity, and cost Breed in captivity Age Theory of M. Fleurens No dead elephants found Sindbad's story Passage from Ælian CHAP. VIII. BIRDS. Their numbers Songsters Hornbills, the "bird with two heads" Pea fowl Sea birds, their number I. _Accipitres_. --Eagles Falcons and hawks Owls--the devil bird II. _Passeres_. --Swallows Kingfishers--sunbirds The cotton-thief Bul-bul--tailor bird--and weaver The mountain jay Crows, anecdotes of III. _Scansores_. --Parroquets IV. _Columbidæ_. --Pigeons V. _Gallinæ_. --Jungle-fowl VI. _Grallæ_. --Ibis, stork, &c. VII. _Anseres_. --Flamingoes Pelicans Strange scene Game--Partridges, &c. List of Ceylon birds List of birds peculiar to Ceylon CHAP. IX. REPTILES. _Lizards_. --Iguana Kabara-goya, barbarous custom in preparing the kabara-tel poison Blood-suckers The green calotes The lyre-headed lizard Chameleon Ceratophora Geckoes, --their power of reproducing limbs Crocodiles Their sensitiveness to tickling Anecdotes of crocodiles Their power of burying themselves in the mud _Tortoises_. --Curious parasite Terrapins Edible turtle Cruel mode of cutting it up alive Huge Indian tortoises (_note_) Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode of stripping it of the tortoise-shell _Serpents_. --Venomous species rare Tic polonga and carawala Cobra de capello Tame snakes (_note_) Anecdotes of the cobra de capello Legends concerning it Instance of land snakes found at sea Singular tradition regarding the robra de capello Uropeltidæ. --New species discovered in Ceylon Buddhist veneration for the cobra de capello The Python Tree snakes Water snakes Sea snakes Snake stones Analysis of one Cæcilia Frogs Tree frogs List of Ceylon reptiles CHAP. X. FISHES. Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known Fish for table, seir fish Sardines, poisonous? Sharks Saw-fish Fish of brilliant colours The ray The sword-fish Curious fish described by Ælian _Salarias alticus_ Beautifully coloured fishes Fresh-water fish, little known, --not much eaten Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake Perches Eels Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes Their re-appearance after rain Mode of fishing in the ponds Showers of fish Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable Fish moving on dry land Ancient authorities, Greek and Roman Aristotle and Theophrastus Athenæus and Polybius Livy, Pompomus, Mela, and Juvenal Seneca and Pliny Georgius Agricola, Gesner, &c. Instances in Guiana (_note_) _Perca Scandens_, ascends trees Doubts as to the story of Daldorf Fishes burying themselves daring the dry season The _protopterus_ of the Gambia Instances in the fish of the Nile Instances in the fish of South America Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in Ceylon Molluscs that bury themselves The animals that so bury themselves in India Analogous case of Theory of æstivation and hybernation Fish in hot water in Ceylon List of Ceylon fishes Instances of fishes falling from the clouds _Note_ on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mus. _Note_ on the Bora-chung CHAP. XI. MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPHÆ. I. _Conchology_. --General character of Ceylon shells Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections Ancient export of shells from Ceylon Special forms confined to particular localities The pearl fishery of Aripo Frequent suspensions of Experiment to create beds of the pearl oyster Process of diving for pearls Danger from sharks The transparent pearl oyster (_Placuna placenta_) The "musical fish" at Ballicaloa A similar phenomenon at other places Faculty of uttering sounds in fishes Instance in the _Tritonia arborescens_ Difficulty in forming a list of Ceylon shells List of Ceylon shells II. _Radiata_. --Star fish Sea slugs Parasitic worms Planaria III. _Acalephæ_, abundant The Portuguese man-of-war Red infusoria _Note_ on the _Tritonia arborescens_ CHAP. XII. INSECTS. Profusion of insects in Ceylon Imperfect knowledge of I. _Coleoptera_. --Beetles Scavenger beetles Coco-nut beetles Tortoise beetles II. _Orthoptera_. --Mantis and leaf-insects Stick-insects III. _Neuroptera_. --Dragon flies Ant-lion White ants Anecdotes of their instinct and ravages IV. _Hymenoptera_. --Mason wasps Wasps Bees Carpenter Bee Ants Burrowing ants V. _Lepidoptera_. --Butterflies The spectre Lycænidæ Moths Silk worms Stinging caterpillars Wood-carrying moths Pterophorus VI. _Homoptera_ Cicada VII. _Hemiptera_ Bugs VIII. _Aphaniptera_ IX. _Diptera_. --Mosquitoes Mosquitoes the "plague of flies" The coffee bug General character of Ceylon insects List of insects in Ceylon CHAP. XIII. ARACHNIDÆ, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTACÆ, ETC. Spiders Strange nets of the wood spiders The mygale Birds killed by it _Olios Taprobanius_ The galeodes Gregarious spiders Ticks Mites. --_Trombidium tinctorum_ _Myriapods_. --Centipedes Cermatia Scolopendra crassa S. Pollippes The fish insect _Millipeds_. --Julus _Crustacæ_ Calling crabs Sand crabs Painted crabs Paddling crabs _Annelidæ_, Leeches. --The land leech Medicinal leech Cattle leech List of Articulata, &c. _Note_. --On the revivification of the Rotifera and Paste-eels LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page View of an Elephant Corral Frontispiece Group of Ceylon Monkeys to face 5 The Loris (_Loris gracilis_) 12 Group of Flying Foxes (_Pteropus Edwardsii_) to face 14 Head of the Horse-shoe Bat (_Rhynulophus_) 19 Nycteribia 21 Indian Bear (_Prochylus labiatus_) 23 Ceylon Leopard and Indian Cheetah 26 Jackal's Skull and "Horn" 36 Mongoos of Neura-ellia (_Herpestes vitticollis_) 38 Flying Squirrel (_Pteromys oral_) 41 Coffee Rat (_Golunda Elliotti_) 44 Bandicoot Rat (_Mus bandicota_) 45 Pengolin (_Manis pentadactylus_) 47 Skeleton of the Pengolin 48 Moose-deer (_Moschus meminna_) 55 The Dugong (_Halicore dugung_) 69 The Mermaid, from Valentyn 72 Brain of the Elephant 95 Bones of the Fore-leg 108 Elephant descending a Hill 111 Elephant's Well 122 Elephant's Stomach, showing the Water-cells 125 Elephant's Trachea 126 Water-cells in the Stomach of the Camel 128 Section of the Elephant's Skull 145 Fence and Ground-plan of a Corral 172 Mode of tying an Elephant 184 His Struggles for Freedom 185 Impotent Fury 188 Obstinate Resistance 189 Attitude for Defence 203 Singular Contortions of an Elephant 204 Figures of the African and Indian Elephants on Greek and Roman Coins 208 Medal of Numidia 212 Modern "Hendoo" ib. The Horn-bill (_Buceros pica_) 243 The "Devil-bird" (_Syrnium Indranec_) 247 The "Cotton-thief" (_Tchitrea paradisi_) 250 Layard Mountain Jay (_Cissa puella_) 252 The "Double-spur" (_Gallo-perdix bicalcaratus_) 260 The Flamingo (_Phoenicopterus roseus_) 261 The Kabara-goya Lizard (_Hydrosaurus salvator_) 273 The Green Calotes (_Calotes ophiomachus_) 276 Tongue of the Chameleon 278 _Ceratophora_ _to face_ 280 Skulls of the Crocodile and Alligator 283 Terrapin (_Emys trijuga_) 290 Shield-tailed Serpent (_Uropeltis grandis_) 302 Tree Snake (_Passerita fusca_) _to face_ 307 Sea Snake (_Hydrophis subloevisis_) _to face_ 311 Saw of the Saw-fish (_Pristis antiquorum_) _to face_ 326 Ray (_Aëtobates narinari_) 327 Sword-fish (_Histiophorus immaculatus_) 330 Cheironectes 331 _Pterois volitans_ 334 _Scarus harid_ 335 Perch (_Therapon quadrilineatus_) 337 Eel (_Mastacembelus armatus_) 338 Mode of Fishing, after Rain 340 Plan of a Fish Decoy 342 The Anabas of the dry Tanks 354 The Violet Ianthina and its Shell 370 _Bullia vittata_ ib. Pearl Oysters, in various Stages of Growth _to face_ 380 Pearl Oyster, full grown _to face_ 381 _Cerithium palustre_ ib. The Portuguese Man-of-war (_Physalus urticulus_) 399 Longicorn Beetle (_Batocera rubus_) 406 Leaf Insects, &c 409 Eggs of the Leaf Insect (_Phyllium siccifolium_) 410 The Carpenter Bee (_Xylocapa tenniscapa_) 419 Wood-carrying Moths 431 The "Knife, grinder" (_Cicada_) 432 Flata (_Elidiptera Emersoniana and Poeciloptera Tennentii_) 433 The "Coffee-bug" (_Lecanium caffeæ_) _to face_ 436 Spider (_Mygate fasciata_) _to face_ 465 Cermatia 473 The Calling Crab (_Gelusimus_) 477 Eyes and Teeth of the Leech 480 Land Leeches preparing to attack 481 Medicinal Leech of Ceylon 483 CHAPTER I. MAMMALIA. With the exception of the Mammalia and Birds, the fauna of Ceylon has, up to the present, failed to receive that systematic attention towhich its richness and variety most amply entitle it. The Singhalesethemselves, habitually indolent, and singularly unobservant of natureand her operations, are at the same time restrained from the study ofnatural history by the tenet of their religion which forbids thetaking of life under any circumstances. From the nature of theiravocations, the majority of the European residents, engaged inplanting and commerce, are discouraged by want of leisure fromcultivating the taste; and it is to be regretted that, with fewexceptions, the civil servants of the government, whose position andduties would have afforded them influence and extended opportunitiesfor successful investigation, have never seen the importance ofencouraging such studies. The first effective impulse to the cultivation of natural science inCeylon, was communicated by Dr. Davy when connected with the medicalstaff[1] of the army from 1816 to 1820, and his example stimulatedsome of the assistant-surgeons of Her Majesty's forces to make collectionsin illustration of the productions of the colony. Of these the lateDr. Kinnis was one of the most energetic and successful. He wasseconded by Dr. Templeton of the Royal Artillery, who engagedassiduously in the investigation of various orders, and commenced aninterchange of specimens with Mr. Blyth[2], the distinguishednaturalist and curator of the Calcutta Museum. The birds and rarervertebrata of the island were thus compared with their peninsularcongeners, and a tolerable knowledge of those belonging to the island, so far as regards the higher classes of animals, has been the result. The example so set was perseveringly followed by Mr. E. L. Layard andthe late Dr. Kelaart, and infinite credit is due to Mr. Blyth for thezealous and untiring energy with which he has devoted his attentionand leisure to the identification of the specimens forwarded fromCeylon, and to their description in the Calcutta Journal. To him, andto the gentlemen I have named, we are mainly indebted for whateveraccurate knowledge we now possess of the zoology of the colony. [Footnote 1: Dr. DAVY, brother to the illustrious Sir Humphry Davy, published, in 1821, his _Account of the Interior of Ceylon and itsInhabitants_, which contains the earliest notice of the NaturalHistory of the island, and especially of its ophidian reptiles. ] [Footnote 2: _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, vol. Xv. P. 280, 314. ] The mammalia, birds, and reptiles received their first scientificdescription in an able work published in 1852 by Dr. Kelaart of the armymedical staff[1], which is by far the most valuable that has yetappeared on the Singhalese fauna. Co-operating with him, Mr. Layard hassupplied a fund of information especially in ornithology and conchology. The zoophytes and Crustacea have I believe been partially investigatedby Professor Harvey, who visited Ceylon in 1852, and more recently byProfessor Schmarda, of the University of Prague. From the united laboursof these gentlemen and others interested in the same pursuits, we mayhope at an early day to obtain such a knowledge of the zoology of Ceylonas will to some extent compensate for the long indifference of thegovernment officers. [Footnote 1: _Prodromus Faunæ Zeylanicæ; being Contributions to theZoology of Ceylon_, by F. KELAART, Esq. , M. D. , F. L. S. , &c. &c. 2vols. Colombo and London, 1852. ] [Illustration: CEYLON MONKEYS. 1. _Presbytes cephalopterus. _ 2. _P. Thersites_ 3. _P. Priamus_ 4. _Macacus pileatus_] I. QUADRUMANA. 1. _Monkeys_. --To a stranger in the tropics, amongthe most attractive creatures in the forests are the troops of_monkeys_ that career in ceaseless chase among the loftiesttrees. In Ceylon there are five species, four of which belong to onegroup, the Wanderoos, and the other is the little graceful grimacing_rilawa_[1], which is the universal pet and favourite of bothnatives and Europeans. The Tamil conjurors teach it to dance, and intheir wanderings carry it from village to village, clad in a grotesquedress, to exhibit its lively performances. It does not object to smoketobacco. The Wanderoo is too grave and melancholy to be trained tothese drolleries. [Footnote 1: _Macacus pileatus_, Shaw and Desmarest. The"bonneted Macaque" is common in the south and west; it is replaced onthe neighbouring coast of the Peninsula of India by the Toque, _M. Radiatus_, which closely resembles it in size, habit, and form, andin the peculiar appearance occasioned by the hairs radiating from thecrown of the head. A spectacled monkey is _said_ to inhabit thelow country near to Bintenne; but I have never seen one broughtthence. A paper by Dr. TEMPLETON, in the _Mag. Nat. Hist. _ n. S. Xiv. P. 361, contains some interesting facts relative to the Rilawa ofCeylon. ] KNOX, in his captivating account of the island, gives an accuratedescription of both; the Rilawas, with "no beards, white faces, and longhair on the top of their heads, which parteth and hangeth down like aman's, and which do a deal of mischief to the corn, and are so impudentthat they will come into their gardens and eat such fruit as growsthere. And the Wanderoos, some as large as our English spaniel dogs, ofa darkish grey colour, and black faces with great white beards roundfrom ear to ear, which makes them show just like old men. This sort doesbut little mischief, keeping in the woods, eating only leaves and budsof trees, but when they are catched they will eat anything. "[1] [Footnote 1: KNOX, _Historical Relation of Ceylon, an Island in theEast Indies_. --P. I. Ch. Vi. P. 25. Fol. Lond. 1681. See an accountof his captivity in SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, etc. , Vol. II. P. 66 n. ] KNOX, whose experience during his long captivity was confined almostexclusively to the hill country around Kandy, spoke in all probabilityof one large and comparatively powerful species, _Presbytes ursinus_, which inhabits the lofty forests, and which, as well as another of thesame group, _P. Thersites_, was, till recently, unknown to Europeannaturalists. The Singhalese word _Ouandura_ has a generic sense, andbeing in every respect the equivalent fur our own term of "monkey" itnecessarily comprehends the low country species, as well as those whichinhabit other parts of the island. In point of fact, there are no lessthan four animals in the island, each of which is entitled to the nameof "wanderoo. "[1] Each separate species has appropriated to itself adifferent district of the wooded country, and seldom encroaches on thedomain of its neighbours. [Footnote 1: Down to a very late period, a large and somewhatrepulsive-looking monkey, common to the Malabar coast, the Silenusveter, _Linn. _, was, from the circumstance of his possessing a"great white beard, " incorrectly assumed to be the "wanderoo" ofCeylon, described by KNOX; and under that usurped name it has figuredin every author from Buffon to the present time. Specimens of the trueSinghalese species were, however, received in Europe; but in theabsence of information in this country as to their actual habitat, they were described, first by Zimmerman, on the continent, under thename of, _Leucoprymnus cephalopterus_, and subsequently by Mr. E. Bennett, under that of _Semnopithecus Nestor_ (_Proc. Zool. Soc. _ pt. I. P. 67: 1833); the generic and specific charactersbeing on this occasion most carefully pointed out by that eminentnaturalist. Eleven years later Dr. Templeton forwarded to theZoological Society a description, accompanied by drawings, of thewanderoo of the western maritime districts of Ceylon, and noticed thefact that the wanderoo of authors (_S. Veter_) was not to befound in the island except as an introduced species in the custody ofthe Arab horse-dealers, who visit the port of Colombo at statedperiods. Mr. Waterhouse, at the meeting (_Proc. Zool. Soc. _ p. 1:1844) at which this communication was read, recognised the identity ofthe subject of Dr. Templeton's description with that already laidbefore them by Mr. Bennett; and from this period the species inquestion was believed to truly represent the wanderoo of Knox. Thelater discovery, however, of the _P. Ursinus_ by Dr. Kelaart, inthe mountains amongst which we are assured that Knox spent so manyyears of captivity, reopens the question, but at the same time appearsto me clearly to demonstrate that in this latter we have in realitythe animal to which his narrative refers. ] 1. Of the four species found in Ceylon, the most numerous in theisland, and the one best known in Europe, is the Wanderoo of the lowcountry, the _P. Cephalopterus_ of Zimmerman. [1] Although commonin the southern and western provinces, it is never found at a higherelevation than 1300 feet. It is an active and intelligent creature, little larger than the common bonneted Macaque, and far from being somischievous as others of the monkeys in the island. In captivity it isremarkable for the gravity of its demeanour and for an air ofmelancholy in its expression and movements which are completely incharacter with its snowy beard and venerable aspect. In disposition itis gentle and confiding, sensible in the highest degree of kindness, and eager for endearing attention, uttering a low plaintive cry whenits sympathies are excited. It is particularly cleanly in its habitswhen domesticated, and spends much of its time in trimming its fur, and carefully divesting its hair of particles of dust. [Footnote 1: Leucoprymnus Nestor, _Bennett_. ] Those which I kept at my house near Colombo were chiefly fed uponplantains and bananas, but for nothing did they evince a greaterpartiality than the rose-coloured flowers of the red hibiscus (H. _rosa-sinensis_). These they devoured with unequivocal gusto; they likewise relished theleaves of many other trees, and even the bark of a few of the moresucculent ones. A hint might possibly be taken from this circumstancefor improving the regimen of monkeys in menageries, by the occasionaladmixture of a few fresh leaves and flowers with their solid andsubstantial dietary. A white monkey, taken between Ambepusse and Kornegalle, where they aresaid to be numerous, was brought to me to Colombo. Except in colour, it had all the characteristics of _Presbytes cephalopterus_. Sostriking was its whiteness that it might have been conjectured to bean albino, but for the circumstance that its eyes and face were black. I have heard that white monkeys have been seen near the Ridi-galleWihara in Seven Korles and also at Tangalle; but I never saw anotherspecimen. The natives say they are not uncommon, and KNOX that theyare "milk-white both in body and face; but of this sort there is notsuch plenty. "[1] The Rev. R. SPENCE HARDY mentions, in his learnedwork on _Eastern Monachism_, that on the occasion of his visit tothe great temple of Dambool, he encountered a troop of white monkeyson the rock in which it is situated--which were, doubtless, a varietyof the Wanderoo. [2] PLINY was aware of the fact that white monkeys areoccasionally found in India. [3] [Footnote 1: KNOX, pt. I. E. Vi. P. 25. ] [Footnote 2: _Eastern Monachism_. C: xix; p. 204. ] [Footnote 3: PLINY, Nat. Hist. I. Viii. C. Xxxii. ] When observed in their native wilds, a party of twenty or thirty ofthese creatures is generally busily engaged in the search for berriesand buds. They are seldom to be seen on the ground, except whenthey may have descended to recover seeds or fruit which have fallen atthe foot of their favourite trees. When disturbed, their leaps areprodigious: but, generally speaking, their progress is made not somuch by _leaping_ as by swinging from branch to branch, usingtheir powerful arms alternately; and when baffled by distance, flinging themselves obliquely so as to catch the lower boughs of anopposite tree, the momentum acquired by their descent being sufficientto cause a rebound of the branch, that carries them upwards again, till they can grasp a higher and more distant one, and thus continuetheir headlong flight. In these perilous achievements, wonder isexcited less by the surpassing agility of these little creatures, frequently encumbered as they are by their young, which cling to themin their career, than by the quickness of their eye and the unerringaccuracy with which they seem almost to calculate the angle at which adescent will enable them to cover a given distance, and the recoil toattain a higher altitude. 2. The low country Wanderoo is replaced in the hills by the largerspecies, _P. Ursinus_, which inhabits the mountain zone. The natives, who designate the latter the _Maha_ or Great Wanderoo, to distinguish itfrom the _Kaloo_, or black one, with which they are familiar, describeit as much wilder, and more powerful than its congener of the lowlandforests. It is rarely seen by Europeans, this portion of the countryhaving till very recently been but partially opened; and even now it isdifficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches the few roadswhich wind through these deep solitudes. At early morning, ere the daybegins to dawn, its loud and peculiar howl, which consists of a quickrepetition of the sounds _how how!_ maybe frequently heard in themountain jungles, and forms one of the characteristic noises of theselofty situations. It was first captured by Dr. Kelaart in the woods nearNuera-ellia, and from its peculiar appearance it has been named _P. Ursinus_ by Mr. Blyth. [1] [Footnote 1: Mr. Blyth quotes as authority for this trivial name apassage from MAJOR FORBES' _Eleven Years in Ceylon;_ and I canvouch for the graphic accuracy of the remark. --"A species of verylarge monkey, that passed some distance before me, when resting on allfours, looked so like a Ceylon bear, that I nearly took him for one. "] 3. The _P. Thersites_, which is chiefly distinguished from theothers by wanting the head tuft, is so rare that it was for some timedoubtful whether the single specimen procured by Dr. Templeton fromthe Nuera-kalawa, west of Trincomalie, and on which Mr. Blythconferred this new name, was in reality native; but the occurrence ofa second, since identified by Dr. Kelaart, has established itsexistence as a separate species. Like the common wanderoo, the oneobtained by Dr. Templeton was partial to fresh vegetables, plantains, and fruit; but he ate freely boiled rice, beans, and gram. He was fondof being noticed and petted, stretching out his limbs in succession tobe scratched, drawing himself up so that his ribs might be reached bythe finger, closing his eyes during the operation, and evincing hissatisfaction by grimaces irresistibly ludicrous. 4. The _P. Priamus_ inhabits the northern and eastern provinces, and thewooded hills which occur in these portions of the island. In appearanceit differs both in size and in colour from the common wanderoo, beinglarger and more inclined to grey; and in habits it is much lessreserved. At Jaffna, and in other parts of the island where thepopulation is comparatively numerous, these monkeys become sofamiliarised with the presence of man as to exhibit the utmost daringand indifference. A flock of them will take possession of a Palmyrapalm; and so effectually can they crouch and conceal themselves amongthe leaves that, on the slightest alarm, the whole party becomesinvisible in an instant. The presence of a dog, however, excites such anirrepressible curiosity that, in order to watch his movements, theynever fail to betray themselves. They may be frequently seen congregatedon the roof of a native hut: and, some years ago, the child of aEuropean clergyman stationed near Jaffna having been left on the groundby the nurse, was so teased and bitten by them as to cause its death. The Singhalese have the impression that the remains of a monkey arenever to be found in the forest; a belief which they have embodied inthe proverb that "he who has seen a white crow, the nest of a paddibird, a straight coco-nut tree, or a dead monkey, is certain to livefor ever. " This piece of folk-lore has evidently reached Ceylon fromIndia, where it is believed that persons dwelling on the spot where ahanumân monkey, _Semnopithecus entellus_, has been killed, willdie, that even its bones are unlucky, and that no house erected wherethey are hid under ground can prosper. Hence when a dwelling is to bebuilt, it is one of the employments of the Jyotish philosophers toascertain by their science that none such are concealed; and Buchananobserves that "it is, perhaps, owing to this fear of ill-luck that nonative will acknowledge his having seen a dead hanumân. "[1] [Footnote 1: BUCHANAN'S _Survey of Bhagulpoor_, p. 142. AtGibraltar it is believed that the body of a _dead monkey_ hasnever been found on the rock. ] The only other quadrumanous animal found in Ceylon is the littleloris[1], which, from its sluggish movements, nocturnal habits, andconsequent inaction during the day, has acquired the name of the"Ceylon Sloth. " [Footnote 1: Loris græilis, _Geof_. ] [Illustration: THE LORIS. ] There are two varieties in the island; one of the ordinary fulvousbrown, and another larger, whose fur is entirely black. A specimen ofthe former was sent to me from Chilaw, on the western coast, and livedfor some time at Colombo, feeding on rice, fruit, and vegetables. It waspartial to ants and, other insects, and was always eager for milk or thebone of a fowl. The naturally slow motion of its limbs enables the loristo approach its prey so stealthily that it seizes birds before they canbe alarmed by its presence. The natives assert that it has been known tostrangle the pea-fowl at night, to feast on the brain. During the daythe one which I kept was usually asleep in the strange positionrepresented on the last page; its perch firmly grasped with both hands, its back curved into a ball of soft fur, and its head hidden deepbetween its legs. The singularly-large and intense eyes of the lorishave attracted the attention, of the Singhalese, who capture thecreature for the purpose of extracting them as charms and love-potions, and this they are said to effect by holding the little animal to thefire till its eyeballs burst. Its Tamil name is _thaxangu_, or"thin-bodied;" and hence a deformed child or an emaciated person hasacquired in the Tamil districts the same epithet. The light-colouredvariety of the loris in Ceylon has a spot on its forehead, somewhatresembling the _namam_, or mark worn by the worshippers of Vishnu; and, from this peculiarity, it is distinguished as the _Nama-thavangu_. [1] [Footnote 1: There is an interesting notice of the Loris of Ceylon byDr. TEMPLETON, in the _Mag. Nat. Hist. _ 1844, ch. Xiv. P. 362. ] II. CHEIROPTERA. _Bats_. --The multitude of _bats_ is one of the featuresof the evening landscape; they abound in every cave and subterraneanpassage, in the tunnels on the highways, in the galleries of thefortifications, in the roofs of the bungalows, and the ruins of everytemple and building. At sunset they are seen issuing from their diurnalretreats to roam through the twilight in search of crepuscular insects, and as night approaches and the lights in the rooms attract thenight-flying lepidoptera, the bats sweep round the dinner-table andcarry off their tiny prey within the glitter of the lamps. Including thefrugivorous section about sixteen species have been identified inCeylon; and remarkable varieties of two of these are peculiar to theisland. The colours of some of them are as brilliant as the plumage of abird, bright yellow, deep orange, and a rich ferruginous brown incliningto red. [1] [Footnote 1: Rhinolophus affinis? _var_. Rubidus, _Kelaart_. Hipposideros murinus, _var_. Fulvus, _Kelaart_. Hipposideros speoris, _var_. Aureus, _Kelaart_. Kerivoula picta, _Pallas_. Scotophilus Heathii, _Horsf_. ] But of all the bats, the most conspicuous from its size and numbers, and the most interesting from its habits, is the rousette ofCeylon[1];--the "flying fox, " as it is called by Europeans, from thesimilarity to that animal in its head and ears, its bright eyes, andintelligent little face. In its aspect it has nothing of thedisagreeable and repulsive look so common amongst the ordinaryvespertilionidæ; it likewise differs from them in the want of thenose-leaf, as well as of the tail. In the absence of the latter, itsflight is directed by means of a membrane attached to the inner sideof each of the hind legs, and kept distended at the lower extremity bya projecting bone, just as a fore-and-aft sail is distended by a"gaff. " [Footnote 1: Pteropus Edwardsii, _Geoff_. ] [Illustration: FLYING FOXES. ] In size the body measures from ten to twelve inches in length, but thearms are prolonged, and especially the metacarpal bones and phalanges ofthe four fingers over which the leathery wings are distended, till thealar expanse measures between four and five feet. Whilst the function ofthese metamorphosed limbs in sustaining flight entitles them to thedesignation of "wings, " they are endowed with another faculty, theexistence of which essentially distinguishes them from the featherywings of a bird, and vindicates the appropriateness of the term_Cheiro-ptera_[1], or "winged hands, " by which the bats are designated. Over the entire surface of the thin membrane of which they are formed, sentient nerves of the utmost delicacy are distributed, by means ofwhich the animal is enabled during the darkness to direct its motionswith security, avoiding objects against contact with which at such timesits eyes and other senses would be insufficient to protect it. [2]Spallanzani ascertained the perfection of this faculty by a series ofcruel experiments, by which he demonstrated that bats, even after theireyes had been destroyed, and their external organs, of smell and hearingobliterated, were still enabled to direct their flight with unhesitatingconfidence, avoiding even threads suspended to intercept them. But afterascertaining the fact, Spallanzani was slow to arrive at its origin; andascribed the surprising power to the existence of some sixthsupplementary sense, the enjoyment of which was withheld from otheranimals. Cuvier, however, dissipated the obscurity by showing the seatof this extraordinary endowment to be in the wings, the superficies ofwhich retains the exquisite sensitiveness to touch that is inherent inthe palms of the human hand and the extremities of the fingers, as wellas in the feet of some of the mammalia. [3] The face and head of the_Pteropus_ are covered with brownish-grey hairs, the neck and chest aredark ferruginous grey, and the rest of the body brown, inclining toblack. [Footnote 1: [Greek: cheir] the "hand, " and [Greek: pteron] a "wing. "] [Footnote 2: See BELL _On the Hand_, ch. Iii. P. 70;] [Footnote 3: See article on _Cheiroptera_, in TODD'S_Cyclopiadia of Anatomy and Physiology_, vol. I. P. 599. ] These active and energetic creatures, though chiefly frugivorous, areto some extent insectivorous also, as attested by their teeth[1], aswell as by their habits. They feed, amongst other things, on theguava, the plantain, the rose-apple, and the fruit of the variousfig-trees. Flying foxes are abundant in all the maritime districts, especially at the season when the _pulum-imbul_[2], one of thesilk-cotton trees, is putting forth its flower-buds, of which they aresingularly fond. By day they suspend themselves from the highestbranches, hanging by the claws of the hind legs, with the head turnedupwards, and pressing the chin against the breast. At sunset takingwing, they hover, with a murmuring sound occasioned by the beating oftheir broad membranous wings, around the fruit trees, on which theyfeed till morning, when they resume their pensile attitude as before. [Footnote 1: Those which I have examined have four minute incisors ineach jaw, with two canines and a very minute pointed tooth behind eachcanine. They have six molars in the upper jaw and ten in the lower, longitudinally grooved, and with a cutting edge directed backwards. ] [Footnote 2: Eriodendron Orientale, _Stead_. ] A favourite resort of these bats is to the lofty india-rubber trees, which on one side overhang the Botanic Gardens of Paradenia in thevicinity of Kandy. Thither for some years past, they have congregated, chiefly in the autumn, taking their departure when the figs of the_ficus elastica_ are consumed. Here they hang in such prodigiousnumbers, that frequently, large branches give way beneath theiraccumulated weight. Every forenoon, generally between the hours of 9 and11 A. M. , they take to wing, apparently for exercise, and possibly to suntheir wings and fur, and dry them after the dews of the early morning. On these occasions, their numbers are quite surprising, flying in cloudsas thick as bees or midges. After these recreations, they hurry back totheir favourite trees, chattering and screaming like monkeys, and alwayswrangling and contending angrily for the most shady and comfortableplaces in which to hang for the rest of the day protected from the sun. The branches they resort to soon become almost divested of leaves, thesebeing stripped off by the action of the bats, attaching and detachingthemselves by means of their hooked feet. At sunset, they fly off totheir feeding-grounds, probably at a considerable distance, as itrequires a large area to furnish sufficient food for such multitudes. In all its movements and attitudes, the action of the _Pteropus_is highly interesting. If placed upon the ground, it is almosthelpless, none of its limbs being calculated for progressive motion;it drags itself along by means of the hook attached to each of itsextended thumbs, pushing at the same time with those of its hind feet. Its natural position is exclusively pensile; it moves laterally frombranch to branch with great ease, by using each foot alternately, andclimbs, when necessary, by means of its claws. When at rest, or asleep, the disposition of the limbs is most curious. At such times it suspends itself by one foot only, bringing the otherclose to its side, and thus it is enabled to wrap itself in the amplefolds of its wings, which envelop it like a mantle, leaving only itsupturned head uncovered. Its fur is thus protected from damp and rain, and to some extent its body is sheltered from the sun. As it collects its food by means of its mouth, either when on thewing, or when suspended within reach of it, the flying-fox is alwaysmore or less liable to have the spoil wrested from it by its intrusivecompanions, before it can make good its way to some secure retreat inwhich to devour it unmolested. In such conflicts they bite viciously, tear each other with their hooks, and scream incessantly, till, takingto flight, the persecuted one reaches some place of safety, where hehangs by one foot, and grasping the fruit he has secured in the clawsand opposable thumb of the other, he hastily reduces it to lumps, withwhich he stuffs his cheek pouches till they become distended like thoseof a monkey; then suspended in safety, he commences to chew and suck thepieces, rejecting the refuse with his tongue. To drink, which it does by lapping, the _Pteropus_ suspendsitself head downwards from a branch above the water. Insects, caterpillars, birds' eggs, and young birds are devoured bythem; and the Singhalese say that the flying-fox will even attack atree snake. It is killed by the natives for the sake of its flesh, which, I have been told by a gentleman who has eaten of it, resemblesthat of the hare. [1] It is strongly attracted to the coconut treesduring the period when toddy is drawn for distillation, and exhibits, it is said, at such times, symptoms resembling intoxication. [Footnote 1: In Western India the native Portuguese eat theflying-fox, and pronounce it delicate, and far from disagreeable inflavour. ] Neither the flying-fox, nor any other bat that I know of in Ceylon, ever hybernates. There are several varieties (one of them peculiar to the island) ofthe horse-shoe-headed _Rhinolophus_, with the strange leaf-likeappendage erected on the extremity of the nose. It has been suggested that the insectivorous bats, though nocturnal, are deficient in that keen vision characteristic of animals which taketheir prey by night. [Illustration: RINOLOPHUS. ] I doubt whether this conjecture be well founded; it certainly does notapply to the _Pteropus_ and the other frugivorous species, inwhich the faculty of sight is singularly clear. As regards the others, it is possible that in their peculiar oeconomy some additional powermay be required to act in concert with that of vision, as in insects, touch is superadded, in its most sensitive development, to that ofsight. It is probable that the noseleaf, which forms an extendedscreen stretched behind the nostrils in some of the bats, may beintended by nature to facilitate the collection and conduction ofodours, just as the vast expansion of the shell of the ear in the samefamily is designed to assist in the collection of sounds--and thus tosupplement their vision when in pursuit of prey in the dusk by thesuperior sensitiveness of the organs of hearing and smell. One tiny little bat, not much larger than the humblebee[1], and of a glossy black colour, is sometimes to be seen aboutColombo. It is so familiar and gentle that it will alight on the clothduring dinner, and manifests so little alarm that it seldom makes anyeffort to escape before a wine glass can be inverted to secure it. [Footnote 1: It is a _very_ small Singhalese variety ofScotophilus Coromandelicus, _F. Cuv. _] Although not strictly in order, this seems not an inappropriate placeto notice one of the most curious peculiarities connected with thebats--their singular parasite, the Nycteribia. [1] On cursoryobservation this creature appears to have neither head, antennæ, eyes, nor mouth; and the earlier observers of its structure satisfiedthemselves that the place of the latter was supplied by a cylindricalsucker, which, being placed between the shoulders, the insect had nooption but to turn on its back to feed. Another anomaly was thought tocompensate for this apparent inconvenience;--its three pairs of legs, armed with claws, are so arranged that they seem to be equallydistributed over its upper and under sides, the creature being thusenabled to use them like hands, and to grasp the strong hairs above itwhile extracting its nourishment. [Footnote 1: This extraordinary creature had formerly been discoveredonly on a few European bats. Joínville figured one which he found onthe large roussette (the flying-fox), and says he had seen another ona bat of the same family. Dr. Templeton observed them in Ceylon ingreat abundance on the fur of the _Scotophilus Coromandelicus_, and they will, no doubt, be found on many others. ] It moves, in fact, by rolling itself rapidly along, rotating like awheel on the extremities of its spokes, or like the clown in apantomime, hurling himself forward on hands and feet alternately. Itscelerity is so great that Colonel Montague, who was one of the firstto describe it minutely[1], says its speed exceeds that of anyknown insect, and as its joints are so flexible as to yield in everydirection (like what mechanics call a "ball and socket"), its motionsare exceedingly grotesque as it tumbles through the fur of the bat. [Footnote 1: Celeripes vespertilionis, _Mont. Lin. Trans. _ xi. P. 11. ] [Illustration: NYCTERBIA. ] To enable it to attain its marvellous velocity, each foot is armedwith two sharp hooks, with elastic opposable pads, so that the haircan not only be rapidly seized and firmly held, but as quicklydisengaged, as the creature whirls away in its headlong career. The insects to which it bears the nearest affinity, are the_Hippoboscidæ_, or "spider flies, " that infest birds and horses;but, unlike them, the Nycteribia is unable to fly. Its strangest peculiarity, and that which gave rise to the belief thatit was headless, is its faculty when at rest of throwing back its headand pressing it close between its shoulders till the under sidebecomes uppermost, not a vestige of head being discernible where wewould naturally look for it, and the whole seeming but a casualinequality on its back. On closer examination this, apparent tubercle is found to have aleathery attachment like a flexible neck, and by a sudden jerk thelittle creature is enabled to project it forward into its normalposition, when it is discovered to be furnished with a mouth, antennæ, and four eyes, two on each side. The organisation of such an insect is a marvellous adaptation ofphysical form to special circumstances. As the nycteribia has to makeits way through fur and hairs, its feet are furnished with prehensilehooks that almost convert them into hands; and being obliged to conformto the sudden flights of its patron, and accommodate itself to invertedpositions, all attitudes are rendered alike to it by the arrangement of itslimbs, which enables it, after every possible gyration, to find itselfalways on its feet. III. CARNIVORA. --_Bears_. --Of the _carnivora_, the one mostdreaded by the natives of Ceylon, and the only one of the largeranimals that makes the depths of the forest its habitual retreat, isthe bear[1], attracted chiefly by the honey which is found in thehollow trees and clefts of the rocks. Occasionally spots of freshearth are observed which have been turned up by the bears in search ofsome favourite root. They feed also on the termites and ants. A friendof mine traversing the forest, near Jaffna, at early dawn, had hisattention attracted by the growling of a bear, that was seated upon alofty branch, thrusting portions of a red-ants' nest into his mouthwith one paw, whilst with the other he endeavoured to clear hiseyebrows and lips of the angry inmates, which bit and tortured him intheir rage. The Ceylon bear is found in the low and dry districts ofthe northern and south-eastern coast, and is seldom met with on themountains or the moist and damp plains of the west. It is furnishedwith a bushy tuft of hair on the back, between the shoulders, by whichthe young are accustomed to cling till sufficiently strong to providefor their own safety. During a severe drought that prevailed in thenorthern province in 1850, the district of Caretchy was so infested bybears that the Oriental custom of the women resorting to the wells wasaltogether suspended, as it was a common occurrence to find one of theseanimals in the water, unable to climb up the yielding and slippery soil, down which its thirst had impelled it to slide during the night. [Footnote 1: Prochilus labiatus, _Blainville_. ] [Illustration: INDIAN BEAR. ] Although the structure of the bear shows him to be naturally omnivorous, he rarely preys upon flesh in Ceylon, and his solitary habits whilst insearch of honey and fruits render him timid and retiring. Hence heevinces alarm on the approach of man or other animals, and, unable tomake a rapid retreat, his panic, rather than any vicious disposition, leads him to become an assailant in self-defence. But so furious are hisassaults under such circumstances that the Singhalese have a terror ofhis attack greater than that created by any other beast of the forest. If not armed with a gun, a native, in the places where bears abound, usually carries a light axe, called "kodelly, " with which to strike themon the head. The bear, on the other hand, always aims at the face, and, if successful in prostrating his victim, usually commences by assailingthe eyes. I have met numerous individuals on our journeys who exhibitedfrightful scars from such encounters, the white seams of their woundscontrasting hideously with the dark colour of the rest of their bodies. The Veddahs in Bintenne, whose principal stores consist of honey, livein dread of the bears, because, attracted by the perfume, they willnot hesitate to attack their rude dwellings, when allured by thisirresistible temptation. The Post-office runners, who always travel bynight, are frequently exposed to danger from these animals, especiallyalong the coast from Putlam to Aripo, where they are found inconsiderable numbers; and, to guard against surprise, they areaccustomed to carry flambeaux, to give warning to the bears, andenable them to shuffle out of the path. [1] [Footnote 1: Amongst the Singhalese there is a belief that certaincharms are efficacious in protecting them from the violence of bears, and those whose avocations expose them to encounters of this kind areaccustomed to carry a talisman either attached to their neck orenveloped in the folds of their luxuriant hair. A friend of mine, writing of an adventure which occurred at Anarajapoora, thus describesan occasion on which a Moor, who attended him, was somewhat, rudelydisabused of his belief in the efficacy of charms upon bears:--"Desiringto change the position of a herd of deer, the Moorman (with his charm)was sent across some swampy land to disturb them. As he was proceeding, we saw him suddenly turn from an old tree and run back with all speed, his hair becoming unfastened and like his clothes streaming in the wind. It soon became evident that he was flying from some terrific object, forhe had thrown down his gun, and, in his panic, he was taking theshortest line towards us, which lay across a swamp covered with sedgeand rushes that greatly impeded his progress, and prevented usapproaching him, or seeing what was the cause of his flight. Missing hissteps from one hard spot to another he repeatedly fell into the water, but he rose and resumed his flight. I advanced as far as the sods wouldbear my weight, but to go further was impracticable. Just withinball-range there was an open space, and, as the man gained it. I sawthat he was pursued by a bear and two cubs. As the person of thefugitive covered the bear, it was impossible to fire without risk. Atlast he fall exhausted, and the bear being close upon him, I dischargedboth barrels. The first broke the bear's shoulder, but this only madeher more savage, and rising on her hind legs she advanced with ferociousprowls, when the second barrel, though I do not think it took effect, served to frighten her, for turning round she retreated, followed by thecubs. Some natives then waded through the mud to the Moorman, who wasjust exhausted, and would have been drowned but that he fell with hishead upon a tuft of grass: the poor man was unable to speak, and forseveral weeks his intellect seemed confused. The adventure sufficed tosatisfy him that he could not again depend upon a charm to protect him, from bears, though he always insisted that but for its having fallenfrom his hair where he had fastened it under his turban, the bear wouldnot have ventured to attack him. "] Leopards[1] are the only formidable members of the tiger race inCeylon[2], and they are neither very numerous nor very dangerous, asthey seldom attack man. By the Europeans, the Ceylon leopard iserroneously called a _cheetah_, but the true "cheetah" (_felisjubata_), ' the hunting leopard of India, does not exist in theisland. [3] [Footnote 1: Felis pardus, _Linn. _ What is called a leopard, or acheetah, in Ceylon, is in reality the true panther. ] [Footnote 2: A belief is prevalent at Trincomalie that a Bengal tigerinhabits the jungle in its vicinity; and the story runs that itescaped from the wreck of a vessel on which it had been embarked forEngland. Officers of the Government state positively that they havemore than once come on it whilst hunting; and one gentleman of theRoyal Engineers, who had seen it, assured me that he could not bemistaken as to its being a tiger of India, and one of the largestdescription. ] [Footnote 3: Mr. BAKER, in his _Eight Years in Ceylon_, hasstated that there are two species of leopard in the island, one ofwhich he implies is the Indian cheetah. But although he specifiesdiscrepancies in size, weight, and marking between the varieties whichhe has examined, his data are not sufficient to identify any of themwith the true _felis jubata_. ] There is a rare variety of the leopard which has been found in variousparts of the island, in which the skin, instead of being spotted, is ofa uniform black. [1] Leopards frequent the vicinity of pasture hinds inquest of the deer and other peaceful animals which resort to them; andthe villagers often complain of the destruction of their cattle by theseformidable marauders. In relation to them, the natives have a curiousbut firm conviction that when a bullock is killed by a leopard, and, inexpiring, falls so that _its right side is undermost_, the leopard willnot return to devour it. I have been told by English sportsmen (some ofwhom share in the popular belief), that sometimes, when they haveproposed to watch by the carcase of a bullock recently killed by aleopard, in the hope of shooting the spoiler on his return in search ofhis prey, the native owner of the slaughtered animal, though earnestlydesiring to be avenged, has assured them that it would be in vain, asthe beast having fallen on its right side, the leopard not return. [Footnote 1: F. Melas, _Peron_ and _Leseur_. ] [Illustration: LEOPARD AND CHEETAH. ] The Singhalese hunt them for the sake of their extremely beautifulskins, but prefer taking them in traps and pitfalls, and occasionallyin spring cages formed of poles driven firmly into the ground, withinwhich a kid is generally fastened as a bait; the door being held openby a sapling bent down by the united force of several men, and soarranged as to act as a spring, to which a noose is ingeniouslyattached, formed of plaited deer's hide. The cries of the kid attractthe leopard, which being tempted to enter, is enclosed by theliberation of the spring, and grasped firmly round the body by thenoose. Like the other carnivora, leopards are timid and cowardly in thepresence of man, never intruding on him voluntarily, and making ahasty retreat when approached. Instances have, however, occurred ofindividuals having been slain by them; and it is believed, that, having once tasted human blood, they, like the tiger, acquire anhabitual relish for it. A peon, on duty by night at the court-house ofAnarajapoora, was some years ago carried off by a leopard from a tablein the verandah on which he had laid down his head to sleep. AtBatticaloa a "cheetah" in two instances in succession was known tocarry off men placed on a stage erected in a tree to drive awayelephants from rice-land: but such cases are rare, and, as comparedwith their dread of the bear, the natives of Ceylon entertain butslight apprehensions of the "cheetah. " It is, however, the dread ofsportsmen, whose dogs when beating in the jungle are especiallyexposed to its attacks: and I am aware of an instance in which a partyhaving tied their dogs to the tent-pole for security, and fallenasleep round them, a leopard sprang into the tent and carriedoff a dog from the midst of its slumbering masters. On one occasionbeing in the mountains near Kandy, a messenger despatched to methrough the jungle excused his delay by stating that a "cheetah" hadseated itself in the only practicable path, and remained quietlylicking its fore paws and rubbing them over its face, till he wasforced to drive it, with stones, into the forest. Leopards are strongly attracted by the peculiar odour whichaccompanies small-pox. The reluctance of the natives to submitthemselves or their children to vaccination exposes the island tofrightful visitations of this disease; and in the villages in theinterior it is usual on such occasions to erect huts in the jungle toserve as temporary hospitals. Towards these the leopards are certainto be allured; and the medical officers are obliged to resort toincreased precautions in consequence. This fact is connected with acurious native superstition. Amongst the avenging scourges sent directfrom the gods, the Singhalese regard both the ravages of the leopard, and the visitation of the small-pox. The latter they call _parexcellence "maha ledda_, " the great "sickness;" they look upon itas a special manifestation of _devidosay_, "the displeasure ofthe gods;" and the attraction of the cheetahs to the bed of thesufferer they attribute to the same indignant agency. A few years ago, the capua, or demon-priest of a "dewale, " at Oggalbodda, a villagenear Caltura, when suffering under small-pox, was devoured by acheetah, and his fate was regarded by those of an opposite faith as aspecial judgment from heaven. Such is the awe inspired by this belief in connection with thesmall-pox, that a person afflicted with it is always approached as onein immediate communication with the deity; his attendants, address himas "my lord, " and "your lordship, " and exhaust on him the whole seriesof honorific epithets in which their language abounds for approachingpersonages of the most exalted rank. At evening and morning, a lamp islighted before him, and invoked with prayers to protect his family fromthe dire calamity which has befallen himself. And after his recovery, his former associates refrain from communication with him until aceremony shall have been performed by the capua, called_awasara-pandema_, or "the offering of lights for permission, " theobject of which is to entreat permission of the deity to regard him asfreed from the divine displeasure, with liberty to his friends to renewtheir intercourse as before. Major SKINNER, who for upwards of forty years has had occasionally tolive for long periods in the interior, occupied in the prosecution ofsurveys and the construction of roads, is strongly of opinion that thedisposition of the leopard towards man is essentially pacific, andthat, when discovered, its natural impulse is to effect its escape. Inillustration of this I insert an extract from one of his letters, which describes an adventure highly characteristic of this instinctivetimidity:-- "On the occasion of one of my visits to Adam's Peak, in the prosecutionof my military reconnoissances of the mountain zone, I fixed on a prettylittle patena (_i. E. _, meadow) in the midst of an extensive and denseforest in the southern segment of the Peak Range, as a favourable spotfor operations. It would have been difficult, after descending from thecone of the peak, to have found one's way to this point, in the midst ofso vast a wilderness of trees, had not long experience assured me thatgood game tracks would be found leading to it, and by one of them Ireached it. It was in the afternoon, just after one of those tropicalsunshowers that decorate every branch and blade with pendant brilliants, and the little patena was covered with game, either driven to the openspace by the drippings from the leaves or tempted by the freshness ofthe pasture: there were several pairs of elk, the bearded antlered malecontrasting finely with his mate; and other varieties of game in aprofusion not to be found in any place frequented by man. It was sometime before I would allow them to be disturbed by the rude fall of theaxe, in our necessity to establish our bivouac for the night, and theywere so unaccustomed to danger that it was long before they took alarmat our noises. "The following morning, anxious to gain a height for my observationsin time to avail myself of the clear atmosphere of sunrise, I startedoff by myself through the jungle, leaving orders for my men, with mysurveying instruments, to follow my track by the notches which I cutin the bark of the trees. On leaving the plain, I availed myself of afine wide game track which lay in my direction, and had gone, perhaps, half a mile from the camp, when I was startled by a slight rustling inthe nilloo[1] to my right, and in another instant, by the spring of amagnificent leopard, which, in a bound of full eight feet in heightover the lower brushwood, lighted at my feet within eighteen inches ofthe spot whereon I stood, and lay in a crouching position, his fierygleaming eyes fixed on me. [Footnote 1: A species of one of the suffruticose _Acanthaccæ_(Strobilanthes), which grows, abundantly in the mountain ranges ofCeylon. ] "The predicament was not a pleasant one. I had no weapon of defence, andwith one spring or blow of his paw the beast could have annihilated me. To move I knew would only encourage his attack. It occurred to me at themoment that I had heard of the power of man's eye over wild animals, andaccordingly I fixed my gaze as intently as the agitation of such amoment enabled me on his eyes: we stared at each other for some seconds, when, to my inexpressible joy, the beast turned and bounded down thestraight open path before me. This scene occurred just at that period ofthe morning when the grazing animals retired from the open patena to thecool shade of the forest: doubtless, the leopard had taken my approachfor that of a deer, or some such animal. And if his spring had been at aquadruped instead of a biped, his distance was so well measured, that itmust have landed him on the neck of a deer, an elk, or a buffalo; as itwas, one pace more would have done for me. A bear would not have let hisvictim off so easily. " Notwithstanding the unequalled agility of the monkey, it falls a prey, and not unfrequently, to the leopard. The latter, on approaching a treeon which a troop of monkeys have taken shelter, causes an instant andfearful excitement, which they manifest by loud and continued screams, and incessant restless leaps from branch to branch. The leopardmeanwhile walks round and round the tree, with his eyes firmly fixedupon his victims, till at last exhausted by terror, and prostrated byvain exertions to escape, one or more falls a prey to his voracity. Sorivetted is the attention of both during the struggle, that a sportsman, on one occasion, attracted by the noise, was enabled to approach withinan uncomfortable distance of the leopard, before he discovered the causeof the unusual dismay amongst the monkeys overhead. It is said, but I have never been able personally to verify the fact, that the leopard of Ceylon exhibits a peculiarity in being unableentirely to retract its claws within their sheaths. There is another piece of curious folk lore, in connexion with theleopard. The natives assert that it devours the _kaolin_ claycalled by them _kiri-mattie_[1] in a very peculiar way. They saythat the cheetah places it in lumps beside him, and then gazesintently on the sun, till on turning his eyes on the clay, every pieceappears of a red colour like flesh, when he instantly devours it. [Footnote 1: See Sir J. E. TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, vol. I. P. 31. ] They likewise allege that the female cheetah never produces more thanone litter of whelps. Of the _lesser feline species_, the number and variety in Ceylonis inferior to those of India. The Palm-cat[1] lurks by day among thefronds of the coco-nut palms, and by night makes destructive forays onthe fowls of the villagers; and, in order to suck the blood of itsvictim, inflicts a wound so small as to be almost imperceptible. Theglossy genette[2], the "_Civet_" of Europeans, is common in thenorthern province, where the Tamils confine it in cages for the sakeof its musk, which they collect from the wooden bars on which it rubsitself. Edrisi, the Moorish geographer, writing in the twelfthcentury, enumerates musk as one of the productions then exported fromCeylon. [3] [Footnote 1: Paradoxurus typus, _F. Cuv. _] [Footnote 2: Viverra Indica, _Geoffr. , Hodgs. _] [Footnote 3: EDRISI, _Géogr. _ sec. Vii. Jauberts's translation, t. Ii. P. 72. In connexion with cats, a Singhalese gentleman hasdescribed to me a plant in Ceylon, called _Cuppa-mayniya_ by thenatives; by which he says cats are so enchanted, that they play withit as they would with, a captured mouse; throwing if into the air, watching it till it falls, and crouching to see if it will move. Itwould be worth inquiring into the truth of this; and the explanationof the attraction. ] _Dogs_. --There is no native wild dog in Ceylon, but every villageand town is haunted by mongrels of European descent, that are known bythe generic description of _Pariahs_. They are a miserable race, lean, wretched, and mangy, acknowledged by no owners, living on thegarbage of the streets and sewers, and if spoken to unexpectedly theyshrink with an almost involuntary cry. Yet in these persecutedoutcasts there survives that germ of instinctive affection which bindsthe dog to the human race, and a gentle word, even a look ofcompassionate kindness, is sufficient foundation for a lastingattachment. The Singhalese, from their religious aversion to taking away life in anyform, permit the increase of these desolate creatures till in the hotseason they become so numerous as to be a nuisance; and the onlyexpedient hitherto devised by the civil government to reduce theirnumbers, is once in each year to offer a reward for their destruction, when the Tamils and Malays pursue them in the streets with clubs (gunsbeing forbidden by the police for fear of accidents), and theunresisting dogs are beaten to death on the side-paths and door-stepswhere they had been taught to resort for food. Lord Torrington, duringhis government of Ceylon, attempted the more civilised experiment ofputting some check on their numbers, by imposing a dog-tax, the effectof which would have been to lead to the drowning of puppies; whereasthere is reason to believe that dogs are at present _bred_ by thehorse-keepers to be killed for sake of the reward. The Pariahs of Colombo exhibit something of the same instinct, bywhich the dogs in other eastern cities partition the towns intodistricts, each apportioned to a separate pack, by whom it isjealously guarded from the encroachments of all intruders. Travellersat Cairo and Constantinople are often startled at night by the racketoccasioned by the demonstrations made by the rightful possessors of alocality in repelling its invasion by some straggling wanderer. AtAlexandria, in 1844, the dogs had multiplied to such an inconvenientextent, that Mehemet Ali, to abate the nuisance, caused them to beshipped in boats and conveyed to one of the islands at the mouth ofthe Nile. But the streets, thus deprived of their habitual patroles, were speedily infested by dogs from the suburbs, in such numbers thatthe evil became greater than before, and in the following year, thelegitimate denizens were recalled from their exile in the Delta, andspeedily drove back the intruders within their original boundary. Maynot this disposition of the dog be referable to the impulse by which, in a state of nature, each pack appropriates its own hunting-fieldswithin a particular area? and may not the impulse which, even in astate of domestication, they still manifest to attack a passing dogupon the road, be a remnant of this localised instinct, and aconcomitant dislike of intrusion? _Jackal_. --The Jackal[1] in the low country of Ceylon hunts thus inpacks, headed by a leader, and these audacious prowlers have been seento assault and pull down a deer. The small number of hares in thedistricts they infest is ascribed to their depredations. In the legendsof the natives, and in the literature of the Buddhists, the jackal inCeylon is as essentially the type of cunning as the fox is the emblem ofcraft and adroitness in the traditions of Europe. In fact, it is morethan doubtful whether the jackal of the East be not the creature alludedto, in the various passages of the Sacred Writings which make allusionto the artfulness and subtlety of the "fox. " [Footnote 1: Canis Aureus, _Linn. _] These faculties they display in a high degree in their huntingexpeditions, especially in the northern portions of the island, wherethey are found in the greatest numbers. In these districts, where thewide sandy plains are thinly covered with brushwood, the face of thecountry is diversified by patches of thick jungle and detached groupsof trees, that form insulated groves and topes. At dusk, or afternightfall, a pack of jackals, having watched a hare or a small deertake refuge in one of these retreats, immediately surround it on allsides; and having stationed a few to watch the path by which the gameentered, the leader commences the attack by raising the unearthly crypeculiar to their race, and which resembles the sound _okkay!_loudly and rapidly repeated. The whole party then rush into thejungle, and drive out the victim, which generally falls into theambush previously laid to entrap it. A native gentleman[1], who had favourable opportunities of observing themovements of these animals, informed me, that when a jackal has broughtdown his game and killed it, his first impulse is to hide it in thenearest jungle, whence he issues with an air of easy indifference toobserve whether anything more powerful than himself may be at hand, fromwhich he might encounter the risk of being despoiled of his capture. Ifthe coast be clear, he returns to the concealed carcase, and carries itaway, followed by his companions. But if a man be in sight, or any otheranimal to be avoided, my informant has seen the jackal seize a coco-nuthusk in his mouth, or any similar substance, and fly at full speed, asif eager to carry off his pretended prize, returning for the real bootyat some more convenient season. [Footnote 1: Mr. D. De Silva Gooneratné. ] They are subject to hydrophobia, and instances are frequent in Ceylonof cattle being bitten by them and dying in consequence. [Illustration: JACKAL'S SKULL AND HORN] An excrescence is sometimes found on the head of the jackal, consistingof a small horny cone about half an inch in length, and concealed by atuft of hair. This the natives call _narrie-comboo_; and they aver thatthis "Jackal's Horn" only grows on the head of the leader of thepack. [1] Both the Singhalese and the Tamils regard it as a talisman, andbelieve that its fortunate possessor can command by its instrumentalitythe realisation of every wish, and that if stolen or lost by him, itwill invariably return of its own accord. Those who have jewels toconceal rest in perfect security if along with them they can deposit anarri-comboo, fully convinced that its presence is an effectualsafeguard against robbers. [Footnote 1: In the Museum of the College of Surgeons, London (No. 4362 A), there is a cranium of a jackal which exhibits this strangeosseous process on the super-occipital; and I have placed along withit a specimen of the horny sheath, which was presented to me by Mr. Lavalliere, the late district judge of Kandy. ] One fabulous virtue ascribed to the _narrie-comboo_ by the Singhalese isabsurdly characteristic of their passion for litigation, as well as oftheir perceptions of the "glorious uncertainty of the law. " It is thepopular belief that the fortunate discoverer of a jackal's horn becomesthereby invincible in every lawsuit, and must irresistibly triumph overevery opponent. A gentleman connected "with the Supreme Court of Colombohas repeated to me a circumstance, within his own knowledge, of aplaintiff who, after numerous defeats, eventually succeeded against hisopponent by the timely acquisition of this invaluable charm. Before thefinal hearing of the cause, the mysterious horn was duly exhibited tohis friends; and the consequence was, that the adverse witnesses, appalled by the belief that no one could possibly give judgment againsta person so endowed, suddenly modified their previous evidence, andsecured an unforeseen victory for the happy owner of the_narrie-comboo!_ _The Mongoos_. --Of the Mongoos or Ichneumon four species have beendescribed; and one, that frequents the hills near Neuera-ellia[1], is soremarkable from its bushy fur, that the invalid soldiers in thesanatarium there, to whom it is familiar, have given it the name of the"Ceylon Badger. " [Footnote 1: _Herpestes vitticollis_. Mr. W. ELLIOTT, in his _Catalogueof Mammalia found in the Southern Maharata Country_, Madras, 1840, says, that "One specimen of this Herpestes was procured by accident in theGhât forests in 1829, and is now deposited in the British Museum; it isvery rare, inhabiting only the thickest woods, and its habits are verylittle known, " p. 9. In Ceylon it is comparatively common. ] [Illustration: HERPESTES VITTICOLLIS. ] I have found universally that the natives of Ceylon attach no credit tothe European story of the Mongoos (_H. Griseus_) resorting to someplant, which no one has yet succeeded in identifying, as an antidoteagainst the bite of the venomous serpents on which it preys: There is nodoubt that, in its conflicts with the cobra de capello and otherpoisonous snakes, which it attacks with as little hesitation as theharmless ones, it may be seen occasionally to retreat, and even toretire into the jungle, and, it is added, to eat some vegetable; but agentleman, who has been a frequent observer of its exploits, assures methat most usually the herb it resorted to was grass; and if this werenot at hand, almost any other plant that grew near seemed equallyacceptable. Hence has probably arisen the long list of plants, such asthe _Ophioxylon serpentinum_ and _Ophiorhiza mungos_, the _AristolochiaIndica_, the _Mimosa octandria_, and others, each of which has beenasserted to be the ichneumon's specific; whilst their multiplicity isdemonstrative of the non-existence of any one in particular on which theanimal relies as an antidote. Were there any truth in the tale asregards the mongoos, it would be difficult to understand why creatures, such as the secretary bird and the falcon, and others, which equallydestroy serpents, should be left defenceless, and the ichneumon aloneprovided with a prophylactic. Besides, were the ichneumon inspired bythat courage which would result from the consciousness of security, itwould be so indifferent to the bite of the serpent that we mightconclude that, both in its approaches and its assault, it would beutterly careless as to the precise mode of its attack. Such, however, isfar from being the case: and next to its audacity, nothing can be moresurprising than the adroitness with which it escapes the spring of thesnake under a due sense of danger, and the cunning with which it makesits arrangements to leap upon the back and fasten its teeth in the headof the cobra. It is this display of instinctive ingenuity that Lucan[1]celebrates where he paints the ichneumon diverting the attention of theasp, by the motion of his bushy tail, and then seizing it in the midstof its confusion:-- "Aspidas ut Pharias caudâ solertior hostis Ludit, et iratas incertâ provocat umbrâ: * * * * * [Footnote 1: The passage in Lucan is a versification of the samenarrative related by Pliny, lib. Viii. Ch. 53; and Ælian, lib. Iii. Ch. 22. ] Obliquusque caput vanas serpentis in auras Effuse toto comprendit guttura morsu Letiferam citra saniem; tunc irrita pestis Exprimitur, faucesque fluunt pereunte veneno. " _Pharsalia_, lib. Iv. V. 729. The mystery of the mongoos and its antidote has been referred to thesupposition that there may be some peculiarity in its organisation whichrenders it _proof against_ the poison of the serpent. It remains forfuture investigation to determine how far this conjecture is founded intruth; and whether in the blood of the mongoos there exists any elementor quality which acts as a prophylactic. Such exceptional provisions arenot without precedent in the animal oeconomy: the hornbill feeds withimpunity on the deadly fruit of the strychnos; the milky juice of somespecies of euphorbia, which is harmless to oxen, is invariably fatal tothe zebra; and the tsetse fly, the pest of South Africa, whose bite ismortal to the ox, the dog, and the horse, is harmless to man and theuntamed creatures of the forest. [1] [Footnote 1: Dr. LIVINGSTONE, _Tour in S. Africa_, p. 80. Is it a factthat, in America, pigs extirpate the rattlesnakes with impunity?] The Singhalese distinguish one species of mongoos, which they designate"_Hotambeya_" and which they assert never preys upon serpents. A writerin the _Ceylon Miscellany_ mentions, that they are often to be seen"crossing rivers and frequently mud-brooks near Chilaw; the adjacentthickets affording them shelter, and their food consisting of aquaticreptiles, crabs, and mollusca. "[1] [Footnote 1: This is possibly the "musbilai" or mouse-cat of Behar, which preys upon birds and fish. Can it be the Urva of the Nepalese(_Urva cancrivora_, Hodgson), which Mr. Hodgson describes as dwelling inburrows, and being carnivorous and ranivorous?--Vide _Journ. As. Soc. Beng. _ vol. Vi. P. 56. ] [Illustration: FLYING SQUIRREL. ] IV. RODENTIA. _Squirrels_. --Smaller animals in great numbers enliven theforests and lowland plains with their graceful movements. Squirrels[1], of which there are a great variety, make their shrill metallic callheard at early morning in the woods; and when sounding their note ofwarning on the approach of a civet or a tree-snake, the ears tingle withthe loud trill of defiance, which rings as clear and rapid as therunning down of an alarum, and is instantly caught up and re-echoed fromevery side by their terrified playmates. [Footnote 1: Of two kinds which frequent the mountains, one which ispeculiar to Ceylon was discovered by Mr. Edgar L. Layard, who has doneme the honour to call it the _Sciurus Tennentii_. Its dimensions arelarge, measuring upwards of two feet from head to tail. It isdistinguished from the _S. Macrurus_ by the predominant black colour ofthe upper surface of the body, with the exception of a rusty spot at thebase of the ears. ] One of the largest, belonging to a closely allied subgenus, is known asthe "Flying Squirrel, "[1] from its being assisted, in its prodigiousleaps from tree to tree, by a parachute formed by the skin of theflanks, which, on the extension of the limbs front and rear, islaterally expanded from foot to foot. Thus buoyed up in its descent, thespring which it is enabled to make from one lofty tree to anotherresembles the flight of a bird rather than the bound of a quadruped. [Footnote 1: Pteromys oral. , _Tickel_. P. Petaurista, _Pallas_. ] Of these pretty creatures there are two species, one common to Ceylonand India, the other (_Sciuropterus Layardii_, Kelaart) is peculiar tothe island, and by far the most beautiful of the family. _Rats_. --Among the multifarious inhabitants to which the forest affordsat once a home and provender is the tree rat[1], which forms its nest onthe branches, and by turns makes its visits to the dwellings of thenatives, frequenting the ceilings in preference to the lower parts ofhouses. Here it is incessantly followed by the rat-snake[2], whosedomestication is encouraged by the servants, in consideration of itsservices in destroying vermin. I had one day an opportunity ofsurprising a snake that had just seized on a rat of this description, and of covering it suddenly with a glass shade, before it had time toswallow its prey. The serpent, appeared stunned by its own capture, andallowed the rat to escape from its jaws, which cowered at one side ofthe glass in the most pitiable state of trembling terror. The two wereleft alone for some moments, and on my return to them the snake was asbefore in the same attitude of sullen stupor. On setting them atliberty, the rat bounded towards the nearest fence; but quick aslightning it was followed by its pursuer, which seized it before itcould gain the hedge, through which I saw the snake glide with itsvictim in its jaws. In parts of the central province, at Oovah andBintenne, the house-rat is eaten as a common article of food. TheSinghalese believe it and the mouse to be liable to hydrophobia. [Footnote 1: There are two species of the tree rat in Ceylon: M. Rufescens, _Gray_; (M. Flavescens, _Elliot_;) and Mus nemoralis, _Blyth_. ] [Footnote 2: Coryphodon Blumenbachii, _Merr_. ] Another indigenous variety of the rat is that which made its appearancefor the first time in the coffee plantations on the Kandyan hills in theyear 1847; and in such swarms does it continue to infest them, atintervals, that as many as a thousand have been killed in a single dayon one estate. In order to reach the buds and blossoms of the coffee, itcuts such of the slender branches as would not sustain its weight, andfeeds on them when fallen to the ground; and so delicate and sharp areits incisors, that the twigs thus destroyed are detached by as clean acut as if severed with a knife. The coffee-rat[1] is an insular variety of the _Mus hirsutus_ of W. Elliot, found in Southern India. They inhabit the forests, making theirnests among the roots of the trees, and feeding, in the season, on theripe seeds of the nilloo. Like the lemmings of Norway and Lapland, theymigrate in vast numbers on the occurrence of a scarcity of theirordinary food. The Malabar coolies are so fond of their flesh, that theyevince a preference for those districts in which the coffee plantationsare subject to their incursions, where they fry the rats in coco-nutoil, or convert them into curry. [Footnote 1: Golunda Ellioti, _Gray_. ] [Illustration: COFFEE RAT. ] _Bandicoot_. --Another favourite article of food with the coolies is thepig-rat or Bandicoot[1], which attains on those hills the weight of twoor three pounds, and grows to nearly the length of two feet. As it feedson grain and roots, its flesh is said to be delicate, and muchresembling young pork. [Footnote 1: Mus bandicota, _Beckst. _ The English term bandicoot is acorruption of the Telinga name _pandikoku_, literally _pig-rat_. ] Its nests, when rifled, are frequently found to contain considerablequantities of rice, stored up against the dry season. [Illustration: BANDICOOT. ] _Porcupine_. --The Porcupine[1] is another of the _rodentia_ which hasdrawn down upon itself the hostility of the planters, from itsdestruction of the young coconut palms, to which it is a pernicious andpersevering, but withal so crafty, a visitor, that it is with difficultyany trap can be so disguised, or any bait made so alluring, as to leadto its capture. The usual expedient in Ceylon is to place some of itsfavourite food at the extremity of a trench, so narrow as to prevent theporcupine turning, whilst the direction of his quills effectually barshis retreat backwards. On a newly planted coconut tope, at Hang-welle, within a few miles of Colombo, I have heard of as many as twenty-sevenbeing thus captured in a single night; but such success is rare. Themore ordinary expedient is to smoke them out by burning straw at theapertures of their burrows. At Ootacamund, on the continent of theDekkan, spring-guns have been used with great success by theSuperintendent of the Horticultural Gardens; placing them so as to sweepthe runs of the porcupines. The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Ceylon, and in consistency, colour, and flavour it very much resembles youngpork. [Footnote 1: Hystrix leucurus, _Sykes_. ] V. EDENTATA. _Pengolin_. --Of the Edentata the only example in Ceylon isthe scaly ant-eater, called by the Singhalese, Caballaya, but usuallyknown by its Malay name of _Pengolin_[1], a word indicative of itsfaculty, when alarmed, of "rolling itself up" into a compact ball, bybending its head towards its stomach, arching its back into a circle, and securing all by a powerful fold of its mail-covered tail. The feetof the pengolin are armed with powerful claws, which in walking theydouble in, like the ant-eater of Brazil. These they use in extractingtheir favourite food from ant-hills and decaying wood. When at liberty, they burrow in the dry ground to a depth of seven or eight feet, wherethey reside in pairs, and produce annually one or two young. [2] [Footnote 1: Manis pentadactyla, _Linn. _] [Footnote 2: I am assured that there is a hedge-hog in Ceylon; but as Ihave never seen it, I cannot tell whether it belongs to either of thetwo species known in India (_Erinaceus mentalis_ and _E. Collaris_)--norcan I vouch for its existence there at all. But the fact was told to me, in connexion with the statement, that its favourite dwelling is in thesame burrow with the pengolin. The popular belief in this is attested bya Singhalese proverb, in relation to an intrusive personage; the importof which is that he is like "_a hedge-hog in the den of a pengolin_. "] Of two specimens which I kept alive at different times, one, about twofeet in length, from the vicinity of Kandy, was a gentle and affectionatecreature, which, after wandering over the house in search of ants, wouldattract attention to its wants by climbing up my knee, laying hold of myleg with its prehensile tail. The other, more than double that length, was caught in the jungle near Chilaw, and brought to me in Colombo. Ihad always understood that the pengolin was unable to climb trees; butthe one last mentioned frequently ascended a tree in my garden, insearch of ants; and this it effected by means of its hooked feet, aidedby an oblique grasp of the tail. The ants it seized by extending itsround and glutinous tongue along their tracks; and in the stomach of onewhich was opened after death, I found a quantity of small stones andgravel, which had been taken to facilitate digestion. In both specimensin my possession the scales of the back were a cream-coloured white, with a tinge of red in that which came from Chilaw, probably acquired bythe insinuation of the Cabook dust which abounds along the western coastof the island. [Illustration: THE PENGOLIN. ] [Illustration: SKELETON OF PENGOLIN. ] Of the habits of the pengolin I found that very little was known by thenatives, who regard it with aversion, one name given to it being the"Negombo Devil. " Those kept by me were, generally speaking, quiet duringthe day, and grew restless and active as evening and night approached. Both had been taken near rocks, in the hollows of which they had theirdwelling, but owing to their slow power of motion, they were unable toreach their hiding place when overtaken. When frightened, they rolledthemselves instantly into a rounded ball; and such was the powerfulforce of muscle, that the strength of a man was insufficient to uncoilit. In reconnoitring they made important use of the tail, resting uponit and their hind legs, and holding themselves nearly erect, to commanda view of their object. The strength of this powerful limb will beperceived from the accompanying drawing of the skeleton of the Manis; inwhich it will be seen that the tail is equal in length to all the restof the body, whilst the vertebræ which compose it are stronger by farthan those of the back. From the size and position of the bones of the leg, the pengolin isendued with prodigious power; and its faculty of exerting thisvertically, was displayed in overturning heavy cases, by insinuatingitself under them, between the supports, by which it is customary inCeylon to raise trunks a few inches above the floor, in order to preventthe attacks of white ants. VI. RUMINANTIA. _The Gaur_. --Besides the deer, and some varieties of thehumped ox, that have been introduced from the opposite continent ofIndia, Ceylon has probably but one other indigenous bovine _ruminant_, the buffalo. [1] There is a tradition that the gaur, found in theextremity of the Indian peninsula, was at one period a native of theKandyan Mountains; but as Knox speaks of one which in his time "was keptamong the king's creatures" at Kandy[2], and his account of it tallieswith that of the _Bos Gaurus_ of Hindustan, it would appear even then tohave been a rarity. A place between Neuera-ellia and Adam's Peak bearsthe name of "Gowra-ellia, " and it is not impossible that the animal mayyet be discovered in some of the imperfectly explored regions of theisland. [3] I have heard of an instance in which a very old Kandyan, residing in the mountains near the Horton Plains, asserted that whenyoung he had seen what he believed to have been a gaur, and he describedit as between an elk and a buffalo in size, dark brown in colour, andvery scantily provided with hair. [Footnote 1: Bubalus buffelus, _Gray_. ] [Footnote 2: KNOX, _Historical Relation of Ceylon, &c. _, A. D. 1681. Booki. C. 6. ] [Footnote 3: KELAART, _Fauna Zeylan_. , p. 87. ] _Oxen_. --Oxen are used by the peasantry both in ploughing and intempering the mud in the wet paddi fields before sowing the rice; andwhen the harvest is reaped they "tread out the corn, " after theimmemorial custom of the East. The wealth of the native chiefs andlanded proprietors frequently consists in their herds of bullocks, whichthey hire out to their dependents during the seasons for agriculturallabour; and as they already supply them with land to be tilled, and lendthe seed which is to crop it, the further contribution of this portionof the labour serves to render the dependence of the peasantry on thechiefs and headmen complete. The cows are often worked as well as the oxen; and as the calves arealways permitted to suck them, milk is an article which the travellercan rarely hope to procure in a Kandyan village. From their constantexposure at all seasons, the cattle in Ceylon, both those employed inagriculture and those on the roads, are subject to devastating murrains, that sweep them away by thousands. So frequent is the recurrence ofthese calamities, and so extended their ravages, that they exercise aserious influence upon the commercial interests of the colony, byreducing the facilities of agriculture, and augmenting the cost ofcarriage during the most critical periods of the coffee harvest. A similar disorder, probably peripneumonia, frequently carries off thecattle in Assam and other hill countries on the continent of India; andthere, as in Ceylon, the inflammatory symptoms in the lungs and throat, and the internal derangement and external eruptive appearances, seem toindicate that the disease is a feverish influenza, attributable toneglect and exposure in a moist and variable climate; and that itsprevention might be hoped for, and the cattle preserved, by the simpleexpedient of more humane and considerate treatment, especially byaffording them cover at night. During my residence in Ceylon an incident occurred at Neuera-ellia, which invested one of these pretty animals with an heroic interest. Alittle cow, belonging to an English gentleman, was housed, together withher calf, near the dwelling of her owner, and being aroused during thenight by her furious bellowing, the servants, on hastening to the stall, found her goring a leopard, which had stolen in to attack the calf. Shehad got it into a corner, and whilst lowing incessantly to call forhelp, she continued to pound it with her horns. The wild animal, apparently stupified by her unexpected violence, was detained by hertill despatched by a bullet. The number of bullock-carts encountered between Colombo and Kandy, ladenwith coffee from the interior, or carrying up rice and stores for thesupply of the plantations in the hill-country, is quite surprising. Theoxen thus employed on this single road, about seventy miles long, areestimated at upwards of twenty thousand. The bandy to which they areyoked is a barbarous two-wheeled waggon, with a covering of plaitedcoco-nut leaves, in which a pair of strong bullocks will draw from fiveto ten hundred weight, according to the nature of the country; and withthis load on a level they will perform a journey of twenty miles a day. A few of the large humped cattle of India are annually imported fordraught; but the vast majority of those in use are small anddark-coloured, with a graceful head and neck, and elevated hump, a deepsilky dewlap, and limbs as slender as a deer. They appear to haveneither the strength nor weight requisite for this service; and yet theentire coffee crop of Ceylon, amounting annually to upwards of half amillion hundred weight, is year after year brought down from themountains to the coast by these indefatigable little creatures, which, on returning, carry up proportionally heavy loads, of rice andimplements for the estates. [1] There are two varieties of the nativebullock; one a somewhat coarser animal, of a deep red colour; the other, the high-bred black one I have just described. So rare was a white oneof this species, under the native kings, that the Kandyans werecompelled to set them apart for the royal herd. [2] [Footnote 1: A pair of these little bullocks carry up about twentybushels of rice to the hills, and bring down from fifty to sixty bushelsof coffee to Colombo. ] [Footnote 2: WOLF says that, in the year 1763, he saw in Ceylon twowhite oxen, each of which measured upwards of eight feet high. They weresent as a present from the King of Atchin. --_Life and Adventures_, p. 172. ] Although bullocks may be said to be the only animals of draught andburden in Ceylon (horses being rarely used except in spring carriages), no attempt has been made to improve the breed, or even to better thecondition and treatment of those in use. Their food is indifferent, pasture in all parts of the island being rare, and cattle are seldomhoused under any vicissitudes of weather. The labour for which they are best adapted, and in which, before theopening of roads, these cattle were formerly employed, is in traversingthe jungle paths of the interior, carrying light loads as pack-oxen inwhat is called a "_tavalam_"--a term which, substituting bullocks forcamels, is equivalent to a "caravan. "[1] The class of persons engaged inthis traffic in Ceylon resemble in their occupations the "Banjarees" ofHindustan, who bring down to the coast corn, cotton, and oil, and takeback to the interior cloths and iron and copper utensils. In theunopened parts of the island, and especially in the eastern provinces, this primitive practice still continues. When travelling in thesedistricts I have often encountered long files of pack-bullocks toilingalong the mountain paths, their bells tinkling musically as they moved;or halting during the noonday heat beside some stream in the forests, their burdens piled in heaps near the drivers, who had lighted theircooking fires, whilst the bullocks were permitted to bathe and browse. [Footnote 1: Attempts have been made to domesticate the camel in Ceylon;but, I am told, they died of ulcers in the feet, attributed to the toogreat moisture of the roads at certain seasons. This explanation seemsinsufficient if taken in connection with the fact of the camel living inperfect health in climates equally, if not more, exposed to rain. Iapprehend that sufficient justice has not been done to the experiment. ] The persons engaged in this wandering trade are chiefly Moors, and thebusiness carried on by them consists in bringing up salt from thegovernment depots on the coast to be bartered with the Kandyans in thehills for "native coffee, " which is grown in small quantities roundevery house, but without systematic cultivation. This they carry down tothe maritime towns, and the proceeds are invested in cotton cloths andbrass utensils, dried fish, and other commodities, with which the_tavalams_ supply the secluded villages of the interior. _The Buffalo_. --Buffaloes abound in all parts of Ceylon, but they areonly to be seen in their native wildness in the vast solitudes of thenorthern and eastern provinces, where rivers, lagoons, and dilapidatedtanks abound. In these they delight to immerse themselves, till onlytheir heads appear above the surface; or, enveloped in mud to protectthemselves from the assaults of insects, they luxuriate in the longsedges by the water margins. When the buffalo is browsing, a crow willfrequently be seen stationed on its back, engaged in freeing it from theticks and other pests which attach themselves to its leathery hide, thesmooth brown surface of which, unprotected by hair, shines with anunpleasant polish in the sunlight. When in motion a buffalo throws backits clumsy head till the huge horns rest on its shoulders, and the noseis presented in a line with the eyes. The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and uncertain, and such is itsstrength and courage that in the Hindu epic of the Ramayana itsonslaught is compared to that of the tiger. [1] It is never quite safe toapproach them, if disturbed in their pasture or alarmed from theirrepose in the shallow lakes. On such occasions they hurry into line, draw up in defensive array, with a few of the oldest bulls in advance;and, wheeling in circles, their horns clashing with a loud sound as theyclank them together in their rapid evolutions, they prepare for attack;but generally, after a menacing display the herd betake themselves toflight; then forming again at a safer distance, they halt as before, elevating their nostrils, and throwing back their heads to take adefiant survey of the intruders. The true sportsman rarely molests them, so huge a creature affording no worthy mark for his skill, and theirwanton slaughter adds nothing to the supply of food for their assailant. [Footnote 1: CAREY and MARSHMAN'S Transl. Vol. I. P. 430, 447. ] In the Hambangtotte country, where the Singhalese domesticate buffaloes, and use them to assist in the labour of the rice lands, the villagersare much annoyed by the wild ones, that mingle with the tame when sentout to the woods to pasture; and it constantly happens that a savagestranger, placing himself at the head of the tame herd, resists theattempts of the owners to drive them homewards at sunset. In thedistricts of Putlam and the Seven Corles, buffaloes are generally usedfor draught; and in carrying heavy loads of salt from the coast towardsthe interior, they drag a cart over roads which would defy the weakerstrength of bullocks. In one place between Batticaloa and Trincomalie I found the nativesmaking an ingenious use of them when engaged in shooting water-fowl inthe vast salt marshes and muddy lakes. Being an object to which thebirds are accustomed, the Singhalese train the buffalo to the sport, and, concealed behind, the animal browsing listlessly along, they guideit by ropes attached to its horns, and thus creep undiscovered withinshot of the flock. The same practice prevails, I believe, in some of thenorthern parts of India, where they are similarly trained to assist thesportsman in approaching deer. One of these "sporting buffaloes" sellsfor a considerable sum. In the thick forests which cover the Passdun Corle, to the east, andsouth of Caltura, the natives use the sporting buffalo in another way, to assist in hunting deer and wild hogs. A bell is attached to its neck, and a box or basket with one side open is securely strapped on its back. This at nightfall is lighted by flambeaux of wax, and the buffalobearing it, is driven slowly into the jungle. The huntsmen, with theirfowling pieces, keep close under the darkened side, and as it movesslowly onwards, the wild animals, startled by the sound, and bewilderedby the light, steal cautiously towards it in stupified fascination. Eventhe snakes, I am assured, will be attracted by this extraordinaryobject; and the leopard too falls a victim to curiosity. There is a peculiarity in the formation of the buffalo's foot, which, though it must have attracted attention, I have never seen mentioned bynaturalists. It is equivalent to the arrangement which distinguishes thefoot of the reindeer from that of the stag and the antelope. In thelatter, the hoofs, being constructed for lightness and flight, arecompact and vertical; but, in the reindeer, the joints of the tarsalbones admit of lateral expansion, and the front hoofs curve upwards, while the two secondary ones behind (which are but slightly developed inthe fallow deer and others of the same family) are prolonged verticallytill, in certain positions, they are capable of being applied to theground, thus adding to the circumference and sustaining power of thefoot. It has been usually suggested as the probable design of thisstructure, that it is to enable the reindeer to shovel away the snow inorder to reach the lichens beneath it; but I apprehend that another useof it has been overlooked, that of facilitating its movements in searchof food by increasing the difficulty of its sinking in the snow. A formation precisely analogous in the buffalo seems to point to acorresponding design. The ox, whose life is spent on firm ground, hasthe bones of the foot so constructed as to afford the most solid supportto an animal of its great weight; but in the buffalo, which delights inthe morasses on the margins of pools and rivers, the construction of thefoot resembles that of the reindeer. The tarsi in front extend almosthorizontally from the upright bones of the leg, and spread apart widelyon touching the ground; the hoofs are flattened and broad, with theextremities turned upwards; and the false hoofs behind descend till theymake a clattering sound as the animal walks. In traversing the marshes, this combination of abnormal incidents serves to give extraordinarybreadth to the foot, and not only prevents the buffalo from sinkinginconveniently in soft ground[1], but at the same time presents noobstacle to the withdrawal of its foot from the mud. [Footnote 1: PROFESSOR OWEN has noticed a similar fact regarding therudiments of the second and fifth digits in the instance of the elk andbison, which have them largely expanded where they inhabit swampyground; whilst they are nearly obliterated in the camel and dromedary, that traverse arid deserts. --OWEN _on Limbs_, p. 34; see also BELL _onthe Hand_, ch. Iii. ] The buffalo, like the elk, is sometimes found in Ceylon as an albino, with purely white hair and a pink iris. _Deer_. --"Deer, " says the truthful old chronicler, Robert Knox, "are ingreat abundance in the woods, from the largeness of a cow to thesmallness of a hare, for here is a creature in this land no bigger thanthe latter, though every part rightly resembleth a deer: it is called_meminna_, of a grey colour, with white spots and good meat. "[1] Thelittle creature which thus dwelt in the recollection of the old man, asone of the memorials of his long captivity, is the small "musk deer"[2]so called in India, although neither sex is provided with a musk-bag. The Europeans in Ceylon know it by the name of the "moose deer;" and inall probability the terms _musk_ and _moose_ are both corruptions of theDutch word "_muis_, " or "mouse" deer, a name particularly applicable tothe timid and crouching attitudes and aspect of this beautiful littlecreature. Its extreme length never reaches two feet; and of those whichwere domesticated about my house, few exceeded ten inches in height, their graceful limbs being of proportionate delicacy. It possesses longand extremely large tusks, with which it can inflict a severe bite. Theinterpreter moodliar of Negombo had a _milk white_ meminna in 1847, which he designed to send home as an acceptable present to Her Majesty, but it was unfortunately killed by an accident. [3] [Footnote 1: KNOX'S _Relation, &c. _, book i. C. 6. ] [Footnote 2: Moschus meminna. ] [Footnote 3: When the English look possession of Kandy, in 1803, theyfound "five beautiful milk-white deer in the palace, which was noted asa very extraordinary thing. "--_Letter_ in Appendix to PERCIVAL'S_Ceylon_, p. 428. The writer does not say of what species they were. ] [Illustration: "MOOSE" DEER (MOSCHUS MEMINNA)] _Ceylon Elk_. --In the mountains, the Ceylon elk[1], which reminds one ofthe red deer of Scotland, attains the height of four or five feet; itabounds in all shady places that are intersected by rivers; where, though its chase affords an endless resource to the sportsman, itsvenison scarcely equals in quality the inferior beef of the lowland ox. In the glades and park-like openings that diversify the great forests ofthe interior, the spotted Axis troops in herds as numerous as the fallowdeer in England: but, in journeys through the jungle, when oftendependent on the guns of our party for the precarious supply of thetable, we found the flesh of the Axis[2] and the Muntjac[3] a sorrysubstitute for that of the pea-fowl, the jungle-cock, and flamingo. Theoccurrence of albinos is very frequent in troops of the axis. Deer'shorns are an article of export from Ceylon, and considerable quantitiesare annually sent to the United Kingdom. [Footnote 1: Rusa Aristotelis. Dr. GRAY has lately shown that this isthe great _axis_ of Cuvier. --_Oss. Foss. _ 502. T. 39; f. 10: TheSinghalese, on following the elk, frequently effect their approaches byso imitating the call of the animal as to induce them to respond. Aninstance occurred during my residence in Ceylon, in which two natives, whose mimicry had mutually deceived them, crept so close together in thejungle that one shot the other, supposing the cry to proceed from thegame. ] [Footnote 2: Axis maculata, _H. Smith_. ] [Footnote 3: Stylocerus muntjac, _Horss_. ] VII. PACHYDERMATA. --_The Elephant_. --The elephant, and the wild boar, the Singhalese "waloora, "[1] are the only representatives of the_pachydermatous_ order. The latter, which differs somewhat from the wildboar of India, is found in droves in all parts of the island wherevegetation and water are abundant. [Footnote 1: Mr. BLYTH of Calcutta has distinguished, from the hog, common in India, a specimen sent to him from Ceylon, the skull of whichapproaches in form, that of a species from Borneo, the _susbarbatus_ ofS. Müller. ] The elephant, the lord paramount of the Ceylon forests, is to be metwith in every district, on the confines of the woods, in the depths ofwhich he finds concealment and shade during the hours when the sun ishigh, and from which he emerges only at twilight to wend his way towardsthe rivers and tanks, where he luxuriates till dawn, when he again seeksthe retirement of the deep forests. This noble animal fills so dignifieda place both in the zoology and oeconomy of Ceylon, and his habits in astate of nature have been so much misunderstood, that I shall devote aseparate section to his defence from misrepresentation, and to anexposition of what, from observation and experience, I believe to be hisgenuine character when free in his native domains. But this seems theproper place to allude to a recent discovery in connexion with theelephant, which strikingly confirms a conjecture which I ventured tomake elsewhere[1], relative to the isolation of Ceylon and itsdistinctness, in many remarkable particulars, from the great continentof India. Every writer who previously treated of the island, includingthe accomplished Dr. Davy and the erudite Lassen, was contented, by aglance at its outline and a reference to its position on the map, toassume that Ceylon was a fragment, which in a very remote age had beentorn from the adjacent mainland, by some convulsion of nature. Hence itwas taken for granted that the vegetation which covers and the races ofanimals which inhabit it, must be identical with those of Hindustan; towhich Ceylon was alleged to bear the same relation as Sicily presents tothe peninsula of Italy. MALTE BRUN[2] and the geographers generally, declared the larger animals of either to be common to both. I was led toquestion the soundness of this dictum;--and from a closer examination ofits geological conformation and of its botanical and zoologicalcharacteristics I came to the conclusion that not only is there anabsence of sameness between the formations of the two localities; butthat plants and animals, mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects exist inCeylon, which are not to be found in the flora and fauna of the Dekkan;but which present a striking affinity, and occasionally an actualidentity, with those of the Malayan countries and some of the islands ofthe Eastern Archipelago. Startling as this conclusion appeared to be, itwas strangely in unison with the legends of the Singhalese themselves, that at an infinitely remote period Ceylon formed an integral portion ofa vast continent, known in the mythical epics of the Brahmans by thedesignation of "_Lanka_;" so immense that its southern extremity fellbelow the equator, whilst in breadth it was prolonged till its westernand eastern boundaries touch at once upon the shores of Africa andChina. [Footnote 1: _Ceylon, &c. _, by Sir J. EMERSON TENNENT, vol. I. Pp. 7, 13, 85, 160, 183, n. , 205, 270, &c. ] [Footnote 2: MALTE BRUN, _Geogr. Univ. _, l. Xlix. ] Dim as is this ancient tradition, it is in consistency with theconclusions of modern geology, that at the commencement of the tertiaryperiod northern Asia and a considerable part of India were in allprobability covered by the sea but that south of India land extendedeastward and westward connecting Malacca with Arabia. PROFESSOR ANSTEDhas propounded this view. His opinion is, that the Himalayas thenexisted only as a chain of islands, and did not till a much later agebecome elevated into mountain ranges, --a change which took place duringthe same revolution that raised the great plains of Siberia and Tartaryand many parts of north-western Europe. At the same time the greatcontinent whose position between the tropics has been alluded to, andwhose previous existence is still indicated by the Coral islands, theLaccadives, the Maldives, and the Chagos group, underwent simultaneousdepression by a counteracting movement. [1] [Footnote 1: _The Ancient World_, by D. T. ANSTED, M. A. , &c. , pp. 322-324. ] But divested of oriental mystery and geologic conjecture, and brought tothe test of "geographical distribution, " this once prodigious continentwould appear to have connected the distant Islands of Ceylon and Sumatraand possibly to have united both to the Malay peninsula, from which thelatter is now severed by the Straits of Malacca. The proofs of physicalaffinity between these scattered localities are exceedingly curious. A striking dissimilarity presents itself between some of the Mammalia ofCeylon and those of the continent of India. In its general outline andfeature, this branch of the island fauna, no doubt, exhibits a generalresemblance to that of the mainland, although many of the larger animalsof the latter are unknown in Ceylon: but, on the other hand, somespecies discovered there are peculiar to the island. A deer[1] as largeas the Axis, but differing from it in the number and arrangement of itsspots, has been described by Dr. Kelaart, to whose vigilance the naturalhistory of Ceylon is indebted, amongst others, for the identification oftwo new species of monkeys[2], a number of curious shrews[3], and anorange-coloured ichneumon[4], before unknown. There are also twosquirrels[5] that have not as yet been discovered elsewhere, (one ofthem belonging to those equipped with a parachute[6], ) as well as somelocal varieties of the palm squirrel (Sciurus penicillatus, _Leach_). [7] [Footnote 1: Cervus orizus, KELAART, _Prod. F. Zeyl. , _ p. 83. ] [Footnote 2: Presbytes ursinus, _Blyth_, and P. Thersites, _Elliot_. ] [Footnote 3: Sorex montanus, S. Ferrugineus, and Feroculus macropus. ] [Footnote 4: Herpestes fulvescens, KELAART, _Prod. Faun. Zeylan_. . App. P. 42. ] [Footnote 5: Sciurus Tennentii, _Layard_. ] [Footnote 6: Sciuropterus Layardi, _Kelaart_. ] [Footnote 7: There is a rat found only in the Cinnamon Gardens atColombo, Mus Ceylonus, _Kelaart_; and a mouse which Dr. Kelaartdiscovered at Trincomalie, M. Fulvidiventris, _Blyth_, both peculiar toCeylon. Dr. TEMPLETON has noticed a little shrew (Corsira purpurascens, _Mag. Nat. Hist_. 1855, p. 238) at Neuera-ellia, not as yet observedelsewhere. ] But the Ceylon Mammalia, besides wanting a number of minor animals foundin the Indian peninsula, cannot boast such a ruminant as the majesticGaur[1], which inhabits the great forests from Cape Comorin to theHimalaya; and, providentially, the island is equally free of theformidable tiger and the ferocious wolf of Hindustan. The Hyena andCheetah[2], common in Southern India, are unknown in Ceylon; and, thoughabundant in deer, the island possesses no example of the Antelope or theGazelle. [Footnote 1: Bos cavifrons, _Hodgs_. ; B. Frontalis, _Lamb_. ] [Footnote 2: Felis jubata, _Schreb_. ] Amongst the Birds of Ceylon, the same abnormity is apparent. Aboutthirty-eight species will be presently particularised[1], which, although some of them may hereafter be discovered to have a widergeographical range, are at present believed to be unknown in continentalIndia. I might further extend this enumeration, by including the Cheelaeagle of Ceylon, which, although I have placed it in my list asidentical with the _Hematornis cheela_ of the Dekkan, is, I have sincebeen assured, a different bird, and is most probably the _Falco bido_ ofHorsfield, known to us by specimens obtained from Java and Sumatra. [Footnote 1: See Chapter on the Birds of Ceylon. ] As to the Fishes of Ceylon, they are of course less distinct; andbesides they have hitherto been very imperfectly compared. But theInsects afford a remarkable confirmation of the view I have ventured topropound; so much so that Mr. Walker, by whom the elaborate listsappended to this work have been prepared, asserts that some of thefamilies have a less affinity to the entomology of India than to that ofAustralia. [1] [Footnote 1: See Chapter on the Insects of Ceylon. ] But more conclusive than all, is the discovery to which I have alluded, in relation to the elephant of Ceylon. Down to a very recent period itwas universally believed that only two species of the elephant are nowin existence, the African and the Asiatic; distinguished by certainpeculiarities in the shape of the cranium, the size of the ears, theridges of the teeth, the number of vertebræ, and, according to Cuvier, in the number of nails on the hind feet. The elephant of Ceylon wasbelieved to be identical with the elephant of India. But some few yearsback, TEMMINCK, in his survey of the Dutch possessions in the IndianArchipelago[1], announced the fact that the elephant which abounds inSumatra (although unknown in the adjacent island of Java), and which hadtheretofore been regarded as the same species with the Indian one, hasbeen recently found to possess peculiarities, in which it differs asmuch from the elephant of India, as the latter from its Africancongener. On this new species of elephant, to which the natives give thename of _gadjah_, TEMMINCK has conferred the scientific designation ofthe _Elephas Sumatranus_. [Footnote 1: _Coup d'Oeil Général sur les Possessions Néerlandaises dansl'Inde Archipélagique_. ] The points which entitle it to this distinction he enumerated minutelyin the work[1] before alluded to, but they have been summarized asfollows by Prince Lucien Bonaparte. [Footnote 1: TEMMINCK, _Coup-d'oeil, &c_. , t. I. C. Iv. P. 328. ; t. Ii. C. Iii. P. 91. ] "This species is perfectly intermediate between the Indian and African, especially in the shape of the skull, and will certainly put an end tothe distinction between _Elephas_ and _Loxodon_, with those who admitthat anatomical genus; since although the crowns of the teeth of _E. Sumatranus_ are more like the Asiatic animal, still the less numerousundulated ribbons of enamel are nearly quite as wide as those formingthe lozenges of the African. The number of pairs of false ribs (whichalone vary, the true ones being always six) is fourteen, one less thanin the _Africanus_, _one_ more than in the _Indicus_; and so it is withthe dorsal vertebræ, which are twenty in the _Sumatranus_ (_twenty-one_and _nineteen_, in the others), whilst the new species agrees with_Africanus_ in the number of sacral vertebræ (_four_), and with_Indicus_ in that of the caudal ones, which are _thirty-four_. "[1] [Footnote 1: _Proceed. Zool. Soc. London_, 1849. P. 144, _note_. Theoriginal description of TEMMINCK is as follows: "Elephas Sumatranus, _Nob_. Ressemble, par la forme générale du crâne àl'éléphant du continent de l'Asie; mais la partie libre desintermaxillaires est beaucoup plus courte et plus étroite; les cavitésnasales sont beaucoup moins larges; l'espace entre les orbites des yeuxest plus étroit; la partie postérieur du crâne au contraire est pluslarge que dans l'espèce du continent. "Les machelières se rapprochent, par la forme de leur couronne, plutòtde l'espèce Asíatique que do celle qui est propre à l'Afrique;c'est-à-dire que leur couronne offre la forme de rubans ondoyés et nonpas en losange; mais ces rubans sont de la largeur de ceux qu'on voit àla couronne des dents de l'éléphant d'Afrique; ils sont conséquemmentmoins nombreux que dans celuí du continent de l'Asie. Les dimensions deces rubans, dans la direction d'avant en arrière, comparées à celleprises dans la direction transversale et latérale, sont en raison de 3ou 4 à 1; tandis que dans l'éléphant du continent elles sont comme 4 ou6 à 1. La longueur totale de six de ces rubans, dans l'espèce nouvellede Sumatra, ainsi que dans celle d'Afrique, est d'environ 12centimètres, tandis que cette longueur n'est que de 8 à 10 centimètresdans l'espèce du continent de l'Asie. "Les autres formes ostéologiques sont à peu près les mêmes dans lestrois espèces; mais il y a différence dans le nombre des os dont lesquelette se compose, ainsi que le tableau comparatif ci-jointl'éprouve. "_L'elephas Africanus_ a 7 vertèbres du cou, 21 vert. Dorsales, 3lombaires, 4 sacrées, et 26 caudales; 21 paires de côtes, dont 6 vraies, et 15 fausses. _L'elephas Indicus_ a 7 vertèbres du cou, 19 dorsales, 3lombaires, 5 sacrées, et 34 caudales, 19 paires de côtes, dont 6 vraies, et 3 fausses. _L'elephas Sumatranus_ a 7 vertèbres du cou, 20 dorsales, 3 lombaires, 4 sacrées, et 34 caudales; 20 paires du côtes, dont 6vraies, et 14 fausses. "Ces caractères ont été constatés sur trois squelettes de l'espècenouvelle, un mâle et une femelle adultes et un jeune mâle. Nous n'avonspas encore été à même de nous procurer la dépouille de cette espèce. "] PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL of Leyden, in a paper lately submitted by him to theRoyal Academy of Sciences of Holland, (the substance of which he hasobligingly communicated to me, through Baron Bentinck the NetherlandsMinister at this Court), has confirmed the identity of the Ceylonelephant with that found in the Lampongs of Sumatra. The osteologicalcomparison of which TEMMINCK has given the results was, he says, conducted by himself with access to four skeletons of the latter. Andthe more recent opportunity of comparing a living Sumatran elephant withone from Bengal, has served to establish other though minor points ofdivergence. The Indian species is more robust and powerful: theproboscis longer and more slender; and the extremity, (a point, in whichthe elephant of Sumatra resembles that of Africa, ) is more flattened andprovided with coarser and longer hair than that of India. PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL, adverting to the large export of elephants fromCeylon to the Indian continent, which has been carried on from timeimmemorial, suggests the caution with which naturalists, ininvestigating this question, should first satisfy themselves whether theelephants they examine are really natives of the mainland, or whetherthey have been brought to it from the islands. [1] "The extraordinaryfact, " he observes in his letter to me, "of the identity thusestablished between the elephants of Ceylon and Sumatra; and the pointsin which they are found to differ from that of Bengal, leads to thequestion whether all the elephants of the Asiatic continent belong toone single species; or whether these vast regions may not produce insome quarter as yet unexplored the one hitherto found only in the twoislands referred to? It is highly desirable that naturalists who havethe means and opportunity, should exert themselves to discover, whetherany traces are to be found of the Ceylon elephant in the Dekkan; or ofthat of Sumatra in Cochin China or Siam. " [Footnote 1: A further inquiry suggests itself, how far the intermixtureof the breed may have served to confound specific differences, in thecase of elephants bred on the continent of India, from stock partiallyimported from Ceylon?] To me the establishment of a fact so conclusively confirmatory of thetheory I had ventured to broach, is productive of great satisfaction. But it is not a little remarkable that the distinction should not longbefore have been discovered between the elephant of India and that ofCeylon. Nor can it be regarded otherwise than as a singular illustrationof "geographical distribution" that two remote islands should be thusshown to possess in common a species unknown in any other quarter of theglobe. As bearing on the ancient myth which represents both countries asforming parts of a submerged continent, the discovery is curious--and itis equally interesting in connection with the circumstance alluded to byGibbon, that amongst the early geographers and even down to acomparatively modern date, Sumatra and Ceylon were confounded; and gravedoubts were entertained as to which of the two was the "Taprobane" ofantiquity. GEMMA FRISIUS, SEBASTIAN MUNSTER, JULIUS SCALIGER, ORTELIUSand MERCATOR contended for the former; SALMASIUS, BOCHART, CLUVERIUS, and VOSSIUS for Ceylon: and the controversy did not cease till it wasterminated by DELISLE about the beginning of the last century. VIII. CETACEA. --Whales are so frequently seen that they have beencaptured within sight of Colombo, and more than once their carcases, after having been flinched by the whalers, have floated on shore nearthe lighthouse, tainting the atmosphere within the fort by their rapiddecomposition. Of this family, one of the most remarkable animals on the coast is thedugong[1], a phytophagous cetacean, numbers of which are attracted tothe inlets, from the bay of Calpentyn to Adam's Bridge, by the stillwater and the abundance of marine algæ in these parts of the gulf. Onewhich was killed at Manaar and sent to me to Colombo[2] in 1847, measured upwards of seven feet in length; but specimens considerablylarger have been taken at Calpentyn, and their flesh is represented asclosely resembling veal. [Footnote 1: _Halicore dugung_, F. Cuv. ] [Footnote 2: The skeleton is now in the Museum of the Natural HistorySociety of Belfast. ] [Illustration: THE DUGONG. ] The rude approach to the human outline, observed in the shape of thehead of this creature, and the attitude of the mother when suckling heryoung, clasping it to her breast with one flipper, while swimming withthe other, holding the heads of both above water; and when disturbed, suddenly diving and displaying her fish-like tail, --these, together withher habitual demonstrations of strong maternal affection, probably gaverise to the fable of the "mermaid;" and thus that earliest invention ofmythical physiology may be traced to the Arab seamen and the Greeks, whohad watched the movements of the dugong in the waters of Manaar. Megasthenes records the existence of a creature in the ocean, nearTaprobane, with the aspect of a woman[1]; and Ælian, adopting andenlarging on his information, peoples the seas of Ceylon with fisheshaving the heads of lions, panthers, and rams, and, stranger still, _cetaceans in the form of satyrs_. Statements such as these must havehad their origin in the hairs, which are set round the mouth of thedugong, somewhat resembling a beard, which Ælian and Megasthenes bothparticularise, from their resemblance to the hair of a woman: "[Greek:kai gynaikôn opsin echousin aisper anti plokamôn akanthaiprosêrtêntai"][2] [Footnote 1: MEGASTHENES, _Indica_, fragm. Lix. 34, ] [Footnote 2: ÆLIAN, _Nat. Hist. _, lib. Xvi. Ch. Xviii. ] The Portuguese cherished the belief in the mermaid, and the annalist ofthe exploits of the Jesuits in India, gravely records that seven ofthese monsters, male and female, were captured at Manaar in 1560, andcarried to Goa, where they were dissected by Demas Bosquez, physician tothe Viceroy, and "their internal structure found to be in all respectsconformable to the human. "[1] [Footnote 1: _Hist, de la Compagnie de Jésus_, quoted in the _Asiat. Journ. _ vol. Xiv. P. 461; and in FORBES' _Orient. Memoirs_, vol. I. P. 421. ] The Dutch were no less inclined to the marvellous, and they propagatedthe belief in the mermaid with earnestness and particularity. VALENTYN, one of their chaplains, in his account of the Natural History ofAmboina, embodied in his great work on the Netherlands' Possessions inIndia, published so late as 1727[1], has devoted the first section ofhis chapter on the Fishes of that island to a minute description of the"Zee-Menschen, Zee-Wyven, " and mermaids. As to the dugong he admits itsresemblance to the mermaid, but repudiates the idea of its having givenrise to the fable, by being mistaken for one. This error he imaginesmust have arisen at a time when observations on such matters were madewith culpable laxity; but now more recent and minute attention hasestablished the truth beyond cavil. [Footnote 1: FRAN. VALENTYN, _Beschryving van Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien_, &c. 5 vol. Fol. Dordrecht and Amsterdam, MDCCXXVII. Vol. Iii. P. 330. ] For instance, he states that in 1653, when a lieutenant in the Dutchservice was leading a party of soldiers along the sea-shore in Amboina, he and all his company saw the mermen swimming at a short distance fromthe beach with long and flowing hair, of a colour between gray andgreen--and six weeks afterwards, the creatures were again seen by himand more than fifty witnesses, at the same place, by clear daylight. [1] [Footnote 1: VALENTYN, _Beschryving, &c. _, vol. Iii. P. 331. ] "If any narrative in the world, " adds VALENTYN, "deserves credit, it isthis; since _not only one but two mermen_ together were seen by so manyeye-witnesses. Should the stubborn world, however, hesitate to believeit, it matters nothing; as there are people who would even deny thatsuch cities as Rome, Constantinople or Cairo, exist, merely because theythemselves have not happened to see them. " But what are such incredulous persons, he continues, to make of thecircumstance recorded by Albert Herport in his account of India[1], thata sea-man was seen in the water near the Church of Taquan, on themorning of the 29th of April 1661, and a mermaid at the same spot thesame afternoon?