Shelters, Shacks, and Shanties

[Illustration: Hunter's cabin showing how projecting logs may beutilized. ]

 Shelters, Shacks, and Shanties

 By D. C. BEARD

 With Illustrations by the Author

 NEW YORK Charles Scribner's Sons 1916

 COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

 Published September, 1914

 DEDICATED TO DANIEL BARTLETT BEARD BECAUSE OF HIS LOVE OF THE BIG OUTDOORS

FOREWORD

As this book is written for boys of all ages, it has been divided undertwo general heads, "The Tomahawk Camps" and "The Axe Camps, " that is, camps which may be built with no tool but a hatchet, and camps that willneed the aid of an axe. 

The smallest boys can build some of the simple shelters and the older boyscan build the more difficult ones. The reader may, if he likes, begin withthe first of the book, build his way through it, and graduate by buildingthe log houses; in doing this he will be closely following the history ofthe human race, because ever since our arboreal ancestors with prehensiletoes scampered among the branches of the pre-glacial forests and builtnestlike shelters in the trees, men have made themselves shacks for atemporary refuge. But as one of the members of the Camp-Fire Club ofAmerica, as one of the founders of the Boy Scouts of America, and as thefounder of the Boy Pioneers of America, it would not be proper for theauthor to admit for one moment that there can be such a thing as a campwithout a _camp-fire_, and for that reason the tree folks and the "missinglink" whose remains were found in Java, and to whom the scientists gavethe awe-inspiring name of Pithecanthropus erectus, cannot be counted ascampers, because _they did not know how to build a camp-fire_; neither canwe admit the ancient maker of stone implements, called eoliths, to be oneof us, because he, too, knew not the joys of a camp-fire. But there wasanother fellow, called the Neanderthal man, who lived in the ice age inEurope and he _had_ to be a camp-fire man or freeze! As far as we know, hewas the first man to build a camp-fire. The cold weather made him hustle, and hustling developed him. True, he did cook and eat his neighbors oncein a while, and even split their bones for the marrow; but we will forgetthat part and just remember him as the first camper in Europe. 

Recently a pygmy skeleton was discovered near Los Angeles which is claimedto be about twenty thousand years old, but we do not know whether this manknew how to build a fire or not. We do know, however, that the Americancamper was here on this continent when our Bible was yet an unfinishedmanuscript and that he was building his fires, toasting his venison, andbuilding "sheds" when the red-headed Eric settled in Greenland, whenThorwald fought with the "Skraelings, " and Biarni's dragon ship made thetrip down the coast of Vineland about the dawn of the Christian era. Wealso know that the American camper was here when Columbus with his comicaltoy ships was blundering around the West Indies. We also know that theAmerican camper watched Henry Hudson steer the _Half Moon_ aroundManhattan Island. It is this same American camper who has taught us tobuild many of the shacks to be found in the following pages. 

The shacks, sheds, shanties, and shelters described in the following pagesare, all of them, similar to those used by the people on this continent orsuggested by the ones in use and are typically American; and the designsare suited to the arctics, the tropics, and temperate climes; also to theplains, the mountains, the desert, the bog, and even the water. 

It seems to be natural and proper to follow the camp as it grows until itdevelops into a somewhat pretentious log house, but this book must not beconsidered as competing in any manner with professional architects. Thebuildings here suggested require a woodsman more than an architect; thework demands more the skill of the axeman than that of the carpenter andjoiner. The log houses are supposed to be buildings which any real outdoorman should be able to erect by himself and for himself. Many of thebuildings have already been built in many parts of the country by BoyPioneers and Boy Scouts. 

This book is not intended as an encyclopedia or history of primitivearchitecture; the bureaus at Washington, and the Museum of NaturalHistory, are better equipped for that purpose than the author. 

The boys will undoubtedly acquire a dexterity and skill in building theshacks and shanties here described, which will be of lasting benefit tothem whether they acquire the skill by building camps "just for the fun ofthe thing" or in building them for the more practical purpose offurnishing shelter for overnight pleasure hikes, for the wildernesstrail, or for permanent camps while living in the open. 

It has been the writer's experience that the readers depend more upon hisdiagrams than they do upon the written matter in his books, and so in thisbook he has again attempted to make the diagrams self-explanatory. Thebook was written in answer to requests by many people interested in theBoy Scout movement and others interested in the general activities ofboys, and also in answer to the personal demands of hundreds of boys andmany men. 

The drawings are all original and many of them invented by the authorhimself and published here for the first time, for the purpose ofsupplying all the boy readers, the Boy Scouts, and other older "boys, "calling themselves Scoutmasters and sportsmen, with practical hints, drawings, and descriptions showing how to build suitable shelters fortemporary or permanent camps. 

 DANIEL CARTER BEARD. FLUSHING, LONG ISLAND, APRIL 1, 1914. 

CONTENTS

 CHAPTER PAGE

 FOREWORD v

 I. WHERE TO FIND MOUNTAIN GOOSE. HOW TO PICK AND USE ITS FEATHERS 1

 II. THE HALF-CAVE SHELTER 7

 III. HOW TO MAKE THE FALLEN-TREE SHELTER AND THE SCOUT-MASTER 11

 IV. HOW TO MAKE THE ADIRONDACK, THE WICK-UP, THE BARK TEEPEE, THE PIONEER, AND THE SCOUT 15

 V. HOW TO MAKE BEAVER-MAT HUTS, OR FAGOT SHACKS, WITHOUT INJURY TO THE TREES 18

 VI. INDIAN SHACKS AND SHELTERS 22

 VII. BIRCH BARK OR TAR PAPER SHACK 27

 VIII. INDIAN COMMUNAL HOUSES 31

 IX. BARK AND TAR PAPER 36

 X. A SAWED-LUMBER SHANTY 39

 XI. A SOD HOUSE FOR THE LAWN 47

 XII. HOW TO BUILD ELEVATED SHACKS, SHANTIES, AND SHELTERS 52

 XIII. THE BOG KEN 54

 XIV. OVER-WATER CAMPS 62

 XV. SIGNAL-TOWER, GAME LOOKOUT, AND RUSTIC OBSERVATORY 65

 XVI. TREE-TOP HOUSES 72

 XVII. CACHES 77

 XVIII. HOW TO USE AN AXE 83

 XIX. HOW TO SPLIT LOGS, MAKE SHAKES, SPLITS, OR CLAPBOARDS. HOW TO CHOP A LOG IN HALF. HOW TO FLATTEN A LOG. ALSO SOME DON'TS 87

 XX. AXEMEN'S CAMPS 92

 XXI. RAILROAD-TIE SHACKS, BARREL SHACKS, AND CHIMEHUEVIS 96

 XXII. THE BARABARA 100

 XXIII. THE NAVAJO HOGAN, HORNADAY DUGOUT, AND SOD HOUSE 104

 XXIV. HOW TO BUILD AN AMERICAN BOY'S HOGAN 107

 XXV. HOW TO CUT AND NOTCH LOGS 115

 XXVI. NOTCHED LOG LADDERS 119

 XXVII. A POLE HOUSE. HOW TO USE A CROSS-CUT SAW AND A FROE 122

 XXVIII. LOG-ROLLING AND OTHER BUILDING STUNTS 126

 XXIX. THE ADIRONDACK OPEN LOG CAMP AND A ONE-ROOM CABIN 129

 XXX. THE NORTHLAND TILT AND INDIAN LOG TENT 132

 XXXI. HOW TO BUILD THE RED JACKET, THE NEW BRUNSWICK, AND THE CHRISTOPHER GIST 135

 XXXII. CABIN DOORS AND DOOR-LATCHES, THUMB-LATCHES AND FOOT LATCHES AND HOW TO MAKE THEM 139

 XXXIII. SECRET LOCKS 145

 XXXIV. HOW TO MAKE THE BOW-ARROW CABIN DOOR AND LATCH AND THE DEMING TWIN BOLTS, HALL, AND BILLY 151

 XXXV. THE AURES LOCK LATCH 155

 XXXVI. THE AMERICAN LOG CABIN 161

 XXXVII. A HUNTER'S OR FISHERMAN'S CABIN 169

 XXXVIII. HOW TO MAKE A WYOMING OLEBO, A HOKO RIVER OLEBO, A SHAKE CABIN, A CANADIAN MOSSBACK, AND A TWO-PEN OR SOUTHERN SADDLE-BAG HOUSE 171

 XXXIX. NATIVE NAMES FOR THE PARTS OF A KANUCK LOG CABIN, AND HOW TO BUILD ONE 177

 XL. HOW TO MAKE A POLE HOUSE AND HOW TO MAKE A UNIQUE BUT THOROUGHLY AMERICAN TOTEM LOG HOUSE 183

 XLI. HOW TO BUILD A SUSITNA LOG CABIN AND HOW TO CUT TREES FOR THE END PLATES 191

 XLII. HOW TO MAKE A FIREPLACE AND CHIMNEY FOR A SIMPLE LOG CABIN 195

 XLIII. HEARTHSTONES AND FIREPLACES 200

 XLIV. MORE HEARTHS AND FIREPLACES 203

 XLV. FIREPLACES AND THE ART OF TENDING THE FIRE 206

 XLVI. THE BUILDING OF THE LOG HOUSE 211

 XLVII. HOW TO LAY A TAR PAPER, BIRCH BARK, OR PATENT ROOFING 218

 XLVIII. HOW TO MAKE A CONCEALED LOG CABIN INSIDE OF A MODERN HOUSE 230

 XLIX. HOW TO BUILD APPROPRIATE GATEWAYS FOR GROUNDS ENCLOSING LOG HOUSES, GAME PRESERVES, RANCHES, BIG COUNTRY ESTATES, AND LAST BUT NOT LEAST BOY SCOUTS' CAMP GROUNDS 237

 Shelters, Shacks, and Shanties

 SHELTERS, SHACKS, AND SHANTIES

I

WHERE TO FIND MOUNTAIN GOOSE. HOW TO PICK AND USE ITS FEATHERS

IT may be necessary for me to remind the boys that they must use thematerial at hand in building their shacks, shelters, sheds, and shanties, and that they are very fortunate if their camp is located in a countrywhere the mountain goose is to be found. 

The Mountain Goose

From Labrador down to the northwestern borders of New England and New Yorkand from thence to southwestern Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee, the woodsman and camper may make their beds from the feathers of the"mountain goose. " The mountain goose is also found inhabiting the frozensoil of Alaska and following the Pacific and the Rocky Mountains the Abiesmake their dwelling-place as far south as Guatemala. Consequently, theAbies, or mountain goose, should be a familiar friend of all the scoutswho live in the mountainous country, north, south, east, and west. 

Sapin--Cho-kho-tung

I forgot to say that the mountain goose (Figs. 1 and 2) is not a bird buta tree. It is humorously called a goose by the woodsmen because they allmake their beds of its "feathers. " It is the _sapin_ of theFrench-Canadians, the _cho-kho-tung_ of the New York Indians, the balsamof the tenderfoot, the Christmas-tree of the little folk, and thatparticular Coniferæ known by the dry-as-dust botanist as Abies. There isnothing in nature which has a wilder, more sylvan and charming perfumethan the balsam, and the scout who has not slept in the woods on a balsambed has a pleasure in store for him. 

Balsam

The leaves of the balsam are blunt or rounded at the ends and some of themare even dented or notched in place of being sharp-pointed. Each spine orleaf is a scant one inch in length and very flat; the upper part isgrooved and of a dark bluish-green color. The under-side is much lighter, often almost silvery white. The balsam blossoms in April or May, and thefruit or cones stand upright on the branches. These vary from two to fourinches in length. The balsam-trees are seldom large, not many of thembeing over sixty feet high with trunks from one to less than three feetthrough. The bark on the trunks is gray in color and marked withhorizontal rows of blisters. Each of these contains a small, sticky saplike glycerine. Fig. 1 shows the cone and leaves of one of the Southernbalsams known as the she-balsam, and Fig. 2 shows the celebratedbalsam-fir tree of the north country, cone and branch. 

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 

[Illustration: Showing the use of the mountain goose. ]

Balsam Beds

The balsam bed is made of the small twigs of balsam-trees. In gatheringthese, collect twigs of different lengths, from eighteen inches long (tobe used as the foundation of the bed) to ten or twelve inches long (forthe top layer). If you want to rest well, do not economize on the amountyou gather; many a time I have had my bones ache as a result of being tootired to make my bed properly and attempting to sleep on a thin layer ofboughs. 

If you attempt to chop off the boughs of balsam they will resent youreffort by springing back and slapping you in the face. You can cut themwith your knife, but it is slow work and will blister your hands. Taketwig by twig with the thumb and fingers (the thumb on top, pointing towardthe tip of the bough, and the two forefingers underneath); press down withthe thumb, and with a twist of the wrist you can snap the twigs likepipe-stems. Fig. 3 shows two views of the hands in a proper position tosnap off twigs easily and clean. The one at the left shows the hand as itwould appear looking down upon it; the one at the right shows the view asyou look at it from the side. 

Packing Boughs

After collecting a handful of boughs, string them on a stick which youhave previously prepared (Fig. 4). This stick should be of strong, greenhardwood, four or five feet long with a fork about six inches long left onit at the butt end to keep the boughs from sliding off, and sharpened atthe upper end so that it can be easily poked through a handful of boughs. String the boughs on this stick as you would string fish, but do it onehandful at a time, allowing the butts to point in different directions. It is astonishing to see the amount of boughs you can carry when strung ona stick in this manner and thrown over your shoulder as in Fig. 5. If youhave a lash rope, place the boughs on a loop of the rope, as in Fig. 6, then bring the two ends of the rope up through the loop and sling thebundle on your back. 