--or what do they say to the fact that in 1714, a mermaidwas not only seen but captured near the island of Booro? "five feetRhineland measure in height, which lived four days and seven hours, butrefusing all food, died without leaving any intelligible account ofherself. " [Footnote 1: Probably the _Itinerarium Indicum_ of ALBRECHT HERPORT. Berne, 1669. ] Valentyn, in support of his own faith in the mermaid, cites numerousother instances in which both "sea-men and women" were seen and taken atAmboina; especially one by an office-bearer in the Church of Holland[1], by whom it was surrendered to the Governor Vanderstel. [Footnote 1: A "krank-bezoeker" or visitant of the sick. ] Of this well-authenticated specimen he gives an elaborate engravingamongst those of the authentic fishes of the island--together with aminute ichthyological description of each for the satisfaction of men ofscience. [Illustration: THE MERMAID (From VALENTYN)] The fame of this creature having reached Europe, the British Minister inHolland wrote to Valentyn on the 28th December 1716, whilst the Emperor, Peter the Great of Russia, was his guest at Amsterdam; to communicatethe desire of the Czar, that the mermaid should be brought home fromAmboina for his Imperial inspection. To complete his proofs of the existence of mermen and women, Valentynpoints triumphantly to the historical fact, that in Holland in the year1404, a mermaid was driven during a tempest, through a breach in thedyke of Edam, and was taken alive in the lake of Purmer. Thence she wascarried to Harlem, where the Dutch women taught her to spin; and where, several years after, she died in the Roman Catholic faith;--"but this, "says the pious Calvinistic chaplain, "in no way militates against thetruth of her story. "[1] [Footnote 1: VALENTYN, _Beschryving, &c_. , p. 333. ] Finally Valentyn winds up his proofs, by the accumulated testimony ofPliny [1], Theodore Gaza, George of Trebisond, and Alexander abAlexandro, to show that mermaids had in all ages been known in Gaul, Naples, Epirus, and the Morea. From these and a multitude of more moderninstances he comes to the conclusion, that as there are "sea-cows, ""sea-horses, " and "sea-dogs;" as well as "sea-trees" and "sea-flowers"which he himself had seen, what grounds in reason are there to doubtthat there may also be "sea-maidens" and "sea-men!" [Footnote 1: _Nat. Hist_. L. Ix. C. 5, where Pliny speaks of theNereids. ] _List of Ceylon Mammalia. _ A list of the Mammalia of Ceylon is subjoined. In framing it, as well asthe lists appended to the other chapters on the Fauna of the island, theprincipal object in view has been to exhibit the extent to which theNatural History of the island had been investigated, and collectionsmade up to the period of my leaving the colony in 1850. It has beenconsidered expedient to exclude a few individuals which have not had theadvantage of a direct comparison with authentic specimens, either atCalcutta or in England. This will account for the omission of a numberthat have appeared in other catalogues, but of which many, thoughascertained to exist, have not been submitted to this rigorous processof identification. The greater portion of the species of mammals and birds contained inthese lists will be found, with suitable references to the most accuratedescriptions, in the admirable catalogue of the collection at the IndiaHouse, published under the care of the late Dr. Horsfield. This workcannot be too highly extolled, not alone for the scrupulous fidelitywith which the description of each species is referred to its firstdiscoverer, but also for the pains which have been taken to elaboratesynonymes and to collate from local periodicals and other sources, (little accessible to ordinary inquirers, ) such incidents and traits asare calculated to illustrate characteristics and habits. QUADRUMANA. Presbytes cephalopterus, _Zimm_. Ursinus, _Blyth_. Priamus, _Elliot & Blyth_. Thersites, _Blyth_. Macacus pileatus, _Shaw & Desm_. Loris gracilis, _Geoff_. CHEIROPTERA. Pteropus Edwardsii, _Geoff_. Leschenaultii, _Dum_. Cynopterus marginatus, _Ham_. Megaderma spasma, _Linn. _ lyra, _Geoff_. Rhinolophus _affinis_, _Horsf_. Hipposideros murinus, _Elliot_. Speoris, _Elliot_. Armiger, _Hodgs_. Vulgaris, _Horsf_. Kerivoula picta, _Pall_. Taphozous longimanus, _Har_. Scotophilus Coromandelicus, _F. Cuv. _ _adversus_, _Horsf_. Temminkii, _Horsf_. Tickelli, _Blyth_. Heathii. CARNIVORA. Sorex coerulescens, _Shaw_. Ferrugineus, _Kelaart_. Serpentarius, _Is. Geoff. _ montanus, _Kelaart_. Feroculus macropus, _Kel_. Ursus labiatus, _Blainv_. Lutra nair, _F. Cuv_. Canis aureus. _Linn. _Viverra Indica, _Geoff_. , _Hod_. Herpestes vitticollis, _Benn_. Griseus, _Gm_. Smithii, _Gray_. Fulvescens, _Kelaart_. Paradoxurus typus, _F. Cuv. _ Ceylonicus, _Pall_. Felis pardus, _Linn. _ chaus, _Guldens_. Viverrinus, _Benn_. RODENTIA. Sciurus macrurus, _Forst_. Tennentii, _Layard_. Penicillatus. _Leach_. Trilineatus, _Waterh_. Sciuropterus Layardi, _Kel_. Pteromys petaurista, _Pall_. Mus bandicota, _Bechst_. Kok, _Gray_. Mus rufescens. _Gray_. Nemoralis, _Blyth_. Indicus, _Geoff_. Fulvidiventris, _Blyth_. Nesoki _Hardwickii_, _Gray_. Golunda Neuera, _Kelaart_. Ellioti, _Gray_. Gerbillus Indicus, _Hardw_. Lepus nigricollis, _F. Cuv. _Hystrix leucurus, _Sykes_. EDENTATA. Manis pentadactyla, _Linn. _ PACHYDERMATA. Elephas Sumatranus, _Linn. _Sus Indicus, _Gray_. _Zeylonicus_, _Blyth_. RUMINANTIA. Moschus meminna, _Eral_. Stylocerus muntjac, _Horsf_. Axis maculata, _H. Smith_. Rusa Aristotelis, _Cuv_. CETACEA. Halicore dugung, _F. Cuv. _ CHAP. II. THE ELEPHANT. * * * * * _Structure and Functions. _ During my residence at Kandy, I had twice the opportunity of witnessingthe operation on a grand scale, of capturing wild elephants, intended tobe trained for the public service in the establishment of the CivilEngineer;--and in the course of my frequent journeys through theinterior of the island, I succeeded in collecting so many facts relativeto the habits of these interesting animals in a state of nature, asenable me not only to add to the information previously possessed, butto correct many fallacies popularly received regarding their instinctsand disposition. These particulars I am anxious to place on recordbefore proceeding to describe the scenes of which I was a spectator, during the progress of the elephant hunts in the district of the SevenKorles, at which I was present in 1846, and again in 1847. With the exception of the narrow but densely inhabited belt ofcultivated land, that extends along the seaborde of the island fromChilaw on the western coast to Tangalle on the south-east, there is nopart of Ceylon in which elephants may not be said to abound; even closeto the environs of the most populous localities of the interior. Theyfrequent both the open plains and the deep forests; and their footstepsare to be seen wherever food and shade, vegetation and water[1], allurethem, alike on the summits of the loftiest mountains, and on the bordersof the tanks and lowland streams. [Footnote 1: M. AD. PICTET has availed himself of the love of theelephant for water, to found on it a solution of the long-contestedquestion as to the etymology of the word "elephant, "-a term which, whilst it has passed into almost every dialect of the West, is scarcelyto be traced in any language of Asia. The Greek [Greek: elephas], towhich we are immediately indebted for it, did not originally mean theanimal, but, as early as the time of Homer, was applied only to itstusks, and signified _ivory_. BOCHART has sought for a Semitic origin, and seizing on the Arabic _fil_, and prefixing the article _al_, suggests _alfil_, akin to [Greek: eleph]; but rejecting this, BOCHARThimself resorts to the Hebrew _eleph_, an "ox"--and this conjecturederives a certain degree of countenance from the fact that the Romans, when they obtained their first sight of the elephant in the army ofPyrrhus, in Lucania, called it the _Luca bos_. But the [Greek: antos] isstill unaccounted for; and POTT has sought to remove the difficulty byintroducing the Arabic _hindi_, Indian, s thus making _eleph-hindi_, "_bos Indicus_. " The conversion of _hindi_ into [Greek: antos] is anobstacle, but here the example of "tamarind" comes to aid; _tamarhindi_, the "Indian date, " which in mediæval Greek forms [Greek:tamarenti]. A theory of Benary, that helhephas might be compounded ofthe Arabic _al_, and _ibha_, a Sanskrit name for the elephant, isexposed to still greater etymological exception. PICTET'S solution is, that in the Sanskrit epics "the King of Elephants, " who has thedistinction of carrying the god Indra, is called _airarata_ or_airavana_, a modification of _airavanta_, "son of the ocean, " whichagain comes from _iravat_, "abounding in water. " "Nous aurions doneainsi, comme corrélatif du gree [Greek: elephanto], une ancienne forme, _âirâvanta_ ou _âilâvanta_, affaiblie plus tard en _âirâvata_ ou_âirâvana_. .. . On connaît la prédilection de l'éléphant pour levoisinage des fleuves, et son amour pour l'eau, dont l'abondance estnécessaire à son bien-être. " This Sanskrit name, PICTET supposes, mayhave been carried to the West by the Phoenicians, who were the purveyorsof ivory from India; and, from the Greek, the Latins derived _elephas_, which passed into the modern languages of Italy, Germany, and France. But it is curious that the Spaniards acquired from the Moors theirArabic term for ivory, _marfil_, and the Portuguese _marfim_; and thatthe Scandinavians, probably from their early expeditions to theMediterranean, adopted _fill_ as their name for the elephant itself, and_fil-bein_ for ivory; in Danish, _fils-ben_. (See _Journ. Asiat. _ 1843, t. Xliii. P. 133. ) The Spaniards of South America call the palm whichproduces the vegetable ivory (_Phytelephas macrocarpa_) _Palma demarfil_, and the nut itself, _marfil vegetal_. Since the above was written Gooneratné Modliar, the SinghaleseInterpreter to the Supreme Court at Colombo, has supplied me withanother conjecture, that the word elephant may possibly be traced to theSinghalese name of the animal, _alia_, which means literally, "the hugeone. " _Alia_, he adds, is not a derivation from Sanskrit or Pali, butbelongs to a dialect more ancient than either. ] From time immemorial the natives have been taught to capture and tamethem and the export of elephants from Ceylon to India has been going onwithout interruption from the period of the first Punic War. [1] In latertimes all elephants were the property of the Kandyan crown; and theircapture or slaughter without the royal permission was classed amongstthe gravest offences in the criminal code. [Footnote 1: ÆLIAN, _de Nat. Anim. _ lib. Xvi. C. 18; COSMAS INDICOPL. , p. 128. ] In recent years there is reason to believe that their numbers havebecome considerably reduced. They have entirely disappeared fromlocalities in which they were formerly numerous[1]; smaller herds havebeen taken in the periodical captures for the government service, andhunters returning from the chase report them to be growing scarce. Inconsequence of this diminution the peasantry in some parts of the islandhave even suspended the ancient practice of keeping watchers and firesby night to drive away the elephants from their growing crops. [2] Theopening of roads and the clearing of the mountain forests of Kandy forthe cultivation of coffee, have forced the animals to retire to the lowcountry, where again they have been followed by large parties ofEuropean sportsmen; and the Singhalese themselves, being more freelyprovided with arms than in former times, have assisted in swelling theannual slaughter. [3] [Footnote 1: LE BRUN, who visited Ceylon A. D. 1705, says that in thedistrict round Colombo, where elephants are now never seen, they werethen so abundant, that 160 had been taken in a single corral. (_Voyage_, &c. , tom. Ii. Ch. Lxiii. P. 331. )] [Footnote 2: In some parts of Bengal, where elephants were formerlytroublesome (especially near the wilds of Ramgur), the natives got ridof them by mixing a preparation of the poisonous Nepal root called_dakra_ in balls of grain, and other materials, of which the animal isfond. In Cuttack, above fifty years ago, mineral poison was laid forthem in the same way, and the carcases of eighty were found which hadbeen killed by it. (_Asiat. Res. _, xv. 183. )] [Footnote 3: The number of elephants has been similarly reducedthroughout the south of India. ] Had the motive that incites to the destruction of the elephant in Africaand India prevailed in Ceylon, that is, had the elephants there beenprovided with tusks, they would long since have been annihilated for thesake of their ivory. [1] But it is a curious fact that, whilst in Africaand India both sexes have tusks[2], with some slight disproportion inthe size of those of the females: not one elephant in a hundred is foundwith tusks in Ceylon, and the few that possess them are exclusivelymales. Nearly all, however, have those stunted processes called_tushes_, about ten or twelve inches in length and one or two indiameter. These I have observed them to use in loosening earth, stripping off bark, and snapping asunder small branches and climbingplants; and hence tushes are seldom seen without a groove worn into themnear their extremities. [3] [Footnote 1: The annual importation of ivory into Great Britain alone, for the last few years, has been about _one million_ pounds; which, taking the average weight of a tusk at sixty pounds, would require theslaughter of 8, 333 male elephants. But of this quantity the importation from Ceylon has generally averagedonly five or six hundred weight; which, making allowance for thelightness of the tusks, would not involve the destruction of more thanseven or eight in each year. At the same time, this does not fairlyrepresent the annual number of tuskers shot in Ceylon, not only becausea portion of the ivory finds its way to China and to other places, butbecause the chiefs and Buddhist priests have a passion for collectingtusks, and the finest and largest are to be found ornamenting theirtemples and private dwellings. The Chinese profess that for theirexquisite carvings the ivory of Ceylon excels all other, both in densityof texture and in delicacy of tint; but in the European market, theivory of Africa, from its more distinct graining and other causes, obtains a higher price. ] [Footnote 2: A writer in the _India Sporting Review_ for October 1857says, "In Malabar a tuskless male elephant is rare; I have seen buttwo. "--p. 157. ] [Footnote 3: The old fallacy is still renewed, that the elephant shedshis tusks. ÆLIAN says he drops them once in ten years (lib. Xiv. C. 5):and PLINY repeats the story, adding that, when dropped, the elephantshide them under ground (lib. Viii. ) whence SHAW says, in his _Zoology_, "they are frequently found in the woods, " and exported from Africa (vol. I. P. 213): and Sir W. JARDINE in the _Naturalist's Library_ (vol. Ix. P. 110), says, "the tusks are shed about the twelfth or thirteenthyear. " This is erroneous: after losing the first pair, or, as they arecalled, the "milk tusks, " which drop in consequence of the absorption oftheir roots, when the animal is extremely young, the second pair acquiretheir full size, and become the "permanent tusks, " which are nevershed. ] Amongst other surmises more ingenious than sound, the general absence oftusks in the elephant of Ceylon has been associated with the profusionof rivers and streams in the island; whilst it has been thrown out as apossibility that in Africa, where water is comparatively scarce, theanimal is equipped with these implements in order to assist it indigging wells in the sand and in raising the juicy roots of the mimosasand succulent plants for the sake of their moisture. In support of thishypothesis, it has been observed, that whilst the tusks of the Ceylonspecies, which are never required for such uses, are slender, gracefuland curved, seldom exceeding fifty or sixty pounds' weight, those of theAfrican elephant are straight and thick, weighing occasionally onehundred and fifty, and even three hundred pounds. [1] [Footnote 1: Notwithstanding the inferiority in weight of the Ceylontusks, as compared with those of the elephant of India, it would, Ithink, be precipitate to draw the inference that the size of the formerwas uniformly and naturally less than that of the latter. The truth, Ibelieve to be, that if permitted to grow to maturity, the tusks of theone would, in all probability, equal those of the other; but, so eageris the search for ivory in Ceylon, that a tusker, when once observed ina herd, is followed up with such vigilant impatience, that he is almostinvariably shot before attaining his full growth. General DE LIMA, whenreturning from the governorship of the Portuguese settlements atMozambique, told me, in 1848, that he had been requested to procure twotusks of the largest size, and straightest possible shape, which were tobe formed into a cross to surmount the high altar of the cathedral atGoa: he succeeded in his commission, and sent two, one of which was 180pounds, and the other 170 pounds' weight, with the slightest possiblecurve. In a periodical, entitled _The Friend_, published in Ceylon, itis stated in the volume for 1837 that the officers belonging to theships Quorrah and Alburhak, engaged in the Niger Expedition, were shownby a native king two tusks, each two feet and a half in circumference atthe base, eight feet long, and weighing upwards of 200 pounds. (Vol. I. P. 225. ) BRODERIP, in his _Zoological Recreations_, p. 255, says a tuskof 350 pounds' weight was sold at Amsterdam, but he does not quote hisauthority. ] But it is manifestly inconsistent with the idea that tusks were given tothe elephant to assist him in digging for his food, to find that thefemales are less bountifully supplied with them than the males, whilstthe necessity for their use extends equally to both sexes. The sameargument serves to demonstrate the fallacy of the conjecture, that thetusks of the elephant were given to him as weapons of offence, for ifsuch were the case the vast majority in Ceylon, males as well asfemales, would be left helpless in presence of an assailant. Butalthough in their conflicts with one another, those which are providedwith tusks may occasionally push with them clumsily at their opponents;it is a misapprehension to imagine that tusks are designed specially toserve "in warding off the attacks of the wily tiger and the furiousrhinoceros, often securing the victory by one blow which transfixes theassailant to the earth. "[1] [Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c. _, published by the Society for theDiffusion of Useful Knowledge, vol. I. P. 68: "The Elephant, " ch. Iii. It will be seen that I have quoted repeatedly from this volume, becauseit is the most compendious and careful compilation with which I amacquainted of the information previously existing regarding theelephant. The author incorporates no speculations of his own, but hasmost diligently and agreeably arranged all the facts collected by hispredecessors. The story of antipathy between the elephant and rhinocerosis probably borrowed from ÆLIAN _de Nat. _, lib. Xvii. C. 44. ] So harmless and peaceful is the life of the elephant, that natureappears to have left it unprovided with any weapon of offence: its trunkis too delicate an organ to be rudely employed in a conflict with otheranimals, and although on an emergency it may push or gore with its tusks(to which the French have hastily given the term "_défenses_"), theiralmost vertical position, added to the difficulty of raising its headabove the level of the shoulder, is inconsistent with the idea of theirbeing designed for attack, since it is impossible for the elephant tostrike an effectual blow, or to "wield" its tusks as the deer and thebuffalo can direct their horns. Nor is it easy to conceive under whatcircumstances an elephant could have a hostile encounter with either arhinoceros or a tiger, with whose pursuits in a state of nature its owncan in no way conflict. Towards man elephants evince shyness, arising from their love ofsolitude and dislike of intrusion; any alarm they exhibit at hisappearance may be reasonably traced to the slaughter which has reducedtheir numbers; and as some evidence of this, it has always been observedthat an elephant exhibits greater impatience of the presence of a whiteman than of a native. Were its instincts to carry it further, or were itinfluenced by any feeling of animosity or cruelty, it must be apparentthat, as against the prodigious numbers that inhabit the forests ofCeylon, man would wage an unequal contest, and that of the two one orother must long since have been reduced to a helpless minority. Official testimony is not wanting in confirmation of this view;--in thereturns of 108 coroners' inquests in Ceylon, during five years, from1849 to 1855 inclusive, held in cases of death occasioned by wildanimals; 16 are recorded as having been caused by elephants, 15 bybuffaloes, 6 by crocodiles, 2 by boars, 1 by a bear, and 68 by serpents(the great majority of the last class of sufferers being women andchildren, who had been bitten during the night). Little more than_three_ fatal accidents occurring annually on the average of five years, is certainly a very small proportion in a population estimated at amillion and a half, in an island abounding with elephants, with which, independently of casual encounters, voluntary conflicts are dailystimulated by the love of sport or the hope of gain. Were the elephantsinstinctively vicious or even highly irritable in their temperament, thedestruction of human life under the circumstances must have beeninfinitely greater. It must also be taken into account, that some of theaccidents recorded may have occurred in the rutting season, whenelephants are subject to fits of temporary fury, known in India by theterm _must_, in Ceylon _mudda_, --a paroxysm which speedily passes away, but during the fury of which it is dangerous even for the mahout toapproach those ordinarily the gentlest and most familiar. But, then, the elephant is said to "entertain an extraordinary disliketo all quadrupeds; that dogs running near him produce annoyance; that heis alarmed if a hare start from her form;" and from Pliny to Buffonevery naturalist has recorded its supposed aversion to swine. [1] Thesealleged antipathies are in a great degree, if not entirely, imaginary. The habits of the elephant are essentially harmless, its wants lead tono rivalry with other animals, and the food to which it is most attachedflourishes in such abundance that it is obtained without an effort. Inthe quiet solitudes of Ceylon, elephants may constantly be seen browsingpeacefully in the immediate vicinity of other animals, and in closecontact with them. I have seen groups of deer and wild buffaloesreclining in the sandy bed of a river in the dry season, and elephantsplucking the branches close beside them. They show no impatience in thecompany of the elk, the bear, and the wild hog; and on the other hand, Ihave never discovered an instance in which these animals have evincedany apprehension of elephants. The elephant's natural timidity, however, is such that it becomes alarmed on the appearance in the jungle of anyanimal with which it is not familiar. It is said to be afraid of thehorse; but from my own experience, I should say it is the horse that isalarmed at the aspect of the elephant. In the same way, from someunaccountable impulse, the horse has an antipathy to the camel, andevinces extreme impatience, both of the sight and the smell of thatanimal. [2] When enraged, an elephant will not hesitate to charge a rideron horseback; but it is against the man, not against the horse, that hisfury is directed; and no instance has been ever known of his wantonlyassailing a horse. A horse, belonging to the late Major Rogers[3], hadrun away from his groom, and was found some considerable time afterwardsgrazing quietly with a herd of elephants. In DE BRY'S splendidcollection of travels, however, there is included "_The voyage of aCertain Englishman to Cambay_;" in which the author asserts that atAgra, in the year 1607, he was present at a spectacle given by theViceregent of the great Mogul, in the course of which he saw an elephantdestroy two horses, by seizing them in its trunk, and crushing themunder foot. [4] But the display was avowedly an artificial one, and thecreature must have been cruelly tutored for the occasion. [Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c. _, "The Elephant, " ch. Iii. ] [Footnote 2: This peculiarity was noticed by the ancients, and isrecorded by Herodotus: [Greek: "kamêlon hippos phobeetai, kai oukanechetai oute tên ideên autês oreôn oute tên odmên osphrainomenos"](Herod. Ch. 80). Camels have long been bred by the Grand Duke ofTuscany, at his establishment near Pisa, and even there the sameinstinctive dislike to them is manifested by the horse, which it isnecessary to train and accustom to their presence in order to avoidaccidents. Mr. BRODERIP mentions, that, "when the precaution of suchtraining has not been adopted, the sudden and dangerous terror withwhich a horse is seized in coming unexpectedly upon one of them isexcessive. "--_Note-book of a Naturalist_, ch. Iv. P. 113. ] [Footnote 3: Major ROGERS was many years the chief civil officer ofGovernment in the district of Oovah, where he was killed by lightning, 1845. ] [Footnote 4: "Quidam etiam cum equis silvestribus pugnant. Sæpe unuselephas cum sex equis committitur; atque ipse adeo interfui cum unuselephas duos equos cum primo impetu protinus prosternerit;--injecta enimjugulis ipsorum longa proboscide, ad se protractos, dentibus porrocomminuit ac protrivit. " _Angli Cujusdam in Cambayam Navigatio_. DE BRY, _Coll. , &c. _, vol. Iii. Ch. Xvi. P. 31. ] Pigs are constantly to be seen feeding about the stables of the tameelephants, which manifest no repugnance to them. As to the smalleranimals, the elephant undoubtedly evinces uneasiness at the presence ofa dog, but this is referable to the same cause as its impatience of ahorse, namely, that neither is habitually seen by it in the forest; butit would be idle to suppose that this feeling could amount to hostilityagainst a creature incapable of inflicting on it the slightestinjury. [1] The truth I apprehend to be that, when they meet, theimpudence and impertinences of the dog are offensive to the gravity ofthe elephant, and incompatible with his love of solitude and ease. Ormay it be assumed as an evidence of the sagacity of the elephant, thatthe only two animals to which it manifests an antipathy, are the twowhich it has seen only in the company of its enemy, man? One instancehas certainly been attested to me by an eye-witness, in which the trunkof an elephant was seized in the teeth of a Scotch terrier, and such wasthe alarm of the huge creature that it came at once to its knees. Thedog repeated the attack, and on every renewal of it the elephantretreated in terror, holding its trunk above its head, and kicking atthe terrier with its fore feet. It would have turned to flight, but forthe interference of its keeper. [Footnote 1: To account for the impatience manifested by the elephant atthe presence of a dog, it has been suggested that he is alarmed lest thelatter should attack _his feet_, a portion of his body of which theelephant is peculiarly careful. A tame elephant has been observed toregard with indifference a spear directed towards his head, but toshrink timidly from the same weapon when pointed at his foot. ] Major Skinner, formerly commissioner of roads in Ceylon, whose officialduties in constructing highways involved the necessity of his being inthe jungle for months together, always found that, by night or by day, the barking of a dog which accompanied him, was sufficient to put a herdto flight. On the whole, therefore, I am of opinion that the elephantlives on terms of amity with every quadruped in the forest, that itneither regards them as its foes, nor provokes their hostility by itsacts; and that, with the exception of man, _its greatest enemy is afly_! The current statements as to the supposed animosity of the elephant tominor animals originated with Ælian and Pliny, who had probably anopportunity of seeing, what may at any time be observed, that when acaptive elephant is picketed beside a post, the domestic animals, goats, sheep, and cattle, will annoy and irritate him by their audacity inmaking free with his provender; but this is an evidence in itself of thelittle instinctive dread which such comparatively puny creaturesentertain of one so powerful and yet so gentle. Amongst elephants themselves, jealousy and other causes of irritationfrequently occasion contentions between individuals of the same herd;but on such occasions it is their habit to strike with their trunks, andto bear down their opponents with their heads. It is doubtless correctthat an elephant, when prostrated by the force and fury of an antagonistof its own species, is often wounded by the downward pressure of thetusks, which in any other position it would be almost impossible to useoffensively. [1] [Footnote 1: A writer in the _India Sporting Review_ for October 1857says a male elephant was killed by two others close to his camp: "thehead was completely smashed in; there was a large hole in the side, andthe abdomen was ripped open. The latter wound was given probably afterit had fallen. "--P. 175. ] Mr. Mercer, who in 1846 was the principal civil officer of Government atBadulla, sent me a jagged fragment of an elephant's tusk, about fiveinches in diameter, and weighing between twenty and thirty pounds, whichhad been brought to him by some natives, who, being attracted by a noisein the jungle, witnessed a combat between a tusker and one withouttusks, and saw the latter with his trunk seize one of the tusks of hisantagonist and wrench from it the portion in question, which measuredtwo feet in length. Here the trunk was shown to be the more powerful offensive weapon of thetwo; but I apprehend that the chief reliance of the elephant for defenceis on its ponderous weight, the pressure of its foot being sufficient tocrush any minor assailant after being prostrated by means of its trunk. Besides, in using its feet for this purpose, it derives a wonderfulfacility from the peculiar formation of the knee-joint in the hind leg, which, enabling it to swing the hind feet forward close to the ground, assists it to toss the body alternately from foot to foot, till deprivedof life. [1] [Footnote 1: In the Third Book of Maccabees, which is not printed in ourApocrypha, but appears in the series in the Greek Septuagint, theauthor, in describing the persecution of the Jews by Ptolemy Philopater, B. C. 210, states that the king swore vehemently that he would send theminto the other world, "foully trampled to death by the knees and feet ofelephants" ([Greek: pempsein eis hadên en gonasi kai posi thêrionhêkismenous. ] 3 Mac. V. 42). ÆLIAN makes the remark, that elephants onsuch occasions use their _knees_ as well as their feet to crush theirvictims. --_Hist Anim. _ viii. 10. ] A sportsman who had partially undergone this operation, having beenseized by a wounded elephant but rescued from its fury, described to mehis sufferings as he was thus flung back and forward between the hindand fore feet of the animal, which ineffectually attempted to tramplehim at each concussion, and abandoned him without inflicting seriousinjury. KNOX, in describing the execution of criminals by the state elephants ofthe former kings of Kandy, says, "they will run their teeth (_tusks_)through the body, and then tear it in pieces and throw it limb fromlimb;" but a Kandyan chief, who was witness to such scenes, has assuredme that the elephant never once applied its tusks, but, placing its footon the prostrate victim, plucked off his limbs in succession by a suddenmovement of the trunk. If the tusks were designed to be employedoffensively, some alertness would naturally be exhibited in using them;but in numerous instances where sportsmen have fallen into the power ofa wounded elephant, they have escaped through the failure of the enragedanimal to strike them with its tusks, even when stretched upon theground. [1] [Footnote 1: The _Hastisilpe_, a Singhalese work which treats of the"Science of Elephants, " enumerates amongst those which it is notdesirable to possess, "the elephant which will fight with a stone or astick in his trunk. "] Placed as the elephant is in Ceylon, in the midst of the most luxuriantprofusion of its favourite food, in close proximity at all times toabundant supplies of water, and with no enemies against whom to protectitself, it is difficult to conjecture any probable utility which itcould derive from such appendages. Their absence is unaccompanied by anyinconvenience to the individuals in whom they are wanting; and asregards the few who possess them, the only operations in which I amaware of their tusks being employed in relation to the oeconomy of theanimal, is to assist in ripping open the stem of the jaggery palms andyoung palmyras to extract the farinaceous core; and in splitting thejuicy shaft of the plantain. Whilst the tuskless elephant crushes thelatter under foot, thereby soiling it and wasting its moisture; theother, by opening it with the point of his tusk, performs the operationwith delicacy and apparent ease. These, however, are trivial and almost accidental advantages: on theother hand, owing to irregularities in their growth, the tusks aresometimes an impediment in feeding[1]; and in more than one instance inthe Government studs, tusks which had so grown as to approach and crossone another at the extremities, have had to be removed by the saw; thecontraction of space between them so impeding the free action of thetrunk as to prevent the animal from conveying branches to its mouth. [2] [Footnote 1: Among other eccentric forms, an elephant was seen in 1844, in the district of Bintenne, near Friar's-Hood Mountain, one of whosetusks was so bent that it took what sailors term a "round turn, " andresumed its curved direction as before. In the Museum of the College ofSurgeons, London, there is a specimen, No. 2757, of a _spira_ tusk. ] [Footnote 2: Since the foregoing remarks were written relative to theundefined use of tusks to the elephant, I have seen a speculation on thesame subject in Dr. HOLLAND'S "_Constitution of the Animal Creation, asexpressed in structural Appendages_;" but the conjecture of the authorleaves the problem scarcely less obscure than before. Struck with themere _supplemental_ presence of the tusks, the absence of all apparentuse serving to distinguish them from the essential organs of thecreature, Dr. HOLLAND concludes that their production is a processincident, but not ancillary, to other important ends, especiallyconnected with the vital functions of the trunk and the marvellousmotive powers inherent to it; his conjecture is, that they are "aspecies of safety valve of the animal oeconomy, "--and that "they owetheir development to the predominance of the senses of touch and smell, conjointly with the muscular motions of which the exercise of these isaccompanied. " "Had there been no proboscis, " he thinks, "there wouldhave been no supplementary appendages, --the former creates thelatter. "--Pp. 246, 271. ] It is true that in captivity, and after a due course of training, theelephant discovers a new use for its tusks when employed in movingstones and piling timber; so much so that a powerful one will raise andcarry on them a log of half a ton weight or more. One evening, whilstriding in the vicinity of Kandy, towards the scene of the massacre ofMajor Davie's party in 1803, my horse evinced some excitement at a noisewhich approached us in the thick jungle, and which consisted of arepetition of the ejaculation _urmph! urmph!_ in a hoarse anddissatisfied tone. A turn in the forest explained the mystery, bybringing me face to face with a tame elephant, unaccompanied by anyattendant. He was labouring painfully to carry a heavy beam of timber, which he balanced across his tusks, but the pathway being narrow, he wasforced to bend his head to one side to permit it to pass endways; andthe exertion and this inconvenience combined led him to utter thedissatisfied sounds which disturbed the composure of my horse. On seeingus halt, the elephant raised his head, reconnoitred us for a moment, then flung down the timber, and voluntarily forced himself backwardsamong the brushwood so as to leave a passage, of which he expected us toavail ourselves. My horse hesitated: the elephant observed it, andimpatiently thrust himself deeper into the jungle, repeating his cry of_urmph!_ but in a voice evidently meant to encourage us to advance. Still the horse trembled; and anxious to observe the instinct of the twosagacious animals, I forbore any interference: again the elephant of hisown accord wedged himself further in amongst the trees, and manifestedsome impatience that we did not pass him. At length the horse movedforward; and when we were fairly past, I saw the wise creature stoop andtake up its heavy burthen, trim and balance it on its tusks, and resumeits route as before, hoarsely snorting its discontented remonstrance. Between the African elephant and that of Ceylon, with the exception ofthe striking peculiarity of the infrequency of tusks in the latter, thedistinctions are less apparent to a casual observer than to a scientificnaturalist. In the Ceylon species the forehead is higher and morehollow, the ears are smaller, and, in a section of the teeth, thegrinding ridges, instead of being lozenge-shaped, are transverse bars ofuniform breadth. The Indian elephant is stated by Cuvier to have four nails on the hindfoot, the African variety having only three: but amongst the perfectionsof a high-bred elephant of Ceylon, is always enumerated the possessionof _twenty_ nails, whilst those of a secondary class have but eighteenin all. [1] [Footnote 1: See Chapter on Mammalia, p. 60. ] So conversant are the natives with the structure and "points" of theelephant, that they divide them readily into castes, and describe withparticularity their distinctive excellences and defects. In the_Hastisilpe_, a Singhalese work which treats of their management, themarks of inferior breeding are said to be "eyes restless like those of acrow, the hair of the head of mixed shades; the face wrinkled; thetongue curved and black; the nails short and green; the ears small; theneck thin, the skin freckled; the tail without a tuft, and thefore-quarter lean and low:" whilst the perfection of form and beauty issupposed to consist in the "softness of the skin, the red colour of themouth and tongue, the forehead expanded and hollow, the ears broad andrectangular, the trunk broad at the root and blotched with pink infront; the eyes bright and kindly, the cheeks large, the neck full, theback level, the chest square, the fore legs short and convex in front, the hind quarter plump, and five nails on each foot, all smooth, polished, and round. [1] An elephant with these perfections, " says theauthor of the _Hastisilpe_, "will impart glory and magnificence to theking; but he cannot be discovered amongst thousands, yea, there shallnever be found an elephant clothed at once with _all_ the excellencesherein described. " The "points" of an elephant are to be studied withthe greatest advantage in those attached to the temples, which arealways of the highest caste, and exhibit the most perfect breeding. [Footnote 1: A native of rank informed me, that "the tail of ahigh-caste elephant will sometimes touch the ground, but such are veryrare. "] The colour of the animal's skin in a state of nature is generally of alighter brown than that of those in captivity; a distinction whicharises, in all probability, not so much from the wild animal'spropensity to cover itself with mud and dust, as from the superior carewhich is taken in repeatedly bathing the tame ones, and in rubbing theirskins with a soft stone, a lump of burnt clay, or the coarse husk of acoco-nut. This kind of attention, together with the occasionalapplication of oil, gives rise to the deeper black which the hides ofthe latter present. Amongst the native Singhalese, however, a singular preference is evincedfor elephants that exhibit those flesh-coloured blotches whichoccasionally mottle the skin of an elephant, chiefly about the head andextremities. The front of the trunk, the tips of the ears, the forehead, and occasionally the legs, are thus diversified with stains of ayellowish tint, inclining to pink. These are not natural; nor are theyhereditary, for they are seldom exhibited by the younger individuals ina herd, but appear to be the result of some eruptive affection, theirritation of which has induced the animal in its uneasiness to rubitself against the rough bark of trees, and thus to destroy the outercuticle. [1] [Footnote 1: This is confirmed by the fact that the scar of the anclewound, occasioned by the rope on the legs of those which have beencaptured by noosing, presents precisely the same tint in the healedparts. ] To a European these spots appear blemishes, and the taste that leads thenatives to admire them is probably akin to the feeling that has at alltimes rendered a _white elephant_ an object of wonder to Asiatics. Therarity of the latter is accounted for by regarding this peculiarappearance as the result of albinism; and notwithstanding theexaggeration of Oriental historians, who compare the fairness of suchcreatures to the whiteness of snow, even in its utmost perfection, Iapprehend that the tint of a white elephant is little else than aflesh-colour, rendered somewhat more conspicuous by the blanching of theskin, and the lightness of the colourless hairs by which it is sparselycovered. A white elephant is mentioned in the _Mahawanso_ as formingpart of the retinue attached to the "Temple of the Tooth" atAnarajapoora, in the fifth century after Christ[1]; but it commanded noreligious veneration, and like those in the stud of the kings of Siam, it was tended merely as an emblem of royalty[2]; the sovereign of Ceylonbeing addressed as the "Lord of Elephants. "[3] In 1633 a white elephantwas exhibited in Holland[4]; but as this was some years before the Dutchhad established themselves firmly in Ceylon, it was probably broughtfrom some other of their eastern possessions. [Footnote 1: _Mahawanso_, ch. Xxxviii. P. 254, A. D. 433. ] [Footnote 2: PALLEGOIX, _Siam, &c. _, vol. I. P. 152. ] [Footnote 3: _Mahawanso_, ch. Xviii. P. 111. The Hindu sovereigns ofOrissa, in the middle ages, bore the style of _Gaja-pati_, "powerful inelephants. "--_Asiat. Res_. Xv. 253. ] [Footnote 4: ARMANDI, _Hist. Milit. Des Elephants_, lib. Ii. C. X. P. 380. HORACE mentions a white elephant as having been exhibited at Rome:"Sive elephas albus vulgi converteret ora. "--HOR. _Ep_. II. 196. ] CHAP. III. THE ELEPHANT. * * * * * _Habits when Wild_. Although found generally in warm and sunny climates, it is a mistake tosuppose that the elephant is partial either to heat or to light. InCeylon, the mountain tops, and not the sultry valleys, are its favouriteresort. In Oovah, where the elevated plains are often crisp with themorning frost, and on Pedura-talla-galla, at the height of upwards ofeight thousand feet, they are found in herds, whilst the hunter maysearch for them without success in the hot jungles of the low country. No altitude, in fact, seems too lofty or too chill for the elephant, provided it affords the luxury of water in abundance; and, contrary tothe general opinion that the elephant delights in sunshine, it seems atall times impatient of glare, and spends the day in the thickest depthof the forests, devoting the night to excursions, and to the luxury ofthe bath, in which it also indulges occasionally by day. This partialityfor shade is doubtless ascribable to the animal's love of coolness andsolitude; but it is not altogether unconnected with the position of theeye, and the circumscribed use which its peculiar mode of life permitsit to make of the faculty of sight. All the elephant hunters and natives to whom I have spoken on thesubject, concur in opinion that its range of vision is circumscribed, and that it relies more on its ear and sense of smell than on its sight, which is liable to be obstructed by dense foliage; besides which, fromthe formation of its short neck, the elephant is incapable of directingthe range of the eye much above the level of the head. [1] [Footnote 1: After writing the above, I was permitted by the late Dr. HARRISON, of Dublin, to see some accurate drawings of the brain of anelephant, which he had the opportunity of dissecting in 1847; and onlooking to that of the base, I have found a remarkable verification ofthe information which I collected in Ceylon. The small figure A is the ganglion of the fifth nerve, showing the smallmotor and large sensitive portion. [Illustration] The _olfactory lobes_, from which the olfactory nerves proceed, arelarge, whilst the _optic and muscular nerves of the orbit are singularlysmall_ for so vast an animal; and one is immediately struck by theprodigious size of the fifth nerve, which supplies the proboscis withits exquisite sensibility, as well as by the great size of the motorportion of the seventh, which supplies the same organ with its power ofmovement and action. ] The elephant's small range of vision is sufficient to account for itsexcessive caution, its alarm at unusual noises, and the timidity andpanic exhibited at trivial objects and incidents which, imperfectlydiscerned, excite suspicions for its safety. [1] In 1841 an officer[2]was chased by an elephant that he had slightly wounded. Seizing him nearthe dry bed of a river, the animal had its forefoot already raised tocrush him; but its forehead being caught at the instant by the tendrilsof a climbing plant which had suspended itself from the branches above, it suddenly turned and fled; leaving him badly hurt, but with no limbbroken. I have heard similar instances, equally well attested, of thispeculiarity in the elephant. [Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c. _, "The Elephant, " p. 27. ] [Footnote 2: Major ROGERS. An account of this singular adventure will befound in the _Ceylon Miscellany_ for 1842, vol. I. P. 221. ] On the other hand, the power of smell is so remarkable as almost tocompensate for the deficiency of sight. A herd is not only apprised ofthe approach of danger by this means, but when scattered in the forest, and dispersed out of range of sight, they are enabled by it toreassemble with rapidity and adopt precautions for their common safety. The same necessity is met by a delicate sense of hearing, and the use ofa variety of noises or calls, by means of which elephants succeed incommunicating with each other upon all emergencies. "The sounds whichthey utter have been described by the African hunters as of three kinds:the first, which is very shrill, produced by blowing through the trunk, is indicative of pleasure; the second, produced by the mouth, isexpressive of want; and the third, proceeding from the throat, is aterrific roar of anger or revenge. "[1] These words convey but animperfect idea of the variety of noises made by the elephant in Ceylon;and the shrill cry produced by blowing through his trunk, so far frombeing regarded as an indication of "pleasure, " is the well-known cry ofrage with which he rushes to encounter an assailant. ARISTOTLE describesit as resembling the hoarse sound of a "trumpet. "[2] The French stilldesignate the proboscis of an elephant by the same expression "trompe, "(which we have unmeaningly corrupted into _trunk_, ) and hence the screamof the elephant is known as "trumpeting" by the hunters in Ceylon. Theircry when in pain, or when subjected to compulsion, is a grunt or a deepgroan from the throat, with the proboscis curled upwards and the lipswide apart. [Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c. _, "The Elephant, " ch. Iii. P. 68. ] [Footnote 2: ARISTOTLE, _De Anim_. , lib. Iv. C. 9. "[Greek: homoionsalpingi]. " See also PLINY, lib. X. Ch. Cxiii. A manuscript in theBritish Museum, containing the romance of "_Alexander_" which isprobably of the fifteenth century, is interspersed with drawingsillustrative of the strange animals of the East. Amongst them are twoelephants, whose trunks are literally in form of _trumpets with expandedmouths_. See WRIGHT'S _Archæological Album_, p. 176. ] Should the attention of an individual in the herd be attracted by anyunusual appearance in the forest, the intelligence is rapidlycommunicated by a low suppressed sound made by the lips, somewhatresembling the twittering of a bird, and described by the hunters by theword "_prut_. " A very remarkable noise has been described to me by more than oneindividual, who has come unexpectedly upon a herd during the night, whenthe alarm of the elephants was apparently too great to be satisfied withthe stealthy note of warning just described. On these occasions thesound produced resembled the hollow booming of an empty tun when struckwith a wooden mallet or a muffled sledge. Major MACREADY, MilitarySecretary in Ceylon in 1836, who heard it by night amongst the wildelephants in the great forest of Bintenne, describes it as "a sort ofbanging noise like a cooper hammering a cask;" and Major SKINNER is ofopinion that it must be produced by the elephant striking his sidesrapidly and forcibly with his trunk. Mr. CRIPPS informs me that he hasmore than once seen an elephant, when surprised or alarmed, produce thissound by striking the ground forcibly with the flat side of the trunk;and this movement was instantly succeeded by raising it again, andpointing it in the direction whence the alarm proceeded, as if toascertain by the sense of smell the nature of the threatened danger. Asthis strange sound is generally mingled with the bellowing and ordinarytrumpeting of the herd, it is in all probability a device resorted to, not alone for warning their companions of some approaching peril, butalso for the additional purpose of terrifying unseen intruders. [1] [Footnote 1: PALLEGOIX, in his _Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam_, adverts to a sound produced by the elephant when weary: "quand il estfatigué, _il frappe la terre avec sa_ trompe, et en tire un sonsemblable à celui du cor. "--Tom. I. P. 151. ] Elephants are subject to deafness; and the Singhalese regard as the mostformidable of all wild animals, a "rogue"[1] afflicted with thisinfirmity. [Footnote 1: For an explanation of the term "rogue" as applied to anelephant, see p. 115. ] Extravagant estimates are recorded of the height of the elephant. In anage when popular fallacies in relation to him were as yet uncorrected inEurope by the actual inspection of the living animal, he was supposed togrow to the height of twelve or fifteen feet. Even within the lastcentury in popular works on natural history, the elephant, when fullgrown, was said to measure from seventeen to twenty feet from the groundto the shoulder. [1] At a still later period, so imperfectly had thefacts been collated, that the elephant of Ceylon was believed "to excelthat of Africa in size and strength. "[2] But so far from equalling thesize of the African species, that of Ceylon seldom exceeds the height ofnine feet; even in the Hambangtotte country, where the hunters agreethat the largest specimens are to be found, the tallest of ordinaryherds do not average more than eight feet. WOLF, in his account of theCeylon elephant[3], says he saw one taken near Jaffna, which measuredtwelve feet and one inch high. But the truth is, that the general bulkof the elephant so far exceeds that of the animals which we areaccustomed to see daily, that the imagination magnifies its unusualdimensions; and I have seldom or ever met with an inexperiencedspectator who did not unconsciously over-estimate the size of anelephant shown to him, whether in captivity or in a state of nature. Major DENHAM would have guessed some which he saw in Africa to besixteen feet in height, but the largest when killed was found to measurenine feet six, from the foot to the hip-bone. [4] [Footnote 1: _Natural History of Animals_. By Sir JOHN HILL, M. D. London, 1748-52, p. 565. A probable source of these false estimates ismentioned by a writer in the _Indian Sporting Review_ for Oct. 1857. "Elephants were measured formerly, and even now, by natives, as to theirheight, by throwing a rope over them, the ends brought to the ground oneach side, and half the length taken as the true height. Hence theorigin of elephants fifteen and sixteen feet high. A rod held at rightangles to the measuring rod, and parallel to the ground, will rarelygive more than ten feet, the majority being under nine. "--P. 159. ] [Footnote 2: SHAW'S _Zoology_. Lond. 1806. Vol. I. P. 216; ARMANDI, _Hist. Milit. Des Eléphans_, liv. I. Ch. I. P. 2. ] [Footnote 3: WOLF'S _Life and Adventures, &c_. , p. 164. Wolf was anative of Mecklenburg, who arrived in Ceylon about 1750, as chaplain inone of the Dutch East Indiamen, and having been taken into thegovernment employment, he served for twenty years at Jaffna, first asSecretary to the Governor, and afterwards in an office the duties ofwhich he describes to be the examination and signature of the "writingswhich served to commence a suit in any of the Courts of justice. " Hisbook embodies a truthful and generally accurate account of the northernportion of the island, with which alone he was conversant, and hisnarrative gives a curious insight into the policy of the DutchGovernment, and of the condition of the natives under their dominion. ] [Footnote 4: DENHAM'S _Travels, &c_. , 4to p. 220. The fossil remains ofthe Indian elephant have been discovered at Jabalpur, showing a heightof fifteen feet. --_Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng_. Vi. Professor ANSTED in his_Ancient World_, p. 197, says he was informed by Dr. Falconer "that outof eleven hundred elephants from which the tallest were selected andmeasured with care, on one occasion in India, there was not one whoseheight equalled eleven feet. "] For a creature of such extraordinary weight it is astonishing hownoiselessly and stealthily the elephant can escape from a pursuer. Whensuddenly disturbed in the jungle, it will burst away with a rush thatseems to bear down all before it; but the noise sinks into absolutestillness so suddenly, that a novice might well be led to suppose thatthe fugitive had only halted within a few yards of him, when furthersearch will disclose that it has stolen silently away, making scarcely asound in its escape; and, stranger still, leaving the foliage almostundisturbed by its passage. The most venerable delusion respecting the elephant, and that which heldits ground with unequalled tenacity, is the ancient fallacy which isexplained by SIR THOMAS BROWNE in his _Pseudodoxia Epidemica_, that "ithath no joynts; and this absurdity is seconded by another, that beingunable to lye downe it sleepeth against a tree, which the huntersobserving doe saw almost asunder, whereon the beast relying, by the fallof the tree falls also downe it-selfe and is able to rise no more. "[1]Sir THOMAS is disposed to think that "the hint and ground of thisopinion might be the grosse and somewhat cylindricall composure of thelegs of the elephant, and the equality and lesse perceptible disposureof the joynts, especially in the forelegs of this animal, theyappearing, when he standeth, like pillars of flesh;" but he overlooksthe fact that PLINY has ascribed the same peculiarity to theScandinavian beast somewhat resembling a horse, which he calls a"machlis, "[2] and that CÆSAR in describing the wild animals in theHercynian forests, enumerates the _alce_, "in colour and configurationapproaching the goat, but surpassing it in size, its head destitute ofhorns _and its limbs of joints_, whence it can neither lie down to rest, nor rise if by any accident it should fall, but using the trees for aresting-place, the hunters by loosening their roots bring the _alce_ tothe ground, so soon as it is tempted to lean on them. "[3] This fallacy, as Sir THOMAS BROWNE says, is "not the daughter of latter times, but anold and grey-headed errour, even in the days of ARISTOTLE, " who dealswith the story as he received it from CTESIAS, by whom it appears tohave been embodied in his lost work on India. But although ARISTOTLEgenerally receives the credit of having exposed and demolished thefallacy of CTESIAS, it will be seen by a reference to his treatise _Onthe Progressive Motions of Animals_, that in reality he approached thequestion with some hesitation, and has not only left it doubtful in onepassage whether the elephant has joints _in his knee_, although hedemonstrates that it has joints in the shoulders[4]; but in another hedistinctly affirms that on account of his weight the elephant cannotbend his forelegs together, but only one at a time, and reclines tosleep on that particular side. [5] [Footnote 1: _Vulgar Errors_, book iii. Chap. 1. ] [Footnote 2: Machlis (said to be derived from _a_, priv. , and [Greek:klinô], _cubo_, quod non cubat). "Moreover in the island of Scandinaviathere is a beast called _Machlis_, that hath neither ioynt in the hough, nor pasternes in his hind legs, and therefore he never lieth down, butsleepeth leaning to a tree, wherefore the hunters that lie in wait forthese beasts cut downe the trees while they are asleepe, and so takethem; otherwise they should never be taken, they are so swift of footthat it is wonderful. "--PLINY, _Natur. Hist. _ Transl. Philemon Holland, book viii. Ch. Xv. P. 200. ] [Footnote 3: "Sunt item quæ appellantur _Alces_. Harum est consimiliscapreis figura, et varietas pellium; sed magnitudine paulo antecedunt, mutilæque sunt cornibus, _et crura sine nodis articulisque habent_;neque quietis causa procumbunt; neque, si quo afflictæ casu considerunt, erigere sese aut sublevare possunt. His sunt arbores pro cubilibus; adeas sese applicant, atque ita, paulum modo reclinatæ, quietem capiunt, quarum ex vestigiis cum est animadversum a venatoribus, quo se recipereconsueverint, omnes eo loco, aut a radicibus subruunt aut acciduntarbores tantum, ut summa species earum stantium relinquatur. Huc cum seconsuetudine reclinaverint, infirmas arbores pondere affligunt, atqueuna ipsæ concidunt. "--CÆSAR, _De Bello Gall_. Lib. Vi. Ch. Xxvii. The same fiction was extended by the early Arabian travellers to therhinoceros, and in the MS. Of the voyages of the "_Two Mahometans_" itis stated that the rhinoceros of Sumatra "n'a point d'articulation augenou ni à la main. "--_Relations des Voyages, &c. _, Paris, 1845, vol. I. P. 29. ] [Footnote 4: When an animal moves progressively an hypothenuse isproduced, which is equal in power to the magnitude that is quiescent, and to that which is intermediate. But since the members are equal, itis necessary that the member which is quiescent should be inflectedeither in the knee or in the incurvation, _if the animal that walks iswithout knees_. It is possible, however, for the leg to be moved, whennot inflected, in the same manner as infants creep; and there is anancient report of this kind about elephants, which is not true, for suchanimals as these, _are moved in consequence of an inflection takingplace either in their shoulders or hips_. "--ARISTOTLE, _De IngressuAnim. _, ch. Ix. Taylor's Transl. ] [Footnote 5: ARISTOTLE, _De Animal_. , lib. Ii. Ch. I. It is curious thatTaylor, in his translation of this passage, was so strongly imbued withthe "grey-headed errour, " that in order to elucidate the somewhatobscure meaning of Aristotle, he has actually interpolated the text withthe exploded fallacy of Ctesias, and after the word reclining to sleep, has inserted the words "_leaning against some wall or tree_, " which arenot to be found in the original. ] So great was the authority of ARISTOTLE, that ÆLIAN, who wrote twocenturies later and borrowed many of his statements from the works ofhis predecessor, perpetuates this error; and, after describing theexploits of the trained elephants exhibited at Rome, adds the expressionof his surprise, that an animal without joints ([Greek: anarthron])should yet be able to dance. [1] The fiction was too agreeable to bereadily abandoned by the poets of the Lower Empire and the Romancers ofthe middle ages; and PHILE, a contemporary of PETRARCH and DANTE, who inthe early part of the fourteenth century, addressed his didactic poem onthe elephant to the Emperor Andronicus II. , untaught by the expositionof ARISTOTLE, still clung to the old delusion, [Greek: "Podes de toutps thauma kai saphes teras, Ous, ou kathaper talla tôn zôôn genê, Eiôthe kinein ex anarthrôn klasmatôn, Kai gar stibarois syntethentes osteois, Kai tê pladara tôn sphyrôn katastasei, Kai tê pros arthra tôn skelôn hypokrisei, Nyn eis tonous agousi, nyn eis hypheseis, Tas pantodapas ekdromas tou thêriou. * * * * * Brachyterous ontas de ton opisthiôn 'Anamphilektôs oida tous emprosthious Toutois elephas entatheis osper stylois 'Orthostadên akamptos hypnôttôn menei. "] v. 106, &c. [Footnote 1: [Greek: "Zpson de anarthron sunienai kai rhuthmou kaimelous, kai phylattein schêma physeôs dôra tauta hama kai idiotês kath'ekaston ekplêktikê]. "--ÆLIAN, _De Nat. Anim_. , lib. Ii. Cap. Xi. ] SOLINUS introduced the same fable into his _Polyhistor_; and DICUIL, theIrish commentator of the ninth century, who had an opportunity of seeingthe elephant sent by Haroun Alraschid as a present to Charlemagne[1] inthe year 802, corrects the error, and attributes its perpetuation to thecircumstance that the joints in the elephant's leg are not veryapparent, except when he lies down. [2] [Footnote 1: Eginhard, _Vita Karoli_, c. Xvi. And _Annales Francorum_, A. D. 810. ] [Footnote 2: "Sed idem Julius, unum de elephantibus mentions, falsoloquitur; dicens elephantem nunquam jacere; dum ille sicut boscertissime jacet, ut populi communiter regni Francorum elephantem, intempore Imperatoris Karoli viderunt. Sed, forsitan, ideo hoc deelephante ficte æstimando scriptum est, eo quod genua et suffragines suinisi quando jacet, non palam apparent. "--DICUILUS, _De Mensura OrbisTerræ_, c. Vii. ] It is a strong illustration of the vitality of error, that the delusionthus exposed by Dicuil in the ninth century, was revived by MATTHEWPARIS in the thirteenth; and stranger still, that Matthew not only sawbut made a drawing of the elephant presented to King Henry III. By theKing of France in 1255, in which he nevertheless represents the legs aswithout joints. [1] [Footnote 1: _Cotton MSS_. NERO. D. 1. Fol. 168, b. ] In the numerous mediæval treatises on natural history, known under thetitle of _Bestiaries_, this delusion regarding the elephant is oftenrepeated; and it is given at length in a metrical version of the_Physiologus_ of THEOBALDUS, amongst the Arundel Manuscripts in theBritish Museum. [1] [Footnote 1: _Arundel MSS_. No. 292, fol. 4, &c. It has been printed inthe _Reliquiæ Antiquæ_, vol. I. P. 208, by Mr. WRIGHT, to whom I amindebted for the following rendering of the passage referred to:-- in water ge sal stonden in water to mid side that wanne hire harde tide that ge ne falle nither nogt that it most in hire thogt for he ne haven no lith that he mugen risen with, etc. "They will stand in the water, in water up to the middle of the side, that when it comes to them hard, they may not fall down: that is most in their thought, for they have no joint to enable them to rise again. How he resteth him this animal, when he walketh abroad, hearken how it is here told. For he is all unwieldy, forsooth he seeks out a tree, that it strong and stedfast, and leans confidently against it, when he is weary of walking. The hunter has observed this, who seeks to ensnare him, where his usual dwelling is, to do his will; saws this tree and props it in the manner that he best may, covers it well that he (the elephant) may not be on his guard. Then he makes thereby a seat, himself sits alone and watches whether his trap takes effect. Then cometh this unwieldy elephant, and leans him on his side, rests against the tree in the shadow, and so both fall together. If nobody be by when he falls, he roars ruefully and calls for help, roars ruefully in his manner, hopes he shall through help rise. Then cometh there one (elephant) in haste, hopes he shall cause him to stand up; labours and tries all his might, but he cannot succeed a bit. He knows then no other remedy, but roars with his brother, many and large (elephants) come there in search, thinking to make him get up, but for the help of them all he may not get up. Then they all roar one roar, like the blast of a horn or the sound of bell, for their great roaring a young one cometh running, stoops immediately to him, puts his snout under him, and asks the help of them all; this elephant they raise on his legs: and thus fails this hunter's trick, in the manner that I have told you. "] With the Provençal song writers, the helplessness of the fallen elephantwas a favourite simile, and amongst others RICHARD DE BARBEZIEUX, in thelatter half of the twelfth century, sung[1], "Atressi cum l'olifans Que quan chai no s'pot levar. " [Footnote 1: One of the most venerable authorities by whom the fallacywas transmitted to modern times was PHILIP de THAUN, who wrote, aboutthe year 1121, A. D. , his _Livre des Créatures_, dedicated to Adelaide ofLouvaine, Queen of Henry I. Of England. In the copy of it printed by theHistorical Society of Science in 1841, and edited by Mr. WRIGHT, thefollowing passage occurs:-- "Et Ysidre nus dit ki le elefant descrit, * * * * * Es jambes par nature nen ad que une jointure, Il ne pot pas gesir quant il se volt dormir, Ke si cuchet estait par sei nen leveraît; Pur ceo li stot apuier, el lui del cucher, U à arbre u à mur, idunc dort aseur. E le gent de la terre, ki li volent conquere, Li mur enfunderunt, u le arbre encíserunt; Quant li elefant vendrat, ki s'i apuierat, La arbre u le mur carrat, e il tribucherat; Issi faiterement le parnent cele gent. " P. 100. ] As elephants were but rarely seen in Europe prior to the seventeenthcentury, there were but few opportunities of correcting the popularfallacy by ocular demonstration. Hence SHAKSPEARE still believed that, "The elephant hath joints; but none for courtesy: His legs are for necessity, not flexure:"[1] and DONNE sang of "Nature's great masterpiece, an Elephant; The only harmless great thing: Yet Nature hath given him no knee to bend: Himself he up-props, on himself relies; Still sleeping stands. "[2] [Footnote 1: _Troilus and Cressida_, act ii. Sc. 3. A. D. 1609. ] [Footnote 2: _Progress of the Soul_, A. D. 1633. ] Sir THOMAS BROWNE, while he argues against the delusion, does not failto record his suspicion, that "although the opinion at present bereasonably well suppressed, yet from the strings of tradition andfruitful recurrence of errour, it was not improbable it might revive inthe next generation;"[1]--an anticipation which has proved singularlycorrect; for the heralds still continued to explain that the elephant isthe emblem of watchfulness, "_nec jacet in somno, "_[2] and poets almostof our own times paint the scene when "Peaceful, beneath primeval trees, that cast Their ample shade on Niger's yellow stream, Or where the Ganges rolls his sacred waves, _Leans_ the huge Elephant. "[3] [Footnote 1: Sir T. BROWNE, _Vulgar Errors_, A. D. 1646. ] [Footnote 2: RANDAL HOME'S _Academy of Armory_, A. D. 1671. HOMEonly perpetuated the error of GUILLAM, who wrote his _Display ofHeraldry_ in A. D. 1610; wherein he explains that the elephant is"so proud of his strength that he never bows himself to any(_neither indeed can he_), and when he is once down he cannotrise up again. "--Sec. III. Ch. Xii. P. 147. ] [Footnote 3: THOMSON'S _Seasons_, A. D. 1728. ] It is not difficult to see whence this antiquated delusion took itsorigin; nor is it, as Sir THOMAS BROWNE imagined, to be tracedexclusively "to the grosse and cylindricall structure" of the animal'slegs. The fact is, that the elephant, returning in the early morningfrom his nocturnal revels in the reservoirs and water-courses, isaccustomed to rub his muddy sides against a tree, and sometimesagainst a rock if more convenient. In my rides through the northernforests, the natives of Ceylon have often pointed out that theelephants which had preceded me must have been of considerable size, from the height at which their marks had been left on the treesagainst which they had been rubbing. Not unfrequently the animalsthemselves, overcome with drowsiness from the night's gambolling, arefound dosing and resting against the trees they had so visited, and inthe same manner they have been discovered by sportsmen asleep, andleaning against a rock. It is scarcely necessary to explain that the position is accidental, andthat it is taken by the elephant not from any difficulty in lying atlength on the ground, but rather from the coincidence that the structureof his legs affords such support in a standing position, that recliningscarcely adds to his enjoyment of repose; and elephants in a state ofcaptivity have been known for months together to sleep without lyingdown. [1] So distinctive is this formation, and so self-sustaining theconfiguration of the limbs, that an elephant shot in the brain, by MajorRogers in 1836, was killed so instantaneously that it died literally _onits knees_, and remained resting on them. About the year 1826, CaptainDawson, the engineer of the great road to Kandy, over the Kaduganavapass, shot an elephant at Hangwelle on the banks of the Kalany Ganga;_it remained on its feet_, but so motionless, that after discharging afew more balls, he was induced to go close to it, and found it dead. [Footnote 1: So little is the elephant inclined to lie down incaptivity, and even after hard labour, that the keepers are generallydisposed to suspect illness when he betakes himself to this posture. PHILE, in his poem _De Animalium Proprietate_, attributes the propensityof the elephant to sleep on his legs, to the difficulty he experiencesin rising to his feet: [Greek: 'Orthostadên de kai katheudei panychos 'HOt ouk anastêsai men eucherôs pelei. ] But this is a misapprehension. ] The real peculiarity in the elephant in lying down is, that he extendshis hind legs backwards as a man does when he kneels, instead ofbringing them under him like the horse or any other quadruped. The wisepurpose of this arrangement must be obvious to any one who observes thestruggle with which the horse _gets up_ from the ground, and the violentefforts which he makes to raise himself erect. Such an exertion in thecase of the elephant, and the force requisite to apply a similarmovement to raise his weight (equal to four or five tons) would beattended with a dangerous strain upon the muscles, and hence the simplearrangement, which by enabling him to draw the hind feet gradually underhim, assists him to rise without a perceptible effort. The same construction renders his gait not a "gallop, " as it has beensomewhat loosely described[1], which would be too violent a motion forso vast a body; but a shuffle, that he can increase at pleasure to apace as rapid as that of a man at full speed, but which he cannotmaintain for any considerable distance. [Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c_. "The elephant, " ch. I. Sir CHARLES BELL, in his essay on _The Hand and its Mechanism_, which forms one of the"Bridgewater Treatises, " has exhibited the reasons deducible fromorganisation, which show the incapacity of the elephant to _spring_ or_leap_ like the horse and other animals whose structure is designed tofacilitate agility and speed. In them the various bones of the shoulderand fore limbs, especially the clavicle and humerus, are set at such anangle, that the shock in descending is modified, and the joints andsockets protected from the injury occasioned by concussion. But in theelephant, where the weight of the body is immense, the bones of the leg, in order to present solidify and strength to sustain it, are built inone firm and perpendicular column; instead of being placed somewhatobliquely at their points of contact. Thus whilst the force of theweight in descending is broken and distributed by this arrangement inthe case of the horse; it would be so concentrated in the elephant as toendanger every joint from the toe to the shoulder. ] [Illustration] It is to the structure of the knee-joint that the elephant is indebtedfor his singular facility in ascending and descending steep activities, climbing rocks and traversing precipitous ledges, where even a mule darenot venture; and this again leads to the correction of another generallyreceived error, that his legs are "formed more for strength thanflexibility, and fitted to bear an enormous weight upon a level surface, without the necessity of ascending or descending great acclivities. "[1]The same authority assumes that, although the elephant is found in theneighbourhood of mountainous ranges, and will even ascend rocky passes, such a service is a violation of its natural habits. [Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c_. , "The Elephant, " ch. Ii. ] Of the elephant of Africa I am not qualified to speak, nor of the natureof the ground which it most frequents; but certainly the facts inconnection with the elephant of India are all irreconcilable with thetheory mentioned above. In Bengal, in the Nilgherries, in Nepal, inBurmah, in Siam, Sumatra, and Ceylon, the districts in which theelephants most abound, are all hilly and mountainous. In the latter, especially, there is not a range so elevated as to be inaccessible tothem. On the very summit of Adam's Peak, at an altitude of 7, 420 feet, and on a pinnacle which the pilgrims climb with difficulty, by means ofsteps hewn in the rock, Major Skinner, in 1840, found the spoor of anelephant. Prior to 1840, and before coffee-plantations had been extensively openedin the Kandyan ranges, there was not a mountain or a lofty feature ofland of Ceylon which they had not traversed, in their periodicalmigrations in search of water; and the sagacity which they display in"laying out roads" is almost incredible. They generally keep along the_backbone_ of a chain of hills, avoiding steep gradients: and onecurious observation was not lost upon the government surveyors, that incrossing the valleys from ridge to ridge, through forests so dense asaltogether to obstruct a distant view, the elephants invariably selectthe line of march which communicates most judiciously with the oppositepoint, by means of _the safest ford_. [1] So sure-footed are they, thatthere are few places where man can go that an elephant cannot follow, provided there be space to admit his bulk, and solidity to sustain hisweight. [Footnote 1: Dr. HOOKER, in describing the ascent of the Himalayas, says, the natives in making their paths despise all zigzags, and run instraight lines up the steepest hill faces; whilst "the elephant's pathis an excellent specimen of engineering--the opposite of the nativetrack, --for it winds judiciously. "--_Himalayan Journal_, vol. I. Ch. Iv. ] This faculty is almost entirely derived from the unusual position, ascompared with other quadrupeds, of the knee joint of the hind leg;arising from the superior length of the thigh-bone, and the shortness ofthe metatarsus: the heel being almost where it projects in man, insteadof being lifted up as a "hock. " It is this which enables him, indescending declivities, to depress and adjust the weight of his hinderportions, which would otherwise overbalance and force him headlong. [1]It is by the same arrangement that he is enabled, on uneven ground, tolift his feet, which are tender and sensitive, with delicacy, and plantthem with such precision as to ensure his own safety as well as that ofobjects which it is expedient to avoid touching. [Footnote 1: Since the above passage was written, I have seen in the_Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. Xiii, pt. Ii. P. 916, apaper upon this subject, illustrated by the subjoined diagram. The writer says, "an elephant descending a bank of too acute an angle toadmit of his walking down it direct, (which, were he to attempt, hishuge tody, soon disarranging the centre of gravity, would certainlytopple over, ) proceeds thus. His first manoeuvre is to kneel down closeto the edge of the declivity, placing his chest to the ground: onefore-leg is then cautiously passed a short way down the slope; and ifthere is no natural protection to afford a firm footing, he speedilyforms one by stamping into the soil if moist, or kicking out a footingif dry. This point gained, the other fore-leg is brought down in thesame way; and performs the same work, a little in advance of the first;which is thus at liberty to move lower still. Then, first one and thenthe second of the hind legs is carefully drawn over the side, and thehind-feet in turn occupy the resting-places previously used and left bythe fore ones. The course, however, in such precipitous ground is notstraight from top to bottom, but slopes along the face of the bank, descending till the animal gains the level below. This an elephant hasdone, at an angle of 45 degrees, carrying a _howdah_, its occupant, hisattendant, and sporting apparatus; and in a much less time than it takesto describe the operation. " I have observed that an elephant indescending a declivity uses his knees, on the side next the bank; andhis feet on the lower side only. [Illustration]] A _herd_ of elephants is a family, not a group whom accident orattachment may have induced to associate together. Similarity offeatures and caste attest that, among the various individuals whichcompose it, there is a common lineage and relationship. In a herd oftwenty-one elephants, captured in 1844, the trunks of each individualpresented the same peculiar formation, --long, and almost of one uniformbreadth throughout, instead of tapering gradually from the root to thenostril. In another instance, the eyes of thirty-five taken in onecorral were of the same colour in each. The same slope of the back, thesame form of the forehead, is to be detected in the majority of the samegroup. In the forest several herds will browse in close contiguity, and intheir expeditions in search of water they may form a body of possiblyone or two hundred; but on the slightest disturbance each distinct herdhastens to re-form within its own particular circle, and to takemeasures on its own behalf for retreat or defence. The natives of any place which may chance to be frequented by elephants, observe that the numbers of the same herd fluctuate very slightly; andhunters in pursuit of them, who may chance to have shot one or more, always reckon with certainty the precise number of those remaining, although a considerable interval may intervene before they againencounter them. The proportion of males is generally small, and someherds have been seen composed exclusively of females; possibly inconsequence of the males having been shot. A herd usually consists offrom ten to twenty individuals, though occasionally they exceed thelatter number; and in their frequent migrations and nightly resort totanks and water-courses, alliances are formed between members ofassociated herds, which serve to introduce new blood into the family. In illustration of the attachment of the elephant to its young, theauthority of KNOX has been quoted, that "the shees are alike tender ofany one's young ones as of their own. "[1] Their affection in thisparticular is undoubted, but I question whether it exceeds that of otheranimals; and the trait thus adduced of their indiscriminate kindness toall the young of the herd, --of which I have myself been aneye-witness, --so far from being an evidence of the strength of parentalattachment individually, is, perhaps, somewhat inconsistent with theexistence of such a passion to any extraordinary degree. [2] In fact, some individuals, who have had extensive facilities for observation, doubt whether the fondness of the female elephants for their offspringis so great as that of many other animals; as instances are not wantingin Ceylon, in which, when pursued by the hunters, the herd has abandonedthe young ones in their flight, notwithstanding the cries of the latterfor help. [Footnote 1: A correspondent of Buffon, M. MARCELLUS BLES, Seigneur deMoergestal, who resided eleven years in Ceylon in the time of the Dutch, says in one of his communications, that in herds of forty or fifty, enclosed in a single corral, there were frequently very young calves;and that "on ne pouvoit pas reconnaître quelles étoient les mères dechacun de ces petits éléphans, car tous ces jeunes animaux paroissentfaire manse commune; ils têtent indistinctement celles des femelles detoute la troupe qui ont du lait, soit qu'elles aient elles-mêmes unpetit en propre, soit qu'elles n'en aient point. "--BUFFON, _Suppl. àl'Hist. Des Anim. _, vol. Vi. P. 25. ] [Footnote 2: WHITE, in his _Natural History of Selborne_, philosophisingon the fact which had fallen under his own notice of this indiscriminatesuckling of the young of one animal by the parent of another, isdisposed to ascribe it to a selfish feeling; the pleasure and relief ofhaving its distended teats drawn by this intervention. He notices thecircumstance of a leveret having been thus nursed by a cat, whosekittens had been recently drowned: and observes, that "this strangeaffection was probably occasioned by that desiderium, those tendermaternal feelings, which the loss of her kittens had awakened in herbreast; and by the complacency and ease she derived to herself fromprocuring her teats to be drawn, which were too much distended withmilk; till from habit she became as much delighted with this foundlingas if it had been her real offspring. This incident is no bad solutionof that strange circumstance which grave historians, as well as thepoets, assert of exposed children being sometimes nurtured by femalewild beasts that probably had lost their young. For it is not one whitmore marvellous that Romulus and Remus in their infant state should benursed by a she wolf than that a poor little suckling leveret should befostered and cherished by a bloody Grimalkin. "--WHITE'S _Selborne_, lett. Xx. ] In an interesting paper on the habits of the Indian elephant, publishedin the _Philosophical Transactions for_ 1793, Mr. CORSE says: "If a wildelephant happens to be separated from its young for only two days, though giving suck, she never after recognises or acknowledges it, "although the young one evidently knows its dam, and by its plaintivecries and submissive approaches solicits her assistance. If by any accident an elephant becomes hopelessly separated from his ownherd, he is not permitted to attach himself to any other. He may browsein the vicinity, or frequent the same place to drink and to bathe; butthe intercourse is only on a distant and conventional footing, and nofamiliarity or intimate association is under any circumstancespermitted. To such a height is this exclusiveness carried, that evenamidst the terror and stupefaction of an elephant corral, when anindividual, detached from his own party in the _mêlée_ and confusion, has been driven into the enclosure with an unbroken herd, I have seenhim repulsed in every attempt to take refuge among them, and driven offby heavy blows with their trunks as often as he attempted to insinuatehimself within the circle which they had formed for common security. There can be no reasonable doubt that this jealous and exclusive policynot only contributes to produce, but mainly serves to perpetuate, theclass of solitary elephants which are known by the term _goondahs_, inIndia, and which from their vicious propensities and predatory habitsare called _Hora_, or _Rogues_, in Ceylon. [1] It is believed by the Singhalese that these are either individuals, whoby accident have lost their former associates and become morose andsavage from rage and solitude; or else that being naturally vicious theyhave become daring from the yielding habits of their milder companions, and eventually separated themselves from the rest of the herd which hadrefused to associate with them. Another conjecture is, that being almostuniversally males, the death or capture of particular females may havedetached them from their former companions in search of freshalliances. [2] It is also believed that a tame elephant escaping fromcaptivity, unable to rejoin its former herd, and excluded from anyother, becomes a "_rogue_" from necessity. In Ceylon it is generallybelieved that the _rogues_ are all males (but of this I am not certain), and so sullen is their disposition that although two may be in the samevicinity, there is no known instance of their associating, or of a_rogue_ being seen in company with another elephant. [Footnote 1: The term "rogue" is scarcely sufficiently accounted for bysupposing it to be the English equivalent for the Singhalese word_Hora_. In that very curious book, the _Life and Adventures of_ JOHNCHRISTOPHER WOLF, _late principal Secretary at Jaffnapatam in Ceylon_, the author says, when a male elephant in a quarrel about the females "isbeat out of the field and obliged to go without a consort, he becomesfurious and mad, killing every living creature, be it man or beast: andin this state is called _ronkedor_, an object of greater terror to atraveller than a hundred wild ones. "--P. 142. In another passage, p. 164, he is called _runkedor_, and I have seen it spelt elsewhere_ronquedue_, WOLF does not give "_ronkedor_" as a term peculiar to thatsection of the island; but both there and elsewhere, it is obsolete atthe present day, unless it be open to conjecture that the modern term"rogue" is a modification of _ronquedue. _] [Footnote 2: BUCHANAN, in his _Survey of Bhagulpore_, p. 503, says thatsolitary males of the wild buffalo, "when driven from the herd bystronger competitors for female society, are reckoned very dangerous tomeet with; for they are apt to wreak their vengeance on whatever theymeet, and are said to kill annually three or four people. " LIVINGSTONErelates the same of the solitary hippopotamus which becomes soured intemper, and wantonly attacks the passing canoes. --_Travels in SouthAfrica_, p. 231. ] They spend their nights in marauding, often about the dwellings of men, destroying their plantations, trampling down their gardens, andcommitting serious ravages in rice grounds and young coco-nutplantations. Hence from their closer contact with man and his dwellings, these outcasts become disabused of many of the terrors which render theordinary elephant timid and needlessly cautious; they break throughfences without fear; and even in the daylight a _rogue_ has been knownnear Ambogammoa to watch a field of labourers at work in reaping rice, and boldly to walk in amongst them, seize a sheaf from the heap, andretire leisurely to the jungle. By day they generally seek concealment, but are frequently to be met with prowling about the by-roads and junglepaths, where travellers are exposed to the utmost risk from their savageassaults. It is probable that this hostility to man is the result of theenmity engendered by those measures which the natives, who have aconstant dread of their visits, adopt for the protection of theirgrowing crops. In some districts, especially in the low country ofBadulla, the villagers occasionally enclose their cottages with rudewalls of earth and branches to protect them from nightly assaults. Inplaces infested by them, the visits of European sportsmen to thevicinity of their haunts are eagerly encouraged by the natives, whothink themselves happy in lending their services to track the ordinaryherds in consideration of the benefit conferred on the villagecommunities by the destruction of a rogue. In 1847 one of theseformidable creatures frequented for some months the Rangbodde Pass onthe great mountain road leading to the sanatarium, at Neuera-ellia; andamongst other excesses, killed a Caffre belonging to the corps of Caffrepioneers, by seizing him with its trunk and beating him to death againstthe bank. To return to the herd: one member of it, usually the largest and mostpowerful, is by common consent implicitly followed as leader. A tusker, if there be one in the party, is generally observed to be the commander;but a female, if of superior energy, is as readily obeyed as a male. Infact, in this promotion there is no reason to doubt that supremacy isalmost unconsciously assumed by those endowed with superior vigour andcourage rather than from the accidental possession of greater bodilystrength; and the devotion and loyalty which the herd evince to theirleader are very remarkable. This is more readily seen in the case of atusker than any other, because in a herd he is generally the object ofthe keenest pursuit by the hunters. On such occasions the others dotheir utmost to protect him from danger: when driven to extremity theyplace their leader in the centre and crowd so eagerly in front of himthat the sportsmen have to shoot a number which they might otherwisehave spared. In one instance a tusker, which was badly wounded by MajorROGERS, was promptly surrounded by his companions, who supported himbetween their shoulders, and actually succeeded in covering his retreatto the forest. Those who have lived much in the jungle in Ceylon, and who have hadconstant opportunities of watching the habits of wild elephants, havewitnessed instances of the submission of herds to their leaders, thatsuggest an inquiry of singular interest as to the means adopted by thelatter to communicate with distinctness, orders which are observed withthe most implicit obedience by their followers. The following narrativeof an adventure in the great central forest toward the north of theisland, communicated to me by Major SKINNER, who was engaged for sometime in surveying and opening roads through the thickly-wooded districtsthere, will serve better than any abstract description to convey an ideaof the conduct of a herd on such occasions:-- "The case you refer to struck me as exhibiting something more thanordinary brute instinct, and approached nearer to reasoning powers thanany other instance I can now remember. I cannot do justice to the scene, although it appeared to me at the time to be so remarkable that it lefta deep impression in my mind. "In the height of the dry season in Neuera-Kalawa, you know the streamsare all dried up, and the tanks nearly so. All animals are then sorelypressed for water, and they congregate in the vicinity of those tanks inwhich there may remain ever so little of the precious element. "During one of those seasons I was encamped on the bund or embankment ofa very small tank, the water in which was so dried that its surfacecould not have exceeded an area of 500 square yards. It was the onlypond within many miles, and I knew that of necessity a very large herdof elephants, which had been in the neighbourhood all day, must resortto it at night. "On the lower side of the tank, and in a line with the embankment, was athick forest, in which the elephants sheltered themselves during theday. On the upper side and all around the tank there was a considerablemargin of open ground. It was one of those beautiful bright, clear, moonlight nights, when objects could be seen almost as distinctly as byday, and I determined to avail myself of the opportunity to observe themovements of the herd, which had already manifested some uneasiness atour presence. The locality was very favourable for my purpose, and anenormous tree projecting over the tank afforded me a secure lodgement inits branches. Having ordered the fires of my camp to be extinguished atan early hour, and all my followers to retire to rest, I took up my postof observation on the overhanging bough; but I had to remain for upwardsof two hours before anything was to be seen or heard of the elephants, although I knew they were within 500 yards of me. At length, about thedistance of 300 yards from the water, an unusually large elephant issuedfrom the dense cover, and advanced cautiously across the open ground towithin 100 yards of the tank, where he stood perfectly motionless. Soquiet had the elephants become (although they had been roaring andbreaking the jungle throughout the day and evening), that not a movementwas now to be heard. The huge vidette remained in his position, still asa rock, for a few minutes, and then made three successive stealthyadvances of several yards (halting for some minutes between each, withears bent forward to catch the slightest sound), and in this way hemoved slowly up to the water's edge. Still he did not venture to quenchhis thirst, for though his fore-feet were partially in the tank and hisvast body was reflected clear in the water, he remained for some minuteslistening in perfect stillness. Not a motion could be perceived inhimself or his shadow. He returned cautiously and slowly to the positionhe had at first taken up on emerging from the forest. Here in a littlewhile he was joined by five others, with which he again proceeded ascautiously, but less slowly than before, to within a few yards of thetank, and then posted his patrols. He then re-entered the forest andcollected around him the whole herd, which must have amounted to between80 and 100 individuals, --led them across the open ground with the mostextraordinary composure and quietness, till he joined the advancedguard, when he left them for a moment and repeated his formerreconnoissance at the edge of the tank. After which, having apparentlysatisfied himself that all was safe, he returned and obviously gave theorder to advance, for in a moment the whole herd rushed into the waterwith a degree of unreserved confidence, so opposite to the caution andtimidity which had marked their previous movements, that nothing willever persuade me that there was not rational and preconcertedco-operation throughout the whole party, and a degree of responsibleauthority exercised by the patriarch leader. "When the poor animals had gained possession of the tank (the leaderbeing the last to enter), they seemed to abandon themselves to enjoymentwithout restraint or apprehension of danger. Such a mass of animal lifeI had never before seen huddled together in so narrow a space. It seemedto me as though they would have nearly drunk the tank dry. I watchedthem with great interest until they had satisfied themselves as well inbathing as in drinking, when I tried how small a noise would apprisethem of the proximity of unwelcome neighbours. I had but to break alittle twig, and the solid mass instantly took to flight like a herd offrightened deer, each of the smaller calves being apparently shoulderedand carried along between two of the older ones. "[1] [Footnote 1: Letter from Major SKINNER. ] In drinking, the elephant, like the camel, although preferring waterpure, shows no decided aversion to it when discoloured with mud[1]; andthe eagerness with which he precipitates himself into the tanks andstreams attests his exquisite enjoyment of the fresh coolness, which tohim is the chief attraction. In crossing deep rivers, although hisrotundity and buoyancy enable him to swim with a less immersion thanother quadrupeds, he generally prefers to sink till no part of his hugebody is visible except the tip of his trunk, through which he breathes, moving beneath the surface, and only now and then raising his head tolook that he is keeping the proper direction. [2] In the dry season thescanty streams which, during the rains, are sufficient to convert therivers of the low country into torrents, often entirely disappear, leaving only broad expanses of dry sand, which they have swept down withthem from the hills. In this the elephants contrive to sink wells fortheir own use by scooping out the sand to the depth of four or fivefeet, and leaving a hollow for the percolation of the spring. But as theweight of the elephant would force in the side if left perpendicular, one approach is always formed with such a gradient that he can reach thewater with his trunk without disturbing the surrounding sand. [Footnote 1: This peculiarity was known in the middle ages, and PHILE, writing in the fourteenth century, says, that such is his _preference_, for muddy water that the elephant _stirs it_ before he drinks. [Greek: "Ydor de pineisynchythen prin anpinoi To gar dieides akribos diaptuei. "] --PHILE _de Eleph_. , i. 144. ] [Footnote 2: A tame elephant, when taken by his keepers to be bathed, and to have his skin washed and rubbed, lies down on his side, pressinghis head to the bottom under water, with only the top of his trunkprotruded, to breathe. ] [Illustration] I have reason to believe, although the fact has not been authoritativelystated by naturalists, that the stomach of the elephant will be found toinclude a section analogous to that possessed by some of the ruminants, calculated to contain a supply of water as a provision againstemergencies. The fact of his being enabled to retain a quantity of waterand discharge it at pleasure has been long known to every observer ofthe habits of the animal; but the proboscis has always been supposed tobe "his water-reservoir, "[1] and the theory of an internal receptaclehas not been discussed. The truth is that the anatomy of the elephant iseven yet but imperfectly understood[2], and, although some peculiaritiesof his stomach were observed at an early period, and even theirconfiguration described, the function of the abnormal portion remainedundetermined, and has been only recently conjectured. An elephant whichbelonged to Louis XIV. Died at Versailles in 1681 at the age ofseventeen, and an account of its dissection was published in the_Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire Naturelle_, under the authority ofthe Academy of Sciences, in which the unusual appendages of the stomachare pointed out with sufficient particularity, but no suggestion is madeas to their probable uses. "[3] [Footnote 1: BRODERIP'S _Zoological Recreations_, p. 259. ] [Footnote 2: For observing the osteology of the elephant, materials areof course abundant in the indestructible remains of the animal: but thestudy of the intestines, and the dissection of the softer parts bycomparative anatomists in Europe, have been up to the present time besetby difficulties. These arise not alone from the rarity of subjects, buteven in cases where elephants have died in these countries, decomposition interposes, and before the thorough examination of so vasta body can be satisfactorily completed, the great mass falls intoputrefaction. The principal English authorities are _An Anatomical Account of theElephant accidentally burnt in Dublin_, by A. MOLYNEUX, A. D. 1696; whichis probably a reprint of a letter on the same subject in the library ofTrinity College, Dublin, addressed by A. Moulin, to Sir William Petty, Lond. 1682. There are also some papers communicated to Sir Hans Sloane, and afterwards published in the _Philosophical Transactions_ of the year1710, by Dr. P. BLAIR, who had an opportunity of dissecting an elephantwhich died at Dundee in 1708. The latter writer observes that, "notwithstanding the vast interest attaching to the elephant in allages, yet has its body been hitherto very little subjected toanatomical, inquiries;" and he laments that the rapid decomposition ofthe carcase, and other causes, had interposed obstacles to the scrutinyof the subject he was so fortunate as to find access to. In 1723 Dr. WM. STUCKLEY published _Some Anatomical Observations madeupon the Dissection of an Elephant_; but each of the above essays isnecessarily unsatisfactory, and little has since been done to supplytheir defects. One of the latest and most valuable contributions to thesubjects, is a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy, on the 18th ofFeb. , 1847, by Professor HARRISON, who had the opportunity of dissectingan Indian elephant which died of acute fever; but the examination, sofar as he has made it public, extends only to the cranium, the brain, and the proboscis, the larynx, trachea, and oesophagus. An essentialservice would be rendered to science if some sportsman in Ceylon, orsome of the officers connected with the elephant establishment there, would take the trouble to forward the carcase of a young one to Englandin a state fit for dissection. _Postscriptum. _--I am happy to say that a young elephant, carefullypreserved in spirits, has recently been obtained in Ceylon, andforwarded to Prof. Owen, of the British Museum, by the joint exertionsof M. DIARD and Major SKINNER. An opportunity has thus been affordedfrom which science will reap advantage, of devoting a patient attentionto the internal structure of this interesting animal. ] [Footnote 3: The passage as quoted by BUFFON from the _Mémoires_ is asfollows: --"L'estomac avoit peu de diamètre; il en avoit moins que le colon, carson diamètre n'étoit que de quatorze pouces dans la partie la pluslarge; il avoit trois pieds et demi de longueur: l'orifice supérieurétoit à-peu-près aussi éloigné du pylore que du fond du grand cul-de-sacqui se terminoit en une pointe composée de tuniques beaucoup plusépaisses que celles du reste de l'estomac; il y avoit au fond du grandcul-de-sac plusieurs feuillets épais d'une ligne, larges d'un pouce etdemi, et disposés irrégulierement; le reste de parois intérieures étoitpercé de plusieurs petits trous et par de plus grands quicorrespondoîent à des grains glanduleux. "--BUFFON, _Hist. Nat_. , vol. Xi. P. 109. ] A writer in the _Quarterly Review_ for December 1850, says that "CAMPERand other comparative anatomists have shown that the left, or cardiacend of the stomach in the elephant is adapted, by several wide folds oflining membrane, to serve as a receiver for water;" but this is scarcelycorrect, for although CAMPER has accurately figured the external form ofthe stomach, he disposes of the question of the interior functions withthe simple remark that its folds "semblent en faire une espèce dedivision particulière. "[1] In like manner SIR EVERARD HOME, in his_Lectures on Comparative Anatomy_, has not only carefully described theform of the elephant's stomach, and furnished a drawing of it even moreaccurate than CAMPER; but he has equally omitted to assign any purposeto so strange a formation, contenting himself with observing that thestructure is a peculiarity, and that one of the remarkable folds nearestthe orifice of the diaphragm appears to act as a valve, so that theportion beyond may be considered as an appendage similar to that of thehog and the _peccary_. [2] [Footnote 1: "L'extrémité voisine du cardia se termine par une pochetrès-considérable et doublée à l'intérieure du quatorze valvulesorbiculaires que semblent en faire une espèce de divisionparticulière. "--CAMPER, _Description Anatomique d'un Eléphant Mâle_, p. 37, tabl. IX. ] [Footnote 2: "The elephant has another peculiarity in the internalstructure of the stomach. It is longer and narrower than that of mostanimals. The cuticular membrane of the oesophagus terminates at theorifice of the stomach. At the cardiac end, which is very narrow andpointed at the extremity, the lining is thick and glandular, and isthrown into transverse folds, of which five are broad and nine narrow. That nearest the orifice of the oesophagus is the broadest, and appearsto act occasionally as a valve, so that the part beyond may beconsidered as an appendage similar to that of the peccary and the hog. The membrane of the cardiac portion is uniformly smooth; that of thepyloric is thicker and more vascular. "--_Lectures on ComparativeAnatomy_, by Sir EVERARD HOME, Bart. 4to. Lond. Vol. I. P. 155. Thefigure of the elephant's stomach is given, in his _Lectures_, vol. Ii. Plate xviii. ] [Illustration: ELEPANT'S STOMACH. ] The appendage thus alluded to by Sir EVERARD HOME is the grand"cul-de-sac, " noticed by the Académic des Sciences, and the "divisionparticulière, " figured by CAMPER. It is of sufficient dimensions tocontain ten gallons of water, and by means of the valve above alludedto, it can be shut off from the chamber devoted to the process ofdigestion. Professor OWEN is probably the first who, not from anautopsy, but from the mere inspection of the drawings of CAMPER andHOME, ventured to assert (in lectures hitherto unpublished), that theuses of this section of the elephant's stomach may be analogous to thoseascertained to belong to a somewhat similar arrangement in the stomachof the camel, one cavity of which is exclusively employed as a reservoirfor water, and performs no function the preparation of food. [1] [Footnote 1: A similar arrangement, with some modifications, has morerecently been found in the llama of the Andes, which, like the camel, isused as a beast of burden in the Cordilleras of Chili and Peru; but boththese and the camel are _ruminants_, whilst the elephants belongs to thePachydermata. ] [Illustration] Whilst Professor OWEN was advancing this conjecture, another comparativeanatomist, from the examination of another portion of the structure ofthe elephant, was led to a somewhat similar conclusion. Dr. HARRISON ofDublin had, in 1847, an opportunity of dissecting the body of anelephant which had suddenly died; and in the course of his examinationof the thoracic viscera, he observed that an unusually close connectionexisted between the trachea and oesophagus, which he found to depend ona muscle unnoticed by any previous anatomist, connecting the back of theformer with the forepart of the latter, along which the fibres descendand can be distinctly traced to the cardiac orifice of the stomach. Imperfectly acquainted with the habits and functions of the elephant ina state of nature, Dr. HARRISON found it difficult to pronounce as tothe use of this very peculiar structure; but looking to the intimateconnection between the mechanism concerned in the functions ofrespiration and deglutition, and seeing that the proboscis served in adouble capacity as an instrument of voice and an organ for theprehension of food, he ventured (apparently without adverting to theabnormal form of the stomach) to express the opinion that this muscle, viewing its attachment to the trachea, might either have some influencein raising the diaphragm, and thereby assisting in expiration, "_or thatit might raise the cardiac orifice of the stomach, and so aid this organto regurgitate a portion of its contents into the oesophagus_. "[1] [Footnote 1: _Proceed. Roy. Irish Acad_. , vol. Iv. P. 133. ] Dr. HARRISON, on the reflection that "we have no satisfactory evidencethat the animal ever ruminates, " thought it useless to speculate on thelatter supposition as to the action of the newly discovered muscle, andrather inclined to the surmise that it was designed to assist theelephant in producing the remarkable sound through his proboscis knownas "trumpeting;" but there is little room to doubt that of the two therejected hypothesis was the more correct one. I have elsewhere describedthe occurrence to which I was myself a witness[1], of elephantsinserting their proboscis in their mouths, and withdrawing gallons ofwater, which could only have been contained in the receptacle figured byCAMPER and HOME, and of which the true uses were discerned by the clearintellect of Professor OWEN. I was not, till very recently, aware that asimilar observation as to the remarkable habit of the elephant, had beenmade by the author of the _Ayeen Akbery_, in his account of the _Feel__Kaneh_, or elephant stables of the Emperor Akbar, in which he says, "anelephant frequently with his trunk takes water out of his stomach andsprinkles himself with it, and it is not in the least offensive. "[2]FORBES, in his Oriental Memoirs, quotes this passage of the _AyeenAkbery_, but without a remark; nor does any European writer with whoseworks I am acquainted appear to have been cognisant of the peculiarityin question. [Footnote 1: In the account of an elephant corral, chap. Vi. ] [Footnote 2: _Ayeen Akbery_, transl. By GLADWIN, vol i. Pt. I, p. 147. ] [Illustration: WATER-CELLS IN THE STOMACH OF THE CAMEL. ] It is to be hoped that Professor OWEN'S dissection of the youngelephant, recently arrived, may serve to decide this highly interestingpoint. [1] Should scientific investigation hereafter more clearlyestablish the fact that, in this particular, the structure of theelephant is assimilated to that of the llama and the camel, it will beregarded as more than a common coincidence, that an apparatus, so uniquein its purpose and action, should thus have been conferred by theCreator on the three animals which in sultry climates are, by thisarrangement, enabled to traverse arid regions in the service of man. [2]To show this peculiar organization where it attains its fullestdevelopment, I have given a sketch of the water-cells, in the stomach ofthe camel on the preceding page. [Footnote 1: One of the Indian names for the elephant is _duipa_, whichsignifies "to drink twice" (AMANDI, p. 513). Can this have reference tothe peculiarity of the stomach for retaining a supply of water? Or hasit merely reference to the habit of the animal to fill his trunk beforetransferring the water to his mouth. ] [Footnote 2: The buffalo and the humped cattle of India, which are usedfor draught and burden, have, I believe, a development of theorganisation of the reticulum which enables the ruminants generally, toendure thirst, and abstain from water, somewhat more conspicuous than inthe rest of their congeners; but nothing that approaches in singularityof character to the distinct cavities in the stomach exhibited by thethree animals above alluded to. ] The _food_ of the elephant is so abundant, that in feeding he neverappears to be impatient or voracious, but rather to play with the leavesand branches on which he leisurely feeds. In riding by places where aherd has recently halted, I have sometimes seen the bark peeledcuriously off the twigs, as though it had been done in mere dalliance. In the same way in eating grass the elephant selects a tussac which hedraws from the ground by a dexterous twist of his trunk, and nothing canbe more graceful than the ease with which, before conveying it to hismouth, he beats the earth from its roots by striking it gently upon hisfore-leg. A coco-nut he first rolls under foot, to detach the strongouter bark, then stripping off with his trunk the thick layer of fibrewithin, he places the shell in his mouth, and swallows with evidentrelish the fresh liquid which flows as he crushes it between hisgrinders. The natives of the peninsula of Jaffna always look for the periodicalappearance of the elephants, at the precise time when the fruit of thepalmyra palm begins to fall to the ground from ripeness. In like mannerin the eastern provinces where the custom prevails of cultivating whatis called _chena_ land (by clearing a patch of forest for the purpose ofraising a single crop, after which the ground is abandoned, and revertsto jungle again), although a single elephant may not have been seen inthe neighbourhood during the early stages of the process, the Moormen, who are the cultivators of this class, will predict their appearancewith almost unerring confidence so soon as the grains shall have begunto ripen; and although the crop comes to maturity at different periodsin different districts, herds are certain to be seen at each insuccession, as soon as it is ready to be cut. In these well-timedexcursions, they resemble the bison of North America, which, by asimilarly mysterious instinct, finds its way to portions of the distantprairies, where accidental fires have been followed by a growth oftender grass. Although the fences around these _chenas_ are little morethan lines of reeds loosely fastened together, they are sufficient, withthe presence of a single watcher, to prevent the entrance of theelephants, who wait patiently till the rice and _coracan_ have beenremoved, and the watcher withdrawn; and, then finding gaps in the fence, they may be seen gleaning among the leavings and the stubble; and theytake their departure when these are exhausted, apparently in thedirection of some other _chena_, which they have ascertained to be aboutto be cut. There is something still unexplained in the dread which an elephantalways exhibits on approaching a fence, and the reluctance which hedisplays to face the slightest artificial obstruction to his passage. Inthe fine old tank of Tissa-weva, close by Anarajapoora, the nativescultivate grain, during the dry season, around the margin where theground has been left bare by the subsidence of the water. These littlepatches of rice they enclose with small sticks an inch in diameter andfive or six feet in height, such as would scarcely serve to keep out awild hog if he attempted to force his way through. Passages of from tento twenty feet wide are left between each field, to permit the wildelephants, which abound in the vicinity to make their nocturnal visitsto the water still remaining in the tank. Night after night these openpathways are frequented by immense herds, but the tempting corn is nevertouched, nor is a single fence disturbed, although the merest, movementof a trunk would be sufficient to demolish the fragile structure. Yetthe same spots, the fences being left open as soon as the grain has beencut and carried home, are eagerly entered by the elephants to gleanamongst the stubble. Sportsmen observe that an elephant, even when enraged by a wound, willhesitate to charge an assailant across an intervening hedge, but willhurry along it to seek for an opening. It is possible that, on the partof the elephant, there may be some instinctive consciousness, that owingto his superior bulk, he is exposed to danger from sources that might beperfectly harmless in the case of lighter animals, and hence hissuspicion that every fence may conceal a snare or pitfall. Some similarapprehension is apparent in the deer, which shrinks from attempting afence of wire, although it will clear without hesitation a solid wall ofgreater height. At the same time, the caution with which the elephant is supposed toapproach insecure ground and places of doubtful[1] solidity, appears tome, so far as my own observation and experience extend, to beexaggerated, and the number of temporary bridges which are annuallybroken down by elephants in all parts of Ceylon, is sufficient to showthat, although in captivity, and when familiar with such structures, thetame ones may, and doubtless do, exhibit all the wariness attributed tothem; yet, in a state of liberty, and whilst unaccustomed to suchartificial appliances, their instincts are not sufficient to ensuretheir safety. Besides, the fact is adverted to elsewhere[2], that thechiefs of the Wanny, during the sovereignty of the Dutch, wereaccustomed to take in pitfalls the elephants which they rendered astribute to government. [Footnote 1: "One of the strongest instincts which the elephantpossesses, is this which impels him to experiment upon the solidity ofevery surface which he is required to cross. "--_Menageries, &c. _ "TheElephant, " vol. I. Pp. 17, 19, 66. ] [Footnote 2: WOLF'S _Life and Adventures_, p. 151. See p. 115, _note_. ] A fact illustrative at once of the caution and the spirit of curiositywith which an elephant regards an unaccustomed object has beenfrequently mentioned to me by the officers engaged in opening roadsthrough the forest. On such occasions the wooden "tracing pegs" whichthey are obliged to drive into the ground to mark the levels takenduring the day, will often be withdrawn by the elephants during thenight, to such an extent as frequently to render it necessary to go overthe work a second time, in order to replace them. [1] [Footnote 1: _Private Letter_ from Dr. DAVY, author of _An Account ofthe Interior of Ceylon_. ] Colonel HARDY, formerly Deputy Quarter-Master-General in Ceylon, whenproceeding, about the year 1820, to a military out-post in thesouth-east of the island, imprudently landed in an uninhabited part ofthe coast, intending to take a short cut through the forest, to hisdestination. He not only miscalculated the distance, but, on theapproach of nightfall, he was chased by a vicious rogue elephant. Thepursuer was nearly upon him, when, to gain time, he flung down a smalldressing-case, which he happened to be carrying. The device wassuccessful; the elephant halted and minutely examined its contents, andthus gave the colonel time to effect his escape. [1] [Footnote 1: The _Colombo Observer_ for March 1858, contains an offer ofa reward of twenty-five guineas for the destruction of an elephant whichinfested the Rajawallé coffee plantation, in the vicinity of Kandy. Itsobject seemed to be less the search for food, than the satisfying of itscuriosity and the gratification of its passion for mischief. Mr. TYTLER, the proprietor, states that it frequented the jungle near the estate, whence it was its custom to sally forth at night for the pleasure ofpulling down buildings and trees, "and it seemed to have taken a spiteat the pipes of the water-works, the pillars of which it several timesbroke down--its latest fancy being to wrench off the taps. " Thiselephant has since been shot. ] As regards the general sagacity of the elephant, although it has notbeen over-rated in the instances of those whose powers have been largelydeveloped in captivity, an undue estimate has been formed in relation tothem whilst still untamed. The difference of instincts and habitsrenders it difficult to institute a just comparison between them andother animals. CUVIER[1] is disposed to ascribe the exalted idea thatprevails of their intellect to the feats which an elephant performs withthat unique instrument, its trunk, combined with an imposing expressionof countenance: but he records his own conviction that in sagacity it inno way excels the dog, and some other species of Carnivora. If there bea superiority, I am disposed to award it to the dog, not from any excessof natural capacity, but from the higher degree of developmentconsequent on his more intimate domestication and association with man. [Footnote 1: CUVIER, _Règne Animal_. "Les Mammiferes, " p. 280. ] One remarkable fact was called to my attention by a gentleman whoresided on a coffee plantation at Rassawé, one of the loftiest mountainsof the Ambogammoa range. More than once during the terrificthunder-bursts that precede the rains at the change of each monsoon, heobserved that the elephants in the adjoining forest hastened from undercover of the trees and took up their station in the open ground, where Isaw them on one of these occasions collected into a group; and here, hesaid, it was their custom to remain till the lightning had ceased, whenthey retired again into the jungle. [1] It must be observed, however, that showers, and especially light drizzling rain, are believed to bringthe elephants from the jungle towards pathways or other openings in theforest;--and hence, in places infested by them, timid persons are afraidto travel in the afternoon during uncertain weather. [Footnote 1: The elephant is believed by the Singhalese to express hisuneasiness by his voice, on the approach of _rain_; and the Tamils havea proverb. --"_Listen to the elephant, rain is coming. _"] When free in its native woods the elephant evinces rather simplicitythan sagacity, and its intelligence seldom exhibits itself in cunning. The rich profusion in which nature has supplied its food, andanticipated its every want, has made it independent of those devices bywhich carnivorous animals provide for their subsistence; and, from theabsence of all rivalry between it and the other denizens of the plains, it is never required to resort to artifice for self-protection. Forthese reasons, in its tranquil and harmless life, it may appear tocasual observers to exhibit even less than ordinary ability; but whendanger and apprehension call for the exertion of its powers, those whohave witnessed their display are seldom inclined to undervalue itssagacity. Mr. CRIPPS has related to me an instance in which a recently capturedelephant was either rendered senseless from fear, or, as the nativeattendants asserted, _feigned death_ in order to regain its freedom. Itwas led from the corral as usual between two tame ones, and had alreadyproceeded far towards its destination; when night closing in, and thetorches being lighted, it refused to go on, and finally sank to theground, apparently lifeless. Mr. CRIPPS ordered the fastenings to beremoved from its legs, and when all attempts to raise it had failed, soconvinced was he that it was dead, that he ordered the ropes to be takenoff and the carcase abandoned. While this was being done he and agentleman by whom he was accompanied leaned against the body to rest. They had scarcely taken their departure and proceeded a few yards, when, to their astonishment, the elephant rose with the utmost alacrity, andfled towards the jungle, screaming at the top of its voice, its criesbeing audible long after it had disappeared in the shades of the forest. APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III. * * * * * NARRATIVES OF THE NATIVES OF CEYLON RELATIVE TO ENCOUNTERS WITH ROGUEELEPHANTS. The following narratives have been taken down by a Singhalese gentleman, from the statements of the natives by whom they are recounted;--and theyare here inserted, in order to show the opinion prevalent amongst thepeople of Ceylon as to the habits and propensities of the rogueelephant. The stories are given in words of my correspondent, who writesin English, as follows:-- 1. "We, " said my informant, who was a native trader of Caltura, "were onour way to Badulla, by way of Ratnapoora and Balangodde, to barter ourmerchandize for coffee. There were six in our party, myself, mybrother-in-law, and four coolies, who carried on pingoes[1] ourmerchandize, which consisted of cloth and brass articles. About 4o'clock, P. M. , we were close to Idalgasinna, and our coolies were ratherunwilling to go further for fear of elephants, which they said were sureto be met with at that noted place, especially as there had been aslight drizzling of rain during the whole afternoon. I was as muchafraid of elephants as the coolies themselves; but I was anxious toproceed, and so, after a few words of encouragement addressed to them, and a prayer or two offered up to _Saman dewiyo_[2], we resumed ourjourney. I also took the further precaution of hanging up a fewleaves. [3] As the rain was coming down fast and thick, and I was anxiousto get to our halting-place before night, we moved on at a rapid pace. My brother-in-law was in the van of the party, I myself was in the rear, and the four coolies between us, all moving along on a rugged, rocky, and difficult path; as the road to Badulla till lately was on thesloping side of a hill, covered with jungle, pieces of projecting rock, and brushwood. It was about five o'clock in the evening, or a littlelater, and we had hardly cleared the foot of the hill and got to theplain below, when a rustling of leaves and a crackling of dry brushwoodwere heard on our right, followed immediately by the trumpeting of a_hora allia_[4], which was making towards us. We all fled, followed bythe elephant. I, who was in the rear of the party, was the first to taketo flight; the coolies threw away their pingoes, and my brother-in-lawhis umbrella, and all ran in different directions. I hid myself behind alarge boulder of granite nearly covered by jungle: but as my place ofconcealment was on high ground, I could see all that was going on below. The first thing I observed was the elephant returning to the place whereone of the pingoes was lying: he was carrying one of the coolies in acoil of his trunk. The body of the man was dangling with the headdownward. I cannot say whether he was then alive or not; I could notperceive any marks of blood or bruises on his person: but he appeared tobe lifeless. The elephant placed him down on the ground, put the pingoon his (the man's) shoulder, steadying both the man and the pingo withhis trunk and fore-legs. But the man of course did not move or stand upwith his pingo. Seeing this, the elephant again raised the cooly anddashed him against the ground, and then trampled the body to a veryjelly. This done, he took up the pingo and moved away from the spot; butat the distance of about a fathom or two, laid it down again, andripping open one of the bundles, took out of it all the contents, _somans_[5], _camb[=a]yas_[6], handkerchiefs, and several pieces ofwhite cambrick cloth, all which he tore to small pieces, and flung themwildly here and there. He did the same with all the other pingoes. Whenthis was over the elephant quietly walked away into the jungle, trumpeting all the way as far as I could hear. When danger was past Icame out of my concealment, and returned to the place where we hadhalted that morning. Here the rest of my companions joined me soonafter. The next morning we set out again on our journey, our party beingnow increased by some seven or eight traders from Salpity Corle: butthis time we did not meet with the elephant. We found the mangled corpseof our cooly on the same spot where I had seen it the day before, together with the torn pieces of my cloths, of which we collected asfast as we could the few which were serviceable, and all the brassutensils which were quite uninjured. That elephant was a noted rogue. Hehad before this killed many people on that road, especially thosecarrying pingoes of coco-nut oil and ghee. He was afterwards killed byan Englishman. The incidents I have mentioned above, took place abouttwenty years ago. " [Footnote 1: Yokes borne on the shoulder, with a package at each end. ] [Footnote 2: The tutelary spirit of the sacred mountain, Adam's Peak. ] [Footnote 3: The Singhalese hold the belief, that twigs taken from onebush and placed on another growing close to a pathway, ensure protectionto travellers from the attacks of wild animals, and especially ofelephants. Can it be that the latter avoid the path, on discovering thisevidence of the proximity of recent passengers?] [Footnote 4: A rogue elephant. ] [Footnote 5: Woman's robe. ] [Footnote 6: The figured cloth worn by men. ] The following also relates to the same locality. It was narrated to meby an old Moorman of Barberyn, who, during his earlier years, led thelife of a pedlar. 2. "I and another, " said he, "were on our way to Badulla, one day sometwenty-five or thirty years ago. We were quietly moving along a pathwhich wound round a hill, when all of a sudden, and without theslightest previous intimation either by the rustling of leaves or by anyother sign, a huge elephant with short tusks rushed to the path. Wherehe had been before I can't say; I believe he must have been lying inwait for travellers. In a moment he rushed forward to the road, trumpeting dreadfully, and seized my companion. I, who happened to be inthe rear, took to flight, pursued by the elephant, which had alreadykilled my companion by striking him against the ground. I had not movedmore than seven or eight fathoms, when the elephant seized me, and threwme up with such force, that I was carried high into the air towards a_Cahata_ tree, whose branches caught me and prevented my falling to theground. By this I received no other injury than the dislocation of oneof my wrists. I do not know whether the elephant saw me after he hadhurled me away through the air; but certainly he did not come to thetree to which I was then clinging: even if he had come, he couldn't havedone me any more harm, as the branch on which I was far beyond the reachof his trunk, and the tree itself too large for him to pull down. Thenext thing I saw was the elephant returning to the corpse of mycompanion, which he again threw on the ground, and placing one of hisfore feet on it, he tore it with his trunk limb after limb; and dabbledin the blood that flowed from the shapeless mass of flesh which he wasstill holding under his foot. " 3. "In 1847 or '46, " said another informant, "I was a superintendent ofa coco-nut estate belonging to Mr. Armitage, situated about twelve milesfrom Negombo. A rogue elephant did considerable injury to the estate atthat time; and one day, hearing that it was then on the plantation, aMr. Lindsay, an Englishman, who was proprietor of the adjoiningproperty, and myself, accompanied by some seven or eight people of theneighbouring village, went out, carrying with us six rifles loaded andprimed. We continued to walk along a path which, near one of its turns, had some bushes on one side. We had calculated to come up with the brutewhere it had been seen half an hour before; but no sooner had one of ourmen, who was walking foremost, seen the animal at the distance of somefifteen or twenty fathoms, than he exclaimed, 'There! there!' andimmediately took to his heels, and we all followed his example. Theelephant did not see us until we had run some fifteen or twenty pacesfrom the spot where we turned, when he gave us chase, screamingfrightfully as he came on. The Englishman managed to climb a tree, andthe rest of my companions did the same; as for myself I could not, although I made one or two superhuman efforts. But there was no time tobe lost. The elephant was running at me with his trunk bent down in acurve towards the ground. At this critical moment Mr. Lindsay held outhis foot to me, with the help of which and then of the branches of thetree, which were three or four feet above my head, I managed to scrambleup to a branch. The elephant came directly to the tree and attempted toforce it down, which he could not. He first coiled his trunk round thestem, and pulled it with all his might, but with no effect. He thenapplied his head to the tree, and pushed for several minutes, but withno better success. He then trampled with his feet all the projectingroots, moving, as he did so, several times round and round the tree. Lastly, failing in all this, and seeing a pile of timber, which I hadlately cut, at a short distance from us, he removed it all (thirty-sixpieces) one at a time to the root of the tree, and piled them up in aregular business-like manner; then placing his hind feet on this pile, he raised the fore part of his body, and reached out his trunk, butstill he could not touch us, as we were too far above him. TheEnglishman then fired, and the ball took effect somewhere on theelephant's head, but did not kill him. It made him only the morefurious. The next shot, however, levelled him to the ground. Iafterwards brought the skull of the animal to Colombo, and it is stillto be seen at the house of Mr. Armitage. " 4. "One night a herd of elephants entered a village in the Four Corles. After doing considerable injury to plaintain bushes and young coco-nuttrees, they retired, the villagers being unable to do anything toprotect their fruit trees from destruction. But one elephant was leftbehind, who continued to scream the whole night through at the samespot. It was then discovered that the elephant, on seeing a jak fruit ona tree somewhat beyond the reach of his trunk, had raised himself on hishind legs, placing his fore feet against the stem, in order to lay holdof the fruit, but unluckily for him there happened to be another treestanding so close to it that the vacant space between the two stems wasonly a few inches. During his attempts to take hold of the fruit one ofhis legs happened to get in between the two trees, where, on account ofhis weight and his clumsy attempts to extricate himself, it got sofirmly wedged that he could not remove it, and in this awkward positionhe remained for some days, till he died on the spot. " CHAP. IV. THE ELEPHANT. * * * * * _Elephant Shooting. _ As the shooting of an elephant, whatever endurance and adroitness thesport may display in other respects, requires the smallest possibleskill as a marksman, the numbers which are annually slain in this waymay be regarded as evidence of the multitudes abounding in those partsof Ceylon to which they resort. One officer, Major ROGERS, killedupwards of 1400; another, Captain GALLWEY, has the credit of slayingmore than half that number; Major SKINNER, the Commissioner of Roads, almost as many; and less persevering aspirants follow at humblerdistances. [1] [Footnote 1: To persons like myself, who are not addicted to what iscalled "sport, " the statement of these wholesale slaughters iscalculated to excite surprise and curiosity as to the nature of apassion that impels men to self-exposure and privation, in a pursuitwhich presents nothing but the monotonous recurrence of scenes of bloodand suffering. Mr. BAKER, who has recently published, under the title of"_The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon_" an account of his exploits in theforest, gives us the assurance that "_all real sportsmen aretender-hearted men, who shun cruelty to an animal, and are easily movedby a tale of distress_;" and that although man is naturallybloodthirsty, and a beast of prey by instinct, yet that the truesportsman is distinguished from the rest of the human race by his "_loveof nature, and of noble scenery_. " In support of this pretension to agentler nature than the rest of mankind, the author proceeds to attesthis own abhorrence of cruelty by narrating the sufferings of an oldhound, which, although "toothless, " he cheered on to assail a boar atbay, but the poor dog recoiled "covered with blood, cut nearly in half, with a wound fourteen inches in length, from the lower part of thebelly, passing up the flank, completely severing the muscles of the hindleg, and extending up the spine; his hind leg having the appearance ofbeing nearly off. " In this state, forgetful of the character he had solately given of the true sportsman, as a lover of nature and a hater ofcruelty, he encouraged "the poor old dog, " as he calls him, to resumethe fight with the boar, which lasted for an hour, when he managed tocall the dogs off; and perfectly exhausted, the mangled hound crawledout of the jungle with several additional wounds, including a severegash in his throat. "He fell from exhaustion, and we made a litter withtwo poles and a horsecloth to carry him home. "--P. 314. If such were thehabitual enjoyments of this class of sportsmen, their motivelessmassacres would admit of no manly justification. In comparison with themone is disposed to regard almost with favour the exploits of a hunterlike Major ROGERS, who is said to have applied the value of the ivoryobtained from his encounters towards the purchase of his successiveregimental commissions, and had, therefore, an object, howeverdisproportionate, in his slaughter of 1400 elephants. One gentleman in Ceylon, not less distinguished for his genuine kindnessof heart, than for his marvellous success in shooting elephants, avowedto me that the eagerness with which he found himself impelled to pursuethem had often excited surprise in his own mind; and although he hadnever read the theory of Lord Kames, or the speculations of VicesimusKnox, he had come to the conclusion that the passion thus excited withinhim was a remnant of the hunter's instinct, with which man wasoriginally endowed, to enable him, by the chase, to support existence ina state of nature, and which, though rendered dormant by civilisation, had not been utterly eradicated. This theory is at least more consistent and intelligible than the "loveof nature and scenery, " sentimentally propounded by the author quotedabove. ] But notwithstanding this prodigious destruction, a reward of a fewshillings per head offered by the Government for taking elephants wasclaimed for 3500 destroyed in part of the northern province alone, inless than three years prior to 1848: and between 1851 and 1856, asimilar reward was paid for 2000 in the southern province, between Galleand Hambangtotte. Although there is little opportunity for the display of marksmanship inan elephant battue, there is one feature in the sport, as conducted inCeylon, which contrasts favourably with the slaughterhouse detailschronicled with revolting minuteness in some recent accounts of elephantshooting in South Africa. The practice in Ceylon is to aim invariably atthe head, and the sportsman finds his safety to consist in boldly facingthe animal, advancing to within fifteen paces, and lodging a bullet, either in the temple or in the hollow over the eye, or in a well-knownspot immediately above the trunk, where the weaker structure of theskull affords an easy access to the brain. [1] The region of the ear isalso a fatal spot, and often resorted to, --the places I have mentionedin the front of the head being only accessible when the animal is"charging. " Professor HARRISON, in his communication to the Royal IrishAcademy on the Anatomy of the Elephant, has rendered an intelligibleexplanation of this in the following passage descriptive of thecranium:--"it exhibits two remarkable facts: _first_, the small spaceoccupied by the brain; and, _secondly_, the beautiful and curiousstructure of the bones of the head. The two tables of all these bones, except the occipital, are separated by rows of large cells, some fromfour to five inches in length, others only small, irregular, andhoney-comb-like:--these all communicate with each other, and, throughthe frontal sinuses, with the cavity of the nose, and also with thetympanum or drum of each ear; consequently, as in some birds, thesecells are filled with air, and thus while the skull attains a great sizein order to afford an extensive surface for the attachment of muscles, and a mechanical support for the tusks, it is at the same time verylight and buoyant in proportion to its bulk; a property the morevaluable as the animal is fond of water and bathes in deep rivers. " [Footnote 1: The vulnerability of the elephant in this region of thehead was known to the ancients, and PLINY, describing a combat ofelephants in the amphitheatre at Rome, says, that one was slain by asingle blow, "pilum sub oculo adactum, in vitalia capitis venerat" (Lib. Viii. C. 7. ) Notwithstanding the comparative facility of access to thebrain afforded at this spot, an ordinary leaden bullet is not certain topenetrate, and frequently becomes flattened. The hunters, to counteractthis, are accustomed to harden the ball, by the introduction of a smallportion of type-metal along with the lead. ] [Illustration: SECTION OF ELEPHANT'S HEAD. ] Generally speaking, a single ball, planted in the forehead, ends theexistence of the noble creature instantaneously: and expert sportsmenhave been known to kill right and left, one with each barrel; butoccasionally an elephant will not fall before several shots have beenlodged in his head. [1] [Footnote 1: "There is a wide difference of opinion as to the mostdeadly shot. I think the temple the most certain, but authority inCeylon says the 'fronter, ' that is, above the trunk. Behind the ear issaid to be deadly, but that is a shot which I never fired or saw firedthat I remember. If the ball go true to its mark, all shots (in thehead) are certain; but the bones on either side of the honey-combpassage to the brain are so thick that there is in all a 'gloriousuncertainty' which keeps a man on the _qui vive_ till he sees theelephant down. "--From a paper on _Elephant Shooting in Ceylon_, by MajorMACREADY, late Military Secretary at Colombo. ] Contrasted with this, one reads with a shudder the sickening details ofthe African huntsman approaching _behind_ the retiring animal, and ofthe torture inflicted by the shower of bullets which tear up its fleshand lacerate its flank and shoulders. [1] [Footnote 1: In Mr. GORDON CUMMING'S account of a _Hunter's Life inSouth Africa_, there is a narrative of his pursuit of a wounded elephantwhich he had lamed by lodging a ball in its shoulder-blade. It limpedslowly towards a tree, against which it leaned itself in helpless agony, whilst its pursuer seated himself in front of it, in safety, to _boilhis coffee_, and observe its sufferings. The story is continued asfollows:--"Having admired him for a considerable time, _I resolved tomake experiments on vulnerable points_; and approaching very near Ifired several bullets at different parts of his enormous skull. He onlyacknowledged the shots by a salaam-like movement of his trunk, with thepoint of which he gently touched the wounds with a striking and peculiaraction. Surprised and shocked at finding that I was only prolonging thesufferings of the noble beast, which bore its trials with such dignifiedcomposure, I resolved to finish the proceeding with all possibledespatch, and accordingly opened fire upon him from the left side, aiming at the shoulder. I first fired _six_ shots with the two-groovedrifle, which must have eventually proved mortal. After which I fired_six_ shots at the same part with the Dutch six-pounder. _Large tearsnow trickled from his eyes, which he slowly shut and opened, hiscolossal frame shivered convulsively, and falling on his side, heexpired_. " (Vol. Ii. P. 10. ) In another place, after detailing the manner in which he assailed a pooranimal--he says, "I was loading and firing as fast as could be, sometimes at the head, sometimes behind the shoulder, until myelephant's fore-quarter was a mass of gore; notwithstanding which hecontinued to hold on, leaving the grass and branches of the forestscarlet in his wake. * * * Having fired _thirty-five rounds_ with mytwo-grooved rifle, I opened upon him with the Dutch six-pounder, andwhen forty bullets had perforated his hide, he began for the first time, to evince signs of a dilapidated constitution. " The disgustingdescription is closed thus: "Throughout the charge he repeatedly cooledhis person with large quantities of water, which he ejected from histrunk over his sides and back, and just as the pangs of death came overhim, he stood trembling violently beside a thorn tree, and kept pouringwater into his bloody mouth until he died, when he pitched heavilyforward with the whole weight of his fore-quarters resting on the pointsof his tusks. The strain was fair, and the tusks did not yield; but theportion of his head in which the tusks were embedded, extending a longway above the eye, yielded and burst with a muffled crash. "--(_Ib_. , vol. Ii. Pp. 4, 5. )] The shooting of elephants in Ceylon has been described with tiresomeiteration in the successive journals of sporting gentlemen, but one whoturns to their pages for traits of the animal and his instincts isdisappointed to find little beyond graphic sketches of the daring andexploits of his pursuers, most of whom, having had no furtheropportunity of observation than is derived from a casual encounter withthe outraged animal, have apparently tried to exalt their own prowess, by misrepresenting the ordinary character of the elephant, describinghim as "savage, wary, and revengeful. "[1] These epithets may undoubtedly apply to the outcasts from the herd, the"Rogues" or _hora allia_, but so small is the proportion of these thatthere is not probably one _rogue_ to be found for every five hundred ofthose in herds; and it is a manifest error, arising from imperfectinformation, to extend this censure to them generally, or to suppose theelephant to be an animal "thirsting for blood, lying in wait in thejungle to rush on the unwary passer-by, and knowing no greater pleasurethan the act of crushing his victim to a shapeless mass beneath hisfeet. "[2] The cruelties practised by the hunters have no doubt taughtthese sagacious creatures to be cautious and alert, but theirprecautions are simply defensive; and beyond the alarm and apprehensionwhich they evince on the approach of man, they exhibit no indication ofhostility or thirst for blood. [Footnote 1: _The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon_; by S. W. BAKER, Esq. , pp. 8, 9. "Next to a rogue, " says Mr. BAKER, "in ferocity, and even morepersevering in the pursuit of her victim, is a female elephant. " But heappends the significant qualification, "_when her young one has beenkilled_. "--_Ibid_. , p. 13. ] [Footnote 2: _Ibid_. ] An ordinary traveller seldom comes upon elephants unless after sunset ortowards daybreak, as they go to or return from their nightly visits tothe tanks: but when by accident a herd is disturbed by day, they evince, if unattacked, no disposition to become assailants; and if the attitudeof defence which they instinctively assume prove sufficent to check theapproach of the intruder, no further demonstration is to be apprehended. Even the hunters who go in search of them find them in positions andoccupations altogether inconsistent with the idea of their being savage, wary, or revengeful. Their demeanour when undisturbed is indicative ofgentleness and timidity, and their actions bespeak lassitude andindolence, induced not alone by heat, but probably ascribable in somedegree to the fact that the night has been spent in watchfulness andamusement. A few are generally browsing listlessly on the trees andplants within reach, others fanning themselves with leafy branches, anda few are asleep; whilst the young run playfully among the herd, theemblems of innocence, as the older ones are of peacefulness and gravity. Almost every elephant may be observed to exhibit some peculiar action ofthe limbs when standing at rest; some move the head monotonously in acircle, or from right to left; some swing their feet back and forward;others flap their ears or sway themselves from side to side, or rise andsink by alternately bending and straightening the fore knees. As theopportunities of observing this custom have been almost confined toelephants in captivity, it has been conjectured to arise from somemorbid habit contracted during the length of a voyage by sea[1], or froman instinctive impulse to substitute a motion of this kind in lieu oftheir wonted exercise; but this supposition is erroneous; the propensitybeing equally displayed by those at liberty and those in captivity. Whensurprised by sportsmen in the depths of the jungle, individuals of aherd are always occupied in swinging their limbs in this manner; and inthe several corrals which I have seen, where whole herds have beencaptured, the elephants in the midst of the utmost excitement, and evenafter the most vigorous charges, if they halted for a moment in stuporand exhaustion, manifested their wonted habit, and swung their limbs orswayed their bodies to and fro incessantly. So far from its being asubstitute for exercise, those in the government employment in Ceylonare observed to practise their acquired motion, whatever it may be, withincreased vigour when thoroughly fatigued after excessive work. Even thefavourite practice of fanning themselves with a leafy branch seems lessan enjoyment in itself than a resource when listless and at rest. Theterm "fidgetty" seems to describe appropriately the temperament of theelephant. [Footnote 1: _Menageries_, &c. , "The Elephant, " ch. I. P. 21. ] They evince the strongest love of retirement and a corresponding disliketo intrusion. The approach of a stranger is perceived less by the eye, the quickness of which is not remarkable (besides which its range isobscured by the foliage), than by sensitive smell and singular acutenessof hearing; and the whole herd is put in instant but noiseless motiontowards some deeper and more secure retreat. The effectual manner inwhich an animal of the prodigious size of the elephant can concealhimself, and the motionless silence which he preserves, is quitesurprising; whilst beaters pass and repass within a few yards of hishiding place, he will maintain his ground till the hunter, creepingalmost close to his legs, sees his little eye peering out through theleaves, when, finding himself discovered, the elephant breaks away witha crash, levelling the brushwood in his headlong career. If surprised in open ground, where stealthy retreat is impracticable, aherd will hesitate in indecision, and, after a few meaninglessmovements, stand huddled together in a group, whilst one or two, moreadventurous than the rest, advance a few steps to reconnoitre. Elephantsare generally observed to be bolder in open ground than in cover, but, if bold at all, far more dangerous in cover than in open ground. In searching for them, sportsmen often avail themselves of theexpertness of the native trackers; and notwithstanding the demonstrationof Combe that the brain of the timid Singhalese is deficient in theorgan of destructiveness[1], he shows an instinct for hunting, andexhibits in the pursuit of the elephant a courage and adroitness farsurpassing in interest the mere handling of the rifle, which is theprincipal share of the proceeding that falls to his European companions. [Footnote 1: _System of Phrenology_, by GEO. COMBE, vol. I. P. 256. ] The beater on these occasions has the double task of finding the gameand carrying the guns; and, in an animated communication to me, anexperienced sportsman describes "this light and active creature, withhis long glossy hair hanging down his shoulders, every muscle quiveringwith excitement; and his countenance lighting up with intense animation, leaping from rock to rock, as nimble as a deer, tracking the giganticgame like a blood-hound, falling behind as he comes up with it, and asthe elephants, baffled and irritated, make the first stand, passing onerifle into your eager hand and holding the other ready whilst right andleft each barrel performs its mission, and if fortune does not flag, andthe second gun is as successful as the first, three or four hugecarcases are piled one on another within a space equal to the area of adining room. "[1] [Footnote 1: Private letter from Capt. PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY. ] It is curious that in these encounters the herd never rush forward in abody, as buffaloes or bisons do, but only one elephant at a time movesin advance of the rest to confront, or, as it is called, to "charge, "the assailants. I have heard of but one instance in which _two_ soadvanced as champions of their companions. Sometimes, indeed, the wholeherd will follow a leader, and manoeuvre in his rear like a body ofcavalry; but so large a party are necessarily liable to panic; and, oneof them having turned in alarm, the entire body retreat with terrifiedprecipitation. As regards boldness and courage, a strange variety of temperament isobservable amongst elephants, but it may be affirmed that they are, muchmore generally timid than courageous. One herd may be as difficult toapproach as deer, gliding away through the jungle so gently and quicklythat scarcely a trace marks their passage; another, in apparent stupor, will huddle themselves together like swine, and allow their assailant tocome within a few yards before they break away in terror; and a thirdwill await his approach without motion, and then advance, with fury tothe "charge. " In individuals the same differences are discernible; one flies on thefirst appearance of danger, whilst another, alone and unsupported, willface a whole host of enemies. When wounded and infuriated with pain, many of them become literally savage[1]; but, so unaccustomed are theyto act as assailants, and so awkward and inexpert in using theirstrength, that they rarely or ever exceed in killing a pursuer who fallsinto their power. Although the pressure of a foot, a blow with thetrunk, or a thrust with the tusk, could scarcely fail to prove fatal, three-fourths of those who have fallen into their power have escapedwithout serious injury. So great is this chance of impunity, that thesportsman prefers to approach within about fifteen paces of theadvancing elephant, a space which gives time for a second fire shouldthe first shot prove ineffectual, and should both fail there is stillopportunity for flight. [Footnote 1: Some years ago an elephant which had been wounded by anative, near Hambangtotte, pursued the man into the town, followed himalong the street, trampled him to death in the bazaar before a crowd ofspectators, and succeeded in making good its retreat to the jungle. ] Amongst full-grown timber, a skilful runner can escape from an elephantby "dodging" round the trees, but in cleared land, and low brushwood, the difficulty is much increased, as the small growth of underwood whichobstructs the movements of man presents no obstacle to those of anelephant. On the other hand, on level and open ground the chances arerather in favour of the elephant, as his pace in full flight exceedsthat of man, although as a general rule, it is unequal to that of ahorse, as has been sometimes asserted. [1] [Footnote 1: SHAW, in his _Zoology_, asserts that an elephant can run asswiftly as a horse can gallop. London, 1800-6, vol. I. P. 216. ] The incessant slaughter of elephants by sportsmen in Ceylon, appears tobe merely in subordination to the influence of the organ ofdestructiveness, since the carcase is never applied to any usefulpurpose, but left to decompose and to defile the air of the forest. Theflesh is occasionally tasted as a matter of curiosity: as a steak it iscoarse and tough; but the tongue is as delicate as that of an ox; andthe foot is said to make palatable soup. The Caffres attached to thepioneer corps in the Kandyan province are in the habit of securing theheart of any elephant shot in their vicinity, and say it is their customto eat it in Africa. The hide it has been found impracticable to tan inCeylon, or to convert to any useful purpose, but the bones of those shothave of late years been collected and used for manuring coffee estates. The hair of the tail, which is extremely strong and horny, is mounted bythe native goldsmith, and made into bracelets; and the teeth are sawn bythe Moormen at Galle (as they used to be by the Romans during a scarcityof ivory) into plates, out of which they fashion numerous articles ofornament, knife-handles, card racks, and "presse-papiers. " NOTE. Amongst extraordinary recoveries from desperate wounds, I venture torecord here an instance which occurred in Ceylon to a gentleman whileengaged in the chase of elephants, and which, I apprehend, has fewparallels in pathological experience. Lieutenant GERARD FRETZ, of theCeylon Rifle Regiment, whilst firing at an elephant in the vicinity ofFort MacDonald, in Oovah, was wounded in the face by the bursting of hisfowling-piece, on the 22nd January, 1828. He was then about thirty-twoyears of age. On raising him, it was found that part of the breech ofthe gun and about two inches of the barrel had been driven through thefrontal sinus, at the junction of the nose and forehead. It had sunkalmost perpendicularly till the iron-plate called "the tail-pin, " bywhich the barrel is made fast to the stock by a screw, had descendedthrough the palate, carrying with it the screw, one extremity of whichhad forced itself into the right nostril, where it was discernibleexternally, whilst the headed end lay in contact with his tongue. Toextract the jagged mass of iron thus sunk in the ethmoidal andsphenoidal cells was found hopelessly impracticable; but, strange totell, after the inflammation subsided, Mr. FRETZ recovered rapidly; hisgeneral health was unimpaired, and he returned to his regiment withthis, singular appendage firmly embedded behind the bones of his face. He took his turn of duty as usual, attained the command of his company, participated in all the enjoyments of the mess-room, and died _eightyears afterwards_, on the 1st of April, 1836, not from any consequencesof this fearful wound, but from fever and inflammation brought on byother causes. So little was he apparently inconvenienced by the presence of thestrange body in his palate that he was accustomed with his fingerpartially to undo the screw, which but for its extreme length he mightaltogether have withdrawn. To enable this to be done, and possibly toassist by this means the extraction of the breech itself through theoriginal orifice (which never entirely closed), an attempt was made in1835 to take off a portion of the screw with a file; but, after havingcut it three parts through the operation was interrupted, chiefly owingto the carelessness and indifference of Capt. FRETZ, whose deathoccurred before the attempt could be resumed. The piece of iron, onbeing removed after his decease, was found to measure 2-3/4 inches inlength, and weighed two scruples more than two ounces and threequarters. A cast of the breech and screw now forms No. 2790 amongst thedeposits in the Medical Museum of Chatham. CHAP. V. THE ELEPHANT. * * * * * _An Elephant Corral_. So long as the elephants of Ceylon were merely required in small numbersfor the pageantry of the native princes, or the sacred processions ofthe Buddhist temples, their capture was effected either by theinstrumentality of female decoys, or by the artifices and agility of theindividuals and castes who devoted themselves to their pursuit andtraining. But after the arrival of the European conquerors of theisland, and when it had become expedient to take advantage of thestrength and intelligence of these creatures in clearing forests andmaking roads and other works, establishments were organised on a greatscale by the Portuguese and Dutch, and the supply of elephants kept upby periodical battues conducted at the cost of the government, on a plansimilar to that adopted on the continent of India, when herds varying innumber from twenty to one hundred and upwards are driven into concealedenclosures and secured. In both these processes, success is entirely dependent on the skill withwhich the captors turn to advantage the terror and inexperience of thewild elephant, since all attempts would be futile to subdue or confineby ordinary force an animal of such strength and sagacity. [1] [Footnote 1: The device of taking them by means of pitfalls stillprevails in India: but in addition to the difficulty of providingagainst that caution with which the elephant is supposed to reconnoitresuspicious ground, it has the further disadvantage of exposing him toinjury from bruises and dislocations in his fall. Still it was the modeof capture employed by the Singhalese, and so late as 1750 WOLF relatesthat the native chiefs of the Wanny, when capturing elephants for theDutch, made "pits some fathoms deep in those places whither the elephantis wont to go in search of food, across which were laid poles coveredwith branches and baited with the food of which he is fondest, makingtowards which he finds himself taken unawares. Thereafter being subduedby fright and exhaustion, he was assisted to raise himself to thesurface by means of hurdles and earth, which he placed underfoot as theywere thrown down to him, till he was enabled to step out on solidground, when the noosers and decoys were in readiness to tie him up tothe nearest tree. "--See WOLF'S _Life and Adventures_, p. 152. Shakspeareappears to have been acquainted with the plan of taking elephants inpitfalls: Decius, encouraging the conspirators, reminds them of Cæsar'staste for anecdotes of animals, by which he would undertake to lure himto his fate: "For he loves to hear That unicorns may be betrayed with trees. And bears with glasses; _elephants with holes_. " JULIUS CÆSAR, Act ii. Scene I. ] Knox describes with circumstantiality the mode adopted, two centuriesago, by the servants of the King of Kandy to catch elephants for theroyal stud. He says, "After discovering the retreat of such as havetusks, unto these they drive some _she elephants_, which they bring withthem for the purpose, which, when once the males have got a sight of, they will never leave, but follow them wheresoever they go; and thefemales are so used to it that they will do whatsoever, either by wordor a beck, their keepers bid them. And so they delude them along throughtowns and countries, and through the streets of the city, even to thevery gates of the king's palace, where sometimes they seize upon them bysnares, and sometimes by driving them into a kind of pound, they catchthem. "[1] [Footnote 1: KNOX'S _Historical Relation of Ceylon_, A. D. 1681, part i. Ch. Vi. P. 21. ] In Nepaul and Burmah, and throughout the Chin-Indian Peninsula, when inpursuit of single elephants, either _rogues_ detached from the herd, orindividuals who have been marked for the beauty of their ivory, thenatives avail themselves of the aid of females in order to effect theirapproaches and secure an opportunity of casting a noose over the foot ofthe destined captive. All accounts concur in expressing high admirationof their courage and address; but from what has fallen under my ownobservation, added to the descriptions I have heard from othereye-witnesses, I am inclined to believe that in such exploits theMoormen of Ceylon evince a daring and adroitness, surpassing all others. These professional elephant catchers, or, as they are called, Panickeas, inhabit the Moorish villages in the north and north-east of the island, and from time immemorial have been engaged in taking elephants, whichare afterwards trained by Arabs, chiefly for the use of the rajahs andnative princes in the south of India, whose vakeels are periodicallydespatched to make purchases in Ceylon. The ability evinced by these men in tracing elephants through the woodshas almost the certainty of instinct; and hence their services areeagerly sought by the European sportsmen who go down into their countryin search of game. So keen is their glance, that like hounds running"breast high" they will follow the course of an elephant, almost at thetop of their speed, over glades covered with stunted grass, where theeye of a stranger would fail to discover a trace of its passage, and onthrough forests strewn with dry leaves, where it seems impossible toperceive a footstep. Here they are guided by a bent or broken twig, orby a leaf dropped from the animal's mouth, on which the pressure of atooth may be detected. If at fault, they fetch a circuit like a setter, till lighting on some fresh marks, they go a-head again with renewedvigour. So delicate is the sense of smell in the elephant, and soindispensable is it to go against the wind in approaching him, that onthose occasions when the wind is so still that its direction cannot beotherwise discerned, the Panickeas will suspend the film of a gossamerto determine it and shape their course accordingly. They are enabled by the inspection of the footmarks, when impressed insoft clay, to describe the size as well as the number of a herd beforeit is seen; the height of an elephant at the shoulder being as nearly aspossible twice the circumference of his fore foot. [1] On overtaking the game their courage is as conspicuous as theirsagacity. If they have confidence in the sportsman for whom they arefinding, they will advance to the very heel of the elephant, slap him onthe quarter, and convert his timidity into anger, till he turns upon histormentor and exposes his front to receive the bullet which is awaitinghim. [2] [Footnote 1: Previous to the death of the female elephant in theZoological Gardens, in the Regent's Park, in 1851, Mr. MITCHELL, theSecretary, caused measurements to be accurately made, and found thestatement of the Singhalese hunters to be strictly correct, the heightat the shoulders being precisely twice the circumference of the forefoot. ] [Footnote 2: Major SKINNER, the Chief Officer at the head of theCommission of Roads, in Ceylon, in writing to me, mentions an anecdoteillustrative of the daring of the Panickeas. "I once saw, " he says, "avery beautiful example of the confidence with which these fellows, fromtheir knowledge of the elephants, meet their worst defiance. It was inNeuera-Kalawa; I was bivouacking on the bank of a river, and had beenkept out so late that I did not get to my tent until between 9 and 10 atnight. On our return towards it we passed several single elephantsmaking their way to the nearest water, but at length we came upon alarge herd that had taken possession of the only road by which we couldpass, and which no intimidation would induce to move off. I had somePanickeas with me; they knew the herd, and counselled extreme caution. After trying every device we could think of for a length of time, alittle old Moorman of the party came to me and requested we should allretire to a distance. He then took a couple of chules (flambeaux ofdried wood, or coco-nut leaves), one in each hand, and waving them abovehis head till they flamed out fiercely, he advanced at a deliberate paceto within a few yards of the elephant who was acting as leader of theparty, and who was growling and trumpeting in his rage, and flourishedthe flaming torches in his face. The effect was instantaneous: the wholeherd dashed away in a panic, bellowing, screaming, and crushing throughthe underwood, whilst we availed ourselves of the open path to make ourway to our tents. "] So fearless and confident are they that two men, without aid orattendants, will boldly attempt to capture the largest-sized elephant. Their only weapon is a flexible rope made of elk's or buffalo's hide, with which it is their object to secure one of the hind legs. This theyeffect either by following in its footsteps when in motion or bystealing close up to it when at rest, and availing themselves of itswell-known propensity at such moments to swing the feet backwards andforwards, they contrive to slip a noose over the hind leg. At other times this is achieved by spreading the noose on the groundpartially concealed by roots and leaves beneath a tree on which one ofthe party is stationed, whose business it is to lift it suddenly bymeans of a cord, raising it on the elephant's leg at the moment when hiscompanion has succeeded in provoking him to place his foot within thecircle, the other end having been previously made fast to the stem ofthe tree. Should the noosing be effected in open ground, and no tree ofsufficient strength at hand round which to wind the rope, one of theMoors, allowing himself to be pursued by the enraged elephant, enticeshim towards the nearest grove; where his companion, dexterously layinghold of the rope as it trails along the ground, suddenly coils it rounda suitable stem, and brings the fugitive to a stand still. On findinghimself thus arrested, the natural impulse of the captive is to turn onthe man who is engaged in making fast the rope, a movement which it isthe duty of his colleague to present by running up close to theelephant's head and provoking the animal to confront him by irritatinggesticulations and taunting shouts of _dah! dah!_ a monosyllable, thesound of which the elephant peculiarly dislikes. Meanwhile the firstassailant, having secured one noose, comes up from behind with another, with which, amidst the vain rage and struggles of the victim, he entrapsa fore leg, the rope being, as before, secured to another tree in front, and the whole four feet having been thus entangled, the capture iscompleted. A shelter is then run up with branches, to protect their prisoner fromthe sun, and the hunters proceed to build a wigwam for themselves infront of him, kindling their fires for cooking, and making all thenecessary arrangements for remaining day and night on the spot to awaitthe process of subduing and taming his rage. In my journeys through theforest I have come unexpectedly on the halting place of adventuroushunters when thus engaged; and on one occasion, about sunrise, inascending the steep ridge from the bed of the Malwatte river, theforemost rider of our party was suddenly driven back by a furiouselephant, which we found picketed by two Panickeas on the crest of thebank. In such a position, the elephant soon ceases to struggle; and whatwith the exhaustion of rage and resistance, the terror of fire which hedreads, and the constant annoyance of smoke which he detests, in a veryshort time, a few weeks at the most, his spirit becomes subdued; andbeing plentifully supplied with plantains and fresh food, and indulgedwith water, in which he luxuriates, he grows so far reconciled to hiskeepers that they at length venture to remove him to their own village, or to the sea-side for shipment to India. No part of the hunter's performances exhibits greater skill and audacitythan this first forced march of the recently captured elephant from thegreat central forests to the sea-coast. As he is still too morose tosubmit to be ridden, and as it would be equally impossible to lead or todrive him by force, the ingenuity of the captors is displayed inalternately irritating and eluding him, but always so attracting hisattention as to allure him along in the direction in which they want himto go. Some assistance is derived from the rope by which the originalcapture was effected, and which, as it serves to make him safe at night, is never removed from the leg till his taming is sufficiently advancedto permit of his being entrusted with partial liberty. In Ceylon the principal place for exporting these animals to India isManaar, on the western coast, to which the Arabs from the continentresort, bringing with them horses to be bartered for elephants. In orderto reach the sea, open plains must be traversed, across which itrequires the utmost courage, agility, and patience of the Moors to coaxtheir reluctant charge. At Manaar the elephants are usually detainedtill any wound on the leg caused by the rope has been healed, when theshipment is effected in the most primitive manner. It being next toimpossible to induce the still untamed creature to walk on board, and nomechanical contrivances being provided to ship him; a dhoney, or nativeboat, of about forty tons' burthen, and about three parts filled withthe strong ribbed leaves of the Palmyra palm, is brought alongside thequay in front of the Old Dutch Fort, and lashed so that the gunwale maybe as nearly as possible on a line with the level of the wharf. Theelephant being placed with his back to the water is forced by goads toretreat till his hind legs go over the side of the quay, but the maincontest commences when it is attempted to disengage his fore feet fromthe shore, and force him to entrust himself on board. The scene becomesexciting from the screams and trumpeting of the elephants, the shouts ofthe Arabs, the calls of the Moors, and the rushing of the crowd. Meanwhile the huge creature strains every nerve to regain the land; andthe day is often consumed before his efforts are overcome, and he findshimself fairly afloat. The same dhoney will take from four to fiveelephants, who place themselves athwart it, and exhibit amusingadroitness in accommodating their movements to the rolling of the littlevessel; and in this way they are ferried across the narrow strait whichseparates the continent of India from Ceylon. [1] [Footnote 1: In the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1701, there is "AnAccount of the taking of Elephants in Ceylon, by Mr. STRACHAN, aPhysician who lived seventeen years there, " in which the authordescribes the manner in which they were shipped by the Dutch, at Matura, Galle, and Negombo. A piece of strong sail-cloth having been wrappedround the elephant's chest and stomach, he was forced into the seabetween two tame ones, and there made fast to a boat. The tame ones thenreturned to land, and he swam after the boat to the ship, where tacklewas reeved to the sail-cloth, and he was hoisted on board. "But a better way has been invented lately, " says Mr. Strachan; "a largeflat-bottomed vessel is prepared, covered with planks like a floor; sothat this floor is almost of a height with the key. Then the sides ofthe key and the vessel are adorned with green branches, so that theelephant sees no water till he is in the ship. "--_Phil. Trans. _, vol. Xxiii. No. 227, p. 1051. ] But the feat of ensnaring and subduing a single elephant, courageous asit is, and demonstrative of the supremacy with which man wields his"dominion over every beast of the earth, " falls far short of the daringexploit of capturing a whole herd: when from thirty to one hundred wildelephants are entrapped in one vast decoy. The mode of effecting this, as it is practised in Ceylon, is no doubt imitated, but withconsiderable modifications, from the methods prevalent in various partsof India. It was introduced by the Portuguese, and continued by theDutch, the latter of whom had two elephant hunts in each year, andconducted their operations on so large a scale, that the annual exportafter supplying the government establishments, was from one hundred toone hundred and fifty elephants, taken principally in the vicinity ofMatura, in the southern province, and marched for shipment to Manaar. [1] [Footnote 1: VALENTYN. _Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien_, ch. Xv. P. 272. ] The custom in Bengal is to construct a strong enclosure (called a_keddah_), in the heart of the forest, formed of the trunks of treesfirmly secured by transverse beams and buttresses, and leaving the gatefor the entrance of the elephants. A second enclosure, opening from thefirst, contains water (if possible a rivulet): this, again, communicateswith a third, which terminates in a funnel-shaped passage, too narrow toadmit of an elephant turning, and within this the captives being drivenin line, are secured with ropes introduced from the outside, and ledaway in custody of tame ones trained for the purpose. The _keddah_ being prepared, the first operation is to drive theelephants towards it, for which purpose vast bodies of men fetch acompass in the forest around the haunts of the herds, contracting it bydegrees, till they complete the enclosure of a certain area, round whichthey kindle fires, and cut footpaths through the jungle, to enable thewatchers to communicate and combine. All this is performed in cautioussilence and by slow approaches, to avoid alarming the herd. A freshcircle nearer to the _keddah_ is then formed in the same way, and intothis the elephants are admitted from the first one, the huntersfollowing from behind, and lighting new fires around the newly inclosedspace. Day after day the process is repeated; till the drove having beenbrought sufficiently close to make the final rush, the whole party closein from all sides, and with drums, guns, shouts, and flambeaux, forcethe terrified animals to enter the fatal enclosure, when the passage isbarred behind them, and retreat rendered impossible. Their efforts to escape are repressed by the crowd, who drive them backfrom the stockade with spears and flaming torches; and at last compelthem to pass on into the second enclosure. Here they are detained for ashort time, and their feverish exhaustion relieved by free access towater;--until at last, being tempted by food, or otherwise induced totrust themselves in the narrow outlet, they are one after another madefast by ropes, passed in through the palisade; and picketed in theadjoining woods to enter on their course of systematic training. These arrangements vary in different districts of Bengal; and the methodadopted in Ceylon differs in many essential particulars from them all;the Keddah, or, as it is here called, the corral or _korahl_[1] (fromthe Portuguese _curral_, a "cattle-pen"), consists of but one enclosureinstead of three. A stream or watering-place is not uniformly enclosedwithin it, because, although water is indispensable after the longthirst and exhaustion of the captives, it has been found that a pond orrivulet within the corral itself adds to the difficulty of leading themout, and increases their reluctance to leave it; besides which, thesmaller ones are often smothered by the others in their eagerness tocrowd into the water. The funnel-shaped outlet is also dispensed with, as the animals are liable to bruise and injure themselves within thenarrow stockade; and should one of them die in it, as is too often thecase in the midst of the struggle, the difficulty of removing so great acarcase is extreme. The noosing and securing them, therefore, takesplace in Ceylon within the area of the first enclosure into which theyenter, and the dexterity and daring displayed in this portion of thework far surpasses that of merely attaching the rope through theopenings of the paling, as in an Indian keddah. [Footnote 1: It is thus spelled by WOLF, in his _Life and Adventures_, p. 144. _Corral_ is at the present day a household word in SouthAmerica, and especially in La Plata, to designate an _enclosure forcattle_. ] One result of this change in the system is manifested in the increasedproportion of healthy elephants which are eventually secured and trainedout of the number originally enclosed. The reason of this is obvious:under the old arrangements, months were consumed in the preparatorysteps of surrounding and driving in the herds, which at last arrived sowasted by excitement and exhausted by privation that numbers died withinthe corral itself, and still more died during the process of training. But in later years the labour of months is reduced to weeks, and theelephants are driven in fresh and full of vigour, so that comparativelyfew are lost either in the enclosure or the stables. A conception of thewhole operation from commencement to end will be best conveyed bydescribing the progress of an elephant corral as I witnessed it in 1847in the great forest on the banks of the Alligator River, the Kimbul-oya, in the district of Kornegalle, about thirty miles north-west of Kandy. Kornegalle, or Kurunai-galle, was one of the ancient capitals of theisland, and the residence of its kings from A. D. 1319 to 1347. [1] Thedwelling-house of the principal civil officer in charge of the districtnow occupies the site of the former palace, and the ground is strewnwith fragments of columns and carved stones, the remnants of the royalbuildings. The modern town consists of the bungalows of the Europeanofficials, each surrounded with its own garden; two or three streetsinhabited by Dutch descendants and by Moors; and a native bazaar, withthe ordinary array of rice and curry stuffs and cooking chattees ofbrass or burnt clay. [Footnote 1: See SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT'S _Ceylon_, Vol. I. Pt. III. Ch. Xii. P. 415. ] The charm of the village is the unusual beauty of its position. It restswithin the shade of an enormous rock of gneiss upwards of 600 feet inheight, nearly denuded of verdure, and so rounded and worn by time thatit has acquired the form of a couchant elephant, from which it derivesits name of Ætagalla, the Rock of the Tusker. [1] But Ætagalla is onlythe last eminence in a range of similarly-formed rocky mountains, whichhere terminate abruptly; and, which from the fantastic shapes into whichtheir gigantic outlines have been wrought by the action of theatmosphere, are called by the names of the Tortoise Rock, the Eel Rock, and the Rock of the Tusked Elephant. So impressed are the Singhalese bythe aspect of these stupendous masses that in ancient grants lands areconveyed in perpetuity, or "so long as the sun and the moon, so long asÆtagalla and Andagalla shall endure. "[2] [Footnote 1: Another enormous mass of gneiss is called theKuruminiagalla, or the Beetle-rock, from its resemblance in shape to theback of that insect, and hence is said to have been derived the name ofthe town, _Kuruna-galle_ or Kornegalle. ] [Footnote 2: FORBES quotes a Tamil conveyance of land, the purchaser ofwhich is to "possess and enjoy it as long as the sun and the moon, theearth and its vegetables, the mountains and the River Cauveryexist. "--_Oriental Memoirs_, vol. Ii. Chap. Ii. It will not fail to beobserved, that the same figure was employed in Hebrew literature as atype of duration--" They shall fear thee, _so long as the sun and moonendure_; throughout all generations. "--Psalm lxxii. 5, 17. ] Kornegalle is the resort of Buddhists from the remotest parts of theisland, who come to visit an ancient temple on the summit of the greatrock, to which access is had from the valley below by means of steeppaths and steps hewn out of the solid stone. Here the chief object ofveneration is a copy of the sacred footstep hollowed in the granite, similar to that which confers sanctity on Adam's Peak, the towering apexof which, about forty miles distant, the pilgrims can discern fromÆtagalla. At times the heat at Kornegalle is intense, in consequence of theperpetual glow diffused from these granite cliffs. The warmth theyacquire during the blaze of noon becomes almost intolerable towardsevening, and the sultry night is too short to permit them to coolbetween the setting and the rising of the sun. The district is alsoliable to occasional droughts when the watercourses fail, and the tanksare dried up. One of these calamities occurred about the period of myvisit, and such was the suffering of the wild animals that numbers ofcrocodiles and bears made their way into the town to drink at the wells. The soil is prolific in the extreme; rice, cotton, and dry grain arecultivated largely in the valley. Every cottage is surrounded by gardensof coco-nuts, arecas, jak-fruit and coffee; the slopes, under tillage, are covered with luxuriant vegetation, and, as far as the eye can reachon every side, there are dense forests intersected by streams, in theshade of which the deer and the elephant abound. In 1847 arrangements were made for one of the great elephant hunts forthe supply of the Civil Engineer's Department, and the spot fixed on byMr. Morris, the Government officer who conducted the corral, was on thebanks of the Kimbul river, about fifteen miles from Kornegalle. Thecountry over which we rode to the scene of the approaching captureshowed traces of the recent drought, the fields lay to a great extentuntilled, owing to the want of water, and the tanks, almost reduced todryness, were covered with the leaves of the rose-coloured lotus. Our cavalcade was as oriental as the scenery through which it moved; theGovernor and the officers of his staff and household formed a longcortege, escorted by the native attendants, horse-keepers, andfoot-runners. The ladies were borne in palankins, and the youngerindividuals of the party carried in chairs raised on poles, and coveredwith cool green awnings made of the fresh leaves of the talipat palm. After traversing the cultivated lands, the path led across open gladesof park-like verdure and beauty, and at last entered the great-forestunder the shade of ancient trees wreathed to their crowns with climbingplants and festooned by natural garlands of convolvulus and orchids. Here silence reigned, disturbed only by the murmuring hum of glitteringinsects, or the shrill clamour of the plum-headed parroquet and theflute-like calls of the golden oriole. We crossed the broad sandy beds of two rivers over-arched by tall trees, the most conspicuous of which is the Kombook[1], from the calcined barkof which the natives extract a species of lime to be used with theirbetel. And from the branches hung suspended over the water the giganticpods of the huge puswæl bean[2], the sheath of which measures six feetlong by five or six inches broad. [Footnote 1: _Pentaptera paniculata_. ] [Footnote 2: _Entada pursætha_. ] On ascending the steep bank of the second stream, we found ourselves infront of the residences which had been extemporised for our party in theimmediate vicinity of the corral. These cool and enjoyable structureswere formed of branches and thatched with palm leaves and fragrant lemongrass; and in addition to a dining-room and suites of bedrooms fittedwith tent furniture, they included kitchens, stables, and storerooms, all run up by the natives in the course of a few days. In former times, the work connected with these elephant hunts wasperformed by the "forced labour" of the natives, as part of that feudalservice which under the name of Raja-kariya was extorted from theSinghalese during the rule of their native sovereigns. This system wascontinued by the Portuguese and Dutch, and prevailed under the BritishGovernment till its abolition by the Earl of Ripon in 1832. Under itfrom fifteen hundred to two thousand men superintended by their headmen, used to be occupied, in constructing the corral, collecting theelephants, maintaining the cordon of watch-fires and watchers, andconducting all the laborious operations of the capture. Since theabolition of Raja-kariya, however, no difficulty has been found inobtaining the voluntary co-operation of the natives on these excitingoccasions. The government defrays the expense of that portion of thepreparations which involves actual cost, --for the skilled labourexpended in the erection of the corral and its appurtenances, and theproviding of spears, ropes, arms, flutes, drums, gunpowder, and othernecessaries for the occasion. The period of the year selected is that which least interferes with thecultivation of the rice-lands (in the interval between seed time andharvest), and the people themselves, in addition to the excitement andenjoyment of the sport, have a personal interest in reducing the numberof elephants, which inflict serious injury on their gardens and growingcrops. For a similar reason the priests encourage the practice, becausethe elephants destroy their sacred Bo-trees, of the leaves of which theyare passionately fond; besides which it promotes the facility forobtaining elephants for the processions of the temples: and theRata-mahat-mayas and headmen have a pride in exhibiting the number ofretainers who follow them to the field, and the performances of the tameelephants which they lend for the business of the corral. Thus vastnumbers of the peasantry are voluntarily occupied for many weeks inputting up the stockades, cutting paths through the jungle, andrelieving the beaters who are engaged in surrounding and driving in theelephants. In selecting the scene for the hunt a position is chosen which lies onsome old and frequented route of the animals, in their periodicalmigrations in search of forage and water; and the vicinity of a streamis indispensable, not only for the supply of the elephants during thetime spent in inducing them to approach the enclosure, but to enablethem to bathe and cool themselves throughout the process of trainingafter capture. [Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF A CORRAL, AND METHOD OF FENCING IT. ] In constructing the corral itself, care is taken to avoid disturbing thetrees or the brushwood within the included space, and especially on theside by which the elephants are to approach, where it is essential toconceal the stockade as much as possible by the density of the foliage. The trees used in the structure are from ten to twelve inches indiameter; and are sunk about three feet in the earth, so as to leave alength of from twelve to fifteen feet above ground; with spaces betweeneach stanchion sufficiently wide to permit a man to glide through. Theuprights are made fast by transverse beams, to which they are lashedsecurely by ratans and flexible climbing plants, or as they are called"jungle ropes, " and the whole is steadied by means of forked supports, which grasp the tie beams, and prevent the work from being drivenoutward by the rush of the wild elephants. On the occasion I am now attempting to describe, the space thus enclosedwas about 500 feet in length by 250 wide. At one end an entrance wasleft open, fitted with sliding bars, so prepared as to be capable ofbeing instantly shut;--and from each angle of the end by which theelephants were to approach, two lines of the same strong fencing werecontinued, and cautiously concealed by the trees; so that if, instead ofentering by the open passage, the herd should swerve to right, or left, they would find themselves suddenly stopped and forced to retrace theircourse to the gate. The preparations were completed by placing a stage for the Governor'sparty on a group of the nearest trees looking down into the enclosure, so that a view could be had of the entire proceeding, from the entranceof the herd, to the leading out of the captive elephants. It is hardly necessary to observe that the structure here described, massive as it is, would be entirely ineffectual to resist the shock, ifassaulted by the full force of an enraged elephant; and accidents havesometimes happened by the breaking through of the herd; but reliance isplaced not so much on the resistance of the stockade as on the timidityof the captives and their unconsciousness of their own strength, coupledwith the daring of their captors and their devices for ensuringsubmission. The corral being prepared, the beaters address themselves to drive inthe elephants. For this purpose it is often necessary to fetch a circuitof many miles in order to surround a sufficient number, and the cautionto be observed involves patience and delay; as it is essential to avoidalarming the elephants, which might otherwise escape. Their dispositionbeing essentially peaceful, and their only impulse to browse in solitudeand security, they withdraw instinctively before the slightestintrusion, and advantage is taken of this timidity and love of seclusionto cause only just such an amount of disturbance as will induce them toreturn slowly in the direction which it is desired they should take. Several herds are by this means concentrated within such an area as willadmit of their being completely surrounded by the watchers; and dayafter day, by degrees, they are moved gradually onwards to the immediateconfines of the corral. When their suspicions become awakened and theyexhibit restlessness and alarm, bolder measures are adopted forpreventing their escape. Fires are kept burning at ten paces apart, night and day, along the circumference of the area within which they aredetained; a corps of from two to three thousand beaters is completed, and pathways are carefully cleared through the jungle so as to keep opena communication along the entire circuit. The headmen keep up a constantpatrol, to see that their followers are alert at their posts, sinceneglect at any one spot might permit the escape of the herd, and undo ina moment the vigilance of weeks. By this means any attempt of theelephants to break away is generally checked, and on any pointthreatened a sufficient force can be promptly assembled to drive themback. At last the elephants are forced onwards so close to theenclosure, that the investing cordon is united at either end with thewings of the corral, the whole forming a circle of about two miles, within the area of which the herd is detained to await the signal forthe final drive. Two months had been spent in these preliminaries, and the preparationshad been thus far completed, on the day when we arrived and took ourplaces on the stage erected for us, overlooking the entrance to thecorral. Close beneath us a group of tame elephants sent by the templesand the chiefs to assist in securing the wild ones, were picketed in theshade, and lazily fanning themselves with leaves. Three distinct herds, whose united numbers were variously represented at from forty to fiftyelephants, were enclosed, and were at that moment concealed in thejungle within a short distance of the stockade. Not a sound waspermitted to be made, each person spoke to his neighbour in whispers, and such was the silence observed by the multitude of the watchers attheir posts, that occasionally we could hear the rustling of thebranches as some of the elephants stripped off a leaf. Suddenly the signal was made, and the stillness of the forest was brokenby the shouts of the guard, the rolling of the drums and tom-toms, andthe discharge of muskets; and beginning at the most distant side of thearea, the elephants were urged forward at a rapid pace towards theentrance into the corral. The watchers along the line kept silence only till the herd had passedthem, and then joining the cry in their rear they drove them onward withredoubled shouts and noises. The tumult increased as the terrified routdrew near, swelling now on one side now on the other, as the herd intheir panic dashed from point to point in their endeavours to force theline, but they were instantly driven back by screams, muskets, anddrums. At length the breaking of the branches and the crackling of thebrushwood announced their close approach, and the leader bursting fromthe jungle rushed wildly forward to within twenty yards of the entrancefollowed by the rest of the herd. Another moment and they would haveplunged into the open gate, when suddenly they wheeled round, re-enteredthe forest, and in spite of the hunters resumed their original position. The chief headman came forward and accounted for the freak by sayingthat a wild pig[1], an animal which the elephants are said to dislike, had started out of the cover and run across the leader, who wouldotherwise have held on direct for the corral; and intimated that as theherd was now in the highest pitch of excitement: and it was at all timesmuch more difficult to effect a successful capture by daylight than bynight when the fires and flambeaux act with double effect, it was thewish of the hunters to defer their final effort till the evening, whenthe darkness would greatly aid their exertions. [Footnote 1: Fire, the sound of a horn, and the grunting of a boar arethe three things which the Greeks, in the middle ages, believed theelephant specially to dislike: [Greek: Pyr de ptoeitai kai krion kerasphoron, Kai tôn moniôn tên boên tên athroan. ] --PHILE, _Expositio de Elephante_, 1. 177. ] After sunset the scene exhibited was of extraordinary interest; the lowfires, which had apparently only smouldered in the sunlight, assumedtheir ruddy glow amidst the darkness, and threw their tinge over thegroups collected round them; while the smoke rose in eddies through therich foliage of the trees. The crowds of spectators maintained aprofound silence, and not a sound was perceptible beyond the hum of aninsect. On a sudden the stillness was broken by the distant roll of adrum, followed by a discharge of musketry. This was the signal for therenewed assault, and the hunters entered the circle with shouts andclamour; dry leaves and sticks were flung upon the watch-fires till theyblazed aloft, and formed a line of flame on every side, except in thedirection of the corral, which was studiously kept dark; and thither theterrified elephants betook themselves, followed by the yells and racketof their pursuers. The elephants approached at a rapid pace, trampling down the brushwoodand crushing the dry branches; the leader emerged in front of thecorral, paused for an instant, stared wildly round, and then rushedheadlong through the open gate, followed by the rest of the herd. Instantly, as if by magic, the entire circuit of the corral, which up tothis moment had been kept in profound darkness, blazed with thousands oflights, every hunter on the instant that the elephants entered, rushingforward to the stockade with a torch kindled at the nearest watch-fire. The elephants first dashed to the very extremity of the enclosure, andbeing brought up by the fence, retreated to regain the gate, but foundit closed. Their terror was sublime: they hurried round the corral at arapid pace, but saw it now girt by fire on every side; they attempted toforce the stockade, but were driven back by the guards with spears andflambeaux; and on whichever side they approached they were repulsed withshouts and volleys of musketry. Collecting into one group, they wouldpause for a moment in apparent bewilderment, then burst off in anotherdirection, as if it had suddenly occurred to them to try some pointwhich they had before overlooked; but again baffled, they slowlyreturned to their forlorn resting-place in the centre of the corral. The attraction of this strange scene was not confined to the spectators;it extended to the tame elephants which were stationed outside. At thefirst approach of the flying herd they evinced the utmost interest. Twoin particular which were picketed near the front were intensely excited, and continued tossing their heads, pawing the ground, and starting asthe noise drew near. At length, when the grand rush into the corral tookplace, one of them fairly burst from her fastenings and rushed towardsthe herd, levelling a tree of considerable size which obstructed herpassage. [1] [Footnote 1: The other elephant, a fine tusker, which belonged toDehigam Ratamahatmeya, continued in extreme excitement throughout allthe subsequent operations of the capture, and at last, after attemptingto break its way into the corral, shaking the bars with its forehead andtusks, it went off in a state of frenzy into the jungle. A few daysafter the Aratchy went in search of it with a female decoy, and watchingits approach, sprang fairly on the infuriated beast, with a pair ofsharp hooks in his hands, which he pressed into tender parts in front ofthe shoulder, and thus held the elephant firmly till chains were passedover its legs, and it permitted itself to be led quietly away. ] For upwards of an hour the elephants continued to traverse the corraland assail the palisade with unabated energy, trumpeting and screamingwith rage after each disappointment. Again and again they attempted toforce the gate, as if aware, by experience, that it ought to afford anexit as it had already served as an entrance, but they shrank backstunned and bewildered. By degrees their efforts became less and lessfrequent. Single ones rushed excitedly here and there, returningsullenly to their companions after each effort; and at last the wholeherd, stupified and exhausted, formed themselves into a single group, drawn up in a circle with the young in the centre, and stood motionlessunder the dark shade of the trees in the middle of the corral. Preparations were now made to keep watch during the night, the guard wasreinforced around the enclosure, and wood heaped on the fires to keep upa high flame till sunrise. Three herds had been originally entrapped by the beaters outside; butwith characteristic instinct they had each kept clear of the other, taking up different stations in the space invested by the watchers. Whenthe final drive took place one herd only had entered the enclosure, theother two keeping behind; and as the gate had to be instantly shut onthe first division, the last were unavoidably excluded and remainedconcealed in the jungle. To prevent their escape, the watchers wereordered to their former stations, the fires were replenished; and allprecautions having been taken, we returned to pass the night in ourbungalows by the river. CHAP. VI. THE ELEPHANT. * * * * * _The Captives. _ As our sleeping-place was not above two hundred yards from the corral, we were frequently awakened by the din of the multitude who werebivouacking in the forest, by the merriment round the watch-fires, andnow and then by the shouts with which the guards repulsed some suddencharge of the elephants in attempts to force the stockade. But atdaybreak, on going down to the corral, we found all still and vigilant. The fires were allowed to die out as the sun rose, and the watchers whohad been relieved were sleeping near the great fence, the enclosure onall sides being surrounded by crowds of men and boys with spears orwhite peeled wands about ten feet long, whilst the elephants within werehuddled together in a compact group, no longer turbulent and restless, but exhausted and calm, and utterly subdued by apprehension andamazement at all that had been passing around them. Nine only had been as yet entrapped[1], of which three were very large, and two were little creatures but a few months old. One of the largeones was a "rogue" and being unassociated with the rest of the herd, hewas not admitted to their circle, although permitted to stand near them. [Footnote 1: In some of the elephant hunts conducted in the southernprovinces of Ceylon by the earlier British Governors, as many as 170 and200 elephants were secured in a single corral, of which a portion onlywere taken out for the public service, and the rest shot, the motivebeing to rid the neighbourhood of them, and thus protect the crops fromdestruction. In the present instance, the object being to secure only asmany as were required for the Government stud, it was not sought toentrap more than could conveniently be attended to and trained aftercapture. ] Meanwhile, preparations were making outside to conduct the tameelephants into the corral, in order to secure the captives. Noosed ropeswere in readiness; and far apart from all stood a party of the out-casteRodiyas, the only tribe who will touch a dead carcase, to whom, therefore, the duty is assigned of preparing the fine flexible rope fornoosing, which is made from the fresh hides of the deer and the buffalo. At length, the bars which secured the entrance to the corral werecautiously withdrawn, and two trained elephants passed stealthily in, each ridden by its mahout (or _ponnekella_, as the keeper is termed inCeylon), and one attendant; and, carrying a strong collar, formed bycoils of rope made from coco-nut fibre, from which hung on either sidecords of elk's hide, prepared with a ready noose. Along with these, andconcealed behind them, the headman of the "_cooroowe_, " or noosers, crept in, eager to secure the honour of taking the first elephant, adistinction which this class jealously contests with the mahouts of thechiefs and temples. He was a wiry little man, nearly seventy years old, who had served in the same capacity under the Kandyan king, and wore twosilver bangles, which had been conferred on him in testimony of hisprowess. He was accompanied by his son, named Ranghanie, equallyrenowned for his courage and dexterity. On this occasion ten tame elephants were in attendance; two were theproperty of an adjoining temple (one of which had been caught but theyear before, yet it was now ready to assist in capturing others), fourbelonged to the neighbouring chiefs, and the rest, including the twowhich first entered the corral, were part of the Government stud. Of thelatter, one was of prodigious age, having been in the service of theDutch and English Governments in succession for upwards of a century. [1]The other, called by her keeper "Siribeddi, " was about fifty years old, and distinguished for gentleness and docility. She was a mostaccomplished decoy, and evinced the utmost relish for the sport. Havingentered the corral noiselessly, carrying a mahout on her shoulders withthe headman of the noosers seated behind him, she moved slowly alongwith a sly composure and an assumed air of easy indifference; saunteringleisurely in the direction of the captives, and halting now and then topluck a bunch of grass or a few leaves as she passed. As she approachedthe herd, they put themselves in motion to meet her, and the leader, having advanced in front and passed his trunk gently over her head, turned and paced slowly back to his dejected companions. Siribeddifollowed with the same listless step, and drew herself up close behindhim, thus affording the nooser an opportunity to stoop under her andslip the noose over the hind foot of the wild one. The latter instantlyperceived his danger, shook off the rope, and turned to attack the man. He would have suffered for his temerity had not Siribeddi protected himby raising her trunk and driving the assailant into the midst of theherd, when the old man, being slightly wounded, was helped out of thecorral, and his son, Ranghanie, took his place. [Footnote 1: This elephant is since dead; she grew infirm and diseased, and died at Colombo in 1848. Her skeleton is now in the Museum of theNatural History Society at Belfast. ] The herd again collected in a circle, with their heads towards thecentre. The largest male was singled out, and two tame ones pushedboldly in, one on either side of him, till the three stood nearlyabreast. He made no resistance, but betrayed his uneasiness by shiftingrestlessly from foot to foot. Ranghanie now crept up, and, holding therope open with both hands (its other extremity being made fast toSiribeddi's collar), and watching the instant when the wild elephantlifted its hind-foot, succeeded in passing the noose over its leg, drewit close, and fled to the rear. The two tame elephants instantly fellback, Siribeddi stretched the rope to its full length, and, whilst shedragged out the captive, her companion placed himself between her andthe herd to prevent any interference. In order to tie him to a tree he had to be drawn backwards some twentyor thirty yards, making furious resistance, bellowing in terror, plunging on all sides, and crushing the smaller timber, which bent likereeds beneath his clumsy struggles. Siribeddi drew him steadily afterher, and wound the rope round the proper tree, holding it all the timeat its full tension, and stepping cautiously across it when, in order togive it a second turn, it was necessary to pass between the tree and theelephant. With a coil round the stem, however, it was beyond herstrength to haul the prisoner close up, which was, nevertheless, necessary in order to make him perfectly fast; but the second tame one, perceiving the difficulty, returned from the herd, confronted thestruggling prisoner, pushed him shoulder to shoulder, and head to head, forcing him backwards, whilst at every step Siribeddi hauled in theslackened rope till she brought him fairly up to the foot of the tree, where he was made fast by the cooroowe people. A second noose was thenpassed over the other hind-leg, and secured like the first, both legsbeing afterwards hobbled together by ropes made from the fibre of thekitool or jaggery palm, which, being more flexible than that of thecoco-nut, occasions less formidable ulcerations. The two decoys thenranged themselves, as before, abreast of the prisoner on either side, thus enabling Ranghanie to stoop under them and noose the two fore-feetas he had already done the hind; and these ropes being made fast to atree in front, the capture was complete, and the tame elephants andkeepers withdrew to repeat the operation on another of the herd. [Illustration] [Illustration] As long as the tame ones stood beside him the poor animal remainedcomparatively calm and almost passive under his distress, but the momentthey moved off, and he was left utterly alone, he made the mostsurprising efforts to set himself free and rejoin his companions. Hefelt the ropes with his trunk and tried to untie the numerous knots; hedrew backwards to liberate his fore-legs, then leaned forward toextricate the hind ones, till every branch of the tall tree vibratedwith his struggles. He screamed in anguish, with his proboscis raisedhigh in the air, then falling on his side he laid his head to theground, first his cheek and then his brow, and pressed down hisdoubled-in trunk as though he would force it into the earth; thensuddenly rising he balanced himself on his forehead and forelegs, holding his hind-feet fairly off the ground. This scene of distresscontinued some hours, with occasional pauses of apparent stupor, afterwhich the struggle was from time to time renewed convulsively, and as ifby some sudden impulse; but at last the vain strife subsided, and thepoor animal remained perfectly motionless, the image of exhaustion anddespair. Meanwhile Ranghanie presented himself in front of the governor's stageto claim the accustomed largesse for tying the first elephant. He wasrewarded by a shower of rupees, and retired to resume his perilousduties in the corral. The rest of the herd were now in a state of pitiable dejection, andpressed closely together as if under a sense of common misfortune. Forthe most part they stood at rest in a compact body, fretful and uneasy. At intervals one more impatient than the rest would move out a few stepsto reconnoitre; the others would follow at first slowly, then at aquicker pace, and at last the whole herd would rush off furiously torenew the often-baffled attempt to storm the stockade. There was a strange combination of the sublime and the ridiculous inthese abortive onsets; the appearance of prodigious power in theirponderous limbs, coupled with the almost ludicrous shuffle of theirclumsy gait, and the fury of their apparently resistless charge, converted in an instant into timid retreat. They rushed madly down theenclosure, their backs arched, their tails extended, their ears spread, and their trunks raised high above their heads, trumpeting and utteringshrill screams, yet when one step further would have dashed the opposingfence into fragments, they stopped short on a few white rods beingpointed at them through the paling[1]; and, on catching the derisiveshouts of the crowd, they turned in utter discomfiture, and after anobjectless circle or two through the corral, they paced slowly back totheir melancholy halting place in the shade. [Footnote 1: The fact of the elephant exhibiting timidity, on having along rod pointed towards him, was known to the Romans; and PLINY, quoting from the annals of PISO, relates, that in order to inculcatecontempt for want of courage in the elephant, they were introduced intothe circus during the triumph of METELLUS, after the conquest of theCarthaginians in Sicily, and _driven round the area by workmen holdingblunted spears_, --"Ab operariis hastas præpilatas habentibus, per circumtotam actos. "--Lib. Viii. C. 6. ] The crowd, chiefly comprised of young men and boys, exhibitedastonishing nerve and composure at such moments, rushing up to the pointtowards which the elephants charged, pointing their wands at theirtrunks, and keeping up the continual cry of _whoop! whoop!_ whichinvariably turned them to flight. The second victim singled out from the herd was secured in the samemanner as the first. It was a female. The tame ones forced themselves inon either side as before, cutting her off from her companions, whilstRanghanie stooped under them and attached the fatal noose, and Siribeddidragged her out amidst unavailing struggles, when she was made fast byeach leg to the nearest group of strong trees. When the noose was placedupon her fore-foot, she seized it with her trunk, and succeeded incarrying it to her mouth, where she would speedily have severed it hadnot a tame elephant interfered, and placing his foot on the rope pressedit downwards out of her jaws. The individuals who acted as leaders inthe successive charges on the palisades were always those selected bythe noosers, and the operation of tying each, from the first approachesof the decoys, till the captive was left alone by the tree, occupied onan average somewhat less than three-quarters of an hour. It is strange that in these encounters the wild elephants made noattempt to attack or dislodge the mahouts or the cooroowes, who rode onthe tame ones. They moved in the very midst of the herd, any individualin which could in a moment have pulled the riders from their seats; butno effort was made to molest them. [1] [Footnote 1: "In a corral, to be on a tame elephant, seems to insureperfect immunity from the attacks of the wild ones. I once saw the oldchief Mollegodde ride in amongst a herd of wild elephants, on a smallelephant; so small that the Adigar's head was on a level the back of thewild animals: I felt very nervous, but he rode right in among them, andreceived not the slightest molestation. "--_Letter from_ MAJOR SKINNER. ] [Illustration] As one after another their leaders wore entrapped and forced away fromthem, the remainder of the group evinced increased emotion andexcitement; but whatever may have been their sympathy for their lostcompanions, their alarm seemed to prevent them at first from followingthem to the trees to which they had been tied. In passing themafterwards they sometimes stopped, mutually entwined their trunks, lapped them round each other's limbs and neck, and exhibited the mosttouching distress at their detention, but made no attempt to disturb thecords that bound them. [Illustration] The variety of disposition in the herd as evidenced by difference ofdemeanour was very remarkable: some submitted with comparatively littleresistance; whilst others in their fury dashed themselves on the groundwith a force sufficient to destroy any weaker animal. They vented theirrage upon every tree and plant within reach; if small enough to be torndown, they levelled them with their trunks, and stripping them of theirleaves and branches, they tossed them wildly over their heads on allsides. Some in their struggles made no sound, whilst others bellowed andtrumpeted furiously, then uttered short convulsive screams, and at last, exhausted and hopeless, gave vent to their anguish in low and piteousmoanings. Some, after a few violent efforts of this kind, lay motionlesson the ground, with no other indication of suffering than the tearswhich suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly. Others in all thevigour of their rage exhibited the most surprising contortions; and tous who had been accustomed to associate with the unwieldy bulk of theelephant the idea that he must of necessity be stiff and inflexible, theattitudes into which they forced themselves were almost incredible. Isaw one lie with the cheek pressed to the earth, and the fore-legsstretched in front, whilst the body was twisted round till the hind-legsextended in the opposite direction. It was astonishing that their trunks were not wounded by the violencewith which they flung them on all sides. One twisted his proboscis intosuch fantastic shapes, that it resembled the writhings of a giganticworm; he coiled it and uncoiled it with restless rapidity, curling it uplike a watch-spring, and suddenly unfolding it again to its full length. Another, which lay otherwise motionless in all the stupor of hopelessanguish, slowly beat the ground with the extremity of his trunk, as aman in despair beats his knee with the palm of his hand. They displayed an amount of sensitiveness and delicacy of touch in thefoot, which was very remarkable in a limb of such clumsy dimensions andprotected by so thick a covering. The noosers could always force them tolift it from the ground by the gentlest touch of a leaf or twig, apparently applied so as to tickle; but the imposition of the rope wasinstantaneously perceived, and if it could not be reached by the trunkthe other foot was applied to feel its position, and if possible removeit before the noose could be drawn tight. One practice was incessant with almost the entire herd: in the intervalbetween their struggles they beat the ground with their fore feet, andtaking up the dry earth in a coil of the trunk, they flung itdexterously over every part of their body. Even when lying down, thesand within reach was thus collected and scattered over their limbs:then inserting the extremity of the trunk in their mouths, they withdrewa quantity of water, which they discharged over their backs, repeatingthe operation again and again, till the dust was thoroughly saturated. Iwas astonished at the quantity of water thus applied, which wassufficient when the elephant, as was generally the case, had worked thespot where he lay into a hollow, to convert its surface into a coatingof mud. Seeing that the herd had been now twenty-four hours withoutaccess to water of any kind, surrounded by watch-fires, and exhausted bystruggling and terror, the supply of moisture an elephant is capable ofcontaining in the receptacle attached to his stomach must be veryconsiderable. The conduct of the tame ones during all these proceedings was trulywonderful. They displayed the most perfect conception of every movement, both of the object to be attained, and of the means to accomplish it. They manifested the utmost enjoyment in what was going on. There was noill-humour, no malignity in the spirit displayed, in what was otherwisea heartless proceeding, but they set about it in a way that showed athorough relish for it, as an agreeable pastime. Their caution was asremarkable as their sagacity; there was no hurrying, no contusion, theynever ran foul of the ropes, were never in the way of the animalsalready noosed; and amidst the most violent struggles, when the tameones had frequently to step across the captives, they in no instancetrampled on them, or occasioned the slightest accident or annoyance. Sofar from this, they saw intuitively a difficulty or a danger, andaddressed themselves unbidden to remove it. In tying up one of thelarger elephants, he contrived before he could be hauled close up to thetree, to walk once or twice round it, carrying the rope with him; thedecoy, perceiving the advantage he had thus gained over the nooser, walked up of her own accord, and pushed him backwards with her head, till she made him unwind himself again; upon which the rope was hauledtight and made fast. More than once, when a wild one was extending histrunk, and would have intercepted the rope about to be placed over hisleg, Siribeddi, by a sudden motion of her own trunk, pushed his aside, and prevented him; and on one occasion, when successive efforts hadfailed to put the noose over the fore-leg of an elephant which wasalready secured by one foot, but which wisely put the other to theground as often as it was attempted to pass the noose under it, I sawthe decoy watch her opportunity, and when his foot was again raised, suddenly push in her own leg beneath it, and hold it up till the noosewas attached and drawn tight. One could almost fancy there was a display of dry humour in the mannerin which the decoys thus played with the fears of the wild herd, andmade light of their efforts at resistance. When reluctant they shovedthem forward, when violent they drove them back; when the wild onesthrew themselves down, the tame ones butted them with head andshoulders, and forced them up again. And when it was necessary to keepthem down, they knelt upon them, and prevented them from rising, tillthe ropes were secured. At every moment of leisure they fanned themselves with a bunch ofleaves, and the graceful ease with which an elephant uses his trunk onsuch occasions is very striking. It is doubtless owing to thecombination of a circular with a horizontal movement in that flexiblelimb; but it is impossible to see an elephant fanning himself withoutbeing struck by the singular elegance of motion which he displays. Thetame ones, too, indulged in the luxury of dusting themselves with sand, by flinging it from their trunks; but it was a curious illustration oftheir delicate sagacity, that so long as the mahout was on their necks, they confined themselves to flinging the dust along their sides andstomach, as if aware, that to throw it over their heads and back wouldcause annoyance to their riders. One of the decoys which rendered good service, and was obviously held inspecial awe by the wild herd, was a tusker belonging to DehigameRata-mahatmeya. It was not that he used his tusks for purposes ofoffence, but he was enabled to insinuate himself between two elephantsby wedging them in where he could not force his head; besides which theyassisted him in raising up the fallen and refractory with greater ease. In some instances where the intervention of the other decoys failed toreduce a wild one to order, the mere presence and approach of the tuskerseemed to inspire fear, and insure submission, without more activeintervention. I do not know whether it was the surprising qualities exhibited by thetame elephants that cast the courage and dexterity of the men into theshade, but even when supported by the presence, the sagacity, andco-operation of these wonderful creatures, the part sustained by thenoosers can bear no comparison with the address and daring displayed bythe _pícador_ and _matador_ in a Spanish bull-fight. They certainlypossessed great quickness of eye in watching the slightest movement ofthe elephant, and great expertness in flinging the noose over its footand attaching it firmly before the animal could tear it off with itstrunk; but in all this they had the cover of the decoys to conceal them;and their shelter behind which to retreat. Apart from the serviceswhich, from their prodigious strength, the tame elephants are alonecapable of rendering, in dragging out and securing the captives, it isperfectly obvious that without their co-operation the utmost prowess anddexterity of the hunters would not avail them, unsupported, to enter thecorral and ensnare and lead out a single captive. Of the two tiny elephants which were entrapped, one was about ten monthsold, the other somewhat more. The smaller one had a little bolt headcovered with woolly brown hair, and was the most amusing and interestingminiature imaginable. Both kept constantly with the herd, trotting afterthem in every charge; when the others stood at rest they ran in and outbetween the legs of the older ones; and not their own mothers alone, butevery female in the group caressed them in turn. The dam of the youngest was the second elephant singled out by thenoosers, and as she was dragged along by the decoys, the little creaturekept by her side till she was drawn close to the fatal tree. The men atfirst were rather amused than otherwise by its anger; but they foundthat it would not permit them to place the second noose upon its mother;it ran between her and them, it tried to seize the rope, it pushed themand struck them with its little trunk, till they were forced to drive itback to the herd. It retreated slowly, shouting all the way, and pausingat every step to look back. It then attached itself to the largestfemale remaining in the group, and placed itself across her forelegs, whilst she hung down her trunk over its side and soothed and caressedit. Here it continued moaning and lamenting; till the noosers had leftoff securing its mother, when it instantly returned to her side; but asit became troublesome again, attacking every one who passed, it was atlast tied up by a rope to an adjoining tree, to which the other youngone was also tied. The second little one, equally with its playmate, exhibited great affection for its dam; it went willingly with its captoras far as the tree to which she was fastened, and in passing herstretched out its trunk and tried to rejoin her; but finding itselfforced along, it caught at every twig and branch within its reach, andscreamed with grief and disappointment. These two little creatures were the most vociferous of the whole herd, their shouts were incessant, they struggled to attack every one withinreach; and as their bodies were more lithe and pliant than those ofgreater growth, their contortions were quite wonderful. The most amusingthing was, that in the midst of all their agony and affliction, thelittle fellows seized on every article of food that was thrown to them, and ate and roared simultaneously. Amongst the last of the elephants noosed was the rogue. Though far moresavage than the others, he joined in none of their charges and assaultson the fences, as they uniformly drove him off and would not permit himto enter their circle. When dragged past another of his companions inmisfortune, who was lying exhausted on the ground, he flew upon him andattempted to fasten his teeth in his head; this was the only instance ofviciousness which occurred during the progress of the corral. When tiedup and overpowered, he was at first noisy and violent, but soon lay downpeacefully, a sign, according to the hunters, that his death was athand. Their prognostication was correct; he continued for about twelvehours to cover himself with dust like the others, and to moisten it withwater from his trunk; but at length he lay exhausted, and died socalmly, that having been moving but a few moment before, his death wasonly perceived by the myriads of black flies by which his body wasalmost instantly covered, although not one was visible a momentbefore. [1] The Rodiyas were called in to loose the ropes that bound him, from the tree, and two tame elephants being harnessed to the dead body, it was dragged to a distance without the corral. [Footnote 1: The surprising faculty of vultures for discovering carrion, has been a subject of much speculation, as to whether it be dependent ontheir power of sight or of scent. It is not, however, more mysteriousthan the unerring certainty and rapidity with which some of the minoranimals, and more especially insects, in warm climates congregate aroundthe offal on which they feed. Circumstanced as they are, they must beguided towards their object mainly if not exclusively by the sense ofsmell; but that which excites astonishment is the small degree of odourwhich seems to suffice for the purpose; the subtlety and rapidity withwhich it traverses and impregnates the air; and the keen and quickperception with which it is taken up by the organs of those creatures. The instance of the scavenger beetles has been already alluded to; thepromptitude with which they discern the existence of matter suited totheir purposes, and the speed with which they hurry to it from alldirections; often from distances as extraordinary, proportionably, asthose traversed by the eye of the vulture. In the instance of the dyingelephant referred to above, life was barely extinct when the flies, ofwhich not one was visible but a moment before, arrived in clouds andblackened the body by their multitude; scarcely an instant was allowedto elapse for the commencement of decomposition; no odour ofputrefaction could be discerned by us who stood close by; yet somepeculiar smell of mortality, simultaneously with parting breath, musthave summoned them to the feast. Ants exhibit an instinct equallysurprising. I have sometimes covered up a particle of refined sugar withpaper on the centre of a polished table; and counted the number ofminutes which would elapse before it was fastened on by the small blackants of Ceylon, and a line formed to lower it safely to the floor. Herewas a substance which, to our apprehension at least, is altogetherinodorous, and yet the quick sense of smell must have been the onlyconductor of the ants. It has been observed of those fishes which traveloverland on the evaporation of the ponds in which they live, that theyinvariably march in the direction of the nearest water, and even whencaptured, and placed on the floor of a room, their efforts to escape arealways made towards the same point. Is the sense of smell sufficient toaccount for this display of instinct in them? or is it aided by specialorgans in the case of the others? Dr. MCGEE, formerly of the Royal Navy, writing to me on the subject of the instant appearance of flies in thevicinity of dead bodies, says: "In warm climates they do not wait fordeath to invite them to the banquet. In Jamaica I have again and againseen them settle on a patient, and hardly to be driven away by thenurse, the patient himself saying. 'Here are these flies coming to eatme ere I am dead. ' At times they have enabled the doctor, when otherwisehe would have been in doubt as to his prognosis, to determine whetherthe strange apyretic interval occasionally present in the last stage ofyellow fever was the fatal lull or the lull of recovery; and 'What saythe flies?' has been the settling question. Among many, many casesduring a long period I have seen but one recovery after the assemblingof the flies. I consider the foregoing as a confirmation of smell beingthe guide even to the attendants, a cadaverous smell has been perceivedto arise from the body of a patient twenty-four hours before death. "] When every wild elephant had been noosed and tied up, the scenepresented was truly oriental. From one to two thousand natives, many ofthem in gaudy dresses and armed with spears, crowded about theenclosures. Their families had collected to see the spectacle; women, whose children clung like little bronzed Cupids by their sides; andgirls, many of them in the graceful costume of that part of thecountry, --a scarf, which, after having been brought round the waist, isthrown over the left shoulder, leaving the right arm and side free anduncovered. At the foot of each tree was its captive elephant; some still strugglingand writhing in feverish excitement, whilst others, in exhaustion anddespair, lay motionless, except that, from time to time, they heapedfresh dust upon their heads. The mellow notes of a Kandyan flute, whichwas played at a distance, had a striking effect upon one or more ofthem; they turned their heads in the direction from which the musiccame, expanded their broad ears, and were evidently soothed with theplaintive sound. The two young ones alone still roared for freedom; theystamped their feet, and blew clouds of dust over their shoulders, brandishing their little trunks aloft, and attacking every one who camewithin their reach. At first the older ones, when secured, spurned every offer of food, trampled it under foot, and turned haughtily away. A few, however, asthey became more composed, could not resist the temptation of the juicystems of the plantain, but rolling them under foot, till they detachedthe layers, they raised them in their trunks, and commenced chewinglistlessly. On the whole, whilst the sagacity, the composure, and docility of thedecoys were such as to excite lively astonishment, it was not possibleto withhold the highest admiration from the calm and dignified demeanourof the captives. Their entire bearing was at variance with therepresentation made by some of the "sportsmen" who harass them, thatthey are treacherous, savage, and revengeful; when tormented by the gunsof their persecutors, they, no doubt, display their powers and sagacityin efforts to retaliate or escape; but here their every movement wasindicative of innocence and timidity. After a struggle, in which theyevinced no disposition to violence or revenge, they submitted with thecalmness of despair. Their attitudes were pitiable, their grief was mosttouching, and their low moaning went to the heart. We could not haveborne to witness their distress had their capture been effected by theneedless infliction of pain, or had they been destined to ill-treatmentafterwards. It was now about two hours after noon, and the first elephants that hadentered the corral having been disposed of, preparations were made toreopen the gate, and drive in the other two herds, over which thewatchers were still keeping guard. The area of the enclosure wascleared; and silence was again imposed on the crowds who surrounded thecorral. The bars that secured the entrance were withdrawn and everyprecaution repeated as before; but as the space inside was now somewhattrodden down, especially near the entrance, by the frequent charges ofthe last herd, and as it was to be apprehended that the others might beearlier alarmed and retrace their steps, before the barricades could bereplaced, two tame ones were stationed inside to protect the men to whomthat duty was assigned. All preliminaries being at length completed, the signal was given; thebeaters on the side most distant from the corral closed in with tom-tomsand discordant noises; a hedge-fire of musketry was kept up in the rearof the terrified elephants; thousands of voices urged them forward; weheard the jungle crashing as they came on, and at last they advancedthrough an opening amongst the trees, bearing down all before them likea charge of locomotives. They were led by a huge female, nearly ninefeet high, after whom one half of the herd dashed precipitately throughthe narrow entrance, but the rest turning suddenly towards the left, succeeded in forcing the cordon of guards and making good their escapeto the forest. No sooner had the others passed the gate, than the two tame elephantsstepped forward from either side, and before the herd could return fromthe further end of the enclosure, the bars were drawn, the entranceclosed, and the men in charge glided outside the stockade. The elephantswhich had previously been made prisoners within exhibited intenseexcitement as the fresh din arose around them; they started to theirfeet, and stretched their trunks in the direction whence they winded thescent of the herd in its headlong flight; and as the latter rushed past, they renewed their struggles to get free and follow. It is not possibleto imagine anything more exciting than the spectacle which the wild onespresented careering round the corral, uttering piercing screams, theirheads erect and trunks aloft, the very emblems of rage and perplexity, of power and helplessness. Along with those which entered at the second drive was one thatevidently belonged to another herd, and had been separated from them inthe _mêlée_ when the latter effected their escape, and, as usual, hisnew companions in misfortune drove him off indignantly as often as heattempted to approach them. The demeanour of those taken in the second drive differed materiallyfrom that of the preceding captives, who, having entered the corral indarkness, to find themselves girt with fire and smoke, and beset byhideous sounds and sights on every side, were speedily reduced by fearto stupor and submission--whereas, the second herd having passed intothe enclosure by daylight, and its area being trodden down in manyplaces, could clearly discover the fences, and were consequently morealarmed and enraged at their confinement. They were thus as restless asthe others had been calm, and so much more vigorous in their assaultsthat, on one occasion, their courageous leader, undaunted by themultitude of white wands thrust towards her, was only driven back fromthe stockade by a hunter hurling a blazing flambeau at her head. Herattitude as she stood repulsed, but still irresolute, was a study for apainter. Her eye dilated, her ears expanded, her back arched like atiger, and her fore-foot in air, whilst she uttered those hideousscreams that are imperfectly described by the term "_trumpeting_. " Although repeatedly passing by the unfortunates from the former drove, the new herd seemed to take no friendly notice of them; they haltedinquiringly for a minute, and then resumed their career round thecorral, and once or twice in their headlong flight they rushed madlyover the bodies of the prostrate captives as they lay in their misery onthe ground. It was evening before the new captives had grown wearied with theirfurious and repeated charges, and stood still in the centre of thecorral collected into a terrified and motionless group. The fires werethen relighted, the guard redoubled by the addition of the watchers, whowere now relieved from duty in the forest, and the spectators retired totheir bungalows for the night. The business of the _third day_ began bynoosing and tying up the new captives, and the first sought out wastheir magnificent leader. Siribeddi and the tame tusker having forcedthemselves on either side of her, a boy in the service of theRata-Mahatmeya succeeded in attaching a rope to her hind-foot. Siribeddimoved off, but feeling her strength insufficient to drag the reluctantprize, she went down on her fore-knees, so as to add the full weight ofher body to the pull. The tusker, seeing her difficulty, placed himselfin front of the prisoner, and forced her backwards, step by step, tillhis companion, brought her fairly up to the tree, and wound the roperound the stem. Though overpowered by fear, she showed the fullest senseof the nature of the danger she had to apprehend. She kept her headturned towards the noosers, and tried to step in advance of the decoys;in spite of all their efforts, she tore off the first noose from herfore-leg, and placing it under her foot, snapped it into fathom lengths. When finally secured, her writhings were extraordinary. She doubled inher head under her chest, till she lay as round as a hedgehog, andrising again, stood on her fore-feet, and lifting her hind-feet off theground, she wrung them from side to side, till the great tree above herquivered in every branch. Before proceeding to catch the others, we requested that the smallertrees and jungle, which partially obstructed our view, might be brokenaway, being no longer essential to screen the entrance to the corral;and five of the tame elephants were brought up for the purpose. Theyfelt the strength of each tree with their trunks, then swaying itbackwards and forwards, by pushing it with their foreheads, they watchedthe opportunity when it was in full swing to raise their fore-feetagainst the stem, and bear it down to the ground. Then tearing off thefestoons of climbing plants, and trampling down the smaller branches andbrushwood, they pitched them with their tusks, piling them into heapsalong the side of the fence. [Illustration of elephant resisting capture. ] Amongst the last that was secured was the solitary individual belongingto the fugitive herd. When they attempted to drag him backwards from thetree near which he was noosed, he laid hold of it with his trunk and laydown on his side immoveable. The temple tusker and another were orderedup to assist, and it required the combined efforts of the threeelephants to force him along. When dragged to the place at which he wasto be tied up, he continued the contest with desperation, and to preventthe second noose being placed on his foot, he sat down on his haunches, almost in the attitude of the "Florentine Boar, " keeping his hind-feetbeneath him, and defending his fore-feet with his trunk, with which heflung back the rope as often as it was attempted to attach it. [Illustration of elephant lying on ground after capture. ] When overpowered and made fast, his grief was most affecting; hisviolence sunk to utter prostration, and he lay on the ground, utteringchoking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks. The final operation was that of slackening the ropes, and marching eachcaptive down to the river between two tame ones. This was effected verysimply. A decoy, with a strong collar round its neck, stood on eitherside of the wild one, on which a similar collar was formed, bysuccessive coils of coco-nut rope; and then, connecting the threecollars together, the prisoner was effectually made safe between his twoguards. During this operation, it was curious to see how the tameelephant, from time to time, used its trunk to shield the arm of itsrider, and ward off the trunk of the prisoner, who resisted the placingthe rope round his neck. This done, the nooses were removed from hisfeet, and he was marched off to the river, in which he and hiscompanions were allowed to bathe; a privilege of which all availedthemselves eagerly. Each was then made fast to a tree in the forest, andkeepers being assigned to him, with a retinue of leaf-cutters, he wasplentifully supplied with his favourite food, and left to the care andtuition of his new masters. Returning from a spectacle such as I have attempted to describe, onecannot help feeling how immeasurably it exceeds in interest those royalbattues where timid deer are driven in crowds to unresisting slaughter;or those vaunted "wild sports" the amusement of which appears to be inproportion to the effusion of blood. Here the only display of power wasthe imposition of restraint; and though considerable mortality oftenoccurs amongst the animals caught, the infliction of pain, so far frombeing an incident of the operation, is most cautiously avoided from itstendency to enrage, the policy of the captor being to conciliate andsoothe. The whole scene exhibits the most marvellous example of thevoluntary alliance of animal sagacity and instinct in activeco-operation with human intelligence and courage; and nothing else innature, not even the chase of the whale, can afford so vivid anillustration of the sovereignty of man over brute creation even whenconfronted with force in its most stupendous embodiment. Of the two young elephants which were taken in the corral, the smallestwas sent down to my house at Colombo, where he became a generalfavourite with the servants. He attached himself especially to thecoachman, who had a little shed erected for him near his own quarters atthe stables. But his favourite resort was the kitchen, where he receiveda daily allowance of milk and plantains, and picked up several otherdelicacies besides. He was innocent and playful in the extreme, and whenwalking in the grounds he would trot up to me, twine his little trunkround my arm, and coax me to take him to the fruit-trees. In the eveningthe grass-cutters now and then indulged him by permitting him to carryhome a load of fodder for the horses, on which occasions he assumed anair of gravity that was highly amusing, showing that he was deeplyimpressed with the importance and responsibility of the serviceentrusted to him. Being sometimes permitted to enter the dining-room, and helped to fruit at desert, he at last learned his way to theside-board; and on more than one occasion having stolen in, during theabsence of the servants, he made a clear sweep of the wine-glasses andchina in his endeavours to reach a basket of oranges. For these andsimilar pranks we were at last forced to put him away. He was sent tothe Government stud, where he was affectionately received and adopted bySiribeddi, and he now takes his turn of public duty in the department ofthe Commissioner of Roads. CHAP. VII. THE ELEPHANT. * * * * * _Conduct in Captivity. _ The idea prevailed in ancient times, and obtains even at the presentday, that the Indian elephant surpasses that of Africa in sagacity andtractability, and consequently in capacity for training, so as to renderits services more available to man. There does not appear to me to besufficient ground for this conclusion. It originated, in allprobability, in the first impressions created by the accounts of theelephant brought back by the Greeks after the Indian expedition ofAlexander, and above all by the descriptions of Aristotle, whoseknowledge of the animal was derived exclusively from the East. A longinterval elapsed before the elephant of Africa, and its capabilities, became known in Europe. The first elephants brought to Greece byAntipater, were from India, as were also those introduced by Pyrrhusinto Italy. Taught by this example, the Carthaginians undertook toemploy African elephants in war. Jugurtha led them against Metellus, andJuba against Cæsar; but from inexperienced and deficient training, theyproved less effective than the elephants of India[1], and the historiansof these times ascribed to inferiority of race, that which was but theresult of insufficient education. [Footnote 1: ARMANDI, _Hist. Milit. Des Eléphants_, liv. I. Ch. I. P. 2. It is an interesting fact, noticed by ARMANDI, that the elephantsfigured on the coins of Alexander, and the Seleucidæ invariably exhibitthe characteristics of the Indian type, whilst those on Roman medals canat once be pronounced African, from the peculiarities of the convexforehead and expansive ears. --_Ibid_. Liv. I. Cap. I. P. 3. [Illustration] ARMANDI has, with infinite industry, collected from original sources amass of curious informations relative to the employment of elephants inancient warfare, which he has published under the title of _HistoireMilitaire des Eléphants depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu' àl'introduction des armes a feu_. Paris. 