Clean Your Hands

When you have finished gathering the material for your bed your hands willbe covered with a sticky sap, and, although they will be a sorry sight, alittle lard or baking grease will soften the pitchy substance so that itmay be washed off with soap and water. 

How to Make Beds

To make your bed, spread a layer of the larger boughs on the ground;commence at the head and shingle them down to the foot so that the tipspoint toward the head of the bed, overlapping the butts (Fig. 7). Continuethis until your mattress is thick enough to make a soft couch upon whichyou can sleep as comfortably as you do at home. Cover the couch with oneblanket and use the bag containing your coat, extra clothes, and sweaterfor a pillow. Then if you do not sleep well, you must blame the cook. 

Other Bedding

If you should happen to be camping in a country destitute of balsam, hemlock, or pine, you can make a good spring mattress by collecting smallgreen branches of any sort of tree which is springy and elastic. Build themattress as already described. On top of this put a thick layer of hay, straw, or dry leaves or even green material, provided you have a rubberblanket or poncho to cover the latter. In Kentucky I have made a mattressof this description and covered the branches with a thick layer of thepurple blossoms of ironweed; over this I spread a rubber army blanket tokeep out the moisture from the green stuff and on top of this made my bedwith my other blankets. It was as comfortable a couch as I have ever slepton; in fact, it was literally a bed of flowers. 

II

THE HALF-CAVE SHELTER

THE first object of a roof of any kind is protection against the weather;no shelter is necessary in fair weather unless the sun in the day or thedampness or coolness of the night cause discomfort. In parts of the Westthere is so little rain that a tent is often an unnecessary burden, but inthe East and the other parts of the country some sort of shelter isnecessary for health and comfort. 

The original American was always quick to see the advantages offered by anoverhanging cliff for a camp site (Figs. 9, 10). His simple camps allthrough the arid Southwest had gradually turned into carefully builthouses long before we came here. The overhanging cliffs protected thebuildings from the rain and weather, and the site was easily defended fromenemies. But while these cliff-dwellings had reached the dignity ofcastles in the Southwest, in the Eastern States--Pennsylvania, forinstance--the Iroquois Indians were making primitive camps and using everyavailable overhanging cliff for that purpose. 

To-day any one may use a pointed stick on the floor of one of these halfcaves and unearth, as I have done, numerous potsherds, mussel shells, boneawls, flint arrow-heads, split bones of large game animals, and the burntwood of centuries of camp-fires which tell the tale of the first lean-toshelter used by camping man in America. 

Half Caves

The projecting ledges of bluestone that have horizontal seams form halfcaves from the falling apart of the lower layers of the cliff caused byrain and ice and often aided by the fine roots of the black birch, rockoak, and other plants, until nature has worked long enough as a quarry-manand produced half caves large enough to shelter a stooping man (Figs. 8, 9, and 10). 

Although not always necessary, it is sometimes best to make a shelter forthe open face of such a cave, even if we only need it for a temporary camp(Fig. 10); this may be done by resting poles slanting against the face ofthe cliff and over these making a covering of balsam, pine, hemlock, palmetto, palm branches, or any available material for thatch to shed therain and prevent it driving under the cliff to wet our bedding. 

Walls

It is not always necessary to thatch the wall; a number of green boughswith leaves adhering may be rested against the cliffs and will answer forthat purpose. Set the boughs upside down so that they will shed the rainand not hold it so as to drip into camp. Use your common sense andgumption, which will teach you that all the boughs should point downwardand not upward as most of them naturally grow. I am careful to call yourattention to this because I lately saw some men teaching Boy Scouts how tomake camps and they were placing the boughs for the lads around theshelter with their branches pointing upward in such a manner that theycould not shed the rain. These instructors were city men and apparentlythought that the boughs were for no other purpose than to give privacy tothe occupants of the shelter, forgetting that in the wilds the wildernessitself furnishes privacy. 

Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. 

[Illustration: The half-cave shelter. ]

The half cave was probably the first lean-to or shelter in this country, but overhanging cliffs are not always found where we wish to make our campand we must resort to other forms of shelter and the use of other materialin such localities. 

III

HOW TO MAKE THE FALLEN-TREE SHELTER AND THE SCOUT-MASTER

NOW that you know how to make a bed in a half cave, we will take up themost simple and primitive manufactured shelters. 

Fallen-Tree Shelter

For a one-man one-night stand, select a thick-foliaged fir-tree and cut itpartly through the trunk so that it will fall as shown in Fig. 11; thentrim off the branches on the under-side so as to leave room to make yourbed beneath the branches; next trim the branches off the top or roof ofthe trunk and with them thatch the roof. Do this by setting the brancheswith their butts up as shown in the right-hand shelter of Fig. 13, andthen thatch with smaller browse as described in making the bed. This willmake a cosey one-night shelter. 

The Scout-Master

Or take three forked sticks (_A_, _B_, and _C_, Fig. 12), and interlockthe forked ends so that they will stand as shown in Fig. 12. Over thisframework rest branches with the butt ends up as shown in the right-handshelter (Fig. 13), or lay a number of poles as shown in the left-handfigure (Fig. 12) and thatch this with browse as illustrated by theleft-hand shelter in Fig. 13, or take elm, spruce, or birch bark andshingle as in Fig. 14. These shelters may be built for one boy or they maybe made large enough for several men. They may be thatched with balsam, spruce, pine, or hemlock boughs, or with cat-tails, rushes (see Figs. 66and 69) or any kind of long-stemmed weeds or palmetto leaves. 

To Peel Bark

In the first place, I trust that the reader has enough common sense andsufficient love of the woods to prevent him from killing or marring anddisfiguring trees where trees are not plenty, and this restrictionincludes all settled or partially settled parts of the country. But in thereal forests and wilderness, miles and miles away from human habitation, there are few campers and consequently there will be fewer trees injured, and these few will not be missed. 

Selecting Bark

To get the birch bark, select a tree with a smooth trunk devoid ofbranches and, placing skids for the trunk to fall upon (Fig. 38), fell thetree (see Figs. 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, and 118), and then cut acircle around the trunk at the two ends of the log and a slit from onecircle clean up to the other circle (Fig. 38); next, with a sharp stickshaped like a blunt-edged chisel, pry off the bark carefully until youtake the piece off in one whole section. If it is spruce bark or any otherbark you seek, hunt through the woods for a comparatively smooth trunk andproceed in the same manner as with the birch. To take it off a standingtree, cut one circle down at the butt and another as high as you can reach(Fig. 118) and slit it along a perpendicular line connecting the two cutsas in Fig. 38. This will doubtless in time kill the tree, but far fromhuman habitations the few trees killed in this manner may do the forestgood by giving more room for others to grow. Near town or where theforests are small use the bark from the old dead trees. 

Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. 

[Illustration: One-night shelter. The fallen tree and the scout-master. ]

Using Bark

To shingle with bark, cut the bark in convenient sections, commence at thebottom, place one piece of bark set on edge flat against the wall of yourshelter, place a piece of bark next to it in the same manner, allowing theone edge to overlap the first piece a few inches, and so on all the wayaround your shack; then place a layer of bark above this in the samemanner as the first one, the end edges overlapping, the bottom edges alsooverlapping the first row three or four inches or even more. Hold thesepieces of bark in place by stakes driven in the ground against them orpoles laid over them, according to the shape or form of your shelter. Continue thus to the comb of the roof, then over the part where the barkof the sides meets on the top lay another layer of bark covering thecrown, ridge, comb, or apex and protecting it from the rain. In thewigwam-shaped shelters, or rather I should say those of teepee form, thepoint of the cone or pyramid is left open to serve as chimney for smoke toescape. 

IV

HOW TO MAKE THE ADIRONDACK, THE WICK-UP, THE BARK TEEPEE, THE PIONEER, ANDTHE SCOUT

The Adirondack

THE next shelter is what is generally known as the Adirondack shelter, which is a lean-to open in the front like a "Baker" or a "Dan Beard" tent. Although it is popularly called the Adirondack camp, it antedates the timewhen the Adirondacks were first used as a fashionable resort. Daniel Boonewas wont to make such a camp in the forests of Kentucky. The lean-to orAdirondack camp is easily made and very popular. Sometimes two of them arebuilt facing each other with an open space between for the camp-fire. Butthe usual manner is to set up two uprights as in Fig. 15, then lay acrosspiece through the crotches and rest poles against this crosspiece(Fig. 16). Over these poles other poles are laid horizontally and the roofthatched with browse by the method shown by Fig. 6, but here the tips ofthe browse must point down and be held in place by other poles (Fig. 10)on top of it. Sometimes a log is put at the bottom of the slanting polesand sometimes more logs are placed as shown in Figs. 15 and 16 and thespace between them floored with balsam or browse. 

The Scout

Where birch bark is obtainable it is shingled with slabs of this bark asalready described, and as shown in Fig. 17, the bark being held in placeon the roof by poles laid over it and on the side by stakes being drivenin the ground outside of the bark to hold it in place as in Fig. 17. 

Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig. 20. Fig. 21. 

[Illustration: The Adirondack. The scout, the pioneer, and the barkteepee. ]

The Pioneer

Fig. 18 shows the Pioneer, a tent form of shack, and Fig. 19 shows how thebark is placed like shingles overlapping each other so as to shed therain. The doorway of the tent shack is made by leaning poles againstforked sticks, their butts forming a semicircle in front, or rather thearc of a circle, and by bracing them against the forked stick fore and aftthey add stability to the structure. 

Bark Teepee

Or you may, if you choose, lash three sticks together at the top ends, spread them in the form of a tripod, then lay other sticks against them, their butts forming a circle in the form of a teepee (Fig. 20). 

Commence at the bottom as you do in shingling a roof and place sections ofbirch bark around, others above them overlapping them, and hold them inplace by resting poles against them. If your camp is to be occupied for aweek or so, it may be convenient to build a wick-up shelter as adining-room like the one shown in Fig. 21. This is made with six uprights, two to hold the ridge-pole and two to hold the eaves, and may be shingledover with browse or birch, elm, spruce, or other bark; shingle with thebrowse in the same manner as that described for the bark, beginning at theeaves and allowing each row of browse to overlap the butts of the onebelow it. 

V

HOW TO MAKE BEAVER-MAT HUTS OR FAGOT SHACKS WITHOUT INJURY TO THE TREES

Material

IN building a shelter use every and any thing handy for the purpose;ofttimes an uprooted tree will furnish a well-made adobe wall, where thespreading roots have torn off the surface soil as the tree fell and whatwas the under-side is now an exposed wall of clay, against which you mayrest the poles for the roof of a lean-to. Or the side of the cliff (Fig. 23) may offer you the same opportunity. Maybe two or three trees will befound willing to act as uprights (Fig. 24). Where you use a wall of anykind, rock, roots, or bank, it will, of course, be necessary to have yourdoorway at one side of the shack as in Fig. 23. The upright poles may beon stony ground where their butts cannot well be planted in the earth, andthere it will be necessary to brace them with slanting poles (Fig. 25). Each camp will offer problems of its own, problems which add much to theinterest and pleasure of camp making. 

Beaver Mat

The beaver-mat camp is a new one and, under favorable conditions, a goodone. Cut your poles the length required for the framework of the sides, lash them together with the green rootlets of the tamarack or strips ofbark of the papaw, elm, cedar, or the inside bark of the chestnut (_A_, Fig. 22); then make a bed of browse of any kind handy, but make it in themanner described for making balsam beds (Fig. 7). You will, of course, thatch so that when the side is erected it is shingled like a house, theupper rows overlapping the lower ones. Then lash a duplicate frame overthe browse-padded frame and the side is complete (_B_, Fig. 22). Make theother side or sides and the roof (_C_, Fig. 22) in the same manner, afterwhich it is a simple matter to erect your shack (Fig. 22, and _E_, Fig. 22). 

Fig. 22. Fig. 23. Fig. 24. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. 

[Illustration: Shelters adapted to conditions. The beaver-mat and thefagot shack. ]

The great advantage of this sort of shelter is that it is much easier todo your thatching on the ground than on standing walls, and also, whendone, it is so compact as to be practically water-proof. 

Fagot Shack

The fagot shack is also a new style of camp and is intended for use inplaces where large timber cannot be cut, but where dwarf willows, bamboocane, alders, or other small underbrush is more or less plentiful. Fromthis gather a plentiful supply of twigs and with improvised twine bind thetwigs into bundles of equal size. Use these bundles as you would stones inbuilding the wall and lay them so as to break joints, that is, so that thejoints are never in a continuous line. Hold the wall in place by stakes asshown in Fig. 26. Use the browse, small twigs with the leaves adhering tothem, in place of mortar or cement so as to level your bundles and preventtheir rocking on uneven surfaces. The doorways and window openings offerno problem that a rank outsider cannot solve. Fig. 27 shows the windowopening, also shows you how the window-sill can be made firm by layingrods over the top of the fagots. Rods are also used across the top of thedoorway upon which to place the bundles of fagots or twigs. Twigs isprobably the best term to use here, as fagots might be thought to meanlarger sticks, which may be stiff and obstinate and hard to handle. 