1843. ] It must, however, be remembered that the elephants which, at a laterperiod, astonished the Romans by their sagacity, and whose performancesin the amphitheatre have been described by Ælian and Pliny, were broughtfrom Africa, and acquired their accomplishments from Europeaninstructors[1]; a sufficient proof that under equally favourableauspices the African species are capable of developing similar docilityand powers with those of India. It is one of the facts from which theinferiority of the Negro race has been inferred, that they alone, of allthe nations amongst whom the elephant is found, have never manifestedability to domesticate it; and even as regards the more highly developedraces who inhabited the valley of the Nile, it is observable that theelephant is nowhere to be found amongst the animals figured on themonuments of ancient Egypt, whilst the camelopard, the lion, and eventhe hippopotamus are represented. And although in later times theknowledge of the art of training appears to have existed under thePtolemies, and on the southern shore of the Mediterranean, it admits ofno doubt that it was communicated by the more accomplished natives ofIndia who had settled there. [2] [Footnote 1: ÆLIAN, lib. Ii. Cap. Ii. ] [Footnote 2: See SCHLEGEL'S Essay on the Elephant and the Sphynx. _Classical Journal_, No. Lx. Although the trained elephant nowhereappears upon the monuments of the Egyptians, the animal was not unknownto them, and ivory and elephants are figured on the walls of Thebes andKarnac amongst the spoils of Thothmes III. , and the tribute paid toRameses I. The Island of Elephantine, in the Nile, near Assouan (Syene)is styled in hieroglyphical writing "The Land of the Elephant;" but asit is a mere rock, it probably owes its designation to its form. See SirGARDNER WILKINSON'S _Ancient Egyptians_, vol. I. Pl. Iv. ; vol. V. P. 176. Above the first cataract of the Nile are two small islands, eachbearing the name of Phylæ;--quære, is the derivation of this word at allconnected with the Arabic term _fil_? See ante, p. 76, note. Theelephant figured in the sculptures of Nineveh is universally as wild, not domesticated. ] Another favourite doctrine of the earlier visitors to the East seems tome to be equally fallacious; PYRARD, BERNIER, PHILLIPE, THEVENOT, andother travellers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, proclaimedthe superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, in size, strength, andsagacity, above those of all other parts of India[1]; and TAVERNIER inparticular is supposed to have stated that if a Ceylon elephant beintroduced amongst those bred in any other place, by an instinct ofnature they do him homage by laying their trunks to the ground, andraising them reverentially. This passage has been so repeatedly quotedin works on Ceylon that it has passed into an aphorism, and is alwaysadduced as a testimony to the surpassing intelligence of the elephantsof that island; although a reference to the original shows thatTavernier's observations are not only fanciful in themselves, but arerestricted to the supposed excellence of the Ceylon animal _in war_. [2]This estimate of the superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, if it everprevailed in India, was not current there at a very early period; for inthe _Ramayana_, which is probably the oldest epic in the world, the studof Dasartha, the king of Ayodhya, was supplied with elephants from theHimalaya and the Vindhya Mountains. [3] I have had no opportunity oftesting by personal observation the justice of the assumption; but fromall that I have heard of the elephants of the continent, and seen ofthose of Ceylon, I have reason to conclude that the difference, if notimaginary, is exceptional, and must have arisen in particular andindividual instances, from more judicious or elaborate instruction. [Footnote 1: This is merely a reiteration of the statement of ÆLIAN, whoascribes to the elephants of Taprobane a vast superiority in size, strength, and intelligence, above, those of continental India, --[Greek:"Kai oide ge næsiotai elephantes ton hæpiroton halkimoteroi te tænrhomæn kai meixous idein eisi, kai thumosophoteroi de panta pantækrinointo han. "]--ÆLIAN, _De Nat. Anim_. , lib. Xvi. Cap. Xviii. ÆLIAN also, in the same chapter, states the fact of the shipment ofelephants in large boats from Ceylon to the opposite continent of India, for sale to the king of Kalinga; so that the export from Manaar, described in a former passage, has been going on apparently withoutinterruption since the time of the Romans. ] [Footnote 2: The expression of TAVERNIER is to the effect that ascompared with all others, the elephants of Ceylon are "plus courageux _àla guerre_. " The rest of the passage is a curiosity:-- "Il faut remarquer ici une chose qu'on aura peut-être de la peine àcroire main quit est toutefois très-véritable: c'est que lorsque quelqueroi on quelque seigneur a quelqu'un de ces éléphants de Ceylan, et qu'onen amène quelqu'autre des lieux où les marchands vont les prendre, commed'Achen, de Siam, d'Arakan, de Pegu, du royáume de Boutan, d'Assam, desterres de Cochin et de la coste du Mélinde, dés que les éléphants envoient un de Ceylan, par un instinct de nature, ils lui font larévérence, portant le bout de leur trompe à la terre et la relevant. Ilest vrai que les éléphants que les grand seigneurs entretiennent, quanden les amine devant eux, pour voir s'ils sent en bon point, font troifois une espére de révérence avec leur troupe, _a que j'ai en souvent_, mais ils sont stylés à cela, et leurs maitres le leur enseignent debonne heure. "--_Les Six Voyages de_ J. B. TAVERNIER, lib. Iii. Ch. 20. ] [Footnote 3: _Ramayana_, sec. Vi. : CAREY and MARSHMAN, i. 105: FAUCHE, t. I. P. 66. ] The earliest knowledge of the elephant in Europe and the West, wasderived from the conspicuous position assigned to it in the wars of theEast: in India, from the remotest antiquity, it formed one of the mostpicturesque, if not the most effective, features in the armies of thenative princes. [1] It is more than probable that the earliest attemptsto take and train the elephant, were with a view to military uses, andthat the art was perpetuated in later times to gratify the pride of theeastern kings, and sustain the pomp of their processions. [Footnote 1: The only mention of the elephant in Sacred History in theaccount given in _Maccabees_ of the invasion of Egypt by Antiochus, whoentered it 170 B. C. , "with chariots and elephants, and horsemen, and agreat navy. "--1 _Macc_. I. 17. Frequent allusions to the use ofelephants in war occur in both books: and in chap. Vi. 34, it is statedthat "to provoke the elephants to fight they showed them the blood ofgrapes and of mulberries. " The term showed, "[Greek: edeixan], " might bethought to imply that the animals were enraged by the sight of the wineand its colour, but in the Third Book of Maccabees, in the GreekSeptuagint, various other passages show that wine, on such occasions, was administered to the elephants to render them furious. --Mace, v. 2. 10, 45. PHILE mentions the same fact, _De Elephante_, i. 145. There is a very curious account of the mode in which the Arab conquerorsof Seinde, in the 9th and 10th centuries, equipped the elephant for war;which being written with all the particularity of an eye-witness, bearsthe impress of truth and accuracy. MASSOUDI, who was born in Bagdad atthe close of the 9th century, travelled in India in the year A. D. 913, and visited the Gulf of Cambay, the coast of Malabar, and the Island ofCeylon:--from a larger account of his journeys he compiled a summaryunder the title of "_Moroudj al-dzeheb, " or the "Golden Meadows_, " theMS. Of which is now in the Bibliothèque Nationale. M. REINAUD, indescribing this manuscript says on its authority, "The Prince ofMensura, whose dominions lay south of the Indus, maintained eightyelephants trained for war, each of which bore in his trunk a bentcymeter (carthel), with which he was taught to cut and thrust at allconfronting him. The trunk itself was effectually protected by a coat ofmail, and the rest of the body enveloped in a covering composed jointlyof iron and horn. Other elephants were employed in drawing chariots, carrying baggage, and grinding forage, and the performance of allbespoke the utmost intelligence and docility. "--REINAUD, _Mèmoires surl'Inde, antérieurement au milieu du XIe siècle, d'après les écrivainsarabes, persans et chinois_. Paris, M. D. CCC. XLIX. P. 215. SeeSPRENGER'S English Translation of Massoudi, vol. I. P. 383. ] An impression prevails even to the present day, that the process oftraining is tedious and difficult, and the reduction of a full-grownelephant to obedience, slow and troublesome in the extreme. [1] In bothparticulars, however, the contrary is the truth. The training as itprevails in Ceylon is simple, and the conformity and obedience of theanimal are developed with singular rapidity. For the first three days, or till they will eat freely, which they seldom do in a less time, thenewly-captured elephants are allowed to stand quiet; and, ifpracticable, a tame elephant is tied near to give the wild onesconfidence. Where many elephants are being trained at once, it iscustomary to put every new captive between the stalls of half-tamedones, when it soon takes to its food. This stage being attained, training commences by placing tame elephants on either side. The"cooroowe vidahn, " or the head of the stables, stands in front of thewild elephants holding a long stick with a sharp iron point. Two men arethen stationed one on either side, assisted by the tame elephants, andeach holding a _hendoo_ or crook[2] towards the wild one's trunk, whilstone or two others rub their hands over his back, keeping up all thewhile a soothing and plaintive chaunt, interlarded with endearingepithets, such as "ho! my son, " or "ho! my father, " or "my mother, " asmay be applicable to the age and sex of the captive. The elephant is atfirst furious, and strikes in all directions with his trunk; but the menin front receiving all these blows on the points of their weapons, theextremity of the trunk becomes so sore that the animal curls it upclose, and seldom afterwards attempts to use it offensively. The firstdread of man's power being thus established, the process of taking himto bathe between two tame elephants is greatly facilitated, and bylengthening the neck rope, and drawing the feet together as close aspossible, the process of laying him down in the water is finallyaccomplished by the keepers pressing the sharp point of their hendoosover the backbone. [Footnote 1: BRODERIP, _Zoological Recreations_, p. 226. ] [Footnote 2: The iron goad with which the keeper directs the movementsof the elephants, called a _hendoo_ in Ceylon and _hawkus_ in Bengal, appears to have retained the present shape from the remotest antiquity. It is figured in the medals of Caracalla in the identical form in whichit is in use at the present day in India. The Greeks called it [Greek: harpê], and the Romans _cuspis_. [Illustration: Medal of Numidia. ] [Illustration: Modern Hendoo. ]] For many days the roaring and resistance which attend the operation areconsiderable, and it often requires the sagacious interference of thetame elephants to control the refractory wild ones. It soon, however, becomes practicable to leave the latter alone, only taking them to andfrom the stall by the aid of a decoy. This step lasts, under ordinarytreatment, for about three weeks, when an elephant may be taken alonewith his legs hobbled, and a man walking backwards in front with thepoint of the hendoo always presented to the elephant's head, and akeeper with an iron crook at each ear. On getting into the water, thefear of being pricked on his tender back induces him to lie downdirectly on the crook being only held over him _in terrorem_. Once thispoint has been achieved, the further process of taming is dependent uponthe disposition of the creature. The greatest care is requisite, and daily medicines are applied to healthe fearful wounds on the legs which even the softest ropes occasion. This is the great difficulty of training; for the wounds festergrievously, and months and sometimes years will elapse before anelephant will allow his feet to be touched without indications of alarmand anger. The observation has been frequently made that the elephants most viciousand troublesome to tame, and the most worthless when tamed, are thosedistinguished by a thin trunk and flabby pendulous ears. The period oftuition does not appear to be influenced by the size or strength of theanimals: some of the smallest give the greatest amount of trouble;whereas, in the instance of the two largest that have been taken inCeylon within the last thirty years, both were docile in a remarkabledegree. One in particular, which was caught and trained by Mr. Cripps, when Government agent, in the Seven Korles, fed from the hand the firstnight it was secured, and in a very few days evinced pleasure on beingpatted on the head. [1] There is none so obstinate, not even a _rogue_, that may not, when kindly and patiently treated, be conciliated andreconciled. [Footnote 1: This was the largest elephant that had been tamed inCeylon; he measured upwards of nine feet at the shoulders and belongedto the caste so highly prized for the temples. He was gentle after hisfirst capture, but his removal from the corral to the stables, thoughonly a distance of six miles, was a matter of the extremest difficulty;his extraordinary strength rendering him more than a match for theattendant decoys. He, on one occasion, escaped, but was recaptured inthe forest; and he afterwards became so docile as to perform a varietyof tricks. He was at length ordered to be removed to Colombo; but suchwas his terror on approaching the gate, that on coaxing him to enter thegate, he became paralysed in the extraordinary way elsewhere alluded to, and _died on the spot_. ] The males are generally more unmaneagable than the females, and in bothan inclination to lie down to rest is regarded as a favourable symptomof approaching tractability, some of the most resolute having been knownto stand for months together, even during sleep. Those which are themost obstinate and violent at first are the soonest and most effectuallysubdued, and generally prove permanently docile and submissive. Butthose which are sullen or morose, although they may provoke nochastisement by their viciousness, are always slower in being taught, and are rarely to be trusted in after life. [1] [Footnote 1: The natives profess that the high caste elephants, such asare allotted to the temples, are of all others the most difficult totame, and M. BLES, the Dutch correspondent of BUFFON, mentions a casteof elephants which he had heard of, as being peculiar to the Kandyankingdom, that were not higher than a heifer (génisse), covered withhair, and insusceptible of being tamed. (BUFFON, _Supp. _ vol. Vi. P. 29. ) Bishop HEBER, in the account of his journey from Bareilly towardsthe Himalayas, describes the Raja Gourman Sing, "mounted on a littlefemale elephant, hardly bigger than a Durham ox, and almost as shaggy asa poodle. "--_Journx. _, ch. Xvii. It will be remembered that the mammothdiscovered in 1803 embedded in icy soil in Siberia, was covered with acoat of long hair, with a sort of wool at the roots. Hence there arosethe question whether that northern region had been formerly inhabited bya race of elephants, so fortified by nature against cold; or whether theindividual discovered had been borne thither by currents from some moretemperate latitudes. To the latter theory the presence of hair seemed afatal objection; but so far as my own observation goes, I believe theelephants are more or less provided with hair. In some it is moredeveloped than in others, and it is particularly observable in theyoung, which when captured are frequently covered with a woolly fleece, especially about the head and shoulders. In the older individuals inCeylon, this is less apparent: and in captivity the hair appears to bealtogether removed by the custom of the mahouts to rub their skin dailywith oil and a rough lump of burned clay. See a paper on the subject, _Asiat. Journ. _ N. S. Vol. Xiv. P. 182, by Mr. G. FAIRHOLME. ] But whatever may be its natural gentleness and docility, the temper ofan elephant is seldom to be implicitly relied on in a state of captivityand coercion. The most amenable are subject to occasional fits ofstubbornness; and even after years of submission, irritability andresentment will unaccountably manifest themselves. It may be that therestraints and severer discipline of training have not been entirelyforgotten; or that incidents which in ordinary health would beproductive of no demonstration whatever, may lead, in moments oftemporary illness, to fretfulness and anger. The knowledge of thisinfirmity led to the popular belief recorded by PHILE, that the elephanthad _two hearts_, under the respective influences of which it evincedferocity of gentleness; subdued by the one to habitual tractability andobedience, but occasionally roused by the other to displays of rage andresistance. [1] [Footnote 1: [Greek: "Diplês de phasin euporêsai kardias Kai tê men einai thumikon to thêrion Eis akratê kinêsin êrethismenon, Tê de prosênes kai thrasytêtos xenon. Kai pê men autôn akroasthai ton logôn Ous an tis Indos eu tithaseuôn legoi, Pê de pros autous tous nomeis epitrechein Eis tas palaias ektrapen kakoupgias. "] PHILE, _Expos. De Eleph. _, l. 126, &c. ] In the process of taming, the presence of the tame ones can generally bedispensed with after two months, and the captive may then be ridden bythe driver alone; and after three or four months he may be entrustedwith labour, so far as regards docility;--but it is undesirable, andeven involves the risk of life, to work an elephant too soon; it hasfrequently happened that a valuable animal has lain down and died thefirst time it was tried in harness, from what the natives believe to be"broken heart, "--certainly without any cause inferable from injury orprevious disease. [1] It is observable, that till a captured elephantbegins to relish food, and grow fat upon it, he becomes so fretted bywork, that it kills him in an incredibly short space of time. [Footnote 1: Captain YULE, in his _Narrative of an Embassy to Ava in_1855, records an illustration of this tendency of the elephant to suddendeath; one newly captured, the process of taming which was exhibited tothe British Envoy, "made vigorous resistance to the placing of a collaron its neck, and the people were proceeding to tighten it, when theelephant, which had lain down as if quite exhausted, reared suddenly onthe hind quarters, and fell on its side--_dead_!"--P. 104. Mr. STRACHAN noticed the same liability of the elephants to sudden deathfrom very slight causes; "of the fall. " he says, "at any time, though onplain ground, they either die immediately, or languish till they die;their great weight occasioning them so much hurt by the fall. "--_Phil. Trans. _ A. D. 1701, vol. Xxiii. P. 1052. ] The first employment to which an elephant is put is to tread clay in abrick-field, or to draw a waggon in double harness with a tamecompanion. But the work in which the display of sagacity renders hislabours of the highest value, is that which involves the use of heavymaterials; and hence in dragging and piling timber, or moving stones[1]for the construction of retaining walls and the approaches to bridges, his services in an unopened country are of the utmost importance. Whenroads are to be constructed along the face of steep declivities, and thespace is so contracted that risk is incurred either of the workingelephant falling over the precipice or of rocks slipping down fromabove, not only are the measures to which he resorts the most judiciousand reasonable that could be devised, but if urged by his keeper toadopt any other, he manifests a reluctance sufficient to show that hehas balanced in his own mind the comparative advantages of each. Anelephant appears on all occasions to comprehend the purpose and objectthat he is expected to promote, and hence he voluntarily executes avariety of details without any guidance whatever from his keeper. Thisis one characteristic in which this animal manifests a superiority overthe horse; although his strength in proportion to his weight is not sogreat as that of the latter. [Footnote 1: A correspondent informs me that on the Malabar coast ofIndia, the elephant, when employed in dragging stones, moves them bymeans of a rope, which he either draws with his forehead, or manages byseizing it in his teeth. ] His minute motions when engrossed by such operations, the activity ofhis eye, and the earnestness of his attitudes, can only be comprehendedby being seen. In moving timber and masses of rock his trunk is theinstrument on which he mainly relies, but those which have tusks turnthem to good account. To get a weighty stone out of a hollow an elephantwill kneel down so as to apply the pressure of his head to move itupwards, then steadying it with one foot till he can raise himself, hewill apply a fold of his trunk to shift it to its place, and fit itaccurately in position: this done, he will step round to view it oneither side, and adjust it with due precision. He appears to gauge histask by his eye, and to form a judgment whether the weight beproportionate to his strength. If doubtful of his own power, hehesitates and halts, and if urged against his will, he roars and showstemper. In clearing an opening through forest land, the power of the Africanelephant, and the strength ascribed to him by a recent traveller, asdisplayed in uprooting trees, have never been equalled or approached byanything I have seen of the elephant in Ceylon[1] or heard of them inIndia. [Footnote 1: "Here the trees were large and handsome, but not strongenough to resist the inconceivable strength of the mighty monarch ofthese forests; almost every tree had half its branches broken short bythem and at every hundred yards I came upon entire trees, and these, _the largest in the forest_, uprooted clean out of the ground, and_broken short across their stems_. "--_A Hunter's Life in South Africa_. By R. GORDON CUMMING, vol. Ii. P. 305. -- "Spreading out from one another, they smash and destroy all the finesttrees in the forest which happen to be in their course. .. . I have rodethrough forests where the trees thus broken lay so thick across oneanother, that it was almost impossible to ride through thedistrict. "--_Ibid_. , p. 310. Mr. Gordon Cumming does not name the trees which he saw thus "uprooted"and "broken across, " nor has he given any idea of their size and weight;but Major DENHAM, who observed like traces of the elephant in Africa, saw only small trees overthrown by them; and Mr. PRINGLE, who had anopportunity of observing similar practices of the animals in the neutralterritory of the Eastern frontier of the Cape of Good Hope, describestheir ravages as being confined to the mimosas, "immense numbers ofwhich had been torn out of the ground, and placed in an invertedposition, in order to enable the animals to browse at their ease on thesoft and juicy roots, which form a favourite part of their food. Many ofthe _larger mimosas had resisted all their efforts; and indeed, it isonly after heavy rain, when the soil is soft and loose, that they eversuccessfully attempt this operation. _"--Pringle's _Sketches of SouthAfrica. _] Of course much must depend on the nature of the timber and the moistureof the soil; thus a strong tree on the verge of a swamp may beoverthrown with greater ease than a small and low one in parched andsolid ground. I have seen no "tree" deserving the name, nothing butjungle and brushwood, thrown down by the mere movement of an elephantwithout some special exertion of force. But he is by no means fond ofgratuitously tasking his strength; and food being so abundant that heobtains it without an effort, it is not altogether apparent, even werehe able to do so, why he should assail "the largest trees in theforest, " and encumber his own haunts with their broken stems; especiallyas there is scarcely anything which an elephant dislikes more thanventuring amongst fallen timber. A tree of twelve inches in diameter resisted successfully the moststrenuous struggles of the largest elephant I ever saw led to it; andwhen directed by their keepers to clear away jungle, the removal of evena small tree, or a healthy young coco-nut palm, is a matter both of timeand exertion. Hence the services of an elephant are of much less valuein clearing a forest than in dragging and piling felled timber. But inthe latter occupation he manifests an intelligence and dexterity whichis surprising to a stranger, because the sameness of the operationenables the animal to go on for hours disposing of log after log, almostwithout a hint or direction from his attendant. For example, twoelephants employed in piling ebony and satinwood in the yards attachedto the commissariat stores at Colombo, were so accustomed to their work, that they were able to accomplish it with equal precision and withgreater rapidity than if it had been done by dock-labourers. When thepile attained a certain height, and they were no longer able by theirconjoint efforts to raise one of the heavy logs of ebony to the summit, they had been taught to lean two pieces against the heap, up theinclined plane of which they gently rolled the remaining logs, andplaced them trimly on the top. It has been asserted that in their occupations "elephants are to asurprising extent the creatures of habit, "[1] that their movements arealtogether mechanical, and that "they are annoyed by any deviation fromtheir accustomed practice, and resent any constrained departure from theregularity of their course. " So far as my own observation goes, this isincorrect; and I am assured by officers of experience, that in regard tochanging his treatment, his hours, or his occupation, an elephantevinces no more consideration than a horse, but exhibits the samepliancy and facility. [Footnote 1: _Menageries_, &c. , "The Elephant, " vol. Ii. P. 23. ] At one point, however, the utility of the elephant stops short. Such isthe intelligence and earnestness he displays in work, which he seems toconduct almost without supervision, that it has been assumed[1] that hewould continue his labour, and accomplish his given task, as well in theabsence of his keeper as during his presence. But here his innate loveof ease displays itself, and if the eye of his attendant be withdrawn, the moment he has finished the thing immediately in hand, he will strollaway lazily, to browse or enjoy the luxury of fanning himself andblowing dust over his back. [Footnote 1: _Ibid. _, ch. Vi. P. 138. ] The means of punishing so powerful an animal is a question of difficultyto his attendants. Force being almost inapplicable, they try to work onhis passions and feelings, by such expedients as altering the nature ofhis food or withholding it altogether for a time. Ou such occasions thedemeanour of the creature will sometimes evince a sense of humiliationas well as of discontent. In some parts of India it is customary, indealing with offenders, to stop their allowance of sugar canes or ofjaggery; or to restrain them from eating their own share of fodder andleaves till their companions shall have finished; and in such cases theconsciousness of degradation betrayed by the looks and attitudes of theculprit is quite sufficient to identify him, and to excite a feeling ofsympathy and pity. The elephant's obedience to his keeper is the result of affection, aswell as of fear; and although his attachment becomes so strong that anelephant in Ceylon has been known to remain out all night, without food, rather than abandon his mahout, lying intoxicated in the jungle, yet hemanifests little difficulty in yielding the same submission to a newdriver in the event of a change of attendants. This is opposed to thepopular belief that "the elephant cherishes such an enduring remembranceof his old mahout, that he cannot easily be brought to obey astranger. "[1] In the extensive establishments of the Ceylon Government, the keepers are changed without hesitation, and the animals, whenequally kindly treated, are usually found to be as tractable andobedient to their new driver as to the old, in fact so soon as they havebecome familiarised with his voice. This is not, however, invariably thecase; and Mr. CRIPPS, who had remarkable opportunities for observing thehabits of the elephant in Ceylon, mentioned to me an instance in whichone of a singularly stubborn disposition occasioned some inconvenienceafter the death of its keeper, by refusing to obey any other, till itsattendants bethought them of a child about twelve years old, in adistant village, where the animal had been formerly picketed, and towhom it had displayed much attachment. The child was sent for: and onits arrival the elephant, as anticipated, manifested extremesatisfaction, and was managed with ease, till by degrees it becamereconciled to the presence of a new superintendent. [Footnote 1: _Menageries, &c. _, "The Elephant, " vol. I. P. 19. ] It has been said that the mahouts die young, owing to some supposedinjury to the spinal column from the peculiar motion of the elephant;but this remark does not apply to those in Ceylon, who are healthy, andas long lived as other men. If the motion of the elephant be thusinjurious, that of the camel must be still more so; yet we never hear ofearly death ascribed to this cause by the Arabs. The voice of the keeper, with a very limited vocabulary of articulatesounds, serves almost alone to guide the elephant in his domesticoccupations. [1] Sir EVERARD HOME, from an examination of the muscularfibres in the drum of an elephant's ear, came to the conclusion, thatnotwithstanding the distinctness and power of his perception of soundsat a greater distance than other animals, he was insensible to theirharmonious modulation and destitute of a musical ear. [2] But ProfessorHARRISON, in a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy in 1847, hasstated that on a careful examination of the head of an elephant which hehad dissected, he could "see no evidence of the muscular structure ofthe _membrana tympani_ so accurately described by Sir E. HOME. " SirEVERARD'S deduction, I may observe, is clearly inconsistent with thefact that the power of two elephants may be combined by singing to thema measured chant, somewhat resembling a sailor's capstan song; and inlabour of a particular kind, such as hauling a stone with ropes, theywill thus move conjointly a weight to which their divided strength wouldbe unequal. [3] [Footnote 1: The principal sound by which the mahouts in Ceylon directthe motions of the elephants is a repetition, with various modulations, of the words _ur-re! ur-re!_ This is one of those interjections in whichthe sound is so expressive of the sense that persons in charge ofanimals of almost every description throughout the world appear to haveadopted it with a concurrence that is very curious. The drivers ofcamels in Turkey, Palestine, and Egypt encourage them to speed byshouting _ar-ré! ar-ré!_ The Arabs in Algeria cry _eirich!_ to theirmules. The Moors seem to have carried the custom with them into Spain, where mules are still driven with cries of _arré_ (whence the muleteersderive their Spanish appellation of "arrieros"). In France the Sportsmanexcites the hound by shouts of _hare! hare!_ and the waggoner thereturns his horses by his voice, and the use of the word _hurhaut!_ In theNorth, "_Hurs_ was a word used by the old Germans in urging their horsesto speed;" and to the present day, the herdsmen in Ireland, and parts ofScotland, drive their pigs with shouts of _hurrish!_ a sound closelyresembling that used by the mahouts in Ceylon. ] [Footnote 2: _On the Difference between the Human Membrana Tympani andthat of the Elephant_. By Sir EVERARD HOME, Bart. , Philos. Trans. , 1823. Paper by Prof. HARRISON. Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. Iii. P. 386. ] [Footnote 3: I have already noticed the striking effect produced on thecaptive elephants in the corral, by the harmonious notes of an ivoryflute; and on looking to the graphic description which is given by ÆLIANof the exploits which he witnessed as performed by the elephantsexhibited at Rome, it is remarkable how very large a share of theirtraining appears to have been ascribed to the employment of music. PHILE, in the account which he has given of the elephant's fondness formusic, would almost seem to have versified the prose narrative of ÆLIAN, as he describes its excitement at the more animated portions, its stepbeing regulated to the time and movements of the harmony: the whole"_surprising in a creature whose limbs are without joints!_ [Greek: "Kainon ti poiôn ex anarthrôn organôn. "] PHILE, _Expos. De Eleph_, 1. 216. For an account of the training and performances of the elephants atRome, as narrated by ÆLIAN see the appendix to this chapter. ] Nothing can more strongly exhibit the impulse to obedience in theelephant, than the patience with which, at the order of his keeper, heswallows the nauseous medicines of the native elephant-doctors; and itis impossible to witness the fortitude with which (without shrinking) hesubmits to excruciating surgical operations for the removal of tumoursand ulcers to which he is subject, without conceiving a vivid impressionof his gentleness and intelligence. Dr. DAVY when in Ceylon wasconsulted about an elephant in the government Stud, which was sufferingfrom a deep, burrowing sore in the back, just over the back-bone, whichhad long resisted the treatment ordinarily employed. He recommended theuse of the knife, that issue might be given to the accumulated matter, but no one of the attendants was competent to undertake the operation. "Being assured, " he continues, "that the creature would behave well, Iundertook it myself. The elephant was not bound, but was made to kneeldown at his keeper's command--and with an amputating knife, using all myforce, I made the incision required through the tough integuments. Theelephant did not flinch, but rather inclined towards me when using theknife; and merely uttered a low, and as it were suppressed, groan. Inshort, he behaved as like a human being as possible, as if conscious (asI believe he was), that the operation was for his good, and the painunavoidable. "[1] [Footnote 1: The _Angler in the Lake District_, p. 23. ] Obedience to the orders of his keepers is not, however, to be assumed asthe result of a uniform perception of the object to be attained bycompliance; and we cannot but remember the touching incident which tookplace during the slaughter of the elephant at Exeter Change in 1846, when, after receiving ineffectually upwards of 120 balls in variousparts of his body, he turned his face to his assailants on hearing thevoice of his keeper, and knelt down at the accustomed word of command, so as to bring his forehead within view of the rifles. [1] [Footnote 1: A shocking account of the death of this poor animal isgiven in HONE'S _Every-Day Book_, March, 1830, p. 337. ] The working elephant is always a delicate animal, and requireswatchfulness and care. As a beast of burden he is unsatisfactory; foralthough in point of mere strength there is scarcely any weight whichcould be conveniently placed on him that he could not carry, it isdifficult to pack his load without causing abrasions that afterwardsulcerate. His skin is easily chafed by harness, especially in wetweather. During either long droughts or too much moisture, his feetbecome liable to sores, that render him non-effective for months. Manyattempts have been made to provide him with some protection for the soleof the foot, but from his extreme weight and peculiar mode of plantingthe foot, they have all been unsuccessful. His eyes are also liable tofrequent inflammations, and the skill of the native elephant-doctors, which has been renowned since the time of Ælian, is nowhere morestrikingly displayed than in the successful treatment of suchattacks. [1] In Ceylon, the murrain among cattle is of frequentoccurrence, and carries off great numbers of animals, wild as well astame. In such visitations the elephants suffer severely, not only thoseat liberty in the forest, but those carefully tended in the governmentstables. Out of a stud of about 40 attached to the department of theCommission of Roads, the deaths between 1841 and 1849 were on an average_four_ in each year, and this was nearly doubled in those years whenmurrain prevailed. [Footnote 1: ÆLIAN, lib. Xiii. C. 7. ] Of 240 elephants, employed in the public departments of the CeylonGovernment, which died in twenty-five years, from 1831 to 1856, thelength of time that each lived in captivity has only been recorded inthe instances of 138. Of these there died:-- Duration of Captivity. No. Male. Female Under 1 year 72 29 43 From 1 to 2 years 14 5 9 " 2 " 3 " 8 5 3 " 3 " 4 " 8 3 5 " 4 " 5 " 3 2 1 " 5 " 6 " 2 2 . " 6 " 7 " 3 1 2 " 7 " 8 " 5 2 3 " 8 " 9 " 5 5 . " 9 " 10 " 2 2 . " 10 " 11 " 2 2 . " 11 " 12 " 3 1 2 " 12 " 13 " 3 . 3 " 13 " 14 " . . . " 14 " 15 " 3 1 2 " 15 " 16 " 1 1 . " 16 " 17 " 1 . 1 " 17 " 18 " . . . " 18 " 19 " 2 1 1 " 19 " 20 " 1 . 1 Total 138 62 76 Of the 72 who died in one year's servitude, 35 expired within the firstsix months of their captivity. During training, many elephants die inthe unaccountable manner already referred to, of what the nativesdesignate _a broken heart_. On being first subjected to work, the elephant is liable to severe andoften fatal swellings of the jaws and abdomen. [1] [Footnote 1: The elephant which was dissected by DR. HARRISON of Dublin, in 1847, died of a febrile attack, after four or five days' illness, which, as Dr. H. Tells me in a private letter, was "very likescarlatina, at that time a prevailing disease; its skin in some placesbecame almost scarlet. "] From these causes there died, between 1841 and 1849 9 Of cattle murrain 10 Sore feet 1 Colds and inflammation 6 Diarrhoea 1 Worms 1 Of diseased liver 1 Injuries from a fall 1 General debility 1 Unknown causes 3 Of the entire, twenty-three were females and eleven males. The ages of those that died could not be accurately stated, owing to thecircumstance of their having been captured in corral. Two only weretuskers. Towards keeping the stud in health, nothing has been found soconducive as regularly bathing the elephants, and giving them theopportunity to stand with their feet in water, or in moistened earth. Elephants are said to be afflicted with tooth-ache; their tushes havelikewise been found with symptoms of internal perforation by someparasite, and the natives assert that, in their agony, the animals havebeen known to break them off short. [1] I have never heard of the teeththemselves being so affected, and it is just possible that the operationof shedding the subsequent decay of the milk-tushes, may have in someinstances been accompanied by incidents that gave rise to this story. [Footnote 1: See a paper entitled "_Recollections of Ceylon_, " in_Fraser's Magazine_ for December, 1860. ] At the same time the probabilities are in favour of its being true. CUVIER committed himself to the statement that the tusks of the elephanthave no attachments to connect them with the pulp lodged in the cavityat their base, from which the peculiar modification of dentine, known as"ivory, " is secreted[1]; and hence, by inference, that they would bedevoid of sensation. [Footnote 1: _Annales du Muséum_ F. Viii. 1805. P. 94, and _OssemensFossiles_, quoted by OWEN, in the article on "Teeth, " in TODD'S _Cyclop. Of Anatomy, &c_. , vol. Iv. P. 929. ] But independently of the fact that ivory in permeated by tubes so finethat at their origin from the pulpy cavity they do not exceed 1/15000thpart of an inch in diameter, OWEN had the tusk and pulp of the greatelephant which died at the Zoological Gardens in London in 1847longitudinally divided, and found that, "although the pulp could beeasily detached from the inner surface of the cavity, it was not withouta certain resistance; and when the edges of the co-adapted pulp and tuskwere examined by a strong lens, the filamentary processes from the outersurface of the former could be seen stretching, as they were drawn fromthe dentinal tubes, before they broke. These filaments are so minute, headds, that to the naked eye the detached surface of the pulp seems to beentire; and hence CUVIER was deceived into supposing that there was noorganic connexion between the pulp and the ivory. But if, as there seemsno reason to doubt, these delicate nervous processes traverse the tuskby means of the numerous tubes already described, if attacked by cariesthe pain occasioned to the elephant would be excruciating. As to maintaining a stud of elephants for the purposes to which they arenow assigned in Ceylon, there may be a question on the score of prudenceand economy. In the rude and unopened parts of the country, where riversare to be forded, and forests are only traversed by jungle paths, theirlabour is of value, in certain contingencies, in the conveyance ofstores, and in the earlier operations for the construction of fords andrough bridges of timber. But in more highly civilised districts, andwherever macadamised roads admit of the employment of horses and oxenfor draught, I apprehend that the services of elephants might, withadvantage, be gradually reduced, if not altogether dispensed with. The love of the elephant for coolness and shade renders him at all timesmore or less impatient of work in the sun, and every moment of leisurehe can snatch is employed in covering his back with dust, or fanninghimself to diminish the annoyance of the insects and heat. From thetenderness of his skin and its liability to sores, the labour in whichhe can most advantageously be employed is that of draught; but thereluctance of horses to meet or pass elephants renders it difficult towork the latter with safety on frequented roads. Besides, were the fullload which an elephant is capable of drawing, in proportion to hismuscular strength, to be placed upon waggons of corresponding dimension, the to the roads would be such that the wear and tear of the highwaysand bridges would prove too costly to be borne. On the other hand, byrestricting it to a somewhat more manageable quantity, and by limitingthe weight, as at present, to about _one ton and a half_, it is doubtfulwhether an elephant performs so much more work than could be done by ahorse or by bullocks, as to compensate for the greater cost of hisfeeding and attendance. Add to this, that from accidents and other causes, from ulcerations ofthe skin, and illnesses of many kinds, the elephant is so ofteninvalided, that the actual cost of his labour, when at work, is veryconsiderably enhanced. Exclusive of the salaries of higher officersattached to the government establishments, and other permanent charges, the expenses of an elephant, looking only to the wages of his attendantsand the cost of his food and medicines, varies from _three shillings tofour shillings and sixpence_, per diem, according to his size andclass. [1] Taking the average at three shillings and nine-pence, andcalculating that hardly any individual works more than four days out ofseven, the charge for each day so employed would amount to _sixshillings and sixpence_. The keep per day of a powerful dray-horse, working five days in the week, would not exceed half-a-crown, and twosuch would unquestionably do more work than any elephant under thepresent system. I do not know whether it be from a comparativecalculation of this kind that the strength of the elephantestablishments in Ceylon has been gradually diminished of late years, but in the department of the Commissioner of Roads, the stud, whichformerly numbered upwards of sixty elephants, was reduced, some yearsago, to thirty-six, and is at present less than half that number. [Footnote 1: An ordinary-sized elephant engrosses the undividedattention of _three_ men. One, as his mahout or superintendent, and twoas leaf-cutters, who bring him branches and grass for his dailysupplies. An animal of larger growth would probably require a thirdleaf-cutter. The daily consumption is two cwt. Of green food with abouthalf a bushel of grain. When in the vicinity of towns and villages, theattendants have no difficulty in procuring an abundant supply of thebranches of the trees to which elephants are partial; and in journeysthrough the forests and unopened country, the leaf-cutters aresufficiently expert in the knowledge of those particular plants withwhich the elephant is satisfied. Those that would be likely to disagreewith him he unerringly rejects. His favourites are the palms, especiallythe cluster of rich, unopened leaves, known as the "cabbage, " of thecoco-nut, and areca; and he delights to tear open the young trunks ofthe palmyra and jaggery (_Caryota urens_) in search of the farinaceousmatter contained in the spongy pith. Next to these come the varieties offig-trees. Particularly the sacred _Bo_ (_F. Religiosa_) which is foundnear every temple, and the _na gaha_ (_Messua ferrea_), with thick darkleaves and a scarlet flower. The leaves of the Jak-tree and bread-fruit(_Artocarpus integrifolia_, and _A. Incisa_), the Wood apple (_ÆgleMarmelos_), Palu (_Mimusops Indica_), and a number of others well knownto their attendants, are all consumed in turn. The stems of theplaintain, the stalks of the sugar-cane, and the feathery tops of thebamboos, are irresistible luxuries. Pine-apples, water-melons, andfruits of every description, are voraciously devoured, and a coco-nutwhen found is first rolled under foot to detach it from the husk andfibre, and then raised in his trunk and crushed, almost without aneffort, by his ponderous jaws. The grasses are not found in sufficient quantity to be an item of dailyfodder; the Mauritius or the Guinea grass is seized with avidity; lemongrass is rejected from its overpowering perfume, but rice in the straw, and every description of grain, whether growing or dry; gram (_Cicerarietinum_), Indian Corn, and millet are his natural food. Of such ofthese as can be found, it is the duty of the leaf-cutters, when in thejungle and on march, to provide a daily supply. ] The fallacy of the supposed reluctance of the elephant to breed incaptivity has been demonstrated by many recent authorities; but with theexception of the birth of young elephants at Rome, as mentioned byÆLIAN, the only instances that I am aware of their actually producingyoung under such circumstances, took place in Ceylon. Both parents hadbeen for several years attached to the stud of the Commissioner ofRoads, and in 1844 the female, whilst engaged in dragging a waggon, gavebirth to a still-born calf. Some years before, an elephant that had beencaptured by Mr. Cripps, dropped a female calf, which he succeeded inrearing. As usual, the little one became the pet of the keepers; but asit increased in growth, it exhibited the utmost violence when thwarted;striking out with its hind-feet, throwing itself headlong on the ground, and pressing its trunk against any opposing object. The duration of life in the elephant has been from the remotest times amatter of uncertainty and speculation. Aristotle says it was reputed tolive from two to three hundred years[1], and modern zoologists haveassigned to it an age very little less; CUVIER[2] allots two hundred andDE BLAINVILLE one hundred and twenty. The only attempt which I know ofto establish a period historically or physiologically is that ofFLEURENS, who has advanced an ingenious theory on the subject in histreatise "_De la Longévité Humaine_. " He assumes the sum total of lifein all animals to be equivalent to five times the number of yearsrequisite to perfect their growth and development;--and he adopts asevidence of the period at which growth ceases, the final consolidationof the bones with their _epiphyses_; which in the young consist ofcartilages; but in the adult become uniformly osseous and solid. So longas the epiphyses are distinct from the bones, the growth of the animalis proceeding, but it ceases so soon as the consolidation is complete. In man, according to FLEURENS, this consummation takes place at 20 yearsof age, in the horse at 5, in the dog at 2; so that conformably to thistheory the respective normal age for each would be 100 years for man, 25for the horse, and 10 for a dog. As a datum for his conclusion, FLEURENScites the instance of one young elephant in which, at 26 years old, theepiphyses were still distinct, whereas in another, which died at 31, they were firm and adherent. Hence he draws the inference that theperiod of completed solidification is thirty years, and consequentlythat the normal age of the elephant is _one hundred and fifty_. [3] [Footnote 1: ARISTOTELES _de Anim. L. Viii. _ c. 9. ] [Footnote 2: _Menag. De Mus. Nat. _ p. 107. ] [Footnote 3: FLEURENS, _De la Longévité Humaine_, pp. 82, 89. ] Amongst the Singhalese the ancient fable of the elephant attaining tothe age of two or three hundred years still prevails; but the Europeans, and those in immediate charge of tame ones, entertain the opinion thatthe duration of life for about _seventy_ years is common both to man andthe elephant; and that before the arrival of the latter period, symptomsof debility and decay ordinarily begin to manifest themselves. Stillinstances are not wanting in Ceylon of trained decoys that have livedfor more than double the reputed period in actual servitude. Oneemployed by Mr. Cripps in the Seven Korles was represented by theCooroowe people to have served the king of Kandy in the same capacitysixty years before; and amongst the papers left by Colonel Robertson(son to the historian of "Charles V. "), who held a command in Ceylon in1799, shortly after the capture of the island by the British, I havefound a memorandum showing that a decoy was then attached to theelephant establishment at Matura, which the records proved to haveserved under the Dutch during the entire period of their occupation(extending to upwards of one hundred and forty years); and it was saidto have been found in the stables by the Dutch on the expulsion of thePortugese in 1656. It is perhaps from this popular belief in their almost illimitable age, that the natives generally assert that the body of a dead elephant isseldom or never to be discovered in the woods. And certain it is thatfrequenters of the forest with whom I have conversed, whether Europeanor Singhalese, are consistent in their assurances that they have neverfound the remains of an elephant that had died a natural death. Onechief, the Wannyah of the Trincomalie district, told a friend of mine, that once after a severe murrain, which had swept the province, he foundthe carcases of elephants that had died of the disease. On the otherhand, a European gentleman, who for thirty-six years withoutintermission has been living in the jungle, ascending to the summits ofmountains in the prosecution of the trigonometrical survey, andpenetrating valleys in tracing roads and opening means ofcommunication, --one, too, who has made the habits of the wild elephant asubject of constant observation and study, --has often expressed to mehis astonishment that after seeing many thousands of living elephants inall possible situations, he had never yet found a single skeleton of adead one, except of those which had fallen by the rifle. [1] [Footnote 1: This remark regarding the elephant of Ceylon does notappear to extend to that of Africa, as I observe that BEAVER, in his_African Memoranda, _ says that "the skeletons of old ones that have diedin the woods are frequently found. "--_African Memoranda relative to anattempt to establish British Settlements at the Island of Bulama_. Lond. 1815, p. 353. ] It has been suggested that the bones of the elephant, may be so porousand spongy as to disappear in consequence of an early decomposition; butthis remark would not apply to the grinders or to the tusks; besideswhich, the inference is at variance with the fact, that not only thehorns and teeth, but entire skeletons of deer, are frequently found inthe districts inhabited by the elephant. The natives, to account for this popular belief, declare that thesurvivors of the herd bury such of their companions as die a naturaldeath. [1] It is curious that this belief was current also amongst theGreeks of the Lower Empire; and PHILE, writing early in the fourteenthcentury, not only describes the younger elephants as tending thewounded, but as burying the dead: [Greek: "Otan d' epistê tês teleutês o chronos Koinou telous amunan oxenos pherei]. "[2] [Footnote 1: A corral was organised near Putlam in 1846, by Mr. Morris, the chief officer of the district. It was constructed across one of thepaths which the elephants frequent in their frequent marches, and duringthe course of the proceedings two of the captured elephants died. Theircarcases were left of course within the enclosure, which was abandonedas soon as the capture was complete. The wild elephants resumed theirpath through it, and a few days afterwards the headman reported to Mr. Morris that the bodies had been removed and carried outside the corralto a spot to which nothing but the elephants could have borne them. ] [Footnote 2: PHILE, _Expositio de Eleph. _ l. 243. ] The Singhalese have a further superstition in relation to the close oflife in the elephant: they believe that, on feeling the approach ofdissolution, he repairs to a solitary valley, and there resigns himselfto death. A native who accompanied Mr. Cripps, when hunting, in theforests of Anarajapoora, intimated to him that he was then in theimmediate vicinity of the spot "_to which the elephants come to die_, "but that it was so mysteriously concealed, that although every onebelieved in its existence, no one had ever succeeded in penetrating toit. At the corral which I have described at Kornegalle, in 1847, Dehigame, one of the Kandyan chiefs, assured me it was the universalbelief of his countrymen, that the elephants, when about to die, resorted to a valley in Saffragam, among the mountains to the east ofAdam's Peak, which was reached by a narrow pass with walls of rock oneither side, and that there, by the side of a lake of clear water, theytook their last repose. [1] It was not without interest that I afterwardsrecognised this tradition in the story of _Sinbad of the Sea_, who inhis Seventh Voyage, after conveying the presents of Haroun al Raschid tothe king of Serendib, is wrecked on his return from Ceylon, and sold asa slave to a master who employs him in shooting elephants for the sakeof their ivory; till one day the tree on which he was stationed havingbeen uprooted by one of the herd, he fell senseless to the ground, andthe great elephant approaching wound his trunk around him and carriedhim away, ceasing not to proceed, until he had taken him to a placewhere, his terror having subsided, _he found himself amongst the bonesof elephants, and knew that this was their burial place_. [2] It iscurious to find this legend of Ceylon in what has, not inaptly, beendescribed as the "Arabian Odyssey" of Sinbad; the original of whichevidently embodies the romantic recitals of the sailors returning fromthe navigation of the Indian Seas, in the middle ages[3], which werecurrent amongst the Mussulmans, and are reproduced in various formsthroughout the tales of the _Arabian Nights_. [Footnote 1: The selection by animals of a _place to die_, is notconfined to the elephant, DARWIN says, that in South America "theguanacos (llamas) appear to have favourite spots for lying down to die;on the banks of the Santa Cruz river, in certain circumscribed spaceswhich were generally bushy and all near the water, the ground wasactually white with their bones; on one such spot I counted between tenand twenty heads. "--_Nat. Voy. _ ch. Viii. The same has been remarked inthe Rio Gallegos; and at St. Jago in the Cape de Verde Islands, DARWINsaw a retired corner similarly covered with the bones of the goat, as ifit were "the burial-ground of all the goats in the island. "] [Footnote 2: _Arabian Nights' Entertainment_, LANE'S edition, vol. Iii. P. 77. ] [Footnote 3: See a disquisition on the origin of the story of Sinbad, byM. REINAUD, in the introduction prefixed to his translation of the_Arabian Geography of Aboulfeda_, vol. I. P. Lxxvi. ] * * * * * APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VII. * * * * * As Ælian's work on the _Nature of Animals_ has never, I believe, beenrepublished in any English version, and the passage in relation to thetraining and performance of elephants is so pertinent to the presentinquiry, I venture to subjoin a translation of the 11th Chapter of his2nd Book. "Of the cleverness of the elephant I have spoken elsewhere, and likewiseof the manner of hunting. I have mentioned these things, a few out ofthe many which others have stated; but for the present I purpose tospeak of their musical feeling, their tractability, and facility inlearning what it is difficult for even a human being to acquire, muchless a beast, hitherto so wild:--such as to dance, as is done on thestage; to walk with a measured gait; to listen to the melody of theflute and to perceive the difference of sounds, that, being pitched lowlead to a slow movement, or high to a quick one: all this the elephantlearns and understands, and is accurate withal, and makes no mistake. Thus has Nature formed him not only the greatest in size, but the mostgentle and the most easily taught. Now if I were going to write aboutthe tractability and aptitude to learn amongst those of India, Æthiopia, and Libya, I should probably appear to be concocting a tale and actingthe braggart, or to be telling a falsehood respecting the nature of theanimal founded on a mere report, all which it behoves a philosopher, andmost of all one who is an ardent lover of truth, not to do. But what Ihave seen myself, and what others have described as having occurred atRome, this I have chosen to relate, selecting a few facts out of many, to show the particular nature of those creatures. The elephant whentamed is an animal most gentle and most easily led to do whatever he isdirected. And by way of showing honour to time, I will first narrateevents of the oldest date. Cæsar Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius, exhibited once a public show, wherein there were many full-grownelephants, male and female, and some of their breed born in thiscountry. When their limbs were beginning to become firm, a personfamiliar with such animals instructed them by a strange and surpassingmethod of teaching; using only gentleness and kindness, and adding tohis mild lessons the bait of pleasant and varied food. By this means heled them by degrees to throw off all wildness, and, as it were, todesert to a state of civilisation, conducting themselves in a manneralmost human. He taught them neither to be excited on hearing the pipe, nor to be disturbed by the beat of drum, but to be soothed by the soundsof the reed, and to endure unmusical noises and the clatter of feet frompersons while marching; and they were trained to feel no fear of a massof men, nor to be enraged at the infliction of blows, not even whencompelled to twist their limbs and to bend them like a stage-dancer, andthis too although endowed with strength and might. And there is in thisa very noble addition to nature, not to conduct themselves in adisorderly manner and disobediently towards the instructions of man; forafter the dancing-master had made them expert, and they had learnt theirlessons accurately, they did not belie the labour of his instructionwhenever a necessity and opportunity called upon them to exhibit whatthey had been taught. For the whole troop came forward from this andthat side of the theatre, and divided themselves into parties: theyadvanced walking with a mincing gait and exhibiting in their whole bodyand persons the manners of a beau, clothed in the flowery dresses ofdancers; and on the ballet-master giving a signal with his voice, theyfell into line and went round in a circle, and if it were requisite todeploy they did so. They ornamented the floor of the stage by throwingflowers upon it, and this they did in moderation and sparingly, andstraightway they beat a measure with their feet and kept time together. "Now that Damon and Spintharus and Aristoxenus and Xenophilus andPhiloxenus and others should know music excellently well, and for theircleverness be ranked amongst the few, is indeed a thing of wonder, butnot incredible nor contrary at all to reason. For this reason that a manis a rational animal, and the recipient of mind and intelligence. Butthat a jointless animal ([Greek: anarthron]) should understand rhythmand melody, and preserve a gesture, and not deviate from a measuredmovement, and fulfil the requirements of those who laid downinstructions, these are gifts of nature, I think, and a peculiarity inevery way astounding. Added to these there were things enough to drivethe spectator out of his senses; when the strewn rushes and othermaterials for beds on the ground were placed on the sand of the theatre, and they received stuffed mattrasses such as belonged to rich houses andvariegated bed coverings, and goblets were placed there, very expensive, and bowls of gold and silver, and in them a great quantity of water; andtables were placed there of sweet-smelling wood and ivory very superb:and upon them flesh meats and loaves enough to fill the stomachs ofanimals the most voracious. When the preparations were completed andabundant, the banqueters came forward, six male and an equal number offemale elephants; the former had on a male dress, and the latter afemale; and on a signal being given they stretched forward their trunksin a subdued manner, and took their food in great moderation, and notone of them appeared to be gluttonous greedy, or to snatch at a greaterportion, as did the Persian mentioned by Xenophon. And when it wasrequisite to drink, a bowl was placed by the side of each; and inhalingwith their trunks they took a draught very orderly; and then theyscattered the drink about in fun; but not as in insult. Many other actsof a similar kind, both clever and astonishing, have persons described, relating to the peculiarities of these animals, and I saw them writingletters on Roman tablets with their trunks, neither looking awry norturning aside. The hand, however, of the teacher was placed so as to bea guide in the formation of the letters; and while it was writing theanimal kept its eye fixed down in an accomplished and scholarlikemanner. " CHAP. VIII. BIRDS. Of the _Birds_ of the island, upwards of three hundred and twentyspecies have been indicated, for which we are indebted to thepersevering labours of Dr. Templeton, Dr. Kelaart, and Mr. Layard; butmany yet remain to be identified. In fact, to the eye of a stranger, their prodigious numbers, and especially the myriads of waterfowl which, notwithstanding the presence of the crocodiles, people the lakes andmarshes in the eastern provinces, form one of the marvels of Ceylon. In the glory of their plumage, the birds of the interior are surpassedby those of South America and Northern India; and the melody of theirsong bears no comparison with that of the warblers of Europe, but thewant of brilliancy is compensated by their singular grace of form, andthe absence of prolonged and modulated harmony by the rich and melodioustones of their clear and musical calls. In the elevations of the Kandyancountry there are a few, such as the robin of Neuera-ellia[1] and thelong-tailed thrush[2], whose song rivals that of their Europeannamesakes; but, far beyond the attraction of their notes, the travellerrejoices in the flute-like voices of the Oriole, the Dayal-bird[3], andsome others equally charming; when at the first dawn of day, they wakethe forest with their clear _réveil_. [Footnote 1: Pratincola atrata, _Kelaart_. ] [Footnote 2: Kittacincla macrura, _Gm_. ] [Footnote 3: Copsychussaularis, _Linn. _. Called by the Europeans inCeylon the "Magpie Robin. " This is not to be confounded with the otherpopular favourite the "Indian Robin" (Thamnobia fulicata, _Linn. _), which is "never seen in the unfrequented jungle, but, like the coco-nutpalm, which the Singhalese assert will only flourish within the sound ofthe human voice, it is always found near the habitations of men. "--E. L. LAYARD. ] It is only on emerging from the dense woods and coming into the vicinityof the lakes and pasture of the low country, that birds become visiblein great quantities. In the close jungle one occasionally hears the callof the copper-smith[1], or the strokes of the great orange-colouredwoodpecker[2] as it beats the decaying trees in search of insects, whilst clinging to the bark with its finely-pointed claws, and leaningfor support upon the short stiff feathers of its tail. And on the loftybranches of the higher trees, the hornbill[3] (the toucan of the East), with its enormous double casque, sits to watch the motions of the tinyreptiles and smaller birds on which it preys, tossing them into the airwhen seized, and catching them in its gigantic mandibles as theyfall. [4] The remarkable excrescence on the beak of this extraordinarybird may serve to explain the statement of the Minorite friar Odoric, ofPortenau in Friuli, who travelled in Ceylon in the fourteenth century, and brought suspicion on the veracity of his narrative by asserting thathe had there seen "_birds with two heads_. "[5] [Footnote 1: The greater red-headed Barbet (Megalaima indica, _Lath_. ;M. Philippensis, _var. A. Lath_. ), the incessant din of which resemblesthe blows of a smith hammering a cauldron. ] [Footnote 2: Brachypternus aurantius, _Linn. _] [Footnote 3: Buceros pica, _Scop_. ; B. Malaharicus, _Jerd_. The nativesassert that B. Pica builds in holes in the trees, and that whenincubation has fairly commenced, the female takes her seat on the eggs, and the male closes up the orifice by which she entered, leaving only asmall aperture through which he feeds his partner, whilst shesuccessfully guards their treasures from the monkey tribes; herformidable bill nearly filling the entire entrance. See a paper by EdgarL. Layard, Esq. _Mag. Nat. Hist. _ March, 1853. Dr. Horsfield hadpreviously observed the same habit in a species of Buceros in Java. (SeeHORSFIELD and MOORE'S _Catal. Birds_, E. I. Comp. Mus. Vol. Ii. ) It iscurious that a similar trait, though necessarily from very differentinstincts, is exhibited by the termites, who literally build a cellround the great progenitrix of the community, and feed her throughapertures. ] [Footnote 4: The hornbill is also frugivorous, and the natives assertthat when endeavouring to detach a fruit, if the stem is too tough to besevered by his mandibles, he flings himself off the branch so as to addthe weight of his body to the pressure of his beak. The hornbill aboundsin Cuttack, and bears there the name of "Kuchila-Kai, " or Kuchila-eater, from its partiality for the fruit of the Strychnus nuxvomica. Thenatives regard its flesh as a sovereign specific for rheumaticaffections. --_Asiat. Res. _ ch. Xv. P. 184. ] [Footnote 5: _Itinerarius_ FRATRIS ODORICI, de Foro Julii dePortu-vahonis, &c. --HAKLUYT, vol. Ii. P. 39. ] [Illustration: THE HORNBILL. ] The Singhalese have a belief that the hornbill never resorts to thewater to drink; but that it subsists exclusively by what it catches inits prodigious bill while rain is falling. This they allege isassociated with the incessant screaming which it keeps up duringshowers. As we emerge from the dark shade, and approach park-like openings on theverge of the low country, quantities of pea-fowl are to be found eitherfeeding on the seeds among the long grass or sunning themselves on thebranches of the surrounding trees. Nothing to be met with in Englishdemesnes can give an adequate idea of the size and magnificence of thismatchless bird when seen in his native solitudes. Here he generallyselects some projecting branch, from which his plumage may hang free ofthe foliage, and, if there be a dead and leafless bough, he is certainto choose it for his resting-place, whence he droops his wings andsuspends his gorgeous train, or spreads it in the morning sun to driveoff the damps and dews of the night. In some of the unfrequented portions of the eastern province, to whichEuropeans rarely resort, and where the pea-fowl are unmolested by thenatives, their number is so extraordinary that, regarded as game, itceases to be "sport" to destroy them; and their cries at early dawn areso tumultuous and incessant as to banish sleep, and amount to an actualinconvenience. Their flesh is excellent in flavour when served up hot, though it is said to be indigestible; but, when cold, it contracts areddish and disagreeable tinge. The European fable of the jackdaw borrowing the plumage of the peacock, has its counterpart in Ceylon, where the popular legend runs that thepea-fowl stole the plumage of a bird called by the natives _avitchia_. Ihave not been able to identify the species which bears this name; but itutters a cry resembling the word _matkiang!_ which in Singhalese means, "I _will_ complain!" This they believe is addressed by the bird to therising sun, imploring redress for its wrongs. The _avitchia_ isdescribed as somewhat less than a crow, the colours of its plumage beinggreen, mingled with red. But of all, the most astonishing in point of multitude, as well as themost interesting from their endless variety, are the myriads of aquaticbirds and waders which frequent the lakes and watercourses; especiallythose along the coast near Batticaloa, between the mainland and the sandformations of the shore, and the innumerable salt marshes and lagoons tothe south of Trincomalie. These, and the profusion of perching birds, fly-catchers, finches, and thrushes, that appear in the open country, afford sufficient quarry for the raptorial and predatoryspecies--eagles, hawks, and falcons--whose daring sweeps and effortlessundulations are striking objects in the cloudless sky. I. ACCIPITRES. _Eagles_. --The Eagles, however, are small, and ascompared with other countries rare; except, perhaps, the crestedeagle[1], which haunts the mountain provinces and the lower hills, disquieting the peasantry by its ravages amongst their poultry; and thegloomy serpent eagle[2], which, descending from its eyrie in the loftyjungle, and uttering a loud and plaintive cry, sweeps cautiously aroundthe lonely tanks and marshes, to feed upon the reptiles on their margin. The largest eagle is the great sea Erne[3], seen on the northern coastsand the salt lakes of the eastern provinces, particularly when thereceding tide leaves bare an expanse of beach, over which it hunts, incompany with the fishing eagle[4], sacred to Siva. Unlike itscompanions, however, the sea eagle rejects garbage for living prey, andespecially for the sea snakes which abound on the northern coasts. Theseit seizes by descending with its wings half closed, and, suddenlydarting down its talons, it soars aloft again with its writhingvictim. [5] [Footnote 1: Spizaëtuslimnaëtus, _Horsf_. The race of these birds in theDeccan and Ceylon are rather more crested, originating the Sp. Cristatellus, _Auct_. ] [Footnote 2: Which Gould believes to be the _Hæmatornis Bacha_, Daud. ] [Footnote 3: Pontoaëtus leucogaster, _Gmel_. ] [Footnote 4: Haliastur Indus, _Bodd. _] [Footnote 5: E. L. Layard. Europeans have given this bird the name of the"Brahminy Kite, " probably from observing the superstitious feeling ofthe natives regarding it, who believe that when two armies are about toengage, its appearance prognosticates victory to the party over whom ithovers. ] _Hawks_. --The beautiful Peregrine Falcon[1] is rare, but the Kestrel[2]is found almost universally; and the bold and daring Goshawk[3] whereverwild crags and precipices afford safe breeding places. In the districtof Anarajapoora, where it is trained for hawking, it is usual, in lieuof a hood, to darken its eyes by means of a silken thread passed throughholes in the eyelids. The ignoble birds of prey, the Kites[4], keepclose by the shore, and hover round the returning boats of the fishermento feast on the fry rejected from their nets. [Footnote 1: Falco peregrinus, _Linn. _] [Footnote 2: Tinnunculus alaudarius, _Briss. _] [Footnote 3: Astur trivirgatus, _Temm. _] [Footnote 4: Milvus govinda, _Sykes. _ Dr. Hamilton Buchanan remarks thatwhen gorged this bird delights to sit on the entablature of buildings, exposing its back to the hottest rays of the sun, placing its breastagainst the wall, and stretching out its wings _exactly as the EgyptianHawk is represented on the monuments_. ] _Owls_. --Of the nocturnal accipitres the most remarkable is the brownowl, which, from its hideous yell, has acquired the name of the"Devil-Bird. "[1] The Singhalese regard it literally with horror, and itsscream by night in the vicinity of a village is bewailed as theharbinger of impending calamity. [2] There is a popular legend inconnection with it, to the effect that a morose and savage husband, whosuspected the fidelity of his wife, availed himself of her absence tokill her child, of whose paternity he was doubtful, and on her returnplaced before her a curry prepared from its flesh. Of this the unhappywoman partook, till discovering the crime by finding the finger of herinfant, she fled in frenzy to the forest, and there destroyed herself. On her death she was metamorphosed, according to the Buddhist belief, into an _ulama_, or Devil-bird, which still at nightfall horrifies thevillagers by repeating the frantic screams of the bereaved mother in heragony. [Footnote 1: Syrnium Indranee, _Sykes. _ Mr. Blyth writes to me fromCalcutta that there are some doubts about this bird. There would appearto be three or four distinguishable races, the Ceylon bird approximatingmost nearly to that of the Malayan Peninsula. ] [Illustration: THE "DEVIL BIRD. "] [Footnote 2: The horror of this nocturnal scream was equally prevalentin the West as in the East. Ovid introduces it in his _Fasti_, L. Vi. L. 139; and Tibullus in his Elegies, L. I. El. 5. Statius says-- Nocturnæque gemunt striges, et feralla bubo _Damna canens_. Theb. Iii. L. 511. But Pliny, l. Xi. C. 93, doubts as to what bird produced the sound;--andthe details of Ovid's description do not apply to an owl. Mr. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil Service, to whom I am indebted for manyvaluable notes relative to the birds of the island, regards theidentification of the Singhalese Devil-Bird as open to similar doubt: hesays--"The Devil-Bird is not an owl. I never heard it until I came toKornegalle, where it haunts the rocky hill at the back ofGovernment-house. Its ordinary note is a magnificent clear shout likethat of a human being, and which can be heard at a great distance, andhas a fine effect in the silence of the closing night. It has anothercry like that of a hen just caught, but the sounds which have earned forit its bad name, and which I have heard but once to perfection, areindescribable, the most appalling that can be imagined, and scarcely tobe heard without shuddering; I can only compare it to a boy in torture, whose screams are being stopped by being strangled. I have offeredrewards for a specimen, but without success. The only European who hadseen and fired at one agreed with the natives that it is of the size ofa pigeon, with a long tail. I believe it is a Podargus or Night Hawk. "In a subsequent note he further says--"I have since seen two birds bymoonlight, one of the size and shape of a cuckoo, the other a largeblack bird, which I imagine to be the one which gives these calls. "] II. PASSERES. _Swallows_. --Within thirty-five miles of Caltura, on thewestern coast, are inland caves, to which the Esculent Swift[1] resorts, and there builds the "edible bird's nest, " so highly prized in China. Near the spot a few Chinese immigrants have established themselves, whorent the nests as a royalty from the government, and make an annualexport of the produce. But the Swifts are not confined to this district, and caves containing them have been found far in the interior, a factwhich complicates the still unexplained mystery of the composition oftheir nest; and, notwithstanding the power of wing possessed by thesebirds, adds something to the difficulty of believing that it consists ofglutinous material obtained from algæ. [2] In the nests brought to methere was no trace of organisation; and the original material, whateverit be, is so elaborated by the swallow as to present somewhat theappearance and consistency of strings of isinglass. The quantity ofthese nests exported from Ceylon is trifling. [Footnote 1: Collocalia brevirostris, _McClell_. ; C. Nidifica, _Gray_. ] [Footnote 2: An epitome of what has been written on this subject will befound in _Dr. Horsfield's Catalogue_ of the Birds in the E. I. Comp. Museum, vol. I. P. 101, &c. Mr. Morris assures me, that he has found thenests of the Esculent Swallow eighty miles distant from the sea. ] _Kingfishers_. --In solitary places, where no sound breaks the silenceexcept the gurgle of the river as it sweeps round the rocks, the lonelyKingfisher, the emblem of vigilance and patience, sits upon anoverhanging branch, his turquoise plumage hardly less intense in itslustre than the deep blue of the sky above him; and so intent is hiswatch upon the passing fish that intrusion fails to scare him from hispost. _Sun Birds_. --In the gardens the tiny Sun Birds[1] (known as the HummingBirds of Ceylon) hover all day long, attracted to the plants, over whichthey hang poised on their glittering wings, and inserting their curvedbeaks to extract the insects that nestle in the flowers. [Footnote 1: Nectarina Zeylanica, _Linn. _] Perhaps the most graceful of the birds of Ceylon in form and motions, and the most chaste in colouring, is the one which Europeans call "theBird of Paradise, "[1] and natives "the Cotton Thief, " from thecircumstance that its tail consists of two long white feathers, whichstream behind it as it flies. Mr. Layard says:--"I have often watchedthem, when seeking their insect prey, turn suddenly on their perch and_whisk their long tails with a jerk_ over the bough, as if to protectthem from injury. " [Footnote 1: Tchitrea paradisi, _Linn. _] [Illustration: TCHITREA PARADISI. ] The tail is sometimes brown, and the natives have the idea that the birdchanges its plumage at stated periods, and that the tail-feathers becomewhite and brown in alternate years. The fact of the variety of plumageis no doubt true, but this story as to the alternation of colours in thesame individual requires confirmation. [1] [Footnote 1: The engraving of the Tchitrea given on page 244 is copiedby permission from one of the splendid drawings in. MR. GOULD'S _Birdsof India_. ] _The Bulbul_. --The _Condatchee Bulbul_[1], which, from the crest on itshead, is called by the Singhalese the "Konda Cooroola, " or _Tuft bird_, is regarded by the natives as the most "_game_" of all birds; andtraining it to fight was one of the duties entrusted by the Kings ofKandy to the Cooroowa, or Head-man, who had charge of the King's animalsand Birds. For this purpose the Bulbul is taken from the nest as soon asthe sex is distinguishable by the tufted crown; and secured by a string, is taught to fly from hand to hand of its keeper. When pitted against anantagonist, such is the obstinate courage of this little creature thatit will sink from exhaustion rather than release its hold. Thispropensity, and the ordinary character of its notes, render itimpossible that the Bulbul of India could be identical with the Bulbulof Iran, the "Bird of a Thousand Songs, "[2] of which, poets say that itsdelicate passion for the rose gives a plaintive character to its note. [Footnote 1: Pycnonotus hæmorrhous, _Gmel_. ] [Footnote 2: "Hazardasitaum" the Persian name for the bulbul. "ThePersians, " according to Zakary ben Mohamed al Caswini, "say the bulbulhas a passion for the rose, and laments and cries when he sees itpulled. "--OUSELEY'S _Oriental Collections_, vol. I. P. 16. According toPallas it is the true nightingale of Europe, Sylvia luscinia, which theArmenians call _boulboul_, and the Crim-Tartars _byl-byl-i_. ] _Tailor-Bird_. --_The Weaver-Bird_. --The tailor-bird[1] having completedher nest, sewing together leaves by passing through them a cotton threadtwisted by herself, leaps from branch to branch to testify her happinessby a clear and merry note; and the Indian weaver[2], a still moreingenious artist, hangs its pendulous dwelling from a projecting bough;twisting it with grass into a form somewhat resembling a bottle with aprolonged neck, the entrance being inverted, so as to baffle theapproaches of its enemies, the tree snakes and other reptiles. Thenatives assert that the male bird carries fire flies to the nest, andfastens them to its sides by a particle of soft mud;--Mr. Layard assuresme that although he has never succeeded in finding the fire fly, thenest of the male bird (for the female occupies another duringincubation) invariably contains a patch of mud on each side of theperch. Grass is apparently the most convenient material for the purposesof the Weaver-bird when constructing its nest, but other substances areoften substituted, and some nests which I brought from Ceylon proved tobe formed with delicate strips from the fronds of the dwarf date-palm, _Phoenix paludosa_, which happened to grow near the breeding place. [Footnote 1: Orthotomus longicauda, _Gmel_. ] [Footnote 2: Ploceus baya, _Blyth_. ; P. Philippinus, _Auct_. ] [Illustration: "CISSA PUELLA. "] Amongst the birds of this order, one which, as far as I know, ispeculiar to the island is _Layard's Mountain-jay_ (_Cissa puella_, Blythand Layard), is distinguished not less by the beautiful blue colourwhich enlivens its plumage, than by the elegance of its form and thegrace of its attitudes. It frequents the hill country, and is foundabout the mountain streams at Neuera-ellia, and elsewhere. [1] [Footnote 1: The engraving above is taken by permission of Mr. Gouldfrom one of his drawings for his _Birds of India_. ] _Crows_. --Of all the Ceylon birds of this order the most familiar andnotorious are the small glossy crows, whose shining black plumage shotwith blue has suggested the title of _Corvus splendens_. [1] Theyfrequent the towns in companies, and domesticate themselves in the closevicinity of every house; and it may possibly serve to account for thefamiliarity and audacity which they exhibit in their intercourse withmen, that the Dutch during their sovereignty in Ceylon, enforced severepenalties against any one killing a crow, under the belief that theywere instrumental in extending the growth of cinnamon by feeding on thefruit, and thus disseminating the undigested seed. [2] [Footnote 1: There is another species, the _C. Culminatus_, so calledfrom the convexity of its bill; but though seen in the towns, it liveschiefly in the open country, and may be constantly observed whereverthere are buffaloes, perched on their backs and engaged, in company withthe small Minah (_Acridotheres tristis_), in freeing them from ticks. ] [Footnote 2: WOLF'S _Life and Adventures_, p. 117. ] So accustomed are the natives to their presence and exploits, that, likethe Greeks and Romans, they have made the movements of crows the basisof their auguries; and there is no end to the vicissitudes of good andevil fortune which may not be predicted from the direction of theirflight, the hoarse or mellow notes of their croaking, the variety oftrees on which they rest, and the numbers in which they are seen toassemble. All day long these birds are engaged in watching either the offal of theoffices, or the preparation for meals in the dining-room: and as doorsand windows are necessarily opened to relieve the heat, nothing is morecommon than the passage of a crow across the room, lifting on the wingsome ill-guarded morsel from the dinner-table. No article, howeverunpromising its quality, provided only it be portable, can with safetybe left unguarded in any apartment accessible to them. The contents ofladies' work-boxes, kid gloves, and pocket handkerchiefs vanishinstantly if exposed near a window or open door. They open paper parcelsto ascertain the contents; they will undo the knot on a napkin if itencloses anything eatable, and I have known a crow to extract the pegwhich fastened the lid of a basket in order to plunder the provenderwithin. On one occasion a nurse seated in a garden adjoining a regimentalmess-room, was terrified by seeing a bloody clasp-knife drop from theair at her feet; but the mystery was explained on learning that a crow, which had been watching the cook chopping mince-meat, had seized themoment when his head was turned to carry off the knife. One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly attitudinising in frontof a chained watch-dog, that was lazily gnawing a bone, and afterfruitlessly endeavouring to divert his attention by dancing before him, with head awry and eye askance, at length flew away for a moment, andreturned bringing a companion which perched itself on a branch a fewyards in the rear. The crow's grimaces were now actively renewed, butwith no better success, till its confederate, poising itself on itswings, descended with the utmost velocity, striking the dog upon thespine with all the force of its strong beak. The _ruse_ was successful;the dog started with surprise and pain, but not quickly enough to seizehis assailant, whilst the bone he had been gnawing was snatched away bythe first crow the instant his head was turned. Two well-authenticatedinstances of the recurrence of this device came within my knowledge atColombo, and attest the sagacity and powers of communication andcombination possessed by these astute and courageous birds. On the approach of evening the crows near Colombo assemble in noisygroups along the margin of the freshwater lake which surrounds the forton the eastern side; and here for an hour or two they enjoy the luxuryof throwing the water over their shining backs, and arranging theirplumage decorously, after which they disperse, each taking the directionof his accustomed quarters for the night. [1] [Footnote 1: A similar habit has been noticed in the damask Parrots ofAfrica (_Palæornis fuscus_) which daily resort at the same hour to theiraccustomed pools to bathe. ] During the storms which usher in the monsoon, it has been observed, thatwhen coco-nut palms are destroyed by lightning, the effect frequentlyextends beyond a single tree, and from the contiguity and conduction ofthe spreading leaves, or some other peculiar cause, large groups will beaffected by a single flash, a few killed instantly, and the rest doomedto rapid decay. In Belligam Bay, a little to the east of Point-de-Galle, a small island, which is covered with coco-nuts, has acquired the nameof "Crow Island, " from being the resort of those birds, which are seenhastening towards it in thousands towards sunset. A few years ago, during a violent storm of thunder, such was the destruction of the crowsthat the beach for some distance was covered with a black line of theirremains, and the grove on which they had been resting was to a greatextent destroyed by the same flash. [1] [Footnote 1: Similar instances are recorded in other countries of suddenand prodigious mortality amongst crows; but whether occasioned bylightning seems uncertain. In 1839 thirty-three thousand dead crows werefound on the shores of a lake in the county Westmeath in Ireland after astorm. --THOMPSON'S _Nat. Hist. Ireland_, vol. I. P. 319. PATTERSON inhis _Zoology_, p. 356, mentions other cases. ] III. SCANSORES. _Parroquets_. --Of the Psittacidæ the only examples arethe parroquets, of which the most renowned is the _Palæornis Alexandri_, which has the historic distinction of bearing the name of the greatconqueror of India, having been the first of its race introduced to theknowledge of Europe on the return of his expedition. An idea of theirnumber may be formed from the following statement of Mr. Layard, as tothe multitudes which are to be found on the western coast. "At Chilaw, Ihave seen such vast flights of parroquets hurrying towards the coco-nuttrees which overhang the bazaar, that their noise drowned the Babel oftongues bargaining for the evening provisions. Hearing of the swarmsthat resorted to this spot, I posted myself on a bridge some half miledistant, and attempted to count the flocks which came from a singledirection to the eastward. About four o'clock in the afternoon, straggling parties began to wend towards home, and in the course of halfan hour the current fairly set in. But I soon found that I had no longerdistinct flocks to count, it became one living screaming stream. Someflew high in the air till right above their homes, and dived abruptlydownward with many evolutions till on a level with the trees; otherskept along the ground and dashed close by my face with the rapidity ofthought, their brilliant plumage shining with an exquisite lustre in thesun-light. I waited on the spot till the evening closed, when I couldhear, though no longer distinguish, the birds fighting for theirperches, and on firing a shot they rose with a noise like the 'rushingof a mighty wind, ' but soon settled again, and such a din commenced as Ishall never forget; the shrill screams of the birds, the fluttering oftheir innumerable wings, and the rustling of the leaves of the palmtrees was almost deafening, and I was glad at last to escape to theGovernment Rest House. "[1] [Footnote 1: _Annals of Nat. Hist. _ vol. Xiii. P. 263. ] IV. COLUMBIDÆ. _Pigeons_. --Of pigeons and doves there are at least adozen species. Some live entirely on trees[1], never alighting on theground; others, notwithstanding the abundance of food and warmth, aremigratory[2], allured, as the Singhalese allege, by the ripening of thecinnamon berries, and hence one species is known in the southernprovinces as the "Cinnamon Dove. " Others feed on the fruits of thebanyan: and it is probably to their instrumentality that this marvelloustree chiefly owes its diffusion, its seeds being carried by them toremote localities. A very beautiful pigeon, peculiar to the mountainrange, discovered in the lofty trees at Neuera-ellia, has, in complimentto the Viscountess Torrington, been named _Carpophaga Torringtoniæ_. [Footnote 1: Treron bicincta. _Jerd_. ] [Footnote 2: _Alsocomus puniceus_, the "Season Pigeon" of Ceylon, socalled from its periodical arrival and departure. ] Another, called by the natives _neela-cobeya_[1], although strikinglyelegant both in shape and colour, is still more remarkable for thesingularly soothing effect of its low and harmonious voice. A gentlemanwho has spent many years in the jungle, in writing to me of this birdand of the effects of its melodious song, says, that "its soft andmelancholy notes, as they came from some solitary place in the forest, were the most gentle sounds I ever listened to. Some sentimental smokersassert that the influence of the propensity is to make them feel _as ifthey could freely forgive all who had ever offended them_; and I can saywith truth such has been the effect on my own nerves of the plaintivemurmurs of the neela-cobeya, that sometimes, when irritated, and notwithout reason, by the perverseness of some of my native followers, thefeeling has almost instantly subsided into placidity on suddenly hearingthe loving tones of these beautiful birds. " [Footnote 1: Chalcophaps Indicus, _Linn. _] V. GALLINÆ. _The Ceylon Jungle-fowl_. --The jungle-fowl of Ceylon[1] isshown by the peculiarity of its plumage to be not only distinct from theIndian species, but peculiar to the island. It has never yet bred orsurvived long in captivity, and no living specimens have beensuccessfully transmitted to Europe. It abounds in all parts of theisland, but chiefly in the lower ranges of mountains; and one of thevivid memorials which are associated with our journeys through thehills, is its clear cry, which sounds like a person calling "GeorgeJoyce, "[2] and rises at early morning amidst mist and dew, giving lifeto the scenery, that has scarcely yet been touched by the sun-light. [Footnote 1: Gallus Lafayetti, _Lesson_. ] [Footnote 2: I apprehend that in the particular of the peculiar cry theCeylon jungle fowl differs from that of the Dekkan, where _I am told_that it crows like a bantam cock. ] The female of this handsome bird was figured many years ago by Dr. GRAYin his illustrations of "_Indian Zoology_, " under the name of _G. Stanleyi_. The cock bird subsequently received from LESSON, the name bywhich the species is now known: but its habitat was not discovered, until a specimen having been forwarded from Ceylon to Calcutta, Dr. BLYTH recognised it as the long-sought-for male of Dr. Gray's specimen. Another of the Gallinæ of Ceylon, remarkable for the delicatepencillings of its plumage, as well as for the peculiarity of the doublespur, from which it has acquired its trivial name, is the _Galloperdixbicalcaratus_, of which a figure is given from a drawing by Mr. Gould. [Illustration: GALLOPERDIX BICALCARATUS. ] VI. GRALLÆ. --On reaching the marshy plains and shallow lagoons on eitherside of the island, the astonishment of the stranger is excited by theendless multitudes of stilt-birds and waders which stand in long arraywithin the wash of the water, or sweep in vast clouds above it. Ibises[1], storks[2], egrets, spoonbills[3], herons[4], and the smallerraces of sand larks and plovers, are seen busily traversing the wetsand, in search of the red worm which burrows there, or peering withsteady eye to watch the motions of the small fry and aquatic insects inthe ripple on the shore. [Footnote 1: Tantalus leucocephalus, and Ibis falcinellus. ] [Footnote 2: The violet-headed Stork (Ciconia leticocephala). ] [Footnote 3: Platalea leucorodia, _Linn. _] [Footnote 4: Ardea cinerea. A. Purpurea. ] VII. ANSERES. --Preeminent in size and beauty, the tall _flamingoes_[1], with rose-coloured plumage, line the beach in long files. The Singhalesehave been led, from their colour and their military order, to designatethem the "_English Soldier birds_. " Nothing can be more startling thanthe sudden flight of these splendid creatures when alarmed; their strongwings beating the air with a sound like distant thunder; and as theysoar over head, the flock which appeared almost white but a momentbefore, is converted into crimson by the sudden display of the redlining of their wings. A peculiarity in the beak of this bird hasscarcely attracted the attention it merits, as a striking illustrationof creative wisdom in adapting the organs of animals to their localnecessities. [Illustration: FLAMINGO. ] [Footnote 1: Phoenicopterus roseus, _Pallas_. ] The upper mandible, which is convex in other birds, is flattened in theflamingo, whilst the lower, instead of being flat, is convex. To thosewho have had an opportunity of witnessing the action of the bird in itsnative haunts, the expediency of this arrangement is at once apparent. To counteract the extraordinary length of its legs, it is provided witha proportionately long neck, so that in feeding in shallow water thecrown of the head becomes inverted and the upper mandible brought intocontact with the bottom; where its flattened surface qualifies it forperforming the functions of the lower one in birds of the same class;and the edges of both being laminated, it is thus enabled, like theduck, by the aid of its fleshy tongue, to sift before swallowing itsfood. Floating on the surface of the deeper water, are fleets of the Anatidæ, the Coromandel teal[1], the Indian hooded gull[2], the Caspian tern, anda countless variety of ducks and smaller fowl--pintails[3], teal[4], red-crested pochards[5], shovellers[6], and terns. [7] Pelicans[8] ingreat numbers resort to the mouths of the rivers, taking up theirposition at sunrise on some projecting rock, from which to dart on thepassing fish, and returning far inland at night to their retreats amongthe trees, which overshadow some solitary river or deserted tank. [Footnote 1: Nettapus coromandelianus, _Gm_. ] [Footnote 2: Larus brunnicephalus, _Jerd_. ] [Footnote 3: Dafila acuta, _Linn. _] [Footnote 4: Querquedula creeca, _Linn. _] [Footnote 5: Fuligula rufina, _Pallas_. ] [Footnote 6: Spatula clypeata, _Linn. _] [Footnote 7: Sterna minuta, _Linn. _] [Footnote 8: Pelicanus Philippensis, _Gmel_. ] I chanced upon one occasion to come unexpectedly upon one of theseremarkable breeding places during a visit which I made to the great tankof Padivil, one of those gigantic constructions by which the early kingsof Ceylon have left imperishable records of their reigns. It is situated in the depth of the forests to the north-west ofTrincomalie; and the tank is itself the basin of a broad and shallowvalley, enclosed between two lines of low hills, that gradually sinkinto the plain as they approach towards the sea. The extreme breadth ofthe included space may be twelve or fourteen miles, narrowing to elevenat the spot where the retaining bund has been constructed across thevalley; and when this enormous embankment was in effectual repair, andthe reservoir filled by the rains, the water must have been thrown backalong the basin of the valley for at least fifteen miles. It isdifficult now to determine the precise distances, as the overgrowth ofwood and jungle has obliterated all lines left by the original level ofthe lake at its junction with the forest. Even when we rode along it, the centre of the tank was deeply submerged, so that notwithstanding thepartial escape, the water still covered an area of ten miles indiameter. Even now its depth when full must be very considerable, forhigh on the branches of the trees that grow in the area, the last floodhad left quantities of driftwood and withered grass; and the rocks andbanks were coated with the yeasty foam, that remains after thesubsidence of an agitated flood. The bed of the tank was difficult to ride over, being still soft andtreacherous, although covered everywhere with tall and waving grass; andin every direction it was poched into deep holes by the innumerableelephants that had congregated to roll in the soft mud, to bathe in thecollected water, or to luxuriate in the rich herbage, under the coolshade of the trees. The ground, too, was thrown up into hummocks likegreat molehills which, the natives told us, were formed by a hugeearthworm, common in Ceylon, nearly two feet in length, and as thick asa small snake. Through these inequalities the water was still runningoff in natural drains towards the great channel in the centre, thatconducts it to the broken sluice; and across these it was sometimesdifficult to find a safe footing for our horses. In a lonely spot, towards the very centre of the tank, we cameunexpectedly upon an extraordinary scene. A sheet of still water, two orthree hundred yards broad, and about half a mile long, was surrounded bya line of tall forest-trees, whose branches stretched above its margin. The sun had not yet risen, when we perceived some white objects in largenumbers on the tops of the trees; and as we came nearer, we discoveredthat a vast colony of pelicans had formed their settlement andbreeding-place in this solitary retreat. They literally covered thetrees in hundreds; and their heavy nests, like those of the swan, constructed of large sticks, forming great platforms, were sustained bythe horizontal branches. Each nest contained three eggs, rather largerthan those of a goose; and the male bird stood placidly beside thefemale as she sat upon them. Nor was this all; along with the pelicans prodigious numbers of otherwater-birds had selected this for their dwelling-place, and covered thetrees in thousands, standing on the topmost branches; tall flamingoes, herons, egrets, storks, ibises, and other waders. We had disturbed themthus early, before their habitual hour for betaking themselves to theirfishing-fields. By degrees, as the light increased, we saw thembeginning to move upon the trees; they looked around them on every side, stretched their awkward legs behind them, extended their broad wings, gradually rose in groups, and slowly soared away in the direction of theseashore. The pelicans were apparently later in their movements; they allowed usto approach as near them as the swampy nature of the soil would permit;and even when a gun was discharged amongst them, only those moved offwhich the particles of shot disturbed. They were in such numbers at thisfavourite place; that the water over which they had taken up theirresidence was swarming with crocodiles, attracted by the frequent fallof the young birds; and the natives refused, from fear of them, to wadein for one of the larger pelicans which had fallen, struck by a rifleball. It was altogether a very remarkable sight. Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen, partridges and quails areto be had at all times; the woodcock has occasionally been shot in thehills, and the ubiquitous snipe, which arrives in September fromSouthern India, is identified not alone by the eccentricity of itsflight, but by retaining in high perfection the qualities which haveendeared it to the gastronome at home. But the magnificent pheasants, which inhabit the Himalayan range and the woody hills of the Chin-Indianpeninsula, have no representative amongst the tribes that people thewoods of Ceylon; although a bird believed to be a pheasant has more thanonce been seen in the jungle, close to Rangbodde, on the road toNeuera-ellia. * * * * * _List of Ceylon Birds_. In submitting this Catalogue of the birds of Ceylon, I am anxious tostate that the copious mass of its contents is mainly due to theuntiring energy and exertions of my friend, Mr. E. L. Layard. Nearlyevery bird in the list has fallen by his gun; so that the most amplefacilities have been thus provided, not only for extending the limitedamount of knowledge which formerly existed on this branch of the zoologyof the island; but for correcting, by actual comparison with recentspecimens, the errors which had previously prevailed as to imperfectlydescribed species. The whole of Mr. Layard's fine collection is atpresent in England. ACCIPITRES. Aquila Bonelli, _Temm_. Pennata, _Gm_. Spizaëtus Nipalensis, _Hodgs_. Limnæëtus, _Horsf_. Ictinaëtus Malayensis, _Reinw_. Hæmatornis Bacha, _Daud_. Spilogaster, _Blyth_. Pontoaëtus leucogaster, _Gm_. Ichthyaëtus, _Horsf_. Haliastur Indus, _Bodd_. Falco peregrinus, _Linn. _ peregrinator, _Sund_. Tinnunculus alaudarius, _Briss_. Hypotriorchis chicquera, _Daud_. Baza lophotes, _Cuv_. Milvus govinda, _Sykes_. Elanus melanopterus, _Daud_. Astur trivirgatus, _Temm_. Accipiter badius, _Gm_. Circus Swainsonii, _A. Smith_. Cinerascens, _Mont_. Melanoleucos, _Gm_. _æruginosus, Linn_. Athene castonatus, _Blyth_. Scutulata, _Raffles_. Ephialtes scops, _Linn. _ lempijii, _Horsf_. Sunia, _Hodgs_. Ketupa Ceylonensis, _Gm_. Syrnium Indranee, _Sykes_. Strix Javanica, _Gm_. PASSERES. Batrachostomus moniliger, _Layard_. Caprimulgus _Mahrattensis, Sykes_. Kelaarti, _Blyth_. Asiaticus, _Lath_. Cypselus batassiensis, _Gray_. Melba, _Linn. _ affinis, _Gray_. Macropteryx coronatus, _Tickell_. Collocalia brevirostris, _McClel_. Acanthylis caudacuta, _Lath_. Hirundo panayana, _Gm_. Daurica, _Linn. _ hyperythra, _Layard_. Domicola, _Jerdon_. Coracias Indica, _Linn. _ Harpactes fasciatus, _Gm_. Eurystomus orientalis, _Linn. _ Halcyon Capensis, _Linn. _ atricapillus, _Gm_. Smyrnensis, _Linn. _ Ceyx tridactyla, _Linn. _ Alcedo Bengalensis, _Gm_. Ceryle rudis, _Linn. _ Merops Philippinus, _Linn. _ viridis, _Linn. _ quincticolor, _Vieill_. Upupa nigripennis, _Gould_. Nectarina Zeylanica, _Linn. _ minima, _Sykes_. Asiatica, _Lath_. Lotenia, _Linn. _ Dicæum minimum, _Tickell_. Phyllornis Malabarica, _Lath_. Jerdoni, _Blyth_. Dendrophila frontalis, _Horsf_. Piprisoma agile, _Blyth_. Orthotomus longicauda, _Gm_. Cisticola cursitans, _Frankl_. Omalura, _Blyth_. Drymoica valida, _Blyth_. Inornata, _Sykes_. Prinia socialis, _Sykes_. Acrocephalus dumetorum, _Blyth_. Phyllopneuste nitidus, _Blyth_. Montanus, _Blyth_. Viridanus, _Blyth_. Copsychus saularis, _Linn. _ Kittacincla macrura, _Gm_. Pratincola caprata, _Linn. _ atrata, _Kelaart_. Calliope cyanea, _Hodgs_. Thamnobia fulicata, _Linn. _ Cyanecula Suecica, _Linn. _ Sylvia affinis, _Blyth_. Parus cinereus, _Vieill_. Zosterops palpebrosus, _Temm_. Iöra Zeylanica, _Gm_. Typhia, _Linn. _ Motacilla sulphurea, _Becks_. Indica, _Gm_. Madraspatana, _Briss_. Budytes viridis, _Gm_. Anthus rutulus, _Vieill_. Richardii, _Vieill_. Striolatus, _Blyth_. Brachypteryx Palliseri, _Kelaart_. Alcippe nigrifrons, _Blyth_. Pitta brachyura, _Jerd_. Oreocincla spiloptera, _Blyth_. Merula Wardii, _Jerd_. Kinnisii, _Kelaart_. Zoothera imbricata, _Layard_. Garrulax cinereifrons, _Blyth_. Pormatorhinus melanurus, _Blyth_. Malacocercus rufescens, _Blyth_. Griseus, _Gm_. Striatus, _Swains_. Pellorneum fuscocapillum, _Blyth_. Dumetia albogularis, _Blyth_. Chrysomma Sinense, _Gm_. Oriolus melanocephalus, _Linn. _ _Indicus, Briss_. Criniger ictericus, _Stickl_. Pycnonotus pencillatus, _Kelaart_. Flavirictus, _Strickl_. Hæmorrhous, _Gm_. Atricapillus, _Vieill_. Hemipus picatus, _Sykes_. Hypsipetes Nilgherriensis, _Jerd_. Cyornis rubeculoïdes, _Vig_. Myiagra azurea, _Bodd_. Cryptolopha cinereocapilla, _Vieill_. Leucocerca _compressirostris, Blyth_. Tchitrea paradisi, _Linn. _ *Butalis latirostris, _Raffles_. Muttui, _Layard_. Stoparola melanops, _Vig_. Pericrocotus flammeus, _Forst_. Peregrinus, _Linn. _ Campephaga Macei, _Less_. Sykesii, _Strickl_. Artamus fuscus, _Vieill_. Edolius paradiseus, _Gm_. Dicrurus macrocereus, _Vieill_. Edoliformis, _Blyth_. Longicaudatus, _A. Hoy_. Leucopygialis, _Blyth_. _cærulescens_, _Linn. _ Irena puella, _Lath_. Lanius superciliosus, _Lath_. _erythronotus, Vig_. Tephrodornis affinis, _Blyth_. Cissa puella, _Blyth & Layard_. Corvus splendens, _Vieill_. Culminatus, _Sykes_. Eulabes religiosa, _Linn. _ ptilogenys, _Blyth_. Pastor roseus, _Linn. _ Hetærornis pagodarum, _Gm_. _albifrontata, Layard_. Acridotheres tristis, _Linn. _ Ploceus manyar, _Horsf_. Baya, _Blyth_. Munia undulata, _Latr_. _Malabarica, Linn_. Malacca, _Linn. _ rubronigra, _Hodgs_. Striata, _Linn. _ Kelaarti, _Blyth_. Passer Indicus, _Jard. & Selb. _ Alauda gulgula, _Frank_. _Malabarica, Scop_. Pyrrhulauda grisea, _Scop_. Mirafra affinis, _Jerd_. Buceros gingalensis, _Shaw_. Malabaricus, _Jerd_. SCANSORES. Loriculus Asiaticus, _Lath_. Palæcornis Alexandri, _Linn. _ torquatus, _Briss_. Cyanocephalus, _Linn. _ Calthropæ, _Layard_. Megalaima Indica, _Latr_. Zeylanica, _Gmel_. Flavifrons, _Cuv_. Rubicapilla, _Gm_. Picus gymnophthalmus, Blth. Mahrattensis, _Lath_. _Macei, Vieill_. Gecinus chlorophanes, _Vieill_. Brachypternus aurantius, _Linn. _ Ceylonus, _Forst_. _rubescens, Vieill_. Stricklandi, _Layard_. Micropternus gularis, _Jerd_. Centropus rufipennis, _Illiger_. Chlororhynchos, _Blyth_. Oxylophus melanoleucos, _Gm_. Coromandus, _Linn. _ Endynamys orientalis, _Linn. _ Cuculus Poliocephalus, _Lath_. Striatus, _Drapiex_. Canorus, _Linn. _ Polyphasia tenuirostris, _Gray_. Sonneratii, _Lath_. Hierococcyx varius, _Vahl_. Surniculus dicruroïdes, _Hodgs_. Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus, _Forst_. Zanclostomus viridirostris, _Jerd_. COLUMBÆ. Treron bicincta, _Jerd_. Flavogularis, _Blyth_. Pompadoura, _Gm_. Chlorogaster, _Blyth_. Carpophaga pusilla, _Blyth_. Torringtoniæ, _Kelaart_. Alsocomus puniceus, _Tickel_. Columba intermedia, _Strickl_. Turtur risorius, _Linn. _ Suratensis, _Lath_. Humilis, _Temm_. Orientalis, _Lath_. Chalcophaps Indicus, _Linn. _ GALLINÆ. Pavo cristatus, _Linn. _ Gallus Lafayetti, _Lesson_. Galloperdix bicalcaratus, _Linn. _ Francolinus Ponticerianus, _Gm_. Perdicula agoondah, _Sykes_. Coturnix Chinensis, _Linn. _ Turnix ocellatus _var. _ Bengalensis, _Blyth_. _var. _ taigoor, _Sykes_. GRALLÆ. Esacus recurvirostris, _Cuv_. Oedienemus crepitans, _Temm_. Cursorius Coromandelicus, _Gm_. Lobivanellus bilobus, _Gm_. Göensis, _Gm_. Charadrius virginicus, _Bechs_. Hiaticula Philippensis, _Scop_. Cantiana, _Lath_. Leschenaultii, _Less_. Strepsilas Interpres, _Linn. _ Ardea purpurea, _Linn. _ cinerea, _Linn. _ asha, _Sykes_. Intermedia, _Wagler_. Garzetta, _Linn. _ _alba, Linn_. Bubulcus, _Savig_. Ardeola leucoptera, _Bodd_. Ardetta cinnamomea, _Gm_. Flavicollis, _Lath_. Sinensis, _Gm_. Butoroides Javanica, _Horsf_. Platalea leucorodia, _Linn. _ Nycticorax griseus, _Linn. _ Tigrisoma melanolopha, _Raffl_. Mycteria australis, _Shaw_. Leptophilus Javanica, _Horsf_. Ciconia leucocephala, _Gm_. Anastomus oscitans, _Bodd_. Tantalus leucocephalus, _Gm_. Geronticus melanocephalus, _Lath_. Falcinellus igneus, _Gm_. Numenias arquatus, _Linn. _ phæopus, _Linn. _ Totanus fuscus, _Linn. _ calidris, _Linn. _ glottis, _Linn. _ stagnalis, _Bechst_. Actitis glareola, _Gm_. Ochropus, _Linn. _ hypoleucos, _Linn. _ Tringa minuta, _Leist_. Subarquata, _Gm_. Limicola platyrhyncha, _Temm_. Limosa ægocephala, _Linn. _ Himantopus candidus, _Bon_. Recurvirostra avocetta, _Linn. _ Hæmatopus ostralegus, _Linn. _ Rhynchoea Bengalensis, _Linn. _ Scolopax rusticola, _Linn. _ Gallinago stenura, _Temm_. _scolopacina, Bon_. _gallinula, Linn_. Hydrophasianus Sinensis, _Gm_. Ortygometra rubiginosa, _Temm_. Corethura Zeylanica, _Gm_. Rallus striatus, _Linn. _ Indicus, _Blyth_. Porphyrio poliocephalus, _Lath_. Porzana pygmæa, _Nan_. Gallinula phoenicura, _Penn_. Chloropus, _Linn. _ cristata, _Lath_. ANSERES. Phoenicopterus ruber, _Linn. _ Sarkidiornis melanonotos, _Penn_. Nettapus Coromandelianus, _Gm_. Anas poecilorhyncha, _Penn_. Dendrocygnus arcuatus, _Cuv_. Dafila acuta, _Linn. _ Querquedula crecca, _Linn. _ circia, _Linn. _ _Fuligula rufina, Pall_. Spatula clypeata, _Linn. _ Podiceps Philippensis, _Gm_. Larus brunnicephalus, _Jerd_. Ichthyaëtus, _Pall_. Sylochelidon Caspius, _Lath_. Hydrochelidon Indicus, _Steph_. Gelochelidon Anglicus, _Mont_. Onychoprion anasthætus, _Scop_. Sterna Javanica, _Horsf_. Melanogaster, _Temm_. Minuta, _Linn. _ Seena aurantia, _Gray_. Thalasseus Bengalensis, _Less_. Cristata, _Stepth_. Dromas ardeola, _Payk_. Atagen ariel, _Gould_. Thalassidroma _melanogaster, Gould_. Plotus melanogaster, _Gm_. Pelicanus Philippensis, _Gm_. Graculus Sinensis, _Shaw_. Pygmæus, _Pallas_. NOTE. The following is a list of the birds which are, as far as is at presentknown, peculiar to the island; it will probably be determined at somefuture day that some included in it have a wider geographical range. Hæmatornis spilogaster. The "Ceylon eagle;" was discovered by Mr. Layardin the Wanny, and by Dr. Kelaart at Trincomalie. Athene castonotus. The chestnut-winged hawk owl. This pretty little owlwas added to the list of Ceylon birds by Dr. Templeton. Mr. Blyth is atpresent of opinion that this bird is identical with Ath. Castanopterus, _Horsf_. Of Java as figured by Temminck: _P. Col. _ Batrachostomus moniliger. The oil bird; was discovered amongst theprecipitous rocks of the Adam's Peak range by Mr. Layard. Anotherspecimen was sent about the same time to Sir James Emerson Tennent fromAvisavelle. Mr. Mitford has met with it at Ratnapoora. Caprimulgus Kelaarti. Kelaart's nightjar; swarms on the marshy plains ofNeuera-ellia at dusk. Hirundo hyperythra. The red-bellied swallow; was discovered in 1849, byMr. Layard at Ambepusse. They build a globular nest, with a round holeat top. A pair built in the ring for a hanging lamp in Dr. Gardner'sstudy at Peradenia, and hatched their young, undisturbed by the dailytrimming and lighting of the lamp. Cisticola omalura. Layard's mountain grass warbler; is found inabundance on Horton Plain and Neuera-ellia, among the long Patena grass. Drymoica valida. Layard's wren-warbler; frequents tufts of grass and lowbushes, feeding on insects. Pratincola atrata. The Neuera-ellia robin; a melodious songster; addedto our catalogue by Dr. Kelaart. Brachypteryx Palliseri. Ant thrush. A rare bird, added by Dr. Kelaartfrom Dimboola and Neuera-ellia. Pellorneum fuscocapillum. Mr. Layard found two specimens of this rarethrush creeping about shrubs and bushes, feeding on insects. Alcippe nigrifrons. This thrush frequents low impenetrable thickets, andseems to be widely distributed. Oreocincla spiloptera. The spotted thrush is only found in the mountainzone about lofty trees. Merula Kinnisii. The Neuera-ellia blackbird; was added by Dr. Kelaart. Garrulax cinereifrons. The ashy-headed babbler; was found by Mr. Layardnear Ratnapoora. Pomatorhinus melanurus. Mr. Layard states that the mountain babblerfrequents low, scraggy, impenetrable brush, along the margins ofdeserted cheena land. This may turn out to be little more than a localyet striking variety of P. Horsfieldii of the Indian Peninsula. Malacocercus rufescens. The red dung thrush added by Dr. Templeton tothe Singhalese Fauna, is found in thick jungle in the southern andmidland districts. Pycnonotus penicillatus. The yellow-eared bulbul; was found by Dr. Kelaart at Neuera-ellia. Butalis Muttui. This very handsome flycatcher was procured at PointPedro, by Mr. Layard. Dicrurus edoliformis. Dr. Templeton found this kingcrow at the BiblooOya. Mr. Layard has since got it at Ambogammoa. Dicrurus leucopygialis. The Ceylon kingcrow was sent to Mr. Blyth fromthe vicinity of Colombo, by Dr. Templeton. A species very closely alliedto D. Coerulescens of the Indian continent. Tephrodornis affinis. The Ceylon butcher-bird. A migatory species foundin the wooded grass lands in October. Cissa puella. Layard's mountain jay. A most lovely bird, found alongmountain streams at Neuera-ellia and elsewhere. Eulabes ptilogenys. Templeton's mynah. The largest and most beautiful ofthe species. It is found in flocks perching on the highest trees, feeding on berries. Munia Kelaarti. This Grosbeak previously assumed to be M. Pectoralls ofJerdon; is most probably peculiar to Ceylon. Loriculus asiaticus. The small parroquet, abundant in various districts. Palæornis Calthropæ. Layard's purple-headed parroquet, found at Kandy, is a very handsome bird, flying in flocks, and resting on the summits ofthe very highest trees. Dr. Kelaart states that it is the only parroquetof the Neuera-ellia range. Megalaima flavifrons. The yellow-headed barbet, is not uncommon. Megalaima rubricapilla, is found in most parts of the island. Picus gymnophthalmus. Layard's woodpecker. The smallest of the species, was discovered near Colombo, amongst jak-trees. Brachypternus Ceylonus. The Ceylon woodpecker, is found in abundancenear Neuera-ellia. Brachypternus rubescens. The red woodpecker. Centropus chlororhynchus. The yellow-billed cuckoo, was detected by Mr. Layard in dense jungle near Colombo and Avisavelle. Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus. The malkoha, is confined to the southernhighlands. Treron Pompadoura. The Pompadour pigeon. "The Prince of Canino has shownthat this is a totally distinct bird from Tr. Flavogularis, with whichit was confounded: it is much smaller, with the quantity of marooncolour on the mantle greatly reduced. "--Paper by Mr. BLYTH, _Mag. Nat. Hist. _ p. 514: 1857. Carpophaga Torringtoniæ. Lady Torrington's pigeon; a very handsomepigeon discovered in the highlands by Dr. Kelaart. It flies high in longsweeps, and makes its nest on the loftiest trees. Mr. Blyth is ofopinion that it is no more than a local race, barely separable from C. Elphinstonii of the Nilgiris and Malabar coast. Carpophaga pusilla. The little-hill dove a migratory species found byMr. Layard in the mountain zone, only appearing with the ripened fruitof the teak, banyan, &c. , on which they feed. Gallus Lafayetti. --The Ceylon jungle fowl. The female of this handsomebird was figured by Mr. GRAY (_Ill. Ind. Zool. _) under the name of G. Stanleyi. The cock bird had long been lost to naturalists, until aspecimen was forwarded by Dr. Templeton to Mr. Blyth, who at oncerecognised it as the long-looked-for male of Mr. Gray's recentlydescribed female. It is abundant in all the uncultivated portions ofCeylon; coming out into the open spaces to feed in the mornings andevenings. Mr. Blyth states that there can be no doubt that Hardwicke'spublished figure refers to the hen of this species, long afterwardstermed G. Lafayetti. Galloperdix bicalcaratus. Not uncommon in suitable situations. CHAP. IX. REPTILES. LIZARDS. _Iguana_. --One of the earliest, if not the first remarkableanimal to startle a stranger on arriving in Ceylon, whilst wending hisway from Point-de-Galle to Colombo, is a huge lizard of from four tofive feet in length, the _Talla-goy[=a]_ of the Singhalese, andIguana[1] of the Europeans. It may be seen at noonday searching for antsand insects in the middle of the highway and along the fences; whendisturbed, but by no means alarmed, by the approach of man, it moves offto a safe distance; and, the intrusion being at an end, it returns againto the occupation in which it had been interrupted. Repulsive as it isin appearance, it is perfectly harmless, and is hunted down by dogs inthe maritime provinces, and its delicate flesh, which is believed to bea specific in dysentery, is converted into curry, and its skin intoshoes. When seized, it has the power of inflicting a smart blow with itstail. The Talla-goy[=a] lives in almost any convenient hollow, such as ahole in the ground, or a deserted nest of the termites; and some smallones, which frequented my garden at Colombo, made their retreat in theheart of a decayed tree. [Footnote 1: Monitor dracæna, _Linn. _ Among the barbarous nostrums ofthe uneducated natives, both Singhalese and Tamil, is the tongue of theiguana, which they regard as a specific for consumption, if plucked fromthe living animal and swallowed whole. ] A still larger species, the _Kabara-goy[=a]_[1], is partial to marshyground, and when disturbed upon land, will take refuge in the nearestwater. From the somewhat eruptive appearance of the yellow blotches onits scales, a closely allied species, similarly spotted, formerlyobtained amongst naturalists the name of _Monitor exanthematicus_, andit is curious that the native appellation of this one, _kabara_[2], issuggestive of the same idea. The Singhalese, on a strictly homoeopathicprinciple, believe that its fat, externally applied, is a cure forcutaneous disorders, but that taken inwardly it is poisonous. Theskilfulness of the Singhalese in their preparation of poisons, and theiraddiction to using them, are unfortunately notorious traits in thecharacter of the rural population. Amongst these preparations, the onewhich above all others excites the utmost dread, from the number ofmurders attributed to its agency, is the potent kabara-tel--a term whichEuropeans sometimes corrupt into _cobra-tel_, implying that the venom isobtained from the hooded-snake; whereas it professes to be extractedfrom the "kabara-goy[=a]. " Such is the bad renown of this formidablepoison, that an individual suspected of having it in his possession, iscautiously shunned by his neighbours. Those especially who are ondoubtful terms with him, suspect their servants lest they should besuborned to mix kabara-tel in the curry. So subtle is the virus supposedto be, that one method of administering it, is to introduce it withinthe midrib of a leaf of betel, and close the orifice with chunam; and, as it is an habitual act of courtesy for one Singhalese on meetinganother to offer the compliment of a betel-leaf, which it would berudeness to refuse, facilities are thus afforded for presenting theconcealed drug. It is curious that to this latent suspicion has beentraced the origin of a custom universal amongst the natives, of nippingoff with the thumb nail the thick end of the stem before chewing thebetel. [Footnote 1: Hydrosaurus salvator, _Laur_. Tail compressed; fingerslong; nostrils near the extremity of the snout. A black band on eachtemple; round yellow spots disposed in transverse series on the back. Teeth with the crown compressed and notched. ] [Footnote 2: In the _Mahawanso_ the hero Tissa, is said to have been"afflicted with a cutaneous complaint which made his skin scaly likethat of the _godho_. "--Ch. Xxiv. P. 148. "Godho" is the Pali name forthe Kabara-goy[=a]. ] [Illustration: THE KABARA-GOYA. ] In the preparation of this mysterious compound, the unfortunateKabara-goya is forced to take a painfully prominent part. The receipt, as written down by a Kandyan, was sent to me from Kornegalle, by Mr. Morris, the civil officer of that district; and in dramatic arrangementit far outdoes the cauldron of _Macbeth's_ witches. The ingredients areextracted from venomous snakes, the cobra de capello, the Carawilla, andthe Tic-polonga, by making incisions in the head of these reptiles andsuspending them over a chattie to collect the poison as it flows. Tothis, arsenic and other drugs are added, and the whole is "boiled in ahuman skull, with the aid of the three Kabara-goyas, which are tied onthree sides of the fire, with their heads directed towards it, andtormented by whips to make them hiss, so that the fire may blaze. Thefroth from their lips is then added to the boiling mixture, and so soonas an oily scum rises to the surface, the _kabara-tel_ is complete. " It is obvious that arsenic is the main ingredient in the poison, and Mr. Morris reported to me that the mode of preparing it, described above, was actually practised in his district. This account was transmitted byhim apropos to the murder of a Mohatal[1] and his wife, which had beencommitted with the _kabara-tel_, and was then under investigation. Before commencing the operation of preparing the poison, a cock has tobe sacrificed to the _yakhos_ or demons. [Footnote 1: A native head-man of low rank. ] This ugly lizard is itself regarded with such aversion by theSinghalese, that if a _kabara_ enter a house or walk over the roof, itis regarded as an omen of ill fortune, sickness, or death; and in orderto avert the evil, a priest is employed to go through a rhythmicalincantation; one portion of which consists in the repetition of thewords Kabara goyin wan d[=o]sey Ada palayan e d[=o]sey. "These are the inflictions caused by the Kabara-goya--let them now beaverted!" It is one of the incidents that serve to indicate that Ceylon may belongto a separate circle of physical geography, that this lizard, thoughfound to the eastward in Burmah[1], has not hitherto been discovered inthe Dekkan or Hindustan. [Footnote 1: In corroboration of the view propounded elsewhere (see pp. 7, 84, &c), and opposed to the popular belief that Ceylon, at someremote period, was detached from the continent of India by theinterposition of the sea, a list of reptiles will be found at p. 319, including not only individual species, but whole genera peculiar to theisland, and not to be found on the mainland. See a paper by Dr. A. GÜNTHER on _The Geog. Distribution of Reptiles_. Magaz. Nat. Hist. ForMarch, 1859, p. 230. ] [Illustration: CALOTES OPHIOMACHUS] _Blood-suckers_. --The lizards already mentioned, however, are but thestranger's introduction to innumerable varieties of others, all mostattractive in their sudden movements, and some unsurpassed in thebrilliancy of their colouring, which bask on banks, dart over rocks, andpeer curiously out of the chinks of every ruined wall. In all theirmotions there is that vivid and brief energy, the rapid but restrainedaction associated with their limited power of respiration, whichjustifies the accurate picture of-- "The green lizard, rustling thro' the grass, And up the fluted shaft, _with short, quick, spring_ To vanish in the chinks which time has made. "[1] [Footnote 1: ROGERS' _Pæstum. _] The most beautiful of the race is the _green calotes_[1], in lengthabout twelve inches, which, with the exception of a few dark streaksabout the head, is as brilliant as the purest emerald or malachite. Unlike its congeners of the same family, it never alters this dazzlinghue; whilst many of them possess, but in a less degree, the power, likethe chameleon, of exchanging their ordinary colours for others lessconspicuous. One of the most remarkable features in the physiognomy ofthose lizards is the prominence of their cheeks. This results from thegreat development of the muscles of the jaws; the strength of which issuch that they can crush the hardest integuments of the beetles on whichthey feed. The calotes will permit its teeth to be broken, rather thanquit its hold of a stick into which it may have struck them. It is notprovided, like so many other tropical lizards, with a gular sac orthroat-pouch, capable of inflation when in a state of high excitement. The tail, too, is rounded, not compressed, thus clearly indicating thatits habits are those of a land-animal. [Footnote 1: Calotes sp. ] The _Calotes versicolor_; and another, the _Calotes ophioimachus_, ofwhich a figure is attached, possess in a remarkable degree the faculty, above alluded to, of changing their hue. The head and neck, when theanimal is irritated or hastily swallowing its food, become of abrilliant red (whence the latter species has acquired the name of the"blood-sucker"), whilst the usual tint of the rest of the body isconverted into pale yellow. [1] The _sitana_[2], and a number of others, exhibit similar phenomena. [Footnote 1: The characteristics by which the _Calotes ophiomachus_ maybe readily recognised, are a small crest formed by long spines runningon each side of the neck to above the ear, coupled with a greenground-colour of the scales. Many specimens are uniform, others bandedtransversely with white, and others again have a black band on each sideof the neck. ] [Footnote 2: Sitana Ponticereana, _Cuv_. ] The lyre-headed lizard[1], which is not uncommon in the woods aboutKandy, is more bulky than any of the species of Calotes, and not nearlyso active in its movements. [Footnote 1: Lyriocephalus scutatus, _Linn. _] As usually observed it is of a dull greenish brown, but when excited itsback becomes a rich olive green, leaving the head yellowish: theunderside of the body is of a very pale blue, almost approaching white. The open mouth exhibits the fauces of an intense vermilion tint; sothat, although extremely handsome, this lizard presents, from itsextraordinarily shaped head and threatening gestures, a most malignantaspect. It is, however, perfectly harmless. _Chameleon_. --The true chameleon[1] is found, but not in great numbers, in the dry districts to the north of Ceylon, where it frequents thetrees, in slow pursuit of its insect prey; but compensated for thesluggishness of its other movements, by the electric rapidity of itsextensible tongue. Apparently sluggish in its general habits, thechameleon rests motionless on a branch, from which its varied huesrender it scarcely distinguishable in colour; and there patiently awaitsthe approach of the insects on which it feeds. Instantly on theirappearance its wonderful tongue comes into play. [Footnote 1: Chameleo vulgaris, _Daud_. ] [Illustration: TONGUE OF CHAMELEON. ] Though ordinarily concealed, it is capable of protrusion till it exceedsin length the whole body of the creature. No sooner does an incautiousfly venture within reach than the extremity of this treacherous weaponis disclosed, broad and cuneiform, and covered with a viscid fluid; andthis, extended to its full length, is darted at its prey with anunerring aim, and redrawn within the jaws with a rapidity that rendersthe act almost invisible. [1] [Footnote 1: Prof. RYMER JONES, art. _Reptilia_, in TODD'S _Cyclop. OfAnat_. Vol. Iv. Pt. I. P. 292. ] Whilst the faculty of this creature to assume all the colours of therainbow has attracted the wonder of all ages, sufficient attention hashardly been given to the imperfect sympathy which subsists between thetwo lobes of its brain, and the two sets of nerves that permeate theopposite sides of its frame. Hence, not only has each of the eyes anaction quite independent of the other, but one side of its body appearsto be sometimes asleep whilst the other is vigilant and active; one willassume a green tinge whilst the opposite one is red; and it is said thatthe chameleon is utterly unable to swim, from the incapacity of themuscles of the two sides to act in concert. _Ceratophora_. --This which till lately was an unique lizard, known byonly two specimens, one in the British Museum, and another in that ofLeyden, was ascertained by Dr. Kelaart, about five years ago, to be anative of the higher Kandyan hills, where it is sometimes seen in theolder trees in pursuit of insect larvæ. The first specimen brought toEurope was called _Ceratophora Stoddartii_, after the name of itsfinder; and the recent discovery of several others in the NationalCollection has enabled me, by the aid of Dr. A. Günther, to add someimportant facts to their history. This lizard is remarkable for having no external ear; and it hasacquired its generic name from the curious horn-like process on theextremity of the nose. This horn, as it is found in mature males of teninches in length, is five lines long, conical, pointed, and slightlycurved; a miniature form of the formidable weapon, from which the_Rhinoceros_ takes its name. But the comparison does not hold goodeither from an anatomical or a physiological point of view. For, whilstthe horn of the rhinoceros is merely a dermal production, aconglomeration of hairs cemented into one dense mass as hard as bone, and answering the purpose of a defensive weapon, besides being used fordigging up the roots on which the animal lives; the horn of the_ceratophora_ is formed of a soft, spongy substance, coated by therostral shield, which is produced into a kind of sheath. Althoughflexible, it always remains erect, owing to the elasticity of itssubstance. Not having access to a living specimen, which would affordthe opportunity of testing conjecture, we are left to infer from theinternal structure of this horn, that it is an erectile organ which, inmoments of irritation, will swell like the comb of a cock. This opinionas to its physiological nature is confirmed by the remarkablecircumstance that, like the rudimentary comb of the hen and young cocks, the female and the immature males of the _ceratophora_ have the hornexceedingly small. In mature females of eight inches in length (and thefemales appear always to be smaller than the males), the horn is onlyone half or one line long; while in immature males five inches inlength, it is one line and a half. [Illustration: CERATOPHORA TENNENTII and C. STODDARTII] Among the specimens sent from Ceylon by Dr. Kelaart, and now in theBritish Museum, there is one which so remarkably differs from _C. Stoddartii_, that it attracted my attention, by the peculiar form ofthis rostral appendage. Dr. Günther pronounced it to be a new species;and Dr. Gray concurring in this opinion, they have done me the honour tocall it _Ceratophora Tennentii_. Its "horn" somewhat resembles the combof a cock not only in its internal structure, but also in its externalappearance; it is nearly six lines long by two broad, slightlycompressed, soft, flexile, and extensible, and covered with acorrugated, granular skin. It bears no resemblance to the depressedrostral hump of _Lyriocephalus_, and the differences of the new speciesfrom the latter lizard may be easily seen from the annexed drawing andthe notes given below. [1] [Footnote 1: The specimen in the British Museum is apparently an adultmale, ten inches long, and is, with regard to the distribution of thescales and the form of the head very similar to _C. Stoddartii_. Theposterior angles of the orbit are not projecting, but there is a smalltubercle behind them; and a pair of somewhat larger tubercles on theneck. The gular sac is absent. There are five longitudinal quadrangular, imbricate scales on each side of the throat; and the sides of the bodypresent a nearly horizontal series of similar scales. The scales on themedian line of the back scarcely form a crest; it is, however distincton the nape of the neck. The scales on the belly, on the extremities, and on the tail are slightly keeled. Tail nearly round. This species ismore uniformly coloured than _C. Stoddartii_; it is greenish, darker onthe sides. ] _Geckoes_. --The most familiar and attractive of the lizard class are the_Geckoes_[1], that frequent the sitting-rooms, and being furnished withpads to each toe, they are enabled to ascend perpendicular walls andadhere to glass and ceilings. Being nocturnal in their habits, the pupilof the eye, instead of being circular as in the diurnal species, islinear and vertical like that of the cat. As soon as evening arrives, the geckoes are to be seen in every house in keen and crafty pursuit oftheir prey; emerging from the chinks and recesses where they concealthemselves during the day, to search for insects that then retire tosettle for the night. In a boudoir where the ladies of my family spenttheir evenings, one of these familiar and amusing little creatures hadits hiding-place behind a gilt picture frame. Punctually as the candleswere lighted, it made its appearance on the wall to be fed with itsaccustomed crumbs; and if neglected, it reiterated it sharp, quick callof _chic, chic, chit, _ till attended to. It was of a delicate graycolour, tinged with pink; and having by accident fallen on a work-table, it fled, leaving part of its tail behind it, which, however, itreproduced within less than a month. This faculty of reproduction isdoubtless designed to enable the creature to escape from its assailants:the detaching of the limb is evidently its own act; and it isobservable, that when reproduced, the tail generally exhibits somevariation from the previous form, the diverging spines being absent, thenew portion covered with small square uniform scales placed in a crossseries, and the scuta below being seldom so distinct as in the originalmember. [2] In an officer's quarters in the fort of Colombo, a geckoe hadbeen taught to come daily to the dinner-table, and always made itsappearance along with the dessert. The family were absent for somemonths, during which the house underwent extensive repairs, the roofhaving been raised, the walls stuccoed, and the ceilings whitened. Itwas naturally surmised that so long a suspension of its accustomedhabits would have led to the disappearance of the little lizard; but onthe return of its old friends, it made its entrance as usual at theirfirst dinner the instant the cloth was removed. [Footnote 1: Hemidactylus maculatus, _Dum_. Et _Bib_. , H. Leschenaultii, _Dum_, et _Bib_; H. Frenatus, _Schlegel_. Of these the last is verycommon in the houses of Colombo. Colour, grey; sides with smallgranules; thumb short; chin-shields four; tail rounded with transverseseries of small spines; femoral and preanal pores in a continuous line. GRAY, _Lizard_, p. 155. ] [Footnote 2: _Brit. Mus. Cat. _ p. 143; KELAART's _Prod. Faun. Zeylan. , _p. 183. ] _Crocodile. _--The Portuguese in India, like the Spaniards in SouthAmerica, affixed the name of _lagarto_ to the huge reptiles thatinfested the rivers and estuaries of both continents; and to the presentday the Europeans in Ceylon apply the term _alligator_ to what are inreality _crocodiles_, which literally swarm in the still waters andtanks in the low country, but rarely frequent rapid streams, and havenever been found in the marshes among the hills. The differences, however, between the two, when once ascertained, are sufficientlymarked, to prevent their being afterwards confounded. The head of thealligator is broader and the snout less prolonged, and the canine teethof the under jaw, instead of being received into foramina in the upper, as in the crocodile, fit into furrows on each side of it. The legs ofthe alligator, too, are not denticulated, and the feet are onlysemi-palmate. The following drawing exhibits a cranium of each. [Illustration: SKULLS OF ALLIGATOR AND CROCODILE] The instincts of the crocodiles in Ceylon do not lead to any variationfrom the habits of those found in other countries. There would appear tobe two well-distinguished species found in the island, the_Eli-kimboola_[1], the Indian crocodile, inhabiting the rivers andestuaries throughout the low countries of the coasts, attaining thelength of sixteen or eighteen feet, and ready to assail man when pressedby hunger; and the marsh-crocodile[2], which lives exclusively in freshwater, frequenting the tanks in the northern and central provinces, andconfining its attacks to the smaller animals: in length it seldomexceeds twelve or thirteen feet. Sportsmen complain that their dogs areconstantly seized by both species; and water-fowl, when shot, frequentlydisappear before they can be secured by the fowler. [3] It is generallybelieved in Ceylon that, in the case of larger animals, the crocodileabstains from devouring them till the commencement of decompositionfacilitates the operation of swallowing. To assist in this, the nativesassure me that the reptile contrives to fasten the carcase behind theroots of a mangrove or some other convenient tree and tears off eachpiece by a backward spring. [Footnote 1: Crocodilus biporcatus. _Cuvier_. ] [Footnote 2: Crododilus palustris, _Less_. ] [Footnote 3: In Siam the flesh of the crocodile is sold for food in themarkets and bazaars, "Un jour je vis plus de cinquante crocodiles, petits et grands, attachés aux colonnes de leurs maisons. Ils es vendentla chair comme on vendrait de la chair de porc, mais à bien meilleurmarché. "-PALLEGOIX, _Siam_, vol. I. P. 174. ] There is another popular belief that the crocodile is exceedinglysensitive to tickling; and that it will relax its hold of a man, if hecan only contrive to reach and rub with his hand the softer parts of itsunder side. [1] An incident indicative of some reality in this piece offolklore, once came under my own observation. One morning, aboutsunrise, when riding across the sandy plain near the old fort ofMoeletivoe, we came suddenly upon a crocodile asleep under some bushesof the Buffalo-thorn, several hundred yards from the water. The terrorof the poor wretch was extreme, when it awoke and found itselfdiscovered and completely surrounded. It was a hideous creature, upwardsof ten feet long, and evidently of prodigious strength, had it been in acondition to exert it, but consternation completely paralysed it. Itstarted to its feet and turned round in a circle hissing and clankingits bony jaws, with its ugly green eye intently fixed upon us. On beingstruck with a stick, it lay perfectly quiet and apparently dead. Presently it looked cunningly round, and made a rush towards the water, but on a second blow it lay again motionless and feigning death. Wetried to rouse it, but without effect, pulled its tail, slapped itsback, struck its hard scales, and teased it in every way, but all invain; nothing would induce it to move till accidentally my son, then aboy of twelve years old, tickled it gently under the arm, and in aninstant it drew the limb close to its side and turned to avoid arepetition of the experiment. Again it was touched under the other arm, and the same emotion was exhibited, the great monster twisting aboutlike an infant to avoid being tickled. The scene was highly amusing, butthe sun was rising high, and we pursued our journey to Moeletivoe, leaving the crocodile to make its way to the adjoining lake. [Footnote 1: A native gentleman who resided for a long time at Calturatells me that in the rivers which flow into the sea, both there and atBentotte, crocodiles are frequently caught in corrals, formed of stakesdriven into the ground in shallow water, and so constructed, that whenthe reptile enters to seize the bait placed within, the aperture closesbehind and secures him. A professional "crocodile charmer" then entersmuttering a spell, and with one end of a stick pats the creature gentlyon the head for a time. The operator then boldly mounts astride upon itsshoulders, and continues to soothe it with his one hand, whilst with theother he contrives to pass a rope under its body, by which it is at lastdragged on shore. This story serves to corroborate the narrative of Mr. Waterton and his alligator. ] The Singhalese believe that the crocodile can only move swiftly on sandor smooth clay, its feet being too tender to tread firmly on hard orstony ground. In the dry season, when the watercourses begin to fail andthe tanks become exhausted, the marsh-crocodiles have occasionally beenencountered in the jungle, wandering in search of water. During a severedrought in 1844, they deserted a tank near Kornegalle and traversed thetown during the night, on their way to another reservoir in the suburb;two or three fell into the wells; others in their trepidation, laid eggsin the street, and some were found entangled in garden fences andkilled. Generally, however, during the extreme drought, when unable to procuretheir ordinary food from the drying up of the watercourses, they burythemselves in the mud, and remain in a state of torpor till released bythe recurrence of rains. [1] At Arne-tivoe, in the eastern province, whilst riding across the parched bed of the tank, I was shown therecess, still bearing the form and impress of a crocodile, out of whichthe animal had been seen to emerge the day before. A story was alsorelated to me of an officer attached to the department of theSurveyor-General, who, having pitched his tent in a similar position, was disturbed during the night by feeling a movement of the earth belowhis bed, from which on the following day a crocodile emerged, making itsappearance from beneath the matting. [2] [Footnote 1: HERODOTUS records the observations of the Egyptians thatthe crocodile of the Nile abstains from food during the four wintermonths. --_Euterpe_, lviii. ] [Footnote 2: HUMBOLDT relates a similar story as occurring at Calabazo, in Venezuela. --_Personal Narrative_, c, xvi. ] The fresh water species that inhabits the tanks is essentially cowardlyin it instincts, and hastens to conceal itself on the appearance of man. A gentleman (who told me the circumstance), when riding in the jungle, overtook a crocodile, evidently roaming in search of water. It fled to ashallow pool almost dried by the sun, and, thrusting its head into themud till it covered up its eyes, remained unmoved in profound confidenceof perfect concealment. In 1833, during the progress of the PearlFishery, Sir Robert Wilmot Horton employed men to drag for crocodiles ina pond which was infested by them in the immediate vicinity of Aripo. The pool was about fifty yards in length, by ten or twelve wide, shallowing gradually to the edge, and not exceeding four or five feet atthe deepest part. As the party approached the bund, from twenty tothirty reptiles, which had been basking in the sun, rose and fled to thewater. A net, specially weighted so as to sink its lower edge to thebottom, was then stretched from bank to bank and swept to the furtherend of the pond, followed by a line of men with poles to drive thecrocodiles forward: so complete was the arrangement, that no individualcould have evaded the net, yet, to the astonishment of the Governor'sparty, not one was to be found when it was drawn on shore, and no meansof escape for them was apparent or possible except by their descendinginto the mud at the bottom of the pond. The lagoon of Batticaloa, and indeed all the still waters of thisdistrict, are remarkable for the numbers and prodigious size of thecrocodiles which infest them. Their teeth are sometimes so large thatthe natives mount them with silver lids and use them for boxes to carrythe powdered chunam, which they chew with the betel leaf. During one ofmy visits to the lake a crocodile was caught within a few yards of thegovernment agent's residence, a hook having been laid the night before, baited with the entrails of a goat; and made fast, in the nativefashion, by a bunch of fine cords, which the creature cannot gnawasunder as it would a solid rope, since they sink into the spacesbetween its teeth. The one taken was small, being only about ten oreleven feet in length, whereas they are frequently killed from fifteento nineteen feet long. As long as it was in the water, it made strongresistance to being hauled on shore, carrying the canoe out into thedeep channel, and occasionally raising its head above the surface, andclashing its jaws together menacingly. This action has a horrid sound, as the crocodile has no fleshy lips; and it brings its teeth and thebones of the mouth together with a loud crash, like the clank of twopieces of hard wood. After playing it a little, the boatmen drew it toland, and when once fairly on the shore all courage and energy seemedutterly to desert it. It tried once or twice to regain the water, but atlast lay motionless and perfectly helpless on the sand. It was no easymatter to kill it; a rifle ball sent diagonally through its breast hadlittle or no effect, and even when the shot had been repeated more thanonce, it was as full of life as ever. [1] It feigned death and laymotionless, with its eye closed; but, on being pricked with a spear, itsuddenly regained all its activity. It was at last finished by aharpoon, and then opened. Its maw contained several small tortoises, anda quantity of broken bricks and gravel, taken medicinally, to promotedigestion. [Footnote 1: A remarkable instance of the vitality of the commoncrocodile, _C. Biporcatus_, was related to me by a gentleman at Galle:he had caught on a baited hook an unusually large one, which his cooliesdisembowelled, the aperture in the stomach being left expanded by astick placed across it. On returning in the afternoon with a view tosecure the head, they found that the creature had crawled for somedistance, and made its escape into the water. "A curious incident occurred some years ago on the Maguruganga, a streamwhich flows through the Pasdun Corle, to join the Bentolle river. A manwas fishing seated on the branch of a tree that overhung the water; andto shelter himself from the drizzling rain, he covered his head andshoulder with a bag folded into a shape common with the natives. Whilein this attitude, a leopard sprang upon him from the jungle, but missingits aim, seized the bag and not the man, and fell with it into theriver. Here a crocodile, which had been eyeing the angler is despair, seized the leopard as it fell, and sunk with it to thebottom. "--_Letter_ from GOONE-RATNE Modliar, interpreter of the SupremeCourt, 10th Jany. , 1861. ] During our journeys we had numerous opportunities of observing thehabits of these hideous creatures, and I am far from considering them soformidable as they are usually supposed to be. They are evidently notwantonly destructive; they act only under the influence of hunger, andeven then their motions on land are awkward and ungainly, their actiontimid, and their whole demeanour devoid of the sagacity and couragewhich characterise other animals of prey. TESTUDINATA. _Tortoise_. --Land tortoises are numerous, but present noremarkable features beyond the beautiful marking of the starredvariety[1], which is common in the north-western province around Putlamand Chilaw, and is distinguished by the bright yellow rays whichdiversify the deep black of its dorsal shield. From one of these whichwas kept in my garden I took a number of flat ticks (_Ixodes_), whichadhere to its fleshy neck in such a position as to baffle any attempt ofthe animal itself to remove them; but as they are exposed to constantdanger of being crushed against the plastron during the protrusion andretraction of the head, each is covered with a horny case almost asresistant as the carapace of the tortoise itself. Such an adaptation ofstructure is scarcely less striking than that of the parasites found onthe spotted lizard of Berar by Dr. Hooker, each of which presents thedistinct colour of the scale to which it adheres. [2] [Footnote 1: Testudo stellata. ] [Illustration: THE THREE-RIDGED TORTOISE (EMYS TRIJUGA)] [Footnote 2: HOOKER'S _Himalayan Journals_, vol. I. P. 37. ] The marshes and pools of the interior are frequented by _terrapins_[1], which the natives are in the habit of keeping alive in wells under theconviction that they clear them of impurities. These fresh-watertortoises, the greater number of which are included in the genus _Emys_of naturalists, are distinguished by having their toes webbed. Theirshell is less convex than that of their congeners on land (but moreelevated than that of the sea-turtle); and it has been observed that themore rounded the shell, the nearer does the terrapin approach to theland-tortoise both in its habits and in the choice of its food. Some ofthem live upon animal as well as vegetable food, and those which subsistexclusively on the former, are noted as having the flattest shells. [Footnote 1: _Cryptopus granum_, SCHÖPF; DR. KELAART, in his _Prodromus_(p. 179), refers this to the common Indian species, _C. Punctata_; butit is distinct. It is generally distributed in the lower parts ofCeylon, in lakes and tanks. It is the one usually put into wells to actthe part of a scavenger. By the Singhalese it is named _Kiri-ibba_. ] The terrapins lay about thirty eggs in the course of several weeks, andthese are round, with a calcareous shell. They thrive in captivity, provided that they have a regular supply of water and of meat, cut intosmall pieces and thrown to them. The tropical species, if transferred toa colder climate, should have arrangements made for enabling them tohybernate during the winter: they will die in a very short time ifexposed to a temperature below the freezing point. [1] [Footnote 1: Of the _Emys trijuga_, the fresh water tortoise figured onpreceding page, the technical characteristics are;--vertical plateslozenge-shaped; shell convex and oval; with three more or less distinctlongitudinal keels; shields corrugated; with areola situated in theupper posterior corner. Shell brown, with the areolæ and the keelsyellowish; head brown, with a yellow streak over each eye. ] The edible turtle[1] is found on all the coasts of the island, and sellsfor a few shillings or a few pence, according to its size and abundanceat the moment. A very repulsive spectacle is exhibited in the markets ofJaffna by the mode in which the flesh of the turtle is sold piece-meal, whilst the animal is still alive, by the families of the Tamilfishermen. The creatures are to be seen in the market-place undergoingthis frightful mutilation; the plastron and its integuments having beenpreviously removed, and the animal thrown on its back, so as to displayall the motions of the heart, viscera, and lungs. A broad knife, fromtwelve to eighteen inches in length, is first inserted at the left side, and the women, who are generally the operators, introduce one hand toscoop out the blood, which oozes slowly. The blade is next passed round, till the lower shell is detached and placed on one side, and theinternal organs exposed in full action. A customer, as he applies, isserved with any part selected, which is cut off as ordered, and sold byweight. Each of the fins is thus successively removed, with portions ofthe fat and flesh, the turtle showing, by its contortions, that each actof severance is productive of agony. In this state it lies for hours, writhing in the sun, the heart[2] and head being usually the last piecesselected, and till the latter is cut off the snapping of the mouth, andthe opening and closing of the eyes, show that life is still inherent, even when the shell has been nearly divested of its contents. [Footnote 1: Chelonia virgata, _Schweig_. ] [Footnote 2: ARISTOTLE was aware of the fact that the turtle will liveafter the removal of the heart. --_De Vita et Morte_, ch. Ii. ] At certain seasons the flesh of turtle on the south-western coast ofCeylon is avoided as poisonous, and some lamentable instances arerecorded of deaths ascribed to its use. At Pantura, to the south ofColombo, twenty-eight persons who had partaken of turtle in October, 1840, were immediately seized with sickness, after which comasupervened, and eighteen died during the night. Those who survived saidthere was nothing unusual in the appearance of the flesh except that itwas fatter than ordinary. Other similarly fatal occurrences have beenattributed to turtle curry; but as they have never been proved toproceed exclusively from that source, there is room for believing thatthe poison may have been contained in some other ingredient. In the Gulf of Manaar turtle is frequently found of such a size as tomeasure between four and five feet in length; and on one occasion, inriding along the sea-shore north of Putlam, I saw a man in charge ofsome sheep, resting under the shade of a turtle shell, which he haderected on sticks to protect him from the sun--almost verifying thestatement of Ælian, that in the seas off Ceylon there are tortoises solarge that several persons may find ample shelter beneath a singleshell. [1] [Footnote 1: [Greek: "Tiktontai de ara en tautê tê thalattê, kaichelônai megistai, ônper oun ta elytra orophoi ginontai kai gar esti kaipentekaideka pêchôn en chelôneion, ôs hypoikein ouk oligous, kai toushêlious pyrodestatous apostegei, kai skian asmenois parechei. "]--Lib. Xvi. C. 17. Ælian copied this statement literatim from MEGASTHESES, _Indica Frag. _ lix. 31. May not Megasthenes have referred to sometradition connected with the gigantic fossilised species discovered onthe Sewalik Hills, the remains of which are now in the Museum at theEast India House?] The hawksbill-turtle[1], which supplies the tortoise-shell of commerce, was at former times taken in great numbers in the vicinity ofHambangtotte during the season when they came to deposit their eggs. This gave rise to the trade in tortoise-shell at Point de Galle, whereit is still manufactured into articles of ornament by the Moors; but theshell they employ is almost entirely imported from the Maldives. [Footnote 1: Caretta imbricata, _Linn. _] If taken from the animal after death and decomposition, the colour ofthe shell becomes clouded and milky, and hence the cruel expedient isresorted to of seizing the turtles as they repair to the shore todeposit their eggs, and suspending them over fires till heat makes theplates on the dorsal shields start from the bone of the carapace, afterwhich the creature is permitted to escape to the water. [1] Inillustration of the resistless influence of instinct at the period ofbreeding, it may be mentioned that the identical tortoise is believed toreturn again and again to the same spot, notwithstanding that at eachvisit she may have to undergo a repetition of this torture. In the year1826, a hawksbill turtle was taken near Hambangtotte, which bore a ringattached to one of its fins that had been placed there by a Dutchofficer thirty years before, with a view to establish the fact of theserecurring visits to the same beach. [2] [Footnote 1: At Celebes, whence the finest tortoise-shell is exported toChina, the natives kill the turtle by blows on the head, and immerse theshell in boiling water to detach the plates. Dry heat is only resortedto by the unskilful, who frequently destroy the tortoise-shell in theoperation--_Journal Indian Archipel_. Vol. Iii. P. 227, 1849. ] [Footnote 2: BENNETT'S _Ceylon, &c. _, c. Xxxiv. ] An opportunity is afforded on the sea-shore of Ceylon for observing aremarkable illustration of instinct in the turtle, when about to depositits eggs. As if conscious that if she went and returned by one and thesame line across the sandy beach, her hiding place would be discoveredat its farthest extremity, she resorts to the expedient of curving hercourse, so as to regain the sea by a different track; and afterdepositing the eggs, burying them about eighteen inches deep, shecarefully smoothes over the surface to render the precise spotindiscernible. The Singhalese, aware of this device, sound her line of, march with a rod till they come upon the concealed nest. _Snakes_. --It is perhaps owing to the aversion excited by the ferociousexpression and unusual action of serpents, combined with an instinctivedread of attack[1], that exaggerated ideas prevail both as to theirnumbers in Ceylon, and the danger to be apprehended from encounteringthem. The Singhalese profess to distinguish a great many kinds, of whichthey say not more than one half have as yet been scientificallyidentified[2]; but so cautiously do serpents make their appearance, thatthe surprise of persons long resident is invariably expressed at therarity with which they are to be seen; and from my own journeys throughthe jungle, often of from two to five hundred miles, I have frequentlyreturned without observing a single snake. Mr. Bennett, who resided muchin the south-east of the island, ascribes the rarity of serpents in thejungle to the abundance of the wild peafowl, whose partiality to youngsnakes renders them the chief destroyers of these reptiles. It islikely, too, that they are killed by the jungle-cocks; for they arefrequently eaten by the common barn-door fowl in Ceylon. This isrendered the more probable by the fact, that in those districts wherethe extension of cultivation, and the visits of sportsmen, have reducedthe numbers of the jungle-cocks and pea-fowl, snakes have perceptiblyincreased. The deer also are enemies of the snakes, and the natives whohave had opportunities of watching their encounters assert that theyhave seen deer rush upon a serpent and crush it by leaping on it withall its four feet. As to the venomous powers of snakes, DR. DAVY, whoseattention was carefully directed to the poisonous serpents of Ceylon[3], came to the conclusion that but _four_, out of twenty species examinedby him, were venomous, and that of these only two (the _tic-polonga_[4]and _cobra de capello_[5]) were capable of inflicting a wound likely tobe fatal to man. The third is the _carawala_[6], a brown snake of abouttwo feet in length; and for the fourth, of which only a few specimenshave been procured, the Singhalese have no name in their vernacular--aproof that it is neither deadly nor abundant. But Dr. Davy's estimate ofthe venom of the _carawala_ is below the truth, as cases have beenauthenticated to me, in which death from its bite ensued within a fewdays. The effect, however, is not uniformly fatal; a circumstance whichthe natives explain by asserting that there are three varieties of thecarawala, named the _hil-la_, the _dunu_, and the _mal_-carawala; thesecond being the largest and the most dreaded. [Footnote 1: Genesis iii. 15. ] [Footnote 2: This is not likely to be true: in a very large collectionof snakes made in Ceylon by Mr. C. R. Butler, and recently examined byDr. Günther, of the British Museum, only a single-specimen proved to benew. There is, however, one venomous snake, of the existence of which I amassured by a native correspondent in Ceylon, no mention has yet beenmade by European naturalists. It is called M[=a]pil[=a] by theSinghalese; it is described to me as being about four feet in length, ofthe diameter of the little finger, and of a uniform dark brown colour. It is said to be often seen in company with another snake called inSinghalese _Lay Medilla_, a name which implies its deep red hue. Thelatter is believed to be venomous. It would be well if some collector inCeylon would send home for examination the species which respectivelybear these names. ] [Footnote 3: See DAVY'S _Ceylon_, ch. Xiv. ] [Footnote 4: Daboia elegans, _Daud. _] [Footnote 5: Naja tripudians, _Merr. _] [Footnote 6: Trigonocephalus hypnale, _Merr. _] In like manner, the _tic-polonga_, particularised by Dr. Davy, is saidto be but one out of seven varieties of that formidable reptile. Theword "tic" means literally the "spotted" polonga, from the superiorclearness of the markings on its scales. Another, the _nidi_, or"sleeping" polonga, is so called from the fact that a person bitten byit is soon prostrated by a lethargy from which he never awakes. [1] Theseformidable serpents so infested the official residence of the DistrictJudge of Trincomalie in 1858, as to compel his family to abandon it. Inanother instance, a friend of mine, going hastily to take a supply ofwafers from an open tin case which stood in his office, drew back hishand, on finding the box occupied by a tic-polonga coiled within it. During my residence in Ceylon, I never heard of the death of a Europeanwhich was caused by the bite of a snake; and in the returns of coroners'inquests made officially to my department, such accidents to the nativesappear chiefly to have happened at night, when the animal, having beensurprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound in self-defence. [2] Forthese reasons the Singhalese, when obliged to leave their houses in thedark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the noise[3] of which as theystrike it on the ground is sufficient to warn the snakes to leave theirpath. [Footnote 1: The other varieties are the _getta, lay, alu, kunu, _ and_nil-polongas. _ I have heard of an eighth, the _palla-polonga_. Amongst the numerous pieces of folk-lore in Ceylon in connexion withsnakes, is the belief that a deadly enmity subsists between the polongaand the cobra de capello, and that the latter, which is naturally shyand retiring, is provoked to conflicts by the audacity of its rival. Hence the proverb applied to persons at enmity, that "they hate like thepolonga and cobra. " The Singhalese believe the polonga to be by far the most savage andwanton of the two, and they illustrate this by a popular legend, thatonce upon a time a child, in the absence of its mother, was playingbeside a tub of water, which a cobra, impelled by thirst during along-continued drought, approached to drink, the unconscious child allthe while striking it with its hands to prevent the intrusion. Thecobra, on returning, was met by a tic-polonga, which seeing its scalesdripping with delicious moisture, entreated to be told the way to thewell. The cobra, knowing the vicious habits of the other snake, andanticipating that it would kill the innocent child which it had sorecently spared, at first refused, and only yielded on condition thatthe infant was not to be molested. But the polonga, on reaching the tub, was no sooner obstructed by the little one, than it stung him to death. ] [Footnote 2: In a return of 112 coroners' inquests, in cases of deathfrom wild animals, held in Ceylon in five years, from 1851 to 1855inclusive, 68 are ascribed to the bites of serpents; and in almost everyinstance the assault is set down as having taken place _at night_. Themajority of the sufferers were children and women. ] [Footnote 3: PLINY notices that the serpent has the sense of hearingmore acute than that of sight; and that it is more frequently put inmotion by the sound of footsteps than by the appearance of the intruder, "excitatur pede sæpius. "--Lib, viii. C. 36. ] _Cobra de Capello. _--The cobra de capello is the only one exhibited bythe itinerant snake-charmers: and the truth of Davy's conjecture, thatthey control it, not by extracting its fangs, but by courageouslyavailing themselves of its well-known timidity and extreme reluctance touse its fatal weapons, received a painful confirmation during myresidence in Ceylon, by the death of one of these performers, whom hisaudience had provoked to attempt some unaccustomed familiarity with thecobra; it bit him on the wrist, and he expired the same evening. Thehill near Kandy, on which the official residences of the Governor andColonial Secretary are built, is covered in many places with thedeserted nests of the white ants (_termites_), and these are thefavourite retreats of the sluggish and spiritless cobra, which watchesfrom their apertures the toads and lizards on which it preys. Here, whenI have repeatedly come upon them, their only impulse was concealment;and on one occasion, when a cobra of considerable length could notescape, owing to the bank being nearly precipitous on both sides of theroad, a few blows from my whip were sufficient to deprive it of life. [1] [Footnote 1: A Singhalese work, the _Sarpados[=a]_, enumerates fourcastes of the cobra;--the _raja_, or king: the _bamunu_, or Brahman; the_velanda_, or trader; and the _gori_, or agriculturist. Of these theraja, or "king of the cobras, " is said to have the head and the anteriorhalf of the body of so light a colour, that at a distance it seems likea silvery white. The work is quoted, but not correctly, in the _CeylonTimes_ for January, 1857. It is more than probable, as the divisionrepresents the four castes of the Hindus, Chastriyas, Brahmans Vaisyas, and Sudras; that the insertion of the _gori_ instead of the latter was apious fraud of some copyist to confer rank upon the Vellales, theagricultural caste of Ceylon. ] A gentleman who held a civil appointment at Kornegalle, had a servantwho was bitten by a snake and he informed me that on enlarging a holenear the foot of the tree under which the accident occurred, heunearthed a cobra of upwards of three feet long, and so purely white asto induce him to believe that it was an albino. With the exception ofthe _rat-snake_[1], the cobra de capello is the only serpent which seemsfrom choice to frequent the vicinity of human dwellings, doubtlessattracted by the young of the domestic fowl and by the moisture of thewells and drainage. [Footnote 1: _Coryphodon Blumenbachii. _ There is a belief in Ceylon thatthe bite of the rat-snake, though harmless to man, is fatal to blackcattle. The Singhalese add that it would be equally so to man were thewound to be touched by cow-dung. WOLF, in the interesting story of his_Life and Adventures in Ceylon_, mentions that rat-snakes were often sodomesticated by the native as to feed at their table. He says: "I oncesaw an example of this in the house of a native. It being meal time, hecalled his snake, which immediately came forth from the roof under whichhe and I were sitting. He gave it victuals from his own dish, which thesnake took of itself from off a fig-leaf that was laid for it, and atealong with its host. When it had eaten its fill, he gave it a kiss, andbade it go to its hole. " Major SKINNER, writing to me 12th Dec. , 1858, mentions the still more remarkable case of the domestication of thecobra de capello in Ceylon. "Did you ever hear, " he says, "of tamecobras being kept and domesticated about a house, going in and out atpleasure, and in common with the rest of the inmates? In one family, near Negombo, cobras are kept as protectors, in the place of dogs, by awealthy man who has always large sums of money in his house. But this isnot a solitary case of the kind. I heard of it only the other day, butfrom undoubtedly good authority. The snakes glide about the house, aterror to thieves, but never attempting to harm the inmates. "] The young cobras, it is said, in the _Sarpa-dosa_, are not venomous tillafter the thirteenth day, when they shed their coat for the first time. The Singhalese remark that if one cobra be destroyed near a house, itscompanion is almost certain to be discovered immediately after, --apopular belief which I had an opportunity of verifying on more than oneoccasion. Once, when a snake of this description was killed in a bath ofthe Government House at Colombo, its mate was found in the same spot theday after; and again, at my own stables, a cobra of five feet long, having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit its escape, its companion of the same size was found the same morning in anadjoining drain. [1] On this occasion the snake, which had been severalhours in the well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood abovewater; and instances have repeatedly occurred of the cobra de capellovoluntarily taking considerable excursions by sea. When the"Wellington, " a government vessel employed in the conservancy of thepearl banks, was anchored about a quarter of a mile from the land, inthe bay of Koodremalé, a cobra was seen, about an hour before sunset, swimming vigorously towards the ship. It came within twelve yards, whenthe sailors assailed it with billets of wood and other missiles, andforced it to return to land. The following morning they discovered thetrack which it had left on the shore, and traced it along the sand tillit was lost in the jungle. On a later occasion, in the vicinity of thesame spot, when the "Wellington" was lying at some distance from theshore, a cobra was found and killed on board, where it could only havegained access by climbing up the cable. It was first discovered by asailor, who felt the chill as it glided over his foot. [Footnote 1: PLINY notices the affection that subsists between the maleand female asp; and that if one of them happens to be killed, the otherseeks to avenge its death. --Lib. Viii. C. 37. ] One curious tradition in Ceylon embodies the popular legend, that thestomach of the cobra de capello occasionally contains a precious stoneof such unapproachable brilliancy as to surpass all known jewels. Thisinestimable stone is called the _n[=a]ga-m[=a]nik-kya_; but not onesnake in thousands is supposed to possess such a treasure. The cobra, before eating, is believed to cast it up and conceal it for the moment;else its splendour, like a flambeau, would attract all beholders. Thetales of the peasantry, in relation to it, all turn upon the devices ofthose in search of the gem, and the vigilance and cunning of the cobraby which they are baffled; the reptile itself being more enamoured ofthe priceless jewel than even its most ardent pursuers. In BENNETT'S account of "_Ceylon and its Capabilities_, " there isanother curious piece of Singhalese folk-lore, to the effect, that thecobra de capello every time it expends its poison _loses a joint of itstail_, and eventually acquires a head resembling that of a toad. Arecent addition to zoological knowledge has thrown light on the originof this popular fallacy. The family of "false snakes" (_pseudotyphlops_, as Schlegel names the group) have till lately consisted ofbut three species, of which only one was known to inhabit Ceylon. Theybelong to a family intermediate between the serpents and that Sauriangroup-commonly called _Slow-worms_ or _Glass-snakes_; they in factrepresent the slow-worms of the temperate regions in Ceylon. They havethe body of a snake, but the cleft of their mouth is very narrow, andthey are unable to detach the lateral parts of the lower jaw from eachother, as the true snakes do when devouring a prey. The most strikingcharacter of the group, however, is the size and form of the tail; thisis very short, and according to the observations of Professor Peters ofBerlin[1], shorter in the female than in the male. It does not terminatein a point as in other snakes, but is truncated obliquely, the abruptsurface of its extremity being either entirely flat, or more or lessconvex, and always covered with rough keels. The reptile assists its ownmovements by pressing the rough end to the ground, and from thispeculiar form of the tail, the family has received the name of_Uropeltidæ_, or "Shield-tails. " Within a very recent period importantadditions have been made to this family. Which now consists of fourgenera and eleven species. Those occurring in Ceylon are enumerated inthe List appended to this chapter. One of these, the _Uropeltis grandis_of Kelaart[2], is distinguished by its dark brown colour, shot with abluish metallic lustre, closely approaching the ordinary shade of thecobra; and the tail is abruptly and flatly compressed as though it hadbeen severed by a knife. The form of this singular reptile will be bestunderstood by a reference to the accompanying figure; and there can, Ithink, be little doubt that to its strange and anomalous structure is tobe traced the fable of the transformation of the cobra de capello. Thecolour alone would seem to identify the two reptiles, but the head andmouth are no longer those of a serpent, and the disappearance of thetail might readily suggest the mutilation which the tradition asserts. [Illustration: THE UROPELTIS PHILIPPINUS. ] [Footnote 1: PETERS, _De Serpentum familia Uropeltaceorum_. Berol, 4. 1861. ] [Footnote 2: The _Uropeltis grandis_ of Kelaart, which was at firstsupposed to be a new species, proves to be identical with _U. Phillippinus_ of Cuvier. It is doubtful, however, whether this speciesbe found in the Phillippine Islands, as stated by Cuvier; and it is morethan, probable that the typical specimen came from Ceylon--a furtherillustration of the affinity of the fauna of Ceylon to that of theEastern Archipelago. The characteristics of this reptile, as given byDr. GRAY, are as follows:--"Caudal disc subcircular, with largescattered tubercles; snout subacute, slightly produced. Dark brown, lighter below, with some of the scales dark brown in the centre near theposterior edge. GRAY, _Proceed. Zool. Soc. _ 1858, p. 262. ] The Singhalese Buddhists, in their religious abstinence from inflictingdeath on any creature, are accustomed, after securing a venomous snake, to enclose it in a basket woven of palm leaves, and to set it afloat ona river. _The Python. _--The great python[1] (the "boa, " as it is commonlydesignated by Europeans, the "anaconda" of Eastern story), which issupposed to crush the bones of an elephant, and to swallow the tiger, isfound, though not of such portentous dimensions, in the cinnamon gardenswithin a mile of the fort of Colombo, where it feeds on hog-deer, andother smaller animals. [Footnote 1: Python reticulatus, _Gray_. ] The natives occasionally take it alive, and securing it to a pole exposeit for sale as a curiosity. One that was brought to me tied in this waymeasured seventeen feet with a proportionate thickness: but one morefully grown, which crossed my path on a coffee estate on the PeacockMountain at Pusilawa, considerably exceeded these dimensions. Anotherwhich I watched in the garden at Elie House, near Colombo, surprised meby the ease with which it erected itself almost perpendicularly in orderto scale a wall upwards of ten feet high. The Singhalese assert that when it has swallowed a deer, or any animalof similarly inconvenient bulk, the python draws itself through thenarrow aperture between two trees, in order to crush the bones andassist in the process of deglutition. It is a singular fact that the small and innocuous ground-snakes called_Calamariæ_, which abound on the continent of India and in the islandsare not to be found in Ceylon; where they would appear to be replaced bytwo singular genera, the _Aspidura_ and _Haplocercus_, These latter haveonly one series of shields below the tail, whilst most other harmlesssnakes (_Calamaria_ included) have a double series of sub-candals. The_Aspidura_ has been known to naturalists for many years[1]; the_Haplocercus_ of Ceylon has only recently been described by Dr. Günther, and of it not more than three existing specimens are known: hence itshabits and the extent of its distribution over the island are still leftin uncertainty. [2] [Footnote 1: Boie in Isis 1827 p. 517. ] [Footnote 2: GÜNTH. _Col. Snakes_, p. 14. In the hope that some inquirerin Ceylon will be able to furnish such information as may fill up thisblank in the history of the haplocercus, the following particulars arehere appended. The largest of the specimens in the British Museum isabout twenty-five inches in length; the body thin, and much elongated;the head narrow, and not distinct from the neck, the tail of moderatelength. Forehead covered by three shields, one anterior and twoposterior frontals; no loreal shield; one small shield before, twobehind the eye; seven shields along the upper lip, the eye being abovethe fourth. The scales are disposed in seventeen longitudinal series;they are lanceolate and strongly keeled. The upper parts are uniformblackish or brown, with two dorsal rows of small indistinct black spots;occiput with a whitish collar, edged with darker. The lower partsuniform yellowish. ] Of ten species of snakes that ascend trees in Ceylon to search forsquirrels and lizards, and to rifle the nests of birds, one half, including the green _carawala_, and the deadly _tic polonga_, arebelieved by the natives to be venomous; but the truth of this is verydubious. I have heard of the cobra being found on the crown of acoco-nut palm, attracted, it was said, by the toddy which was flowing atthe time, it being the season for drawing it. Surrounding Elie House, near Colombo, in which I resided, were a number of tall _casuarinas_ andIndia-rubber trees, whose branches almost touched the lattices of thewindow of the room in which I usually sat. These were a favourite resortof the tree-snakes, and in the early morning the numbers which clung tothem were sometimes quite remarkable. I had thus an opportunity ofobserving the action of these creatures, which seems to me one ofvigilance rather than of effort, the tongue being in perpetual activity, as if it were an organ of feeling; and in those in which the nose iselongated, a similar mobility and restlessness, especially when alarmed, affords evidence of the same faculty. The general characteristic of the Tree-snake is an exceedingly thin anddelicate body, often adorned with colours exquisite as those of thefoliage amongst which they live concealed. In some of the South Americanspecies the tints vie in brilliancy with those of the humming-birds;whilst their forms are so flexible and slender as to justify the nameconferred on them of "_whip-snakes_. " The Siamese, to denote thesecombinations of grace and splendour, call them "Sun-beams. " Anaturalist[1], describing a bright green species in Brazil (_Philodryasviridissimus_), writes: "I am always delighted when I find that anothertree-snake has settled in my garden. You look for a bird's nest, theyoung ones have gone, but you find their bed occupied by one of thesebeautiful creatures, which will coil up its body of two feet in lengthwithin a space no larger than the hollow of your hand. They appear to bealways watchful; for at the instant you discover one, the quick playingof the long, black, forked tongue will show you that you too areobserved. On perceiving the slightest sign of your intention to disturbit, the snake will dart upwards through the branches and over the leaveswhich scarcely appear to bend beneath the weight. A moment more, and youhave lost sight of it. Whenever I return to Europe, you may be sure thatin my hot-house those harmless, lovely creatures shall not be missing. " [Footnote 1: Dr. WUCHERER of Bahia. ] [Illustration: TREE SNAKE. Passerita fusca. ] Ceylon has several species of Tree-snakes, and one of the most common isthe green _Passerita_, easily recognized from its bright colour and fromthe pointed moveable appendage, into which the snout is prolonged. Thesnakes of this genus being active chiefly during the night, the pupil ofthe eye is linear and horizontal. They never willingly descend fromtrees, but prey there upon nocturnal Saurians, geckoes, small birds andtheir young; and they are perfectly harmless, although they often try tobite. It is strange that none of the numerous specimens which it hasbeen attempted to bring to Europe have ever fed in captivity; whilst inSouth America they take their food freely in confinement, provided thatsome green plants are placed in their cage. In Ceylon I have never seen any specimen of a larger size than threefeet; whilst they are known to attain to more than five on the IndianContinent. The inference is obvious, that the green coloration of the majority oftree-snakes has more or less connection with their habits and mode oflife. Indeed, whenever a green-coloured snake is observed, it may atonce be pronounced, if slender or provided with a prehensile tail, to beof the kind which passes its life on trees; but if it be short-bodiedthen it lives on the prairies. There are nevertheless tree-snakes whichhave a very different coloration; and one of the most remarkable speciesis the _Passerita fusca_ or _Dryinus fuscus_, of which a figure isannexed. It closely resembles the green Passerita in form, so thatnaturalists have considered it to be a mere variety. It is entirely of ashining brown, shot with purple, and the yellow longitudinal stripewhich runs along the side of the belly of the green species, is absentin this one. It is much more rare than the green one, and does notappear to be found in Hindostan: no intermediate forms have beenobserved in Ceylon. _Water-Snakes. _--The fresh-water snakes, of which several species[1]inhabit the still waters and pools, are all harmless in Ceylon. Agentleman, who found near a river an agglutinated cluster of the eggs ofone variety (_Tropidophis schistosus_), placed them under a glass shadeon his drawing-room table, where one by one the young reptiles emergedfrom the shell to the number of twenty. [Footnote 1: Chersydrus granulatus, _Merr_. ; Cerberus cinereus. _Daud. _;Tropidophis schistosus, _Daud. _] The _sea-snakes_ of the Indian tropics did not escape the notice of theearly Greek mariners who navigated those seas; and amongst the factscollected by them, Ælian has briefly recorded that the Indian Oceanproduces serpents _with flattened tails_[1], whose bite, he adds, is tobe dreaded less for its venom than the laceration of its teeth. Thefirst statement is accurate, but the latter is incorrect, as there is anall but unanimous concurrence of opinion that every species of thisfamily of serpents is more or less poisonous. The compression of thetail noticed by Ælian is one of the principal characteristics of thesereptiles, as their motion through the water is mainly effected by itsaid, coupled with the undulating movement of the rest of the body. Theirscales, instead of being imbricated like those of land-snakes, formhexagons; and those on the belly, instead of being scutate and enlarged, are nearly of the same size and form as on other parts of the body. [Footnote 1: "[Greek: Plateis tas ouras]. " ÆLIAN, L. Xvi. C. 8. Ælian speaks elsewhere of fresh-water snakes. His remark on thecompression of the tail shows that his informants were aware of thisspeciality in those that inhabit the sea. ] Sea-snakes (_Hydrophis_) are found on all the coasts of Ceylon. I havesailed through large shoals of them in the Gulf of Manaar, close to thepearl-banks of Aripo. The fishermen of Calpentyn on the west live inperpetual dread of them, and believe their bite to be fatal. In thecourse of an attempt which was recently made to place a lighthouse onthe great rocks of the south-east coast, known by seamen as theBasses[1], or _Baxos_, the workmen who first landed found the portion ofthe surface liable to be covered by the tides, honeycombed, and hollowedinto deep holes filled with water, in which were abundance of fishes andsome molluscs. Some of these cavities also contained sea-snakes fromfour to five feet long, which were described as having the head "hoodedlike the cobra de capello, and of a light grey colour, slightlyspeckled. They coiled themselves like serpents on land, and darted atpoles thrust in among them. The Singhalese who accompanied the party, said that they not only bit venomously, but crushed the limb of anyintruder in their coils. "[2] [Footnote 1: The Basses are believed to be the remnants of the greatisland of Giri, swallowed up by the sea. --_Mahawanso_, ch. I. P. 4. Theymay possibly be the _Bassæ_ of Ptolemy's map of _Taprobane_. ] [Footnote 2: Official Report to the Governor of Ceylon. ] Still, sea-snakes, though well-known to the natives, are not abundantround Ceylon, as compared with their numbers in other places. Theirprincipal habitat is the ocean between the southern shores of China andthe northern coast of New Holland; and their western limit appears to beabout the longitude of Cape Comorin. It has long since been ascertainedthat they frequent the seas that separate the islands of the Pacific;but they have never yet been found in the Atlantic, nor even on thewestern shores of tropical America. And if, as has been stated[1], theyhave been seen on a late occasion in considerable numbers in the Bay ofPanama, the fact can only be regarded as one of the rare instances, inwhich a change in the primary distribution of a race of animals hasoccurred, either by an active or a passive immigration. Beingexclusively inhabitants of the sea, they are liable to be swept along bythe influence of currents; but to compensate for this they have beenendowed with a wonderful power of swimming. The individuals of all thegroups of terrestrial serpents are observed to be possessed of thisfaculty to a greater or a less degree; and they can swim for a certaindistance without having any organs specially modified for the purpose;except, perhaps, the lung, which is a long sac capable of taking in asufficient quantity of air, to keep the body of the snake above water. Nor do we find any peculiar or specially adapted organs even in thefreshwater-snakes, although they can catch frogs or fishes whileswimming. But in the _hydrophids_, which are permanent inhabitants ofthe ocean, and which in an adult state, approach the beach onlyoccasionally, and for very short times, the tail, which is rounded andtapering in the others, is compressed into a vertical rudder-like organ, similar to, and answering all the purposes of, the caudal fin in a fish. When these snakes are brought on shore or on the deck of a ship, theyare helpless and struggle vainly in awkward attitudes. Their foodconsists exclusively of such fishes as are found near the surface; afact which affords ample proof that they do not descend to great depths, although they can dive as well as swim. They are often found in groupsduring calm weather, sleeping on the sea; but owing to their extremecaution and shyness, attempts to catch them are rarely successful; onthe least alarm, they suddenly expel the air from their lungs anddescend below the surface; a long stream of rising air-bubbles markingthe rapid course which they make below. Their poisonous nature has beenquestioned; but the presence of a strong perforated tooth and of avenomous gland sufficiently attest their dangerous powers, even if thesehad not been demonstrated by the effects of their bite. But fortunatelyfor the fishermen, who sometimes find them unexpectedly among thecontents of their nets, sea-snakes are unable, like other venomousserpents, to open the jaws widely, and in reality they rarely inflict awound. Dr. Cantor believes, that, they are blinded by the light whenremoved from their own element; and he adds that they become sluggishand speedily die. [2] [Footnote 1: Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. ] [Footnote 2: _Catal. Mal. Rept_. P. 136. ] [Illustration: SEA SNAKE Hydrophis subloevis] Those found near the coasts of Ceylon are generally small, --from one tothree feet in length, and apparently immature; and it is certain thatthe largest specimens taken in the Pacific do not attain to greaterlength than eight feet. In colour they are generally of a greenishbrown, in parts inclining to yellow, with occasionally cross bands ofblack. The species figured in the accompanying drawing is the _Hydrophissubloevis_ of Gray; or _Hydrus cyanocinctus_ of Boie. [1] The specimenfrom which the drawing is taken, was obtained by Dr. Templeton atColombo. [Footnote 1: Its technical characteristics are as follows, --Body ratherslender; ground colour yellowish with irregular black rings. Scalesnearly smooth; ventral plates broad, six-sided, smooth, some dividedinto two, by a slight central groove. Occipital shields large, triangular, and produced, with a small central shield behind them; aseries of four large temporal shields; chin shields in two pairs; eyesvery small, over the fourth and fifth labials; one ante-and twopost-oculars; the second upper labial shield elongated. ] The use of the Pamboo-Kaloo, or snake-stone, as a remedy in cases ofwounds by venomous serpents, has probably been communicated to theSinghalese by the itinerant snake-charmers who resort to the island fromthe coast of Coromandel; and more than one well-authenticated instanceof its successful application has been told to me by persons who hadbeen eye-witnesses to what they described. On one occasion, in March, 1854, a friend of mine was riding, with some other civil officers of theGovernment, along a jungle path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when he sawone of two Tamils, who were approaching the party, suddenly dart intothe forest and return, holding in both hands a cobra de capello which hehad seized by the head and tail. He called to his companion forassistance to place it in their covered basket, but, in doing this, hehandled it so inexpertly that it seized him by the finger, and retainedits hold for a few seconds, as if unable to retract its fangs. The bloodflowed, and intense pain appeared to follow almost immediately; but, with all expedition, the friend of the sufferer undid his waistcloth, and took from it two snake-stones, each of the size of a small almond, intensely black and highly polished, though of an extremely lightsubstance. These he applied, one to each wound inflicted by the teeth ofthe serpent, to which they attached themselves closely; the blood thatoozed from the bites being rapidly imbibed by the porous texture of thearticle applied. The stones adhered tenaciously for three or fourminutes, the wounded man's companion in the meanwhile rubbing his armdownwards from the shoulder towards the fingers. At length thesnake-stones dropped off of their own accord; the suffering of the manappeared to subside; he twisted his fingers till the joints cracked, andwent on his way without concern. Whilst this had been going on, anotherIndian of the party who had come up took from his bag a small piece ofwhite wood, which resembled a root, and passed it gently near the headof the cobra, which the latter immediately inclined close to the ground;he then lifted the snake without hesitation, and coiled it into a circleat the bottom of his basket. The root by which he professed to beenabled to perform this operation with safety he called the _Naya-thalicKalanga_ (the root of the snake-plant), protected by which he professedhis ability to approach any reptile with impunity. In another instance, in 1853, Mr. Lavalliere, then District Judge ofKandy, informed me that he saw a snake-charmer in the jungle, close bythe town, search for a cobra de capello, and, after disturbing one inits retreat, the man tried to secure it, but, in the attempt, he wasbitten in the thigh till blood trickled from the wound. He instantlyapplied the _Pamboo-Kaloo_, which adhered closely for about ten minutes, during which time he passed the root which he held in his hand backwardsand forwards above the stone, till the latter dropped to the ground. Heassured Mr. Lavalliere that all danger was then past. That gentlemanobtained from him the snake-stone he had relied on, and saw himrepeatedly afterwards in perfect health. The substances used on both these occasions are now in my possession. The roots employed by the several parties are not identical. One appearsto be a bit of the stem of an Aristolochia; the other is so dried as torender its identification difficult, but it resembles the quadrangularstem of a jungle vine. Some species of Aristolochia, such as the _A. Serpentaria_ of North America, are supposed to act as specifics in thecure of snakebites; and the _A. Indica_ is the plant to which theichneumon is popularly believed to resort as an antidote when bitten[1];but it is probable that the use of any particular plant by thesnake-charmers is a pretence, or rather a delusion, the reptile beingoverpowered by the resolute action of the operator[2], and not by theinfluence of any secondary appliance. In other words, the confidenceinspired by the supposed talisman enables its possessor to addresshimself fearlessly to his task, and thus to effect, by determination andwill, what is popularly believed to be the result of charms andstupefaction. Still it is curious that, amongst the natives of NorthernAfrica, who lay hold of the _Cerastes_ without fear or hesitation, impunity is ascribed to the use of a plant with the juice of which theyanoint themselves before touching the reptile[3]; and Bruce says of thepeople of Sennar, that they acquire exemption from the fatalconsequences of the bite by chewing a particular root, and washingthemselves with an infusion of certain plants. He adds that a portion ofthis root was given him, with a view to test its efficacy in his ownperson, but that he had not sufficient resolution to make theexperiment. [Footnote 1: For an account of the encounter between the ichneumon andthe venomous snakes of Ceylon, see Ch. I. P. 39. ] [Footnote 2: The following narrative of the operations of asnake-charmer in Ceylon is contained in a note from Mr. Reyne, of thedepartment of public works: "A snake-charmer came to my bungalow in1851, requesting me to allow him to show me his snakes dancing. As I hadfrequently seen them, I told him I would give him a rupee if he wouldaccompany me to the jungle, and catch a cobra, that I knew frequentedthe place. He was willing, and as I was anxious to test the truth of thecharm, I counted his tame snakes, and put a watch over them until Ireturned with him. Before going I examined the man, and satisfied myselfhe had no snake about his person. When we arrived at the spot, he playedon a small pipe, and after persevering for some time out came a largecobra from an ant hill, which I knew it occupied. On seeing the man ittried to escape, but he caught it by the tail and kept swinging it rounduntil we reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but before long itbit him above the knee. He immediately bandaged the leg above the bite, and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the poison. He was ingreat pain for a few minutes, but after that it gradually went away, thestone falling off just before he was relieved. When he recovered he helda cloth up which the snake flew at, and caught its fangs in it; while inthat position, the man passed his hand up its back, and having seized itby the throat, he extracted the fangs in my presence and gave them tome. He then squeezed out the poison on to a leaf. It was a clear oilysubstance, and when rubbed on the hand produced a fine lather. Icarefully watched the whole operation, which was also witnessed by myclerk and two or three other persons. _Colombo, 13th January_1860. --H. E. REYNE. "] [Footnote 3: Hasselquist. ] As to the snake-stone itself, I submitted one, the application of whichI have been describing, to Mr. Faraday, who has communicated to me, asthe result of his analysis, his belief that it is "a piece of charredbone which has been filled with blood perhaps several times, and thencarefully charred again. Evidence of this is afforded, as well by theapertures of cells or tubes on its surface as by the fact that it yieldsand breaks, under pressure; and exhibits an organic structure within. When heated slightly, water rises from it, and also a little ammonia;and, if heated still more highly in the air, carbon burns away, and abulky white ash is left, retaining the shape and size of the stone. "This ash, as is evident from inspection, cannot have belonged toanyvegetable substance, for it is almost entirely composed of phosphate oflime. Mr. Faraday adds that "if the piece of matter has ever beenemployed as a spongy absorbent, it seems hardly fit for that purpose inits present state: but who can say to what treatment it has beensubjected since it was fit for use, or to what treatment the natives maysubmit it when expecting to have occasion to use it?" The probability is, that the animal charcoal, when instantaneouslyapplied, may be sufficiently porous and absorbent to extract the venomfrom the recent wound, together with a portion of the blood, before ithas had time to be carried into the system; and that the blood which Mr. Faraday detected in the specimen submitted to him was that of the Indianon whose person the effect was exhibited on the occasion to which myinformant was an eye-witness. The snake-charmers from the coast whovisit Ceylon profess to prepare the snake-stones for themselves, and topreserve the composition a secret. Dr. Davy[1], on the authority of SirAlexander Johnston, says the manufacture of them is a lucrative trade, carried on by the monks of Manilla, who supply the merchants ofIndia--and his analysis confirms that of Mr. Faraday. Of the threedifferent kinds which he examined--one being of partially burnt bone, and another of chalk, the third, consisting chiefly of vegetable matter, resembled bezoar, --all of them (except the first, which possessed aslight absorbent power) were quite inert, and incapable of having anyeffect except on the imagination of the patient. Thunberg was shown thesnake-stone used by the boers at the Cape in 1772, which was importedfor them "from the Indies, especially from Malabar, " at so high a pricethat few of the farmers could afford to possess themselves of it; hedescribes it as convex on one side, black and so porous that "whenthrown into water, it caused bubbles to rise;" and hence, by itsabsorbent qualities, it served, if speedily applied, to extract thepoison from the wound. [2] [Footnote 1: _Account of the Interior of Ceylon_, ch. Iii. P. 101. ] [Footnote 2: _Thunberg_, vol. I. P. 155. Since the foregoing account waspublished, I have received a note from Mr. HARDY, relative to the_piedra ponsona_, the snake-stone of Mexico, in which he gives thefollowing account of the method of preparing and applying it: "Take apiece of hart's horn of any convenient size and shape; cover it wellround with grass or hay, enclose both in a thin piece of sheet copperwell wrapped round them, and place the parcel in a charcoal fire tillthe bone is sufficiently charred. "When cold, remove the calcined horn from its envelope, when it will beready for immediate use. In this state it will resemble a solid blackfibrous substance, of the same shape and size as before it was subjectedto this treatment. "USE. --The wound being slightly punctured, apply the bone to theopening, to which it will adhere firmly for the space of two minutes;and when it falls, it should be received into a basin of water. Itshould then be dried in a cloth, and again applied to the wound. But itwill not adhere longer than about one minute. In like manner it may beapplied a third time; but now it will fall almost immediately, andnothing will cause it to adhere any more. "These effects I witnessed in the case of a bite of a rattle-snake atOposura, a town in the province of Sonora, in Mexico, from whence Iobtained my recipe; and I have given other particulars respecting it inmy Travels in the Interior of Mexico, published in 1830. R. W. H. HARDY. _Bath_, 30_th January_, 1860. "] _Coecilia_. --The rocky jungle, bordering the higher coffee estates, provides a safe retreat for a very singular animal, first introduced tothe notice of European naturalists about a century ago by Linnæus, whogave it the name _Coecilia glutinosa_, to indicate two peculiaritiesmanifest to the ordinary observer--an apparent defect of vision, fromthe eyes being so small and embedded as to be scarcely distinguishable;and a power of secreting from minute pores in the skin a viscous fluid, resembling that of snails, eels, and some salamanders. Specimens arerare in Europe owing to the readiness with which it decomposes, breakingdown into a flaky mass in the spirits in which it is attempted topreserve it. The creature is about the length and thickness of an ordinary round deskruler, a little flattened before and rounded behind. It is brownish, with a pale stripe along either side. The skin is furrowed into 350circular folds, in which are imbedded minute scales. The head istolerably distinct, with a double row of fine curved teeth for seizingthe insects and worms on which it is supposed to live. Naturalists are most desirous that the habits and metamorphoses of thiscreature should be carefully ascertained, for great doubts have beenentertained as to the position it is entitled to occupy in the chain ofcreation. _Batrachians. _--In the numerous marshes formed by the overflowing of therivers in the plains of the low country, there are many varieties offrogs, which, both by their colours and by their extraordinary size, arecalculated to excite the surprise of a stranger. In the lakes aroundColombo and the still water near Trincomalie, there are huge creaturesof this family, from six to eight inches in length[1], of an olive hue, deepening into brown on the back and yellow on the under side. A Kandyanspecies, recently described, is of much smaller dimensions, butdistinguished by its brilliant colouring, a beautiful grass green aboveand deep orange underneath[2]. [Footnote 1: A Singhalese variety of the _Rana cutipora?_ and theMalabar bull-frog, _Hylarana Malabarica_. A frog named by BLYTH _Ranarobusta_ proves to be a Ceylon specimen of the _R. Cutipora_. ] [Footnote 2: _R. Kandiana_, Kelaart. ] In the shrubberies around my house at Colombo the graceful littletree-frogs[1] were to be found in great numbers, sheltered under broadleaves to protect them from the scorching sun;--some of them utter asharp metallic sound at night, similar to that produced by smacking thelips. [Footnote 1: _Polypedates maculatus, _ Gray. ] In the gardens and grounds toads[1] crouch in the shade, and pursue theflies and minute coleoptera. In Ceylon, as in Europe, these creaturessuffer from the bad renown of injecting a poison into the woundinflicted by their bite. [2] The main calumny is confuted by the factthat no toad has yet been discovered furnished with any teethwhatsoever; but the obnoxious repute still attaches to the milkyexudation sometimes perceptible from glands situated on either sidebehind the head; nevertheless experiments have shown, that though acrid, the secretions of the toad are incapable of exciting more than a slighterythema on the most delicate skins. The smell is, however, fetid andoffensive, and hence toads are less exposed to the attacks ofcarnivorous animals and of birds than frogs, in which such glands do notexist. [Footnote 1: _Bufo melanostictus_, Schneid. ] [Footnote 2: In Ceylon this error is as old as the third century, B. C. , when, as the _Mahawanso_ tells us, the wife of "King Asoka attempted todestroy the great bo-tree (at Magadha) _with, the poisoned fang of atoad. _"--Ch. Xx. P. 122. ] In the class of Reptiles, those only are included in the order ofBatrachians which undergo a metamorphosis before attaining maturity; andas they offer the only example amongst Vertebrate animals of thismarvellous transformation, they are justly considered as the lowest inthe scale, with the exception of fishes, which remain during life inthat stage of development which is only the commencement of existence toa frog. In undergoing this change, it is chiefly the organs of respiration thatmanifest alteration. In its earliest form the young batrachian, livingin the water, breathes as a fish does by _gills_, either free andprojecting as in the water-newt, or partially covered by integument asin the tadpole. But the gills disappear as the lungs gradually becomedeveloped: the duration of the process being on an average one hundreddays from the time the eggs were first deposited. After this importantchange, the true batrachian is incapable any longer of livingcontinuously in water, and either betakes itself altogether to the land, or seeks the surface from time to time to replenish its exhaustedlungs. [1] [Footnote 1: A few Batrachians, such as the _Siren_ of Carolina, the_Proteus_ of Illyria, the _Axolotl_ of Mexico, and the _Menobranchus_ ofthe North American Lakes, retain their gills during life; but althoughprovided with lungs in mature age, they are not capable of living out ofthe water. Such batrachians form an intermediate link between reptilesand fishes. ] The change in the digestive functions during metamorphosis is scarcelyless extraordinary; frogs, for example, which feed on animal substancesat maturity, subsist entirely upon vegetable when in the condition oflarvæ, and the subsidiary organs undergo remarkable development, theintestinal canal in the earlier stage being five times its length in thelater one. Of the family of tailed batrachians, Ceylon does not furnish a singleexample; but of those without this appendage, the island, as aboveremarked, affords many varieties; seven distinguishable speciespertaining to the genus _rana_, or true frogs with webs to the hindfeet; two to the genus _bufo_, or true toads, and five to the_Polypedates_, or East Indian "tree-frogs;" besides a few others inallied genera. The "tree-frog, " whose toes are terminated by roundeddiscs which assist it in climbing, possesses, in a high degree, thefaculty of changing its hues; and one as green as a leaf to-day, will befound grey and spotted like the bark to-morrow. One of these beautifullittle creatures, which had seated itself on the gilt pillar of a lampon my dinner-table, became in a few minutes scarcely distinguishable incolour from the or-molu ornament to which it clung. * * * * * _List of Ceylon Reptiles. _ I am indebted to Dr. Gray and Dr. Günther, of the British Museum, for alist of the reptiles of Ceylon; but many of those new to Europeans havebeen carefully described by the late Dr. Kelaart in his _Prodromus FaunaZeylanicæ_ and its appendices, as well as in the 13th vol. _Magaz. Nat. Hist. _ (1854). SAURA. Hydrosaurus salvator, _Wagler. _ Monitor dracæna, _Linn. _ Riopa punctata, _Linn. _ Hardwickii, _Gray. _ Brachymeles Bonitæ, _Dum. & Bib. _ Tiliqua rufescens, _Shaw. _ Eumeces Taprobanius, _Kel. _ Nessia Burtoni, _Gray. _ Acontias Layardi, _Kelaart. _ Argyrophis bramicus, _Daud. _ Lygosoma fallax, _Peters. _ Rhinophis oxyrhynchus, _Schn. _ punctatus, _J. Müll_ philippinus, _J. Müll_ homolepis, _Hempr. _ planiceps, _Peters. _ Blythii, _Kelaart. _ melanogaster, _Gray. _ Uropeltis grandis, _Kelaart. _ _saffragamus, Kelaart. _ Silybura Ceylonica, _Cuv. _ Hemidactylus frenatus, _Schleg. _ Leschenaultii, _Dum. & Bib. _ trihedrus, _Daud. _ maculatus, _Dum. & Bib. _ Piresii, _Kelaart. _ Coctoei, _Dum. & Bib. _ pustulatus, _Dum. _ sublævis, _Cantor. _ Peripia Peronii, _Dum. & Bib. _ Gymnodactylus Kandianus, _Kelaart. _ Sitana Ponticereana, _Cuv. _ Lyriocephalus scutatus, _Linn. _ Ceratophora Stoddartii, _Gray. _ Tennentii, _Günther. _ Otocryptis bivittata, _Wiegm. _ _Salea Jerdoni, Gray. _ Calotes ophiomachus, _Merr. _ nigrilabris, _Peters. _ versicolor, _Daud. _ Rouxii, _Dum. & Bib. _ mystaceus, _Dum. _ Chameleo vulgaris, _Daud. _ OPHIDIA. Megæra trigonocephala, _Latr. _ Trigonocephalus hypnalis, _Merr. _ Daboia elegans, _Daud. _ _Pelamys_ _bicolor, Daud. _ _Aturia_ _lapemoides, Gray. _ Hydrophis sublævis, _Gray. _ cyanocinctus, _Daud. _ Chersydrus granulatus, _Schneid_. Cerberus cinereus, _Daud. _ Tropidophis schistosus, _Daud. _ Python reticulatus, _Gray. _ Cylindrophis rufa, _Schneid. _ maculata, _Linn. _ Aspidura brachyorrhos, _Boie. _ trachyprocta, _Cope. _ Haplocercus Ceylonensis, _Günth. _ Oligodon subquadratus, _Dum. & Bib. _ subgriseus, _Dum. & Bib. _ sublineatus, _Dum. & Bib. _ Simotes Russellii, _Daud. _ purpurascens, _Schleg. _ Ablabes collaris, _Gray. _ Tropidonotus quincunciatus, _Schleg. _ var. Funebris. Var. Carinatus. Stolatus, _Linn. _ chrysargus, _Boie. _ Cynophis Helena, _Daud. _ Coryphodon Blumenbachii, _Merr. _ Cyclophis calamaria, _Günth. _ Chrysopelea ornata, _Shaw. _ Dendrophis picta, _Gm. _ Passerita mycterizans, _Linn. _ fusca. Dipsadomorphus Ceylonensis, _Günth. _ Lycodon aulicus, _Linn. _ Cercaspis carinata, _Kuhl. _ Bungarus fasciatus, _Schneid. _ var. Ceylonensis, _Gthr. _ Naja tripudians, _Merr. _ CHELONIA. Testudo stellata, _Schweig. _ Emys Sebæ, _Gray. _ trijuga, _Schweigg. _ Caretta imbricata, _Linn. _ Chelonia virgata, _Schweigg. _ EMYDOSAURI. Crocodilus biporcatus. _Cuv. _ palustris, _Less. _ BATRACHIA. Rana hexadactyla, _Less. _ Kuhlii, _Schleg. _ cutipora, _Dum. & Bib. _ tigrina, _Daud. _ vittigera, _Wiegm. _ Malabarica, _Dum. & Bib. _ Kandiana, _Kelaart. _ Neuera-elliana, _Kel. _ Bufo melanostictus, _Schneid. _ Kelaartii, _Günth. _ Ixalus variabilis, _Günth. _ leucorhinus, _Martens. _ poecilopleurus, _Mart. _ aurifasciatus, _Schleg. _ schmardanus, _Kelaart. _ Polypedates maculatus, _Gray. _ microtympanum, _Gth. _ eques, _Günth. _ Limnodytes lividus, _Blyth. _ macularis, _Blyth. _ mutabilis, _Kelaart. _ maculatus, _Kelaart. _ Kaloula pulchra, _Gray. _ balteata, var. _Günth. _ stellata, _Kelaart. _ Adenomus badioflavus, _Copr. _ Pyxicephalus fodiens, _Jerd. _ Engystoma rubrum, _Jerd. _ PSEUDOPHIDIA. Cæcilia glutinosa, _Linn. _ NOTE. --The following species are peculiar to Ceylon (and the generaCeratophora, Otocryptis, Uropeltis, Aspidura. Cercaspis, and Haplocercuswould appear to be similarly restricted);--Lygosoma fallax; TrimesurusCeylonensis, T. Nigromarginatus; Megæra Trigonocephala; Trigonocephalushypnalis; Daboia elegans; Rhinophis punctatus, Rh. Homolepis, Rh. Planiceps, Rh. Blythii, Rh. Melanogaster; Uropeltis grandis; SilyburaCeylonica; Cylindrophis maculata; Aspidura brachyorrhos; HaplocercusCeylonensis; Oligodon sublineatus; Cynophis Helena; Cyclophis calamaria;Dipsadomorphus Ceylonensis; Cercaspis carinata; Ixalus variabilis, I. Leucorhinus, I. Poecilopleurus; Polypedates microtympanum. P. Eques. CHAP. X. FISHES. Hitherto no branch of the zoology of Ceylon has been so imperfectlyinvestigated as its Ichthyology. Little has been done in the examinationand description of its fishes, especially those which frequent therivers and inland waters. Mr. BENNETT, who was for some years employedin the Civil Service, directed his attention to the subject, andpublished in 1830 some portions of a projected work on the marine fishesof the island[1], but it never proceeded beyond the description ofthirty individuals. The great work of Cuvier and Valenciennes[2]particularises about one hundred species, specimens of which wereprocured from Ceylon by Reynard, Leschenault and other correspondents;but of these not more than half a dozen belong to fresh water. [Footnote 1: _A Selection of the most Remarkable and Interesting Fishesfound on the Coast of Ceylon. _ By J. W. BENNETT, Esp. London, 1830. ] [Footnote 2: _Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. _] The fishes of the coast, as far as they have been examined, present fewthat are not in all probability common to the seas of Ceylon and India. A series of drawings, including upwards of six hundred species andvarieties of Ceylon fish, all made from recently-captured specimens, have been submitted to Professor Huxley, and a notice of their generalcharacteristics forms an interesting appendix to the present chapter. [1] [Footnote 1: See note B appended to this chapter. ] Of those in ordinary use for the table the finest by far is theSeir-fish[1], a species of Scomberoids, which is called _Tora-malu_ bythe natives. It is in size and form very similar to the salmon, to whichthe flesh of the female fish, notwithstanding its white colour, bears avery close resemblance both in firmness and flavour. [Footnote 1: _Cybium_ (_Scomber_, Linn. ) _guttatum_. ] Mackerel, carp, whitings, mullet both red and striped, perches and solesare abundant, and a sardine (_Sardinella Neohowii_, Val. ) frequents thesouthern and eastern coast in such profusion that in one instance in1839, a gentleman who was present saw upwards of four hundred thousandtaken in a haul of the nets in the little bay of Goyapanna, east ofPoint-de-Galle. As this vast shoal approached the shore the broken waterbecame as smooth as if a sheet of ice had been floating below thesurface. [1] [Footnote 1: These facts serve to explain the story told by the friarODORIC of Friuli, who visited Ceylon about the year 1320 A. D. , and saysthere are "fishes in those seas that come swimming towards the saidcountry in such abundance that for a great distance into the sea nothingcan be seen but the backs of fishes, which casting themselves on theshore, do suffer men for the space of three daies to come and to take asmany of them as they please, and then they return again into thesea. "--_Hakluyt_, vol. Ii. P. 57. ] _Poisonous Fishes. _--The sardine has the reputation of being poisonousat certain seasons, and accidents ascribed to eating it are recorded inall parts of the island. Whole families of fishermen who have partakenof it have died. Twelve persons in the jail of Chilaw were thuspoisoned, about the year 1829; and the deaths of soldiers haverepeatedly been ascribed to the same cause. It is difficult in suchinstances to say with certainty whether the fish were in fault; whetherthere was not a peculiar susceptibility in the condition of therecipients; or whether the mischief may not have been occasioned by thewilful administration of poison, or its accidental occurrence in thebrass cooking vessels used by the natives. The popular belief was, however, deferred to by an order passed by the Governor in Council inFebruary, 1824, which, after reciting that "Whereas it appears byinformation conveyed to the Government that at three several periods atTrincomalie, death has been the consequence to several persons fromeating the fish called Sardinia during the months of January andDecember, " enacts that it shall not be lawful in that district to catchsardines during these months, under pain of fine and imprisonment. Thisorder is still in force, but the fishing continues notwithstanding. [1] [Footnote 1: There are other species of Sardine found at Ceylon besidesthe _S. Neohowii_; such as the _S. Lineolata_, Cuv. And Val. And the _S. Leiogaster_, Cuv. And Val. Xx. 270, which was found by M. Reynaud atTrincomalie. It occurs also off the coast of Java. Another Ceylon fishof the same group, a Clupea, is known as the "poisonous sprat;" thebonito (_Thynnus affinis_, Cang. ), the kangewena, or unicorn fish(_Balistes?_), and a number of others, are more or less in bad reputefrom the same imputation. ] _Sharks. _--Sharks appear on all parts of the coast, and instancescontinually occur of persons being seized by them whilst bathing even inthe harbours of Trincomalie and Colombo. In the Gulf of Manaar they aretaken for the sake of their oil, of which they yield such a quantitythat "shark's oil" is a recognised export. A trade also exists in dryingtheir fins, for which, owing to the gelatine contained in them, a readymarket is found in China; whither the skin of the basking shark is alsosent, to be converted, it is said, into shagreen. _Saw Fish. _--The huge _Pristis antiquorum_[1] infests the eastern coastof the island, where it attains a length of from twelve to fifteen feet, including the serrated rostrum from which its name is derived. Thispowerful weapon seems designed to compensate for the inadequacy of theordinary maxillary teeth which are unusually small, obtuse, andinsufficient to capture and kill the animals which form the food of thispredatory shark. To remedy this, the fore part of the head and itscartilages are prolonged into a flattened plate, the length of which isnearly equal to one third of the whole body, its edges being armed withformidable teeth, that are never shed or renewed, but increase in sizewith the growth of the creature. [Footnote 1: Two other species are found in the Ceylon waters, _P. Cuspidatus_ and _P. Pectinatus_. ] [Illustration: HEAD OF THE SAWFISH (PRISTIS ANTIQUORUM)] The _Rays_ form a large tribe of cartilaginous fishes in which, althoughthe skeleton is not osseous, the development of organs is so advancedthat they would appear to be the highest of the class, approachingnearest to amphibians. They are easily distinguished from the sharks bytheir broad and flat body, the pectoral fins being expanded like wingson each side of the trunk. They are all inhabitants of the ocean, andsome grow to a prodigious size. Specimens have been caught of twentyfeet in breadth. These, however, are of rare occurrence, as such hugemonsters usually retreat into the depths of the sea, where they aresecure from the molestation of man. It is, generally speaking, only theyoung and the smaller species that approach the coasts, where they finda greater supply of those marine animals which form their food. The Rayshave been divided into several generic groups, and the one of which adrawing (_Aëtobates narinari_[1]) is given, has very markedcharacteristics in its produced snout, pointed and winged-like pectoralfins, and exceedingly long, flagelliform tail. The latter is armed witha strong, serrated spine, which is always broken off by the fishermenimmediately on capture, under the impression that wounds inflicted by itare poisonous. Their fears, however, are utterly groundless, as the rayhas no gland for secreting any venomous fluid. The apprehension may, however, have originated in the fact that a lacerated wound such aswould be produced by a serrated spine, is not unlikely to assume aserious character, under the influence of a tropical climate. Thespecies figured on the last page is brownish-olive on the upper surface, with numerous greenish-white round spots, darkening towards the edges. The anterior annulations of the tail are black and white, the posteriorentirely black. Its mouth is transverse and paved with a band offlattened teeth calculated to crush the hard shells of the animals onwhich it feeds. It moves slowly along the bottom in search of its food, which consists of crustacea and mollusca, and seems to be unable tocatch fishes or other quickly moving animals. Specimens have been takennear Ceylon, of six feet in width. Like most deep-sea fishes, the rayhas a wide geographical range, and occurs not only in all the IndianOcean, but also in the tropical tracts of the Atlantic. [Illustration: THE RAY (AËTOBATES NARINARI). ] [Footnote 1: _Raja narinari_, Bl. Schn. P. 361. _Aëtobates narinari_, Müll. Und Henle. , Plagiost. P. 179. ] Another armed fish, renowned since the times of Ælian and Pliny for itscourage in attacking the whale, and even a ship, is the sword-fish(_Xiphias gladius_). [1] Like the thunny and bonito, it is an inhabitantof the deeper seas, and, though known in the Mediterranean, is chieflyconfined to the tropics. The dangerous weapon with which nature hasequipped it is formed by the prolongation and intertexture of the bonesof the upper jaw into an exceedingly compact cylindrical protuberance, somewhat flattened at the base, but tapering to a sharp point. Instrange inconsistence with its possession of so formidable an armature, the general disposition of the sword-fish is represented to be gentleand inoffensive; and although the fact of its assaults upon the whalehas been incontestably established, yet the motive for such conflicts, and the causes of its enmity, are beyond conjecture. Competition forfood is out of the question, as the Xiphias can find its own supplieswithout rivalry on the part of its gigantic antagonist; and as toconverting the whale itself into food, the sword-fish, from theconstruction of its mouth and the small size of its teeth, is quiteincapable of feeding on animals of such dimensions. [Footnote 1: ÆLIAN tells a story of a ship in the Black Sea, the bottomof which was penetrated by the sword of a _Xiphias_ (L. Xiv. C. 23); andPLINY (L. Xxxii. C. 8) speaks of a similar accident on the coast ofMauritania. In the British Museum there is a specimen of a plank of oak, pierced by a sword-fish, and still retaining the broken weapon. ] In the seas around Ceylon sword-fishes sometimes attain to the length oftwenty feet, and are distinguished by the unusual height of the dorsalfin. Those both of the Atlantic and Mediterranean possess this fin inits full proportions, only during the earlier stages of their growth. Its dimensions even then are much smaller than in the Indian species;and it is a curious fact that it gradually decreases as the fishapproaches to maturity; whereas in the seas around Ceylon, it retainsits full size throughout the entire period of life. They raise it abovethe water, whilst dashing along the surface in their rapid course; andthere is no reason to doubt that it occasionally acts as a sail. The Indian species (which are provided with two long and filamentousventral fins) have been formed into the genus _Histiophorus_; to whichbelongs the individual figured on the next page. It is distinguishedfrom others most closely allied to it, by having the immense dorsal finof one uniform dark violet colour; whilst in its congeners, it isspotted with blue. The fish from which the engraving has been made, wasprocured by Dr. Templeton, near Colombo. The species was previouslyknown only by a single specimen captured in the Red Sea, by Rüppell, whoconferred upon it the specific designation of "_immaculatus_. "[1] [Footnote 1: Trans. Zool. Soc. Ii. P. 71. Pl. 15. ] [Illustration: THE SWORD FISH (MISMOPHORUS IMMACULATUS). ] Ælian, in his graphic account of the strange forms presented by thefishes inhabiting the seas around Ceylon, says that one in particular isso grotesque in its configuration, that no painter would venture todepict it; its main peculiarity being that it has feet or claws ratherthan fins. [1] The annexed drawing[2] may probably represent the creatureto which the informants of Ælian referred. It is a cheironectes; one ofa group in which the bones of the carpus form arms that support thepectoral fins, and enable these fishes to walk along the moist ground, almost like quadrupeds. [Footnote 1: [Greek: Podas ge mên chêlas ê pterygia. ]--Lib. Xvi. C. 18. ] [Footnote 2: The fish from which this drawing of the _Cheironectes_ wasmade, was taken near Colombo, and from the peculiarities which itpresents it is in all probability a new and undescribed species. Dr. GÜNTHER has remarked, that in it, whilst the first and second dorsalspines are situated as usual over the eye (and form, one the anglingbait of the fish, the other the crest above the nose), the third is atan unusual distance from the second, and is not separated, as in theother species, from the soft fin by a notch. ] They belong to the family of _Lophiads_ or "anglers, " not unfrequent onthe English coast; which conceal themselves in the mud, displaying onlythe erectile ray, situated on the head, which bears an excrescence onits extremity resembling a worm; by agitating which, they attract thesmaller fishes, that thus become an easy prey. [Illustration: CHEIRONECTES] On the rocks in Ceylon which are washed by the surf there are quantitiesof the curious little fish, _Salarius alticus_[1], which possesses thefaculty of darting along the surface of the water, and running up thewet stones, with the utmost ease and rapidity. By aid of the pectoraland ventral fins and gill-cases, they move across the damp sand, ascendthe roots of the mangroves, and climb up the smooth face of the rocks insearch of flies; adhering so securely as not to be detached by repeatedassaults of the waves. These little creatures are so nimble, that it isalmost impossible to lay hold of them, as they scramble to the edge, andplunge into the sea on the slightest attempt to molest them. They arefrom three to four inches in length, and of a dark brown colour, almostundistinguishable from the rocks they frequent. [Footnote 1: Cuv. And VALEN. , _Hist. Nat. Des Poissons_, tom. Xi. P. 249. It is identical with _S. Tridactylus, _ Schn. ] But the most striking to the eye of a stranger are those fishes whosebrilliancy of colouring has won for them the wonder even of the listlessSinghalese. Some, like the Red Sea Perch (_Holocentrum rubrum_, Forsk)and the Great Fire Fish[1], are of the deepest scarlet and flame colour;in others purple predominates, as in the _Serranus flavo-cæruleus_; inothers yellow, as in the _Choetodon Brownriggii_[2], and _Acanthurusvittatus_, of Bennett[3], and numbers, from the lustrous green of theirscales, have obtained from the natives the appropriate name of_Giraway_, or _parrots_, of which one, the _Sparus Hardwickii_ ofBennett, is called the "Flower Parrot, " from its exquisite colouring, being barred with irregular bands of blue, crimson, and purple, green, yellow, and grey, and crossed by perpendicular stripes of black. [Footnote 1: _Pterois muricata_, Cuv. And Val. Iv. 363. _Scarpænamiles_, Bennett; named, by the Singhalese, "_Maharata-gini_, " the GreatRed Fire, a very brilliant red species spotted with black. It is veryvoracious, and is regarded on some parts of the coast as edible, whileon others it is rejected. ] [Footnote 2: _Glyphisodon Brownriggii_, Cuv. And Val. V. 484; _ChoetodonBrownriggii_, Bennett. A very small fish about two inches long, called_Kaha hartikyha_ by the natives. It is distinct from Choetodon, in whichBENNETT placed it. Numerous species of this genus are scatteredthroughout the Indian Ocean. It derives its name from the fine hair-likecharacter of its teeth. They are found chiefly among coral reefs, and, though eaten, are not much esteemed. In the French colonies they arecalled "Chauffe-soleil. " One species is found on the shores of the NewWorld (_G. Saxatalis_), and it is curious that Messrs. QUOY and GAIMARDfound this fish at the Cape de Verde Islands in 1827. ] [Footnote 3: This fish has a sharp round spine on the side of the bodynear the tail; a formidable weapon, which is generally partiallyconcealed within a scabbard-like incision. It raises or depresses thisspine at pleasure. The fish is yellow, with several nearly parallel bluestripes on the back and sides; the belly is white, the tail and finsbrownish green, edged with blue. It is found in rocky places; and according to BENNETT, who has figuredit in his second plate, it is named _Seweya_. It has been known, however, to all the old ichthyologists, Valentyn, Renard, Seba, Artedi, and has been named _Chætodon lineatus_, by Linné. It is scarce on thesouthern coast of Ceylon. ] Of these richly coloured fishes the most familiar in the Indian seas arethe _Pteroids_. They are well known on the coast of Africa, and thenceeastward to Polynesia; but they do not extend to the west coast ofAmerica, and are utterly absent from the Atlantic. The rays of thedorsal and pectoral fins are so elongated, that when specimens werefirst brought to Europe it was conjectured that these fishes have thefaculty of flight, and hence the specific name of "_volitans_" But thisis an error, for, owing to the deep incisions between the pectoral rays, the pteroids are wholly unable to sustain themselves in the air. Theyare not even bold swimmers, living close to the shore and neverventuring into the deep sea. Their head is ornamented with a number offilaments and cutaneous appendages, of which one over each eye andanother at the angles of the mouth are the most conspicuous. Sharpspines project on the crown and on the side of the gill-apparatus, as inthe other sea-perches, _Scorpæna, Serranus_, &c. , of which these areonly a modified and ornate form. The extraordinary expansion of theirfins is not, however, accompanied by a similar development of the bonesto which they are attached, simply because they appear to have nopeculiar function, as in flying fishes, or in those where the spines ofthe fins are weapons of offence. They attain to the length of twelveinches, and to a weight of about two pounds; they live on small marineanimals, and by the Singhalese the flesh (of some at least) isconsidered good for table. Nine or ten species are known to occur in theEast Indian Seas, and of these the one figured above is, perhaps, themost common. [Illustration: PTEROIS VOLITANS. ] Another species known to occur on the coasts of Ceylon is the _Scorpænamiles_, Bennett, or _Pterois miles_, Günther[1], of which Bennett hasgiven a figure[2], but it is not altogether correct in some particulars. [Footnote 1: The fish from the Sea of Pinang, described by Dr. CANTORwith this name (Catal. Mal. Fish. P. 42), is again different, andbelongs to a third species. ] [Footnote 2: _Fishes of Ceylon_, Pl. Ix. ] In the fishes of Ceylon, however, beauty is not confined to thebrilliancy of their tints. In some, as in the _/Scarus harid_, Forsk[1], the arrangement of the scales is so graceful, and the effect is soheightened by modifications of colour, as to present the appearance oftessellation, or mosaic work. [Footnote 1: This is the fish figured by BENNETT as _Sparus pepo_. _Fishes of Ceylon_, Plate xxviii. ] [Illustration: SCARUS HARID. After Bennett. ] _Fresh-water Fishes_. --Of the fresh-water fish, which inhabit the riversand tanks, so very little has hitherto been known to naturalists[1], that of nineteen drawings sent home by Major Skinner in 1852, althoughspecimens of well-known genera, Colonel Hamilton Smith pronounced nearlythe whole to be new and undescribed species. [Footnote 1: In extenuation of the little that is known of thefresh-water fishes of Ceylon, it may be observed that very few of themare used at table by Europeans, and there is therefore no stimulus onthe part of the natives to catch them. The burbot and grey mullet areoccasionally eaten, but they taste of mud, and are not in request. Some years ago the experiment was made, with success, of introducinginto Mauritius the _Osphromenus olfax_ of Java, which has also beentaken to French Guiana. In both places it is now highly esteemed as afish for table. As it belongs to a family which possesses the faculty, hereafter alluded to, of surviving in the damp soil after the subsidenceof the water in the tanks and rivers, it might with equal advantage beacclimated in Ceylon. It grows to 20 lbs. Weight and upwards. ] Of eight of these, which were from the Mahawelliganga, and caught in thevicinity of Kandy, five were carps; two were _Leucisci_, and one a_Mastacembelus_ (_M. Armatus_, Lacep); one was an _Ophiocephalus_, andone a _Polyacanthus_, with no serræ on the gills. Six were from theKalanyganga, close to Colombo, of which two were _Helostoma_, in shapeapproaching the Chætodon; two _Ophiocephali_, one a _Silurus_, and onean _Anabas_, but the gills were without denticulation. From the stillwater of the lake, close to the walls of Colombo, there were two speciesof _Eleotris_, one _Silurus_ with barbels, and two _Malacopterygians_, which appear to be _Bagri_. The _fresh-water Perches_ of Europe and of the North of America arerepresented in Ceylon and India by several genera, which bear to them agreat external similarity (_Lates, Therapon_). They have the same habitsas their European allies, and their flesh is considered equallywholesome, but they appear to enter salt-water, or at least brackishwater, more freely. It is, however, in their internal organisation thatthey differ most from the perches of Europe; their skeletons arecomposed of fewer vertebræ, and the air bladder of the _Therapon_ isdivided into two portions, as in the carps. Four species at least ofthis genus inhabit the lakes and rivers of Ceylon, and one of them, ofwhich a figure is given above, has been but imperfectly described in anyichthyological work[1]; it attains to the length of seven inches. [Footnote 1: Holocentrus quadrilineatus, _Bloch_. It is allied to_Helotes polytoenia_, Bleek. , from Halmaheira which it can be readilydistinguished by having only five or six blackish longitudinal bands, the black humeral spot being between the first and second; anotherblackish blotch is in the spinous dorsal fin. There are two specimens inthe British Museum collection, one of which has recently arrived fromAmoy; of the other the locality is unknown. See GÜNTHER, _Acanthopt. Fishes_, vol. I. P. 282, where mention of the black humeral spot hasbeen omitted. ] [Illustration: THERAPON QUADRILINEATUS. ] In addition to marine eels, in which the Indian coasts abound, Ceylonhas some true fresh-water eels, which never enter the sea. These areknown to the natives under the name of _Theliya_, and to naturalists bythat of _Mastacembelus_. They have sometimes in ichthyological systemsbeen referred to the Scombridæ and other marine families, from thecircumstance that the dorsal fin anteriorly is composed of spines. But, in addition to the general shape of the body, their affinity to the eelis attested, by their confluent fins, by the absence of ventral fins, bythe structure of the mouth and its dentition, by the apparatus of thegills, which opens with an inferior slit, and above all by the formationof the skeleton itself. [1] [Footnote 1: See GÜNTHER'S _Acanthopt. Fishes_, vol. Iii. (FamilyMastacembelidæ). ] Their skin is covered with minute scales, coated by a slimy exudation, and the upper jaw is produced into a soft tripartite tentacle, withwhich they are enabled to feel for their prey in the mud. They are verytenacious of life, and belong, without doubt, to those fishes which inCeylon descend during the drought into the muddy soil. [1] Their fleshvery much resembles that of the eel; and is highly esteemed. [2] Theywere first made known to European naturalists by Russell[3], who broughtto Europe from the rivers round Aleppo specimens, some of which arestill preserved in the collection of the British Museum. Aleppo is themost western point of their geographical range, the group being mainlyconfined to the East-Indian continent and its islands. In Ceylon only one species appears to occur, the [Footnote 1: See post, p. 351. ] [Footnote 2: CUV. And VAL. , _Hist. Poiss. _ vol. Iii. P. 459. ] [Footnote 3: _Nat. Hist. Aleppo_, 2nd edit. Lond. 1794, vol. Ii. P. 208, pl. Vi. ] [Illustration: MASTACEMBELUS ARMATUS] _Mastacembelus armatus_. [1] The back is armed with from thirty-five tothirty-nine short, stout spines; there being three others before theanal fin. The ground colour of the fish is brown, and the head has tworather irregular longitudinal black bands; deep-brown spots run alongthe back as well as along the dorsal and anal fins; and the sides areornamented with irregular and reticulated brown lines. This eel attainsto the length of two feet. The old females do not show any markings, being of a uniform brown colour. [Footnote 1: Macrognathus armatus, _Lacép. _; Mastacembelus armatus, _Cuv. , Val. _] In the collection of Major Skinner, before alluded to, brought togetherwithout premeditation, the naturalist will be struck by thepreponderance of those genera which are adapted by nature to endure, atemporary privation of moisture; and this, taken in connection with thevicissitudes affecting the waters they inhabit, exhibits a surprisingillustration of the wisdom of the Creator in adapting the organisationof his creatures to the peculiar circumstances under which they aredestined to exist. So abundant are fish in all parts of the island, that Knox says, not therunning streams alone, but the reservoirs and ponds, "nay, every ditchand little plash of water but ankle deep hath fish in it. "[1] But manyof these reservoirs and tanks are, twice in each year, liable to beevaporated to dryness till the mud of the bottom is converted into dust, and the clay cleft by the heat into gaping apertures; yet within a veryfew days after the change of the monsoon, the natives are busily engagedin fishing in those very spots and in the hollows contiguous to them, although the latter are entirely unconnected with any pool or runningstreams. Here they fish in the same way which Knox described nearly 200years ago, with a funnel-shaped basket, open at bottom and top, "which, "as he says, "they jibb down, and the end sticks in the mud, which oftenhappens upon a fish; which, when they feel beating itself against thesides, they put in their hands and take it out, and reive a ratanthrough their gills, and so let them drag after them. "[2] [Footnote 1: Knox's _Historical Relation of Ceylon, _ Part i. Ch. Vii. The occurrence of fish in the most unlooked-for situations, is one ofthe mysteries of other eastern countries as well as Ceylon and India. InPersia irrigation is carried on to a great extent by means of wells sunkin line in the direction in which it is desired to lead a supply ofwater, and these are connected by channels, which are carefully archedover to protect them from evaporation. These _kanats, _ as they arecalled, are full of fish, although neither they nor the wells they unitehave any connection with streams or lakes. ] [Footnote 2: Knox, _Historical Relation of Ceylon_, Part i. Ch vi. ] [Illustration: FROM KNOX'S CEYLON, A. D. 1681] This operation may be seen in the lowlands, traversed by the high roadleading from Colombo to Kandy. Before the change of the monsoon, thehollows on either side of the highway are covered with dust or stuntedgrass; but when flooded by the rains, they are immediately resorted toby the peasants with baskets, constructed precisely as Knox has stated, in which the fish are entrapped and taken out by the hand. [1] [Footnote 1: As anglers, the native Singhalese exhibit littleexpertness; but for fishing the rivers, they construct with singularingenuity fences formed of strong stakes, protected by screens of ratan, that stretch diagonally across the current; and along these the fish areconducted into a series of enclosures from which retreat isimpracticable. MR. LAYARD, in the _Magazine of Natural History_ for May, 1853, has given a diagram of one of these fish "corrals, " as they arecalled, of which a copy is shown on the next page. ] So singular a phenomenon as the sudden re-appearance of full-grownfishes in places that a few days before had been encrusted with hardenedclay, has not failed to attract attention; but the European residentshave been content to explain it by hazarding conjectures, either thatthe spawn must have lain imbedded in the dried earth till released bythe rains, or that the fish, so unexpectedly discovered, fall from theclouds during the deluge of the monsoon. As to the latter conjecture; the fall of fish during showers, even wereit not so problematical in theory, is too rare an event to account forthe punctual appearance of those found in the rice-fields, at statedperiods of the year. Both at Galle and Colombo in the south-westmonsoon, fish are popularly believed to have fallen from the cloudsduring violent showers, but those found on the occasions that give riseto this belief, consist of the smallest fry, such as could be caught upby waterspouts, and vortices analogous to them, or otherwise blown onshore from the surf; whereas those which suddenly appear in thereplenished tanks and in the hollows which they overflow, are mature andwell-grown fish. [1] Besides, the latter are found, under thecircumstances I have described, in all parts of the interior, whilst theprodigy of a supposed fall of fish from the sky has been noticed, Iapprehend, only in the vicinity of the sea, or of some inland water. [Footnote 1: I had an opportunity, on one occasion only, of witnessingthe phenomenon which gives rise to this popular belief. I was driving inthe cinnamon gardens near the fort of Colombo, and saw a violent butpartial shower descend at no great distance before me. On coming to thespot I found a multitude of small silvery fish from one and a half totwo inches in length, leaping on the gravel of the high road, numbers ofwhich I collected and brought away in my palankin. The spot was abouthalf a mile from the sea, and entirely unconnected with any watercourseor pool. Mr. Whiting, who was many years resident in Trincomadie, writes me thathe "had often been told by the natives on that side of the island thatit sometimes rained fishes; and on one occasion" (he adds) "I was takenby them, in 1849, to a field at the village of Karrancotta-tivo, nearBatticaloa, which was dry when I passed over it in the morning, but, hadbeen covered in two hours by sudden rain to the depth of three inches, in which there was then a quantity of small fish. The water had noconnection with any pond or stream whatsoever. " Mr. Cripps, in likemanner, in speaking of Galle, says: "I have seen in the vicinity of thefort, fish taken from rain-water that had accumulated in the hollowparts of land that in the hot season are perfectly dry and parched. Theplace is accessible to no running stream or tank; and either the fish orthe spawn from which they were produced, must of necessity have fallenwith the rain. " Mr. J. PRINSEP, the eminent secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, found a fish in the pulviometer at Calcutta, in 1838. --_Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, vol. Vi. P. 465. A series of instances in which fishes have been found on the continentof India under circumstances which lead to the conclusion that they musthave fallen from the clouds, have been collected by the late Dr. BUISTof Bombay, and will be found in the appendix to this chapter. ] [Illustration: FISH CORRAL] The surmise of the buried spawn is one sanctioned by the very highestauthority. Mr. Yarrell in his "_History of British Fishes_, " advertingto the fact that ponds (in India) which had been previously convertedinto hardened mud, are replenished with small fish in a very few daysafter the commencement of each rainy season, offers this solution of theproblem as probably the true one: "The impregnated ova of the fish ofone rainy season are left unhatched in the mud through the dry season, and from their low state of organisation as ova, the vitality ispreserved till the recurrence, and contact of the rain and oxygen in thenext wet season, when vivification takes place from their jointinfluence. "[1] [Footnote 1: YARRELL, _History of British Fishes_, introd. Vol. I. P. Xxvi. This too was the opinion of Aristotle, _De Respiratione_, c. Ix. ] This hypothesis, however, appears to have been advanced upon imperfectdata; for although some fish, like the salmon, scrape grooves in thesand and place their spawn in inequalities and fissures; yet as ageneral rule spawn is deposited not beneath but on the surface of theground or sand over which the water flows, the adhesive nature of eachegg supplying the means of attachment. But in the Ceylon tanks not onlyis the surface of the soil dried to dust after the evaporation of thewater, but earth itself, twelve or eighteen inches deep, is convertedinto sun-burnt clay, in which, although the eggs of mollusca, in theircalcareous covering, are in some instances preserved, it would appear tobe as impossible for the ova of fish to be kept from decomposition asfor the fish themselves to sustain life. Besides, moisture in suchsituations is only to be found at a depth to which spawn could not beconveyed by the parent fish, by any means with which we are yetacquainted. But supposing it possible to carry the spawn sufficiently deep, and todeposit it safely in the mud below, which is still damp, whence it couldbe liberated on the return of the rains, a considerable interval