Roofs

After the walls are erected, a beaver-mat roof may be placed upon them ora roof made on a frame such as shown in Fig. 28 and thatched with smallsticks over which a thatch of straw, hay, rushes (Figs. 66 and 69), orbrowse may be used to shed the rain. 

One great advantage which recommends the beaver-mat and fagot camp tolovers of nature and students of forestry lies in the fact that it isunnecessary to cut down or destroy a single large or valuable young treein order to procure the material necessary to make the camp. Both of thesecamps can be made in forest lands by using the lower branches of thetrees, which, when properly cut close to the trunk (Fig. 121), do notinjure the standing timber. The fagot hut may be made into a permanentcamp by plastering the outside with soft mud or clay and treating theinside walls in the same manner, thus transforming it into an adobeshack. 

VI

INDIAN SHACKS AND SHELTERS

WHILE the ingenuity of the white man may make improvements upon thewick-ups, arbors, huts, and shelters of the native red man, we must notforget that these native shelters have been used with success by theIndians for centuries, also we must not forget that our principalobjection to many of them lies in the fact that they are ill ventilatedand dirty, both of which defects may be remedied without materiallydeparting from the lines laid down by the savage architects. The making ofwindows will supply ventilation to Indian huts, but the form of the hut wemust bear in mind is made to suit the locality in which we find it. 

Apache Hogan

The White Mountain Apache builds a tent-shaped shack (Figs. 29 and 32)which is practically the same as that already described and shown in Figs. 18 and 19, the difference being that the Apache shack is not covered withbirch bark, a material peculiar to the North, but the Apache uses a thatchof the rank grass to be found where his shacks are located. To-day, however, the White Mountain Apache has become so degenerate and so lost tothe true sense of dignity as a savage that he stoops to use corn-stalkswith which to thatch the long, sloping sides of his shed-like house but byso doing he really shows good horse sense, for corn-stalks and corn leavesmake good material for the purpose. 

Fig. 29. Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 34. Fig. 34½. Fig. 35. 

[Illustration: Designs adapted from Indian models. ]

San Carlos Shack

The San Carlos Apache Indians build a dome-shaped hut by making aframework of small saplings bent in arches as the boys did in Kentuckywhen the writer was himself a lad, and as shown in Fig. 30. The ends ofthe pole are sunk into the ground in the form of a circle, while theirtips are bent over and bound together thus forming a series of loops whichoverlap each other and give stability and support to the principal loopswhich run from the ground to the top of the dome. The Indians thatch thesehuts with bear-grass arranged in overlapping rows and held in place withstrings (see Fig. 69) made of yucca leaves (Fig. 31). 

Chippewa Shack

Much farther north I have seen the Chippewa Indians build a framework inpractically the same manner as the San Carlos Apache, but the Chippewascovered their frame with layers of birch bark held in place by ropesstretched over it as shown in Fig. 32. The door to their huts consisted ofa blanket portière. 

In the same locality to-day it would be difficult if not impossible toprocure such large strips of birch bark; but the dome-shaped frame is agood one to be used in many localities and, like all other frames, it canbe covered with the material at hand. It may be shingled with smallerpieces of bark, covered with brush and thatched with browse or with hay, straw, palmetto leaves, palm leaves, or rushes, or it may be plasteredover with mud and made an adobe hut. 

Pima Lodge

The Pima Indians make a flat-roofed lodge with slanting walls (Fig. 33)which may be adapted for our use in almost any section of the country. Itcan be made warm and tight for the far North and cool and airy for thearid regions of the Southwest. The framework, as you may see by referringto the diagram, is similar to the wick-ups we men made when we were boys, and which are described in the "American Boy's Handy Book, " consisting offour upright posts supporting in their crotches two crosspieces over whicha flat roof is made by placing poles across. But the sides of this shackare not upright but made by resting leaning poles against the eaves. 

White Man's Walls

The principal difference between a white man's architecture and theIndian's lies in the fact that the white man, with brick, stone, or framehouse in his mind, is possessed of a desire to build perpendicularwalls--walls which are hard to thatch and difficult to cover with turf, especially in the far North, where there is no true sod such as weunderstand in the middle country, where our grass grows thickly withinterlacing roots. Boys will do well to remember this and imitate theIndian in making slanting walls for their shacks, shanties, and sheltersin the woods. If they have boards or stone or brick or logs with which tobuild they may, with propriety, use a perpendicular wall. The PimaIndians, according to Pliny Earle Goddard, associate curator ofanthropology of the American Museum of Natural History, thatch theirhouses with arrow brush and not infrequently bank the sides of the shackwith dirt. 

Adobe Roof

If you want to put a dirt roof on a shack of this description, cover thepoles with small boughs or browse, green or dry leaves, straw, hay, grass, or rushes and put the sod over the top of this. If in place of making theroof flat, as shown in Fig. 33, you slant it so as to shed the rain, thissort of shack will do for almost any climate, but with a flat roof it isonly fitted for the arid country or for a shelter from the sun when it isnot expected to be used during the rain. 

Navajo

The teepee-shaped hut used by the Navajo Indians _will_ shed the rain. Tobuild this shack interlock three forked sticks as shown in the diagram, then lay other poles up against the forks of these sticks so that thebutts of the poles will form a circle on the ground (Fig. 34). Thatch thiswith any material handy, after which you may cover it with dirt as theNavajos do, in which case you had better build a hallway for entrance, asshown in Fig. 35. This same teepee form is used by the California Indiansand thatched with wild hay (Fig. 34½). 

VII

BIRCH BARK OR TAR PAPER SHACK

A DESCRIPTION of the Pontiac was first published in my "Field and ForestHandy Book, " a book which contains several shelters similar to the oneshere given, most of which were originally made for Caspar Whitney while hewas editor of _Outing_. 

The Pontiac

The Pontiac, as here given, is my own design and invention (Fig. 36). Itis supposed to be shingled with birch bark, but, as is the case with allthese camps, other bark may be substituted for the birch, and, if no barkis within reach and you are near enough to civilization, tar paper makesan excellent substitute. Fig. 37 shows the framework of a Pontiac with aridge-pole, but the ridge-pole is not necessary and the shack may be builtwithout it, as shown in Figs. 36 and 39, where the rafter poles rest uponthe two side-plates over which they project to form the apex of the roof. In Fig. 39, although the side-plates are drawn, the rafter or roof polesare not because the diagram is supposed to be a sort of X-ray affair toshow the internal construction. The opening for smoke need not be morethan half as large as it is in Fig. 39 and it may be covered up ininclement weather with a piece of bark so as to keep out the rain. 

Cutting Bark

Fig. 38 shows a tree felled in order to procure bark. You will note thatthe bark is cut round at the bottom and at the top and a slit is madeconnecting the two cuts as already described so that the bark may bepeeled off by running a blunt instrument or a stick, whittled to the shapeof a paper-cutter or dull chisel, under the edge of the bark and carefullypeeling it back. If it is necessary to "tote" the bark any distance overthe trail, Fig. 38 shows how to roll it up and how to bind the roll withcord or rope so that it may be slung on the back as the man is "toting" itin Fig. 36. 