wouldstill be necessary after the replenishing of the ponds with water toadmit of vivification and growth. Yet so far from this interval beingallowed to elapse, the rains have no sooner fallen than the taking ofthe fish commences, and those captured by the natives in wicker cagesare mature and full grown instead of being "small fish" or fry, assupposed by Mr. Yarrell. Even admitting the soundness of his theory, and the probability that, under favourable circumstances, the spawn in the tanks might bepreserved during the dry season so as to contribute to the perpetuationof their breed, the fact is no longer doubtful, that adult fish inCeylon, like some of those that inhabit similar waters both in the Newand Old World, have been endowed by the Creator with the singularfaculty of providing against the periodical droughts either byjourneying overland in search of still unexhausted water, or, on itsutter disappearance, by burying themselves in the mud to await thereturn of the rains. It is an illustration of the eagerness with which, after the expeditionof Alexander the Great, particulars connected with the natural historyof India were sought for and arranged by the Greeks, that in the worksboth of ARISTOTLE and THEOPHRASTUS facts are recorded of the fishes inthe Indian rivers migrating in search of water, of their buryingthemselves in the mud on its failure, of their being dug out thencealive during the dry season, and of their spontaneous reappearance onthe return of the rains. The earliest notice is in ARISTOTLE'S treatise_De Respiratione_[1], where he mentions the strange discovery of livingfish found beneath the surface of the soil, "[Greek: tôn ichthyôn oipolloi zôsin en tê gê, akinêtizontes mentoi, kai euriskontaioryttomenoi?]" and in his History of Animals he conjectures that inponds periodically dried the ova of the fish so buried become vivifiedat the change of the season. [2] HERODOTUS had previously hazarded asimilar theory to account for the sudden appearance of fry in theEgyptian marshes on the rising of the Nile; but the cases are notparallel. THEOPHRASTUS, the friend and pupil of Aristotle, gaveimportance to the subject by devoting to it his essay [Greek: Peri têstôn ichthyôn en zêrô diamonês], _De Piscibus in sicco degentibus_. Inthis, after adverting to the fish called _exocoetus_, from its habit ofgoing on shore to sleep, "[Greek: apo tês koitês, ]" he instances thesmall fish ([Greek: ichthydia]), that leave the rivers of India towander like frogs on the land; and likewise a species found nearBabylon, which, when the Euphrates runs low, leave the dry channels insearch of food, "moving themselves along by means of their fins andtail. " He proceeds to state that at Heraclea Pontica there are places inwhich fish are dug out of the earth, "[Greek: oryktoi tôn ichthyôn], "and he accounts for their being found under such circumstances by thesubsidence of the rivers, "when the water being evaporated the fishgradually descend beneath the soil in search of moisture; and thesurface becoming hard they are preserved in the damp clay below it, in astate of torpor, but are capable of vigorous movements when disturbed. ""In, this manner, too, " adds Theophrastus, "the buried fish propagate, leaving behind them their spawn, which becomes vivified on the return ofthe waters to their accustomed bed. " This work of Theophrastus becamethe great authority for all subsequent writers on this question. ATHENÆUS quotes it[3], and adds the further testimony of POLYBIUS, thatin Gallia Narbonensis fish are similarly dug out of the ground. [4]STRABO repeats the story[5], and the Greek naturalists one and allreceived the statement as founded on reliable authority. [Footnote 1: Chap. Ix. ] [Footnote 2: Lib. Vi. Ch. 15, 16, 17. ] [Footnote 3: Lib. Viii. Ch. 2. ] [Footnote 4: _Ib. _ ch. 4. ] [Footnote 5: Lib. Iv. And xii. ] Not so the Romans. LIVY mentions it as one of the prodigies which wereto be "expiated" on the approach of a rupture with Macedon, that "inGallico agro qua induceretur aratrum sub glebis pisces emersisse, "[1]thus taking it out of the category of natural occurrences. POMPONIUSMELA, obliged to notice the matter in his account of Narbon Gaul, accompanies it with the intimation that although asserted by both Greekand Roman authorities, the story was either a delusion or a fraud, JUVENAL has a sneer for the rustic-- "miranti sub aratro Piscibus inventis. "--_Sat_. Xiii. 63. [Footnote 1: Lib. Xlii. Ch. 2. ] And SENECA, whilst he quotes Theophrastus, adds ironically, that now wemust go to fish with a _hatchet_ instead of a hook; "non cum hamis, sedcum dolabra ire piscatum. " PLINY, who devotes the 35th chapter of his9th book to this subject, uses the narrative of Theophrastus, but withobvious caution, and universally the Latin writers treated the story asa fable. In later times the subject received more enlightened attention, andBeekman, who in 1736 published his commentary on the collection [Greek:Peri Thaumasiôn akousmatôn], ascribed to Aristotle, has given a list ofthe authorities about his own times, --GEORGIUS AGRICOLA, GESNER, RONDELET, DALECHAMP, BOMARE, and GRONOVIUS, who not only gave credenceto the assertions of Theophrastus, but adduced modern instances incorroboration of his Indian authorities. As regards the fresh-water fishes of India and Ceylon, the fact is nowestablished that certain of them possess the power of leaving the riversand returning to them again after long migrations on dry land, andmodern observation has fully confirmed their statements. They leave thepools and nullahs in the dry season, and led by an instinct as yetunexplained, shape their course through the grass towards the nearestpool of water. A similar phenomenon is observable in countries similarlycircumstanced. The Doras of Guiana[1] have been seen travelling overland during the dry season in search of their natural element[2], insuch droves that the negroes fill baskets with them during theseterrestrial excursions. PALLEGOIX in his account of Siam, enumeratesthree species of fishes which leave the tanks and channels and traversethe damp grass[3]; and SIR JOHN BOWRING, in his account of his embassyto the Siamese kings in 1855, states, that in ascending and descendingthe river Meinam to Bankok, he was amused with the novel sight of fishleaving the river, gliding over the wet banks, and losing themselvesamongst the trees of the jungle. [4] [Footnote 1: _D. Hancockii_, CUV. Et VAL. ] [Footnote 2: Sir R. Schomburgk's _Fishes of Guiana_, vol. I. Pp. 113, 151, 160. Another migratory fish was found by Bose very numerous in thefresh waters of Carolina and in ponds liable to become dry in summer. When captured and placed on the ground, "they _always, directedthemselves towards the nearest water, which they could not possiblysee_, and which they must have discovered by some internal index. Theybelong to the genus _Hydrargyra_ and are called Swampines. --KIRBY, _Bridgewater Treatise_, vol. I. P. 143. Eels kept in a garden, when August arrived (the period at which instinctimpels them to go to the sea to spawn) were in the habit of leaving thepond, and were invariably found moving eastward _in the direction of thesea_. --YARRELL, vol. Ii. P. 384. Anglers observe that fish newly caught, when placed out of sight of water, always struggle towards it toescape. ] [Footnote 3: PALLEGOIX, vol. I. P. 144. ] [Footnote 4: Sir J. BOWERING'S _Siam, _ &c. , vol. I. P. 10. ] The class of fishes endowed with this power are chiefly those withlabyrinthiform pharyngeal bones, so disposed in plates and cells as toretain a supply of moisture, which, whilst they are crawling on land, gradually exudes so as to keep the gills damp. [1] [Footnote 1: CUVIER and VALENCIENNES, _Hist. Nat. Des Poissons_, tom. Vii. P. 246. ] The individual most frequently seen in these excursions in Ceylon is aperch called by the Singhalese _Kavaya_ or _Kawhy-ya_, and by the Tamils_Pannei-eri_, or _Sennal_. It is closely allied to the _Anabas scandens_of Cuvier, the _Perca scandens_ of Daldorf. It grows to about six inchesin length, the head round and covered with scales, and the edges of thegill-covers strongly denticulated. Aided by the apparatus alreadyadverted to in its head, this little creature issues boldly from itsnative pools and addresses itself to its toilsome march generally atnight or in the early morning, whilst the grass is still damp with thedew; but in its distress it is sometimes compelled to move by day, andMr. E. L. Layard on one occasion encountered a number of them travellingalong a hot and dusty road under the midday sun. [1] [Footnote 1: _Annals and Mag. Of Nat. Hist_. , May, 1853, p. 390. Mr. Morris, the government-agent of Trincomalie, writing to me on thissubject in 1856, says--"I was lately on duty inspecting the kind of alarge tank at Nade-cadua, which, being out of repair, the remainingwater was confined in a small hollow in the otherwise dry bed. Whilstthere heavy rain came on, and, as we stood on the high ground, we, observed a pelican on the margin of the shallow pool gorging himself;our people went towards him and raised a cry of fish! fish! We hurrieddown, and found numbers of fish struggling upwards through the grass inthe rills formed by the trickling of the rain. There was scarcely waterenough to cover them, but nevertheless they made rapid progress up thebank, on which our followers collected about two bushels of them at adistance of forty yards from the tank. They were forcing their way upthe knoll, and, had they not been intercepted first by the pelican andafterwards by ourselves, they would in a few minutes have gained thehighest point and descended on the other side into a pool which formedanother portion of the tank. They were chub, the same as are found inthe mud after the tanks dry up. " In a subsequent communication in July, 1857, the same gentleman says--"As the tanks dry up the fish congregatein the little pools till at last you find them in thousands in themoistest parts of the beds, rolling in the blue mud which is at thattime about the consistence of thick gruel. " "As the moisture further evaporates the surface fish are left uncovered, and they crawl away in search of fresh pools. In one place I sawhundreds diverging in every direction, from the tank they had justabandoned to a distance of fifty or sixty yards, and still travellingonwards. In going this distance, however, they must have used muscularexertion sufficient to have taken them half a mile on level ground, forat these places all the cattle and wild animals of the neighbourhood hadlatterly come to drink; so that the surface was everywhere indented withfootmarks in addition to the cracks in the surrounding baked mud, intowhich the fish tumbled in their progress. In those holes which were deepand the sides perpendicular they remained to die, and were carried offby kites and crows. " "My impression is that this migration takes place at night or beforesunrise, for it was only early in the morning that I have seen themprogressing, and I found that those I brought away with me in chattiesappeared quiet by day, but a large proportion managed to get out of thechatties at night--some escaped altogether, others were trodden on andkilled. " "One peculiarity is the large size of the vertebral column, quitedisproportioned to the bulk of the fish. I particularly noticed that allin the act of migrating had their gills expanded. "] Referring to the _Anabas scandens_, DR. HAMILTON BUCHANAN says, that ofall the fish with which he was acquainted it is the most teliacious oflife; and he has known boatmen on the Ganges to keep them for five orsix days in an earthen pot without water, and daily to use what theywanted, finding them as lively and fresh as when caught. [1] Two Danishnaturalists residing at Tranquebar, have contributed their authority tothe fact of this fish ascending trees on the coast of Coromandel, anexploit from which it acquired its epithet of _Perca scandens_. DALDORF, who was a lieutenant in the Danish East India Company's service, communicated to Sir Joseph Banks, that in the year 1791 he had takenthis fish from a moist cavity in the stem of a Palmyra palm, that grewnear a lake. He saw it when already five feet above the groundstruggling to ascend still higher;--"suspending itself by itsgill-covers, and bending its tail to the left, it fixed its anal fin inthe cavity of the bark, and sought by expanding its body to urge its wayupwards, and its march was only arrested by the hand with which heseized it. "[2] [Footnote 1: _Fishes of the Ganges_, 4to. 1822. ] [Footnote 2: _Transactions Linn. Soc. _ vol. Iii. P. 63. It isremarkable, however, that this discovery of Daldorf, which excited sogreat an interest in 1791, had been anticipated by an Arabian voyager athousand years before. Abou-zeyd, the compiler of the remarkable MS. Known since Renaudot's translation by the title of the _Travels of theTwo Mahometans_, states that Suleyman, one of his informants, whovisited India at the close of the ninth century, was told there of afish which, issuing from the waters, ascended the coco-nut palms todrink their sap, and returned to the sea. "On parle d'un poisson de merqui, sortant de l'eau, monte sur la cocotier et boit le suc de laplante; ensuite il retourne á la mer. " See REINAUD, _Rélations desVoyages faits par les Arabes et Persans dans le neuvième siècle_, tom. I. P, 21, tom. Ii. P. 93. ] There is considerable obscurity about the story of this ascent, althoughcorroborated by M. JOHN. Its motive for climbing is not apparent, sincewater being close at hand it could not have gone for sake of themoisture contained in the fissures of the palm; nor could it be insearch of food, as it lives not on fruit but on aquatic insects. [1] Thedescent, too, is a question of difficulty. [Footnote 1: Kirby says that it is "in pursuit of certain crustaceansthat form its food" (_Bridgewater Treatise_, vol i. P. 144); but I amnot aware of any crustaceans in the island which ascend the palmyra orfeed upon its fruit. The _Birgus latro_, which inhabits Mauritius, andis said to climb the coco-nut for this purpose, has not been observed inCeylon. ] The position of its fins, and the spines on its gill-covers, mightassist its journey upwards, but the same apparatus would prove anythingbut a facility in steadying its journey down. The probability is, assuggested by Buchanan, that the ascent which was witnessed by Daldorfwas accidental, and ought not to be regarded as the habit of the animal. In Ceylon I heard of no instance of the perch ascending trees[1], butthe fact is well established that both it, the _pullata_ (a species of_polyacanthus_), and others, are capable of long journeys on the levelground. [2] [Footnote 1: This assertion must be qualified by a fact stated by Mr. E. A. Layard, who mentions that on visiting one of the fishing stationson a Singhalese river, where the fish are caught in staked enclosures, as described at p. 342, and observing that the chambers were coveredwith netting, he asked the reason, and was told "_that some of the fishclimbed up the sticks and got over. _"--Mag. Nat. Hist, for May 1823, p. 390-1. ] [Footnote 2: Strange accidents have more than once occurred at Ceylonarising from the habit of the native anglers; who, having neitherbaskets nor pockets in which to place what they catch, will seize a fishin their teeth whilst putting fresh bait on their hook. In August, 1853, a man was carried into the Pettah hospital at Colombo, having a climbingperch, which he thus attempted to hold, firmly imbedded in his throat. The spines of its dorsal fin prevented its descent, whilst those of thegill-covers equally forbade its return. It was eventually extracted bythe forceps through an incision in the oesophagus, and the patientrecovered. Other similar cases have proved fatal. ] _Burying Fishes. _--But a still more remarkable power possessed by someof the Ceylon fishes, is that already alluded to, of secretingthemselves in the earth in the dry season, at the bottom of theexhausted ponds, and there awaiting the renewal of the water at thechange of the monsoon. The instinct of the crocodile to resort to thesame expedient has been already referred to[1], and in like manner thefish, when distressed by the evaporation of the tanks, seek relief byimmersing first their heads, and by degrees their whole bodies, in themud; sinking to a depth at which they find sufficient moisture topreserve life in a state of lethargy long after the bed of the tank hasbeen consolidated by the intense heat of the sun. It is possible, too, that the cracks which reticulate the surface may admit air to someextent to sustain their faint respiration. [Footnote 1: See _ante_, p. 285. ] The same thing takes place in other tropical regions, subject tovicissitudes of drought and moisture. The Protopterus[1], which inhabitsthe Gambia (and which though demonstrated by Professor Owen to possessall the essential organisation of fishes, is nevertheless provided withtrue lungs), is accustomed in the dry season, when the river retiresinto its channel, to bury itself to the depth of twelve or sixteeninches in the indurated mud of the banks, and to remain in a state oftorpor till the rising of the stream after the rains enables it toresume its active habits. At this period the natives of the Gambia, likethose of Ceylon, resort to the river, and secure the fish inconsiderable numbers as they flounder in the still shallow water. Aparallel instance occurs, in Abyssinia in relation to the fish of theMareb, one of the sources of the Nile, the waters of which are partiallyabsorbed in traversing the plains of Taka. During the summer its bed isdry, and in the slime at the depth of more than six feet is found aspecies of fish without scales, different from any known to inhabit theNile. [2] [Footnote 1: _Lepidosiren annectans_, Owen. See _Linn. Trans. _ 1839. ] [Footnote 2: This statement will be found in QUATREMERE'S Mémoires surl'Egypte, tom. I. P. 17, on the authority of Abdullah ben Ahmed benSolaim Assouany, in his _History of Nubia_, "Simon, héritier présomptifdu royanme d'Alouah, m'a assuré que l'on trouve, dans la vase qui couvrefond de cette rivière, un grand poisson sans écailles, qui ne ressembleen rien aux poissons du Nil, et que, pour l'avoir, il faut creuser à unetoise et plus de profondeur. " To this passage, there is appended thisnote:--"Le patriarche Mendes, cité par Legrand (_Relation Hist. D'Abyssinie_, du P. LOBO, p. 212-3) rapporte que le fleuve Mareb, aprèsavoir arrosé une étendue de pays considérable, se perd sous terre; etque quand les Portugais faisaient la guerre dans ce pays, ilsfouilloient dans le sable, et y trouvoient de la bonne eau et du banpoisson. An rapport de l'auteur de _l' Ayin Akbery_ (tom. Ii, p. 146, ed. 1800), dans le Soubah do Caschmir, pres du lieu nommé Tilahmoulah, est une grande pièce de terre qui est inondée pendant la saison despluies. Lorsque les eaux se sont évaporées, et que la vase est presqueséche, les habitans prennant des bâtons d'environ une aune do long, qu'ils enfoncent dans la vase, et ils y trouvent quantité de grands etpetits poissons. " In the library of the British Museum there is anunique MS. Of MANOEL DE ALMEIDA, written in the sixteenth century, fromwhich Balthasar Tellec compiled his _Historia General de Ethiopia alta_, printed at Coimbra in 1660, and in it the above statement of Mendes iscorroborated by Almeida, who says that he was told by João Gabriel, aCreole Portuguese, born in Abyssinia, who had visited the Mareb, and whosaid that the "fish were to be found everywhere eight or ten palms down, and that he had eaten of them. "] In South America the "round-headed hassar" of Guiana, _Callicthyslittoralis_, and the "yarrow, " a species of the family Esocidæ, althoughthey possess no specially modified respiratory organs, are accustomed tobury themselves in the mud on the subsidence of water in the poolsduring the dry season. [1] The _Loricaria_ of Surinam, another Siluridan, exhibits a similar instinct, and resorts to the same expedient. Sir R. Schomburgk, in his account of the fishes of Guiana, confirms thisaccount of the Callicthys, and says "they can exist in muddy lakeswithout any water whatever, and great numbers of them are sometimes dugup from such situations. "[2] [Footnote 1: See Paper "_on some Species of Fishes and Reptiles inDemerara_, " by J. HANDCOCK, Esq. , M. D. , _Zoological Journal_, vol. Iv. P. 243. ] [Footnote 2: A curious account of the _borachung_ or "ground fish" ofBhootan, will be found in Note (C. ) appended to this chapter. ] In those portions of Ceylon where the country is flat, and small tanksare extremely numerous, the natives are accustomed in the hot season todig in the mud for fish. Mr. Whiting, the chief civil officer of theeastern province, informs me that, on two occasions, he was presentaccidentally when the villagers were so engaged, once at the tank ofMalliativoe, within a few miles of Kottiar, near the bay of Trincomalie, and again at a tank between Ellendetorre and Arnitivoe, on the bank ofthe Vergel river. The clay was firm, but moist, and as the men flung outlumps of it with a spade, it fell to pieces, disclosing fish from nineto twelve inches long, which were full grown and healthy, and jumped onthe bank when exposed to the sun light. [Illustration: THE ANABAS OF THE DRY TANKS. ] Being desirous of obtaining a specimen of fish so exhumed, I receivedfrom the Moodliar of Matura, A. B. Wickremeratne, a fish taken along withothers of the same kind from a tank in which the water had dried up; itwas found at a depth of a foot and a half where the mud was still moist, whilst the surface was dry and hard. The fish which the moodliar sent tome is an Anabas, closely resembling the _Perca scandens_ of Daldorf; buton minute examination it proves to be a species unknown in India, andhitherto found only in Boreno and China. It is the _A. Oligolepis_ ofBleek. But the faculty of becoming torpid at such periods is not confined inCeylon to the crocodile sand fishes;--it is also possessed by some ofthe fresh-water mollusca and aquatic coleoptera. One of the former, the_Ampullaria glauca_, is found in still water in all parts of the island, not alone in the tanks, but in rice-fields and the watercourses by whichthey are irrigated. When, during the dry season, the water is about toevaporate, it burrows and conceals itself[1] till the returning rainsrestore it to activity, and reproduce its accustomed food. There, at aconsiderable depth in the soft mud, it deposits a bundle of eggs with awhite calcareous shell, to the number of one hundred or more in eachgroup. The _Melania Paludina_ in the same way retires during thedroughts into the muddy soil of the rice lands; and it can only be bysuch an instinct that this and other mollusca are preserved when thetanks evaporate, to re-appear in full growth and vigour immediately onthe return of the rains. [2] [Footnote 1: A knowledge of this fact was turned to prompt account byMr. Edgar S. Layard, when holding a judicial office at Point Pedro in1849. A native who had been defrauded of his land complained before himof his neighbour, who, during his absence, had removed their commonlandmark, diverting the original watercourse and obliterating its tracesby filling it up to a level with the rest of the field. Mr. Layarddirected a trench to be sunk at the contested spot, and discoveringnumbers of the Ampullaria, the remains of the eggs, and the livinganimal which had been buried for months, the evidence was so resistlessas to confound the wrong-doer, and terminate the suit. ] [Footnote 2: For a similar fact relative to the shells and water beetlesin the pools near Rio Janeiro, see DARWIN'S _Nat. Journal_, ch. V. P. 99. BENSON, in the first vol. Of _Gleanings of Science_, published atCalcutta in 1829, describes a species of _Paludina_ found in pools, which are periodically dried up in the hot season but reappear with therains, p. 363. And in the _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ forSept. 1832, Lieut. HUTTON, in a singularly interesting paper, hasfollowed up the same subject by a narrative of his own observations atMirzapore, wherein June, 1832, after a few heavy showers of rain, thatformed pools on the surface of the ground near a mango grove, he saw the_Paludinæ_ issuing from the ground, "pushing aside the moistened earthand coming forth from their retreats; but on the disappearance of thewater not one of them was to be seen above ground. Wishing to ascertainwhat had become of them he turned up the earth at the base of severaltrees, and invariably found the shells buried from an inch to two inchesbelow the surface. " Lieut. Hutton adds that the _Ampullariæ_ and_Planorbes_, as well as the _Paludinæ_ are found in similar situationsduring the heats of the dry season. The British _Pisidea_ exibit thesame faculty (see a monograph in the _Camb. Phil. Trans. _ vol. Iv. ). Thefact is elsewhere alluded to in the present work of the power possessedby the land leech of Ceylon of retaining vitality even after beingparched to hardness during the heat of the rainless season. LYELLmentions the instance of some snails in Italy which, when theyhybernate, descend to the depth of five feet and more below the surface. _Princip. Of Geology, _ &c, p. 373. ] Dr. John Hunter[1] has advanced an opinion that hybernation, although aresult of cold, is not its immediate consequence, but is attributable tothat deprivation of food and other essentials which extreme coldoccasions, and against the recurrence of which nature makes a timelyprovision by a suspension of her functions. Excessive heat in thetropics produces an effect upon animals and vegetables analogous to thatof excessive cold in northern regions, and hence it is reasonable tosuppose that the torpor induced by the one may be but the counterpart ofthe hybernation which results from the other. The frost that imprisonsthe alligator in the Mississippi as effectually cuts it off from foodand action as the drought which incarcerates the crocodile in thesun-burnt clay of a Ceylon tank. The hedgehog of Europe enters on aperiod of absolute torpidity as soon as the inclemency of winterdeprives it of its ordinary supply of slugs and insects; and the_tenrec_[2] of Madagascar, its tropical representative, exhibits thesame tendency during the period when excessive heat produces in thatclimate a like result. [Footnote 1: HUNTER'S _Observations on parts of the Animal oeconomy_, p. 88. ] [Footnote 2: _Centetes ecaudatus_, Illiger. ] The descent of the _Ampullaria_, and other fresh-water molluscs, intothe mud of the tanks, has its parallel in the conduct of the _Bulimi_and _Helices_ on land. The European snail, in the beginning of winter, either buries itself in the earth or withdraws to some crevice oroverarching stone to await the returning vegetation of spring. So, inthe season of intense heat, the _Helix Waltoni_ of Ceylon, and others ofthe same family, before retiring under cover, close the aperture oftheir shells with an impervious epiphragm, which effectually protectstheir moisture and juices from evaporation during the period of theiræstivation. The Bulimi of Chili have been found alive in England in abox packed in cotton after an interval of two years, and the animalinhabiting a land-shell from Suez, which was attached to a tablet anddeposited in the British Museum in 1846, was found in 1850 to haveformed a fresh epiphragm, and on being immersed in tepid water, itemerged from its shell. It became torpid again on the 15th November, 1851, and was found dead and dried up in March, 1852. [1] But exceptionsserve to prove the accuracy of Hunter's opinion almost as strikingly asaccordances, since the same genera of animals that hybernate in Europe, where extreme cold disarranges their oeconomy, evince no symptoms oflethargy in the tropics, provided their food be not diminished by theheat. Ants, which are torpid in Europe during winter, work all the yearround in India, where sustenance is uniform. [2] The shrews of Ceylon(_Sorex montanus_ and _S. Ferrugineus_ of Kelaart), like those at home, subsist upon insects, but as they inhabit a region where the equabletemperature admits of the pursuit of their prey at all seasons of theyear, unlike those of Europe, they never hybernate. A similarobservation applies to bats, which are dormant during a northern winterwhen insects are rare, but never become torpid in any part of thetropics. The bear, in like manner, is nowhere deprived of its activityexcept when the rigour of severe frost cuts off its access to itsaccustomed food. On the other hand, the tortoise, which in Venezuelaimmerses itself in indurated mud during the hot months shows no tendencyto torpor in Ceylon, where its food is permanent; and yet it is subjectto hybernation when carried to the colder regions of Europe. [Footnote 1: _Annals of Natural History_, 1860. See Dr. BAIRD'S _Accountof Helix desertorum; Excelsior, _ &c. , ch. I. P. 345. ] [Footnote 2: Colonel SKYES has described in the _Entomological Trans. _the operations of an ant in India which lays up a store of hay againstthe rainy season. ] To the fish in the detached tanks and pools when the heat, by exhaustingthe water, deprives them at once of motion and sustenance, the practicaleffect must be the same as when the frost of a northern winter encasesthem in ice. Nor is it difficult to believe that they can successfullyundergo the one crisis when we know beyond question that they maysurvive the other. [1] [Footnote 1: YARRELL, vol. I. P. 364, quotes the authority of Dr. J. Hunter in his _Animal oeconomy_, that fish, "after being frozen stillretain so much of life as when thawed to resume their vital actions;"and in-the same volume (_Introd_. Vol. I. P. Xvii. ) he relates fromJESSE'S _Gleanings in Natural History_, the story of a gold fish(_Cyprinus auratus_), which, together with the a marble basin, wasfrozen into one solid lump of ice, yet, on the water being thawed, thefish became as lively as usual. Dr. RICHARDSON in the third vol of his_Fauna Borealis Americana_, says the grey sucking carp, found in the furcountries of North America, may be frozen and thawed again without beingkilled in the process. ] _Hot-water Fishes_. --Another incident is striking in connection with thefresh-water fishes of Ceylon. I have described elsewhere the hot springsof Kannea[1], in the vicinity of Trincomalie, the water in which flowsat a temperature varying at different seasons from 85° to 115°. In thestream formed by these wells M. Reynaud found and forwarded to Cuviertwo fishes which he took from the water at a time when his thermometerindicated a temperature of 37° Reaumur, equal to 115° of Fahrenheit. Theone was an Apogon, the other an Ambassis, and to each, from the heat ofits habitat, he assigned the specific name of "thermalis. "[2] [Footnote 1: See SIR J. EMERSON TENNET's _Ceylon_, &c. , vol. Ii. P. 496. ] [Footnote 2: CUV. And VAL. , vol. Iii. P. 363. In addition to the twofishes above named, a loche _Cobitis thermalis_, and a carp, _Nuriathermoicos_, were found in the hot-springs of Kannea, at a heat 40°Cent. , 114° Fahr. , and a roach, _Leuciscus thermalis_, when thethermometer indicated 50° Cent, 122° Fahr. --_Ib_. Xviii. P. 59, xvi. P. 182, xvii. P. 94. Fish have been taken from a hot spring at Pooree whenthe thermometer stood at 112° Fahr. , and as they belonged to acarnivorous genus, they must have found prey living in the same hightemperature. --_Journ. Asiatic Soc. Of Beng. _ vol. Vi. P. 465. Fisheshave been observed in a hot spring at Manila which raises thethermometer to 187°, and in another in Barbary, the usual temperature ofwhich is 172°; and Humboldt and Bonpland, when travelling in SouthAmerica, saw fishes thrown up alive from a volcano, in water that raisedthe temperature to 210°, being two degrees below the boiling point. PATTERSON'S _Zoology_, Pt. Ii. P. 211; YARRELL'S _History of BritishFishes_, vol. I. In. P. Xvi. ] * * * * * _List of Ceylon Fishes. _ In the following list, the Acanthopterygian fishes of Ceylon has beenprepared for me by Dr. GÜNTHER, and will be found the most completewhich has appeared of this order. I am also indebted to him for thecorrection of the list of Malacopterygians, which I hope ere long torender still more extended, as well as that of the Cartilaginous fishes. I. OSSEOUS. ACANTHOPTERYGII BERYCIDÆ, _Lowe_. Myripristis murdjan, _Forsk_. Holocentrum rubrum, _Forsk_. Spiniferum, _Forsk_. Diadema, _Lacép_. PERCIDÆ, _Günther_. *Lates calcarifer, _Bl. _ Serranus louti, _Forsk_. Pachycentrum, _C. & V. _ guttatus, _Bl. _ Sonneratii, _C. & V. _ angularis, _C. & V. _ marginalis, _Bl. _ hexagonatis, _Forsk_. Flavocoeruleus, _Lacép_. Biguttatus, _C. & V. _ lemniscatus, _C. & V. _ Amboinensis, _Bleek_. Boenak, _C. & V. _ Grammistes orientalis, _Bl. _ Genyoroge Sebæ, _C. & V. _ Bengalensis, _C. & V. _ marginata, _C. & V. _ rivulata, _C. & V. _ gibba, _Forsk_. Spilura, _Benn_. Mesoprion aurolineatus, _C. & V. _ rangus, _C. & V. _ quinquelineatus, _Rüpp_. Johnii, _Bl. _ annularis, _C. & V. _ ?Priacanthus Blochii, _Bleek_. Ambassis n. Sp. , _Günth_. Commersonii, _C. & V. _ thermalis, _C. & V. _ Apogon Ceylonicus, _C. & V. _ thermalis, _C. & V. _ annularis, _Rüpp_. Var. Roseipinnis. Chilodipterus quinquelineatus, _C. & V. _ PRISTIPOMATIDÆ, _Günther_. Dules Bennettii, _Bleek_. *Therapon servus, _Bloch_. *trivittatus, _Buch. Ham_. Quadrilineatus, _Bl. _ *Helotes polytænia, _Bleek_. Pristipoma hasta, _Bloch_. Maculatum, _Bl. _ Diagramma punctatum, _Ehrenb_. Orientale, _Bl. _ poecilopterum, _C. & V. _ Blochii, _C. & V. _ lineatum, _Gm_. Radja, _Bleek_. Lobotes auctorum, _Günth_. Gerres oblongus, _C & V. _ Scolopsia Japonicus, _Bl. _ bimaculatus, _Rüpp_. Monogramma, _k. & v. H. _ Synagris furcosus, _C. & V. _ Pentapus aurolineatus, _Lacép_. Smaris balteatus, _C. & V. _ Cæsio coerulaureus, _Lacép_. MULLIDÆ, _Gray_. Upeneus tæniopterus, _C. & V. _ Indicus, _Shaw_. Cyclostoma, _Lacép_. Upe. Trifasciatus, _Lacép_. Cinnabarinus, _C. & V. _ Upeneoides vittatus, _Forsk. _ tragula. Sulphureus, _C. & V. _ Mulloides flavolineatus, _Lacép_. Ceylonicus, _C. & V. _ SPARIDÆ, _Günther_. Lethrinus frenatus, _C. & V. _ cinereus, _C. & V. _ fasciatus, _C. & V. _ ?ramak, _Forsk. _ opercularis, _C. & V. _ erythrurus, _C. & V. _ Pagrus spinifer, _Forsk_. Crysophrys hasta, _Bl. _ ?Pimelepterus Ternatensis, _Bleek_. SQUAMIPINNES, _Günthier_. Chætodon Layardi, _Blyth_. Oligacanthus, _Bleek_. Setifer, _Bl. _ vagabundus, _L. _ guttatissimus, _Benn_. Pictus, _Forsk_. Xanthocephalus, _Benn_. Sebæ, _C. & V. _ Heniochus macrolepidotus, _Artedi_. Holacanthus annularis, _Bl. _ xanthurus, _Benn_. Imperator, _B1_. Scatophagus argus, _Gm_. Ephippus orbis, _Bl. _ Drepane punctata, _Gm_. CIRRHITIDÆ, _Gray_. Cirrhites Forsteri, _Schn_. CATAPHRACTI, _Cuv_. Scorpæna polyprion, _Bleek_. Pterois volitans, _L. _ miles, _Benn_. Tetraroge longispinis, _C. & V. _ Platycephalus insidiator, _Forsk_. Punctatus, _C. & V. _ serratus, _C. & V. _ tuberculatus, _C. & V. _ suppositus, _Trosch_. Dactylopterus orientalis, _C. & V. _ TRACHINIDÆ, _Günther_. ?Uranoscopus guttatus, _C. & V. _ Percis millepunctata, _Günth_. Sillago siliama, _Forsk_. SCIÆNIDÆ, _Günther_. Sciæna diacantha, _Lacép_. Maculata, _Schn_. Dussumieri, _C & V. _ Corvina miles, _C. & V. _ Otolithus argenteus, _k. & v. H. _ POLYNEMIDÆ, _Günther_. Polynemus heptadactylus, _C. & V. _ hexanemus, _C. & V. _ Indicus, _Shaw_. Plebeius, _Gm. _ tetradactylus, _Shaw_. SPHYRÆNIDÆ, _Agass_. Sphyræna jello, _C. & V. _ obtusata, _C. & V. _ TRICHIURIDÆ, _Günther_. Trichiurus savala, _Cuv. _ SCOMBRIDÆ, _Günther_. ?Thynnus affinis, _Cant. _ Cybium Commersonii, _Lacép. _ guttatum, _Schn. _ Naucrates ductor, _L. _ Elacate nigra, _Bl. _ ?n. Sp. Echeneis remora, _L. _ scutata, _Günth. _ naucrates, _L. _ Stromateus cinereus, _Bl. _ niger, _Bl. _ Coryphæna hippurus, _L. _ Mene maculata, _Schn. _ CARANGIDÆ, _Günther. _ Caranx Heberi, _Benn. _ Rottleri, _Bl. _ calla, _C. &V. _ xanthurus, _K. &v. H. _ talamparoides, _Bleek. _ Malabaricus, _Schn. _ speciosus, _Forsk. _ carangus, _Bl. _ hippos, _L. _ armatus, _Forsk. _ ciliaris, _Bl. _ gallus, _L. _ Micropteryx chrysurus, _L. _ Seriola nigro-fasciata, _Rüpp. _ Chorinemus lysan, _Forsk. _ Sancti Petri, _C. & V. _ Trachynotus oblongus, _C. & V. _ ovatus, _L. _ Psettus argenteus, _L. _ Platax vespertilio, _Bl. _ Raynaldi, _C. &V. _ Zanclus sp. N. Lactarius delicatulus, _C. & V. _ Equula fasciata, _Lacép. _ edentula, _Bl. _ daura, _Cuv. _ inlerrupta. Gazza minuta, _Bl. _ equulæformis, _Rüpp. _ Pempheris sp. XIPHIIDÆ, _Agass. _ Histiophorus immaculatus, _Rüpp. _ THEUTYIDÆ, _Günther. _ Theutys Javus, _L. _ stellata, _Forsk. _ nebulosa, _A. & G. _ ACRONURIDÆ, _Günther. _ Acanthurus triostegus, _L. _ nigrofuscus, _Forsk. _ lineatus, _L. _ Tennentii, _Gthr. _ leucosternon, _Bennett. _ ctenodon, _C. &V. _ rhombeus, _Kittl. _ xanthurus, _Blyth. _ Acronurus melas, _C. & V. _ melanurus, _C. & V. _ Naseus unicornis, _Forsk, _ brevirostris, _C. & V. _ tuberosus, _Lacép. _ lituratus, _Forster. _ AULOSTOMATA, _Cuvier. _ Fistularia serrata, _Bl. _ BLENNIIDÆ, _Müll. _ Salarias fasclatus, _Bl. _ Sal. Marmoratus, _Benn. _ tridactylus, _Schn. _ quadricornis, _C. &V. _ GOBIIDÆ, _Müll. _ Gobius ornatus, _Rüpp. _ giuris, _Buch. Ham. _ albopunctatus, _C. & V. _ grammepomus, _Bleek. _ Apocryptes lanceolatus, _Bl. _ Periophthalmus Koelreuteri, _Pall. _ Eleotris ophiocephalus, _K. & v. H. _ fusca, _Bl. _ sexguttata, _C. & V. _ muralis, _A. & G. _ MASTACEMBELIDÆ. _Günther. _ Mastacembelus armatus, _Lacép. _ PEDICULATI, _Cuv. _ Antennarius marmoratus, _Günth. _ hispidus, _Schn. _ pinniceps, _Commers. _ Commersonii, _Lacép. _ multiocellatus _Günth. _ bigibbus, _Lacép. _ ATHERINIDÆ, _Günther. _ Atherina Forskalii, _Rüpp. _ duodecimalis, _C. & V. _ MUGILIDÆ, _Günther. _ Mugil planiceps, _C. & V. _ Waigiensis, _A. G. _ Ceylonensis, _Günth. _ OPHIOCEPHALIDÆ, _Günther. _ Ophiocephalus punctatus, _Bl. _ Kelaartii, _Günth. _ striatus, _Bl. _ marulius, _Ham. Buch. _ Channa orientalis, _Schn. _ LABYRINTHICI, _Cuv. _ Anabas oligolepis, _Bleek. _ Polyacanthus signatus, _Günth. _ PHARYNGOGNATHI. Amphiprion Clarkii, _J. Benn. _ Dascyllus aruanus, _C. & V. _ trimaculatus, _Rüpp. _ Glyphisodon septem-fasciatus, _C. & V. _ Brownrigii, _Benn, _ coelestinus, _Sol. _ Etroplus Suratensis, _Bl. _ Julis lunaris _Linn. _ decussatus, _W Benn. _ formosus, _C. &V. _ quadricolor. _Lesson. _ dorsalis, _Quoy & Gaim. _ aureomaculatus, _W. Benn. _ Cellanicus, _E. Benn. _ Finlaysoni, _C. & V. _ purpureo-lineatus, _C. & V. _ cingulum, _C. & V. _ Gomphosus fuscus, _C. & V. _ coeruleus, _Comm. _ viridis, _W. Benn. _ Scarus pepo, _W. Benn. _ harid. _Forsk. _ Tautoga fasciata, _Thunb. _ Hemirhamphus Reynaldi, _C. & V. _ Georgii _C. & V. _ Exocoetus evolans. _Linn. _ Belone annulata, _C. & V. _ MALACOPTERYGII (ABDOMINALES). Bagrus gulio, _Buch_. Albilabris, _C. & V. _ Plotosus lineatus, _C. & V. _ Barbus tor, _C. & V. _ Nuria thermoicos, _C. & V. _ Leuciscus dandia, _C. & V. _ scalpellus, _C. & V. _ Ceylonicus, _E. Benn_. Thermalis, _C. & V. _ Cobitis thermalis, _C. & V. _ Chirocentrus dorab, _Forsk_. Elops saurus, _L. _ Megalops cundinga, _Buch_. Engraulis Brownii, _Gm_. Sardinella leiogaster, _C. & V. _ lineolata, _C. & V. _ Neohowii. Saurus myops, _Val_. Saurida tombil, _Bl. _ MALACOPTERYGII (SUB-BRANCHIATI). Pleuronectes, _L. _ MALACOPTERYGII (APODA). Muræna. LOPHOBRANCHI. Syngnathus, _L. _ PLECTOGNATHII. Tetraodon ocellatus, _W. Benn_. Tepa, _Buch_. Argyropleura, _E. Bennett_. Argentatus, _Blyth_. Balistes biaculeatus, _W. Benn_. Lineatus, _Bl. _ Triacanthus biaculeatus, _W. Benn_. Alutarius lævis, _Bl. _ II. CARTILAGINOUS. Pristis antiquorum, _Lath_. Cuspidatus, _Lath_. Pectinatus, _Lath_. Chiloscyllium plagiosum, _Benn_. Stegostoma fasciatum, _Bl. _ Carcharias acutus, _Rüpp_. Sphyrna zygæna, _L. _ Rhynchobatus lævis, _Bl. _ Trygon uarnak, _Forsk_. Pteroplatea micrura, _Bl. _ Tæniura lymna, _Forsk_. Myliobatis Nieuhofii, _Bl. _ Aëtobates narinari, _Bl. _ * * * * * NOTE (A. ) INSTANCES OF FISHES FALLING FROM THE CLOUDS IN INDIA. (_From the Bombay Times, _ 1856. ) See Page 343. The late Dr. Buist, after enumerating cases in which fishes were said tohave been thrown out from volcanoes in South America and precipitatedfrom clouds in various parts of the world, adduced the followinginstances of similar occurrences in India. "In 1824, " he says, "fishesfell at Meerut, on the men of Her Majesty's 14th Regiment, then out atdrill, and were caught in numbers. In July, 1826, live fish were seen tofall on the grass at Moradabad during a storm. They were the commoncyprinus, so prevalent in our Indian waters. On the 19th of February, 1830, at noon, a heavy fall of fish occurred at the Nokulhatty factory, in the Daccah zillah; depositions on the subject were obtained from ninedifferent parties. The fish were all dead; most of them were large; somewere fresh, others were rotten and mutilated. They were seen at first inthe sky, like a flock of birds, descending rapidly to the ground; therewas rain drizzling, but no storm. On the 16th and 17th of May, 1833, afall of fish occurred in the zillah of Futtehpoor, about three milesnorth of the Jumna, after a violent storm of wind and rain. The fishwere from a pound and a half to three pounds in weight, and of the samespecies as those found in the tanks in the neighbourhood. They were alldead and dry. A fall of fish occurred at Allahabad, during a storm inMay, 1835; they were of the chowla species, and were found dead and dryafter the storm had passed over the district. On the 20th of September, 1839, after a smart shower of rain, a quantity of live fish, about threeinches in length and all of the same kind, fell at the Sunderbunds, about twenty miles south of Calcutta. On this occasion it was remarkedthat the fish did not fall here and there irregularly over the ground, but in a continuous straight line, not more than a span in breadth. Thevast multitudes of fish, with which the low grounds round Bombay arecovered, about a week or ten days after the first burst of the monsoon, appear to be derived from the adjoining pools or rivulets, and not todescend from the sky. They are not, so far as I know, found in thehigher parts of the island. I have never seen them, (though I havewatched carefully, ) in casks collecting water from the roofs ofbuildings, or heard of them on the decks or awnings of vessels in theharbour, where they must have appeared had they descended from the sky. One of the most remarkable phenomena of this kind occurred during atremendous deluge of rain at Kattywar, on the 25th of July, 1850, whenthe ground around Rajkote was found literally covered with fish; some ofthem were found on the tops of haystacks, where probably they had beendrifted by the storm. In the course of twenty-four successive hourstwenty-seven inches of rain fell, thirty-five fell in twenty-six hours, seven inches within one hour and a half, being the heaviest fall onrecord. At Poonah, on the 3rd of August, 1852, after a very heavy fallof rain, multitudes of fish were caught on the ground in thecantonments, full half a mile from the nearest stream. If showers offish are to be explained on the assumption that they are carried up bysqualls or violent winds, from rivers or spaces of water not far awayfrom where they fall, it would be nothing wonderful were they seen todescend from the air during the furious squalls which occasionally occurin June. " * * * * * NOTE (B. ) CEYLON FISHES. (_Memorandum by Professor Huxley. _) See Page 324. The large series of beautifully coloured drawings of the fishes ofCeylon, which has been submitted to my inspection, possesses an unusualvalue for several reasons. The fishes, it appears, were all captured at Colombo, and even had thosefrom other parts of Ceylon been added, the geographical area would nothave been very extended. Nevertheless there are more than 600 drawings, and though it is possible that some of these represent varieties indifferent stages of growth of the same species, I have not been able tofind definite evidence of the fact in any of those groups which I haveparticularly tested. If, however, these drawings represent _six hundred_distinct species of fish, they constitute, so far as I know, the largestcollection of fish from one locality in existence. The number of known British fishes may be safely assumed to be less than250, and Mr. Yarrell enumerates only 226, Dr. Cantor's valuable work onMalayan fishes enumerates not more than 238, while Dr. Russell hasfigured only 200 from Coromandel. Even the enormous area of the Chineseand Japanese seas has as yet not yielded 800 species of fishes. The large extent of the collection alone, then, renders it of greatimportance: but its value is immeasurably enhanced by the twocircumstances, --_first_, that every drawing was made while the fishretained all that vividness of colouring which becomes lost so soonafter its removal from its native element; and _secondly_, that when thesketch was finished its subject was carefully labelled, preserved inspirits, and forwarded to England, so that at the present moment theoriginal of every drawing can be subjected to anatomical examination, and compared with already named species. Under these circumstances, I do not hesitate to say that the collectionis one of the most valuable in existence, and might, if properly workedout, become a large and secure foundation for all future investigationinto the ichthyology of the Indian Ocean. It would be very hazardous to express an opinion as to the novelty orotherwise of the species and genera figured without the study of thespecimens themselves, as the specific distinctions of fish are for themost part based upon character--the fin-rays, teeth, the operculum, &c. , which can only be made out by close and careful examination of theobject, and cannot be represented in ordinary drawings however accurate. There are certain groups of fish, however, whose family traits are somarked as to render it almost impossible to mistake even theirportraits, and hence I may venture, without fear of being far wrong, upon a few remarks as to the general features of the ichthyologicalfauna of Ceylon. In our own seas rather less than a tenth of the species of fishes belongto the cod tribe. I have not found one represented in these drawings, nor do either Russell or Cantor mention any in the surrounding seas, andthe result is in general harmony with the known laws of distribution ofthese most useful of fishes. On the other hand, the mackerel family, including the tunnies, thebonitas, the dories, the horse-mackerels, &c. , which form not more thanone sixteenth of our own fish fauna, but which are known to increasetheir proportion in hot climates, appear in wonderful variety of formand colour, and constitute not less than one fifth of the whole of thespecies of Ceylon fish. In Russell's catalogue they form less than onefifth, in Cantor's less than one sixth. Marine and other siluroid fishes, a group represented on the continentof Europe, but doubtfully, if at all, in this country, constitute onetwentieth of the Ceylon fishes. In Russell's and Cantor's lists theyform about one thirtieth of the whole. The sharks and rays form about one seventh of our own fish fauna. Theyconstitute about one tenth or one eleventh of Russell's and Cantor'slists, while among these Ceylon drawings I find not more than twenty, orabout one thirtieth of the whole, which can be referred to this group offishes. It must be extremely interesting to know whether thiscircumstance is owing to accident, or to the local peculiarities ofColombo, or whether the fauna of Ceylon really is deficient in suchfishes. The like exceptional character is to be noticed in the proportion of thetribe of flat fishes, or _Pleuronectidæ_. Soles, turbots, and the like, form nearly one twelfth of our own fishes. Both Cantor and Russell givethe flat fishes as making one twenty-second part of their collection, while in the whole 600 Ceylon drawings I can find but five_Pleuronectidæ_. When this great collection has been carefully studied, I doubt not thatmany more interesting distributional facts will be evolved. * * * * * Since receiving this note from Professor Huxley, the drawings inquestion have been submitted to Dr. Gray, of the British Museum. Thateminent naturalist, after a careful analysis, has favoured me with thefollowing memorandum of the fishes they represent, numericallycontrasting them with those of China and Japan, so far as we areacquainted with the ichthyology of those seas:-- CARTILAGINEA. Ceylon. China and Japan. Squali 12 15 Raiæ 19 20 Sturiones 0 1 OSTINOPTERYGII. Plectognathi. Tetraodontidæ 10 21 balistidæ 9 19 Lophobranchii. Syngnathidæ 2 2 pegasidæ 0 3 Ctenobranchii. Lophidæ 1 3 Cyclopodi. Echeneidæ 0 1 cyclopteridæ 0 1 gobidæ 7 35 Percini. Callionymidæ 0 7 uranoscopidæ 0 7 cottidæ 0 13 triglidæ 11 37 polynemidæ 12 3 mullidæ 1 7 perecidæ 26 12 berycidæ 0 5 sillaginidæ 3 1 sciænidæ 19 13 hæmullinidæ 6 12 serranidæ 31 38 theraponidæ 8 20 cirrhitidæ 0 2 mænidiæ 37 25 sparidæ 16 17 acanthuridæ 14 6 chætodontidæ 25 21 fistularidæ 2 3 Periodopharyngi. Mugilidæ 5 7 anabantidæ 6 15 pomacentridæ 10 11 Pharyngognathi. Labridæ 16 35 scomberesocidæ 13 6 blenniidæ 3 8 Scomberina. Zeidæ 0 2 sphyrænidæ 5 4 scomberidæ 118 62 xiphlidæ 0 1 cepolidæ 0 5 Heterosomata. Platessoideæ 5 22 siluridæ 31 24 cyprinidæ 19 52 scopelinidæ 2 7 salmonidæ 0 1 clupeidæ 43 22 gadidæ 0 2 macruridæ 1 0 Apodes. Anguillidæ 8 12 murænidæ 8 6 sphagebranchidæ 8 10 * * * * * NOTE (C). ON THE BORA-CHUNG, OR "GROUND-FISH" OF BHOOTAN. See P. 353. In Bhootan, at the south-eastern extremity of the Himalayas, a fish isfound, the scientific name of which is unknown to me, but it is calledby the natives the _Bora-chung_, and by European residents the"ground-fish of Bhootan. " It is described in the _Journal of the AsiaticSociety of Bengal for_ 1839, by a writer (who had seen it alive), asbeing about two feet in length, and cylindrical, with a thick body, somewhat shaped like a pike, but rounder, the nose curved upwards, thecolour olive-green, with orange stripes, and the head speckled withcrimson. [1] This fish, according to the native story, is caught not inthe rivers in whose vicinity it is found, but "in perfectly dry placesin the middle of grassy jungle, sometimes as far as two miles from thebanks. " Here, on finding a hole four or five inches in diameter, theycommence to dig, and continue till they come to water; and presently the_bora-chung_ rises to the surface, sometimes from a depth of nineteenfeet. In these extemporised wells these fishes are found always inpairs, and I when brought to the surface they glide rapidly over theground with a serpentine motion. This account appeared in 1839; but someyears later, Mr. Campbell, the Superintendent of Darjeeling, in acommunication to the same journal[2], divested the story of much of itsexaggeration, by stating, as the result of personal inquiry in Bhootan, that the _bora-chung_ inhabits the jheels and slow-running streams nearthe hills, but lives principally on the banks, into which it penetratesfrom one to five or six feet. The entrance to these retreats leadingfrom the river into the bank is generally a few inches below thesurface, so that the fish can return to the water at pleasure. The modeof catching them is by introducing the hand into these holes; and the_bora-chungs_ are found generally two in each chamber, coiledconcentrically like snakes. It is not believed that they bore their ownburrows, but that they take possession of those made by land-crabs. Mr. Campbell denies that they are more capable than other fish of moving ondry ground. From the particulars given, the _bora-chung_ would appear tobe an _Ophiocephalus_, probably the _O. Barka_ described by Buchanan, asinhabiting holes in the banks of rivers tributary to the Ganges. [Footnote 1: Paper by Mr. J. T. PEARSON, _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. _, vol. Viii p. 551. ] [Footnote 2: _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. _, vol. Xi. P. 963. ] CHAP. XI. SHELLS. * * * * * _Mollusca. --Radiata, &c. _ Ceylon has long been renowned for the beauty and variety of the shellswhich abound in its seas and inland waters, and in which an active tradehas been organised by the industrious Moors, who clean them with greatexpertness, arrange them in satin-wood boxes, and send them to Colomboand all parts of the island for sale. In general, however, thesespecimens are more prized for their beauty than valued for their rarity, though some of the "Argus" cowries[1] have been sold as high as _fourguineas_ a pair. [Footnote 1: _Cypræa Argus_. ] One of the principal sources whence their supplies are derived is thebeautiful Bay of Venloos, to the north of Batticaloa, formed by theembouchure of the Natoor river. The scenery at this spot is enchanting. The sea is overhung by gentle acclivities wooded to the summit; and inan opening between two of these eminences the river flows through acluster of little islands covered with mangroves and acacias. A bar ofrocks projects across it, at a short distance from the shore; and theseare frequented all day long by pelicans, that come at sunrise to fish, and at evening return to their solitary breeding-places remote from thebeach. The strand is literally covered with beautiful shells in richprofusion, and the dealers from Trincomalie know the proper season tovisit the bay for each particular description. The entire coast, however, as far north as the Elephant Pass, is indented by little rockyinlets, where shells of endless variety may be collected in greatabundance. [1] During the north-east monsoon a formidable surf burstsupon the shore, which is here piled high with mounds of yellow sand; andthe remains of shells upon the water mark show how rich the sea is inmollusca. Amongst them are prodigious numbers of the ubiquitousviolet-coloured _Ianthina_[2], which rises when the ocean is calm, andby means of its inflated vesicles floats lightly on the surface. [Footnote 1: In one of these beautiful little bays near Catchavelly, between Trincomalie and Batticaloa, I found the sand within the wash ofthe sea literally covered with mollusca and shells, and amongst others aspecies of _Bullia_ (B. Vittata, I think), the inhabitant of which, hasthe faculty of mooring itself firmly by sending down its membranous footinto the wet sand, where, imbibing the water, this organ expandshorizontally into a broad, fleshy disc, by which the animal anchorsitself, and thus secured, collects its food in the ripple of the waves. On the slightest alarm, the water is discharged, the disc collapses intoits original dimensions, and the shell and its inhabitant disappeartogether beneath the sand. ] [Illustration: BULLIA VITTATA] [Footnote 2: _Ianthina communis_, Krause and _I. Prolongata_, Blainv. ] [Illustration: IANTHINA. ] The trade in shells is one of extreme antiquity in Ceylon. The Gulf ofManaar has been fished from the earliest times for the large chankshell, _Turbinella_ _rapa_, to be exported to India, where it is stillsawn into rings and worn as anklets and bracelets by the women ofHindustan. Another use for these shells is their conversion into windinstruments, which are sounded in the temples on all occasions ofceremony. A chank, in which the whorls, instead of running from left toright, as in the ordinary shell, are reversed, and run from right toleft, is regarded with such reverence that a specimen formerly sold forits weight in gold, but one may now be had for four or five pounds. COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, writing in the fifth century, describes a placeon the west coast of Ceylon, which he calls Marallo, and says itproduced "[Greek: kochlious], " which THEVENOT translates "oysters;" inwhich case Marallo might be conjectured to be Bentotte, near Colombo, which yields the best edible "oysters" in Ceylon. [1] But the shell inquestion was most probably the chank, and Marallo was Mantotte, offwhich it is found in great numbers. [2] In fact, two centuries laterAbouzeyd, an Arab, who wrote an account of the trade and productions ofIndia, speaks of these shells by the name they still bear, which hestates to be _schenek_[3]; but "schenek" is not an Arabic word, and ismerely an attempt to spell the local term, _chank_, in Arabiccharacters. [Footnote 1: COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES, in Thevenot's ed. T i. P. 21. ] [Footnote 2: At Kottiar, near Trincomalie, I was struck with theprodigious size of the edible oysters, which were brought to us at therest-house. The shell of one of these measured a little more than eleveninches in length, by half as many broad: thus unexpectedly attesting thecorrectness of one of the stories related by the historians ofAlexander's expedition, that in India they had found oysters a footlong. PLINY says: "In Indico mari Alexandri rerum auctores pedaliainveniri prodidere. "--_Nat. Hist. _ lib. Xxxii. Ch. 31. DARWIN says, thatamongst the fossils of Patagonia, he found "a massive gigantic oyster, sometimes even a foot in diameter. "--_Nat. Voy. _, ch. Viii. ] [Footnote 3:--ABOUZEYD, _Voyages Arabes, _ &c. , t. I. P. 6; REINAUD, _Mémoire sur l'Inde, _ &c p. 222. ] BERTOLACCI mentions a curious local peculiarity[1] observed by thefishermen in the natural history of the chank. "All shells, " he says, "found to the northward of a line drawn from a point about midway fromManaar to the opposite coast (of India) are of the kind called _patty_, and are distinguished by a short flat head; and all those found to thesouthward of that line are of the kind called _pajel_, and are knownfrom having a longer and more pointed head than the former. Nor is thereever an instance of deviation from this singular law of nature. The_Wallampory_, or 'right-hand chanks, ' are found of both kinds. " [Footnote 1: See also the _Asiatic Journal for_ 1827, p. 469. ] This tendency of particular localities to re-produce certainspecialities of form and colour is not confined to the sea or to theinstance of the chank shell. In the gardens which line the suburbs ofGalle in the direction of Matura the stems of the coco-nut and jak treesare profusely covered with the shells of the beautiful striped _Helixhamastoma_. Stopping frequently to collect them, I was led to observethat each separate garden seemed to possess a variety almost peculiar toitself; in one the mouth of every individual shell was _red_; inanother, separated from the first only by a wall, _black_; and in others(but less frequently) _pure white_; whilst the varieties of externalcolouring were equally local. In one enclosure they were nearly all red, and in an adjoining one brown. [1] [Footnote 1: DARWIN, in his _Naturalist's Voyage_, mentions a parallelinstance of the localised propagation of colours amoungst the cattlewhich range the pasturage of East Falkland Island: "Round Mount Osborneabout half of some of the herds were mouse-coloured, a tint no commonanywhere else, --near Mount Pleasant dark-brown prevailed; whereas southof Choiseul Sound white beasts with black heads and feet werecommon. "--Ch. Ix. P. 192. ] A trade more ancient by far than that carried on in chanks, andinfinitely more renowned, is the fishery of pearls on the west coast ofCeylon, bordering the Gulf of Manaar. No scene in Ceylon presents sodreary an aspect as the long sweep of desolate shore to which, from timeimmemorial, adventurers have resorted from the uttermost ends of theearth in search of the precious pearls for which this gulf is renowned. On approaching it from sea the only perceptible landmark is a buildingerected by Lord Guildford, as a temporary residence for the Governor, and known by the name of the "Doric, " from the style of itsarchitecture. A few coco-nut palms appear next above the low sandybeach, and presently are discovered the scattered houses which form thevillages of Aripo and Condatchy. Between these two places, or rather between the Kalaar and Arrive river, the shore is raised to a height of many feet, by enormous mounds ofshells, the accumulations of ages, the millions of oysters[1], robbed oftheir pearls, having been year after year flung into heaps, that extendfor a distance of many miles. [Footnote 1: It is almost unnecessary to say that the shell fish whichproduces the true Oriental pearls is not an oyster, but belongs to thegenus Avicula, or more correctly, Meleagrina. It is the _MeleagrinaMargaritifera_ of Lamarck. ] During the progress of a pearl-fishery, this singular and dreary expansebecomes suddenly enlivened by the crowds who congregate from distantparts of India; a town is improvised by the construction of temporarydwellings, huts of timber and cajans[1], with tents of palm leaves orcanvas; and bazaars spring up, to feed the multitude on land, as well asthe seamen and divers in the fleets of boats that cover the bay. [Footnote 1: _Cajan_ is the local term for the plaited fronds of acoco-nut. ] I visited the pearl banks officially in 1848 in company with Capt. Stenart, the official inspector. My immediate object was to inquire intothe causes of the suspension of the fisheries, and to ascertain theprobability of reviving a source of revenue, the gross receipts fromwhich had failed for several years to defray the cost of conservancy. Infact, between 1837 and 1854, the pearl banks were an annual charge, instead of producing an annual income, to the colony. The conjecture, hastily adopted, to account for the disappearance of mature shells, hadreference to mechanical causes; the received hypothesis being that theyoung broods had been swept off their accustomed feeding grounds, by theestablishment of unusual currents, occasioned by deepening the narrowpassage between Ceylon and India at Paumbam. It was also suggested, thata previous Governor, in his eagerness to replenish the colonialtreasury, had so "scraped" and impoverished the beds as to exterminatethe oysters. To me, neither of these suppositions appeared worthy ofacceptance; for, in the frequent disruptions of Adam's Bridge, there wasample evidence that the currents in the Gulf of Manaar had been changedat former times without destroying the pearl beds: and moreover theoysters had disappeared on many former occasions, without any imputationof improper management on the part of the conservators; and returnedafter much longer intervals of absence than that which fell under my ownnotice, and which was then creating serious apprehension in the colony. A similar interruption had been experienced between 1820 and 1828: theDutch had had no fishing for twenty-seven years, from 1768 till 1796[1];and they had been equally unsuccessful from 1732 till 1746. The Arabswere well acquainted with similar vicissitudes, and Albyronni (acontemporary of Avicenna), who served under Mahmoud of Ghuznee, andwrote in the eleventh century, says that the pearl fishery, whichformerly existed in the Gulf of Serendib, had become exhausted in histime, simultaneously with the appearance of a fishery at Sofala, in thecountry of the Zends, where pearls were unknown before; and hence, hesays, arose the conjecture that the pearl oyster of Serendib hadmigrated to Sofala. [2] [Footnote 1: This suspension was in some degree attributable to disputeswith the Nabob of Arcot and other chiefs, and the proprietors of templeson the opposite coast of India, who claimed, a right to participate inthe fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar. ] [Footnote 2: "Il y avait autrefois dans le Golfe de Serendyb, unepêcherie de perles qui s'est épuiseé de notre temps. D'un autre côté ils'est formé une pêcherie de Sofala dans le pays des Zends, là ou il n'enexistait pas auparavant--on dit que c'est la pêcherie de Serendyb quis'est transportée à Sofala. "--ALBYROUNI, _in_ RENAUD'S _Fragmens Arabes, &c_, p. 125; see also REINAUD'S _Mémoire sur l'Inde_, p. 228. ] It appeared to me that the explanation of the phenomenon was to besought, not merely in external causes, but also in the instincts andfaculties of the animals themselves, and, on my return to Colombo, Iventured to renew a recommendation, which had been made years before, that a scientific inspector should be appointed to study the habits andthe natural history of the pearl-oyster, and that his investigationsshould be facilitated by the means at the disposal of the Government. Dr. Kelaart was appointed to this office, by Sir H. G. Ward, in 1857, andhis researches speedily developed results of great interest. Inopposition to the received opinion that the pearl-oyster is incapable ofvoluntary movement, and unable of itself to quit the place to which itis originally attached[1], he demonstrated, not only that it possesseslocomotive powers, but also that their exercise is indispensable to itsoeconomy when obliged to search for food, or compelled to escape fromlocal impurities. He showed that, for this purpose, it can sever itsbyssus, and re-form it at pleasure, so as to migrate and moor itself infavourable situations. [2] The establishment of this important fact maytend to solve the mystery of the occasional disappearances of theoyster; and if coupled with the further discovery that it is susceptibleof translation from place to place, and even from salt to brackishwater, it seems reasonable to expect that beds may be formed withadvantage in positions suitable for its growth and protection. Thus, like the edible oyster of our own shores, the pearl-oyster may bebrought within the domain of pisciculture, and banks may be created insuitable places, just as the southern shores of France are now beingcolonised with oysters, under the direction of M. Coste. [3] Theoperation of sowing the sea with pearl, should the experiment succeed, would be as gorgeous in reality, as it is grand in conception: and thewealth of Ceylon, in her "treasures of the deep, " might eclipse therenown of her gems when she merited the title of the "Island of Rubies. " [Footnote 1: STEUART'S _Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon_, p. 27: CORDINER'S_Ceylon, &c_, vol. Ii. P. 45. ] [Footnote 2: See Dr. KELAART'S Report on the Pearl Oyster in the _CeylonCalendar for 1858--Appendix_, p. 14. ] [Footnote 3: _Rapport de_ M. COSTE, Professeur d'Embryogénie, &c. , Paris, 1858. ] On my arrival at Aripo, the pearl-divers, under the orders of theirAdapanaar, put to sea, and commenced the examination of the banks. [1]The persons engaged in this calling are chiefly Tamils and Moors, whoare trained for the service by diving for chanks. The pieces ofapparatus employed to assist the diver in his operations are exceedinglysimple in their character: they consist merely of a stone, about thirtypounds' weight, (to accelerate the rapidity of his descent, ) which issuspended over the side of the boat, with a loop attached to it forreceiving the foot; and of a net-work basket, which he takes down to thebottom and fills with the oysters as he collects them. MASSOUDI, one ofthe earliest Arabian geographers, describing, in the ninth century, thehabits of the pearl-divers in the Persian Gulf, says that, beforedescending, each filled his ears with cotton steeped in oil, andcompressed his nostrils by a piece of tortoise-shell. [2] This practicecontinues there to the present day[3]; but the diver of Ceylon rejectsall such expedients; he inserts his foot in the "sinking stone" andinhales a full breath; presses his nostrils with his left hand; raiseshis body as high as possible above water, to give force to his descent:and, liberating the stone from its fastenings, he sinks rapidly belowthe surface. As soon as he has reached the bottom, the stone is drawnup, and the diver, throwing himself on his face, commences with alacrityto fill his basket with oysters. This, on a concerted signal, is hauledrapidly to the surface; the diver assisting his own ascent by springingon the rope as it rises. [Footnote 1: Detailed accounts of the pearl fishery of Ceylon and theconduct of the divers, will be found in PERCIVAL's _Ceylon_, ch. Iii. :and in CORDINER'S _Ceylon_, vol. Ii. Ch. Xvi. There is also a valuablepaper on the same subject by Mr. LE BECK, in the _Asiatic Researches_, vol. V. P. 993; but by far the most able and intelligent description iscontained in the _Account of the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon_, by JAMESSTEUART, Esq. , Inspector of the Pearl Banks, 4to. Colombo, 1843. ] [Footnote 2: MASSOUDI says that the Persian divers, as they could notbreathe through their nostrils, _cleft the root of the ear_ for thatpurpose: "_Ils se fendaient la racine de l'oreille pour respirer_; eneffet, ils ne peuvent se servir pour cet objet des narines, vu qu'ils seles bouchent avec des morceaux d'écailles de tortue marine on bien avecdes morceaux de corne ayant la forme d'un fer de lance. En même tempsils se mettent dans l'oreille du coton trempé dans del'huile. "--_Moroudj-al-Dzeheb, _ &c. , REINAUD, _Mémoire sur l'Inde, _ p. 228. ] [Footnote 3: Colonel WILSON says they compress the nose with horn, andclose the ears with beeswax. See _Memorandum on the Pearl Fisheries inPersian Gulf. --Journ. Geogr. Soc. _ 1833, vol. Iii. P. 283. ] Improbable tales have been told of the capacity which these men acquireof remaining for prolonged periods under water. The divers who attendedon this occasion were amongst the most expert on the coast, yet not oneof them was able to complete a full minute below. Captain Steuart, whofilled for many years the office of Inspector of the Pearl Banks, assured me that he had never known a diver to continue at the bottomlonger than eighty-seven seconds, nor to attain a greater depth thanthirteen fathoms; and on ordinary occasions they seldom exceededfifty-five seconds in nine fathom water[1]. [Footnote 1: RIBEYRO says that a diver could remain below whilst two_credos_ were being repeated: "Il s'y tient l'espace de deux_credo_. "--Lib. I. Ch. Xxii. P. 169. PERCIVAL says the usual time forthem to be under water was two minutes, but that some divers stayed_four_ or _five_, and one _six_ minutes, --_Ceylon_ p. 91; LE BECK saysthat in 1797 he saw a Caffre boy from Karical remain down for the spaceof seven minutes. --_Asiat. Res_ vol. V. P. 402. ] The only precaution to which the Ceylon diver devotedly resorts, is themystic ceremony of the shark-charmer, whose exorcism is an indispensablepreliminary to every fishery. His power is believed to be hereditary;nor is it supposed that the value of his incantations is at alldependent upon the religious faith professed by the operator, for thepresent head of the family happens to be a Roman Catholic. At the timeof our visit this mysterious functionary was ill and unable to attend;but he sent an accredited substitute, who assured me that although hehimself was ignorant of the grand and mystic secret, the mere fact ofhis presence, as a representative of the higher authority, would berecognised and respected by the sharks. Strange to say, though the Gulf of Manaar abounds with these hideouscreatures, not more than one well authenticated accident[1] is known tohave occurred from this source during any pearl fishery since theBritish have had possession of Ceylon. In all probability the reason isthat the sharks are alarmed by the unusual number of boats, themultitude of divers, the noise of the crews, the incessant plunging ofthe sinking stones, and the descent and ascent of the baskets filledwith shells. The dark colour of the divers themselves may also be aprotection; whiter skins might not experience an equal impunity. Massoudi relates that the divers of the Persian Gulf were so consciousof this advantage of colour, that they were accustomed to blacken theirlimbs, in order to baffle the sea monsters. [2] [Footnote 1: CORDINER'S _Ceylon_, vol. Ii p. 52. ] [Footnote 2: "Ils s'enduisaient les pieds et les jambes d'une substancenoirâtre, atin de faire peur aux monstres marins, que, sans cela, seraient tentés de les dévorer. "--_Moroudj-al-Dzekeb, _ REINAUD, _Mém. Sur l'Inde_, p. 228. ] The result of our examination of the pearl banks, on this occasion, wassuch as to discourage the hope of an early fishery. The oysters in pointof number were abundant, but in size they were little more than "spat, "the largest being barely a fourth of an inch in diameter. As at leastseven years are required to furnish the growth at which pearls may besought with advantage[1], the inspection served only to suggest theprospect (which has since been realised) that in time the income fromthis source might be expected to revive;--and, forced to contentourselves with this anticipation, we weighed anchor from Condatchy, onthe 30th March, and arrived on the following day at Colombo. [Footnote 1: Along with this two plates are given from drawings made forthe Official Inspector, and exhibiting the ascertained size of the pearloyster at every period of its growth, from the "spat" to the matureshell. The young "brood" are shown at Nos. 1 and 2. The shell at fourmonths old, No. 3, No. 4. Six months, No. 5. One year, No. 6, two years. The second plate exhibits the shell at its full growth. ] The banks of Aripo are not the only localities, nor is the _acicula_ theonly mollusc, by which pearls are furnished. The Bay of Tamblegam, connected with the magnificent harbour of Trincomalie, is the seat ofanother pearl fishery, and the shell which produces them is the thintransparent oyster (_Placuna placenta_). Whose clear white shells areused, in China and elsewhere, as a substitute for window glass. They arealso collected annually for the sake of the diminutive pearls containedin them. These are exported to the coast of India, to be calcined forlime, which the luxurious affect to chew with their betel. These pearlsare also burned in the mouths of the dead. So prolific are the molluscaof the _Placuna_, that the quantity of shells taken by the licensedrenter in the three years prior to 1858, could not have been less thaneighteen millions. [1] They delight in brackish water, and on more thanone recent occasion, an excess of either salt water or fresh has provedfatal to great numbers of them. [Footnote 1: _Report of_ Dr. KELAART, Oct. 1857. ] [Illustration: PEARL OYSTER. 1, 2. The young brood or spat. 3. Four months old. 4. Six months old. 5. One year old. 6. Two years old. ] [Illustration: THE PEARL OYSTER. Full Growth. ] On the occasion of a visit which I made to Batticaloa. In September, 1848, I made some inquiries relative to a story which had reached me ofmusical sounds, said to be often heard issuing from the bottom of thelake, at several places, both above and below the ferry opposite the oldDutch Fort; and which the natives suppose to proceed from some fishpeculiar to the locality. The report was confirmed in all itsparticulars, and one of the spots whence the sounds proceed was pointedout between the pier and a rock that intersects the channel, two orthree hundred yards to the eastward. They were said to be heard atnight, and most distinctly when the moon was nearest the full, and theywere described as resembling the faint sweet notes of an Æolian harp. Isent for some of the fishermen, who said they were perfectly aware ofthe fact, and that their fathers had always known of the existence ofthe musical sounds, heard, they said, at the spot alluded to, but onlyduring the dry season, as they cease when the lake is swollen by thefreshes after the rain. They believed them to proceed not from a fish, but from a shell, which is known by the Tamil name of (_oorie cooleeroocradoo_, or) the "crying shell, " a name in which the sound seems to havebeen adopted as an echo to the sense. I sent them in search of theshell, and they returned bringing me some living specimens of differentshells, chiefly _littorina_ and _cerithium. _[1] [Illustration: CERITHIUM PALUSTRE. ] [Footnote 1: _Littorina lævis. Cerithium palustre. _ Of the latter thespecimens brought to me were dwarfed and solid, exhibiting in thisparticular the usual peculiarities that distinguish (1) shellsinhabiting a rocky locality from (2) their congeners in a sandy bottom. Their longitudinal development was less, with greater breadth, andincreased strength and weight. ] In the evening when the moon rose, I took a boat and accompanied thefishermen to the spot. We rowed about two hundred yards north-east ofthe jetty by the fort gate; there was not a breath of wind, nor a rippleexcept those caused by the dip of our oars. On coming to the pointmentioned, I distinctly heard the sounds in question. They came up fromthe water like the gentle thrills of a musical chord, or the faintvibrations of a wine-glass when its rim is rubbed by a moistened finger. It was not one sustained note, but a multitude of tiny, sounds, eachclear and distinct in itself; the sweetest treble mingling with thelowest bass. On applying the ear to the woodwork of the boat, thevibration was greatly increased in volume. The sounds variedconsiderably at different points, as we moved across the lake, as if thenumber of the animals from which they proceeded was greatest inparticular spots; and occasionally we rowed out of hearing of themaltogether, until on returning to the original locality the sounds wereat once renewed. This fact seems to indicate that the causes of the sounds, whatever theymay be, are stationary at several points; and this agrees with thestatement of the natives, that they are produced by mollusca, and not byfish. They came evidently and sensibly from the depth of the lake, andthere was nothing in the surrounding circumstances to support theconjecture that they could be the reverberation of noises made byinsects on the shore conveyed along the surface of the water; for theywere loudest and most distinct at points where the nature of the land, and the intervention of the fort and its buildings, forbade thepossibility of this kind of conduction. Sounds somewhat similar are heard under water at some places on thewestern coast of India, especially in the harbour of Bombay. [1] AtCaldera, in Chili, musical cadences are stated to issue from the seanear the landing-place; they are described as rising and falling fullyfour notes, resembling the tones of harp strings, and mingling likethose at Batticaloa, till they produce a musical discord of greatdelicacy and sweetness. The same interesting phenomenon has beenobserved at the mouth of the Pascagoula, in the State of Mississippi, and of another river called the "Bayou coq del Inde, " on the northernshore of the Gulf of Mexico. The animals from which they proceed havenot been identified at either of these places, and the mystery remainsunsolved, whether the sounds at Batticaloa are given forth by fishes orby molluscs. [Footnote 1: These sounds are thus described by Dr. BUIST in the _BombayTimes_ of January 1847: "A party lately crossing from the promontory inSalsette called the 'Neat's Tongue, ' to near Sewree, were, about sunset, struck by hearing long distinct sounds like the protracted booming of adistant bell, the dying cadence of an Æolian harp, the note of apitchpipe or pitch-fork, or any other long-drawn-out musical note. Itwas, at first, supposed to be music from Parell floating at intervals onthe breeze; then it was perceived to come from all directions, almost inequal strength, and to arise from the surface of the water all aroundthe vessel. The boatmen at once intimated that the sounds were producedby fish, abounding in the muddy creeks and shoals around Bombay andSalsette; they were perfectly well known, and very often heard. Accordingly, on inclining the ear towards the surface of the water; or, better still, by placing it close to the planks of the vessel, the notesappeared loud and distinct, and followed each other in constantsuccession. The boatmen next day produced specimens of the fish--acreature closely resembling, in size and shape the fresh-water perch ofthe north of Europe--and spoke of them as plentiful and perfectly wellknown. It is hoped they may be procured alive, and the means afforded ofdetermining how the musical sounds are produced and emitted, with otherparticulars of interest supposed new in Ichthyology. We shall bethankful to receive from our readers any information they can give us inregard to a phenomenon which does not appear to have been heretoforenoticed, and which cannot fail to attract the attention of thenaturalist. Of the perfect accuracy with which the singular facts aboverelated have been given, no doubt will be entertained when it ismentioned that the writer was one of a party of five intelligentpersons, by all of whom they were most carefully observed, and theimpressions of all of whom in regard to them were uniform. It issupposed that the fish are confined to particular localities--shallows, estuaries, and muddy creeks, rarely visited by Europeans; and that thisis the reason why hitherto no mention, so far as we know, has been madeof the peculiarity in any work on Natural History. " This communication elicited one from Vizagapatam, relative to "musicalsounds like the prolonged notes on the harp" heard to proceed from underwater at that station. It appeared in the _Bombay Times_ of Feb. 13, 1849. ] Certain fishes are known to utter sounds when removed from the water[1], and some are capable of making noises when under it[2]; but all thecircumstances connected with the sounds which I heard at Batticaloa areunfavourable to the conjecture that they were produced by either. [Footnote 1: The Cuckoo Gurnard (_Triglia cuculus_) and the maigre(_Sciæna aquila_) utter sounds when taken out of the water (YARRELL, vol. I. P. 44, 107); and herrings when the net has just been drawn havebeen observed to do the same. This effect has been attributed to theescape of air from the air bladder, but no air bladder has been found inthe _Cottus_, which makes a similar noise. ] [Footnote 2: The fishermen assert that a fish about five inches inlength, found in the lake at Colombo, and called by them "_magoora_, "makes a grunt when disturbed under water. PALLEGOIX, in his account ofSiam, speaks of a fish resembling a sole, but of brilliant colouringwith black spots, which the natives call the "dog's tongue, " thatattaches itself to the bottom of a boat, "et fait entendre un bruittrès-sonore et même harmonieux. "--Tom. I. P. 194. A _Silurus_, found inthe Rio Parana, and called the "armado, " is remarkable for making aharsh grating noise when caught by hook or line, which can be distinctlyheard when the fish is beneath the water. DARWIN, _Nat. Journ. _ ch. Vii. Aristotle and Ælian were aware of the existence of this faculty in someof the fishes of the Mediterranean. ARISTOTLE, _De Anim_. , lib. Iv. Ch. Ix. ; ÆLIAN, _De Nat. Anim. _, lib. X. Ch. Xi. ; see also PLINY, lib. Ix. Ch. Vii. . Lib. Xi. Ch. Cxiii. ; ATHENÆUS, lib. Vii. Ch. Iii. Vi. I haveheard of sounds produced under water at Baltimore, and supposed to beproduced by the "cat-fish;" and at Swan River in Australia, where theyare ascribed to the "trumpeter. " A similar noise heard in the Tagus isattributed by the Lisbon fishermen to the "_Corvina_"--but what fish ismeant by that name, I am unable to tell. ] Organs of hearing have been clearly ascertained to exist, mot only infishes[1], but in mollusca. In the oyster the presence of an acousticapparatus of the simplest possible construction has been established bythe discoveries of Siebold[2], and from our knowledge of the reciprocalrelations existing between the faculties of hearing and of producingsounds, the ascertained existence of the one affords legitimate groundsfor inferring the coexistence of the other in animals of the sameclass. [3] [Footnote 1: AGASSIZ, _Comparative Physiology_, sec. Ii. 158. ] [Footnote 2: It consists of two round vesicles containing fluid, andcrystalline or elliptical calcareous particles or otolites, remarkablefor their oscillatory action in the living or recently killed animal. OWEN'S _Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of theInvertebrate Animals_, 1855, p. 511-552. ] [Footnote 3: I am informed that Professor MÜLLER read a paper on"Musical fishes" before the Academy of Berlin, in 1856. It will probablybe found in the volume of MÜLLER'S _Archiv. Für Physiologie_ for thatyear; but I have not had an opportunity of reading it. ] Besides, it has been clearly established, that one at least of thegasteropoda is furnished with the power of producing sounds. Dr. Grant, in 1826, communicated to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society the fact, that on placing some specimens of the _Tritonia arborescens_ in a glassvessel filled with sea water, his attention was attracted by a noisewhich he ascertained to proceed from these mollusca. It resembled the"clink" of a steel wire on the side of the jar, one stroke only beinggiven at a time, and repeated at short intervals. [1] [Footnote 1: _Edinburgh Philosophical Journ_. , vol. Xiv. P. 188. Seealso the Appendix to this chapter. ] The affinity of structure between the _Tritonia_ and the molluscainhabiting the shells brought to me at Batticaloa, might justify thebelief of the natives of Ceylon, that the latter are the authors of thesounds I heard; and the description of those emitted by the former asgiven by Dr. Grant, so nearly resemble them, that I have alwaysregretted my inability, on the occasion of my visits to Batticaloa, toinvestigate the subject more narrowly. At subsequent periods I havesince renewed my efforts, but without success, to obtain specimens orobservations of the habits of the living mollusca. The only species afterwards sent to me were _Cerithia_; but no vigilancesufficed to catch the desired sounds, and I still hesitate to accept thedictum of the fishermen, as the same mollusc abounds in all the otherbrackish estuaries on the coast; and it would be singular, if true, thatthe phenomenon of its uttering a musical note should be confined to asingle spot in the lagoon of Batticaloa. [1] [Footnote 1: The letter which I received from Dr. Grant on this subject, I have placed in a note to the present chapter, in the hope that it maystimulate some other inquirer in Ceylon to prosecute the investigationwhich I was unable to carry out successfully. ] Although naturalists have long been familiar with the marine testacea ofCeylon, no successful attempt has yet been made to form a classifiedcatalogue of the species; and I am indebted to the eminent conchologist, Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, for the list which accompanies this notice. In drawing it up, Mr. Hanley observes that he found it a task of moredifficulty than would at first be surmised, owing to the almost totalabsence of reliable data from which to construct it. Three sources wereavailable: collections formed by resident naturalists, the contents ofthe well-known satin-wood boxes prepared at Trincomalie, and thelaborious elimination of locality from the habitats ascribed to all theknown species in the multitude of works on conchology in general. But, unfortunately, the first resource proved fallacious. There is nolarge collection in this country composed exclusively of Ceylonshells;--and as the very few cabinets rich in the marine treasures ofthe island have been filled as much by purchase as by personal exertion, there is an absence of the requisite confidence that all professing tobe Singhalese have been actually captured in the island and its waters. The cabinets arranged by the native dealers, though professing tocontain the productions of Ceylon, include shells which have beenobtained from other islands in the Indian seas; and the informationcontained in books, probably from these very circumstances, is eitherobscure or deceptive. The old writers content themselves with assigningto any particular shell the too-comprehensive habitat of "the IndianOcean, " and seldom discriminate between a specimen from Ceylon and onefrom the Eastern Archipelago or Hindustan. In a very few instances, Ceylon has been indicated with precision as the habitat of particularshells, but even here the views of specific essentials adopted by modernconchologists, and the subdivisions established in consequence, leave usin doubt for which of the described forms the collective locality shouldbe retained. Valuable notices of Ceylon shells are to be found in detached papers, inperiodicals, and in the scientific surveys of exploring voyages. Theauthentic facts embodied in the monographs of REEVE, KUSTER, SOWERBY, and KIENER, have greatly enlarged our knowledge of the marine testacea;and the land and fresh-water mollusca have been similarly illustrated bythe contributions of BENSON and LAYARD to the _Annals of NaturalHistory_. The dredge has been used, but only in a few insulated spots along thecoasts of Ceylon; European explorers have been rare; and the natives, anxious only to secure the showy and saleable shells of the sea, haveneglected the less attractive ones of the land and the lakes. Hence Mr. Hanley finds it necessary to premise that the list appended, althoughthe result of infinite labour and research, is less satisfactory thancould have been wished. "It is offered, " he says, "with diffidence, notpretending to the merit of completeness as a shell-fauna of the island, but rather as a form, which the zeal of other collectors may hereafterelaborate and fill up. " Looking at the little that has yet been done, compared with the vast andalmost untried field which invites explorers, an assiduous collector mayquadruple the species hitherto described. The minute shells especiallymay be said to be unknown; a vigilant examination of the corals andexcrescences upon the spondyli and pearl-oysters would signally increaseour knowledge of the Rissoæ, Chemnitziæ, and other perforating testacea, whilst the dredge from the deep water will astonish the amateur by thewholly new forms it can scarcely fail to display. * * * * * _List of Ceylon Shells. _ The arrangement here adopted is a modified Lamarckian one, very similarto that used by Reeve and Sowerby, and by Mr. HANLEY, in his_Illustrated Catalogue of Recent Shells_. [1] [Footnote 1: Below will be found a general reference to the Works orPapers in which are given descriptive notices of the shells contained inthe following list; the names of the authors (in full or abbreviated)being, as usual, annexed to each species. ADAMS, _Proceed. Zool. Soc. _ 1853, 54, 56; _Thesaur. Conch. _ ALBERS, _Zeitsch. Malakoz. _ 1853. ANTON, _Wiegm. Arch. Nat. _ 1837; _Verzeichn. Conch_. BECK in _Pfeiffer, Symbol. Helic. _ BENSON, _Ann. Nat. Hist. _vii. 1851; xii. 1853, xviii, 1856. BLAINVILLE, _Dict. Sc. Nat. ; Nouv. Ann. Mus. His. Nat. _ i. BOLTEN, _Mus. _ BORN, _Test. Mus. Cæcs. Vind. _BRODERIP, _Zool. Journ. _ i. Iii. BRUGUIERE, _Encyc. Méthod. Vers. _CARPENTER, _Proc. Zool. Soc. _ 1856. CHEMNITZ, _Conch. Cab. _ CHENU, _Illus. Conch. _ DESHAYES. _Encyc. Méth. Vers. ; Mag. Zool. 1831; Voy. Belanger; Edit. Lam. An. S. Vert. ; Proceed. Zool. Soc. _ 1853, 54, 55. DILLWYN. _Deser. Cat. Shells. _ DOHRN, _Proc. Zool. Soc. _ 1857, 58;_Malak. Blätter; Land and Fluviatile Shells of Ceylon. _ DUCLOS, _Monog. Of Oliva. _ FABRICIUS, _in Pfeiffer Monog. Helic. ; in Dohrn's MSS. _FÉRUSSAC, _Hist. Mollusques. _ FORSKAL, _Anim. Orient. _ GMELIN, _Syst. Nat. _ GRAY, _Proc. Zool. Soc. _ 1834, 52; _Index Testaceologicus Suppl. ;Spicilegia Zool. ; Zool. Journ. _ i. ; _Zool. Beechey Voy. _ GRATELOUP, _Act. Linn. Bordeaux, _ xi. GUERIN, _Rev. Zool. _ 1847. HANLEY, _Thesaur. Conch, _ i. ; _Recent Bivalves; Proc. Zool. Soc. _ 1858. HINDS, _Zool. Voy. Sulphur; Proc. Zool. Soc. _ HUTTON, _Journ. As. Soc. _ KARSTEN, _Mus. Lesk. _ KIENER, _Coquilles Vivantes. _ KRAUSS, _Sud-Afrik Mollusk. _LAMARCK, _An. Sans Vertéb. _ LAYARD, _Proc. Zool. Soc. _ 1854. LEA, _Proceed. Zool. Soc. _ 1850. LINNÆUS, _Syst. Nat. _ MARTINI, _Conch. Cab. _MAWE. _Introd. Linn. Conch. ; Index Test. Suppl. _ MEUSCHEN, in _Gronor. Zoophylac. _ MENKE, _Synop. Mollus. _ MULLER, _Hist. Verm. Terrest. _PETIT, _Pro. Zool. Soc. _ 1842. PFEIFFER, _Monog. Helic. : Monog. Pneumon. ; Proceed. Zool. Soc. _ 1852, 53, 54, 55. 56; _Zeitschr. Malacoz. _ 1853. PHILIPPI, _Zeitsch. Mal. _ 1846, 47: _Abbild. NeuerConch. _ POTIEZ et MICHAUD. _Galeric Douai. _ RANG, _Mag. Zool. _ ser. I. P. 100. RÉCLUZ, _Proceed. Zool. Soc. _ 1845; _Revue Zool. Cur. _ 1841:_Mag. Conch. _ REEVE, _Conch. Icon. ; Proc. Zool. Soc_: 1842, 52. SCHUMACHER. _Syst. _ SHUTTLEWORTH. SOLANDER. In _Dillwyn's Desc. Cat. Shells;_ SOWERBY, _Genera Shells; Species Conch. ; Conch. Misc. ; Thesaur. Conch. ; Conch. Illus. ; Proc. Zool. Soc. ; App. To Tankerrille Cat. _SPENGLER, _Skrivt. Nat. Selsk. Kiobenhav. _ 1792. SWAINSON, _Zool. Illust. _ ser. Ii. TEMPLETON, _Ann. Nat. Hist. _ 1858. TROSCHEL, in_Pfeiffer, Mon. Pneum; Zeitschr. Malak. _ 1847; _Wiegm. Arch. Nat. _ 1837. WOOD, _General Conch_. ] Aspergillum Javanum. _Brug. _ Enc. Mét. Sparsum, _Sowerby_, Gen. Shells. [1] clavatum, _Chenu, _ lllust. Conch. Teredo nucivorus. _Sp_ Skr. Nat. Sels. [2] Solen truncatus. _Wood_, Gen. Couch. Linearis, _Wood_, Gen. Conch. Cultellus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Radiatus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Anatina subrostrata, _Lam. _ Ani. S. Vert. Anatinella Nicobarica, _Gm. _ Syst. Nat. Lutraria Egyptiaca, _Chemn. _ Couch. Cab. Blainvillea vitrea, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. [3] Scrobicularia angulata. _Chem. _ Con. Cab. [4] Mactra complanata, _Desh. _ Proc. Zl. Soc. [5] tumida, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Antiquata, _Reeve_ (as of _Spengl. _), C. Icon. Cygnea, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Corbiculoides, _Deshayes_, Pr. Zl. S. 1854. Mesodesma Layardi, _Deshayes_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854. Striata, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. [6] Cras-atella rostrata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Sulcata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Amphidesma duplicatum, _Sowerby_. Species Conch. Pandora Ceylanica, _Sowerby_, Couch. Mis. Galeomma Layardi. _Desh. _ Pr. Zl. S. 1856. Kellia peculiaris, _Adams_, Pr. Zl. S. 1856. Petricola cultellus, _Desh. _ Pr. Zl. S. 1853. Sangumoiaria rosea, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Psammobia rostrata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Orcidens, _Gm. _ Systems Naturæ. Skinneri, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. [7] Layardi, _Desh_. P. Z. Soc. 1854. [Footnote 1: A. Dichotomum, _Chenu. _] [Footnote 2: Fistulana gregata, _Lam. _] [Footnote 3: Blainvillea, _Hupé. _] [Footnote 4: Latraria tellinoides, _Lam. _] [Footnote 5: I have also seen M. Hians of Philippiin a Ceylon collection. ] [Footnote 6: M. Taprobanensis, _Index Test. Suppl. _] [Footnote 7: Psammotella Skinneri, _Reeve. _] lunulata, _Desh_. P. Z. Soc. 1854. Amethystus, _Wood_, Gen. Conch. [1] rugosa, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. [2]Tellina virgata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [3] rugosa, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind. Ostracea, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Ala, _Hanley_, Thesaur. Conch. I. Inæqualis, _Hanley_, Thesaur. Conch. I. Layardi, _Deshayes_, P. Z. Soc. 1854. Callosa, _Deshayes_, P. Z. Soc. 1854. Rubra, _Deshayes_, P. Z. Soc. 1854. Abbreviata, _Deshayes_, P. Z. Soc. 1854. Foliacea, _Linn. _ Systema Naturæ. Lingua-felis, _Linn. _ Systema Naturæ. Vulsella, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. [4]Lucina interrupta, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. [5] Layardi, _Deshayes_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1855. Donax scortum, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Cuneata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Faba, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Spinosa, _Gm_. Syst. Nat. Paxillus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Cyrena Ceylanica, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Tennentii, _Hanley_, P. Z. Soc. 1858. Cytherea Erycina, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [6] meretrix, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [7] castanea, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Castrensis, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Casta, _Gm_. Syst. Nat. Costata, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Læta, _Gm_. Syst. Nat. Trimaculata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Hebræa, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Rugifera, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Scripta, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Gibbia, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Meroe, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Testudinalis, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Seminuda, _Anton_. Wiegm. A. Nat. 1837. [8]Venus reticulata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [9] pinguis, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Recens, _Philippi_, Abbild. Neuer Conch. Thiara, _Dillw_. Descriptive Cat. Shells. Malabarica, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Bruguieri, _Hanley_, Recent Bivalves. Papilionacea, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Indica, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch. Ii. Inflata, _Deshayes_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853. [10] Ceylonensis, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch. Ii. Literata, _Linn. _ Systema Naturæ. Textrix, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. [11]Cardium unedo, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Maculosum, _Wood_, Gen. Con. Leucostomum, _Born_, Tt. M. Cæs. Vind. Rugosum, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Biradiatum, _Bruguiere_, En. Méth. Vers. Attenuatum, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust. Enode, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust. Papyraceum, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Ringiculum, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust. Subrugosum, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illust. Latum, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind. Asiaticum, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Cardita variegata, _Brug_. Enc. Méth. Vers. Bicolor, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Arca rhombea, _Born_, Test. Mus. Vellicata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Cruciata, _Philippi_, Ab. Neur Conch. Decussata, _Reeve_ (as of Sowerby), C. I. [12] scapha, _Meuschen_, in Gronov. Zoo. Pectunculus nodosus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Pectiniformis, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Nucula mitralis, _Hinds_, Zool. Voy. Sul. Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856. Mauritii (_Hanley_ as of _Hinds_), Rec. Biv. Unio corrugatus, _Müller_, Hist. Verm. Ter. [13] marginalis, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Lithodomus cinnamoneus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Mytilus viridis, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [14] bilocularis, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Pinna inflata, _Chamn_. Conch. Cab. Cancellata, _Mawe_, Intr. Lin. Conch. Malleus vulgaris, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Albus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Meleagrina margaritifera, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Vexillum, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. [15]Avicula macroptera, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Lima squamosa, _Linn. _ Anim. S. Vert. Pecten plica, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Radula, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Pleuronectes, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Pallium, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Senator, _Gm_. Syst. Nat. Histrionicus, _Gm_. Syst. Nat. Indicus, _Deshayes_, Voyage Belanger. Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Spondylus Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Candidus, _Reeve_ (as of _Lam. _) C. Icon. Ostrea hyotis, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Glaucina, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Mytiloides, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Cucullata? var. , _Born_, Test. M. Vind. [16]Vulsella Pholadiformis, _Reeve_, C. Icn. (immat. )Placuna placenta, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Lingula anatina, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. [Footnote 1: P. Cærulesens, _Lam. _] [Footnote 2: Sanguinolaria rugosa, _Lam. _] [Footnote 3: T. Striatula of Lamarck is also supposed to be indigenousto Ceylon. ] [Footnote 4: T. Rostrata, _Lam. _] [Footnote 5: L. Divaricata is found, also, in mixed Ceylon collections. ] [Footnote 6: C. Dispar of Chemnitz is occasionally found in Ceyloncollections. ] [Footnote 7: C. Impudica. _Lam. _] [Footnote 8: As Donax. ] [Footnote 9: V. Corbis, _Lam. _] [Footnote 10: As Tapes. ] [Footnote 11: V. Textile, _Lam. _] [Footnote 12:?Arca Helblingii, _Chemn. _] [Footnote 13: Mr. Cuming informs me that he has forwarded no less thansix distinct _Uniones_ from Ceylon to Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, fordetermination or description. ] [Footnote 14: M. Smaragdinus, _Chemn. _] [Footnote 15: As Avicula. ] [Footnote 16: The specimens are not in a fitting state for positivedetermination. They are strong, extremely narrow, with the beak of thelower valve much produced, and the inner edge of the upper valvedenticulated throughout. The muscular impressions are dusky brown. ] Hyalæa tridentata, _For_. Anim. Orient. [1]Chiton, 2 species (_Layard_). Patella Reynaudii, _Deshayes_, Voy. Be. Testodinaria, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Emarginula fissurata, _Ch_. C. Cab. [2] _Lam. _Calyptræa (Crucibulum) violascens, _Carpenter_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856. Dentalium octogonum, _Lam_ Anim. S. Vert. Aprinum. _Linn_ Syst. Nat. Bulla soluta, _Chemn_ Conch. Cab. [3] vexillum, _Chemn_ Conch. Cab. Bruguieri, _Adams_, Thes. Conch. Elongata, _Adams_, Thes. Conch. Ampulla, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Lamellaria (as Marsenia Indica, _Leach_. In Brit. Mus. ) allied to L. Mauritiana, if not it. Vaginula maculata, _Templ. _ An. Nat. Lunax, 2 sp. Parmacella Tennentii, _Templ. _[4]Vitrina irradians, _Pfeiffer_, Mon. Helic. Edgariana, _Ben. _ Ann. N. H. 1853 (xii. ) membranacea, _Ben. _ A. N. H. 1853 (xii. )Helix hæmastoma, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Vittata, _Müller_, Vermium Terrestrium. Bistrialis, _Beck_, in Pfeiff. Symb. Helic. Tranquebarica, _Fabricius_, in _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Juliana, _Gray_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834. Waltoni, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842. Skinneri. _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Vii. Corylus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Vii. Umbrina (_Reeve_, as of _Pfeiff. _. ), C. Ic. Vii. Fallaciosa. _Férussac_, Hist. Mollus. Rivolii, _Deshayes_. Enc. Méth. Vers. Ii. Charpentieri, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Erronea, _Albers. Zeitschr_. Mal. 18S3. Carneola, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Convexiuscula, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Gnoma, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Chenui, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Semidecussata, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Phoenix, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Superba, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Gardnerii, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Coriaria, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Layardi, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Concavospira, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Novella, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Verrucula, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Hyphasma, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Emiliana, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Woodiana, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Partita, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Biciliata, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Isabellina, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. Trifilosa, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Politissima, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Sc. 1854. Thwaitesii, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Nepos, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855. Subopaca, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853. Subconoidea, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. S. 18S4. Ceraria, _Benson_, An. Nat. H. 1853 (xii. ) vilipensa, _Benson_, An. N. H. 1853 (xii. ) perfucata, _Benson_, A. N. H. 1853 (xii. ) puteolus, _Benson_, An. N. H. 1853 (xii. ) mononema, _Benson_, A. N. H. 1853 (xii. ) marcida, _Benson_, An. N. H. 1853 (xii. ) galerus, _Benson_, A. N. H. 1856 (xviii. ) albizonata. _Dohrn_, Proc. Zoo. Soc. 1858. Nictneri, _Dohrn_, MS. [5] Grevillei, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856. Streptaxis Layardi, _Pfeiff. _ Mon. Helic. Cingalensis, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Helic. Pupa muscerda, _Benson_, A. N. H. 1853 (xii. ) mimula, _Benson_, A. N. H. 1856 (xviii. ) Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Bulimus trifasciatus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Pullus, _Gray. _ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834. Gracilis, _Hutton_, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Iii. Punctatus, _Anton_, Verzeichn. Conch. Ceylanicus, _Pfeiff_. (?Blævis, _iGray_, in Index Testaceologicus. ) adumbratus, _Pfieff_. Monog. Helic. Intermedius, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Proletarius, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Albizonatus. _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Mavortius, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Luscoventris, _Ben_. A. N. H. 1856 (xviii. ) rufopictus, _Ben_. A. N. H. 1856 (xviii. ) panos, _Benson_, Ann. Nat. H. 1853 (xii. )Achatina nitens, _Gray_, Spicilegia Zool. Inornata, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Helic. Capillacea, _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic. Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic. Punctogaliana. _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic. Pachycheila, _Benson_ veruina, _Bens_, A. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii. ) parabilis, _Bens_, A. N. Hist. 1856 (xviii. )Succinea Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_ Monog. Helic. Auricula Ceylanica, _Adams. _ Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854. [6] Ceylanica, _Petit_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842. [7] Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. [8] pellucens, _Menke_, Synopsis Moll. Pythia Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_. Zeits. Malacoz. 1853. Ovata, _Pfeiff_. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Truncatella Ceylanica, _Pfeiff_ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856. Cyclostoma (_Cyclophorus_) Ceylanicum, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch. Involvulum, _Müller_, Verm. Terrest. Menkeanum, _Philippi_, Zeit. Mal. 1847. Punctatum, _Gratel_. A. L. Bordeaux (xi. ) loxostoma, _Pfeiff_. Monog. Pneumon. [Footnote 1: As Anomia. ] [Footnote 2: The fissurata of Humphreys and Dacosta, pl. 4. --E. Rubra, _Lamarck_. ] [Footnote 3: B. Ceylanica, _Brug_. ] [Footnote 4: P. Tennentii. "Greyish brown, with longitudinal rows ofrufous spots, forming interrupted bands along the sides. A singularlyhandsome species, having similar habits to _Limax_. Found in the valleysof the Kalany Ganga, near Ruanwellé. "--_Templeton_ MSS. ] [Footnote 5: Not far from bistrialis and Ceylanica. The manuscriptspecies of Mr. Dohrn will shortly appear in his intended work upon theland and fluviatile shells of Ceylon. ] [Footnote 6: As Ellobium. ] [Footnote 7: As Melampus. ] [Footnote 8: As Ophicardelis. ] alabastrum, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Bairdii, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Thwaitesii, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Annulatum, _Trosch. _ in Pfeiff. M. Pneum. Parapsis, _Bens. _ An. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii. ) parma, _Bens. _ An. Nat. His. 1856 (xviii. ) cratera, _Bens. _ An. N. Hist. 1856 (xviii. ) (_Leptopoma_) halophilum, _Benson_, Ann. Nat. Hist. (ser. 2 vii. ) 1851. Orophilum, _Bens. _ A. N. H. (ser. 2. Xi. ) apicatum, _Bens. _ A. N. H. 1856 (xviii. ) conulus, _Pfeiff. _ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Flammeum, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Semiclausum, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Poecilum, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Elatum, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Cyclostoma (_Aulopoma_). Iteri, _Guérin_, Rev. Zool. 1847. Helicinum, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Hoffmeisteri, _Troschel_, Zeit. Mat. 1847. Grande, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Spheroideum, _Dohrn_, Malak. Blätter. (?) gradatum, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Cyclostoma (_Pterocyclos_). Cingalense, _Bens. _ A. N. H. (ser. 2. Xi. ) Troscheli, _Bens. _ Ann. Nat. Hist. 1851. Cumingii, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Bifrons, _Pfeiff. _ Monog. Pneumon. Cataulus Templemani, _Pfeiff. _ Mon. Pneu. Eurytrema, _Pfeiff. _ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. Marginatus, _Pfeiff. _ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853. Duplicatus, _Pfeiff. _ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Aureus, _Pfeiff. _ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855. Layardi, _Gray_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. Austenianus _Bens. _ A. N. H. 1853 (xii. ) Thwaitesii, _Pfeiff. _ Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852. Cumingii, _Pfeiff. _ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856. Decorus, _Bens. _ Ann. Nat. Hist. 1853. Hæmastoma, _Pfeiff. _ Proc. Zo. Soc. 1856. Planorbis Coromandelianus, _Fab. _ in _Dorhn's_ MS. Stelzeneri, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. Elegantulus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z. Soc. 1858. Limnæa tigrina, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. Pinguis, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. Melania tuberculata, _Müller_, Verm. Ter. [1] spinulosa, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Corrugata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Rudis, _Lea_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850. Acanthica, _Lea_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850. Zeylanica, _Lea_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850. Confusa, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. Datura, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. Layardi, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. Paludomus abbreviatus, _Reeve_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1852. Clavatus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. Dilatatus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. Globulosus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Decussatus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. Nigricans, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Constrictus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852. Bicinctus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. Phaslaninus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852. Lævis, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Palustris, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Fulguratus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857. Nasutus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857. Sphæricus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857. Solidus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857. Distinguendus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z. S. 1857. Cumingianus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z. S. 1857. Dromedarius, _Dohrn_, Proc. Z. S. 1857. Skinneri, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857. Swainsoni, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857. Nodulosus, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857. Paludomus (_Tanalia_). Loricatus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Erinaceus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. æreus, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. Layardi, _Reeve_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852. Undatus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Gardneri, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Tennentii, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Reevei, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Violaceus, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Similis, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Funiculatus, _Layard_, Pr. Z. Soc. 1854. Paludomus (_Philopotamis_). Sulcatus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Regalis, _Layard_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Thwaitesii, _Layard_, P. Zool. Soc. 1854. Pirena atra, _Linn. _ Systema Naturæ. Paludina melanostoma, _Bens. _ Ceylanica, _Dohrn_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857. Bythinia stenothyroides, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857. Modesta, _Dohrn_, MS. Inconspicua, _Dohrn_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857. Ampullaria Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Moesta, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Cinerea, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Woodwardi, _Dohrn_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1858. Tischbeini, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. Carinata, _Swainson_, Zool. Illus. Ser. 2. Paludinoides, Cat. _Cristofori & Jan. _[2] Malabarica, _Philippi_, monog. Ampul. [2] Luzonica, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. [2] Sumatrensis, _Philippi_, monog. Ampul. [2]Navicella eximia, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Reticulata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Livesayi, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. Squamata, _Dohrn_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858. Depressa, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Neritina crepidularia, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Melanostoma, _Trosch. _ W. A. Nat. 1837. Triserialis, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illustr. Colombaria, _Recluz_, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1845. Perottetiana, _Recluz_, Rev. Z. Cuv. 1841. Ceylanensis, _Recluz_, Mag. Conch. 1851. Layardi, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Rostrata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Reticulata, _Sowerby_, Conch. Illustr. Nerita plicata, _Linn. _ Systema Naturæ. Costata, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Plexa, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. [3]Natica aurantia, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Mammilla, _Linn. _ Systema Naturæ. Picta, _Reeve_, (as of _Recluz_), C. Icon. Arachnoidea, _Gm. _ Systema Naturæ. Lineata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. [Footnote 1: M. Fasciolata, _Olivier_. ] [Footnote 2: These four species are included on the authority of Mr. Dohrn. ] [Footnote 3: N. Exuvia, _Lam. _ not _Linn. _] adusta, _Ch_. C. C. F. 1926-7, & _Karsten_. [1] pellis-tigrina, _Karsten_, Mus. Lesk. [2] didyma, _Bolten_, Mus. [3]Ianthina prolongata, _Blainv_. , D. S. N. Xxiv. Communis, _Kr_. , (as of _L. _ in part) S. A. M. Sigaretus, sp. [4]Stomatella calliostoma, _Adams_, Thesaur. Conch. Haliotis varia, _Linn. _ Systema Naturæ. Striata, _Martini_ (as of _Linn. _), C. Cab. I. Semistriata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Tornatella solidula, _Linn. _ Systema Nat. Pyramidella maculosa, _Lam. _, Anim. S. Vert. Eulima Martini, _Adams_, Thes. Conch, ii. Siliquaria muricata, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind. Scalaria raricostata, _Lam. _, Anim. S. Vert. Delphinula laciniata, _Lam. _, Anim. S. Vert. Distorta, _Linn. _, Syst. Nat. [5]Solarium perdix, _Hinds_. , Proc. Zool. Soc. Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. [6]Rotella vestiaria, _Linn. _, Syst. Nat. Phorus pallidulus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. I. Trochus elegantulus, _Gray_, Index Tes. Suppl. Niloticus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Monodonta labio, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Canaliculata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Turbo versicolor, _Gm_. Syst. Nat. Princeps, _Philippi_. [7]Planaxis undulatus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. [8]Littorina angulifera, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Melanostoma, _Gray_, Zool. , _Beech_. Voy. [9]Chemnitzia trilineata, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853. Lirata, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853. Phasianella lineolata, _Gray_, Index Test. Suppl. Turritella bacillum, _Kiener_, Coquilles Vivantes. Columnaris, _Kiener_, Coquilies Vivantes. Duplicata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Attenuata, _Reeve_, Syst. Nat. Cerithium fluviatile, _Potrez & Michaud_, Galerie Douai. Layardi (Cerithidea), _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Palustre, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Aluco, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Asperula, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Telescopium, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Palustre obeliscus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Fasciatum, _Brug_. , Encycl. Méth. Vers. Rubus, _Sower_. (as of _Mart_. ), Thes. C. Ii. Sowerbyi, _Kiener_, Coquilles Vivantes (teste Sir E. Tennent). Pleurotoma Indica, _Deshayes_, Voyage Belanger. Virgo, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Turbinella pyrum, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Rapa, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. (the Chank. ) cornigera, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Spirillus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Cancellaria trigonostoma, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. [10] scalata, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch. Articularis, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch. Littoriniformis, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch. Contabulata, _Sowerby_, Thes. Conch. Fasciolaria filamentosa, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Trapezium, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Fusus longissimus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Colus, _Linn. _ Mus. Lud. Ulricæ. Toreuma, _Deshayes_, (as Mur. T. _Martyn_). [11] laticostatus, _Deshayes_, Mag. Zool. 1831. Blosvillei, _Deshayes_, E. Méth. Vers. , ii. Pyrula rapa, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [12] citrina, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Pugilina, _Born_, Test. Mus. Vind. [13] ficus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Ficoides, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Ranella crumena, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Spinosa, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Rana, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [14] margaritula, _Deshayes_, Voy. Belanger. Murex baustellum, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Adustus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Microphyllus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Anguliferus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Palmarosæ, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Ternispina, _Kiener_, (as of _Lam. _), Coquilles Vivantes. Tenuispina, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Ferrugo, _Mawe_, Index. Test. Suppl. [15] Reeveanus, _Shuttleworth_, (teste _Cuming_)Triton anus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [16] mulus, _Dillwyn_, Descript. Cat. Shells. Retusus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Pyrum, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Clavator, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Ceylonensis, _Sowerby_, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lotorium, _Lam. _ (not _Linn_. ), An. S. Vert. Lampas, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Pterocera lambis, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Millepeda, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Strombus canarium, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [17] succinotus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Fasciatus, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind. [Footnote 1: Conch. Cab. F. 1926-7, and N. Melanostoma, _Lam. _ in part. ] [Footnote 2: Chemn. Conch. Cab. 1892-3. ] [Footnote 3: N. Glauciua, _Lam. _ not _Linn. _] [Footnote 4: A species (possibly Javanicus) is known to have beencollected. I have not seen it. ] [Footnote 5: Not of _Lamarck_. D. Atrata. _Reeve_. ] [Footnote 6: Philippia L. ] [Footnote 7: Zeit. Mal. 1846 for T. Argyrostoma, _Lam. _ not _Linn. _] [Footnote 8: Buccinum pyramidatum, _Gm_. In part: B. Sulcatum, var. C. Of _Brug_. ] [Footnote 9: Teste Cuming. ] [Footnote 10: As Delphinulat. ] [Footnote 11: Ed. _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. ] [Footnote 12: P. Papyracea, _Lam. _ In mixed collections I have seen theChinese P. Bezoar of _Lamarck_ as from Ceylon. ] [Footnote 13: P. Vespertilio, _Gm_. ] [Footnote 14: R. Albivaricosa, _Reeve_. ] [Footnote 15: M. Anguliferus var. _Lam. _] [Footnote 16: T. Cynocephalus of _Lamarck_ is also met with in Ceyloncollections. ] [Footnote 17: S. Incisus of the Index Testaceologicus (urceus, var. _Sow_. Thesaur. ) is found in mixed Ceylon collections. ] Sibbaldii, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch. T. Lentiginosus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Marginatus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Lamarckii, _Sowerby_, Thesaur. Conch. Cassis glauca, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [1] canaliculata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Zeylanica, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Areola, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Ricinula albolabris, _Blainv_. Nouv. Ann. Mus. H. N. I. [2] horrida, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Morus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Purpura tiscella, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Persica, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Hystrix, _Lam. _ (not _Linn. _) An. S. Vert. Granatina, _Deshayes_, Voy. Belanger. Mancinella, _Lam. _ (as of _Linn. _) An. S. V. Buto, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Carinitera, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Harpa conoldalis, _Lam. _ Anim, s. Vert. Minor, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Dolium pomum, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Olearium, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Perdix, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Maculatum, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Nassa ornata, _Kiener_, Coq. Vivantes. [3] verrucosa, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Crenulata, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Olivacea, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Glans, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Arcularia, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Papillosa, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Phos virgatus, _Hinds_. Zool. Sul. Moll. Retecosus, _Hinds_, Zool. Sulphur, Moll. Senticosus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Buccinum melanostoma, _Sowerby_, App. To Tankerv. Cat. Erythrostoma, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Proteus, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Rubiginosum, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Eburna spirata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [4] canaliculata, _Schumacher_, S. A. S. V. [5] Ceylanica, _Bruguiere_, En. Méth. Vers. Bullia vittata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Lineolata, _Sowerby_, Tankerv. Cat. [6] Melanoides, _Deshayes_, Voy. Belan. Terebra chlorata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Muscaria, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Lævigata, _Gray_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834. Maculata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Subulata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Concinna, _Deshayes_, ed. _Lam. _ A. S. V. Myurus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Tigrina, _Gm_. Syst. Nat. Cerithina, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Columbella flavida, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Fulgurans, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Mendicaria, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Scripta, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. (Teste _Jay_). Mitra episcopalis, _Dillwyn_, Des. Cat. Shells. Cardinalis, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Crebrilirata, _Reeve_, Conch. Icon. Punctostriata, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. So. 1854. Insculpta, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Layardi, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. [7]Voluta vexillum, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Lapponica, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Melo Indicus, _Gm_. Syst. Nat. Marginella Sarda, _Kiener_, Coq. Vivantes. Ovulum ovum, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Verrucosum, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Pudicum, _Adams_, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854. Cypræa Argus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Arabica, _Linn. _ Syst Nat. Mauritiana, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Hirundo, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Lynx, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Asellus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Erosa, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Vitellus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Stolida, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Mappa, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Helvola, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Errones, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Cribraria, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Globulus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Clandestina, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Ocellata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Caurica, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Tabescens, _Soland_. In Dillwyn Des. C. Sh. Gangrenosa, _Soland_. In Dillw. D. C. Sh. Interrupta, _Gray_, Zool. Journ. I. Lentiginosa, _Gray_, Zool. Journ. I. Pyriformis, _Gray_, Zool. Journ. I. Nivosa, _Broderip_, Zool. Journ. Iii. Poraria, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Testudinaria, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Terebellum subulatum, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Ancillaria glabrata, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Candida, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Oliva Maura, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert, erythrostoma, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Gibbesa, _Born_, Test. Mus. Cæs. [8] nebulosa, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Macleayana, _Duclos_, Monogr. Of Oliva. Episcopalis, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Elegans, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Ispidula, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. (partly). [9] Zeilanica, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Undata, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Irisans, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. (teste _Duclos_). Conus miles, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Generalis, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Betulinus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Stercus-muscarum, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Hebræus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Virgo, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Geographicus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Aulicus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Figutinus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Striatus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Senator, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [10] literatus, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. [Footnote 1: C. Plicaria of _Lamarck_, and C. Coronulata of _Sowerby_, are also said to be found in Ceylon. ] [Footnote 2: As Purpura. ] [Footnote 3: N. Suturalis, _Reeve_ (as of _Lam. _), is met with in mixedCeylon collections. ] [Footnote 4: E. Areolata, _Lam. _] [Footnote 5: E. Spirata, _Lam. _ not _Linn. _] [Footnote 6: B. Belangeri, _Kiener_. ] [Footnote 7: As Turricula L. ] [Footnote 8: O. Utriculus, _Dillwyn_. ] [Footnote 9: C. Planorbis, _Born_; C. Vulpinus, _Lam. _] [Footnote 10: Conus ermineus, _Born_, in part. ] imperialis, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Textile, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Terebra, _Born_, Test. Must. Cæs. Vind. Tessellatus, _Born, _ Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind. Augur, _Bruguiere_, Encycl. Méth. Vers. Obesus, _Bruguiere_, Encycl. Méth. Vers. Araneosus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Gubernator, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Monite, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Nimbosus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Eburneus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Vitulinus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Quercinus _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Lividus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Omaria, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Maldivus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Nocturnus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Ceylonensis, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Arenatus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Nicobaricus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Glans, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Amadis, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Punctatus, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Minimus, _Reeve_. (as of _Linn_), C. Icon. Terminus, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Lineatus, _Chemn. _ Conch. Cab. Episcopus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Verriculum, _Reeve_. Conch. Cab. Zonatus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Rattus. _Brug_. En. Mth. V. (teste _Chemn. _) pertusus, _Brug_. Encycl. Méth. Vers. Nussatella, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Lithoglyphus, _Brug_. En. Méth. Vers. [4] tulipa, _Linn. _ Syst. Nat. Ammiralis, var. _Linn. _ teste _Brug_. Spirula Peronii, _Lam. _ Anim. S. Vert. Sepia Hieredda, _Rang_. M. Z. , ser. I. P. 100. Sepioteuthis, _Sp_. Loligo, _Sp_. A conclusion not unworthy of observation may be deduced from thiscatalogue; namely, that Ceylon was the unknown, and henceunacknowledged, source of almost every extra-European shell which hasbeen described by Linnæus without a recorded habitat. This fact gives toCeylon specimens an importance which can only be appreciated bycollectors and the students of Mollusca. 2. RADIATA. The eastern seas are profusely stocked with radiated animals, but it isto be regretted that they have as yet received but little attention fromEnglish naturalists. Recently, however, Dr. Kelaart has devoted himselfto the investigation of some of the Singhalese species, and haspublished his discoveries in the Journal of the Ceylon Branch of theAsiatic Society for 1856-8. Our information respecting the radiata onthe confines of the island is, therefore, very scanty; with theexception of the genera[1] examined by him. Hence the notice of thisextensive class of animals must be limited to indicating a few of thosewhich exhibit striking peculiarities, or which admit of the most commonobservation. [Footnote 1: Actinia, 9 sp. ; Anthea, 4 sp. ; Actinodendron, 3 sp. ;Dioscosoma, 1 sp. ; Peechea, 1 sp. ; Zoanthura, 1 sp. ] _Star Fish_. --Very large species of _Ophiuridæ_ are to be met with atTrincomalie, crawling busily about, and insinuating their longserpentine arms into the irregularities and perforations in the rocks. To these they attach themselves with such a firm grasp, especially whenthey perceive that they have attracted attention, that it is almostimpossible to procure unmutilated specimens without previously deprivingthem of life, or at least modifying their muscular tenacity. The uppersurface is of a dark purple colour, and coarsely spined; the arms of thelargest specimens are more than a foot in length, and very fragile. The star fishes, with immovable rays[1], are by no means rare; manykinds are brought up in the nets, or maybe extracted from the stomachsof the larger market fish. One very large species[2], figured byJoinville in the manuscript volume in the library at the India House, isnot uncommon; it has thick arms, from which and the disc numerous largefleshy cirrhi of a bright crimson colour project downwards, giving thecreature a remarkable aspect. No description of it, so far as I amaware, has appeared in any systematic work on zoology. [Footnote 1: _Asterias_, Linn. ] [Footnote 2: _Pentaceros?_] _Sea Slugs_. --There are a few species of _Holothuria_, of which thetrepang is the best known example. It is largely collected in the Gulfof Manaar, and dried in the sun to prepare it for export to China. Agood description and figures of its varieties are still desiderata. _Parasitic Worms_. --Of these entozoa, the _Filaria medinensis_, orGuinea-worm, which burrows in the cellular tissue under the skin, iswell known in the north of the island, but rarely found in the damperdistricts of the south and west. In Ceylon, as elsewhere, the nativesattribute its occurrence to drinking the waters of particular wells; butthis belief is inconsistent with the fact that its lodgment in the humanbody is almost always effected just above the ankle. This shows that theminute parasites are transferred to the skin of the leg from the moistvegetation bordering the footpaths leading to wells. At this period thecreatures are very small, and the process of insinuation is painless andimperceptible. It is only when they attain to considerable size, a footor more in length, that the operation of extracting them is resorted to, when exercise may have given rise to inconvenience and inflammation. These pests in all probability received their popular name of_Guinea-worms_, from the narrative of Bruno or Braun, a citizen andsurgeon of Basle, who about the year 1611 made several voyages to thatpart of the African coast, and on his return published, amongst otherthings, an account of the local diseases. [1] But Linschoten, the Dutchnavigator, had previously observed the same worms at Ormus in 1584, andthey are thus described, together with the method of removing them, inthe English version of his voyage. [Footnote 1: In DE BRY'S, _Collect_, vol. I. P. 49. ] "There is in Ormus a sickenesse or common plague of wormes, which growein their legges, it is thought that they proceede of the water that theydrink. These wormes are like, unto lute strings, and about two or threefadomes longe, which they must plucke out and winde them aboute a strawor a feather, everie day some part thereof, so longe as they feele themcreepe; and when they hold still, letting it rest in that sort till thenext daye, they bind it fast and annoynt the hole, and the swelling fromwhence it commeth foorth, with fresh butter, and so in ten or twelvedayes, they winde them out without any let, in the meanetime they mustsit still with their legges, for if it should breake, they should not, without great paine get it out of their legge, as I have seen some mendoe. " [1] [Footnote 1: JOHN HUIGHEN VAN LINSCHOTEN _his Discours of Voyages intothe Easte and West Indies. _ London, 1599, p, 16. ] The worm is of a whitish colour, sometimes inclining to brown. Itsthickness is from a half to two-thirds of a line, and its length hassometimes reached to ten or twelve feet. Small specimens have been foundbeneath the tunica conjunctiva of the eye; and one species of the samegenus of _Nematoidea_ infests the cavity of the eye itself. [1] [Footnote 1: OWEN'S _Lectures on the Invertebrata_, p. 96. ] _Planaria_. --In the journal already mentioned, Dr. Kelaart has givendescriptions of fifteen species of planaria, and four of a new genus, instituted by him for the reception of those differing from the normalkinds by some peculiarities which they exhibit in common. At PointPedro, Mr. Edgar Layard met with one on the bark of trees, after heavyrain, which would appear to belong to the subgenus _geoplana_. [1] [Footnote 1: "A curious species, which is of a light brown above, whiteunderneath; very broad and thin, and has a peculiarly shaped tail, half-moon-shaped in fact, like a grocer's cheese knife. "] _Acalephæ_. --Acalephæ[1] are plentiful, so much so, indeed, that theyoccasionally tempt the larger cetacea into the Gulf of Manaar. In thecalmer months of the year, when the sea is glassy, and for hourstogether undisturbed by a ripple, the minute descriptions are renderedperceptible by their beautiful prismatic tinting. So great is theirtransparency that they are only to be distinguished from the water bythe return to the eye of the reflected light that glances from theirdelicate and polished surfaces. Less frequently they are traced by thefaint hues of their tiny peduncles, arms, or tentaculæ; and it has beenwell observed that they often give the seas in which they abound theappearance of being crowded with flakes of half-melted snow. The largerkinds, when undisturbed in their native haunts, attain to considerablesize. A faintly blue medusa, nearly a foot across, may be seen in theGulf of Manaar, where, no doubt, others of still larger growth are to befound. [Footnote 1: Jelly-fish. ] [Illustration: PHYSALUS URTICULUS. ] Occasionally after storms, the beach at Colombo is strewn with the thintransparent globes of the "Portuguese Man of War, " _Physalus urticulus_, which are piled upon the lines left by the waves, like globules of glassdelicately tinted with purple and blue. They sting, as their trivialname indicates, like a nettle when incautiously touched. _Red infusoria_. --On both sides of the island (but most frequently onthe west), during the south-west monsoon, a broad expanse of the seaassumes a red tinge, considerably brighter than brick-dust; and this isconfined to a space so distinct that a line seems to separate it fromthe green water which flows on either side. Observing at Colombo thatthe whole area so tinged changed its position without parting with anyportion of its colouring, I had some of the water brought on shore, and, on examination with the microscope, found it to be filled with_infusoria_, probably similar to those which have been noticed near theshores of South America, and whose abundance has imparted a name to the"Vermilion Sea" off the coast of California. [1] [Footnote 1: The late Dr. BUIST, of Bombay, in commenting on thisstatement, writes to the _Athenæum_ that: "The red colour with which thesea is tinged, round the shores of Ceylon, during a part of the S. W. Monsoon is due to the _Proto-coccus nivalis_, or the Himatta-coccus, which presents different colours at different periods of theyear--giving us the seas of milk as well as those of blood. The colouredwater at times is to be seen all along the coast north to Kurrachee, andfar out, and of a much more intense tint in the Arabian Sea. Thefrequency of its appearance in the Red Sea has conferred on it itsname. "] The remaining orders, including the corals, madrepores, and otherpolypi, have yet to find a naturalist to undertake their investigation, but in all probability the new species are not very numerous. * * * * * NOTE. TRITONIA ARBORESCENS. The following is the letter of Dr. Grant, referred to at page 385:-- Sir, --I have perused, with much interest, your remarkable communicationreceived yesterday, respecting the musical sounds which you heardproceeding from under water, on the east coast of Ceylon. I cannotparallel the phenomenon you witnessed at Batticaloa, as produced bymarine animals, with anything with which my past experience has made meacquainted in marine zoology. Excepting the faint clink of the _Tritoniaarborescens_, repeated only once every minute or two, and apparentlyproduced by the mouth armed with two dense horny laminæ, I am not awareof any sounds produced in the sea by branchiated invertebrata. It is tobe regretted that in the memorandum you have not mentioned yourobservations on the living specimens brought you by the sailors as theanimals which produced the sounds. Your authentication of the hithertounknown fact, would probably lead to the discovery of the samephenomenon in other common accessible paludinæ, and other alliedbranchiated animals, and to the solution of a problem, which is still tome a mystery, even regarding the _tritonia_. My two living _tritonia_, contained in a large clear colourless glasscylinder, filled with pure sea water, and placed on the central table ofthe Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, around which manymembers were sitting, continued to clink audibly within the distance oftwelve feet during the whole meeting. These small animals wereindividually not half the size of the last joint of my little finger. What effect the mellow sounds of millions of these, covering the shallowbottom of a tranquil estuary, in the silence of night, might produce, Ican scarcely conjecture. In the absence of your authentication, and of all geological explanationof the continuous sounds, and of all source of fallacy from the hum andbuzz of living creatures in the air or on the land, or swimming on thewaters, I must say that I should be inclined to seek for the source ofsounds so audible as those you describe rather among the pulmonatedvertebrata, which swarm in the depths of these seas--as fishes, serpents(of which my friend Dr. Cantor has described about twelve species hefound in the Bay of Bengal), turtles, palmated birds, pinnipedous andcetaceous mammalia, &c. The publication of your memorandum in its present form, though not quitesatisfactory, will, I think, be eminently calculated to excite usefulinquiry into a neglected and curious part of the economy of nature. I remain, Sir, Yours most respectfully, ROBERT E. GRANT. _Sir J. Emerson Tennent, &c. &c. _ CHAP. XII. INSECTS. Owing to the favourable combination of heat, moisture, and vegetation, the myriads of insects in Ceylon form one of the characteristic featuresof the island. In the solitude of the forests there is a perpetual musicfrom their soothing and melodious hum, which frequently swells to astartling sound as the cicada trills his sonorous drum on the sunny barkof some tall tree. At morning the dew hangs in diamond drops on thethreads and gossamer which the spiders suspend across every pathway; andabove the pool dragon-flies, of more than metallic lustre, flash in theearly sunbeams. The earth teems with countless ants, which emerge frombeneath its surface, or make their devious highways to ascend to theirnests in the trees. Lustrous beetles, with their golden elytra, bask onthe leaves, whilst minuter species dash through the air in circles, which the ear can follow by the booming of their tiny wings. Butterfliesof large size and gorgeous colouring, flutter over the endless expanseof flowers, and at times the extraordinary sight presents itself offlights of these delicate creatures, generally of a white or pale yellowhue, apparently miles in breadth, and of such prodigious extension as tooccupy hours, and even days, uninterruptedly in their passage--whencecoming no one knows; whither going no one can tell. [1] As day declines, the moths issue from their retreats, the crickets add their shrillvoices to swell the din; and when darkness descends, the eye is charmedwith the millions of emerald lamps lighted up by the fire-flies amidstthe surrounding gloom. [Footnote 1: The butterflies I have seen in these wonderful migrationsin Ceylon were mostly _Callidryas Hilariæ, C. Alcmeone_, and _C. Pyranthe_, with straggling individuals of the genus _Euplæa, E. Coras_, and _E. Prothoe_. Their passage took place in April and May, generallyin a north-easterly direction. The natives have a superstitious beliefthat their flight is ultimately directed to Adam's Peak, and that theirpilgrimage ends on reaching the sacred mountain. A friend of minetravelling from Kandy to Kornegalle, drove for nine miles through acloud of white butterflies, which were passing across the road by whichhe went. ] As yet no attempt has been made to describe the insects of Ceylonsystematically, much less to enumerate the prodigous number of speciesthat abound in every locality. Occasional observers have, from time totime, contributed notices of particular families to the ScientificAssociations of Europe, but their papers remain undigested, and the timehas not yet arrived for the preparation of an Entomology of the island. What DARWIN remarks of the Coleoptera of Brazil is nearly as applicableto the same order of insects in Ceylon: "The number of minute andobscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly great; the cabinets of Europecan as yet, with partial exceptions, boast only of the larger speciesfrom tropical climates, and it is sufficient to disturb the composure ofan entomologist to look forward to the future dimensions of a cataloguewith any pretensions to completeness. "[1] M. Nietner, a Germanentomologist, who has spent some years in Ceylon, has recentlypublished, in one of the local periodicals, a series of papers on theColeoptera of the island, in which every species introduced is stated tobe previously undescribed. [2] [Footnote 1: _Nat. Journal_, p. 39. ] [Footnote 2: Republished in the _Ann. Nat. Hist. _] COLEOPTERA. --_Buprestidæ; Golden Beetles_. --In the morning theherbaceous plants, especially on the eastern side of the island, arestudded with these gorgeous beetles, whose golden wing-cases[1] are usedto enrich the embroidery of the Indian zenana, whilst the lustrousjoints of the legs are strung on silken threads, and form necklaces andbracelets of singular brilliancy. [Footnote 1: _Sternocera Chrysis; S. Sternicornis_. ] These exquisite colours are not confined to one order, and some of theElateridæ[1] and Lamellicorns exhibit hues of green and blue, that rivalthe deepest tints of the emerald and sapphire. [Footnote 1: Of the family of _Elateridæ_, one of the finest is aSinghalese species, the _Campsosternus Templetonii_, of an exquisitegolden green colour, with blue reflections (described and figured by Mr. WESTWOOD in his _Cabinet of Oriental Entomology_, pl. 35, f. 1). In thesame work is figured another species of large size, also from Ceylon, this is the _Alaus sordidus_. --WESTWOOD, l. C. Pl. 35, f. 9. ] _Scavenger Beetles_. --Scavenger beetles[1] are to be seen wherever thepresence of putrescent and offensive matter affords opportunity for thedisplay of their repulsive but most curious instincts; fastening on itwith eagerness, severing it into lumps proportionate to their strength, and rolling it along in search of some place sufficiently soft in whichto bury it, after having deposited their eggs in the centre. I hadfrequent opportunities, especially in traversing the sandy jungles inthe level plains to the north of the island, of observing the unfailingappearance of these creatures instantly on the dropping of horse dung, or any other substance suitable for their purpose; although not one wasvisible but a moment before. Their approach on the wing is announced bya loud and joyous booming sound, as they dash in rapid circles in searchof the desired object, led by their sense of smell, and evidently littleassisted by the eye in shaping their course towards it. In theseexcursions they exhibit a strength of wing and sustained power offlight, such as is possessed by no other class of beetles with which Iam acquainted, but which is obviously indispensable for the dueperformance of the useful functions they discharge. [Footnote 1: _Ateuchus sacer; Copris sagax; C. Capucinus_, &c. &c. ] [Illustration: LONGHORN BEETLE (BATEROCERA RUBUS). ] _The Coco-nut Beetle_. --In the luxuriant forests of Ceylon the extensivefamily of _Longicorns_[1] and _Passalidæ_ live in destructive abundance. To the coco-nut planters the ravages committed by beetles are painfullyfamiliar. [2] The larva of one species of _Dynastida_, the _Oryctesrhinoceros_, called by the Singhalese "_Gascooroominiya_, " makes its wayinto the younger trees, descending from the top, and after perforatingthem in all directions, forms a cocoon of the gnawed wood and sawdust, in which it reposes during its sleep as a pupa, till the arrival of theperiod when it emerges as a perfect beetle. Notwithstanding therepulsive aspect of the large pulpy larvæ of these beetles, they areesteemed a luxury by the Malabar coolies, who so far avail themselves ofthe privilege accorded by the Levitical law, which permitted the Hebrewsto eat "the beetle after his kind. "[3] [Footnote 1: The engraving on the preceding page represents in itsvarious transformations one of the most familiar and graceful of thelongicorn beetles of Ceylon, the _Batocera rubus_. ] [Footnote 2: There is a paper in the _Journ. Of the Asiat. Society ofCeylon_, May, 1845, by Mr. CAPPER, on the ravages perpetrated by thesebeetles. The writer had recently passed through several coco-nutplantations, "varying in extent from 20 to 150 acres, and about two tothree years old: and in these he did not discover a single young treeuntouched by the cooroominiya. "--P. 49. ] [Footnote 3: Leviticus, xi. 22. ] Amongst the superstitions of the Singhalese arising out of their beliefin demonology, one remarkable one is connected with the appearance of abeetle when observed on the floor of a dwelling-house after nightfall. The popular belief is that in obedience to a certain form of incantation(called _cooroominiya-pilli_) a demon in the shape of a beetle is sentto the house of some person or family whose destruction it is intendedto compass, and who presently falls sick and dies. The only means ofaverting this catastrophe is, that some one, himself an adept innecromancy, should perform a counter-charm, the effect of which is tosend back the disguised beetle to destroy his original employer; for insuch a conjuncture the death of one or the other is essential to appeasethe demon whose intervention has been invoked. Hence the discomfort of aSinghalese on finding a beetle in his house after sunset, and hisanxiety to expel but not to kill it. _Tortoise Beetles_. --There is one family of insects, the members ofwhich cannot fail to strike the traveller by their singular beauty, the_Cassididæ_ or tortoise beetles, in which the outer shell overlaps thebody, and the limbs are susceptible of being drawn entirely within it. The rim is frequently of a different tint from the centre, and onespecies which I have seen is quite startling from the brilliancy of itscolouring, which gives it the appearance of a ruby enclosed in a frameof pearl; but this wonderful effect disappears immediately on the deathof the insect. ORTHOPTERA. _Leaf-insects_. --But in relation to the insects of Ceylonthe admiration of their colours is still less exciting than theastonishment created by the forms in which some of the families presentthemselves; especially the "soothsayers" (_Mantidæ_) and "walkingleaves. " The latter[1], exhibiting the most cunning of all nature'sdevices for the preservation of her creatures, are found in the junglein all varieties of hues, from the pale yellow of an opening bud to therich green of the full-blown leaf, and the withered tint of decay. Soperfect is the imitation of a leaf in structure and articulation, thatthis amazing insect when at rest is almost undistinguishable from thefoliage around: not only are the wings modelled to resemble ribbed andfibrous follicles, but every joint of the legs is expanded into a broadplait like a half-opened leaflet. [Footnote 1: Phyllium siccifolium. ] [Illustration: STICK INSECT AND MANTIS] It rests on its abdomen, the legs serving to drag it slowly along, andthus the flatness of its attitude serves still further to add to theappearance of a leaf. One of the most marvellous incidents connectedwith its organisation was exhibited by one which I kept under a glassshade on my table, it laid a quantity of eggs, that, in colour andshape, were not to be distinguished from _seeds_. They were brown, andpentangular, with a short stem, and slightly punctured at theintersections. [Illustration] The "soothsayer, " on the other hand (_Mantis superstitiosa. _ Fab. [1]), little justifies by its propensities the appearance of gentleness, andthe attitudes of sanctity, which have obtained for it the title of the"praying mantis. " Its habits are carnivorous, and degenerate intocannibalism, as it preys on the weaker individuals of its own species. Two which I enclosed in a box were both found dead a few hours after, literally severed limb from limb in their encounter. The formation ofthe foreleg enables the tibia to be so closed on the sharp edge of thethigh as to amputate any slender substance grasped within it. [Footnote 1: _M. Aridifolia_ and _M. Extensicollis_, as well as _Empusagongylodes_, remarkable for the long leaf-like head, and dilatations onthe posterior thighs, are common in the island. ] _The Stick-insect_. --The _Phasmidæ_ or spectres, another class oforthoptera, present as close a resemblance to small branches or leaflesstwigs as their congeners do to green leaves. The wing-covers, where theyexist, instead of being expanded, are applied so closely to the body asto detract nothing from its rounded form, and hence the name which theyhave acquired of "_walking-sticks_. " Like the _Phyllium_, the _Phasma_lives exclusively on vegetables, and some attain the length of severalinches. Of all the other tribes of the _Orthoptera_ Ceylon possesses manyrepresentatives; in swarms of cockroaches, grasshoppers, locusts, andcrickets. NEUROPTERA. _Dragon-flies_. --Of the _Neuroptera_, some of thedragon-flies are pre-eminently beautiful; one species, with richbrown-coloured spots upon its gauzy wings, is to be seen near everypool. [1] Another[2], which dances above the mountain streams in Oovah, and amongst the hills descending towards Kandy, gleams in the sun as ifeach of its green enamelled wings had been sliced from an emerald. [Footnote 1: _Libellula pulchella_. ] [Footnote 2: _Euphæa splendens_. ] _The Ant-Lion. _--Of the ant-lion, whose larvæ have earned a bad renownfrom their predaceous ingenuity, Ceylon has, at least, four species, which seem peculiar to the island. [1] This singular creature, preparatory to its pupal transformation, contrives to excavate a conicalpitfall in the dust to the depth of about an inch, in the bottom ofwhich it conceals itself, exposing only its open mandibles above thesurface; and here every ant and soft-bodied insect which curiositytempts to descend, or accident may precipitate into the trap, isruthlessly seized and devoured by its ambushed inhabitant. [Footnote 1: _Palpares contrarius_, Walker; _Myrmeleon gravis_, Walker;_M. Dirus_, Walker; _M. Barbarus_, Walker. ] _The White Ant_. --But of the insects of this order the most noted arethe _white ants_ or termites (which are ants only by a misnomer). Theyare, unfortunately, at once ubiquitous and innumerable in every spotwhere the climate is not too chilly, or the soil too sandy, for them toconstruct their domed edifices. These they raise from a considerable depth under ground, excavating theclay with their mandibles, and moistening it with tenacious saliva[1]until it assume the appearance, and almost the consistency, ofsandstone. So delicate is the trituration to which they subject thismaterial, that the goldsmiths of Ceylon employ the powdered clay of theant hills in preference to all other substances in the preparation ofcrucibles and moulds for their finer castings: and KNOX says, "thepeople use this finer clay to make their earthen gods of, it is so pureand fine. "[2] These structures the termites erect with such perseveranceand durability that they frequently rise to the height of ten or twelvefeet from the ground, with a corresponding diameter. They are so firm intheir texture that the weight of a horse makes no apparent indentationon their solidity; and even the intense rains of the monsoon, which nocement or mortar can long resist, fail to penetrate the surface orsubstance of an ant hill. [3] In their earlier stages the termitesproceed with such energetic rapidity, that I have seen a pinnacle ofmoist clay, six inches in height and twice as large in diameter, constructed underneath a table between sitting down to dinner and theremoval of the cloth. [Footnote 1: It becomes an interesting question whence the termitesderive the large supplies of moisture with which they not only temperthe clay for the construction of their long covered ways above ground, but for keeping their passages uniformly damp and cool below thesurface. Yet their habits in this particular are unvarying, in theseasons of droughts as well as after rain; in the driest and leastpromising positions, in situations inaccessible to drainage from above, and cut off by rocks and impervious strata from springs from below. Dr. Livingstone, struck with this phenomenon in Southern Africa, asks: "Canthe white ants possess the power of combining the oxygen and hydrogen oftheir vegetable food by vital force so as to form water?"--_Travels_, p. 22. And he describes at Angola, an insect[A] resembling the _Aphrophoraspumaria_; seven or eight individuals of which distil several pints ofwater every night. --P. 414. It is highly probable that the termites areendowed with some such faculty: nor is it more remarkable that an insectshould combine the gases of its food to produce water, than that a fishshould decompose water in order to provide itself with gas. FOURCROIXfound the contents of the air-bladder in a carp to be purenitrogen. --_Yarrell_, vol. I. P. 42. And the aquatic larva of thedragon-fly extracts air for its respiration from the water in which itis submerged. A similar mystery pervades the inquiry whence plants underpeculiar circumstances derive the water essential to vegetation. ] [Footnote A: _A. Goudotti?_ Bennett. ] [Footnote 2: KNOX'S _Ceylon_, Part i, ch. Vi, p. 24. ] [Footnote 3: Dr. HOOKER, in his _Himalayan Journal_ (vol. I. P. 20) isof opinion that the nests of the termites are not independentstructures, but that their nucleus is "the debris of clumps of bamboosor the trunks of large trees which these insects have destroyed. " Hesupposes that the dead tree falls leaving the stump coated with sand, _which the action of the weather soon fashions into a cone_. Butindependently of the fact that the "action of the weather" produceslittle or no effect on the closely cemented clay of the white ants'nest, they may be daily seen constructing their edifices in the veryform of a cone, which they ever after retain. Besides which, they appearin the midst of terraces and fields where no trees are to be seen: andDr. Hooker seems to overlook the fact that the termites rarely attack aliving tree; and although their nests may be built against one, itcontinues to flourish not the less for their presence. ] As these lofty mounds of earth have all been carried up from beneath thesurface, a cave of corresponding dimensions is necessarily scooped outbelow, and here, under the multitude of miniature cupolas and pinnacleswhich canopy it above, the termites hollow out the royal chamber fortheir queen, with spacious nurseries surrounding it on all sides; andall are connected by arched galleries, long passages, and doorways ofthe most intricate and elaborate construction. In the centre andunderneath the spacious dome is the recess for the queen--a hideouscreature, with the head and thorax of an ordinary termite, but a bodyswollen to a hundred times its usual and proportionate bulk, andpresenting the appearance of a mass of shapeless pulp. From this greatprogenitrix proceed the myriads that people the subterranean hive, consisting, like the communities of the genuine ants, of labourers andsoldiers, which are destined never to acquire a fuller development thanthat of larvæ, and the perfect insects which in due time become investedwith wings and take their departing flight from the cave. But their newequipment seems only destined to facilitate their dispersion from theparent nest, which takes place at dusk; and almost as quickly as theyleave it they divest themselves of their ineffectual wings, waving themimpatiently and twisting them in every direction till they becomedetached and drop off, and the swarm, within a few hours of theiremancipation, become a prey to the night-jars and bats, which areinstantly attracted to them as they issue in a cloud from the ground. Iam not prepared to say that the other insectivorous birds would notgladly make a meal of the termites, but, seeing that in Ceylon theirnumbers are chiefly kept in check by the crepuscular birds, it isobservable, at least as a coincidence, that the dispersion of the swarmgenerally takes place at _twilight_. Those that escape the _caprimulgi_fall a prey to the crows, on the morning succeeding their flight. The strange peculiarity of the omnivorous ravages of the white ants isthat they shrink from the light; in all their expeditions for providingfood they construct a covered pathway of moistened clay, and theirgalleries above ground extend to an incredible distance from the centralnest. No timber, except ebony and ironwood, which are too hard, andthose which are strongly impregnated with camphor or aromatic oils, which they dislike, presents any obstacle to their ingress. I have had acase of wine filled, in the course of two days, with almost solid clay, and only discovered the presence of the white ants by the escape fromthe corks. I have had a portmanteau in my tent so peopled with them inthe course of a single night that the contents were found worthless inthe morning. In an incredibly short time a detachment of these pestswill destroy a press full of records, reducing the paper to fragments;and a shelf of books will be tunnelled into a gallery if it happen to bein their line of march. The timbers of a house when fairly attacked areeaten from within till the beams are reduced to an absolute shell, sothin that it may be punched through with the point of the finger: andeven kyanized wood, unless impregnated with an extra quantity ofcorrosive sublimate, appears to occasion them no inconvenience. The onlyeffectual precaution for the protection of furniture is incessantvigilance--the constant watching of every article, and its daily removalfrom place to place, in order to baffle their assaults. They do not appear in the hills above the elevation of 4000 or 5000feet. One species of white ant, the _Termes Taprobanes_, was at one timebelieved by Mr. Walker to be peculiar to the island, but it has recentlybeen found in Sumatra and Borneo, and in some parts of Hindustan. There is a species of Termes in Ceylon (_T. Monoceros_), which alwaysbuilds its nest in the hollow of an old tree; and, unlike the others, carries on its labours without the secrecy and protection of a coveredway. A marching column of these creatures may be observed at earlymorning in the vicinity of their nest, returning laden with the spoilscollected during their foraging excursions. These consist of comminutedvegetable matter, derived, it may be, from a thatched roof, if onehappens to be within reach, or from the decaying leaves of a coco-nut. Each little worker in the column carries its tiny load in its jaws; andthe number of individuals in one of these lines of march must beimmense, for the column is generally about two inches in width, and verydensely crowded. One was measured which had most likely been in motionfor hours, moving in the direction of the nest, and was found to beupwards of sixty paces in length. If attention be directed to the massin motion, it will be observed that flanking it on each side throughoutits whole length are stationed a number of horned soldier termites, whose duty it is to protect the labourers, and to give notice of anydanger threatening them. This latter duty they perform by a peculiarquivering motion of the whole body, which is rapidly communicated fromone to the other for a considerable distance: a portion of the column isthen thrown into confusion for a short time, but confidence soonreturns, and the progress of the little creatures goes on withsteadiness and order as before. The nest is of a black colour, andresembles a mass of scoriæ; the insects themselves are of a pitchybrown. [1] [Footnote 1: For these particulars of the _termes monoceros_, I amindebted to Mr. Thwaites, of the Roy. Botanic Garden at Kandy. ] HYMENOPTERA. _Mason Wasp_. --In Ceylon as in all other countries, theorder of hymenopterous insects arrests us less by the beauty of theirforms than the marvels of their sagacity and the achievements of theirinstinct. A fossorial wasp of the family of _Sphegidæ_, [1] which isdistinguished by its metallic lustre, enters by the open windows, andconverts irritation at its movements into admiration of the gracefulindustry with which it stops up the keyholes and similar apertures withclay in order to build in them a cell. Into this it thrusts the pupa ofsome other insect, within whose body it has previously introduced itsown eggs. The whole is surrounded with moistened earth, through whichthe young parasite, after undergoing its transformations, gnaws its wayinto light, to emerge as a four-winged fly. [2] [Footnote 1: It belongs to the genus _Pelopæus, P. Spinolæ_, of St. Fargean. The _Ampulex compressa_, which drags about the larvæ ofcockroaches into which it has implanted its eggs, belongs, to the samefamily. ] [Footnote 2: Mr. E. L. Layard has given an interesting account of thisMason wasp in the _Annals and Magazine of Nat. History_ for May, 1853. "I have frequently, " he says, "selected one of these flies forobservation, and have seen their labours extend over a period of afortnight or twenty days; sometimes only half a cell was completed in aday, at others as much as two. I never saw more than twenty cells in onenest, seldom indeed that number, and whence the caterpillars wereprocured was always to me a mystery. I have seen thirty or forty broughtin of a species which I knew to be very rare in the perfect state, andwhich I had sought for in vain, although I knew on what plant they fed. "Then again how are they disabled by the wasp, and yet not injured so asto cause their immediate death? Die they all do, at least all that Ihave ever tried to rear, after taking them from the nest. "The perfected fly never effects its egress from the closed aperture, through which the caterpillars were inserted, and when cells are placedend to end, as they are in many instances, the outward end of each isalways selected. I cannot detect any difference in the thickness in thecrust of the cell to cause this uniformity of practice. It is often asmuch as half an inch through, of great hardness, and as far as I can seeimpervious to air and light. How then does the enclosed fly alwaysselect the right end, and with what secretion is it supplied todecompose this mortar?"] A formidable species (_Sphex ferruginea_ of St. Fargeau), which iscommon to India and most of the eastern islands, is regarded with theutmost dread by the unclad natives, who fly precipitately on findingthemselves in the vicinity[1] of its nests. These are of such ampledimensions, that when suspended from a branch, they often measureupwards of six feet in length. [2] [Footnote 1: It ought to be remembered in travelling in the forests ofCeylon that sal volatile applied immediately is a specific for the stingof a wasp. ] [Footnote 2: At the January (1839) meeting of the Entomological Society, Mr. Whitehouse exhibited portions of a wasps' nest from Ceylon, betweenseven and eight feet long and two feet in diameter, and showed that theconstruction of the cells was perfectly analogous to those of the hivebee, and that when connected each has a tendency to assume a circularoutline. In one specimen where there were three cells united the outerpart was circular, whilst the portions common to the three formedstraight walls. From this Singhalese nest Mr. Whitehouse demonstratedthat the wasps at the commencement of their comb proceed slowly, formingthe bases of several together, whereby they assume the hexagonal shape, whereas, if constructed separately, he thought each single cell would becircular. See _Proc. Ent. Soc. _, vol. Iii. P. 16. ] _Bees. _--Bees of several species and genera, some unprovided withstings, and some in size scarcely exceeding a house-fly, deposit theirhoney in hollow trees, or suspend their combs from a branch. The spoilsof their industry form one of the chief resources of the uncivilisedVeddahs, who collect the wax in the upland forests, to be bartered forarrow points and clothes in the lowlands. [1] I have never heard of aninstance of persons being attacked by the bees of Ceylon, and hence thenatives assert, that those most productive of honey are destitute ofstings. [Footnote 1: A gentleman connected with the department of theSurveyor-General writes to me that he measured a honey-comb which hefound fastened to the overhanging branch of a small tree in the forestnear Adam's Peak, and found it nine links of his chain or about six feetin length and a foot in breadth where it was attached to the branch, buttapering towards the other extremity. "It was a single comb with a layerof cells on either side, but so weighty that the branch broke by thestrain. "] _The Carpenter Bee. _--The operations of one of the most interesting ofthe tribe, the Carpenter bee[1], I have watched with admiration from thewindow of the Colonial Secretary's official residence at Kandy. So soonas the day grew warm, these active creatures were at work perforatingthe wooden columns which supported the verandah. They poised themselveson their shining purple wings, as they made the first lodgment in thewood, enlivening the work with an uninterrupted hum of delight, whichwas audible to a considerable distance. When the excavation hadproceeded so far that the insect could descend into it, the music wassuspended, but renewed from time to time, as the little creature came tothe orifice to throw out the chips, to rest, or to enjoy the fresh air. By degrees, a mound of saw-dust was formed at the base of the pillar, consisting of particles abraded by the mandibles of the bee. These, whenthe hollow was completed to the depth of several inches, were partiallyreplaced in the excavation after being agglutinated to form partitionsbetween the eggs, as they were deposited within. The mandibles[2] ofthese bees are admirably formed for the purpose of working out thetunnels required, being short, stout, and usually furnished at the tipwith two teeth which are rounded somewhat into the form ofcheese-cutters. [Footnote 1: _Xylocopa tenuiscapa_, Westw. ; Another species found inCeylon is the _X. Latipes_, Drury. ] [Footnote 2: See figure above. ] [Illustration: THE CARPENTER BEE] These when brought into operation cut out the wood in the same way as acarpenter's double gouge, the teeth being more or less hollowed outwithin. The female alone is furnished with these powerful instruments. In the males the mandibles are slender as compared with those of thefemales. The bores of some of these bees are described as being fromtwelve to fourteen inches in length. _Ants_. --As to ants, I apprehend that, notwithstanding their numbers andfamiliarity, information is very imperfect relative to the varieties andhabits of these marvellous insects in Ceylon. [1] In point of multitudeit is scarcely an exaggeration to apply to them the figure of "the sandsof the sea. " They are everywhere; in the earth, in the houses, and onthe trees; they are to be seen in every room and cupboard, and almost onevery plant in the jungle. To some of the latter they are, perhaps, attracted by the sweet juices secreted by the aphides and coccidæ. [2]Such is the passion of the ants for sugar, and their wonderful facultyof discovering it, that the smallest particle of a substance containingit is quickly covered with them, though placed in the least conspicuousposition, where not a single one may have been visible a moment before. But it is not sweet substances alone that they attack; no animal orvegetable matter comes amiss to them: no aperture appears too small toadmit them; it is necessary to place everything which it may bedesirable to keep free from their invasion, under the closest cover, oron tables with cups of water under every foot. As scavengers, they areinvaluable; and as ants never sleep, but work without cessation duringthe night as well as by day, every particle of decaying vegetable orputrid animal matter is removed with inconceiveable speed and certainty. In collecting shells, I have been able to turn this propensity to goodaccount; by placing them within their reach, the ants in a few daysremoved every vestige of the mollusc from the innermost and otherwiseinaccessible whorls; thus avoiding all risk of injuring the enamel byany mechanical process. [Footnote 1: Mr. Jerdan, in a series of papers in the thirteenth volumeof the _Annals of Natural History_, has described forty-seven species ofants in Southern India. But M. Nietner has recently forwarded to theBerlin Museum upwards of seventy species taken by him in Ceylon, chieflyin the western province and the vicinity of Colombo. Of these many areidentical with those noted by Mr. Jerdan as belonging to the Indiancontinent. One (probably _Drepanognathus saltator_ of Jerdan) isdescribed by M. Nietner as occasionally "moving by jumps of severalinches at a spring. "] [Footnote 2: Dr. DAVY, in a paper on Tropical Plants, has introduced thefollowing passage relative to the purification of sugar by ants: "If the juice of the sugar-cane--the common syrup as expressed by themill--be exposed to the air, it gradually evaporates, yielding alight-brown residue, like the ordinary muscovado sugar of the bestquality. If not protected, it is presently attacked by ants, and in ashort time is, as it were, converted into white crystalline sugar, theants having refined it by removing the darker portion, probablypreferring that part from it containing azotized matter. The negroes, Imay remark, prefer brown sugar to white: they say its sweetening poweris greater; no doubt its nourishing quality is greater, and therefore asan article of diet deserving of preference. In refining sugar as inrefining salt (coarse bay salt containing a little iodine), an error maybe committed in abstracting matter designed by nature for a usefulpurpose. "] But the assaults of the ants are not confined to dead animals alone, they attack equally such small insects as they can overcome, or finddisabled by accidents or wounds; and it is not unusual to see somehundreds of them surrounding a maimed beetle, or a bruised cockroach, and hurrying it along in spite of its struggles. I have, on more thanone occasion, seen a contest between, them and one of the viscousophidians, _Cæcilia, glutinosa_[1], a reptile resembling an enormousearthworm, common in the Kandyan hills, of an inch in diameter, andnearly two feet in length. On these occasions it would seem as if thewhole community had been summoned and turned out for such a prodigiouseffort; they surround their victim literally in tens of thousands, inflicting wounds on all parts, and forcing it along towards their nestin spite of resistance. In one instance to which I was a witness, theconflict lasted for the latter part of a day, but towards evening theCoecilia was completely exhausted, and in the morning it had totallydisappeared, having been carried away either whole or piecemeal by itsassailants. [Footnote 1: See _ante_, p. 317. ] The species I here allude to is a very small ant, which the Singhalesecall by the generic name of _Koombiya_. There is a species still moreminute, and evidently distinct, which frequents the caraffes and toiletvessels. A third, probably the _Formica nidificans_ of Jerdan, is black, of the same size as that last mentioned, and, from its colour, calledthe _Kalu koombiga_ by the natives. In the houses its propensities andhabits are the same as those of the others; but I have observed that itfrequents the trees more profusely, forming small paper cells for itsyoung, like miniature wasps' nests, in which it deposits its eggs, suspending them from a twig. The most formidable of all is the great red ant or Dimiya. [1] It isparticularly abundant in gardens, and on fruit trees; it constructs itsdwellings by glueing the leaves of such species as are suitable fromtheir shape and pliancy into hollow balls, and these it lines with akind of transparent paper, like that manufactured by the wasp. I havewatched them at the interesting operation of forming these dwellings;--aline of ants standing on the edge of one leaf bring another into contactwith it, and hold both together with their mandibles till theircompanions within attach them firmly by means of their adhesive paper, the assistants outside moving along as the work proceeds. If it benecessary to draw closer a leaf too distant to be laid hold of by theimmediate workers, they form a chain by depending one from the othertill the object is reached, when it is at length brought into contact, and made fast by cement. [Footnote 1: _Formica smaragdina, _ Fab. ] Like all their race, these ants are in perpetual motion, forming lineson the ground along which they pass, in continual procession to and fromthe trees on which they reside. They are the most irritable of the wholeorder in Ceylon, biting with such intense ferocity as to render itdifficult for the unclad natives to collect the fruit from the mangotrees, which the red ants especially frequent. They drop from thebranches upon travellers in the jungle, attacking them with venom andfury, and inflicting intolerable pain both upon animals and man. Onexamining the structure of the head through a microscope, I found thatthe mandibles, instead of merely meeting in contact, are so hooked as tocross each other at the points, whilst the inner line is sharplyserrated throughout its entire length; thus occasioning the intense painof their bite, as compared with that of the ordinary ant. To check the ravages of the coffee bug[1] (_Lecanium coffeæ_, Walker), which for some years past has devastated some of the plantations inCeylon, the experiment was made of introducing the red ants, who feedgreedily on the Coccus. But the remedy threatened to be attended withsome inconvenience, for the Malabar Coolies, with bare and oiled skins, were so frequently and fiercely assaulted by the ants as to endangertheir stay on the estates. [Footnote 1: For an account of this pest, see p. 437. ] The ants which burrow in the ground in Ceylon are generally, but notinvariably, black, and some of them are of considerable size. Onespecies, about the third of an inch in length, is abundant in the hills, and especially about the roots of trees, where they pile up the earth incircular heaps round the entrance to their nests, and in doing this Ihave observed a singular illustration of their instinct. To carry upeach particle of sand by itself would be an endless waste of labour, andto carry two or more loose ones securely would be to them embarrassing, if not impossible. To overcome the difficulty they glue together withtheir saliva so much earth or sand as is sufficient for a burden, andeach ant may be seen hurrying up from below with his load, carrying itto the top of the circular heap outside, and throwing it over, the massbeing so strongly attached as to roll to the bottom without breakingasunder. The ants I have been here describing are inoffensive, differing in thisparticular from the Dimiya and another of similar size and ferocity, which is called by the Singhalese _Kaddiya_. They have a legendillustrative of their alarm for the bites of the latter, to the effectthat the cobra de capello invested the Kaddiya with her own venom inadmiration of the singular courage displayed by these littlecreatures. [1] [Footnote 1: KNOX'S _Historical Relation of Ceylon_, pt. I. Ch. Vi. P. 23. ] LEPIDOPTERA. _Butterflies_. --In the interior of the island butterfliesare comparatively rare, and, contrary to the ordinary belief, they areseldom to be seen in the sunshine. They frequent the neighbourhood ofthe jungle, and especially the vicinity of the rivers and waterfalls, living mainly in the shade of the moist foliage, and returning to it inhaste after the shortest flights, as if their slender bodies werespeedily dried up and exhausted by exposure to the intense heat. Among the largest and most gaudy of the Ceylon Lepidoptera is the greatblack and yellow butterfly (_Ornithoptera darsius_, Gray); the upperwings of which measure six inches across, and are of deep velvet black, the lower ornamented by large particles of satiny yellow, through whichthe sunlight passes. Few insects can compare with it in beauty, as ithovers over the flowers of the heliotrope, which furnish the favouritefood of the perfect fly, although the caterpillar feeds on thearistolochia and the _betel leaf_, and suspends its chrysalis from itsdrooping tendrils. Next in size as to expanse of wing, though often exceeding it inbreadth, is the black and blue _Papilio Polymnestor_, which dartsrapidly through the air, alighting on the ruddy flowers of the hibiscus, or the dark green foliage of the citrus, on which it deposits its eggs. The larvæ of this species are green with white bands, and have a hump onthe fourth or fifth segment. From this hump the caterpillar, on beingirritated, protrudes a singular horn of an orange colour, bifurcate atthe extremity, and covered with a pungent mucilaginous secretion. Thisis evidently intended as a weapon of defence against the attack of theichneumon flies, that deposit their eggs in its soft body, for when thegrub is pricked, either by the ovipositor of the ichneumon, or by anyother sharp instrument, the horn is at once protruded, and struck uponthe offending object with unerring aim. Amongst the more common of the larger butterflies is the _P. Hector_, with gorgeous crimson spots set in the black velvet of the inferiorwings; these, when fresh, are shot with a purple blush, equalling insplendour the azure of the European "_Emperor. _" _The Spectre Butterfly. _--Another butterfly, but belonging to a widelydifferent group, is the "sylph" (_Hestia Jasonia_), called by theEuropeans by the various names of _Floater, Spectre_, and _Silver-paperfly_, as indicative of its graceful flight. It is found only in the deepshade of the damp forest, usually frequenting the vicinity of pools ofwater and cascades, about which it sails heedless of the spray, themoisture of which may even be beneficial in preserving the elasticity ofits thin and delicate wings, that bend and undulate in the act offlight. The _Lycanidæ_[1], a particularly attractive group, abound near theenclosures of cultivated grounds, and amongst the low shrubs edging thepatenas, flitting from flower to flower, inspecting each in turn, as ifattracted by their beauty, in the full blaze of sun-light; and shunningexposure less sedulously than the other diurnals. Some of the morerobust kinds[2] are magnificent in the bright light, from the splendourof their metallic blues and glowing purples, but they yield in eleganceof form and variety to their tinier and more delicately-colouredcongeners. [Footnote 1: _Lycæna polyommatus, &c. _] [Footnote 2: _Amblypodia pseudocentaurus, &c. _] Short as is the eastern twilight, it has its own peculiar forms, and thenaturalist marks with interest the small, but strong, _Hesperidæ_[1], hurrying, by abrupt and jerking flights, to the scented blossoms of thechampac or the sweet night-blowing moon-flower; and, when darknessgathers around, we can hear, though hardly distinguish amid the gloom, the humming of the powerful wings of innumerable hawk moths, which hoverwith their long proboscides inserted into the starry petals of theperiwinkle. [Footnote 1: _Pamphila hesperia, &c. _] Conspicuous amidst these nocturnal moths is the richly-coloured_Acherontia Satanas_, one of the Singhalese representatives of ourDeath's-head moth, which utters a sharp and stridulous cry when seized. This sound has been conjectured to be produced by the friction of itsthorax against the abdomen;--Reaumur believed it to be caused by therubbing of the palpi against the tongue. I have never been able toobserve either motion, and Mr. E. L. Layard is of opinion that the soundis emitted from two apertures concealed by tufts of wiry bristles thrownout from each side of the inferior portion of the thorax. [1] [Footnote 1: There is another variety of the same moth in Ceylon whichclosely resembles it in its markings, but in which I have never detectedthe uttering of this curious cry. It is smaller than the _A. Satanas_, and, like it, often enters dwellings at night, attracted by the lights;but I have not found its larvæ, although that of the other species iscommon on several widely different plants. ] _Moths. _--Among the strictly nocturnal _Lepidoptera_ are some giganticspecies. Of these the cinnamon-eating _Atlas_, often attains thedimensions of nearly a foot in the stretch of its superior wings. It isvery common in the gardens about Colombo, and its size, and thetransparent talc-like spots in its wings, cannot fail to strike even themost careless saunterer. But little inferior to it in size is the famedTusseh silk moth[1], which feeds on the country almond (_Terminaliacatappa_) and the palma Christi or Castor-oil plant; it is easilydistinguishable from the Atlas, which has a triangular wing, whilst itsis falcated, and the transparent spots are covered with a curiousthread-like division drawn across them. [Footnote 1: _Antheræa mylitta, _ Drury. ] Towards the northern portions of the island this valuable speciesentirely displaces the other, owing to the fact that the almond and_palma Christi_ abound there. The latter plant springs up spontaneouslyon every manure-heap or neglected spot of ground; and might becultivated, as in India, with great advantage, the leaf to be used asfood for the caterpillar, the stalk as fodder for cattle, and the seedfor the expression of castor-oil. The Dutch took advantage of thisfacility, and gave every encouragement to the cultivation of silk atJaffna[1], but it never attained such a development as to become anarticle of commercial importance. Ceylon now cultivates no silkwormswhatever, notwithstanding this abundance of the favourite food of onespecies; and the rich silken robes sometimes worn by the Buddhistpriesthood are imported from China and the continent of India. [Footnote 1: The Portuguese had made the attempt previous to the arrivalof the Dutch, and a strip of land on the banks of the Kalany river nearColombo, still bears the name of Orta Seda, the silk garden. The attemptof the Dutch to introduce the true silkworm, the _Bombyx mori_, tookplace under the governorship; of Ryklof Van Goens, who, on handing overthe administration to his successor in A. D. 1663, thus apprises him ofthe initiation of the experiment:--"At Jaffna Palace a trial has beenundertaken to feed silkworms, and to ascertain whether silk may bereared at that station. I have planted a quantity of mulberry trees, which grow well there, and they ought to be planted in otherdirections. "--VALENTYN, chap. Xiii. The growth of the mulberry trees isnoticed the year after in a report to the governor-general of India, butthe subject afterwards ceased to be attended to. ] In addition to the Atlas moth and the Mylitta, there are many other_Bombycidæ_; in Ceylon; and, though the silk of some of them, were itsusceptible of being unwound from the cocoon, would not bear acomparison with that of the _Bombyx mori_, or even of the Tusseh moth, it might still prove to be valuable when carded and spun. If theEuropean residents in the colony would rear the larvæ of theseLepidoptera, and make drawings of their various changes, they wouldrender a possible service to commerce, and a certain one toentomological knowledge. _Stinging Caterpillars_. --The Dutch carried to their Eastern settlementstwo of their home propensities, which distinguish and embellish thetowns of the Low Countries; they indulged in the excavation of canals, and they planted long lines of trees to diffuse shade over the sultrypassages in their Indian fortresses. For the latter purpose theyemployed the Suriya (_Hibiscus populneus_), whose broad umbrageousleaves and delicate yellow flowers impart a delicious coolness, and giveto the streets of Galle and Colombo the fresh and enlivening aspect ofwalks in a garden. In the towns, however, the suriya trees are productive of one seriousinconvenience. They are the resort of a hairy greenish caterpillar[1], longitudinally striped, great numbers of which frequent them, and at acertain stage of growth descend by a silken thread to the ground andhurry away, probably in search of a suitable spot in which to passthrough their metamorphoses. Should they happen to alight, as they oftendo, upon some lounger below, and find their way to his unprotected skin, they inflict, if molested, a sting as pungent, but far more lasting, than that of a nettle or a star-fish. [Footnote 1: The species of moth with which it is identified has not yetbeen determined, but it most probably belongs to a section ofBoisduval's genus _Bombyx_ allied to _Cnethocampa_, Stephens. ] Attention being thus directed to the quarter whence an assailant haslowered himself down, the caterpillars above will be found in clusters, sometimes amounting to hundreds, clinging to the branches and the bark, with a few straggling over the leaves or suspended from them by lines. These pests are so annoying to children as well as destructive to thefoliage, that it is often necessary to singe them off the trees by aflambeau fixed on the extremity of a pole; and as they fall to theground they are eagerly devoured by the crows and domestic fowls. [1] [Footnote 1: Another caterpillar which feeds on the jasmine floweringCarissa, stings with such fury that I have known a gentleman to shedtears while the pain was at its height. It is short and broad, of a palegreen, with fleshy spines on the upper surface, each of which seems tobe charged with the venom that occasions this acute suffering. The mothwhich this caterpillar produces, _Neæra lepida_, Cramer; _Limacodesgraciosa_, Westw. , has dark brown wings, the primary traversed by abroad green band. It is common in the western side of Ceylon. The larvæof the genus _Adolia_ are also hairy, and sting with virulence. ] _The Wood-carrying Moth_. --There is another family of insects, thesingular habits of which will not fail to attract the traveller in thecultivated tracts of Ceylon--these are moths of the genus_Oiketicus_[1], of which the females are devoid of wings, and somepossess no articulated feet. Their larvæ construct for themselves cases, which they suspend to a branch frequently of the pomegranate[2], surrounding them with the stems of leaves, and thorns or pieces of twigsbound together by threads, till the whole presents the appearance of abundle of rods about an inch and a half long; and, from the resemblanceof this to a Roman fasces, one African species has obtained the name of"Lictor. " The German entomologists denominated the group _Sackträger_, the Singhalese call them _Dara-kattea_ or "billets of firewood, " andregard the inmates as human beings, who, as a punishment for stealingwood in some former state of existence, have been condemned to undergo ametempsychosis under the form of these insects. [Footnote 1: _Eumeta_, Wlk. ] [Footnote 2: The singular instincts of a species of Thecla, _DipsasIsocrates_, Fab. , in connection with the fruit of the pomegranate, werefully described by Mr. Westwood, in a paper read before theEntomological Society of London in 1835. ] [Illustration: THE WOOD-CARRYING MOTH. ] The male, at the close of the pupal rest, escapes from one end of thissingular covering, but the female makes it her dwelling for life; movingabout with it at pleasure, and entrenching herself within it, whenalarmed, by drawing together the purse-like aperture at the open end. Ofthese remarkable creatures there are five ascertained species in Ceylon:_Psyche Doubledaii_, Westw. ; _Metisa plana_; Walker; _Eumeta Cramerii_, Westw. ; _E. Templetonii_, Westw. ; and _Cryptothelea consorta_, Temp. All the other tribes of minute _Lepitoptera_ have abundantrepresentatives in Ceylon; some of them most attractive from the greatbeauty of their markings and colouring. The curious little split-wingedmoth (_Pterophorus_) is frequently seen in the cinnamon gardens and inthe vicinity of the fort, hid from the noon-day heat among the coolgrass shaded by the coco-nut topes. Three species have been captured, all characterised by the same singular feature of having the wingsfan-like, separated nearly their entire length into detached sections, resembling feathers in the pinions of a bird expanded for flight. HOMOPTERA. _Cicada. _--Of the _Homoptera_, the one which will mostfrequently arrest attention is the cicada, which, resting high up on thebark of a tree, makes the forest re-echo with a long-sustained noise socuriously resembling that of a cutler's wheel that the creatureproducing it has acquired the highly-appropriate name of the"knife-grinder. " [Illustration: CICADA--"THE KNIFE GRINDER. "] In the jungle which adjoined the grounds attached to my officialresidence at Kandy, the shrubs were frequented by an insect coveredprofusely with a snow-white powder, arranged in delicate filaments thatcurl like a head of dressed celery. These it moves without dispersingthe powder: but when dead they fall rapidly to dust. I regret that I didnot preserve specimens, but I have reason to think that they are thelarvæ of the _Flata limbata_, or of some other closely alliedspecies[1], though I have not seen in Ceylon any of the wax produced bythe _flata_. [Footnote 1: Amongst the specimens of this order which I brought fromCeylon, two proved to be new and undescribed, and have been named by Mr. A. WHITE _Elidiptera Emersoniana_ and _Poeciloptera Tennentina_. ] HEMIPTERA. _Bugs_. --On the shrubs in his compound the newly-arrivedtraveller will be attracted by an insect of a pale green hue anddelicately-thin configuration, which, resting from its recent flight, composes its scanty wings, and moves languidly along the leaf. Butexperience will teach him to limit his examination to a respectful viewof its attitudes; it is one of a numerous family of bugs, (some of themmost attractive[1] in their colouring, ) which are inoffensive ifunmolested, but if touched or irritated, exhale an odour that, onceendured, is never afterwards forgotten. [Footnote 1: Such as _Cantuo ocellatus, Leptoscelis Marginalis, CallideaStockerius_, &c. &c. Of the aquatic species, the gigantic _BelostomaIndicum_ cannot escape notice, attaining a size of nearly three inches. ] APHANIPTERA. _Fleas_. --Fleas are equally numerous, and may be seen inmyriads in the dust of the streets or skipping in the sunbeams whichfall on the clay floors of the cottages. The dogs, to escape them, select for their sleeping places spots where a wood fire has beenpreviously kindled; and here prone on the white ashes, their stomachsclose to the earth, and their hind legs extended behind, they repose incomparative coolness, and bid defiance to their persecutors. [Illustration: POECILOPTERA TENNENTINA. ] [Illustration: ELIDIPTERA EMERSONIANA. ] DIPTERA. _Mosquitoes_. --But of all the insect pests that beset anunseasoned European the most provoking by far is the truculentmosquito. [1] Next to the torture which it inflicts, its most annoyingpeculiarities are the booming hum of its approach, its cunning, itsaudacity, and the perseverance with which it renews its attacks howeverfrequently repulsed. These characteristics are so remarkable as fully tojustify the conjecture that the mosquito, and not the ordinary fly, constituted the plague inflicted upon Pharaoh and the Egyptians. [2] [Footnote 1: _Culex laniger?_ Wied. In Kandy Mr. Thwaites finds _C. Fuscanns, C. Circumcolans, _ &c. , and one with a most formidable hookedproboscis, to which he has assigned the appropriate name _C. Regius_. ] [Footnote 2: The precise species of insect by means of which theAlmighty signalised the plague of flies, remains uncertain, as theHebrew term _arob_ or _oror_ which has been rendered in one place. "Divers sorts of flies, " Ps. Cv. 31; and in another, "swarms of flies, "Exod. Viii. 21, &c. , means merely "an assemblage. " a "mixture" or a"swarm, " and the expletive. "_of flies_" is an interpolation of thetranslators. This, however, serves to show that the fly implied was oneeasily recognisable by its habit of _swarming_; and the further factthat it _bites_, or rather stings, is elicited from the expression ofthe Psalmist, Ps. Lxxviii. 45, that the insects by which the Egyptianswere tormented "devoured them, " so that here are two peculiaritiesinapplicable to the domestic fly, but strongly characteristic of gnatsand mosquitoes. Bruce thought that the fly of the fourth plague was the "zimb" ofAbyssinia which he so graphically describes: and WESTWOOD, in aningenious passage in his _Entomologist's Text-book. _ p. 17, combats thestrange idea of one of the bishops, that it was a cockroach! and arguesin favour of the mosquito. This view he sustains by a reference to thehabits of the creature, the swarms in which it invades a locality, andthe audacity with which it enters the houses; and he accounts for theexemption of "the land of Goshen in which the Isrælites dwelt, " by thefact of its being sandy pasture above the level of the river; whilst themosquitoes were produced freely in the rest of Egypt, the soil of whichwas submerged by the rising of the Nile. In all the passages in the Old Testament in which flies are alluded to, otherwise than in connection with the Egyptian infliction, the word usedin the Hebrew is _zevor_, which the Septuagint renders by the ordinarygeneric term for flies in general, [Greek: muia], "_musca_" (Eccles. X. 1, Isaiah vii. 10); but in every instance in which mention is made ofthe miracle of Moses, the Septuagint says that the fly produced was the[Greek: kunomyia], the "dog-fly. " What insect was meant by this name itis not now easy to determine, but ÆLIAN intimates that the dogfly bothinflicts a wound and emits a booming sound, in both of which particularsit accords with the mosquito (lib. Iv, 51); and PHILO-JUDÆUS, in his_Vita Mosis_, lib. I. Ch. Xxiii. , descanting on the plague of flies, andusing the term of the Septuagint, [Greek: kunomyia], describes it ascombining the characteristic of "the most impudent of all animals, thefly and the dog, exhibiting the courage and the cunning of both, andfastening on its victim with the noise and rapidity of anarrow"--[Greek: meta roizou kathaper belos]. This seems to identify thedog-fly of the Septuagint with the description of the Psalmist, Ps. Lxxviii. 45, and to vindicate the conjecture that the tormentingmosquito, and not the house-fly, was commissioned by the Lord to humblethe obstinacy of the Egyptian tyrant. ] Even in the midst of endurance from their onslaughts one cannot but beamused by the ingenuity of their movements; as if aware of the riskincident to an open assault, a favourite mode of attack is, whenconcealed by a table, to assail the ankles through the meshes of thestocking, or the knees which are ineffectually protected by a fold ofRussian duck. When you are reading, a mosquito will rarely settle onthat portion of your hand which is within range of your eyes, butcunningly stealing by the underside of the book fastens on the wrist orlittle finger, and noiselessly inserts his proboscis there. I havetested the classical expedient recorded by Herodotus, who states thatthe fishermen inhabiting the fens of Egypt, cover their beds with theirnets, knowing that the mosquitoes, although they bite through linenrobes, will not venture through a net. [1] But, notwithstanding theopinion of Spence[2], that nets with meshes an inch square willeffectually exclude them, I have been satisfied by painful experiencethat (if the theory be not altogether fallacious) at least the modernmosquitoes of Ceylon are uninfluenced by the same considerations whichrestrained those of the Nile under the successors of Cambyses. [Footnote 1: HERODOTUS, _Euterpe. _ xcv. ] [Footnote 2: KIRBY and SPENCE'S _Entomology_, letter iv. ] _The Coffee-Bug_. --Allusion has been made in a previous passage to thecoccus known in Ceylon as the "Coffee-Bug" (_Lecanium Caffeæ_, Wlk. ), which of late years has made such destructive ravages in the plantationsin the Mountain Zone. [1] The first thing that attracts attention onlooking at a coffee tree infested by it, is the number of brownishwart-like bodies that stud the young shoots and occasionally the marginson the underside of the leaves. [2] Each of these warts or scales is atransformed female, containing a large number of eggs which are hatchedwithin it. [Footnote 1: The following notice of the "coffee-bug, " and of thesingularly destructive effects produced by it on the plants, has beenprepared chiefly from a memoir presented to the Ceylon Government by thelate Dr. Gardner, in which he traces the history of the insect from itsfirst appearance in the coffee districts, until it had establisheditself more or less permanently in all the estates in full cultivationthroughout the island. ] [Footnote 2: See the annexed drawing, Fig. 1. ] When the young ones come out from their nest, they run about over theplant like diminutive wood-lice, and at this period there is no apparentdistinction between male and female. Shortly after being hatched themales seek the underside of the leaves, while the females prefer theyoung shoots as a place of abode. If the under surface of a leaf beexamined, it will be found to be studded, particularly on its basilhalf, with minute yellowish-white specks of an oblong form. [1] These arethe larvæ of the males undergoing transformation into pupæ, beneaththeir own skins; some of these specks are always in a more advancedstate than the others, the full-grown ones being whitish and scarcely aline long. Some of this size are translucent, the insect having escaped;the darker ones still retain it within, of an oblong form, with therudiment of a wing on each side attached to the lower part of the thoraxand closely applied to the sides; the legs are six in number, the fourhind ones being directed backwards, the anterior forwards (a peculiaritynot common in other insects); the two antennæ are also inclinedbackwards, and from the tail protrude three short bristles, the middleone thinner and longer than the rest. [Footnote 1: Figs. 2, and 3 and 5 in the engraving, where these and allthe other figures are considerably enlarged. ] When the transformation is complete, the mature insect makes its wayfrom beneath the pellucid case[1], all its organs having then attainedtheir full size: the head is sub-globular, with two rather prominentblack eyes, and two antennæ, each with eleven joints, hairy throughout, and a tuft of rather longer hairs at the apices; the legs are alsocovered with hairs, the wings are horizontal, of an obovate oblongshape, membranous, and extending a little farther than the bristles ofthe tail. They have only two nerves, neither of which reaches so far asthe tips; one of them runs close to the costal margin, and is muchthicker than the other, which branches off from its base and skirtsalong the inner margin; behind the wings is attached a pair of minutehalteres of peculiar form. The possession of wings would appear to bethe cause why the full-grown male is more rarely seen on the coffeebushes than the female. [Footnote 1: Fig. 4. Mr. WESTWOOD, who observed the operation in onespecies, states that they escape backwards, the wings being extendedflatly over the head. ] The female, like the male, attaches herself to the surface of the plant, the place selected being usually the young shoots; but she is also to bemet with on the margins of the undersides of the leaves (on the uppersurface neither the male nor female ever attach themselves); but, unlikethe male, which derives no nourishment from the juices of the tree (themouth being obsolete in the perfect state), she punctures the cuticlewith a proboscis (a very short three-jointed _promuscis_), springing asit were from the breast, but capable of being greatly porrected, andinserted in the cuticle of the plant, and through this she abstracts hernutriment. In the early pupa state the female is easily distinguishablefrom the male, by being more elliptical and much more convex. As sheincreases in size her skin distends and she becomes smooth and dry; therings of the body become effaced; and losing entirely the form of aninsect, she presents, for some time, a yellowish pustular shape, butultimately assumes a roundish conical form, of a dark brown colour. [1] [Footnote 1: Figs. 6 and 7. There are many other species of the Coccustribe in Ceylon, some (Pseudococcus?) never appearing as a scale, thefemale wrapping herself up in a white cottony exudation; many speciesnearly allied to the true Coccus infest common plants about gardens, such as the Nerium Oleander, Plumeria Acuminata, and others with milkyjuices; another subgenus (Ceroplastes?), the female of which produces aprotecting waxy material, infests the Gendurassa Vulgaris, the FurrcæaGigantea, the Jak Tree, Mango, and other common trees. ] Until she has nearly reached her full size, she still possesses thepower of locomotion, and her six legs are easily distinguishable in theunder surface of her corpulent body; but at no period of her existencehas she wings. It is about the time of her obtaining full size thatimpregnation takes place[1]; after which the scale becomes somewhat moreconical, assumes a darker colour, and at length is permanently fixed tothe surface of the plant, by means of a cottony substance interposedbetween it and the vegetable cuticle to which it adheres. The scale, when full grown, exactly resembles in miniature the hat of a Cornishminer[2], there being a narrow rim at the base, which gives increasedsurface of attachment. It is about 1/8 inch in diameter, by about 1/12deep, and it appears perfectly smooth to the naked eye; but it is inreality studded over with a multitude of very minute warts, giving it adotted appearance. Except the margin, which is ciliated, it is entirelydestitute of hairs. The number of eggs contained in one of the scales isenormous, amounting in a single one to 691. The eggs are of an oblongshape, of a pale flesh colour, and perfectly smooth. [3] In some of thescales, the eggs when laid on the field of the microscope resemble thosemasses of life sometimes seen in decayed cheese. [4] A few smallyellowish maggots are sometimes found with them, and these are thelarvæ[5] of insects, the eggs of which have been deposited in the femalewhile the scale was soft. They escape when mature by cutting a smallround hole in the dorsum of the scale. [Footnote 1: REAUMUR has described the singular manner in which thisoccurs. _Mem. _ tom. Iv. ] [Footnote 2: Fig. 8. ] [Footnote 3: Fig. 9. ] [Footnote 4: Figs. 10, 11. ] [Footnote 5: Of the parasitic Chalcididiæ, many genera of which are wellknown to deposit their eggs in the soft Coccus, viz. : Encystus, Coccophagus, Pteromalus, Mesosela, Agonioneurus; besides Aphidius, aminutely sized genus of Ichneumonidæ. Most, if not all, of these generaare Singhalese. ] [Illustration: THE COFFEE BUG. Lecanium Coffeæ. ] It is not till after this pest has been on an estate for two or threeyears that it shows itself to an alarming extent. During the first yeara few only of the ripe scales are seen scattered over the bushes, generally on the younger shoots; but that year's crop does not suffermuch, and the appearance of the tree is little altered. The second year, however, brings a change for the worse; if the youngshoots and the underside of the leaves he now examined, the scales willbe found to have become much more numerous, and with them appear amultitude of white specks, which are the young scales in a more or lessforward state. The clusters of berries now assume a black sooty look, and a great number of them fall off before coming to maturity; thegeneral health of the tree also begins to fail, and it acquires ablighted appearance. A loss of crop is this year sustained, but to nogreat extent. The third year brings about a more serious change, the whole plantacquires a black hue, appearing as if soot had been thrown over it ingreat quantities; this is caused by the growth of a parasitic fungus[1]over the shoots and the upper surface of the leaves, forming a fibrouscoating, somewhat resembling velvet or felt. This never makes itsappearance till the insect has been a considerable time on the bush, andprobably owes its existence there to an unhealthy condition of thejuices of the leaf, consequent on the irritation produced by the coccus, since it never visits the upper surface of the leaf until the latter hasfully established itself on the lower. At this period the young shootshave an exceedingly disgusting look from the dense mass of yellowpustular bodies forming on them, the leaves get shrivelled, and theinfected trees become conspicuous in the row. The black ants areassiduous in their visits to them. Two-thirds of the crop is lost, andon many trees not a single berry forms. [Footnote 1: _Racodium?_ Species of this genus are not confined to thecoffee plant alone in Ceylon, but follow the "bugs" in their attacks onother bushes. It appears like a dense interlaced mesh of fibres, eachmade up of a single series of minute oblong vesicles applied end toend. ] This _Lecanium_, or a very closely allied species, has been observed inthe Botanic Garden at Peradenia, on the _Citrus acida, Psidiumpomiferum, Myrtus Zeylanica, Rosa Indica, Careya arborea, VitexNegundo_, and other plants. The coffee coccus has generally been firstobserved in moist, hollow places sheltered from the wind; and thence ithas spread itself even over the driest and most exposed parts of theisland. On some estates, after attaining a maximum, it has generallydeclined, but has shown a liability to reappear, especially in lowsheltered situations, and it is believed to prevail most extensively inwet seasons. While in its earlier stages, it is easily transmitted fromone estate to another, on the clothes of human beings, and in variousother ways, which will readily suggest themselves. Dr. Gardner, after acareful consideration and minute examination of estates, arrived at theconclusion, that all remedies suggested up to that time had utterlyfailed, and that none at once cheap and effectual was likely to bediscovered. He seems also to have been of opinion that the insect wasnot under human control; and that even if it should disappear, it wouldonly be when it should have worn itself out as other blighte have beenknown to do in some mysterious way. Whether this may prove to be thecase or not, is still very uncertain, but every thing observed by Dr. Gardner tends to indicate the permanency of the pest. * * * * * _List of Ceylon Insects. _ For the following list of the insects of the island, and the remarksprefixed to it, I am indebted to Mr. F. Walker, by whom it has beenprepared after a careful inspection of the collections made by Dr. Templeton, Mr. E. L. Layard, and others: as well as of those in theBritish Museum and in the Museum of the East India Company. [1] [Footnote 1: The entire of the new species contained in this list havebeen described in a series of papers by Mr. WALKER in successive numbersof the _Annals of Natural History_ (1858-61): those, from Dr. TEMPLETON'S collection of which descriptions have been taken, have beenat his desire transferred to the British Museum for future reference andcomparison. ] "A short notice of the aspect of the island will afford the best meansof accounting, in some degree, for its entomological Fauna: first, as itis an island, and has a mountainous central region, the tropicalcharacter of its productions, as in most other cases, rather diminishes, and somewhat approaches that of higher latitudes. "The coast-region of Ceylon, and fully one-third of its northern part, have a much drier atmosphere than that of the rest of its surface; andtheir climate and vegetation are nearly similar to those of theCarnatic, with which this island may have been connected at no veryremote period. [1] But if, on the contrary, the land in Ceylon isgradually rising, the difference of its Fauna from that of CentralHindustan is less remarkable. The peninsula of the Dekkan might then beconjectured to have been nearly or wholly separated from the centralpart of Hindustan, and confined to the range of mountains along theeastern coast; the insect-fauna of which is as yet almost unknown, butwill probably be found to have more resemblance to that of Ceylon thanto the insects of northern and western India--just as the insect-faunaof Malaya appears more to resemble the similar productions ofAustralasia than those of the more northern continent. [Footnote 1: On the subject of this conjecture see _ante_, p. 60. ] "Mr. Layard's collection was partly formed in the dry northern provinceof Ceylon; and among them more Hindustan insects are to be observed thanamong those collected by Dr. Templeton, and found wholly in the districtbetween Colombo and Kandy. According to this view the faunas of theNilgherry Mountains, of Central Ceylon, of the peninsula of Malacca, andof Australasia would be found to form one group;--while those ofNorthern Ceylon, of the western Dekkan, and of the level parts ofCentral Hindustan would form another of more recent origin. Theinsect-fauna of the Carnatic is also probably similar to that of thelowlands of Ceylon; but it is still unexplored. The regions of Hindustanin which species have been chiefly collected, such as Bengal, Silbet, and the Punjaub, are at the distance of from 1300 to 1600 miles fromCeylon, and therefore the insects of the latter are fully as differentfrom those of the above regions as they are from those of Australasia, to which Ceylon is as near in point of distance, and agrees more withregard to latitude. "Dr. Hagen has remarked that he believes the fauna of the mountains ofCeylon to be quite different from that of the plains and of the shores. The south and west districts have a very moist climate, and as theirvegetation is like that of Malabar, their insect-fauna will probablyalso resemble that of the latter region. "The insects mentioned in the following list are thus distributed:-- "Order COLEOPTERA. "The recorded species of _Cicindelidæ_ inhabit the plains or the coastcountry of Ceylon, and several of them are also found in Hindustan. "Many of the species of _Carabidæ_ and of _Staphylinidæ_, especiallythose collected by Mr. Thwaites, near Kandy, and by M. Nietner atColombo, have much resemblance to the insects of these two families inNorth Europe; in the _Scydmænid, Ptiliadæ, Phalacridæ, Nitidulidæ, Colydiadæ_, and _Lathridiadæ_ the northern form is still more striking, and strongly contrasts with the tropical forms of the gigantic _Copridæ, Buprestidæ, and Cerambycidæ_, and with the _Elateridæ, Lampyridæ, Tenebrionidæ, Helopidæ, Meloidæ, Curculionidæ, Prionidæ, Cerambycidæ, Lamiidæ_, and _Endomychidæ_. "The _Copridæ, Dynastidæ, Melolonthidæ, Cetoniadæ_, and _Passalidæ_ arewell represented on the plains and on the coast, and the species aremostly of a tropical character. "The _Hydrophilidæ_ have a more northern aspect, as is generally thecase with aquatic species. "The order _Strepsiptera_ is here considered as belonging to the_Mordellidæ_, and is represented by the genus _Myrmecolax_, which ispeculiar, as yet, to Ceylon. "In the _Curculionidæ_ the single species of _Apion_ will recall to mindthe great abundance of that genus in North Europe. "The _Prionidæ_ and the two following families have been investigated byMr. Pascoe, and the _Hispidæ_, with the five following families, by Mr. Baly; these two gentlemen are well acquainted with the above tribes ofbeetles, and kindly supplied me with the names of the Ceylon species. Order ORTHOPTERA. "These insects in Ceylon have mostly a tropical aspect. The _Physapoda_, which will probably be soon incorporated with them, are likely to benumerous, though only one species has as yet been noticed. Order NEUROPTERA. "The list here given is chiefly taken from the catalogue published byDr. Hagen, and containing descriptions of the species named by him or byM. Nietner. They were found in the most elevated parts of the island, near Rangbodde, and Dr. Hagen informs me that not less than 500 specieshave been noticed in Ceylon, but that they are not yet recorded, withthe exception of the species here enumerated. It has been remarked thatthe _Trichoptera_ and other aquatic _Neuroptera_ are less local than theland species, owing to the more equable temperature of the habitation oftheir larvæ, and on account of their being often conveyed along thewhole length of rivers. The species of _Psocus_ in the list are far morenumerous than those yet observed in any other country, with theexception of Europe. Order HYMENOPTERA. "In this order the _Formicidæ_ and the _Poneridæ_ are very numerous, asthey are in other damp and woody tropical countries. Seventy species ofants have been observed, but as yet few of them have been named. Thevarious other families of aculeate _Hymenoptera_ are doubtless moreabundant than the species recorded indicate, and it may be safelyreckoned that the parasitic _Hymenoptera_ in Ceylon far exceed onethousand species in number, though they are yet only known by means ofabout two dozen kinds collected at Kandy by Mr. Thwaites. Order LEPIDOPTERA. "The fauna of Ceylon is much better known in this order than in anyother of the insect tribes, but as yet the _Lepidoptera_ alone in theirclass afford materials for a comparison of the productions of Ceylonwith those of Hindustan and of Australasia; nine hundred and thirty-twospecies have been collected by Dr. Templeton and by Mr. Layard in thecentral, western, and northern parts of the island. All the families, from the _Papilionidæ_ to the _Tineidæ_, abound, and numerous speciesand several genera appear, as yet, to be peculiar to the island. AsCeylon is situate at the entrance to the eastern regions, the list inthis volume will suitably precede the descriptive catalogues of theheterocerous _Lepidoptera_ of Hindustan, Java, Borneo, and of otherparts of Australasia, which are being prepared for publication. In someof the heterocerous families several species are common to Ceylon and toAustralasia, and in various cases the faunas of Ceylon and ofAustralasia seem to be more similar than those of Ceylon and ofHindustan. The long intercourse between those two regions may have beenthe means of conveying some species from one to the other. Among the_Pyralites, Hymenia recurvalis_ inhabits also the West Indies, SouthAmerica, West Africa, Hindustan, China, Australasia, Australia, and NewZealand; and its food-plant is probably some vegetable which iscultivated in all those regions; so also _Desmia afflictalis_ is foundin Sierra Leone, Abyssinia, Ceylon, and China. Order DIPTERA. "About fifty species were observed by Dr. Templeton, but most of thosehere recorded were collected by Mr. Thwaites at Kandy, and have a greatlikeness to North European species. The mosquitoes are very annoying onaccount of their numbers, as might be expected from the moisture andheat of the climate. _Culex laniger_ is the coast species, and the otherkinds here mentioned are from Kandy. Humboldt observed that in someparts of South America each stream had its peculiar mosquitoes, and ityet remains to be seen whether the gnats in Ceylon are also thusrestricted in their habitation. The genera _Sciara, Cecidomyia_, and_Simulium_, which abound so exceedingly in temperate countries, haveeach one representative species in the collection made by Mr. Thwaites. Thus an almost new field remains for the Entomologist in the study ofthe yet unknown Singhalese Diptera, which must be very numerous. Order HEMIPTERA. "The species of this order in the list are too few and too similar tothose of Hindustan to need any particular mention. _Lecanium coffeæ_ maybe noticed, on account of its infesting the coffee plant, as its nameindicates, and the ravages of other species of the genus will beremembered, from the fact that one of them, in other regions, has put astop to the cultivation of the orange as an article of commerce. "In conclusion, it may be observed that the species of insects in Ceylonmay be estimated as exceeding 10, 000 in number, of which about 2000 areenumerated in this volume. Class ARACHNIDA. "Four or five species of spiders, of which the specimens cannot besatisfactorily described; one _Ixodes_ and one _Chelifer_ have beenforwarded to England from Ceylon by Mr. Thwaites. " * * * * * NOTE. --The asterisk prefixed denotes the species discovered in Ceylonsince Sir J. E. Tennent's departure from the Island in 1849. Order COLEOPTERA, _Linn. _ Fam. CICINDELIDÆ, _Steph. _ Cicindela, _Linn. _ flavopunctata, _Aud. _ discrepans, _Wlk. _ aurofasciaca, _Guér. _ quadrilineata, _Fabr. _ biramosa, _Fabr. _ catena, _Fabr. _ *insignificans, _Dohrn. _ Tricondyla, _Latr. _ femorata, _Wlk. _ *tumidula, _Wlk. _ *scitiscabra, _Wlk. _ *concinna, _Dohrn. _ Fam. CARABIDÆ, _Leach. _ Casnonia, _Latr. _ *punctata, _Niet. _ *pilifera, _Niet. _ Ophionea, _Klug. _ *cyanocephala, _Fabr. _ Euplynes, _Niet. _ Dohrni, _Niet. _ Heteroglossa, _Niet. _ *elegans, _Niet. _ *ruficollis, _Niet. _ *bimaculata, _Niet. _ Zuphium, _Latr. _ *pubescens, _Niet. _ Pheropsophos, _Solier. _ Cateisei, _Dej. _ bimaculatus, _Fabr. _ Cymindis, _Latr_ rufiventris, _Wlk. _ Anchisia, _Niet. _ *modesta, _Niet. _ Dromius, _Bon. _ marginiter, _Wlk. _ repandens, _Wlk. _ Lebia, _Latr. _ *bipars, _Wlk, _ Creagris, _Niet. _ labrosa, _Niet. _ Elliotia, _Niet. _ paltipes, _Niet. _ Maraga, _Wlk. _ planigera, _Wlk. _ Catascopus, _Kirby. _ facialis, _Wied. _ reductus, _Wlk. _ Scarites, _Fabr. _ obliterans, _Wlk. _ subsignans, _Wlk. _ designans, _Wlk. _ *minor, _Wlk. _ Clivina, _Latr. _ *rugosifrons, _Niet. _ *elongatula, _Niet. _ *maculata, _Niet. _ recta, _Wlk. _ Leistus, _Fræhl. _ linearis, _Wlk. _ Isotarsus, _Laferlé_ quadrimaculatus, _Oliv. _ Panagæus, _Latr. _ retractus, _Wlk. _ Chlænius, _Bon. _ bimaculatus, _Dej. _ diffinis, _Reiche. _ *Ceylanicus, _Niet. _ *quinque-maculatus, _Niet. _ pulcher, _Niet. _ cupricollis, _Niet. _ ruginosus, _Niet. _ Anchomenus, _Bon. _ illocatus, _Wlk. _ Agonum, _Bon. _ placidulum, _Wlk. _ Corpodes?, _Macl. _ marginicallis, _Wlk. _ Argutor, _Meg. _ degener, _Wlk. _ relinquens, _Wlk. _ Simphyus, _Niet. _ *unicolor, _Niet. _ Bradytus, _Steph. _ stolidus, _Wlk. _ Curtonotus, _Wlk. _ Harpalus, _Latr. _ *advolans, _Niet. _ dispellens, _Wlk. _ Calodromus, _Niet. _ *exornatus, _Niet. _ Megaristerus, _Niet. _ *mandibularis, _Niet. _ *stenolophoides, _Niet. _ *Indicus, _Niet. _ Platysma, _Bon. _ retinens, _Wlk. _ Morio, _Latr. _ trogositoides, _Wlk. _ cucujoides, _Wlk. _ Barysomus, _Dej. _ *Gyllenhalii, _Dej. _ Oodes, _Bon. _ *piceus, _Niet. _ Selenophorus, _Dej. _ inuxus, _Wlk. _ Orthogonius, _Dej. _ femoratus, _Dej. _ Helluodes, _Westw. _ Taprobanæ, _Westw. _ Physocrotaphus, _Parry. _ Ceylonicus, _Parry. _ *minax, _West. _ Physodera, _Esch. _ Eschscholtzii, _Parry. _ Omphra, _Latr. _ *ovipennis, _Reiche. _ Planetes, _Macl. _ bimaculatus, _Macleay. _ Cardiaderus, _Dej. _ scitus, _Wlk. _ Distrigus, _Dej. _ *costatus, _Niet. _ *submetallicus, _Niet. _ rufopiceus, _Niet. _ *æneus, _Niet. _ *Dejeani, _Niet. _ Drimostoma, _Dej. _ *Ceylanicum, _Niet. _ *marginale, _Wlk_. Cyclosomus, _Latr_. Flexuosus, _Fabr_. Ochthephilus, _Niet_. *Ceylanicus, _Niet_. Spathinus, _Niet_. *nigriceps, _Niet_. Acuparpus, _Latr_. Derogatus, _Wlk_. Extremus, _Wlk_. Bembidium, _Latr_. Finitimum, _Wlk_. *opulentum, _Niet_. *truncatum, _Niet_. *tropicum, _Niet_. *triangulare, _Niet_. *Ceylanicum, _Niet_. Klugii, _Niet_. *ebeninum, _Niet_. *orientale, _Niet_. *emarginatum, _Niet_. *ornatum, _Niet_. *scydmænoides, _Niet_. Fam. PAUSSIDÆ, _Westw_. Cerapterus, _Swed_. Latipes, _Swed_. Pleuropterus, _West_. Westermanni, _West_. Paussus, _Linn. _ pacificus, _West_. Fam. DYTISCIDÆ, _Macl_. Cybister, _Curt_. Limbatus, _Fabr_. Dytiscus, _Linn. _ extenuans, _Wlk_. Eunectes, _Erich_. Griseus, _Fabr_. Hydaticus, _Leach_. Festivus, _Ill_. Vittatus, _Fabr_. Dislocans, _Wlk_. Fractifer, _Wlk_. Colymbetes, _Clairv_. Interclusus, _Wlk_. Hydroporus, _Clairv_. Interpulsus, _Wlk_. Intermixtus, _Wlk_. Lætabilis, _Wlk_. *inefficiens, _Wlk_. Fam. GYRINIDÆ, _Leach_. Dineutes, _Macl_. Spinosus, _Fabr_. Porrorhynchus, _Lap_. Indicans, _Wlk_. Gyretes, _Brullé_. Discifer, _Wlk_. Gyrinus, _Linn. _ nitidulus, _Fabr_. Obliquus, _Wlk_. Orectochilus, _Esch_. *lenocinium, _Dohrn_. Fam. STAPHILINIDÆ, _Leach_. Ocypus, _Kirby_. Longipennis, _Wlk_. Congruus, _Wlk_. Punctilinea, _Wlk_. *lineatus, _Wlk_. Philonthus, _Leach_. *pedestris, _Wlk_. Xantholinus, _Dahl_. Cinctus, _Wlk_. *inclinans, _Wlk_. Sunius, _Leach_. *obliquus, _Wlk_. Oedichirus, _Erich_. *alatus, _Niet_. Poederus, _Fabr_. Alternans, _Wlk_. Stenus, _Latr_. *barbatus, _Niet_. *lærtoides, _Niet_. Osorius? _Leach_. *compactus, _Wlk_. Prognatha, _Latr_. Decisi, _Wlk_. *tenuis, _Wlk_. Leptochirus, _Perty_. *piscinus, _Erich_. Oxytelus, _Grav_. Rudis, _Wlk_. Productus, _Wlk_. *bicolor, _Wlk_. Trogophloeus, _Mann_. *Taprobanæ, _Wlk_. Omalium, _Grav_. Filiforme, _Wlk_. Aleochara, _Grav_. Postica, _Wlk_. *translata, _Wlk_. *subjecta, _Wlk_. Dinarda, _Leach_. Serricornis, _Wlk_. Fam. PSELAPHIDÆ, _Leach_. Pselaphanax, _Wlk_. Setosus, _Wlk_. Fam. SCYDMÆNIDÆ, _Leach_. Erineus, _Wlk_. Monstrosus, _Wlk_. Scydmænus, _Latr_. *megamelas, _Wlk_. *alatus, _Niet_. *femoralis, _Niet_. *Ceylanicus, _Niet_. *intermedius, _Niet_. *pselaphoides, _Niet_. *advolans, _Niet_. *pubescens, _Niet_. *pygmæus, _Niet_. *glanduliferus, _Niet_. *graminicola, _Niet_. *pyriformis, _Niet_. *angusticeps, _Niet_. *ovatus, _Niet_. Fam. PTILIADÆ, _Wo_. Trichopteryx, _Kirby_. *cursitans, _Niet_. *immatura, _Niet_. *invisibilis, _Niet_. Ptilium, _Schüpp_. *subquadratum, _Niet_. Ptenidium, _Erich_. *macrocephalum, _Niet_. Fam. PHALACRIDÆ, _Leach_. Phalacrus, _Payk_. Conjiciens, _Wlk_. Confectus, _Wlk_. Fam. NITUDULIDÆ, _Leach_. Nitidula, _Fabr_. Contigens, _Wlk_. Intendens, _Wlk_. Significans, _Wik_. Tomentifera, _Wlk_. *submaculata, _Wlk_. *glabricula, _Dohrn_. Nitidulopsis, _Wlk_. æqualis, _Wlk_. Meligethes, _Kirby_. *orientalis, _Niet_. *respondens, _Wlk_. Rhizophagus, _Herbst_. Parallelus, _Wlk_. Fam. COLYDIADÆ, _Woll_. Lyctus, _Fabr_. Retractus, _Wlk_. Disputans, _Wlk_. Ditoma, _Illig_. Rugicollis, _Wlk_. Fam. TROGOSITIDÆ, _Kirby_. Trogosita, _Oliv_. Insinuans, _Wlk_. *rhyzophagoides, _Wlk_. Fam. CUCUJIDÆ, _Steph_. Loemophloeus, _Dej_. Ferrugineus, _Wlk_. Cucujus? _Fabr_. *incommodus, _Wlk_. Silvanus, _Latr_. Retrahens, _Wlk_. *scuticollis, _Wlk_. *Porrectus, _Wlk_. Brontes, _Fabr_. *orientalis, _Dej_. Fam. LATHRIDIANÆ, _Wall_. Lathridius, _Herbst_. Perpusillus, _Wlk_. Corticaria, _Marsh_. Resecta, _Wlk_. Monotoma, _Herbst_. Concinnula, _Wlk_. Fam. DERMESTIDÆ, _Leach_. Dermestes, _Linn. _ vulpinus, _Fabr_. Attagenus, _Latr_. Detectus, _Wlk_. Rufipes, _Wlk_. Trinodes, _Meg_. Hirtellus, _Wlk_. Fam. BYRRHIDÆ, _Leach_. Inclica, _Wlk_. Solida, _Wlk_. Fam. HISTERIDÆ, _Leach_. Hister, _Linn. _ Bengalensis, _Weid_. Encaustus, _Mars. _ orientalis, _Payk_. Bipustulatus, _Fabr. _ *mundissimus, _Wlk. _ Saprinus, _Erich_. Semipunctatus, _Fabr. _ Platysoma, _Leach. _ atratum? _Erichs. _ desmens, _Wlk. _ restoratum, _Wlk. _ Dendrophilus, _Leach. _ finitimus, _Wlk. _ Fam. APHODIADÆ, _Macl. _ Aphodius, _Illig. _ robustus, _Wlk. _ dynastoides, _Wlk. _ pallidicornis, _Wlk. _ mutans, _Wlk_. Sequens, _Wlk. _ Psammodius, _Gyll. _ inscitus, _Wlk. _ Fam. TROGIDÆ, _Macl. _ Trox, _Fabr. _ inclusus, _Wlk. _ cornutus, _Fabr. _ Fam. COPRIDÆ, _Leach. _ Ateuchus, _Weber. _ sacer, _Linn. _ Gymnopleurus, _Illig_ smaragdifer, _Wlk. _ Koenigii, _Fabr. _ Sisyphus, _Latr. _ setosulus _Wlk. _ subsideus, _Wlk. _ Orepanocerus, _Kirby. _ Taprobanæ, _West. _ Cobris, _Geoffr. _ Pirmal, _Fabr. _ sagax, _Quens. _ capucinus, _Fabr. _ cribricollis, _Wlk. _ repertus, _Wlk. _ sodalis, _Wlk. _ signatus, _Wlk. _ diminutivus, _Wlk. _ Onthophagus, _Latr. _ Bonassus, _Fabr. _ cervicornis, _Fabr. _ prolixus, _Wlk. _ gravis, _Wlk. _ difficilis, _Wlk. _ lucens, _Wlk. _ negligens, _Wlk. _ moerens, _Wlk. _ turbatus. _Wlk. _ Onitis, _Fabr. _ Philemon, _Fabr. _ Fam. DYNASTIDÆ, _Macl. _ Oryctes, _Illig. _ rhinoceros, _Linn. _ Xylotrupes, _Hope. _ Gideon, _Linn. _ reductus, _Wlk. _ solidipes, _Wlk. _ Phileurus, _Latr. _ detractus, _Wlk. _ Orphnus, _Macl. _ detegens, _Wlk. _ scitissimus, _Wlk. _ Fam. GECTRUPIDÆ, _Leach_. Bolboceras, _Kirby_. Lineatus, _Westw_. Fam. MELOLONTHIDÆ, _Macl_. Melolontha, _Fabr_. Nummicudens, _Newm_. Rubiginosa, _Wlk_. Ferruginosa, _Wlk_. Seriata, _Hope_. Pinguis, _Wlk_. Setosa, _Wlk_. Rhizotrogus, _Latr_. Hirtipectus, _Wlk_. æqualis, _Wlk_. Costatus, _Wlk_. Inductus, _Wlk_. Exactus, _Wlk_. Sulcifer, _Wlk_. Phyllopertha, _Kirby_. Transversa, _Burm_. Silphodes, _Westw_. Indica, _Westw_. Trigonostoma, _Dej_. Assimile, _Hope_. Compressum? _Weid_. Nanum, _Wlk_. Serica, _Macl_. Pruinosa, _Hope_. Popilia, _Leach_. Marginicollis, _Newm_. Cyanella, _Hope_. Discalis, _Wlk_. Scricesthis, _Dej_. Rotundata, _Wlk_. Subsignata, _Wlk_. Mollis, _Wlk_. Confirmata, _Wlk_. Plectris, _Lep. & Serv_. Solida, _Wlk_. Punctigera, _Wlk_. Glabsilinea, _Wlk_. Isonychus, _Mann_. Ventralis, _Wlk_. Pectoralis, _Wlk_. Omaloplia, _Meg_. Fracta, _Wlk_. Interrupta, _Wlk_. Semicincta, _Wlk_. *hamifera, _Wlk_. *picta, _Dohrn_. *nana, _Dohrn_. Apogenia, _Kirby_. Nigricans, _Hope_. Phytalos _Erich_. Eurystomus, _Burm_. Ancylon cha. _Dej_. Reynaudii, _Blanch_. Leucopholis, _Dej_. Mellei, _Guer_. Pinguis, _Burm_. Anomala, _Meg_. Elata, _Fabr_. Humeralis, _Wlk_. Discalis, _Wlk_. Varicolor, _Sch_. Conformis, _Wlk_. Similis, _Hope_. Punctatissima, _Wlk_. Infixa, _Wlk_. Mimela, _Kirby_. Variegata, _Wlk_. Mundissima, _Wlk_. Parastasia, _Westw_. Rufopic a. _Westw_. Euchlora, _Macl_. Viridis, _Fabr_. Perplexa, _Hope_. Fam. CETONIADÆ, _Kirby_. Glycyphana, _Burm_. Versicolor, _Fabr_. Luctuosa, _Gory_. Variegata, _Fabr_. Marginicollis, _Gory_. Clinteria, _Burm_. Imperalis, _Schaum_. Incerta, _Parry_. Chloronota, _Blanch_. Tæniodera, _Burm_. Malabariensis, _Gory_. Quadrivittata, _White_. Alboguttata, _Vigors_. Protætia, _Burm_. Maculata, _Fabr_. Whitehousii, _Parry_. Agestrata, _Erich_. Nigrita, _Fabr_. Orichalcea, _Linn. _ Coryphocera, _Burm_. Elegans, _Fabr_. Nacronota, _Hoffm_. Quadrivittata, _Sch_. Fam. TRICHIADÆ, _Leach_. Valgus, _Scriba_. Addendus, _Wlk_. Fam. LUCANIDÆ, _Leach_. Odontolabis, _Burm_. Bengalensis, _Parry_. Emarginatus, _Dej_. Ægus, _Macl_. Acuminatus, _Fabr_. Lunatus, _Fabr_. Singuala, _Blanch_. Tenella, _Blanch_. Fam. PASSALIDÆ, _Macl_. Passalus, _Fabr_. Transversus, _Dohrn_. Interstitialis, _Perch_. Punctiger? _Lefeb_. Bicolor, _Fabr_. Fam. SPHÆRIDIADÆ, _Leach_. Sphæridium, _Fabr_. Tricolor, _Wlk_. Cercyon, _Leach_. *vicinale, _Wlk. _ Fam. HYDROPHILIDÆ, _Leach_. Hydrous, _Leach_. *rufiventris, _Niet_. *inconspicuus, _Niet. _ Hydrobius, _Leach. _ stultus, _Wlk. _ Philydrus, _Solier. _ esurieus, _Wlk. _ Berosus, _Leach. _ *decrescens, _Wlk. _ Hydrochus, _Germ. _ *lacustris, _Niet. _ Georyssus, _Latr. _ *gemma, _Niet. _ *insularis, _Dohrn. _ Dastareus, _Wlk. _ porosus, _Wlk. _ Fam. BUPRESTIDIE, _Steph. _ Sternocera, _Esch. _ chrysis, _Linn. _ sternicornis, _Linn. _ Chrysochroa, _Solier. _ ignita, _Linn. _ Chinensis, _Lap. _ Rajah, _Lap. _ *cyaneocephala, _Fabr. _ Chyrsodema, _Lap_ sulcata, _Thunb. _ Belionota, _Esch. _ scutellaris, _Fabr. _ *Petiri, _Gory. _ Chrysobothris, _Esch. _ suturalis, _Wlk. _ Agrilus, _Meg. _ sulcicollis, _Wlk. _ *cupreiceps, _Wlk. _ *cupreicollis, _Wlk. _ *armatus, _Fabr. _ Fam. ELATERIDÆ, _Leach. _ Campsosternos, _Latr. _ Templetonii, _Westw. _ aureolus, _Hope. _ Bohemannii, _Cand. _ venustulus, _Cand. _ pallidipes, _Cand. _ Agrypnus, _Esch. _ fuscipes, _Fabr. _ Alaus, _Esch. _ speciosus, _Linn. _ sordidus, _Westw. _ Cardiophorus, _Esch. _ humerifer, _Wlk. _ Corymbites, _Latr. _ dividens, _Wlk. _ divisa, _Wlk. _ *bivittava, _Wlk. _ Lacon, _Lap. _ *obesus, _Cand. _ Athous, _Esch. _ punctosus, _Wlk. _ inapertus, _Wlk. _ decretus, _Wlk. _ inefficiens, _Wlk. _ Ampedus, _Meg. _ *acutifer, _Wlk. _ *discicollis, _Wlk. _ Legna, _Wlk. _ idonea, _Wlk. _ Fam. LAMPYRIDÆ, _Leach. _ Lycus, _Fabr_. Triangularis, _Hope. _ geminus, _Wlk. _ astutus, _Wlk. _ fallix, _Wlk. _ planicornis, _Wlk. _ melanopterus, _Wlk. _ pubicornis, _Wlk. _ duplex, _Wlk. _ costifer, _Wlk. _ revocans, _Wlk. _ dispellens, _Wlk. _ *pubipennis, _Wlk. _ *humerifer, _Wlk. _ expansicornis, _Wlk. _ divisus, _Wlk. _ Dictyopterus, _Latr. _ internexus, _Wlk. _ Lampyris, _Geoff. _ tenebrosa, _Wlk. _ diffinis, _Wlk. _ lutescens, _Wlk. _ *vitrifera, _Wlk. _ Colophotia, _Dej. _ humeralis, _Wlk. _ [vespertina, _Febr. _ perplexa, _Wlk. _?] intricata, _Wlk. _ extricans, _Wlk. _ promelas, _Wlk. _ Harmatelia, _Wlk. _ discalis, _Wlk_ bilinea, _Wlk. _ Fam. TELEPHORIDÆ, _Leach. _ Telephorus, _Schäff. _ dimidiatus, _Fabr. _ malthinoides, _Wlk. _ Eugeusis, _Westw. _ palpator, _Westw. _ gryphus, _Hope. _ olivaceus, _Hope. _ Fam. CEBRIONIDÆ, _Steph. _ Callirhipis, _Latr. _ Templetonii, _Westw. _ Championii, _Westw. _ Fam. MERLYRIDÆ, _Leach. _ Malachius, _Fabr. _ plagiatus, _Wlk. _ Malthinus, _Latr. _ *forticornis, _Wlk. _ *retractus, _Wlk. _ fragilis, _Dohrn. _ Enciopus, _Steph. _ proficiens, _Wlk. _ Honosca, _Wlk. _ necrobioides, _Wlk. _ Fam. CLERIDÆ, _Kirby. _ Cylidrus, _Lap. _ sobrinus, _Dohrn. _ Stigmatium, _Gray. _ elaphroides, _Westw. _ Necrobia, _Latr. _ rufipes, _Fabr. _ aspera, _Wlk. _ Fam. PTINIDÆ, _Leach. _ Ptinus, _Linn. _ *nigerrimus, _Boield. _ Fam. DIAPERIDÆ, _Leach. _ Diaperis, _Geoff. _ velutina, _Wlk. _ fragilis, _Dohrn. _ Fam. TENEBRIONIDÆ, _Leach. _ Zophobas, _Dej. _ errans? _Dej. _ clavipes, _Wlk. _ ?solidus, _Wlk. _ Pseudoblaps, _Guer. _ nigrita, _Fabr. _ Tenebrio, _Linn. _ rubripes, _Hope. _ retenta, _Wlk. _ Trachyscelis, _Latr. _ brunnea, _Dohrn. _ Fam. OPATRIDÆ, _Shuck. _ Opatrum, _Fabr. _ contrahens, _Wlk. _ bilineatum, _Wlk. _ planatum, _Wlk. _ serricolle, _Wlk. _ Asida, _Latr. _ horrida, _Wlk. _ Crypticus, _Latr. _ detersus, _Wlk. _ longipennis, _Wlk. _ Phaleria, _Latr. _ rutipes, _Wlk. _ Toxicum, _Latr. _ oppugnans, _Wlk. _ biluna, _Wlk. _ Boletophagus, _Ill. _ *inorosus, _Dohrn. _ *exasperatus, _Dohrn. _ Uloma, _Meg. _ scita, _Wlk. _ Alphitophagus, _Steph. _ subFascia, _Wlk. _ Fam. HELOPIDÆ, _Steph. _ Osdara, _Wlk. _ picipes, _Wlk. _ Cholipus, _Dej. _ brevicornis, _Dej. _ parabolicus, _Wlk. _ læviusculus, _Wlk. _ Helops, _Fabr. _ ebeninus, _Wlk. _ Camaria, _Lep. & Serv. _ amethystina, _L. &S. _ Amarygmus, _Dalm. _ chrysomeloides, _Dej. _ Fam. MELOIDÆ, _Woll. _ Epicanta, _Dej. _ nigrifinis, _Wlk. _ Cissites, _Latr. _ testaceus, _Febr. _ Mylabris, _Fabr. _ humeralis, _Wlk. _ alterna, _Wlk. _ *recognita, _Wlk. _ Atratocerus, _Pal. , Bv. _ debilis, _Wlk. _ reversus, _Wlk. _ Fam. OEDEMERIDÆ, _Steph. _ Cistela, _Fabr_. Congrua, _Wlk_. *falsifica, _Wlk_. Allecula, _Fabr_. Fusiformis, _Wlk_. Elegans, _Wlk_. *flavifemur, _Wlk_. Sora, _Wlk_. *marginata, _Wlk_. Thaceona, _Wlk_. Dimelas, _Wlk_. Fam. MORDELLIDÆ, _Steph_. Acosmas, _Dej_. Languidus, _Wlk_. Rhipiphorus, _Fabr_. *tropicus, _Niet_. Mordella, _Linn. _ composita, _Wlk_. *detectiva, _Wlk_. Myrmecolax, _Westir_. *Nietneri, _Westir_. Fam. ANTHICIDÆ, _Wlk_. Anthicus, _Payk_. *quisquilairius, _Niet_. *insularius, _Niet_. *sticticollis, _Wlk_. Fam. CISSIDÆ, _Leach_. Cis, _Latr_. Contendens, _Wlk_. Fam. TOMICIDÆ, _Shuck_. Apate, _Fabr_. Submedia, _Wlk_. Bostrichus, _Geoff_. Mutuatus, _Wlk_. *vertens, _Wlk_. *moderatus, _Wlk_. . *testaceus, _Wlk_. *exiguns, _Wlk_. Platypus, _Herbst_. Minex, _Wlk_. Solidus, _Wlk_. *latifinis, _Wlk_. Hylurgus, _Latr_. Determinans, _Wlk_. *concinnulus, _Wlk_. Hylesinus, _Fahr_. Curvifer, _Wlk_. Despectus, _Wlk_. Irresolutus, _Wlk_. Fam. CURCULIONIDÆ, _Leach_. Bruchus, _Linn. _ scutellaris, _Fabr_. Spermophagus, _Steven_. Convolvuli, _Thunb_. Figuratus, _Wlk_. Cisti, _Fabr_. Incertus, _Wlk_. Decretus, _Wlk_. Dendropemon, _Schön_. *melancholicus, _Dohrn_. Dendrotrogus, _Jek_. Dohrnii, _Jek_. Discrepans, _Dohrn_. Eucorynus, _Schön_. Colligendus, _Wlk_. Colligens, _Wlk_. Basitropis, _Jek_. *disconotatus, _Jek_. Litocerus, _Schön_. Punctulatus, _Dohrn_. Tropideres, _Sch_. Punctulifer, _Dohrn_. Tragilis, _Wlk_. Cedus, _Waterh_. *cancellatus, _Dohrn_. Xylinades, _Latr_. Sobrinulus, _Dohrn_. Indignus, _Wlk_. Xenocerus, _Germ_. Anguliterus, _Wlk_. Revocans, _Wlk_. *anchoralis, _Dohrn_. Callistocerus, _Dohrn_. *Nietneri, _Dohrn_. Anthribus, _Geoff_. Longicornis, _Fabr_. Apicalis, _Wlk_. Facilis, _Wlk_. Aræcerus, _Schön_. Coffeæ, _Fabr_. *insidiosus, _Fabr_. *musculus, _Dohrn_. *intangens, _Wlk_. *bifovea, _Wlk_. Dipieza, _Pasc_. *insignis, _Dohrn_. Apolecta, _Pasc_. *Nietneri, _Dohrn_. *musculus, _Dohrn_. Arrhenodes, _Steven_. Miles, _Sch_. Pilicornis, _Sch_. Dentirosiris, _Jek_. Approximans, _Wlk_. Veneris, _Dohrn_. Cerobates, _Schön_. Thrasco, _Dohrn_. Aciculatus, _Wlk_. Ceocephalus, _Schön_. Cavus, _Wlk_. Reticulatus, _Fabr_. Nemocephalus, _Latr_. Sulcirostris, _De Haan_. Planicollis, _Wlk_. Spinirostris, _Wlk_. Apoderus, _Oliv_. Longicollis? _Fabr_. Tranquebaricus, _Fabr_. Cygneus, _Fabr_. Scitulus, _Wlk_. *triangularis, _Fabr_. *echinatus, _Sch_. Rhynchites, _Herbst_. Suffundens, _Wlk_. *restituens, _Wlk_. Apion, _Herbst_. *Cingalense, _Wlk_. Strophosomus, _Bilbug_. *suturalis, _Wlk_. Piazomias, _Schön_. æqualis, _Wlk_. Astycus, _Schön_. Lateralis, _Fabr_. ? ebeninus, _Wlk_. *immunis, _Wlk_. Cleonus, _Schön_. Inducens, _Wlk_. Myllocerus, _Schön_. Transmarinus, _Herbst_. ? spurcatus, _Wlk_. *retrahens, _Wlk_. *posticus, _Wlk_. Phyllobius, _Schön_. *mimicus, _Wlk_. Episomus, _Schön_. Pauperatus, _Fabr_. Lixus, _Fabr_. Nebulitascia, _Wlk_. Aclees, _Schön_. Cribratus, _Dej_. Alcides, _Dalm_. Signatus, _Boh_. Obliquus, _Wlk_. Transversus, _Wlk_. *clausus, _Wlk_. Acienemis, _Fairm_. Ceylonicus, _Jek_. Apotomorhinus, _Schön_. Signatus, _Wlk_. Alboater, _Wlk_. Cryptorhynchus, _Illig_. Ineffectus, _Wlk_. Assimilans, _Wlk_. Declaratus, _Wlk_. Notabilis, _Wlk_. Vexatus, _Wlk_. Camptorhinus, _Schön_. ? reversus, _Wlk_. *indiscretus, _Wlk_. Desmidophorus, _Chevr_. Hebes, _Fabr_. Communicans, _Wlk_. Strenuus, _Wlk_. *discriminans, _Wlk_. Inexpertus, _Wlk_. Fasciculicollis, _Wlk_. Sipaius, _Schön_. Granulatus, _Fabr_. Porosus, _Wlk_. Tinctus, _Wlk_. Mecopus, _Dalm_. *Waterhousei, _Dohrn_. Rhynchophorus, _Herbst_. Ferrugineus, _Fabr_. Introducens, _Wlk_. Protocerus, _Schön_. Molossus? _Oliv_. Sphænophorus, _Schön_. Glabridiscus, _Wlk_. Exquisitus, _Wlk_. Debaani?, _Jek_. Cribricollis, _Wlk_. ?panops, _Wlk_. Cossonus, _Clairv_. *quadrimacula, _Wlk_. ?hebes, _Wlk_. Ambiguus, _Sch_. ? Scitophilus, _Schön_. Orizæ, _Linn. _ disciferus, _Wlk_. Mecinus, Germ. *?relictus, _Wlk_. Fam. PRIONIDÆ, _Leach_. Trictenotoma, _G. R. Gray_. Templetoni, _Westw_. Prionomina, _White_. Orientalis, _Oliv_. Acanthophorus, _Serv_. Serraticornis, _Oliv_. Cnemoplites, _Newm_. Rhesus, _Motch_. Ægosoma, _Serv_. Cingalense, _White_. Fam. CERAMBYCIDÆ, _Kirby_. Cerambyx, _Linn. _ indutus, _Newm_. Vernicosus, _Pasc_. Consocius, _Pasc_. Versutus, _Pasc_. Nitidus, _Pasc_. Macilentus, _Pasc_. Venustus, _Pasc_. Torticollis, _Dohrn_. Sebasmia, _Pasc_. Templetoni, _Pasc_. Callichroma, _Latr_. Trogoninum, _Pasc_. Telephoroides, _Westw_. Homalomelas, _White_. Gracilipes, _Parry_. Zonatus, _Pasc_. Colobus, _Serv_. Cingalensis, _White_. Thramus, _Pasc_. Gibbosus, _Pasc_. Deuteromina, _Pasc_. Mutica, _Pasc_. Obrium, _Meg_. Laterale, _Pasc_. Moestum, _Pasc_. Psilomerus, _Blanch_. Macilentus, _Pasc_. Clytus, _Fabr_. Vicinus, _Hope_. Ascendens, _Pasc_. Walkeri, _Pasc_. Annularis, _Fabr_. *aurilinea, _Dohrn_. Rhaphuma, _Pasc_. Leucoscutellata, _Hope_. Ceresium, _Newm_. Cretatum, _White_. Zeylanicum, _White_. Stromatium, _Serv_. Barbatum, _Fabr_. Maculatum, _White_. Hespherophanes, _Muls_. Simplex, _Gyll_. Fam. LAMIDIÆ, _Kirby_. Nyphona, _Muls_. Cylindracea, _White_. Mesosa, _Serv_. Columba, _Pasc_. Coptops, _Serv_. Bidens, _Fabr_. Xylorhiza, _Dej_. Adusta, _Wied_. Cacia, _Newm_. Triloba, _Pasc_. Batocera, _Blanch_. Rubus, _Fabr_. Ferruginea, _Blanch_. Monohammus, _Meg_. Tistulator, _Germ_. Crucifer, _Fabr_. Nivosus, _White_. Commixtus, _Pasc_. Cereposius, _Dup_. Patronus, _Pasc_. Pelargoderus, _Serv_. Tigrinus, _Chevr_. Olenocamptus, _Chevr_. Bilobus, _Fabr_. Praonetha, _Dej_. Annulata, _Chevr_. Posticalis, _Pasc_. Apomecyna, _Serv_. Histrio, _Fabr_. , var. ? Ropica, _Pasc_. Præusta, _Pasc_. Hathlia, _Serv_. Procera, _Pasc_. Iolea, _Pasc_. Proxima, _Pasc_. Histrio, _Pasc_. Glenea, _Newm_. Sulphurella, _White_. Commissa, _Pasc_. Scapitera, _Pasc_. Vexator, _Pasc_. Stibara, _Hope_. Nigricornis, _Fabr_. Fam. HISPIDÆ, _Kirby_. Oncocephala, _Dohrn_. Deltoides, _Dohrn_. Leptispa, _Baly_. Pygmæa, _Baly_. Amplistea, _Baly_. Döhrnii, _Baly_. Estigmena, _Hope_. Chinensis, _Hope_. Hispa, _Linn. _ hystrix, _Fabr_. Erinacea, _Fabr_. Nigrina, _Dohrn_. *Walkeri, _Baly_. Platypria, _Guér_. Echidna, _Guér_. Fam. CASSIDIDÆ, _Westw_. Episticia, _Boh_. Matronula, _Boh_. Hoplionota, _Hope_. Tetraspilota, _Baly_. Rubromarginata, _Boh_. Horrifica, _Boh_. Aspidomorpha, _Hope_. St. Crucis, _Fabr_. Miliaris, _Fabr_. Pallidimarginata, _Baly_. Dorsata, _Fabr_. Calligera, _Boh_. Micans, _Fabr_. Cassida, _Linn. _ clathrata, _Fabr_. Timefacta, _Boh_. Farinosa, _Boh_. Laccoptera, _Boh_. 