Building the Pontiac

To build a Pontiac, first erect the uprights _E_ and _E_, Fig. 37, thenthe other two similar uprights at the rear and lay the side-plates _G_ inthe forks of the uprights; next erect the upright _H_ and one in the rearto correspond, and across this lay the ridge-pole. Next take a couple oflogs and put them at the foot of the _E_ poles, or, if you want more room, further back toward where the roof poles _F_ will come. Place one of theselogs on top of the other as shown in Figs. 36 and 39. Keep them in placeby driving sticks on each side of them. Put two more logs upon the otherside of the Pontiac and then lay your roof poles or rafters up against theside-plates and over the logs as shown in diagrams 36, 37, and 39. Fig. 36shows the roof partially shingled and the sides partially covered, so thatyou may better understand how it is done. 

Shingling with Bark

Commence at the bottom and lay the first row with the edges overlappingfor walls; for the roof you may lay one row of shingles from the bottom upto the ridge and hold them in place by resting a pole on them; then laythe next row of shingles alongside by slipping the edges under the first. When you have the two sides covered, put bark over the ridge as shown inFig. 36. This will make a beautiful and comfortable little camp. 

Fig. 36. Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. 

[Illustration: The Pontiac of birch bark. ]

To Keep Out Cold

Built as here described, the cold wind might come through in thewinter-time, but if you can gather a lot of Sphagnum moss from the nearestswamp and cover your roof with it and then shingle that over with anotherlayer of birch bark, the cold wind will not come through your roof. If youtreat your side walls in the same manner and heap dirt up around the edgesof them, you will have a comfortable winter camp. 

In the winter-time you will find it very difficult to peel the birch barkor any other kind of bark, but when the sap is flowing it is not sodifficult to secure bark slabs from many varieties of trees. 

VIII

INDIAN COMMUNAL HOUSES

WHEN the French Communists were raising Cain in Europe they doubtlessthought their idea was practically new, but thousands of years before theybore the red banner through the streets of Paris the American Indians wereliving quiet and peaceful communal lives on this continent; when I use thewords _quiet_ and _peaceful_, I, of course, mean as regards their ownparticular commune and not taking into account their attitude toward theirneighbors. The Pueblo Indians built themselves adobe communal houses, theNez Percés built themselves houses of sticks and dry grass one hundred andfifty feet long sometimes, containing forty-eight families, while theNechecolles had houses two hundred and twenty-six feet in length! But thisis not a book of history; all we want to know is how to build shacks forour own use; so we will borrow one from the communal home of the Iroquois. It is not necessary for us to make this one hundred feet long, as theIroquois Indians did. We can make a diminutive one as a playhouse for ourchildren, a moderate-sized one as a camp for our Boy Scouts, or agood-sized one for a party of full-grown campers. 

But first we must gather a number of long, flexible saplings and plantthem in two rows with their butt ends in the ground, as shown in Fig. 40, after which we may bend their upper ends so that they will overlap eachother and form equal-sized arches, when they are lashed together, withtwine if we have it, or with wire if it is handy; but if we are realwoodsmen, we will bind them with rope made of fibres of bark or theflexible roots which we find in the forests. Then we bind horizontal polesor rods to the arches, placing the poles about a foot or two apartaccording to the material with which we are to shingle it. We make asimple doorway with upright posts at one end and bind the horizontal postson as we did at the sides. Next we shingle it with bark or with strips oftar paper and hold the shingles in place by binding poles upon theoutside, as shown in Fig. 41. A hole or holes are left in the roof overthe fireplaces for openings for the smoke to escape. In lieu of a chimneya wind-shield of bark is fastened at its lower edge by pieces of twine tothe roof so as to shield the opening; this wind-shield should be movableso that it may be shifted according to the wind. The Iroquois is an easilyconstructed shelter, useful to man, and one which will delight the heartof the Boy Scouts or any other set of boys. 

The Pawnee Hogan

The Pawnee hogan is usually covered with sod or dirt, but it may becovered with bark, with canvas, or thatched with straw or with browse, asthe camper may choose. Fig. 42 shows the framework in the skeleton form. The rafter poles are placed wigwam fashion and should be very closetogether in the finished structure; so also should be the short sticksforming the side walls and the walls to the hallway or entrance. To buildthis hogan, first erect a circle of short forked sticks, setting theirends firmly in the ground. Inside of this erect four longer forked sticks, then place across these four horizontal side-plates, or maybe they mightbe more properly called "purlins, " in which case the sticks laid on theforks of the circle of small uprights will properly correspond to theside-plates of a white man's dwelling. After the circle and square (Fig. 42) have been erected, make your doorway with two short-forked sticks andyour hallway by sticks running from the door to side-plates. In thatchingyour roof or in covering it with any sort of material, leave an opening atthe top (Fig. 43) to act as a chimney for your centre camp-fire. If theroof is to be covered with sod or adobe, cover it first with browse, hay, straw, or rushes, making a thick mattress over the entire structure. Ontop of this plaster your mud or sod (Fig. 43). If you intend to use thishogan as a more or less permanent camp you can put windows in the sides toadmit light and air and use a hollow log or a barrel for a chimney asshown in Fig. 44. 

Fig. 40. Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. 

[Illustration: The Iroquois, the Pawnee hogan, the white man's hogan, andthe kolshian. ]

The Kolshian

The camps thus far described are supposed to be "tomahawk camps, " that is, camps which may be built without the use of a lumberman's axe. Thekolshian (Fig. 45) of Alaska, when built by the natives, is a largecommunal council-house, but I have placed it here among the "tomahawkcamps" on the supposition that some one might want to build one inminiature as a novelty on their place or as a council-room for their youngscouts. The Alaskans hew all the timber out by hand, but, of course, thereader may use sawed or milled lumber. The proper entrance to a kolshianor rancheree, as Elliot calls it, is through a doorway made in the hugetotem-pole at the front of the building. The roof is covered with splitsor shakes held in place by poles laid across them, the sides are made ofhewn planks set upright, and the front has two heavy planks at the eaveswhich run down through holes in two upright planks at the corners (Fig. 45). These with the sill plank bind the upright wall planks in place. 

The kolshian is undoubtedly a very ancient form of building and may berelated to the houses built by the ancient cavemen of Europe. The firsthuman house-builders are said to belong to the Cro-Magnon race who livedin caves in the winter-time, and on the walls of one of the caverns(Dordogne cavern) some Cro-Magnon budding architect made a rough sketch ofone of their houses (middle sketch, Fig. 45). When you compare the housewith the kolshian the resemblance is very striking, and more so when weremember that the kolshian floor is underground, indicating that it isrelated to or suggested by a natural cavern. 