14-notata, _Boh_. Coptcycla, _Chevr_. Sex-notata, _Fabr_. 13-signata, _Boh_. 13-notata, _Boh_. Ornata, _Fabr_. Ceylonica, _Boh_. Balyi, _Boh_. Trivittata, _Fabr_. 15-punctuata, _Boh_. Catenata, _Dej_. Fam. SAGRIDÆ, _Kirby_. Sagra, _Fabr_. Nigrita, _Oliv_. Fam. DONACIDÆ, _Lacord_. Donacia, _Fabr_. Delesserti, _Guér_. Coptocephala, _Chev_. Templetoni, _Baly_. Fam. EUMOLFIDÆ, _Baly_. Corynodes, _Hope_. Cyaneus, _Hope_. æneus, _Baly_. Glyptoscelis, _Chevr_. Templetoni, _Baly_. Pyrospilotus, _Baly_. Micans, _Baly_. Cupreus, _Baly_. Eumolpus, _Fabr_. Lemoides, _Wlk_. Fam. CRYPTOCEPHALIDÆ, _Kirby_. Cryptocephalus, _Geoff_. Sex-punctatus, _Fabr_. Walkeri, _Baly_. Diapromorpha, _Lac_. Turcica, _Fabr_. Fam. CHRYSOMELIDÆ, _Leach_. Chalcolampa, _Baly_. Templetoni, _Baly_. Lina, _Meg_. Convexa, _Baly_. Chrysomela, _Linn. _ Templetoni, _Baly_. Fam. GALERUCIDÆ, _Steph_. Galeruca, _Geoff_. *pectinata, _Dohrn_. Graphodera, _Chevr_. Cyanea, _Fabr_. Monolepta, _Chevr_. Pulchella, _Baly_. Thyamis, _Steph_. Ceylonicus, _Baly_. Fam. COCCINELLIDÆ, _Latr_. Epilachna, _Chevr_. 28-punctata, _Fabr_. Delessortii, _Guér_. Pubescens, _Hope_. Innuba, _Oliv_. Coccinella, _Linn. _ tricincta, _Fabr_. *repanda, _Muls_. Tenuilinea, _Wlk_. Rejiciens, _Wlk_. Interrumpens, _Wlk_. Quinqueplaga, _Wlk_. Simplex, _Wlk_. Antica, _Wlk_. Flaviceps, _Wlk_. Neda, _Muls_. Tricolor, _Fabr_. Coelophora, _Muls_. 9-maculata, _Fabr_. ? Chilocorus, _Leach_. Opponens, _Wlk_. Scymnus, _Kug_. Varibilis, _Wlk_. Fam. EROTYLIDÆ, _Leach_. Fatua, _Dej_. Nepalensis, _Hope_. Triplax, _Payk_. Decorus, _Wlk_. Tritoma, _Fabr_. *bilactes, _Wlk_. *preposita, _Wlk_. Ischyrus, _Cherz_. Grandis, _Fabr_. Fam. ENDOMYCHIDÆ, _Leach_. Eugonius, _Gerst_. Annularis, _Gerst_. Lunulatus, _Gerst_. Eumorphus, _Weber_. Pulcripes, _Gerst_. *tener, _Dohrn_. Stenotarsus, _Perty_. Nietneri, _Gerst_. *castaneus, _Gerst_. *tormentosus, _Gerst_. *vallatus, _Gerst_. Lycoperdina, _Latr_. Glabrata, _Wlk_. Ancylopus, _Gerst_. Melanocephalus, _Oliv_. Saula, _Gerst_. *nigripes, _Gerst_. *ferruginea, _Gerst_. Mycerina, _Gerst_. Castanea, _Gerst_. Order ORTHOPTERA, _Linn. _ Fam. FORFICULIDÆ, _Steph_. Forficula, _Linn. _ ------? Fam. BLATTIDÆ, _Steph_. Panesthia, _Serv_. Javanica, _Serv_. Plagiata, _Wlk_. Polyxosteria, _Burm_. Larva. Corydia, _Serv_. Petiveriana, _Linn. _ Fam. MANTIDÆ, _Leach_. Empusa, _Illig_. Gongylodes, _Linn. _ Harpax, _Serv_. Signiter, _Wlk_. Schizocephala, _Serv_. Bicornis, _Linn. _ Mantis, _Linn. _ superstitiosa, _Fabr_. Aridifolia, _Stoll_. Extensicollis, ? _Serv_. Fam. PHASMIDÆ, _Serv_. Acrophylla, _Gray_. Systropedon, _Westw_. Phasma, _Licht_. Sordidium, _DeHaan_. Phyllium, _Illig_. Siccifolium, _Linn. _ Fam. GRYLLIDÆ, _Steph_. Acheta, _Linn. _ bimaculata, _Deg_. Supplicans, _Wlk_. æqualis, _Wlk_. Confirmata, _Wlk_. Platydactylus, _Brull_. Crassipes, _Wlk_. Steirodon, _Serv_. Lanceolatum, _Wlk_. Phyllophora, _Thunb_. Falsifolia, _Wlk_. Acanthodis, _Serv_. Rugosa, _Wlk_. Phaneroptera, _Serv_. Attenuata, _Wlk_. Phymateus, _Thunb_. Miliaris, _Linn. _ Truxalis, _Linn. _ exaltata, _Wlk_. Porrecta, _Wlk_. Acridium, _Geoffr_. Extensum, _Wlk_. Deponens, _Wlk_. Rutitibia, _Wlk_. Cinctifemur, _Wlk_. Respondens, _Wlk_. Nigrifascia, _Wlk_. Order PHYSAPODA, _Dum_. Thrips, _Linn. _ stenomeras, _Wlk_. Order NEUROPTERA, _Linn. _ Fam. SERICOSTOMIDÆ, _Steph_. Mormonia, _Curt_. *ursina, _Hagen_. Fam. LEPTOCERIDÆ, _Leach_. Macronema, _Pict_. Multifarium, _Wlk_. *splendidum, _Hagen_. *nebulosum, _Hagen_. *obliquum, _Hagen_. *Ceylanicum, _Niet_. *annulicorne, _Niet_. Molanna, _Curt_. Mixta, _Hagen_. Setodes, _Ramb_. *Iris, _Hagen_. *Ino, _Hagen_. Fam. PSYCHOMIDÆ, _Curt_. Chimarra, _Leach_. *aurieps, _Hagen_. *tunesta, _Hagen_. *sepulcralis, _Hagen_. Fam. HYDROPSYCHIDÆ, _Curt_. Hydropsyche, _Pict_. *Taprobanes, _Hagen_. *mitis, _Hagen_. Fam. RHYACOPHILIDÆ, _Steph_. Rhyacophila, _Pict_. *castanea, _Hagen_. Fam. PERLIDÆ, _Leach_. Perla, _Geoffr_. Angulata, _Wlk_. *testacea, _Hagen_. *limosa, _Hagen_. Fam. SILIDÆ, _Westw_. Dilar, _Ramb_. *Nietneri, _Hagen_. Fam. HEMEROBIDÆ, _Leach_. Mantispa, _Illig_. *Indica, _Westw_. Mutata, _Wlk_. Chrysopa, _Leach_. Invaria, _Wlk_. *tropica, _Hagen_. Auritera, _Wlk_. *punctata, _Hagen_. Micromerus, _Ramb_. *linearis, _Hagen_. *australis, _Hagen_. Hemerobius, _Linn. _ *frontalis, _Hagen_. Coniopteryx, _Hal_. *cerata, _Hagen_. Fam. MYRMELEONIDÆ, _Leach_. Palpares, _Ramb_. Contrarius, _Wlk_. Acanthoclisis, _Ramb_. *--n. S. _Hagen_. *molestus, _Wlk_. Myrmeleon, _Linn. _ gravis, _Wlk_. Nirus, _Wlk_. Barbarus, _Wlk_. Ascalaphus, _Fabr_. Nugax, _Wlk_. Incusans, _Wlk_. *cervinus, _Niet_. Fam. PSOCIDÆ, _Leach_. Psocus, _Latr_. *Taprobanes, _Hagen_. *oblitus, _Hagen_. *consitus, _Hagen_. *trimaculatus, _Hagen_. *obtusus, _Hagen_. *elongatus, _Hagen_. *chloroticus, _Hagen_. *aridus, _Hagen_. *coleoptratus, _Hagen_. *dolabratus, _Hagen_. *infelix, _Hagen_. Fam. TERMITIDÆ, _Leach_. Termes, _Linn. _ Taprobanes, _Wlk_. Fatalis, _Koen_. Monocerous, _Koen_. *umbilicatus, _Hagen_. *n. S. , _Jouv_. *n. S. , _Jouv_. Fam. EMBIDÆ, _Hagen_. Oligotoma, _Westw_. *Saundersii, _Westw_. Fam. EPHEMERIDÆ, _Leach_. Bætis, _Leach_. Taprobanes, _Wlk_. Potamanthus, _Pict_. *fasciatus, _Hagen_. *annulatus, _Hagen_. *femoralis, _Hagen_. Cloe, _Burm_. *tristis, _Hagen_. *consueta, _Hagen_. *solida, _Hagen_. *sigmata, _Hagen_. *marginalis, _Hagen_. Cænis, _Steph_. Perpusida, _Wlk_. Fam. LIBELLULIDÆ. Calopteryx, _Leach_. Chinensis, _Linn. _ Euphoea, _Selys_. Splendens, _Hagen_. Micromerus, _Ramb_. Lineatus, _Burm_. Trichoenemys, _Selys_. *serapica, _Hagen_. Lestes, _Leach_. *elata, _Hagen_. *gracilis, _Hagen_. Agrion, _Fabr_. *Coromandelianum, _F. _ *tenax, _Hagen_. *hilare, _Hagen_. *velare, _Hagen_. *delicatum, _Hagen_. Gynacantha, _Ramb_. Subinterrupta, _Ramb_. Epophthalmia, _Burm_. Vittata, _Burm_. Zyxomma, _Ramb_. Petiolatum, _Ramb_. Acisoma, _Ramb_. Panorpoides, _Ramb_. Libellula, _Linn. _ Marcia, _Drury_. Tillarga, _Fabr_. Variegata, _Linn. _ flavescens, _Fabr_. Sabina, _Drury_. Viridula, _Pal. Beauv_. Congener, _Ramb_. Soror, _Ramb_. Aurora, _Burm_. Violacea, _Niet_. Perla, _Hagen_. Sanguinea, _Burm_. Trivialis, _Ramb_. Contaminata, _Fabr_. Equestris, _Fabr_. Nebulosa, _Fabr_. Order HYMENOPTERA, _Linn. _ Fam. FORMICIDÆ, _Leach_. Formica, _Linn. _ smaragdina, _Fabr_. Mitis, _Smith_. *Taprobane, _Smith_. *variegata, _Smith_. *exercita, _Wlk_. *exundans, _Wlk_. *meritans, _Wlk_. *latebrosa, _Wlk_. *pangens, _Wlk_. *ingruens, _Wlk_. *detorquens, _Wlk_. *diffidens, _Wlk_. *obscurans, _Wlk_. *indeflexa, _Wlk_. Consultans, _Wlk_. Polyrhachis, _Smith_. *illandatus, _Wlk_. Fam. PONERIDÆ, _Smith_. Odontomachus, _Latr_. Simillimus, _Smith_. Typhlopone, _Westw_. Curtisii, _Shuck_. Myrmica, _Latr_. Basalis, _Smith_. Contigua, _Smith_. Glyciphila, _Smith_. *consternens, _Wlk_. Crematogaster, _Lund_. *pellens, _Wlk_. *deponens, _Wlk_. *forticulus, _Wlk_. Pseudomyrma, _Guré_. *atrata, _Smith_. Allaborans, _Wlk_. Atta, _St. Farg_. Didita, _Wlk_. Pheidole, _Westw_. Janus, _Smith_. *Taprobanæ, _Smith_. *rugosa, _Smith_. Meranopius, _Smith_. *dimicans, _Wlk_. Cataulacus, _Smith_. Taprobanæ, _Smith_. Fam. MUTILLIDÆ, _Leach_. Mutilla, _Linn. _ *Sibylla, _Smith_. Tiphia, _Fabr_. *decrescens, _Wlk_. Fam. EUMENIDÆ, _Westw_. Odynerus, _Latr_. *tinctipennis, _Wlk_. *intendens, _Wlk_. *intendens, _Wlk_. Scolia, _Fabr_. Auricollis, _St. Farg_. Fam. CRABRONIDÆ, _Leach_. Philanthus, _Fabr_. Basalis, _Smith_. Stigmus, _Jur_. *congruus, _Wilk_. Fam. SPHEGIDÆ, _Steph_. Ammophila, _Kirby_. Atripes, _Smith_. Pelopæus, _Latr_. Spinolæ, _St. Farg_. Sphex, _Fabr_. Ferruginea, _St. Farg_. Ampulex, _Jur_. Compressa, _Fabr_. Fam. LARRIDÆ, _Steph_. Larrada, _Smith_. *extensa, _Wlk_. Fam. POMPILIDÆ, _Leach_. Pompilus, _Fabr_. Analis, _Fabr_. Fam. APIDÆ, _Leach_. Andrena, _Fabr_. *exagens, _Wlk_. Nomia, _Latr_. Rustica, _Westw_. *vincta, _Wlk_. Allodaps, _Smith_. *marginata, _Smith_. Ceratina, _Latr_. Viridis, _Guér_. Picta, _Smith_. *similliana, _Smith_. Coelioxys, _Latr_. Capitata, _Smith_. Croeisa, _Jur_. *ramosa, _St. Farg_. Stelis, _Panz_. Carbonaria, _Smith_. Anthophora, _Latr_. Zonarta, _Smith_. Xylocopa, _Latr_. Tenuiscatia, _Westw_. Latipes, _Drury_. Apis, _Linn. _ Indica, _Smith_. Trigona, _Jur_. Iridipennis, _Smith_. *præterita, _Wlk_. Fam. CHRYSIDÆ, _Wlk_. Stilbum, _Spin_. Splendidum, _Dahl_. Fam. DORYLIDÆ, _Shuck_. Enictus, _Shuck_. Porizonoides, _Wlk_. Fam. ICHNEUONIDÆ, _Leach_. Cryptus, _Fabr_. *onustus, _Wlk_. Hemiteles?, _Grav_. *varius, _Wlk_. Porizon, _Fabr_. *dominans, _Wlk_. Pimpla, _Fabr_. Albopicta, _Wlk_. Fam. BRACONIDÆ, _Hal_. Microgaster, _Latr_. *recusans, _Wlk_. *significans, _Wlk_. *subducens, _Wlk_. *detracta, _Wlk_. Spathius, _Nees_. *bisignatus, _Wlk_. *signipennis, _Wlk_. Heratemis, _Wlk_. *tilosa, _Wlk_. Nebartha, _Wlk_. *macropoides, _Wlk_. Psyttalia, _Wlk_. *testacea, _Wlk_. Fam. CHALCIDIÆ, _Spin_. Chalcis, _Fabr_. *dividens, _Wlk_. *pandens, _Wlk_. Halticella, _Spin_. *rufimanus, _Wlk_. *inticiens, _Wlk_. Dirrhinus, _Dalm_. *anthracia, _Wlk_. Eurytoma, _Ill_. *contraria, _Wlk_. Indefensa, _Wlk_. Eucharis, _Latr_. *convergens, _Wlk_. *deprivata, _Wlk_. Pteromalus, _Swed_. *magniceps, _Wlk_. Encyrtus, _Latr_. *obstructus, _Wlk_. Fam. DIAPRIDÆ, _Hal_. Diapria, _Latr_. Apicalis, _Wlk_. Order LEPIDOPTERA, _Linn. _ Fam. PAPILIONIDÆ, _Leach_. Ornithoptera, _Boisd_. Darsius, _G. R. Gray_. Papilio, _Linn. _ Diphilus, _Esp_. Jophon, _G. R. Gray_. Hector, _Linn. _ Romulus, _Cram_. Polymnestor, _Cram_. Crino, _Fabr_. Helenus, _Linn. _ Pammon, _Linn. _ Polytes, _Linn. _ Erithonius, _Cram_. Antipathis, _Cram_. Agamemnon, _Linn. _ Eurypilus, _Linn. _ Bathycles, _Zinck-Som_. Sarpedon, _Linn. _ dissimilis, _Linn. _ Pontia, _Fabr_. Nina, _Fabr_. Pleris, _Schr_. Eucharis, _Drury_. Coronis, _Cram_. Epicharis, _Godt_. Nama, _Doubl_. Remba, _Moore_. Mesentina, _Godt_. Severina, _Cram_. Namouna, _Doubl_. Phryne, _Fabr_. Paulina, _Godt_. Thestylis, _Doubl_. Callosune, _Doubl_. Eucharis, _Fabr_. Danaë, _Fabr_. Etrida, _Boisd_. Idmais, _Boisd_. Calais, _Cram_. Thestias, _Boisd_. Marianne, _Cram_. Pirene, _Linn. _ Hebomoia, _Hübn_. Glaucippe, _Linn. _ Eronia, _Hübn_. Valeria, _Cram_. Callidryas, _Boisd_. Philippina, _Boisd_. Pyranthe, _Linn. _ Hilaria, _Cram_. Alcmeone, _Cram_. Thisorella, _Boisd_. Terias, _Swain_. Drona, _Horsf_. Hecabe, _Linn. _ Fam. NYMPHALIDÆ, _Swain_. Euploea, _Fabr_. Prothoe, _Godt_. Core, _Cram_. Alcathoë, _Godt_. Danais, _Latr_. Chrysippus, _Linn. _ Plexippus, _Linn. _ Aglæ, _Cram_. Melissa, _Cram_. Limniacæ, _Cram_. Juventa, _Cram_. Hestia, _Hübn_. Jasonia, _Westw_. Telchinia, _Hübn_. Violæ, _Fabr_. Cethosia, _Fabr_. Cyane, _Fabr_. Messarus, _Doubl_. Erymanthis, _Drury_. Atella, _Doubl_. Phalanta, _Drury_. Argychis, _Fabr_. Niphe, _Linn. _ Clagia, _Godt_. Ergolis, _Boisd_. Taprobana, _West_. Vanessa, _Fabr_. Charonia, _Drury_. Libythea, _Fabr_. Medhavina, _Wlk_. Pushcara, _Wlk_. Pyrameis, _Hübn_. Charonia, _Drury_. Cardui, _Linn. _ Callirhoë, _Hübn_. Junonia, _Hübn_. Limomas, _Linn. _ Oenone, _Linn. _ Orithia, _Linn. _ Laomedia, _Linn. _ Asterie, _Linn. _ Precis, _Hübn_. Iphita, _Cram_. Cynthia, _Fabr_. Arsinoe, _Cram_. Parthenos, _Hübn_. Gambrisius, _Fabr_. Limenitis, _Fabr_. Calidusa, _Moore_. Neptis, _Fabr_. Heliodore, _Fabr_. Columelia, _Cram_. Aceris, _Fabr_. Jumbah, _Moore_. Hordonia, _Stoll_. Diadema, _Boisd_. Auge, _Cram_. Bolina, _Linn. _ Symphædra, _Hubn_. Thyelia, _Fabr_. Adolias, _Boisd_. Evelina, _Stoll_. Lutentina, _Fabr_. Vasanta, _Moore_. Garuda, _Moore_. Nymphalis, _Latr_. Psaphon, _Westw_. Bernardus, _Fabr_. Athamas, _Cram_. Fabius, _Fabr_. Katlima, _Doubl_. Philarchus, _Westw_. Melanitis, _Fabr_. Banksia, _Fabr_. Leda, _Linn. _ Casiphone, _G. R. Gray_. Undularis, _Boisd_. Ypththima, _Hübn_. Lysandra, _Cram_. Parthalis, _Wlk_. Cyllo, _Boisd_. Gorya, _Wlk_. Cathæna, _Wlk_. Embolima, _Wlk_. Neilgherriensis, _Guér_. Purimata, _WLk_. Pushpamitra, _Wlk_. Mycalesis, _Hübn_. Patnia, _Moore_. *Gamaliba, _Wlk_. Dosaron, _Wlk_. Samba, _Moore_. Cænonympha, _Hübn_. Euaspla, _Wlk_. Emesis, _Fabr_. Echerius, _Stoll_. Fam. LYCÆNIDÆ, _Leach_. Anops, _Boisd_. Bulis, _Boisd_. Thetys, _Drury_. Loxura, _Horsf_. Atymnus, _Cram_. Myrina, _Godt_. Schumous, _Doubled_. Triopas, _Cram_. Amblypodia, _Horsf_. Longinus, _Fabr_. Narada, _Horsf_. Pseudocentaurus, _Do_. Quercetorum, _Boisd_. Aphnæus, _Hübn_. Pindarus, _Fabr_. Etolus, _Cram_. Hephæstos, _Doubled_. Crotus, _Doubled_. Dipsas, _Doubled_. Chrysomallus, _Hübn_. Isocrates, _Fabr_. Lycæna, _Fabr_. Alexis, _Stoll_. Boetica, _Linn. _ Chejus, _Horsf_. Rosimon, _Fabr_. Theophrasius, _Fabr_. Pluto, _Fabr_. Parana, _Horsf_. Nyseus, _Guér_. Ethion, _Basd_. Celeno, _Cram_. Kandarpa, _Horsf_. Elpis, _Godt_. Chimonas, _Wlk_. Gandara, _Wlk_. Chorienis, _Wlk_. Geria, _Wlk_. Doanas, _Wlk_. Sunya, _Wlk_. Audhra, _Wlk_. Polyommatus, _Latr_. Akasa, _Horsf_. Puspa, _Horsf_. Laius, _Cram_. Ethion, _Boisd_. Cataigara, _Wlk_. Gorgippia, _Wlk_. Lucia, _Westw_. Epius, _Westw_. Pithecops, _Horsf_. Hylax, _Fabr_. Fam. HESPERIDÆ, _Steph_. Goniloba, _Westw_. Iapetus, _Cram_. Pyrgus, _Hübn_. Superna, _Moore_. Danna, _Moore_. Genta, _Wlk_. Sydrus, _Wlk_. Nisoniades, _Hübn_. Diocles, _Boisd_. Salsala, _Moore_. Toides, _Wlk_. Pamphila, _Fabr_. Angias, _Linn. _ Achylodes, _Hübn_. Temata, _Wlk_. Hesperia, _Fabr_. Indrani, _Moore_. Chaya, _Moore_. Cinnara, _Moore_. Gremius, _Latr_. Ceodochates, _Wlk_. Tiagara, _Wlk_. Cetiaris, _Wlk_. Sigala, _Wlk_. Fam. SPHINGIDÆ, _Leach_. Sesia, _Fabr_. Hylas, _Linn. _ Macroglossa, _Ochs_. Stenatarum, _Linn. _ gyrans, _Borsd_. Corythus, _Borsd_. Divergens, _Wlk_. Calymina, _Borsd_. Panopus, _Cram_. Choerocampa, _Dup_. Thyslia, _Linn. _ Nyssus, _Drury_. Clotho, _Drury_. Oldenlandiæ, _Fabr_. Lycetus, _Cram_. Silhetensis, _Boisd_. Pergesa, _Wlk_. Acteus, _Cram_. Panacia, _Wlk_. Vigil, _Guér_. Daphnis, _Hübn_. Nern, _Linn. _ Zonitia, _Boisd_. Morpheus, _Cram_. Macrosila, _Boisd_. Ordiqua, _Wlk_. Discistriga, _Wlk_. Sphinx, _Linn. _ convolvuli, _Linn. _ Acherontia, _Ochs_. Satanas, _Boisd_. Smerintinis, _Latr_. Dryas, _Boisd_. Fam. CASTNIIDÆ, _Wlk_. Eusemia, _Dalm_. Beliatrix, _Westw_. Ægocera, _Latr_. Venuia, _Cram_. Bimacula, _Wlk_. Fam. ZYGÆNIDÆ, _Leach_. Syntomis, _Ochs_. Schoenherri, _Boisd_. Creusa, _Linn. _ Imaoa, _Cram_. Glaucopis, _Fabr_. Subaurata, _Wlk_. Enchiomia, _Hübn_. Polymena, _Cram_. Diminuta, _Wlk_. Fam. LITHOSIIDÆ, _Steph_. Scaptesyle, _Wlk_. Bicolor, _Wlk_. Nyctemera, _Hübn_. Lacticima, _Cram_. Latistriga, _Wlk_. Coleta, _Cram_. Euschema, _Hübn_. Subrepleta, _Wlk_. Transversa, _Wlk_. Vilis, _Wlk_. Chalcosia, _Hübn_. Tiberina, _Cram_. Venosa, _Anon_. Eterusia, _Hope_. Ædea, _Linn. _ Trypanophora, _Koll_. Taprobanes, _Wlk_. Heteropan, _Wlk_. Scintillans, _Wlk_. Hypsa, _Hübn_. Plana, _Wlk_. Caricæ, _Fabr_. Ficus, _Fabr_. Vitessa, _Moor_. Zeinire, _Cram_. Lithosia, _Fabr_. Autica, _Wlk_. Brevipennis, _Wlk_. Setina, _Schr_. Semitascia, _Wlk_. Solita, _Wlk_. Doliche, _Wlk_. Hilaris, _Wlk_. Pitane, _Wlk_. Conserta, _Wlk_. Æmene, _Wlk_. Taprobanes, _Wlk_. Dirade, _Wlk_. Attacoides, _Wlk_. Cyllene, _Wlk_. Transversa, _Wlk_. *spoliata, _Wlk_. Bizone, _Wlk_. Subornata, _Wlk_. Peregrina, _Wlk_. Delopeia, _Steph_. Pulcella, _Linn. _ Astrea, _Drury_. Argus, _Kodar_. Fam. ARCHTIIDÆ, _Leach_. Alope, _Wlk_. Ocellitera, _Wlk_. Sangalida, _Cram_. Tinolius, _Wlk_. Eburneigutta, _Wlk_. Creatonotos, _Hübn_. Interrupta, _Linn. _ emitteus, _Wlk_. Acmonia, _Wlk_. Etnosioides, _Wlk_. Spilosoma, _Steph_. Subtascia, _Wlk_. Cycnia, _Hübn_. Rubida, _Wlk_. Sparsigutta, _Wlk_. Antheua, _Wlk_. Discalis, _Wlk_. Atoa, _Wlk_. Lactmea, _Cram_. Candidula, _Wlk_. Erisa, _Wlk_. Amerila, _Wlk_. Melipithus, _Wlk_. Ammotho, _Wlk_. Cunionotatus, _Wlk_. Fam. LIPARIDÆ, _Wlk_. Artaxa, _Wlk_. Guttata, _Wlk_. *varians, _Wlk_. Atomaria, _Wlk_. Acyphas, _Wlk_. Viridescens, _Wlk_. Lacida, _Wlk_. Rotundata, _Wlk_. Antica, _Wlk_. Subnotata, _Wlk_. Complens, _Wlk_. Promittens, _Wlk_. Strigulitera, _Wlk_. Amsacta? _Wlk_. Tenebrosa, _Wlk_. Antipha, _Wlk_. Costalis, _Wlk_. Anaxila, _Wlk_. Norata, _Wlk_. Procodeca, _Wlk_. Angulifera, _Wlk_. Redoa, _Wlk_. Submarginata, _Wlk_. Euproctis, _Hübn_. Virguncula, _Wlk_. Bimaculata, _Wlk_. Lunata, _Wlk_. Tinctifera, _Wlk_. Cispia, _Wlk_. Plagiata, _Wlk_. Dasychira, _Hübn_. Pudibunda, _Linn. _ Lymantria, _Hühn_. Grandis, _Wlk_. Marginata, _Wlk_. Enome, _Wlk_. Ampla, _Wlk_. Dreata, _Wlk_. Plumipes, _Wlk_. Geminata, _Wlk_. Mutans, _Wlk_. Mollifera, _Wlk_. Pandala, _Wlk_. Dolosa, _Wlk_. Charnidas, _Wlk_. Junctifera, _Wlk_. Fam. PSYCHIDÆ, _Bru_. Psyche, _Schr_. Doubledaii, _Westw_. Metisa, _Wlk_. Plana, _Wlk_. Eumeta, _Wlk_. Cramerii, _Westw_. Templetonii, _Westw_. Cryptothelea, _Templ_. Consorta, _Templ_. Fam. NOTODONTIDÆ, _St_. Cerura, _Schr_. Liturata, _Wlk_. Stauropus, _Germ_. Alternans, _Wlk_. Nioda, _Wlk_. Fusiformis, _Wlk_. Transversa, _Wlk_. Rilia, _Wlk_. Lanceolata, _Wlk_. Basivitta, _Wlk_. Ptilomacra, _Wlk_. Juvenis, _Wlk_. Elavia, _Wlk_. Metaphæa, _Wlk_. Notodonta, _Ochs_. Ejecta, _Wlk_. Ichthyura, _Hübn_. Restituens, _Wlk_. Fam. LIMACODIDÆ, _Dup_. Scopelodes, _Westw_. Unicolor, _Westw_. Messata, _Wlk_. Rubiginosa, _Wlk_. Miresa, _Wlk_. Argeutifera, _Wlk_. Aperiens, _Wlks_. Nyssia, _Herr Sch_. Læta, _Westw_. Neæra, _Herr. Sch_. Graciosa, _Westw_. Narosa, _Wlk_. Conspersa, _Wlk_. Naprepa, _Wlk_. Varians, _Wlk_. Fam. DREPANULIDÆ, _Wlk_. Oreta, _Wlk_. Suffusa, _Wlk_. Extensa, _Wlk_. Arna, _Wlk_. Apicaus, _Wlk_. Ganisa, _Wlk_. Postica, _Wlk_. Fam. SATURINIDÆ, _Wlk_. Attacus, _Linn. _ Atlas, _Linn. _ lunula, _Anon_. Antheræa, _Hübn_. Mylitta, _Drury_. Assama, _Westw_. Tropæa, _Hübn_. Selene, _Hübn_. Fam. BOMBYCIDÆ, _Steph_. Trabala, _Wlk_. Basalis, _Wlk_. Prasina, _Wlk_. Lasiocampa, _Schr_. Trifascia, _Wlk_. Megasoma, _Boisd_. Venustum, _Wlk_. Lebeda, _Wlk_. Repanda, _Wlk_. Plagiata, _Wlk_. Bimaculata, _Wlk_. Scriptiplaga, _Wlk_. Fam. COSSIDÆ, _Newm_. Cossus, _Fabr_. Quadrinotatus, _Wlk_. Zeuzera, _Latr_. Leuconota, _Steph_. Pusilla, _Wlk_. Fam. HEPIALIDÆ, _Steph_. Phassus, _Steph_. Signifer, _Wlk_. Fam. CYMATOPHORIDÆ, _Herr. Sch_. Thyatira, _Ochs_. Repugnans, _Wlk_. Fam. BRYOPHILIDÆ, _Guén_. Bryophila, _Treit_. Semipars, _Wlk_. Fam. BOMBYGOIDÆ, _Guén_. Diphtera, _Ochs_. Deceptura, _Wlk_. Fam. LEUCANIDÆ, _Guén_. Leucania, _Ochs_. Confusa, _Wlk_. Exempta, _Wlk_. Interens, _Wlk_. Collecta, _Wlk_. Brada, _Wlk_. Truncata, _Wlk_. Crambopsis, _Wlk_. Excludens, _Wlk_. Fam. GLOTTULIDÆ, _Guén_. Polytela, _Guén_. Gloriosa, _Fabr_. Glottula, _Guén_. Dominic, _Cram_. Chasmma, _Wlk_. Pavo, _Wlk_. Cygnus, _Wlk_. Fam. APAMIDÆ, _Guén_. Laphygma, _Guér_. Obstans, _Wlk_. Trajiciens, _Wlk_. Prodenia, _Guén_. Retina, _Friv_. Glaucistriga, _Wlk_. Apertura, _Wlk_. Calogramma, _Wlk_. Festiva, _Don_. Heliophobus, _Boisd_. Discrepans, _Wlk_. Hydræcia, _Guér_. Lampadifera, _Wlk_. Apamea, _Ochs_. Undecilia, _Wlk_. Celæna, _Steph_. Serva, _Wlk_. Fam. CARADRINIDÆ, _Guér_. Amyna, _Guér_. Selenampha, _Guér_. Fam. NOCTUIDÆ, _Guér_. Agrotis, _Ochs_. Aristifera, _Guér_. Congrua, _Wlk_. Punctipes, _Wlk_. Mundata, _Wlk_. Transducta, _Wlk_. Plagiata, _Wlk_. Plagifera, _Wlk_. Fam. HADENIDÆ, _Guén_. Eurois, _Hübn_. Auriplena, _Wlk_. Inclusa, _Wlk_. Epiceia, _Wlk_. Subsignata, _Wlk_. Hadena, _Treit_. Subcurva, _Wlk_. Postica, _Wlk_. Retrahens, _Wlk_. Confundens, _Wlk_. Congressa, _Wlk_. Ruptistriga, _Wlk_. Ansa, _Wlk_. Filipalpis, _Wlk_. Fam. XYLINIDÆ, _Guén. _ Ragada, _Wlk_. Pyrorchroma, _Wlk. _ Cryassa, _Wlk_. Bifacies, _Wlk_. Egelista, _Wlk_. Rudivitta, _Wlk_. Xylina, _Ochs_. Deflexa, _Wlk_. Inchoans, _Wlk_. Fam. HELIOTHIDÆ, _Guén_. Heliothis, _Ochs_. Armigera, _Hübn_. Fam. HEMEROSIDÆ, _Guén_. Ariola, _Wlk_. Coelisigna, _Wlk_. Dilectissima, _Wlk_. Saturata, _Wlk_. Fam. ACONTIDÆ, _Guén_. Xanthodes, _Guén_. Intersepta, _Guén_. Acontia, _Ochs_. Tropica, _Guén_. Olivacea, _Wlk_. Fasciculosa, _Wlk_. Signifera, _Wlk_. Turpis, _Wlk_. Mianöides, _Wlk_. Approximans, _Wlk_. Divulsa, _Wlk_. *egens, _Wlk_. Plenicosta, _Wlk_. Determinata, _Wlk_. Hypætroides, _Wlk_. Chlumetia, _Wlk_. Multilinea, _Wlk_. Fam. ANTHOPILIDÆ, _Guén_. Micra, _Guén_. Destituta, _Wlk_. Derogata, _Wlk_. Simplex, _Wlk_. Fam. ERIOPIDÆ, _Guén_. Callopistria, _Hübn_. Exotiac, _Guén_. Rivularis, _Wlk_. Duplicans, _Wlk_. Fam. EURHIPIDÆ, _Guén_. Penicillaria, _Guén_. Nugatrix, _Guén_. Resoluta, _Wlk_. Solida, _Wlk_. Lodatrix, _Wlk_. Rhesala, _Wlk_. Imparata, _Wlk_. Eutelia, _Hübn_. Favillatrix, _Wlk_. Thermesiides, _Wlk_. Fam. PLUSIIDÆ, _Boisd_. Abrostola, _Ochs_. Transfixa, _Wlk_. Plusia, _Ochs_. Aurilera, _Hübn_. Verticillata, _Guén_. Agramma, _Guén_. Obtusisigna, _Wlk_. Nigriluna, _Wlk_. Signata, _Wlk_. Dispellens, _Wlk_. Propulsa, _Wlk_. Fam. CALPIDÆ, _Guén_. Calpe, _Treit_. Minuticornis, _Guén_. Oroesia, _Guén_. Emarginata, _Fabr_. Deva, _Wlk_. Conducens, _Wlk_. Fam. HEMICERIDÆ, _Guén_. Westermannia, _Hübn_. Supberba, _Hübn_. Fam. HYBLÆIDÆ, _Guén_. Hyblæa, _Guén_. Puera, _Cram_. Constellica, _Guén_. Nolasena, _Wlk_. Ferrifervens, _Wlk_. Fam. GONOPTERIDÆ, _Guén_. Cosmophila, _Boisd_. Indica, _Guén_. Xanthindvina, _Boisd_. Anomis, _Hübn_. Fulvida, _Guén_. Icomea, _Wlk_. Gonitis, _Guén_. Combinans, _Wlk_. Albitibia, _Wlk_. Mesogona, _Wlk_. Guttanivis, _Wlk_. Involuta, _Wlk_. Basalis, _Wlk_. Eporedia, _Wlk_. Damnipennis, _Wlk_. Rusicada, _Wlk_. Nigritarsis, _Wlk_. Pasipeda, _Wlk_. Rutipalpis, _Wlk_. Fam. TOXOCAMPIDÆ, _Guén_. Toxocampa, _Guén_. Metaspila, _Wlk_. Sexlinea, _Wlk_. Quinquelina, _Wlk_. Albonica, _Wlk_. Reversa, _Wlk_. Fam. POLYDESMIDÆ, _Guén_. Polydesma, _Boisd_. Boarmoides, _Wlk_. Erubescens, _Wlk_. Fam. HOMOPTERIDÆ, _Bois_. Alamis, _Guén_. Spoliata, _Wlk_. Homoptera, _Boisd_. Basipallens, _Wlk_. Retrahens, _Wlk_. Costifera, _Wlk_. Divisistriga, _Wlk_. Procumbens, _Wlk_. Diacuista, _Wlk_. Homopteroides, _Wlk_. Daxata, _Wlk_. Bijungens, _Wlk_. Fam. HYPOGRAMMIDÆ, _Guén_. Briarda, _Wlk_. Precedens, _Wlk_. Brana, _Wlk_. Calopasa, _Wlk_. Corsa, _Wlk_. Lignicolor, _Wlk_. Avatha, _Wlk_. Includens, _Wlk_. Gadirtha, _Wlk_. Decrescens, _Wlk_. Impingens, _Wlk_. Spurcata, _Wlk_. Rectifera, _Wlk_. Duplicans, _Wlk_. Intrusa, _Wlk_. Ercheia, _Wlk_. Diversipennis, _Wlk_. Plotheia, _Wlk_. Frontalis, _Wlk_. Diomea, _Wlk_. Rotundata, _Wlk_. Chloromela, _Wlk_. Orbicularis, _Wlk_. Muscosa, _Wlk_. Dinumma, _Wlk_. Placens, _Wlk_. Lusia, _Wlk_. Geometroids, _Wlk_. Perficita, _Wlk_. Replusa, _Wlk_. Abunis, _Wlk_. Trimesa, _Wlk_. Fam. CATEPHIDÆ, _Guén_. Cocytodes, _Guén_. Coerula, _Guén_. Modesta, _Wlk_. Catephia, _Ochs_. Linteola, _Guén_. Anophia, _Guén_. Acronyctoids, _Guén_. Steiria, _Wlk_. Subobliqua, _Wlk_. Trajiciens, _Wlk_. Aucha, _Wlk_. Velans, _Wlk_. Ægilia, _Wlk_. Describens, _Wlk_. Maceda, _Wlk_. Mansueta, _Wlk_. Fam. HYPOCALIDÆ, _Guén_. Hypocala, _Guén_. Efflorescens, _Guén_. Subsatura, _Guén_. Fam. CATOCALIDÆ, _Boisd_. Blenina, _Wlk_. Donans, _Wlk_. Accipiens, _Wlk_. Fam. OPHIDERIDÆ, _Guén_. Ophideres, _Boisd_. Materna, _Linn. _ fullonica, _Linn. _ Cajeta, _Cram_. Ancilla, _Cram_. Salaminia, _Cram_. Hypermnestra, _Cram_. Multiscripta, _Wlk_. Bilineosa, _Wlk_. Potamophera, _Guén_. Maulia, _Cram_. Lygniodes, _Guén_. Reducens, _Wlk_. Disparans, _Wlk_. Hypolenca, _Guén_. Fam. EREBIDÆ, _Guén_. Oxyodes, _Guén_. Clytia, _Cram_. Fam. OMMATOPHORIDÆ, _Guén_. Speiredonia, _Hübn_. Retrahens, _Wlk_. Sericia, _Guén_. Atrops, _Guén_. Parvipennis, _Wlk_. Patula, _Guén_. Macrops, _Linn. _ Argiva, _Hübn_. Hieroglyphica, _Drury_. Beregra, _Wlk_. Replenens, _Wlk_. Fam. HYPOPYRIDÆ, _Guén_. Spiramia, _Guén_. Heliconia, _Hübn_. Triloba, _Guén_. Hypopyra, _Guén_. Vespertilio, _Fabr_. Ortospana, _Wlk_. Connectens, _Wlk_. Entomogramma, _Guén_. Fautrix, _Guén_. Fam. BENDIDÆ, _Guén_. Homæa, _Guén_. Clathrum, _Guén_. Hulodes, _Guén_. Caranea, _Cram_. Palumba, _Guén_. Fam. OPHIUSIDÆ, _Guén_. Sphingomorpha, _Guén_. Chlorea, _Cram_. Lagoptera, _Guén_. Honesta, _Hübn_. Magica, _Hübn_. Dotata, _Fabr_. Ophiodes, _Guén_. Discriminans, _Wlk_. Basistigma, _Wlk_. Cerbia, _Wlk_. Fugitiva, _Wlk_. Ophisma, _Guén_. Lætabilis, _Guén_. Deficiens, _Wlk_. Gravata, _Wlk_. Circumferens, _Wlk_. Terminans, _Wlk_. Achæa, _Hübn_. Melicerta, _Drury_. Mezentia, _Cram_. Cyllota, _Guén_. Cyllaria, _Cram_. Fusifera, _Wlk_. Signivitta, _Wlk_. Reversa, _Wlk_. Combinans, _Wlk_. Expectans, _Wlk_. Serrodes, _Guén_. Campana, _Guén_. Naxia, _Guén_. Absentimacula, _Guén_. Onelia, _Guén_. Calefaciens, _Wlk_. Calorifica, _Wlk_. Catesia, _Guén_. Hoemorrhoda, _Guén_. Hypætra, _Guén_. Trigonifera, _Wlk_. Curvifera, _Wlk_. Condita, _Wlk_. Complacens, _Wlk_. Divisa, _Wlk_. Ophiusa, _Ochs_. Myops, _Guén_. Albivitta, _Guén_. Achatina, _Sulz_. Fulvotænia, _Guén_. Simillima, _Guén_. Festinata, _Wlk_. Pallidilinea, _Wlk_. Luteipalpis, _Wlk_. Fodina, _Guén_. Stola, _Guén_. Grammodes, _Guén_. Ammonia, _Cram_. Mygdon, _Cram_. Stolida, _Fabr_. Mundicolor, _Wlk_. Fam. EUCLIDIDÆ, _Guén_. Trigonodes, _Guén_. Hippasia, _Cram_. Fam. REMIGIDÆ, _Guén_. Remigia, _Guén_. Archesia, _Cram_. Frugalis, _Fabr_. Pertendens, _Wlk_. Congregata, _Wlk_. Opturata, _Wlk_. Fam. FOCILLIDÆ, _Guén_. Focilla, _Guén_. Submemorans, _Wlk_. Fam. AMPHIGANIDÆ, _Guén_. Lacera, _Guén_. Capella, _Guén_. Amphigonia, _Guén_. Hepatizans, _Guén_. Fam. THERMISIDÆ, _Guén_. Sympis, _Guén_. Rutibasis, _Guén_. Thermesia, _Hübn_. Finipalpis, _Wlk_. Soluta, _Wlk_. Azazia, _Wlk_. Rubricans, _Boisd_. Selenis, _Guén_. Nivisapex, _Wlk_. Multiguttata, _Wlk_. Semilux, _Wlk_. Ephyrodes, _Guén_. Excipiens, _Wlk_. Crististera, _Wlk_. Lineitera, _Wlk_. Capnodes, _Guén_. *maculicosta, _Wlk_. Ballatha, _Wlk_. Atrotumens, _Wlk_. Daranissa, _Wlk_. Digramma, _Wlk_. Darsa, _Wlk_. Detectissima, _Wlk_. Fam. URAPTERYDÆ, _Guén_. Lagyra, _Wlk_. Talaca, _Wlk_. Fam. ENNOMIDÆ, _Guén_. Hyperythra, _Guén_. Limbolaria, _Guén_. Orsonoba, _Wlk_. Rajaca, _Wlk_. Fascelima, _Wlk_. Chromataria, _Wlk_. Laginia, _Wlk_. Bractiaria, _Wlk_. Fam. BOARMIDÆ, _Guén_. Amblychia, _Guén_. Angeronia, _Guén_. Poststrigaria, _Wlk_. Boarmia, _Treit_. Sublavaria, _Guén_. Admissaria, _Guén_. Raptaria, _Wlk_. Medasina, _Wlk_. Bhurmitra, _Wlk_. Suiasasa, _Wlk_. Diffluaria, _Wlk_. Caritaria, _Wlk_. Exclusaria, _Wlk_. Hypochroma, _Guén_. Minimaria, _Guén_. Gnophos, _Treit_. Pulinda, _Wlk_. Culataria, _Wlk_. Hemerophila, _Steph_. Vidhisara, _Wlk_. Agathia, _Guén_. Blandiaria, _Wlk_. Bulonga, _Wlk_. Ajaia, _Wlk_. Chacoraca, _Wlk_. Chandubija, _Wlk_. Fam. GEOMETRIDÆ, _Guén_. Geometra, _Linn. _ specularia, _Guén_. Nanda, _Wlk_. Nemoria, _Hubn_. Caudularia, _Guên_. Solidaria, _Guén_. Thalassodes, _Guén_. Quadraria, _Guén_. Catenaria, _Wlk_. Immissaria, _Wlk_. Sisunaga, _Wlk_. Adornataria, _Wlk_. Meritaria, _Wlk_. Coelataria, _WlK_. Gratularia, _Wlk_. Chlorozonaria, _Wlk_. Læsaria, _Wlk_. Simplicaria, _Wlk_. Immissaria, _Wlk_. Comibæna, _Wlk_. Divapala, _Wlk_. Impulsaria, _Wlk_. Celenna, _Wlk_. Saturaturia, _Wlk_. Pseudoterpna, _Wlk_. Vivilaca, _Wlk_. Amaurima, _Guén_. Rubrolimbaria, _Wlk_. Fam. PALYADÆ, _Guén_. Eumelea, _Dunc_. Ludovicata, _Guén_. Aureliata, _Guén_. *carnearia, _Wlk_. Fam. EPHYRIDÆ, _Guén_. Ephyra, _Dap_. Obrinaria, _Wlk_. Decursaria, _Wlk_. Cacavena, _Wlk_. Abhadraca, _Wlk_. Vasudeva, _Wlk_. Susarmana, _Wlk_. Vutumana, _Wlk_. Inæquata, _Wlk_. Fam. ACIDALIDÆ, _Guén_. Drapetodes, _Guén_. Mitaria, _Guén_. Pomasia, _Guén_. Psylaria, _Guén_. Sunandaria, _Wlk_. Acidaria, _Treit_. Obliviaria, _Wlk_. Adeptaria, _Wlk_. Nexiaria, _Wlk_. Addictaria, _Wlk_. Actiosaria, _Wlk_. Defamataria, _Wlk_. Negataria, _Wlk_. Actuaria, _Wlk_. Cæsaria, _Wlk_. Cabera, _Steph_. Falsaria, _Wlk_. Decussaria, _Wlk_. Famularia, _Wlk_. Nigrarenaria, _Wlk_. Hyria, _Steph_. Elataria, _Wlk_. Marcidaria, _Wlk_. Oblataria, _Wlk_. Grataria, _Wlk_. Rhodinaria, _Wlk_. Timandra, _Dup_. Ajura, _Wlk_. Vijura, _Wlk_. Agyris, _Guén_. Deharia, _Guén_. Zanclopteryx, _Herr. Sch_. Saponaria, _Herr. Sch_. Fam. MICRONIDÆ, _Guén_. Micronia, _Guén_. Caudata, _Fabr_. Aculeata, _Guén_. Fam. MACARIDÆ, _Guén_. Macaria, _Curt_. Eleonora, _Cram_. Varisara, _Wlk_. Rhagivata, _Wlk_. Palaca, _Wlk_. Honestaria, _Wlk_. Sangata, _Wlk_. Honoraria, _Wlk_. Cessaria, _Wlk_. Subcandaria, _Wlk_. Doava, _Wlk_. Adjutaria, _Wlk_. Figuraria, _Wlk_. Fam. LARENTIDÆ, _Guén_. Sauris, _Guén_. Hirudinata, _Guén_. Camptogramma, _Steph_. Baceata, _Guén_. Blemyia, _Wlk_. Bataca, _Wlk_. Blitiaria, _Wlk_. Corenna, _Guén_. Comatina, _Wlk_. Lobophora, _Curt_. Salisnea, _Wlk_. Ghosha, _Wlk_. Contributaria, _Wlk_. Mesogramma, _Steph_. Lactularia, _Wlk_. Scitaria, _WLk_. Eupithecia, _Curt_. Recensitaria, _Wlk_. Admixtaria, _Wlk_. Immixtaria, _Wlk_. Gathynia, _Wlk_. Miraria, _Wlk_. Fam. PLATYDIDÆ, _Guén_. Trigonia, _Guén_. Cydoniatis, _Cram_. Fam. HYPENIDÆ, _Herr_. Dichromia, _Guén_. Orosialis, _Cram_. Hypena, _Schr_. Rhombalis, _Guén_. Jocosalis, _Wlk_. Mandatalis, _Wlk_. Quæsitalis, _Wlk_. Laceratalis, _Wlk_. Iconicalis, _Wlk_. Labatalis, _Wlk_. Obacerralis, _Wlk_. Pactalis, _Wlk_. Raralis, _Wlk_. Paritalis, _Wlk_. Surreptalis, _Wlk_. Detersalis, _Wlk_. Ineffectalis, _Wlk_. Incongrualis, _Wlk_. Rubripunctum, _Wlk_. Gesonia, _Wlk_. *obeditalis, _Wlk_. Duplex, _Wlk_. Fam. HERMINIDÆ, _Dup_. Herminia, _Latr_. Timonaris, _Wlk_. Diffusalis, _Wlk_. Interstans, _Wlk_. Adrapsa, _Wlk_. Ablualis, _Wlk_. Bertula, _Wlk_. Abjudicalis, _Wlk_. Raptatalis, _Wlk_. Contigens, _Wlk_. Bocana, _Wlk_. Jutalis, _Wlk_. Manifestalis, _Wlk_. Ophinsalis, _Wlk_. Vagalis, _Wlk_. Turpatalis, _Wlk_. Hypernalis, _Wlk_. Gravatalis, _Wlk_. Tomodalis, _Wlk_. Orthaga, _Wlk_. Euadrusalis, _Wlk_. Hipoepa, _Wlk_. Lapsalis, _Wlk_. Lamura, _Wlk_. Oberratans, _Wlk_. Echana, _Wlk_. Abavalis, _Wlk_. Dragana, _Wlk_. Pansalis, _Wlk_. Pingrasa, _Wlk_. Accuralis, _Wlk_. Egnasia, _Wlk_. Ephiradalis, _Wlk_. Accingalis, _Wlk_. Participalis, _Wlk_. Usurpatalis, _Wlk_. Berresa, _Wlk_. Natalis, _Wlk_. Imma, _Wlk_. Rugosalis, _Wlk_. Chusaris, _Wlk_. Retatalis, _Wlk_. Corgatha, _Wlk_. Zonalis, _Wlk_. Catada, _Wlk_. Glomeralis, _Wlk_. Captiosalis, _Wlk_. Fam. PYRALADÆ, _Guén_. Pyralis, _Linn. _ igniflualis, _Wlk_. Palesalis, _Wlk_. Reconditalis, _Wlk_. Idahalis, _Wlk_. Janassalis, _Wlk_. Aglossa, _Latr_. Guidusalis, _Wlk_. Labanda, _Wlk_. Herbealis, _Wlk_. Fam. ENNYCHIDÆ, _Dup. _ Pyrausta. _Schr. _ *absistalis, _Wlk_. Fam. ASOPIDÆ, _Guén_ Desmia, _Westw_. Afflictalis, _Guén_. Concisalis, _Wlk_. Ædiodes, _Guén. _. Flavibasalis. _Guén_. Effertalis, _Wlk_. Samea, _Guén_. Gratiosalis, _Wlk_. Asopia. _Guén_. Vulgalis, _Guén_. Falsidicalis, _Wlk_. Abruptalis, _Wlk_. Latim orginalis, _Wlk_. Præteritalis, _Wlk_. Eryxelis, _Wlk_. Rofidalis, _Wlk_. Agathodes, _Guén_. Ostentalis, _Geyer_. Leucinades, _Guén_. Orbonalis, _Guén_. Hymenia, _Hübn_. Recurvalis, _Fabr_. Agrotera, _Schr_. Suffusalis, _Wlk_. Decessalis, _Wlk_. Isopteryx, _Guén_. *melaleucalis, _Wlk_. *impulsalis, _Wlk_. *spromelalis, _Wlk_. Acclaralis, _Wlk_. Abnegatalis, _Wlk_. Fam. HYDROCAMPIDÆ, _Guén_. Oligostigma, _Guén_. Obitalis, _Wlk_. Votalis, _Wlk_. Cataclysia, _Herr Sch_. Diaicidalis, _Guén_. Bisectalis, _Wlk_. Blaudialis, _Wlk_. Elutalis, _Wlk_. Fam. SPILOMELIDÆ, _Guén_. Lepyrodes, _Guén_. Geometralis, _Guén_. Lepidalis, _Wlk_. Peritalis, _Wlk_. Phalangiodes, _Guén_. Neptisalis, _Cram_. Spilomela, _Guén_. Meritalis, _Wlk_. Abdicatis, _Wlk_. Decussalis, _Wlk_. Nistra, _Wlk_. Coelatalis, _Wlk_. Pagyda. _Wlk_. Salvalis, _Wlk_. Massepha, _Wlk_. Absolutalis, _Wlk_. Fam. MARGORODIDÆ, _Guén_. Glyphodes, _Guén_. Diurnalis, _Guén_. Decretalis, _Guén_. Coesalis, _Wlk_. Univocalis, _Wlk_. Phakellura, _L. Guild_. Gazorialis, _Guén_. Margarodes, _Guén_. Psittæalis, _Hübn_. Pomonalis, _Guén_. Hilaralis, _Wlk_. Pygospila, _Guén_. Tyresalis, _Cram_. Neurina, _Guén_. Procopalis, _Cram_. Ignibasalis, _Wlk_. Hurgia, _Wlk_. Detamalis, _Wlk_. Maruca, _Wlk_. Ruptalis, _Wlk_. Caritalis, _Wlk_. Fam. BOTYDÆ, _Guén_. Botys, _Latr_. Marginalis, _Cram_. Sillalis, _Guén_. Multilineatis, _Guén_. Admensalis, _Wlk_. Abjungalis, _Wlk_. Rutilalis, _Wlk_. Admixtalis, _Wlk_. Celatalis, _Wlk_. Deductalis, _Wlk_. Celsalis, _Wlk_. Vulsalis, _Wlk_. Ultimalis, _Wlk_. Tropicalis, _Wlk_. Abstrusalis, _Wlk_. Ruralis, _Wlk_. Adhoesalis, _Wlk_. Illisalis, _Wlk_. Stultalis, _Wlk_. Adductalis, _Wlk_. Histricalis, _Wlk_. Illectalis, _Wlk_. Suspictalis, _Wlk_. Janassalis, _Wlk_. Cynaralis, _Wlk_. Dialis, _Wlk_. Thaisalis, _Wlk_. Dryopealis, _Wlk_. Myrinalis, _Wlk_. Phycidalis, _Wlk_. Annulalis, _Wlk_. Brevilinealis, _Wlk_. Plagiatalis, _Wlk_. Ebulea, _Guén_. Aberratalis, _Wlk_. Camillalis, _Wlk_. Pionea, _Guén_. Actualis, _Wlk_. Optiletalis, _Wlk_. Jubesalis, _Wlk_. Brevialis, _Wlk_. Suffusalis, _Wlk_. Scopula, _Schr_. Revocatalis, _Wlk_. Turgidalis, _Wlk_. Volutatalis, _Wlk_. Godara, _Wlk_. Pervasalis, _Wlk_. Herculia, _Wlk_. Bractialis, _Wlk_. Mecyna. _Guén_. Deprivalis, _Wlk_. Fam. SCOPARIDÆ, _Guén_. Scoparia. _Haw_. Murificalis, _Wlk_. Congestalis, _Wlk_. Alconalis, _Wlk_. Davana. _Wlk_. Phalantalis, _Wlk_. Darsania, _Wlk_. Niobesalis, _Wlk_. Dosara. _Wlk_. Coelatella, _Wlk_. Lapsalis, _Wlk_. Immeritalis, _Wlk_. Fam. CHOREUTIDÆ, _Staint_. Niaccaba. _Wlk_. Sumptialis, _Wlk_. Simæthis. _Leach_. Clatella, _Wlk_. Damonella, _Wlk_. Bathusella, _Wlk_. Fam. PHYCIDÆ, _Staint_. Myelois, _Hübn_. Actiosella, _Wlk_. Bractiatella, _Wlk_. Cantella, _Wlk_. Adaptella, _Wlk_. Illusella, _Wlk_. Basifuscella, _Wlk_. Ligeralis, _Wlk_. Marsyasalis, _Wlk_. Dascusa, _Wlk_. Valensalis, _Wlk_. Daroma, _Wlk_. Zeuxoalis, _Wlk_. Epulusalis, _Wlk_. Timeusalis, _Wlk_. Homoesoma, _Curt_. Gratella, _Wlk_. Getusella, _Wlk_. Nephopteryx, _Hübn_. Etolusalis, _Wlk_. Cyllusalis, _Wlk_. Hylasalis, _Wlk_. Acisalis, _Wlk_. Harpaxalis, _Wlk_. Æolusalis, _Wlk_. Argiadesalis, _Wlk_. Philiasalis, _Wlk_. Pempelia, _Hübn_. Laudatella, _Wlk_. Prionapteryx, _Steph_. Lincusalis, _Wlk_. Pindicitora, _Wlk_. Acreonalis, _Wlk_. Annusalis, _Wlk_. Thysbesalis, _Wlk_. Linceusalis, _Wlk_. Lacipea, _Wlk_. Muscosella, _Wlk_. Araxes, _Steph_. Admotella, _Wlk_. Decusella, _Wlk_. Celsella, _Wlk_. Admigratella, _Wlk_. Coesella, _Wlk_. Candidatella, _Wlk_. Catagela, _Wlk_. Adjurella, _Wlk_. Acricuella, _Wlk_. Lunulella, _Wlk_. Fam. CRAMBIDÆ, _Dup_. Crambus, _Fabr_. Concinellus, _Wlk_. Darbhaca, _Wlk_. Inceptella, _Wlk_. Jartheza, _Wlk_. Honosella, _Wlk_. Bulina, _Wlk_. Solitella, _Wlk_. Bembina, _Wlk_. Cyanusalis, _Wlk_. Chilo, _Zinck_. Dodatella, _Wlk_. Gratiosella, _Wlk_. Aditella, _Wlk_. Blitella, _Wlk_. Dariausa, _Wlk_. Eubusalis, _Wlk_. Arrhade, _Wlk_. Ematheonalis, _Wlk_. Darnensis, _Wlk_. Strephonella, _Wlk_. Fam. CHLOEPHORIDÆ. _Staint_. Thagora, _Wlk_. Tigurans, _Wlk_. Earias, _Hübn_. Chromatana, _Wlk_. Fam. TORTRICIDÆ, _Steph_. Lozotænia, _Steph_. Retractana, _Wlk_. Peronea, _Curt_. Divisana, _Wlk_. Lithogramma, _Steph_. Flexilineana, _Wlk_. Dictyopteryx, _Steph_. Punctana, _Wlk_. Homona, _Wlk_. Fasciculana, _Wlk_. Hemonia, _Wlk_. Obiterana, _Wlk_. Achroia, _Hübn_. Tricingulana, _Wlk_. Fam. YPONOMEUTIDÆ, _Steph_. Atteva, _Wlk_. Niveigutta, _Wlk_. Fam. GELICHIDÆ, _Staint_. Depressaria, _Haw_. Obligatella, _Wlk_. Fimbriella, _Wlk_. Decuaria, _Wlk_. Mendicella, _Wlk_. Gelechia, _Hübn_. Nugatella, _Wlk_. Calatella, _Wlk_. Deductella, _Wlk_. Perionella, _Wlk_. Gizama, _Wlk_. Blandiella, _Wlk_. Enisima, _Wlk_. Falsella, _Wlk_. Gapharia, _Wlk_. Recitatella, _Wlk_. Goesa. _Wlk_. Decusella, _Wlk_. Cimitra, _Wlk_. Secinsella, _Wlk_. Ficulea, _Wlk_. Blandinella, _Wlk_. Fresilia, _Wlk_. Nesciatella, _Wlk_. Gesontha, _Wlk_. Cantiosella, _Wlk_. Aginis, _Wlk_. Hilariella, _Wlk_. Cadra, _Wlk_. Delectella, _Wlk_. Fam. GLYPHYPTIDÆ, _Staint_. Glyphyteryx, _Hübn_. Scitulella, _Wlk_. Hybele, _Wlk_. Mansuetella, _Wlk_. Fam. TINEIDÆ, _Leach_. Tinea, _Linn. _ tapetzella, _Linn. _ receptella, _Wlk_. Pelionella, _Linn. _ plagiferella, _Wlk_. Fam. LYONETIDÆ, _Staint_. Cachura, _Wlk_. Objectella, _Wlk_. Fam. PTEROPHORIDÆ, _Zell_. Pterophorus, _Geoffr_. Leucadacivius, _Wlk_. Oxydactylus, _Wlk_. Anisodactylus, _Wlk_. Order DIPTERA, _Linn. _ Fam. MYCETOPHILIDÆ, _Hal_. Sciara, _Meig_. *valida, _Wlk_. Fam. CECIDOMYZIDÆ, _Hal_. Cecidomyia, _Latr_. *primaria, _Wlk_. Fam. SIMULIDÆ, _Hal_. Simulium, _Latr_. *destinatum, _Wlk_. Fam. CHIRONOMIDÆ, _Hal_. Ceratopogon, _Meig_. *albocinctus, _Wlk_. Fam. CULICIDÆ, _Steph_. Culex, _Linn. _ regius, _Thwaites_. Fuscanns, _Wlk_. Circumvolans, _Wlk_. Contrahens, _Wlk_. Fam. TIPULIDÆ, _Hal_. Ctenophora, _Fabr_. Taprobanes, _Wlk_. Gymnoplistia? _Westw_. Hebes, _Wlk_. Fam. STRATIOMIDÆ, _Latr_. Ptilocera, _Wied_. Quadridentata, _Fabr_. Tastuosa, _Geist_. Pachygaster, _Meig_. Rutitarsis, _Macq_. Acanthina, _Wied_. Azurea, _Geist_. Fam. TABANIDÆ, _Leach_. Pangonia, _Latr_. Taprobanes, _Wlk_. Fam. ASILIDÆ, _Leach_. Trupanea, _Macq_. Ceylanica _Macq_. Asilus, _Linn. _ flavicornis, _Macq_. Barium, _Wlk_. Fam. DOLICHOPIDÆ, _Leach_. Psilopus, _Meig_. *procuratus, _Wlk_. Fam. MUSCIDÆ, _Latr_. Tachina? _Fabr_. *tenebrosa, _Wlk_. Musca. _Linn. _ domestica, _Linn. _ Dacus, _Fabr_. *interclusus, _Wlk_. *nigroæneus, _Wlk_. *detentus, _Wlk_. Ortalis, _*Fall_. *confundens, _Wlk_. Sciomyza, _Fall_. Eucotelus, _Wlk_. Drosophila, _*Fall_. *restituens, _Wlk_. Fam. NYCTERIBIDÆ, _Leach_. Nycteribia, _Latr_. ----? a species parasitic on Scatophilus Coromandelicus, _Bligh_. Order HEMIPTERA, _Linn. _ Fam. PACHYCORIDÆ, _Dall_. Cantuo, _Amyot & Serv_. Ocellatus, _Thunb_. Callidea, _Lap_. Superba, _Dall_. Stockerus, _Linn. _ Fam. EURYGASTERIDÆ, _Dall_. Trigonosoma, _Lap_. Destontainii, _Fabr_. Fam. PLATASPIDÆ, _Dall_. Coptosoma, _Lap_. Laticeps, _Dall_. Fam. HALYDIDÆ, _Dall_. Halys, _Fabr_. Dentata, _Fabr_. Fam. PENTATOMIDÆ, _Steph_. Pentatoma, _Oliv_. Timorensis, _Hope_. Taprobanensis, _Dall_. Catacanthus, _Spin_. Incarnatus, _Drury_. Rhaphigaster, _Lap_. Congrua, _Wlk_. Fam. EDESSIDÆ, _Dall_. Aspongopus, _Lap_. Anus, _Fabr_. Tesseratoma, _Lep. & Serv_. Papillosa, _Drury_. Cyclopelta, _Am. & Serv_. Siccifolia, _Hope_. Fam. PHYLLOCEPHALIDÆ, _Dall_. Phyllocephala, _Lap_. Ægyptiaca, _Lefeb_. Fam. MICTIDÆ, _Dall_. Mictis, _Leach_. Castanea, _Dall_. Valida, _Dall_. Punctum, _Hope_. Crinocerus, _Burm_. Ponderosus, _Wlk_. Fam. ANISOSCELIDÆ, _Dall_. Leptoscelis, _Lap_. Ventralis, _Dall_. Turpis, _Wlk_. Marginalis, _Wlk_. Serinetha, _Spin_. Taprobanensis, _Dall_. Abdominalis, _Fabr_. Fam. ALYDIDÆ, _Dall_. Alydus, _Fabr_. Linearis, _Fabr_. Fam. STENOCEPHALIDÆ, _Dall_. Leptocorisa, _Latr_. Chinensis, _Dall_. Fam. COREIDÆ, _Steph_. Rhopalus, _Schill_. Interruptus, _Wlk_. Fam. LYGÆIDÆ, _Westw_. Lygæus, _Fabr_. Lutescens, _Wlk_. Figuratus, _Wlk_. Discifer, _Wlk_. Rhyparochromus, _Curt_. Testacelpes, _Wlk_. Fam. ARADIDÆ, _Wlk_. Piestosoma, _Lap_. Pierpes, _Wlk_. Fam. TINGIDÆ, _Wlk_. Calloniana, _Wlk_. *elegans, _Wlk_. Fam. CIMICIDÆ, _Wlk_. Cimex, _Linn. _ lectularius, _Linn. _? Fam. REDUVIIDÆ, _Steph_. Pirates, _Burm_. Marginatus, _Wlk_. Acanthaspis, _Am. & Serv_. Sanguimpes, _Wlk_. Fulvispina, _Wlk_. Fam. HYDROMETRIDÆ, _Leach_. Ptilomera, _Am. & Serv_. Laticanda, _Hardw_. Fam. NEPIDÆ, _Leach_. Belostoma, _Latr_. Indicum, _St. Farg_. Nepa, _Linn. _ minor, _Wlk_. Fam. NOTONECTIDÆ, _Steph_. Notonecta, _Linn. _ abbreviata, _Wlk_. Simplex, _Wlk_. Corixa, _Geoff. _ *subjacens, _Wlk_. Order HOMOPTERA, _Latr_. Fam. CICADIDÆ, _Westw_. Dundubia, _Am. & Serv_. Stipata, _Wlk_. Clonia, _Wlk_. Larus, _Wlk_. Cicada, _Linn. _ limitaris, _Wlk_. Nubifurca, _Wlk_. Fam. FULGORIDÆ, _Schaum_. Hotinus, _Am. & Serv_. Maculatus, _Oliv_. Fulvirostris, _Wlk_. Coccineus, _Wlk_. Pyrops, _Spin_. Punctata, _Oliv_. Aphæna, _Guér_. Sanguinalis, _Westw_. Elidiptera, _Spin_. Emersoniana, _White_. Fam. CIXIIDÆ, _Wlk_. Eurybrachys, _Guér_. Tomentosa, _Fabr_. Dilatata, _Wlk_. Crudelis, _Westw_. Cixius, _Latr_. *nubilus, _Wlk_. Fam. ISSIDÆ, _Wlk_. Hemisphærius, _Schaum_. *Schaumi, _Staf_. *bipustulatus, _Wlk_. Fam. DERBIDÆ, _Schaum_. Thracia, _Westw_. Pterophorides, _Westw_. Derbe, _Fabr_. *furcato-vittata, _Stal_. Fam. FLATTIDÆ, _Schaum_. Flatoides, _Guér_. Hyalinus, _Fabr_. Tenebrosus, _Wlk_. Ricania, _Germ_. Hemerobii, _Wlk_. Poeciloptera, _Latr_. Pulvernlenta, _Guér_. Stellaris, _Wlk_. Tennentina, _White_. Fam. MEMBRACIDÆ, _Wlk_. Oxyrhachis, _Germ_. *indicans, _Wlk_. Centrotus, _Fabr_. *reponens, _Wlk_. *malleus, _Wlk_. Substitutus, _Wlk_. *decipiens, _Wlk_. *relinquens, _Wlk_. *imitator, _Wlk_. *repressus, _Wlk_. *terminalis, _Wlk_. Fam. CERCOPIDÆ, _Leach_. Cercopis, _Fabr_. Inclusa, _Wlk_. Ptyelus, _Lep. & Serv_. Costalis, _Wlk_. Fam. TETTIGONIIDÆ, _Wlk_. Tettigonia, _Latr_. Paulula, _Wlk_. Fam. SCARIDÆ, _Wlk_. Ledra, _Fabr_. Rugosa, _Wlk_. Conica, _Wlk_. Gypona, _Germ_. Prasina, _Wlk_. Fam. IASSIDÆ, _Wlk_. Acocephalus, _Germ_. Porrectus, _Wlk_. Fam. PSYLLIDÆ, _Latr_. Psylla, _Goff_. *marginalis, _Wlk_. Fam. COCCIDÆ, _Leach_. Lecanium, _Illig_. Coffeæ, _Wlk_. CHAP. XIII. ARTICULATA. * * * * * _Arachinida--Myriopoda--Crustacea, etc. _ With a few striking exceptions, the true _spiders_ of Ceylon resemble inoeconomy and appearance those we are accustomed to see at home;--theyfrequent the houses, the gardens, the rocks and the stems of trees, andalong the sunny paths, where the forest meets the open country, the_Epeira_ and her congeners, the true net-weaving spiders, extend theirlacework, the grace of the designs being even less attractive than thebeauty of the creatures that elaborate them. Such of them as live in the woods select with singular sagacity thebridle-paths and narrow passages for expanding their nets; perceiving nodoubt that the larger insects frequent these openings for facility ofmovement through the jungle; and that the smaller ones are carriedtowards them by currents of air. Their nets are stretched across thepath from four to eight feet above the ground, suspended from projectingshoots, and attached, if possible, to thorny shrubs; and they sometimesexhibit the most remarkable scenes of carnage and destruction. I havetaken down a ball as large as a man's head consisting of successivelayers rolled together, in the heart of which was the original den ofthe family, whilst the envelope was formed, sheet after sheet, by coilsof the old web filled with the wings and limbs of insects of alldescriptions, from large moths and butterflies to mosquitoes and minutecoleoptera. Each layer appeared to have been originally hung across thepassage to intercept the expected prey; and, when it had becomesurcharged with carcases, to have been loosened, tossed over by the windor its own weight, and wrapped round the nucleus in the centre, thespider replacing it by a fresh sheet, to be in turn detached and addedto the mass within. [Illustration: Spider] Separated by marked peculiarities both of structure and instinct, fromthe spiders which live in the open air, and busy themselves in providingfood during the day, the _Mygale fasciata_ is not only sluggish in itshabits, but disgusting in its form and dimensions. Its colour is agloomy brown, interrupted by irregular blotches and faint bands (whenceits trivial name); it is sparingly sprinkled with hairs, and its limbs, when expanded, stretch over an area of six to eight inches in diameter. It is familiar to Europeans in Ceylon, who have given it the name, andascribed to it the fabulous propensities, of the Tarentula. [1] [Footnote 1: Species of the true _Tarentula_ are not uncommon in Ceylon;they are all of very small size, and perfectly harmless. ] The Mygale is found abundantly in the northern and eastern parts of theisland, and occasionally in dark unfrequented apartments in the westernprovince; but its inclinations are solitary, and it shuns the busytraffic of towns. The largest specimens I have seen were at Gampola in the vicinity ofKandy, and one taken in the store-room of the rest-house there, nearlycovered with its legs an ordinary-sized breakfast plate. [1] [Footnote 1: See Plate opposite. ] This hideous creature does not weave a broad web or spin a net likeother spiders, but nevertheless it forms a comfortable mansion in thewall of a neglected building, the hollow of a tree, or under the eave ofan overhanging stone. This it lines throughout with a tapestry of silkof a tubular form; and of a texture so exquisitely fine and closelywoven, that no moisture can penetrate it. The extremity of the tube iscarried out to the entrance, where it expands into a little platform, stayed by braces to the nearest objects that afford a firm hold. Inparticular situations, where the entrance is exposed to the wind, themygale, on the approach of the monsoon, extends the strong tissue aboveit so as to serve as an awning to prevent the access of rain. The construction of this silken dwelling is exclusively designed for thedomestic luxury of the spider; it serves no purpose in trapping orsecuring prey, and no external disturbance of the web tempts thecreature to sally out to surprise an intruder, as the epeira and itscongeners would. By day it remains concealed in its den, whence it issues at night tofeed on larvæ and worms, devouring cockroaches and their pupæ, andattacking the millepeds, gryllotalpæ, and other fleshy insects. Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD has described[1] an encounter between a Mygale and acockroach, which he witnessed in the madua of a temple at Alittane, between Anarajapoora and Dambool. When about a yard apart, eachdiscerned the other and stood still, the spider with his legs slightlybent and his body raised, the cockroach confronting him and directinghis antennæ with a restless undulation towards his enemy. The spider, bystealthy movements, approached to within a few inches and paused, bothparties eyeing each other intently; then suddenly a rush, a scuffle, andboth fell to the ground, when the blatta's wings closed, the spiderseized it under the throat with his claws, and dragged it into a corner, when the action of his jaws was distinctly audible. Next morning Mr. Layard found that the soft parts of the body had been eaten, nothing butthe head, thorax, and clytra remaining. [Footnote 1: _Ann. And Mag. Nat. Hist. _ May, 1853. ] But, in addition to minor and ignoble prey, the Mygale rests under theimputation of seizing small birds and feasting on their blood. Theauthor who first gave popular currency to this story was Madame MERIAN, a zoological artist of the last century, many of whose drawings arestill preserved in the Museums of St. Petersburg, Holland, and England. In a work on the Insects of Surinam, published in 1705[1], she figuredthe _Mygale aricularia_, in the act of devouring a humming-bird. Theaccuracy of her statement has since been impugned[2] by a correspondentof the Zoological Society of London, on the ground that the mygale makesno net, but lives in recesses, to which no humming-bird would resort;and hence, the writer somewhat illogically declares, that he"disbelieves the existence of any bird-catching spider. " [Footnote 1: _Dissertatio de Generatione et Metamorphosibus InsectorumSurinamensium_, Amst. 1701. Fol. ] [Footnote 2: By Mr. MACLEAY in a paper communicated to the ZoologicalSociety of London, _Proc. _ 1834, p. 12. ] Some years later, however, the same writer felt it incumbent on him toqualify this hasty conclusion[1], in consequence of having seen atSydney an enormous spider, the _Epeira diadema_, in the act of suckingthe juices of a bird (the _Zosterops dorsalis_ of Vigors and Horsfield), which, it had caught in the meshes of its geometrical net. Thiscircumstance, however, did not in his opinion affect the case of the_Mygale_; and even as regards the _Epeira_, Mr. MacLeay, who witnessedthe occurrence, was inclined to believe the instance to be accidentaland exceptional; "an exception indeed so rare, that no other person hadever witnessed the fact. " [Footnote 1: See _Ann. And Mag. Of Nat. Hist. _ for 1842, vol. Viii. P. 324. ] Subsequent observation has, however, served to sustain the story ofMadame Merian. [1] Baron Walckenær and Latreille both corroborated it byother authorities; and M. Moreau da Jonnès, who studied the habits ofthe Mygale in Martinique, says it hunts far and wide in search of itsprey, conceals itself beneath leaves for the purpose of surprising them, and climbs the branches of trees to devour the young of thehumming-bird, and of the _Certhia flaveola_. As to its mode of attack, M. Jonnès says that when it throws itself on its victim it clings to itby the double hooks of its tarsi, and strives to reach the back of thehead, to insert its jaws between the skull and the vertebræ. [2] [Footnote 1: See authorities quoted by Mr. SHUCKARD in the _Ann. AndMag. Of Nat. Hist. _ 1842, vol. Viii. P. 436, &c. ] [Footnote 2: At a meeting of the Entomological Society, July 20, 1855, apaper was read by Mr. H. W. BATES, who stated that in 1849 at Cameta inBrazil, he "was attracted by a curious movement of the large grayishbrown Mygale on the trunk of a vast tree: it was close beneath a deepcrevice or chink in the tree, across which this species weaves a denseweb, at one end open for its exit and entrance. In the present instancethe lower part of the web was broken, and two small finches wereentangled in its folds. The finch was about the size of the commonSiskin of Europe, and he judged the two to be male and female; one ofthem was quite dead, but secured in the broken web; the other was underthe body of the spider, not quite dead, and was covered in parts with afilthy liquor or saliva exuded by the monster. "The species of spider, "Mr. Bates says, "I cannot name; it is wholly of a gray brown colour, andclothed with coarse pile. " "If the Mygales, " he adds, "did not prey uponvertebrated animals, I do not see how they could find sufficientsubsistence. "--_The Zoologist_, vol. Xiii. P. 480. ] For my own part, no instance came to my knowledge in Ceylon of a mygaleattacking a bird; but PERCIVAL, who wrote his account of the island in1805, describes an enormous spider (possibly an Epeirid) thinly coveredwith hair which "makes webs strong enough to entangle and hold evensmall birds that form its usual food. "[1] [Footnote 1: PERCIVAL'S _Ceylon_, p. 313. ] The fact of its living on millepeds, blattæ, and crickets, isuniversally known; and a lady who lived at Marandahn, near Colombo, toldme that she had, on one occasion, seen a little house-lizard (_gecko_)seized and devoured by one of these ugly spiders. Walckenær has described a spider of large size, under the name of _OliosTaprobanius_, which is very common in Ceylon, and conspicuous from thefiery hue of the under surface, the remainder being covered with grayhair so short and fine that the body seems almost denuded. It spins amoderate-sized web, hung vertically between two sets of strong lines, stretched one above the other athwart the pathways. Some of the threadsthus carried horizontally from tree to tree at a considerable heightfrom the ground are so strong as to cause a painful check across theface when moving quickly against them; and more than once in riding Ihave had my hat lifted off my head by one of these cords. [1] [Footnote 1: Over the country generally are scattered species of_Gasteracantha_, remarkable for their firm shell-covered bodies, withprojecting knobs arranged in pairs. In habit these anomalous-looking_Epeirdæ_ appear to differ in no respect from the rest of the family, waylaying their prey in similar situations and in the same manner. Another very singular subgenus, met with in Ceylon, is distinguished bythe abdomen being dilated behind, and armed with two long spines, arching obliquely backwards. These abnormal kinds are not so handsomelycoloured as the smaller species of typical form. ] An officer in the East India Company's Service[1], in a communication tothe Asiatic Society of Bengal, describes the gigantic web of a black andred spider six inches in diameter, (his description of which, both incolour and size, seems to point to some species closely allied to the_Olios Taprobanius_, ) which he saw near Monghyr on the Ganges; in thisweb "a bird was entangled, and the young spiders, eight in number, andentirely of a brick red colour, were feeding on the carcase. "[2] [Footnote 1: Capt. Sherwill. ] [Footnote 2: _Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal_, 1850, vol. Xix. P. 475. ] The voracious _Galeodes_ has not yet been noticed in Ceylon; but itscarnivorous propensities are well known in those parts of Hindustan, where it is found, and where it lives upon crickets, coleoptera andother insects, as well as small lizards and birds. This "tiger of theinsect world, " as it has aptly been designated by a gentleman who was awitness to its ferocity[1], was seen to attack a young sparrow halfgrown, and seize it by the thigh, _which it sawed through_. The "savagethen caught the bird by the throat, and put an end to its sufferings bycutting off its head. " "On another occasion, " says the same authority, "Dr. Baddeley confined one of these spiders under a glass wall-shadewith two young musk-rats (_Sorex Indicus_), both of which it destroyed. "It must be added, however, that neither in the instance of the bird, ofthe lizard, or the rats, did the galeodes devour its prey after killingit. [Footnote 1: Capt. Hutton. See a paper on the _Galeodes voræ_ in the_Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. Xi. Part 11. P. 860. ] In the hills around Pusilawa, I have seen the haunts of a curiousspecies of long-legged spiders[1], popularly called "harvest-men, " whichcongregate in hollow trees and in holes in the banks by the roadside, ingroups of from fifty to a hundred, that to a casual observer look likebunches of horse-hair. This appearance is produced by the long andslender legs of these creatures, which are of a shining black, whilsttheir bodies, so small as to be mere specks, are concealed beneath them. The same spider is found in the low country near Galle, but there itshows no tendency to become gregarious. Can it be that they thusassemble in groups in the hills for the sake of accumulated warmth atthe cool altitude of 4000 feet? [Footnote 1: _Phalangium bisignatum_. ] _Ticks_. --Ticks are to be classed among the intolerable nuisances to theCeylon traveller. They live in immense numbers in the jungle[1], andattaching themselves to the plants by the two forelegs, lie in wait tocatch at unwary animals as they pass. A shower of these diminutivevermin will sometimes drop from a branch, if unluckily shaken, anddisperse themselves over the body, each fastening on the neck, the ears, and eyelids, and inserting a barbed proboscis. They burrow, with theirheads pressed as far as practicable under the skin, causing a sensationof smarting, as if particles of red hot sand had been scattered over theflesh. If torn from their hold, the suckers remain behind and form anulcer. The only safe expedient is to tolerate the agony of theirpenetration till a drop of coco-nut oil or the juice of a lime can beapplied, when these little furies drop off without further illconsequences. One very large species, dappled with grey, attaches itselfto the buffaloes. [Footnote 1: Dr. HOOKER, in his _Himalayan Journal_, vol. I. P. 279, inspeaking of the multitude of those creatures in the mountains of Nepal, wonders what they tend to feed on, as in these humid forests in whichthey literally swarmed, there was neither pathway nor animal life. InCeylon they abound everywhere in the plains on the low brush-wood; andin the very driest seasons they are quite as numerous as at other times. In the mountain zone, which is more humid, they are less prevalent. Dogsare tormented by them: and they display something closely allied tocunning in always fastening on an animal in those parts where theycannot be torn off by his paws; on his eye-brows, the tips of his ears, and the back of his neck. With a corresponding instinct I have alwaysobserved in the gambols of the Pariah dogs, that they invariablycommence their attentions by mutually gnawing each other's ears andnecks, as if in pursuit of ticks from places from which each is unableto expel them for himself. Horses have a similar instinct; and when theymeet, they apply their teeth to the roots of the ears of theircompanions, to the neck and the crown of the head. The buffaloes andoxen are relieved of ticks by the crows which rest on their backs asthey browse, and free them from these pests. In the low country the sameacceptable office is performed by the "cattle-keeper heron" (_Ardeabubulcus_), which is "sure to be found in attendance on them whilegrazing; and the animals seem to know their benefactors, and standquietly, while the birds peck their tormentors from theirflanks. "--_Mag. Nat. Hist. _ p. 111, 1844. ] _Mites_. --The _Trombidium tinctorum_ of Hermann is found about Aripo, and generally over the northern provinces, --where after a shower of rainor heavy night's dew, they appear in countless myriads. It is about halfan inch long, like a tuft of crimson velvet, and imparts its colouringmatter readily to any fluid in which it may be immersed. It feeds onvegetable juices, and is perfectly innocuous. Its Europeanrepresentative, similarly tinted, and found in garden mould, is commonlycalled the "Little red pillion. " MYRIAPODS. --The certainty with which an accidental pressure or unguardedtouch is resented and retorted by a bite, makes the centipede, when ithas taken up its temporary abode, within a sleeve or the fold of adress, by far the most unwelcome of all the Singhalese assailants. Thegreat size, too (little short of a foot in length), to which itsometimes attains, renders it formidable, and, apart from theapprehension of unpleasant consequences from a wound, one shudders atthe bare idea of such a hideous creature crawling over the skin, beneaththe innermost folds of one's garments. [Illustration: CERMATIA. ] At the head of the _Myriapods_, and pre-eminent from asuperiorly-developed organisation, stands the genus _Cermatia_:singular-looking objects; mounted upon slender legs, of graduallyincreasing length from front to rear, the hind ones in some speciesbeing amazingly prolonged, and all handsomely marked with brown annuliin concentric arches. These myriapods are harmless, excepting towoodlice, spiders, and young cockroaches, which form their ordinaryprey. They are rarely to be seen; but occasionally at daybreak, after amore than usually abundant repast, they may be observed motionless, andresting with their regularly extended limbs nearly flat against thewalls. On being disturbed they dart away with a surprising velocity, toconceal themselves in chinks until the return of night. But the species to be really dreaded are the true _Scolopendræ_, whichare active and carnivorous, living in holes in old walls and othergloomy dens. One species[1] attains to nearly the length of a foot, withcorresponding breadth; it is of a dark purple colour, approaching black, with yellowish legs and antennæ, and in its whole aspect repulsive andfrightful. It is strong and active, and evinces an eager disposition tofight when molested. The _Scolopendræ_ are gifted by nature with a rigidcoriaceous armour, which does not yield to common pressure, or even to amoderate blow; so that they often escape the most well-deserved andwell-directed attempts to destroy them, seeking refuge in retreats whicheffectually conceal them from sight. [Footnote 1: _Scolopendra crassa_, Temp. ] There is a smaller species[1], that frequents dwelling-houses; it isabout one quarter the size of the preceding, and of a dirty olivecolour, with pale ferruginous legs. It is this species that generallyinflicts the wound, when persons complain of being bitten by a scorpion;and it has a mischievous propensity for insinuating itself into thefolds of dress. The bite at first does not occasion more suffering thanwould arise from the penetration of two coarsely-pointed needles; butafter a little time the wound swells, becomes acutely painful, and if itbe over a bone or any other resisting part, the sensation is sointolerable as to produce fever. The agony subsides after a few hours'duration. In some cases the bite is unattended by any particular degreeof annoyance, and in these instances it is to be supposed that thecontents of the poison gland had become exhausted by previous efforts, since, if much tasked, the organ requires rest to enable it to resumeits accustomed functions and to secrete a supply of venom. [Footnote 1: _Scolopendra pallipes_. ] _The Fish-insect_. --The chief inconvenience of a residence in Ceylon, both on the coast and in the mountains, is the prevalence of damp, andthe difficulty of protecting articles liable to injury from this cause. Books, papers, and manuscripts rapidly decay; especially during thesouth-west monsoon, when the atmosphere is saturated with moisture. Unless great precautions are taken, the binding fades and yields, theleaves grow mouldy and stained, and letter-paper, in an incredibly shorttime, becomes so spotted and spongy as to be unfit for use. After a veryfew seasons of neglect, a book falls to pieces, and its decompositionattracts hordes of minute insects, that swarm to assist in the work ofdestruction. The concealment of these tiny creatures during daylightrenders it difficult to watch their proceedings, or to discriminate theprecise species most actively engaged; but there is every reason tobelieve that the larvæ of the death-watch and numerous acari are amongstthe most active. As nature seldom peoples a region supplied withabundance of suitable food, without, at the same time, taking measuresof precaution against the disproportionate increase of individuals; sohave these vegetable depredators been provided with foes who pursue andfeed greedily upon them. These are of widely different genera; butinstead of their services being gratefully recognised, they arepopularly branded as accomplices in the work of destruction. One ofthese ill-used creatures is a tiny, tail-less scorpion (_Chelifer_[1]), and another is the pretty little silvery creature (_Lepisma_), called byEuropeans the "fish-insect. "[2] [Footnote 1: Of the first of these, three species have been noticed inCeylon, all with the common characteristics of being nocturnal, veryactive, very minute, of a pale chesnut colour, and each armed with acrab-like claw. They are _Chelifer Librorum_, Temp. _Chelifer oblongus_, Temp. _Chelifer acaroides_, Hermann. Dr. Templeton appears to have been puzzled to account for the appearanceof the latter species in Ceylon, so far from its native country, but ithas most certainly been introduced from Europe, in Dutch or Portuguesebooks. ] [Footnote 2: _Lepisma niveo-fasciata_, Templeton, and _L. Niger_, Temp. It was called "Lepisma" by Fabricius, from its fish-like scales. It hassix legs, filiform antenna, and the abdomen terminated by threeelongated setæ, two of which are placed nearly at right angles to thecentral one. LINNÆUS states that the European species, with which bookcollectors are familiar, was first brought in sugar ships from America. Hence, possibly, these are more common in seaport towns in the South ofEngland and elsewhere, and it is almost certain that, like the chelifer, one of the species found on book-shelves in Ceylon, has been broughtthither from Europe. ] The latter, which is a familiar genus, comprises several species, ofwhich only two have as yet been described; one is of a large size, mostgraceful in its movements, and singularly beautiful in appearance, owingto the whiteness of the pearly scales from which its name is derived. These, contrasted with the dark hue of the other parts, and itstri-partite tail, attract the eye as the insect darts rapidly along. Like the chelifer, it shuns the light, hiding in chinks till sunset, butis actively engaged throughout the night feasting on the acari andsoft-bodied insects which assail books and papers. _Millepeds_. --In the hot dry season, and more especially in the northernportions of the island, the eye is attracted along the edges of thesandy roads by fragments of the dislocated rings of a huge species ofmillepede[1], lying in short curved tubes, the cavity admitting the tipof the little finger. When perfect the creature is two-thirds of a footlong, of a brilliant jet black, and with above a hundred yellow legs, which, when moving onward, present the appearance of a series ofundulations from rear to front, bearing the animal gently forwards. This_Julus_ is harmless, and may be handled with perfect impunity. Its foodconsists chiefly of fruits and the roots and stems of succulentvegetables, its jaws not being framed for any more formidable purpose. Another and a very pretty species[2], quite as black, but with a brightcrimson band down the back, and the legs similarly tinted, is common inthe gardens about Colombo and throughout the western province. [Footnote 1: _Julus ater_. ] [Footnote 2: _Julus carnifex_, Fab. ] CRUSTACEA. --The seas around Ceylon abound with marine articulata; but aknowledge of the crustacea of the island is at present a desideratum;and with the exception of the few commoner species that frequent theshores, or are offered in the markets, we are literally withoutinformation, excepting the little that can be gleaned from alreadypublished systematic works. [Illustration: CALLING CRAB OF CEYLON. ] In the bazaars several species of edible crabs are exposed for sale; andamongst the delicacies at the tables of Europeans, curries made fromprawns and lobsters are the triumphs of the Ceylon cuisine. Of theselatter the fishermen sometimes exhibit specimens[1] of extraordinarydimensions and of a beautiful purple hue, variegated with white. Alongthe level shore north and south of Colombo, and in no less profusionelsewhere, the nimble little Calling Crabs[2] scamper over the moistsands, carrying aloft the enormous hand (sometimes larger than the restof the body), which is their peculiar characteristic, and which, fromits beckoning gesture has suggested their popular name. They hurry toconceal themselves in the deep retreats which they hollow out in thebanks that border the sea. [Footnote 1: _Palinurus ornatus_, Fab. P--n. S. ] [Footnote 2: _Gelasimus tetragonon_? Edw. ; _G. Annulipes_? Edw. ; _G. Dussumieri_? Edw. ] _Sand Crabs_. --In the same localities, or a little farther inland, the_Ocypode_[1] burrows in the dry soil, making deep excavations, bringingup literally armfulls of sand; which with a spring in the air, andemploying its other limbs, it jerks far from its burrows, distributingit in a circle to the distance of several feet. [2] So inconvenient arethe operations of these industrious pests that men are kept regularlyemployed at Colombo in filling up the holes formed by them on thesurface of the Galle face. This, the only equestrian promenade of thecapital, is so infested by these active little creatures that accidentsoften occur through horses stumbling in their troublesome excavations. [Footnote 1: _Ocypode ceratophthamus_. Pall. ] [Footnote 2: _Ann. Nat. Hist_. April, 1852. Paper by Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD. ] _Painted Crabs_. --On the reef of rocks which lies to the south of theharbour at Colombo, the beautiful little painted crabs[1], distinguishedby dark red markings on a yellow ground, may be seen all day longrunning nimbly in the spray, and ascending and descending in securitythe almost perpendicular sides of the rocks which are washed by thewaves. _Paddling Crabs_[2], with the hind pair of legs terminated byflattened plates to assist them in swimming, are brought up in thefishermen's nets. _Hermit Crabs_ take possession of the deserted shellsof the univalves, and crawl in pursuit of garbage along the moist beach. Prawns and shrimps furnish delicacies for the breakfast table; and thedelicate little pea crab, _Pontonia inflata_[3], recalls itsMediterranean congener[4], which attracted the attention of Aristotle, from taking up its habitation in the shell of the living pinna. [Footnote 1: _Grapsus strigosus_, Herbst. ] [Footnote 2: _Neptunus pelagicus_, Linn. ; _N. Sanguinolentus_, Herbst, &c. &c. ] [Footnote 3: MILNE EDW. , _Hist. Nat. Crust_. , vol. Ii. P. 360. ] [Footnote 4: _Pinnotheres veterum_. ] ANNELIDÆ. --The marine _Annelides_ of the island have not as yet beeninvestigated; a cursory glance, however, amongst the stones, on thebeach at Trincomalie and in the pools that afford convenient basins forexamining them, would lead to the belief that the marine species are notnumerous; tubicole genera, as well as some nereids, are found, but thereseems to be little diversity, though it is not impossible that a closerscrutiny might be repaid by the discovery of some interesting forms. _Leeches_. --Of all the plagues which beset the traveller in the risinggrounds of Ceylon, the most detested are the land leeches. [1] They arenot frequent in the plains. Which are too hot and dry for them; butamongst the rank vegetation in the lower ranges of the hill country, which is kept damp by frequent showers, they are found in tormentingprofusion. They are terrestrial, never visiting ponds or streams. Insize they are about an inch in length, and as fine as a common knittingneedle; but they are capable of distension till they equal a quill inthickness, and attain a length of nearly two inches. Their structure isso flexible that they can insinuate themselves through the meshes of thefinest stocking, not only seizing on the feet and ankles, but ascendingto the back and throat and fastening on the tenderest parts of the body. In order to exclude them, the coffee planters, who live amongst thesepests, are obliged to envelope their legs in "leech gaiters" made ofclosely woven cloth. The natives smear their bodies with oil, tobaccoashes, or lemon juice[2]; the latter serving not only to stop the flowof blood, but to expedite the healing of the wounds. In moving, the landleeches have the power of planting one extremity on the earth andraising the other perpendicularly to watch for their victim. Such istheir vigilance and instinct, that on the approach of a passer-by to aspot which they infest, they may be seen amongst the grass and fallenleaves on the edge of a native path, poised erect, and preparing fortheir attack on man and horse. On descrying their prey they advancerapidly by semi-circular strides, fixing one end firmly and arching theother forwards, till by successive advances they can lay hold of thetraveller's foot, when they disengage themselves from the ground andascend his dress in search of an aperture to enter. In these encountersthe individuals in the rear of a party of travellers in the jungleinvariably fare worst, as the leeches, once warned of their approach, congregate with singular celerity. Their size is so insignificant, andthe wound they make is so skilfully punctured, that both are generallyimperceptible, and the first intimation of their onslaught is thetrickling of the blood or a chill feeling of the leech when it begins tohang heavily on the skin from being distended by its repast. Horses aredriven wild by them, and stamp the ground in fury to shake them fromtheir fetlocks, to which they hang in bloody tassels. The bare legs ofthe palankin bearers and coolies are a favourite resort; and, as theirhands are too much engaged to be spared to pull them off, the leecheshang like bunches of grapes round their ankles; and I have seen theblood literally flowing over the ledge of a European's shoe from theirinnumerable bites. In healthy constitutions the wounds, if notirritated, generally heal, occasioning no other inconvenience than aslight inflammation and itching; but in those with a bad state of body, the punctures, if rubbed, are liable to degenerate into ulcers, whichmay lead to the loss of limb or even of life. Both Marshall and Davymention, that during the march of troops in the mountains, when theKandyans were in rebellion, in 1818, the soldiers, and especially theMadras sepoys, with the pioneers and coolies, suffered so severely fromthis cause that numbers perished. [3] [Footnote 1: _Hæmadipsa Ceylanica_. Bose. Blainv. These pests are not, however, confined to Ceylon, they infest the lower ranges of theHimalaya. --HOOKER, vol. I. P. 107; vol. Ii. P. 54. THUNBERG, who records(_Travels_, vol. Iv. P. 232) having seen them in Ceylon, likewise metwith them in the forests and slopes of Batavia. MARSDEN (_Hist_. P. 311)complains of them dropping on travellers in Sumatra. KNORR found them atJapan; and it is affirmed that they abound in islands farther to theeastward. M. GAY encountered them in Chili. --(MOQUIN-TANDON, _Hirudinées_, p. 211, 346). It is very doubtful, however, whether allthese are to be referred to one species. M. DE BLAINVILLE, under _H. Ceylanica_, in the _Dict. De Scien. Nat_. Vol. Xlvii. P. 271, quotes M. Bosc as authority for the kind, which that naturalist describes being"rouges et tachetées;" which is scarcely applicable to the Singhalesespecies. It is more than probable therefore, considering the period atwhich M. BOSC wrote, that he obtained his information from travellers tothe further east, and has connected with the habitat universallyascribed to them from old KNOX'S work (Part 1. Chap. Vi. ) a meagredescription, more properly belonging to the land leech of Batavia orJapan. In all likelihood, therefore, there may be a _H. Boscii_, distinct from the _H. Ceylanica_. That which is found in Ceylon isround, a little flattened on the inferior surface, largest at the analextremity, thence gradually tapering forward, and with the anal suckercomposed of four rings, and wider in proportion than in other species. [Illustration: EYES AND TEETH OF THE LAND LEECH OF CEYLON] It is of a clear brown colour, with a yellow stripe the entire length ofeach side, and a greenish dorsal one. The body is formed of 100 rings;the eyes, of which there are five pairs, are placed in an arch on thedorsal surface; the first four pairs occupying contiguous rings (thusdiffering from the water-leeches, which have an unoccupied ring betwixtthe third and fourth); the fifth pair are located on the seventh ring, two vacant rings intervening. To Mr. Thwaites, Director of the BotanicGarden at Peradenia, who at my request examined their structureminutely, I am indebted for the following most interesting particularsrespecting them. "I have been giving a little time to the examination ofthe land leech. I find it to have five pairs of ocelli, the first fourseated on corresponding segments, and the posterior pair on the seventhsegment or ring, the fifth and sixth rings being eyeless (_fig_. A). Themouth is very retractile, and the aperture is shaped as in ordinaryleeches. The serratures of the teeth, or rather the teeth themselves, are very beautiful. Each of the three 'teeth, ' or cutting instruments, is principally muscular, the muscular body being very clearly seen. Therounded edge in which the teeth are set appears to be cartilaginous instructure; the teeth are very numerous, (_fig_. B); but some near thebase have a curious appendage, apparently (I have not yet made this outquite satisfactorily) set upon one side. I have not yet been able todetect the anal or sexual pores. The anal sucker seems to be formed offour rings, and on each side above is a sort of crenated flesh-likeappendage. The tint of the common species is yellowish-brown orsnuff-coloured, streaked with black, with a yellow-greenish dorsal, andanother lateral line along its whole length. There is a larger speciesto be found in this garden with a broad green dorsal fascia; but I havenot been able to procure one although I have offered a small reward toany coolie who will bring me one. " In a subsequent communication Mr. Thwaites remarks "that the dorsal longitudinal fascia is of the samewidth as the lateral ones, and differs only in being perhaps slightlymore green; the colour of the three fasciæ varies from brownish-yellowto bright green. " He likewise states "that the rings which compose thebody are just 100, and the teeth 70 to 80 in each set, in a single row, except to one end, where they are in a double row. "] [Illustration: LAND LEECHES IN PURSUIT] [Footnote 2: The Minorite friar, ODORIC of Portenau. Writing in A. D. 1320, says that the gem-finders who sought the jewels around Adam'sPeak, "take lemons which they peel, anointing themselves with the juicethereof, so that the leeches may not be able to hurt them. "--HAKLUYT, _Voy. _ vol. Ii. P. 58. ] [Footnote 3: DAVY'S _Ceylon_, p. 104; MARSHALL'S _Ceylon_, p. 15. ] One circumstance regarding these land leeches is remarkable andunexplained; they are helpless without moisture, and in the hills wherethey abound at all other times, they entirely disappear during longdroughts;--yet re-appear instantaneously on the very first fall of rain;and in spots previously parched, where not one was visible an hourbefore, a single shower is sufficient to reproduce them in thousands, lurking beneath the decaying leaves, or striding with rapid movementsacross the gravel. Whence do they re-appear? Do they, too, take a"summer sleep, " like the reptiles, molluscs, and tank fishes? or maythey, like the _Rotifera_, be dried up and preserved for an indefiniteperiod, resuming their vital activity on the mere recurrence ofmoisture?[1] [Footnote 1: See an account of the _Rotifera_ and their faculty ofrepeated vivifaction, in the note appended to this chapter. ] Besides a species of the medicinal leech, which[1] is found in Ceylon, nearly double the size of the European one, and with a prodigiousfaculty of engorging blood, there is another pest in the low country, which is a source of considerable annoyance, and often of loss, to thehusbandman. This is the cattle leech[2], which infests the stagnantpools, chiefly in the alluvial lands around the base of the mountainzone, whither the cattle resort by day, and the wild animals by night, to quench their thirst and to bathe. Lurking amongst the rank vegetationthat fringes these deep pools, and hid by the broad leaves, or concealedamong the stems and roots covered by the water, there are quantities ofthese pests in wait to attack the animals on their approach to drink. Their natural food consists of the juices of lumbrici and otherinvertebrata; but they generally avail themselves of the opportunityafforded by the dipping of the muzzles of the animals in the water tofasten on their nostrils, and by degrees to make their way to the deeperrecesses of the nasal passages, and the mucous membranes of the throatand gullet. As many as a dozen have been found attached to theepiglottis and pharynx of a bullock, producing such irritation andsubmucous effusion that death has eventually ensued; and so tenaciousare the leeches that even after death they retain their hold for somehours. [3] [Footnote 1: _Hirudo sanguisorba_. The paddi-field leech of Ceylon, usedfor surgical purposes, has the dorsal surface of blackish olive, withseveral longitudinal striæ, more or less defined; the crenated marginyellow. The ventral surface is fulvous, bordered laterally with olive;the extreme margin yellow. The eyes are ranged as in the commonmedicinal leech of Europe; the four anterior ones rather larger than theothers. The teeth are 140 in each series, appearing as a single row; insize diminishing gradually from one end, very close set, and about halfthe width of a tooth apart. When full grown, these leeches are about twoinches long, but reaching to six inches when extended. Mr. Thwaites, towhom I am indebted for these particulars, adds that he saw in a tank atKolona Korle leeches which appeared to him flatter and of a darkercolour than those described above, but that he had not an opportunity ofexamining them particularly. [Illustration: DORSAL. ] [Illustration: VENTRAL. ] Mr. Thwaites states that there is a smaller tank leech of an olive-greencolour, with some indistinct longitudinal striæ on the upper surface;the crenated margin of a pale yellowish-green; ocelli as in thepaddi-field leech; length, one inch at rest, three inches when extended. Mr. E. L. LAYARD informs us, _Mag. Nat. Hist_. P. 225, 1853, that abubbling spring at the village of Tonniotoo, three miles S. W. OfMoeletivoe, supplies most of the leeches used in the island. Those inuse at Colombo are obtained in the immediate vicinity. ] [Footnote 2: _Hæmopsis paludum_. In size the cattle leech of Ceylon issomewhat larger than the medicinal leech of Europe: in colour it is of auniform brown without bands, unless a rufous margin may be soconsidered. It has dark striæ. The body is somewhat rounded, flat whenswimming, and composed of rather more than ninety rings. The greatestdimension is a little in advance of the anal sucker; the body thencetapers to the other extremity, which ends in an upper lip projectingconsiderably beyond the mouth. The eyes, ten in number, are disposed asin the common leech. The mouth is oval, the biting apparatus withdifficulty seen, and the teeth not very numerous. The bite is so littleacute that the moment of attachment, and the incision of the membrane isscarcely perceived by the sufferer from its attack. ] [Footnote 3: Even men, when stooping to drink at a pool, are not safefrom the assault of the cattle leeches. They cannot penetrate the humanskin, but the delicate membrane of the mucous passages is easilyruptured by their serrated jaws. Instances have come to my knowledge ofEuropeans into whose nostrils they had gained admission and causedserious disturbance. ] * * * * * ARTICULATA. _APTERA_. THYSANURA. Podura _albicollis_. _atricollis_. _viduata_. _pilosa_. Archoreutes _coccinea_. Lepisma nigrofasciara, _Temp_. _nigra. _ ARACHNIDA. Buthus afer. _Linn_. Ceylonicus, _Koch_. Scorpio _linearis_. Chelifer librorum. _oblongus_. Obisium _crassifemur_. Phrynus lunatus, _Pall_. Thelyphonus caudatus, _Linn. _ Phalangium _bisignatum_. Mygale fasciata, _Walck_. Olios taprobanius, _Walck_. Nephila . .. ? Trombidium tinctorum, _Herm_. Oribata . .. ? Ixodes . .. ? MYRIAPODA. Cermatia _dispar_. Lithobius _umbratilis_. Scolopendra _crassa_. Spinosa, _Newp_. _pallipes_. _Grayii_? _Newp_. Tuberculidens, _Newp_. Ceylonensis, _Newp_. Flava, _Newp_. _olivacea_. _abdominalis_, Cryptops _sordidus_. _assimilis_. Geophilus _tegularius_. _speciosus_. Julus _ater_. Carnifex, _Fabr_. _pallipes_. _fiaviceps_. _pallidus_. Craspedosoma _juloides_. _præusta_. Polydesmus _granulatus_. Cambala _catenulata_. Zephronia _conspicua_. _CRUSTACEA_. DECAPODA BHACHTUEA. _Polybius_. Neptunus pelagicus, _Linn. _ sanguinolentus, _Herbst_. Thalamlta . .. ? Thelphusa _Indica, Latr_. _Cardisoma_ . .. ? Ocypoda ceratophthalmus, _Pall_, _macrocera, Edw_. Gelasimus _tetragonon, Edw_. _annulipes, Edw_. Macrophthalmus _carinimanus, Latr_. Grapsus _messor, Forsk_. Strigosus, _Herbst_. Plagusia depressa, _Fabr_. Calappa philargus, _Linn. _ _tuberculata, Fabr_. Matota victor, _Fabr_. Leucosia _fugax, Fabr_. _Dorippe_. DECAPODA ANOMURA. _Dromia_ . .. ? Hippa Asiatica, _Edw_. Pagurus affinis, _Edw_. _punctulatus, Oliv_. _Porcellana_ . .. ? DECAPODA MACRURA. Scyllarus _orientalis, Fabr_. Palinurus ornatus, _Fabr_. Affinis, _N. S. _ _Crangon_ . .. ? _Alpheus_ . .. ? Pomonia inflata, _Edw_. Palæmon carcinus, _Fabr_. Steaopus . .. ? Peneus . .. ? STOMATOPODA. _Squilla_ . .. ? Gonodactylus chiragra, _Fabr_. _CIRRHIPEDIA_. _Lepas_. _Balanus_. _ANNELIDA_. Tubicolæ. Dorsibranchiata. Abranchia. Hirudo _sanguisorba_. _Thwaitesii_. Hæmopsis _paludum_. Hæmadipsa Ceylana. _Blainv_. Lumbricus . .. ? * * * * * NOTE ON THE FACULTY OF REPEATED RE-VIVIFICATION POSSESSED BY THE _ROTIFERA_, ETC. The _Rotifer_, a singular creature, although it can only truly live inwater, inhabits the moss on house-tops, dying each time the sun dries upits place of retreat, to revive as often as a shower of rain supplies itwith the moisture essential to its existence; thus employing severalyears to exhaust the eighteen days of life which nature has allotted toit. These creatures were discovered by LEUWENHOECK, and have become thetypes of a class already numerous, which undergo the same conditions oflife, and possess the same faculty. Besides the _Rotifera_, the_Tardigrades_, (which belong to the _Acari_, ) and certain paste-eels, all exhibit a similar phenomenon. But although these different speciesmay die and be resuscitated several times in succession, this power hasits limits, and each successive experiment generally proves fatal to oneor more individuals. SPALLANZANI, in his experiments on the _Rotifera_, did not find that any survived after the sixteenth alternation ofdesiccation and damping, but paste-eels bore seventeen of thosevicissitudes. SPALLANZANI, after thoroughly drying sand rich in _Rotifera_, kept itfor more than three years, moistening portions taken from it every fiveor six months. BAKER went further still in his experiments onpaste-eels, for he kept the paste from which they had been taken, without moistening it in any way, for twenty-seven years, and at the endof that time the eels revived on being immersed in a drop of water. _Ifthey had exhausted their lives all at once and without theseintermissions, these Rotifera and paste-eels would not have lived beyondsixteen or eighteen consecutive days. _ To remove all doubt as to the complete desiccation of the animalculesexperimented on by SPALLANZANI and BAKER, M. DOYÈRE has published, inthe _Annales des Sciences Naturales_ for 1842, the results of his ownobservation, in cases in which the mosses containing the insects weredried under the receiver of an air-pump and left there for a week; afterwhich they were placed in a stove heated to 267° Fahr. , and yet, whenagain immersed in water, a number of the _Rotifera_ became as lively asever. Further particulars of these experiments will be found in the Appendixto the _Rambles of a Naturalist, &c. _, by M. QUARTREFAGE. INDEX. * * * * * ABOU-ZEYD, his account of fish on dry land, 350 n. Abyssinia, fishes of, 352. _Acalephæ_, 398. _See_ Radiata. Acanthopterygii, 360. Accipitres, 245. _Acherontia Sathanas_, 427Adam's Peak, elephants on the summit, 109. Ælian's account of the mermaid, 69. His statement as to the export of elephants from Ceylon, 77 _n_. , 209 _n_. Error as to the shedding of the elephant's tusks, 79 _n_. Describes elephants killing criminals with their knees. 87 _n_. Error as to elephants' joints, 102. His account of Ceylon tortoises, 293. His account of the superiority of the elephants of Ceylon, 209 _n_. His description of the performances of the trained elephants at Rome, 237. His account of the sword-fish, 328. Describes a _Cheironectes_, 331. African elephant, its peculiarities, 65. Not inferior to the Indian in tractability, 208. Albino buffalo, 57. Deer, 59. Albyrouni, on the pearl oyster, 375. Alce, described by Pliny and Cæsar, 101 _n_. Alexandria, story of the dogs at, 34. Alligator, 283. _See_ Crocodile. Almeida, Manoel de, on burying fishes, 353 _n_. Amboina, mermaids at, 70. Ampullaria, its faculty of burying itself, 355. _Anabas_, 354. Daldorf's account of, doubted, 349, 350. Accidents from, 351 n. Angling bad in Ceylon, 335 _n_. , 341. _Annelidæ_, leeches, 479. Land-leech, its varieties, 482. Land-leech, its teeth and eyes, 480. Its tormenting bite, 482. List of, 485. Anseres, 260. Ansted, Prof. , on the geology of Ceylon, 61. His statement as to the height of Indian elephants, 100 _n_. Antiochus, elephants used by, 208. Antipater, the first to bring the Indian elephant to Europe, 207. Ant-lion, 411. _See_ Insects. Ants, 420 _See_ Insects. Red, 420, 422. White, 412. _See Termites_. Their faculty in discovering food, 421. Armandi's work on the use of elephants in war, 208 _n_. Aphaniptera, 433. _Arachnidæ_, spiders, 464. Extraordinary webs, _ib_. _Olios Taprobanius_, 470. _Mygale fasciata_, 465. Erroneously called "tarentula, " _ib_. Anecdote of, 466. Spiders, the Mygale, 465. Birds killed by it, 468. Galeodes, 470. Ticks, their multitude, 471. Mites, 472. _Trombidium tinctorum_, 472. List of, 485. Argus cowrie, 369. Aripo, the sea-shore, 373. Aristotle, account of fishes migrating overland, 344. Sounds made by elephants, 97. His error as to the elephant's knees, 101. Armitage, Mr. , story of an elephant on his estate, 139. Articulata, list of, 485. Athenæus, anecdotes of fishes on dry land, 346. Avicula, 373. _See_ Pearl Fishery. Avitchia, story of, 244. _See_ Jackdaw. Ayeen Akbery, elephant stomach described in, 128. Baker, Mr. , his theory of the passion for sporting, 142 n. Its accuracy questionable, 142 _n_. Badger, the Ceylon, 38. _See_ Mongoos. Bandicoot rat, 44. Barbezieux, on the elephant, 104. _Batocera rubus_, 406. Batrachia, 318. Bats, 13 _See_ Mammalia _and_ Cheiroptera. Orange-coloured bats, 14. Bats do not hybernate in Ceylon, 18. Horse-shoe bat, 19. Sense of smell and touch, 19. Small bat, _Scotophilus Coromandelicus_, 20. Their parasite (Nycteribia), 20-22. Batticaloa, musical fish, 380. Bears, 22. _See_ Mammalia. Ferocity of, 23. Charm to protect from, 25 _n_. Beaters for elephants, 150. Beaver, on African elephant, 234. Beckman's account of fishes on dry land, 346. Bees, 419. _See_ Insects. Beetles, 405. _See_ Insects. Instincts of the scavenger beetle, 405. Coco-nut beetle, 407. Tortoise beetle, 408. Bell, Sir Charles, on the elephant's shoulder, 108. Benary, his derivation of the word elephant, 76 _n_. Bengal mode of taking elephants, 164. Bennett's account of Ceylon, _Introd_. Work on its Ichthyology, 323. Bernier, on the Ceylon elephant, 209. Bertolacci, on form of _chank shell_, 372. Bestiaries, 104. Bicho de Mar. _See_ Holothuria. Birds of Ceylon, 241. Their number and character, _ib_. Few songsters, 242. Pea-fowl, 244. Eagles and hawks, 245. Owls, devil bird, 246, 247. Swallows, 248. Edible bird' nests, 248. Kingfisher, sun birds, 249. Bulbul, tailor bird, weaver bird, 251. Crows, anecdotes of, 253. Paroquets, 256. Pigeons, 257. Jungle-fowl, 259. _grallæ_, flamingoes, 260. List of Ceylon birds, 265. Bird-eating spiders, 469. Birds' nests, edible, 248. Blainville, De, on the age of the elephant, 232. Blair, on the anatomy of the elephant, 123 _n_. Bles, Marcellus, on the elephants of Ceylon. 113 _n_. , 215 _n_. Blood-suckers, 275. Blyth, Mr. , of Calcutta, his cultivation of zoology, 4. His revision of this work, _Introd_. Boa, 303. _See_ Python. Boar, wild, 59. Bochart, 68. His derivation of the word "elephant, " 76 _n_. Bora-chung, a curious fish, 367. Bosquez, Demas, account of a mermaid, 70. Bowring, Sir John, on the fishes of Siam, 348. Broderip, on the elephant, 122. Browne, Sir Thomas, _vulgar errors_, 100, 105. Error as to elephants' joints, 102. Brun, Le, account of the elephants at Colombo, 77 _n_. Bruno _or_ Braun, his account of the Guinea worm, 397. Buchanan, story of buffalo "rogues, " 115 _n_. Buffalo, 54. _See_ Mammalia. Its temper, 54. Sporting buffaloe, 55. Peculiar structure of its foot, 56. Rogue buffalo, 115 _n_. Buffalo's stomach and its water-cells, 129 _n_. Buffon, on the elephant, 113 _n_. , 215. Bugs, 433. _See_ Insects _and_ Coffee-bug. Buist, Dr. , account of fish fallen from clouds, 362. Bulbul, 251. _See_ Birds. _Bulimi_, their vitality, 357. _Bullia_, curious property of, 370. Bullocks for draught, 50. Burying fishes, 351. Butterflies, 403, 425. _See_ Insects. Migration of, 403 _n_. The spectre butterfly, 426. Cæcilia, 317. _See_ Reptiles. Cæsar's description of the "_alce_, " 100 _n_. Cajan, 373 _n_. Caldera, in Chili, musical sounds under water, 383. Calotes, the green, 276. Camel, attempt to domesticate in Ceylon, 53 _n_. Stomach of, 128. Antipathy to the horse, 83 _n_. Camper, on the anatomy of the elephant's stomach, 125. Carawala, 296. _See_ Reptiles. Carnivora, 74. Carpenter bee, 418. _See_ Insects. Caterpillars, stings of, 429. Cats attracted by the _Cuppa-may-niya, _ 33. Centipede, 474. _See_ Myriapoda _and_ Scolopendræ. _Ceratophora_, 279. _Cerithia_, 381. Probably musical, 381 _n. __Cermatia_, 473. _See_ Myriapoda. Cetacea, 68, 74. Described by Megasthenes and Ælian, 69. Chameleon, 278. _See_ Reptiles. Chank shell, Turbinella rapa, 371. _See_ [Greek: Kochlious] and _Schenek_. Cheetah, 26. _See_ Leopard. Cheironectes, described by Ælian, 331. Cheiroptera, 13, 74. _Chelifer_, 475. Chelonia, 322. Chena cultivation, 130. Cicada, 432. _See_ Insects. _Cirrhipeda_, 486. Cissa, 252. Civet, 32. _See_ Genette. Climbing fish (_Anabas scandens_), 349. Cluverius, 68. Cobra de Capello, anecdotes of, 297. Legend of, 297 _n_. A white cobra, 298 _n_. A tame cobra, 299 _n_. Cobra crossing the sea, 300. Curious belief as to the cobra, 300, 301. Worship of, 303. Cobra-tel, poison, 272. _See_ Kabara-tel. Coecilia glutinosa, 317. Attacked and killed by ants, 422. Coco-nut beetle, 407. Coffee-bug, _Lecanium Caffeæ_, 436. Coffee rat, 43. Coleoptera, 405. Columbidæ, 257. Conchology. _See_ Shells. Cooroowe, elephant catchers, 181. Corral for taking elephants, 156, 164. _See_ Elephant. Process of its construction, 170. Mode of conducting the capture, 156, 169. Corse, Mr. , account of elephants, 114. Cosmas Indico pleustes, his reference to chanks at Marallo, 371. Cotton-thief, 250. _See_ Tchitrea. Crabs, 477. _See_ Crustacea. Cripps, Mr. , on sounds produced by elephants, 98. His story of an elephant which feigned death, 135. His account of fishes after rain, 343. Crocodile, 282. _See_ Reptiles. Its sensibility to tickling, 285. Habit of the crocodile to bury itself in the mud, 286. Its flesh eaten, 284 _n. _ their vitality, 288 _n_. One killed at Batticaloa, 287. Crows, 233. _See_ Birds. Anecdotes of, 254. Story of a crow and a dog, 255. Cruelty to turtle, &c. , 291. _Crustacea_, calling crabs, 477. Sand crabs (ocypode), 478. Painted crabs, 478. Paddling crabs, 478. Hermit crabs, 478. Pea crabs, 479. List of Ceylon Crustacea, 486. Ctesias' error as to the elephant's knee, 101. Cumming, Mr. Gordon, on the power of the elephant in overturning trees, 218 _n_. _Cuppa-moy niya_ plant, its attraction for cats, 33 _n_. Cuvier, on the elephant, 133. On the structure of its tusks, 228. On the elephant's age, 232. Daldorf's account of climbing fish, 350. His story doubted, 350. Darwin, burying-place of llamas and goats, 236 _n_. On the coleoptera of Brazil, 405. Davy, Dr. John, describes the reptiles of Ceylon, 3. Stimulates study of natural history, 3. Operation on a diseased elephant, 224. Dawson, Captain, story of an elephant, 107. Deafness frequent in elephants, 98. Death's-head moth, 427. Decoy elephants, 157. _Decapoda brachyura_, 486. _anomura_, 486. _macrura_, 486. Deer, 57. Meminna, 58. Ceylon elk, 59. Milk-white, 59 _n_. Demon-worship, anecdote of, 408. Denham, error as to height of elephants, 99. Devil-bird, 246. _See_ Owls. Mr. Mitford's account of, 247 _n_. Diard, M. , sends home an elephant for dissection, 123 _n_. Dicuil on the elephant, 103. Diptera, 434. Dogs, 33. Device of, to escape fleas, 433, 434. Dog-tax, 33. Republican instincts, 34. Disliked by elephants, 82, 84. Donne, on the elephant, 105. Doras, fish of Guiana, 347. Dragon-flies, 411. _See_ Insects. Dugong, 68, 69. Abundant at Manaar, 69. Origin of the fable of the mermaid, 69. Dutch belief in the mermaid, 70. Eagles, 245. _See_ Birds. Edentata, 46, 74. Edrisi, the Arabian geographer, his account of musk, 32 _n_. Eels, 337, 347 _n_. Eginhard, life of Charlemagne, 103. Elephant, 64, 75. Sumatran species, 64. Points of distinction, 65. Those of Ceylon extolled, 209. Elephants on Adam's Peak, 109. Numbers in Ceylon, 76. [Greek: Elephas], derivation of the word, 76 _n_. Antiquity of the trade in, 77. Numbers diminishing, 77. Mode of poisoning, 77 _n_. Tusks and their uses, 78. Disposition gentle, 81. Accidents from, 81. Antipathy to other animals, 82; to the horse, 83. Jealousy of each other, 86. Mode of attacking man, 87. Anecdote of a tame elephant, 89. African elephant differs from that of Ceylon, 64. Skin, 91. White elephant, 92. Love of shade, 94. Water, not heat, essential to them, 94. Sight limited--smell acute, 95. Anatomy of the brain, 95. Power of smell, 96. Sounds uttered by, 96. Subject to deafness, 98. Exaggeration as to size, 98. Source of this mistake, 98 _n_. Stealthy motions, 100. Error as to the elephant's want of joints, 100. Probable origin of this mistake, 106. Mode of lying down, 107. Ability to climb acclivities, 108. Mode of descending a mountain, 110. A herd is a family, 111. Attachment to young, 112. Young suckled by all the females in a herd, 113. Theory of this, according to White, 113 _n_. A rogue, what, 114. Savage attacks of rogues, 116. Character of the rogues, 116, 147. Habits of the herd, 117. Anecdote of, 118. Elephant's mode of drinking, 120. Their method of swimming, 121. Wells sunk by, 122. Receptacle in the stomach, 122. Stomach, anatomy of, 124. Food of the elephant, 129. Instinct in search of food, 130. Dread of fences, 131. Their caution exaggerated, 132. Spirit of curiosity in elephants, 132. Anecdote of Col. Hardy, 132, 133. Sagacity in freedom over-estimated, 134. Leave the forests during thunder, 134. Cunning, feign death, 135. Stories of encounters with wild elephants, 136. Sporting, numbers shot, 142. Butchery by expert shots, 142 _n_. Fatal spots in the head, 144, 145. Peculiar actions of elephants, 148. Love of retirement, 149. Elephant-trackers, 150. Herd charging, 151. Carcase useless 153. Remarkable recovery from a wound, 154. _See Lieut_. Fretz. Mode of taking in India, 157-162. Height measured by the circumference of the foot, 159. Mode of shipping elephants at Manaar, 162. Mode of shipping elephants at Galle, in 1701, 163 _n_. _keddah_ for taking elephants in Bengal, 164. A corral (kraal) described, 165, 166. Derivation of the word _corral_, 165 _n_. Corral, its construction, 167, 172. Corral, driving in the elephants, 173. The capture, 177. Mode of securing, 181. The "cooroowe, " or noosers, 181. Tame elephants, their conduct, 182, 191. Captives, their resistance and demeanour, 184. Dread of white rods, 186. Their contortions, 190. A young one, 206. Conduct in captivity, 207. Mode of training, 211. Their employment in ancient warfare, 207. Superiority of Ceylon, a fallacy, 209. Elephant driver's crook (hendoo), 212. Hairy elephants in Ceylon, 215 _n_. Elephants, capricious disposition of, 215. First labour intrusted to them, 217. His comprehension of his duties, 218. Exaggeration of his strength in uprooting trees, 218 _n_. Mahouts and their duties, 221. Their cry of _urre!_ 222 _n_. Elephant's sense of musical notes, 223. Its endurance of pain, 224. Diseases in captivity, 225. Subject to tooth-ache, 227. Questionable economy of keeping trained elephants for labour, 229. Their cost, 230. Their food, 230 _n_. Fallacy of their alleged reluctance to breed in captivity, 231. Duration of life in the elephant, 232. Theory of M. Fleurens, 232. Instances of very old elephants in Ceylon, 233. Dead elephant never found, 234. Sinbad's story, 236. Passage from Ælian regarding the, 237. Elk, 59. _See_ Deer; Mammalia. Emydosauri, 321. Emys trijuga, 290. Englishman, anonymous, his story of a fight between elephants and horses, 84. Falconer, Dr. , height of Indian elephant, 99 _n_. Falkland Islands, peculiarity in the cattle there, 372 _n_. Fauna of Ceylon, not common to India, _Introd_. 62. Peculiar and independent, _Introd_. 62. Have received insufficient attention, 3. First study due to Dr. Davy, 3. Subsequent, due to Templeton, Layard, and Kelaart, 3, 4. Fishes of Ceylon, little known, 323. Seir fish, and others for table, 324. Abundance of perch, soles, and sardines, 324. Explanation of Odoric's statement, 324 _n_. Sardines, said to be poisonous, 324. Shark, and sawfish, 325. Sawfish, 325. Ray, 326. Swordfish, 328. Cheironectes of Ælian, 331. Fishes of rare forms, and of beautiful colours, 332. Fresh-water fishes, their peculiarities, 335. Fresh-water, little known, _ib_. ; reason, 335 _n_. Eels, 337. Reappearance of fishes after the dry season, 340. Fishes, similar mysterious re-appearances elsewhere, 342 _n_. Method of taking them by hand, 340. A fish decoy, 342. Fish filling from clouds, 342 _n_. , 362. Buried alive in mud, 347. Mr. Yarrell's theory controverted, 344. Travelling overland, 345. The fact was known to the Greeks and Romans, 345. Instances in Guiana and Siam, 347. Faculty of all migratory fish for discovering water, 347 _n_. On dry land in Ceylon, 348. Fish ascending trees, 349. Excerpt from letter by Mr. Morris, 348 _n_. Anabas scandens, 349, 350. Daldorf's statement, anticipated by Abou-zeyd, 350 _n_. Accidents when fishing, 351 _n_. Burying fishes and travelling fish, 351. Occurrence of similar fish in Abyssinia and elsewhere, 352. Statement of the patriarch Mendes, 553 _n_. Knowledge of habits of Melania employed judicially by E. L. Layard, 355_n_. Illustrations of æstivating fish and animals, 356. æstivating shell-fish and water-beetlea, 351. Fish in hot water, 358. List of Ceylon fishes, 359. Professor Huxley's memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, 364. Dr. Gray's memorandum, 366. _Note_ on the _Bora-chung_, 367. Fishing, native mode of, 340. Fish insect, 475. Flamingoes, 261. _See_ Birds. Fleas, 433. _See_ Insects. Fleurens, on the duration of life in the elephant, 232. Flies, their instinct in discovering carrion, 196 _n_. Mosquitoes, the plague of, 434. Flowers, fondness of monkeys for, 7. Flying Fox. _Pteropus Edwardsii_, 14. _See_ Mammalia. Its sizes, 14. Skeleton of, 15. Food, 16. Habits, 16. Numbers, 16. Strange attitudes, 17. Food and habits, 18. Drinking toddy, 18. Flying squirrels, 41. Fresh-water fishes, 335. Fretz, Lieut. , his singular wound, 154. Frogs, 318. Tree frogs, 319, 320. Galle, elephants shipped in 1701, 163 _n_. Gallinæ, 259. Galloperdix bicalcaratus, 259. Gallwey, Capt. P. P. , great number of elephants shot by him, 142. Game birds, 265. Gardner, Dr. , his account of the coffee bug, 436-441. Gaur, 49 _See_ Mammalia. Knox's account of the gaur, 49. Geckoes, 281. Gemma Frisius, 68. Genette, 32. Geology of Ceylon, errors as to, 60. Previous accounts, 61. Traditions of ancient submersion, 61, 67. Ceylon has a fauna distinct from India, 62. "Golden Meadows, " 211 _n_. _See_ Massoude. Golunda rat, 43. _Goondah_, 114. _See_ Rogue. Gooneratne, Mr. , _Introd_. His story of the jackal, 35. Gordon Cumming, his butchery of elephants in Africa, 146 _n_. Gowra-ellia, 49. Grallæ, 260. Gray, Dr. J. E. , Brit. Mus. , _Introd_. Notice of Ceylon fishes, 366. Great fire-fish, 332. Guinea worm, 397. Günther, Dr. A. , on Ceylon reptiles, 275 _n_. , 304. Gwillim's Heraldry, error as to elephants, 105 _n_. Hambangtotte, elephants of, 99. Hardy, Col, anecdote of, when chased by an elephant, 133. Hardy, Rev. Spence, describes a white monkey, 8. Haroun Alraschid, sends an elephant to Charlemagne, 103. Harrison, Dr. , 95. His anatomy of the elephant, 123 _n_. , 126. His account of elephant's head, 142. Of the elephant's ear, 223. Hastisilpe, a work on elephants, 87 _n_. , 91. Hawking, 246. Hawks. _See_ Birds, 246. Hedge-hog, 46. Helix hæmastoma, its colouring, 372. Hemiptera, 433, 462. Hendoo, crook for driving elephants, 212. Herd, a, of elephants, is a family, 111. Its mode of electing a leader, 117. Herodotus, on mosquitoes, 435. Antipathy of the elephant to the camel, 83 _n_. Herpestes, 38. Herport, Albrecht, his work on India, 71 _n_. _Hesperidæ_, 426. Hill, Sir John, error as to elephants, 98. Hippopotamus rogues, 115 _n_. Histiophorus, 330. _See_ Sword-fish. Holland, Dr. , his theory as to the formation of tusks, 89 _n_. _Holothurin_, sea-slug and Trepang, 396. Home, Sir Everard, on the elephant's stomach, 124. Error as to the elephant's ear, 223. Home, Randal, error as to elephant, 105 _n_. Homoptera, 462, 463. Honey-comb, great size of, 418. Hooker, Dr. J. D. , on the elephants of the Himalaya, 110 _n_. Error as to white ants' nests, 413. On ticks in Nepal, 471 _n_. , 472. _Hora_, 115. _See_ Rogue. Horace, alludes to a white elephant, 92 _n_. Hornbill, _Buceros_, 242, 243. Horse, alleged antipathy to the elephant, 83. To the camel, 83 _n_. Story of, and an elephant, 89. Horses taught to fight with elephants, 84. Hotambeya, 40. _See_ Mongoos. Hot-water fishes, 358. Hunt, mode of conducting an elephant-hunt, 157. Hunter, Dr. John, his theory of æstivation, 356. Hurra! 223 _n_. Huxley, Prof. , _Introd_. His memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, 364. Hydrophobia in jackals, 36. Hymenoptera, 416. _Ianthina_, 370. Ichneumon, 39. _See_ Mongoos. Iguana, 271. _See_ Reptiles. _Infusoria_, Red, in the Ceylon seas, 400. Insects of Ceylon, 403. Their profusion and beauty, 403. Hitherto imperfectly described, 404. Coleoptera, 405. Beetles, scavengers, 405. Coco-nut beetle, tortoise beetle, 407. Tortoise beetle, 408. Orthoptera, 408. The soothsayer, leaf-insect, 410. Neuroptera, 411. Dragon-flies, 411. Ant-lion, 411. White ant, termites, 411. Insects, _Hymenoptera_, mason-wasp, 416. Wasps, bees, wasps' nest, 418. Carpenter bee, 418. Ants, 420. Value of scavenger ants to conchologists, 421. Dimiya or red ant, 422. Introduced to destroy coffee-bug, 423. _Lepidoptera_, butterflies, 424. _lycænidæ, hesperidæ_, 426. _acherontia sathanas_, 427. Moths, silk-worm, 427. Stinging caterpillars, 429. Oiketicus, 430. _Homoptera, cicada_, the "knife-grinder, " 432. Flata, 433. _Aphaniptera_--fleas, 433. _Diptera_--mosquitoes, 434. Coffee bug, 436-441. Mr. Walker's memorandum on Ceylon insects, 442. List, 447. Ivory, annual consumption, 78 _n_. Superiority of Chinese, _ib_. Jackal, 35. Its cunning, 35. Probably the "fox" of Scripture, 35. Its sagacity in hunting, 36. Subject to hydrophobia, 36. Jackal's horn, the _narric comboo_, 37. Superstitions connected with, 37. Jackdaw, fable of, 244. _See_ Avitchia. Jardine, Sir W. , error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 _n_. Jay, the mountain, 252. _See_ Cissa. Joinville, on the parasite of the bat, 20. _Julus_, 477. Jungle fowl, 259. _See_ Birds. Juvenal's allusion to fishes on land, 346. Kabragoya, 272, 273. _See_ Iguana. Kabara-tel, poison, 274. Kanats in Persia, 339 _n_. Keddah, for taking elephants, 164. Kelaart, Dr. , work on the Zoology of Ceylon, 4. Examination of the Radiata, 395. Discoveries as to the pearl oyster, 375. Kingfisher, 249. _See_ Birds. Kinnis, Dr. , cultivates zoology, 4. Kite, on Egyptian sculpture, 246 _n_. Knife-grinder, 432. _See_ Cicada. Knox, R. , account of Ceylon fauna, _Introd_. His description of the Wanderoo, 5. Of elephants executing criminals, 87. Of the mode of catching elephants, 157. Knox, his description of natives fishing, 340. [Greek: Kochlious], 371. Kombook tree, its bark, 170. _Korahl_, 165. _See_ Kraal _and_ Corral. Derivation of the word, 165 _n_. Kornegalle, beauty of the place, 167. Kottiar, immense oysters, 371 _n_. _See_ Cottiar. Kraal, 165. _See_ Corral _and_ Korahl. Krank-bezoeker, 71 _n_. Layard, E. A. , his knowledge of Ceylon zoology, 4. His collections of Ceylon birds, 241. Story of fish on dry land, 318. Anecdote of burying molluscs, 355. Leaf insect. 408-410. _See_ Insects. Leaping fish, 332. _See Salarias alticus_. _Lecanium Caffeæ_, 436. Leeches, 479. _See Annelidæ_. Land leech, 479. Medicinal leech, 483. Cattle leech, 344. Leopard, 25. In Ceylon confounded with the _cheetah_, 26. Superstitions regarding, 26. Anecdotes of their ferocity, 27. Attracted by the small-pox, 28. Story of Major Skinner, 29. Monkeys killed by leopards, 31. Lepidoptera, 424. _Lepisma_, the fish insect, 474. Lima, General de, his account of the weight of elephants' tusks atMozambique, 79 _n_. Livingstone's account of the "rogue" hippopotamus, 115 _n_. Llama of the Andes, its stomach, 128 _n_. Livy, account of fishes on dry land, 346. Lizards, 271. _See_ Reptiles. Lophobranchi, 362. _Loris_, 12. _See_ Mammalia. Two varieties in Ceylon, 12. Torture inflicted on it, 13. Lucan, description of the ichneumon, 39. _Lycænidæ_, 426. Lyre-headed lizard, 277. Macabbees iii. Book, allusion to elephants, 87 _n_. , 211 _n_. Macacus monkey, 5. Machlis described by Cæsar, 101. Macready, Major, account of a noise made by elephants, 97. His opinion as to the vulnerable point in the elephant's head. 145_n_. Mahawanso, mentions a white elephant, 93. Mahout, an elephant driver, 181. _See_ Ponnekella. Mahout, alleged short life, 222. _Malacopterygii abdominales_, 362. _sub-branchiati_, 362. _apoda_, 362. Mammalia, 3. Monkeys, 5. Rilawa, 5. Wanderoo, 6. Error as to the Ceylon Wanderoo, 6, _n_. Wanderoo, mode of flight among trees, 9. Monkeys never found dead, 11. _Loris_, 12. Tortures inflicted on it, 13. Bat, flying fox, 14. Skeleton of, 14. Attracted by toddy to the coco-nut palms, 18. Horse-shoe bat, 18. Parasite of the bat, Nycteribia, 20, 21. Bears, 22. Bears dreaded in Ceylon, 24. Leopards, 25. Attracted by the odour of small pox, 28. Anecdote of a leopard, 29. Lesser felines, 32. Dogs, Pariah, 34. Jackal, 34. The jackal's horn, 36. Mongoos, 37. Assaults of Mongoos on the serpent, 38. Squirrels, 41. The flying squirrel, 41. Rats, the rat snake, 42. Coffee rat, 43, 44. Bandicoot, 44, 45. Porcupine, 45. Pengolin, 46-48. The gaur, 49. The ox, 50. Anecdote of, 51. Draft oxen, 51-53. The buffalo, 54. Sporting buffaloes, 55. Peculiarity of the buffalo's foot, 56. Deer, 57. Meminna, 57, 58. Ceylon elk, 59. Wild boar, 59. Elephant, 69, 75. Whale and dugong, 68, 69. Peculiarities of Ceylon mammalia, 73. List of, 73. Manaar, mermaid taken at, 69. Elephants shipped at, 162. Pearl fishery, 373. Manis. _See_ Pengolin, 46. Mantis, 410. Massoudi, on the use of elephants in war, 211 _n_. His account of pearl-diving, 377 _n_. _Mastacembelus_, 338. _See_ Eels. Megasthenes' account of the mermaid, 69. Mehemet Ali, story of, 34. _Melania Paludina_, its habit of burying itself, 355. Its hybernation, 355. Melania, story of a law suit decided by, 355 _n_. Meleagrina, 373 _n_. _See_ Pearl fishery. Meminna deer, 58. Mercator, 68. Mercer, Mr. , his story of an elephant fight, 86. Mermaid, 68. _See_ Dugong. Mermaids, at Manaar, 69. At Amboina, 70. At Booro, 71. At Edam, 72. Millipeds, _Julus_, 477. Mites, 472. Mollusca. _See_ Shells. Molyneux, on the anatomy of the elephant, 122 _n_. Mongoos, 38. _See_ Ichneumon. Species at Neuera-ellia, _Herpestes Vitticollis_, 38. Story of its antidote against the bite of serpents, 39. Its mode of killing snakes, 39. Monkeys, 5. Never found dead, 11. A white monkey, 8. Moors of Galle, make ornaments of the elephant's teeth, 153. Moors, as caravan drivers, 53. Moose deer, 58. _See_ Meminna. Morris, Mr. , account of fishes on land, 348. Mosquitoes, their cunning, 434. Herodotus, account of, 436. Probably the plague of flies, 434 _n_. Moths, 427. _See_ Insects. Munster, Sebastian, 68. Musical fishes, 380. Account of, at Batticaloa, 380. Similar phenomena at other places, 383 _n_. Fishes known to utter sounds, 384. _Tritonia arborescens_, 385. Musk, 32. Mygale, spider, 465. Myriapods, 472. Narric-comboo, 37. _See_ Jackal's Horn. Natural history neglected in Ceylon, 3. Neela-cobeya, pigeon, 258. Neuroptera, 411. Nietner, on Ceylon insects, _Introd_. _Nycteribia_, parasite of the bat, 20, 21. Its extraordinary structure, 22. Odoric of Portenau, his cure for leech bites, 481. His account of birds with two heads, 243. His account of fishes in Ceylon, 324 _n_. _Oiketicus_, 430. Oil-bird, 269. Ophidia, 321. Ortelius, 68. Orthoptera, 408. Ouanderoo. _See_ Wanderoo. Owen, Professor, on the structure of the elephant's tusk, 228. On the Protopterus of the Gambia, 352. Owls. _See_ Birds. Oxen, their uses and diseases, 50. Anecdote of a cow and a leopard, 51. White, eight feet high, seen by Wolf, 52 _n_. Oysters at Bentotte, 371. Immense, at Kottiar, 371 _n_. Pachydermata, 59, 74. Padivil, the great tank, 262. Pallegoix, on the elephants of Siam, 98 _n_. On the fishes of Siam, 347. Palm-cat, 32. Panickeas, elephant catchers, 150, 158. Their skill, 159. Pariah dogs, 33. Paris, Matthew, on the elephant, 103. Paroquets, their habits; anecdote of, 256. Passeres, 248. Patterson, R. , Esq. , _Introd_. Pea-fowl, 244. _See_ Birds. Fable of the jackdaw, 244. Pearl fishery of Ceylon, its antiquity, 373. Dreary scenery of Aripo, 373. Disappearances of the pearl-oyster, 374. Capable of transplantation, 376. Operation of diving, 377. Endurance of the divers under water, 377. Growth of the pearl-oyster, 379. Pearls of Tamblegam, 380. Pelicans, 262. Strange scene at their breeding place, 263. Pengolin, 46. Its habits and food, 47. Skeleton of, 48. Phile, his account of the elephant, 103. Error as to its joints, 107. Describes its drinking, 121 _n_. Its dispositions, 216 _n_. On the elephant's ear, 224. On elephants burying their dead, 235. Phillipe, on the elephant of Ceylon, 209. Phyllium, 410. _See_ Leaf Insect. Physalus urticulus, 400. _See_ Portuguese Man-of-war. Pictet, Mon. , his derivation of the word "elephant, " 76 _n_. Pigeons, 257. _See_ Birds. Pigeons, Lady Torrington's pigeon, 258. _Placuna placenta_, pearls of, 380. _Planaria_, 398. _See Radiata_. Pliny's nereids, 72 _n_. Error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 _n_. Error as to their antipathy to other animals, 85. Error as to elephant's joints, 100. Account of the _machlis_, 101 _n_. His knowledge of the vulnerability of the elephant's head, 144 _n_. Of fishes on dry land, 346. Ponnekella. _See_ Mahout. Polybius' account of fishes on dry land, 346. Pomponius, Mela, account of fishes on land, 346. Porcupine, 45. Portuguese belief in the mermaid, 69. Man-of-war, 400. Pott, his derivation of the word elephant, 76 _n_. Presbytes _cephalopterus_, 7. _ursinus_, 6, 9. _Thersites_, 6, 10. Its fondness of attention, 10. _Priamus_, 10. Its curiosity, 11. Protopterus of the Gambia, 352. Pseudophidia, 322. Pterois volitans, 333. _Pterophorus_, 430. _See_ Insects. Pteropus, 14. _See_ Flying Fox. Pyrard de Laval, on the Ceylon elephant, 209. Python, its great size, 303. Quadrumana, 5, 74. Quatrefage on the Rotifera, 487. _Radiata_, star-fish, 395. Sea-slugs, holothuria, 396. Parasitic worms, 396. Guinea worm, 397. _planaria_, 398. _acalephæ_, 398. Portuguese Man-of-war, 400. Red infusoria, 400. Raja-kariya, forced labour, in elephant hunts, 170. Raja-welle estate, story of an elephant at, 133 _n_. Ramayana, Ceylon elephants mentioned in, 210. Rats, 42. Eaten as food in Oovah and Bintenne, 43. Liable to hydrophobia, 43. Coffee rat, 43. Bandicoot, 44. Rat snake, anecdote of, 43. Rat-snake, domesticated, 299 _n_. Ray, 326, 327. Reinaud, on the ancient use of the elephant in Indian wars, 205 _n_. Reptiles of Ceylon described by Dr. Davy, _Introd_. Lizards, iguana, 271. Kabara-tel, poison, 272. Blood-suckers, 275. Calotes, the green, 276. Lyre-headed lizard, 277. Chameleon, 278. _ceratophora_, 279. Gecko, anecdotes of, 281, 282. Crocodile, anecdotes of, 282, 283. Crocodile and alligator, skulls of, 283. Tortoises, 289. Parasites of the tortoise, 289. Terrapins, 290. Cruel mode of cutting up turtle, 291. Turtle, said to be poisonous, 292. Hawk's-bill turtle, 293. Cruel mode of taking tortoise-shell, 293. Snakes, few poisonous, 294. Tic-polonga, 296. Cobra de capello, 297. Legends of the cobra, 297-298 _n_. _uropeltis_, 301. The python, 303. Haplocercus, 304. Tree-snakes, 305. Water snakes, 308. Sea snakes, 308. The snake-stone and its composition, 312-317. _cæcilia_, 317. Frogs, 318. Tree frogs, 319. List of Ceylon reptiles, 321. Snakes peculiar to Ceylon, 322. Rhinolophus, 19. _See_ Horse-shoe Bat. Ribeyro's account of pearl-diving, 378. Rilawa monkey, 5. Rodentia, 41, 74. Rogers, Major, story of his horse, 84. His death by lightning, 84 _n_. Anecdote of an elephant killed by him, 107. Great numbers of elephants shot by him, 142. "A Rogue" elephant. _See_ Elephant, 114. Derivation of the term "Rogue, " 114. _Ronkedor_, 114. _See_ "Rogue. "_Ronquedue_, 114. _See_ "Rogue. " dangerous encounters with, 136. Rotifera, marvellous faculty in, 486. Rousette. _See_ Flying-fox _and_ Pteropus, 14. Ruminantia, 49, 74. _Salarias Alticus_, 332. Almasius, 68. Sardines, said to be poisonous, 324. Saw fish, 325. _See_ Fishes. Scaliger, Julius, 68. Scansores, 256. _Scarus harid_, 335. _Schenck_, 371. _See_ Chank. Schlegel's essay on the elephant, 208 _n_. Schlegel, Prof. , of Leyden, his account of the Sumatran elephant, 66. Schmarda, Prof. , 5. Schomburgk, Sir R. , on the fishes of Guiana, 347. Sciurus Tennentii, 41 _n_. _Scolopiendræ_, centipede, 474. Scorpions, 474. Sea slugs, _holothuria_, 397. Sea snakes, 308. Seir-fish, 324. Seneca, account of fishes on dry land, 346. Septuagint, allusion to elephants in, 87, 210 _n_. Serpents, 294. _See_ Reptiles. Shakspeare, on the elephant, 105. Describes its capture in pit-falls, 157 _n_. Sharks, 325. Shark charmer, 378. Shaw, error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 _n_. Shells of Ceylon, 369. Lanthina, 370. Bullia vittata, 370. Chanks, 371. Oysters, immense, 371 _n_. Helix hæmastoma, 372. Pearl fishery, 373. Musical shells, 381. Mr. Henley's memorandum, 386. Uncertainty as to species, 387. List of Ceylon shells, 388. Siam, fishes on dry land, 347. Silk, cultivated by the Dutch, 429. Silkworm. _See_ Insects. Sindbad's story of the elephants burying-place, 236. Skinner, Major, knowledge of Ceylon. _Introd_. _n_. Adventure with a leopard, 30. Great number of elephants killed by him, 142. Description of the Panickeas or elephant catchers, 158, 159 _n_. Anecdotes of elephants, 118. Collection of Ceylon fish, 339. Small-pox attracts the leopard, 28. Native superstition, 29. Snakes, 294. _See_ Reptiles. Few venomous, 296. Tic-polonga, 296. Cobra de capello, 297. Legends of, 297 _n_. Stories of, 298. Snakes, tamed snakes, 299 _n_. Snakes crossing the sea, 300. Curious tradition of the cobra-de-capello, 300. Uropeltis, and explanation of the popular belief, 302. Reluctance of Buddhists to kill snakes, 303. Python or "boa, " 303. Tree snakes, 305. The _Passerita fusca_, 306. Water snakes, 308. Sea snakes, 308. Their geographical distribution, 309. Their habits, 310. Cæcilia, 317. Snake-stone, its alleged virtue, 312. Anecdotes of its use, 312. Analysis of, by Professor Faraday, 315. Sofala, pearls at, 375 _n_. Solinus, on the elephant, 103. Soothsayer insect, 410. Spectre butterfly, 426. Spiders. _See Arachnida_, 464. At Gampola, 465. At Pusilawa, 471. Squirrel, 41. The flying squirrel, 44. Star-fish, 396. _See Radiata_. Stick insect, 410. _See_ Insects. Stinging caterpillars, 429. Strabo, his account of fishes on dry land, 346. Strachan, Mr. , account of the elephants shipped at Ceylon, 163 _n_, 210 _n_. Stuckley, on the anatomy of the elephant, 123 _n_. Sumatra confounded with Ceylon, 67. Elephant of, 64. Points in which it differs from that of India, 65. Sun bird, 249. _See_ Birds. Superstitions:--Singhalese folk-lore regarding bears, 24 _n_. Leopards, 27, 29. Mongoos, 38. Kabra-goya, 273. Cobra-de-capello, 300. Use of snake-stones, 315. Elephants' burial-place, 236. Suriya trees, caterpillars on, 429. Syrnum Indranee, 246. _See_ Devil-bird. Swallows, 248. _See_ Birds. Sword-fish, 328. Tailor-bird, 251. _See_ Birds;Tamblegam, lake of, 380. Pearls, 380. Tarentula, _Mygale fasciata_, 465. Fight with a cockroach, 467. Numerous at Gampola, 465. Tavalam, a caravan of bullocks, 53. Tavernier, error as to Ceylon elephants, 203, 214. Taylor, the translator of Aristotle, his error as to elephants' joints, 102. Tchitrea paradisi, 250. Temminck, his discovery of the Sumatran elephant, 64. His account of it, 65. Templeton, Dr. R. A. , his knowledge of Ceylon, _Introd_. His valuable aid in the present work, _ib_. His cultivation of zoology, 4. Notice of Ceylon monkeys, 6. _Termites_, white ants, their ravages, 412. Whence comes their moisture, 412 _n_. Terrapins, 290. Terrier, attacks an elephant, 85. Testudinata, 289. Thaun, Philip de, on the elephant, 104. Theobaldus' _Physiologus_, 104. Theophrastus' account of fishes on dry land, 344, 345. Thevenot, on the Ceylon elephant, 203. Thomson's "_Seasons_, " error as to the elephant, 106. Thunberg, account of the snake-stone, 317. _Thysdnura_, 464. Ticks, 475. Tic-polonga, 296. See Reptiles. Tiger at Trincomalie, 25 _n_. Toad, 319. Torrington, Viscount, his tax on dogs, 33. Tortoises, 289, 291. _See_ Turtle. Parasite of, 289. Fresh-water tortoises, 290. _See_ Terrapins. Tortoise-shell, cruel mode of taking, 293. Tree frogs, 320. Tree snakes, 304. Trepang, 396. _See_ Sea-slug. _Tritonia arborescens_, 385. _See_ Musical Fish. Letter on, 401. _Trombidium tinctorum. See_ Mites. Trumpeting of elephants, 97, 201. Trunk, elephant's, origin of the name, 97 _n_. Tsetse fly of Africa, 40. Turbinella rapa, 371. _See_ Chank. Turtle, 291. _See_ Reptiles. Barbarous treatment of, 291. Tushes, 79. Tusks, 79. _See_ Elephant; Ivory. Fallacy that they are shed, 79. Weight of, 80. Their uses, 80. Singular shapes of, 88 _n_. Tusks, Dr. Holland's theory of their formation, 88 _n_. Tytler, Mr. , story of an elephant, 133 _n_. _Uropeltis_, 301. Urré! cry of the elephant drivers, 222. Valentyn's account of the mermaid, 70. Dutch mode of taking elephants, 164. Venloos Bay, its profusion of shells, 369. Vossius, Isaac, 68. Waloora. _See_ Wild-boar, 59. Dreaded by the Singhalese, 59. Wanderoo monkey, 5. Wasps, wasps' nest, 418. Mason-wasp, 416. Water-fowl, 260, 262. Water snakes, 308. Weaver-bird, 251. Whales, 68. _See_ Cetacea. White, Adam, Esq. , Brit Mus. , _Introd_. White, of Selbourne, his theory of animals suckled by strange mothers, 113 _n_. White ants, 411. _See_ Termites. Whiting, Mr. , account of buried fishes, 342 _n_. , 354. Wild-boar, 59. Wolf, Jo. Christian, travels in Ceylon, 99 _n_. , 115 _n_. His account of elephants there, 99. Describes pitfalls for elephants, 157 _n_. Wood-carrying moth, 430. See Insects. Worms, parasite, 396. _See Radiata_. Wound when elephant shooting, 154. Wright, Thomas, Esq. , F. S. A. , 104. Yarrell's theory of buried fish, 342. Yule's embassy to Ava, 216 _n_. Zimb fly, 434. Zoology neglected in Ceylon, 3. _See_ Natural History. Partial extent to which it has been cultivated, _Introd_. THE END. LONDONPRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. NRW-STREET SQUARE