IX

BARK AND TAR PAPER

TO further illustrate the use of bark and tar paper, I have made thesketches shown by Figs. 46, 47, and 48. Fig. 47 is a log shack with anarched roof drawn from a photograph in my collection. To keep the interiorwarm not only the roof but the sides of the house as well have beenshingled with bark, leaving only the ends of the logs protruding to tellof what material the house is really constructed. Fig. 47 shows afisherman's hut made with a few sticks and bark. Fig. 48 shows a tar papercamp, that is, a camp where everything is covered with tar paper in placeof bark. The house is made with a skeleton of poles on which the tar paperis tacked, the kitchen is an open shed with tar paper roof, and even thetable is made by covering the cross sticks shown in the diagram withsheets of tar paper in place of the birch bark usually used for thatpurpose. 

Personally I do not like tar paper; it seems to rob the camp of a trueflavor of the woods; it knocks the sentiment out of it, and, except tosailors, the odor of the tar is not nearly as delightful as that of thefragrant balsam boughs. Nevertheless, tar paper is now used in all thelumber camps and is spreading farther and farther into the woods as thebirch bark becomes scarce and the "tote-roads" are improved. 

When one can enter the woods with an automobile, you must expect to findtar paper camps, because the paper is easily transported, easily handled, and easily applied for the purpose of the camper. 

Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. 

[Illustration: Showing use of bark and tar paper. ]

Practically any form of tent may be reproduced by tacking tar paper tosticks arranged in the proper manner, but if you make a wigwam of tarpaper, do paint it red, green, or yellow, or whitewash it; do anythingwhich will take off the civilized, funereal look of the affair. 

X

A SAWED-LUMBER SHANTY

BEFORE we proceed any further it may be best to give the plan of aworkshop, a camp, an outhouse, or a shed to be made of sawed lumber, theframework of which is made of what is known as two-by-fours, that is, pieces of lumber two inches thick by four inches wide. The plans used hereare from my book "The Jack of All Trades, " but the dimensions may bealtered to suit your convenience. The sills, which are four inches by fourinches, are also supposed to be made by nailing two two-by-fours together. First stake out your foundation and see that the corners are square, thatis, at right angles, and test this with a tape or ruler by measuring sixfeet one way and eight feet the other from a corner along the proposedsides of the house marking these points. If a ten-foot rod will reachexactly across from point to point, the corner is square and you may digyour post-holes. 

The Foundation

You may use a foundation of stones or a series of stone piles, but if youuse stones and expect your house to remain plumb where the winters aresevere you must dig holes for them at least three feet deep in order to gobelow the frost-line. Fill these holes with broken stone, on top of whichyou can make your pile of stones to act as support for the sills; but thesimplest method is to use posts of locust, cedar, or chestnut; or, if thisis too much trouble, pack the dirt tightly, drain it well by making itslope away from the house in every direction, and lay your foundationsills on the level earth. In that case you had better use chestnut woodfor the sills; spruce will rot very quickly in contact with the damp earthand pine will not last long under the same circumstances. 

All through certain sections of this country there are hundreds of humbledwellings built upon "mudsills, " in other words, with no foundation orfloor but the bare ground. 

We will suppose that you have secured some posts about two feet six incheslong with good, flat ends. The better material you can obtain the trimmerand better will be the appearance of your house, but a house which willprotect you and your tools may be made of the roughest lumber. 

The plans here drawn will answer for the rough or fine material, but wesuppose that medium material is to be used. It will be taken for grantedthat the reader is able to procure enough two-by-four-inch timber tosupply studs, ribs, purlins, rafters, beams, and posts for the frame shownin Fig. 49. Two pieces of four-by-four-inch timber each fifteen feet longshould be made for sills by nailing two-by-fours together. Add to thissome tongue-and-grooved boarding or even rough boards for sides and roof, some enthusiasm, and good American pluck and the shop is almost as good asbuilt. 

First lay the foundation, eight by fifteen feet, and then you may proceedto dig your post-holes. The outside of the posts should be flush or evenwith the outside edges of the sills and end beams of the house as shown inthe diagram. If there are four posts on each of the long sides they shouldbe equal distances apart. 

Dig the holes three feet deep, allowing six inches of the posts toprotrude above ground. If you drive two stakes a short distance beyond thefoundation in line with your foundation lines and run a string from thetop of one stake to the top of the other you can, without much trouble, get it upon a perfect level by testing it and adjusting until the stringrepresents the level for your sill. When this is done, set your posts tocorrespond to the level of the string, then place your sill on top of theposts and test that with your level. If found to be correct, fill in thedirt around the posts and pack it firmly, then spike your sill to theposts and go through the same operation with opposite sets of posts andsill. 

Fig. 49. 

[Illustration: Frame of two-by-fours milled lumber, with names of parts. ]

The first difficult work is now done and, with the exception of the roof, the rest only needs ordinary care. 

It is supposed that you have already sawed off and prepared about ninetwo-by-four-inch beams each of which is exactly eight feet long. Set theseon edge from sill to sill, equal distances apart, the edges of the endbeams being exactly even with the ends of the sills as in Fig. 49. Seethat the beams all cross the sills at right angles and toe-nail them inplace. You may now neatly floor the foundation with one-inch boards; theseboards must be laid lengthwise with the building and crosswise with thebeams. When this is finished you will have a beautiful platform on whichto work, where you will be in no danger of losing your tools, and you mayuse the floor as a table on which to measure and plan the sides and roof. 

Ridge Plank and Rafters

It is a good idea to make your ridge plank and rafters while the floor isclear of rubbish. Lay out and mark on the floor, with a carpenter's softpencil, a straight line four feet long (_A_, _B_, Fig. 49). At rightangles to this draw another line three feet six inches long (_A_, _D_, Fig. 49). Connect these points (_B_, _D_, Fig. 49) with a straight line, then complete the figure _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_ (Fig. 49). Allow two inches atthe top for the ridge plank at _B_ and two by four for the end of theside-plate at _D_. You then have a pattern for each rafter with a "plumbedge" at _B_ and a "bird's mouth" at _D_. The plumb edge must be parallelwith _B_, _C_ and the two jaws of the "bird's mouth" parallel with _D_, _C_ and _A_, _D_, respectively. Make six rafters of two-by-fours and oneridge plank. 

The purlins and collar can be made and fitted after the roof is raised. Set your roof timber carefully to one side and clear the floor for thestuds, ribs, and plates. First prepare the end posts and make them oftwo-by-fours. Each post is of two pieces. There will be four outsidepieces each five feet eight inches in length, which rest on the end beams, and four inside pieces each six feet in length; this allows two inches atthe top for the ends of the end plates to rest upon. 

Examine the corner posts and you will see that the outside two-by-fourrests upon the top side of the end beam and the side-plate rests directlyupon said two-by-four. You will also observe that the inside two-by-fourrests directly upon the sill, which would make the former four incheslonger than the outside piece if it is extended to the side-plate; but youwill also notice that there is a notch in the end plate for the outsidecorner piece to fit in and that the end of the end plate fits on top theinside piece of the corner posts, taking off two inches, which makes theinside piece just six feet long. This is a very simple arrangement, as maybe seen by examining the diagram. Besides the corner posts, each of whichwe have seen is made of two pieces of two-by-fours, there are four studsfor the front side, each six feet two inches long. The short studs shownin the diagram on the rear side are unnecessary and are only shown so thatthey may be put in as convenient attachments for shelves and tool racks. 

The first stud on the front is placed two feet from the corner post andthe second one about six feet six inches from the first, to allow a spacefor a six-foot window; the next two studs form the door-jambs and must befar enough from the corner to allow the door to open and swing out of theway. If you make your door two and one half feet wide--a good size--youmay set your last stud two feet from the corner post and leave a space oftwo feet six inches for the doorway. Now mark off on the floor the placeswhere the studs will come, and cut out the flooring at these points toallow the ends of the studs to enter and rest on the sill. Next make fourribs--one long one to go beneath the window, one short one to fit betweenthe corner post and the door stud not shown in diagram, another to fitbetween the door stud and window stud, and another to fit between thewindow stud and the first corner post (the nearest corner in the diagram). Next make your side-plate exactly fifteen feet long. Fit the frametogether on the floor and nail the pieces together, toe-nailing the ribsin place. Get some help and raise the whole side frame and slip the endsof the studs into their respective slots. Make the end posts plumb andhold them in place temporarily by a board, one end of which is nailed tothe top end of the post and the other to the end beam. Such a diagonalboard at each end will hold the side in place until the opposite side israised and similarly supported. 

It is now a simple thing to slip the end plates in place under theside-plates until their outside edges are even with the outside of thecorner posts. A long wire nail driven through the top-plates and endplates down into the posts at each corner will hold them securely. Toe-nail a rib between the two nearest end posts and make two window studsand three ribs for the opposite end. The framing now only needs the rooftimbers to complete the skeleton of your shop. Across from side-plate toside-plate lay some loose boards for a platform, and standing on theseboards let your assistant lift one end of the ridge plank while with onenail to each rafter you fasten the two end rafters onto the ridge plank, fit the jaws of the "bird's mouth" over the ends of the side-plates, andhold them temporarily in place with a "stay lath"--that is, a piece ofboard temporarily nailed to rafter and end plate. The other end of theridge is now resting on the platform at the other end of the house andthis may be lifted up, for the single nails will allow movement. 

The rafters are nailed in place with one nail each and a stay lathfastened on to hold them in place. Test the ends with your plumb-level andwhen they are found to be correct nail all the rafters securely in placeand stiffen the centre pair with a piece called a "collar. " Add fourpurlins set at right angles to the rafters and take off your hat and givethree cheers and do not forget to nail a green bough to your roof tree inaccordance with the ancient and time-honored custom. 

The sides of the house may be covered with tent-cloth, oilcloth, tin, tarpaper, or the cheapest sort of lumber, and the house may be roofed withthe same material; but if you can secure good lumber, use thirteen byseven eighths by nine and one quarter inch, tongue-and-grooved, one sideplaned so that it may be painted; you can make two sideboards out of eachpiece six feet six inches in length. Nail the sides on, running the boardsvertically, leaving openings for windows and doors at the proper places. 

If you have made a triangular edge to your ridge board, it will add to thefinish and the roof may be neatly and tightly laid with the upper edge ofone side protruding a couple of inches over the opposite side and thusprotecting the joint from rain. Additional security is gained by nailingwhat are called picket strips (seven eighths by one and three quarterinches) over each place where the planks join, or the roof may be coveredwith sheathing boards and shingles. It is not necessary here to give themany details such as the manufacture of the door and the arrangements ofthe windows, as these small problems can be easily solved by examiningdoors and windows of similar structures. 

XI

A SOD HOUSE FOR THE LAWN

THE difference between this sod house and the ones used in the aridregions consists in the fact that the sod will be growing on the sodhouse, which is intended for and is an ornamental building for the lawn. Possibly one might say that the sod house is an effete product ofcivilization where utility is sacrificed to display; but it is pretty, andbeauty is always worth while; besides which the same plans may be used inbuilding

A Real Adobe

and practically are used in some of the desert ranches along the ColoradoRiver. The principal difference in construction between the one shown inFigs. 50, 53, and 57 and the one in Fig. 55 is that in the sod house thesod is held in place by chicken-coop wire, while in the ranch-house (Fig. 55) the dirt or adobe is held in place by a number of sticks. 

Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Fig. 54. Fig. 55. Fig. 56. 

[Illustration: A house of green growing sod and the Colorado Riveradobe. ]

Fig. 50 shows how the double walls are made with a space of at least afoot between them; these walls are covered with wire netting orchicken-coop wire, as shown in Fig. 53, and the space between the wallsfilled in with mud or dirt of any kind. The framework may be made ofmilled lumber, as in Fig. 50, or it may be made of saplings cut on theriver bank and squared at their ends, as shown by detailed drawingsbetween Figs. 50 and 52. The roof may be made flat, like Figs. 54 and 56, and covered with poles, as in Fig. 54, in which case the sod will have tobe held in place by pegging other poles along the eaves as shown in theleft-hand corner of Fig. 54. This will keep the sod from sliding off theroof. Or you may build a roof after the manner illustrated by Fig. 49 andFig. 51, that is, if you want to make a neat, workmanlike house; but anyof the ways shown by Fig. 52 will answer for the framework of the roof. The steep roof, however, must necessarily be either shingled or thatchedor the sod held in place by a covering of wire netting. If you arebuilding this for your lawn, set green, growing sod up edgewise againstthe wire netting, after the latter has been tacked to your frame, soarranging the sod that the green grass will face the outside. If you wishto plaster the inside of your house with cement or concrete, fill inbehind with mud, plaster the mud against the sod and put gravel and stonesagainst the mud so that it will be next to the wire netting on the insideof the house over which you plaster the concrete. If you make the roofshown in Fig. 54, cover it first with hay and then dirt and sod and holdthe sod down with wire netting neatly tacked over it, or cover it withgravel held in place by wire netting and spread concrete over the top asone does on a cellar floor. If the walls are kept sprinkled by the help ofthe garden hose, the grass will keep as green as that on your lawn, and ifyou have a dirt roof you may allow purple asters and goldenrod to growupon it (Fig. 62) or plant it with garden flowers. 

Thatch

If you are going to make a thatched roof, soak your thatch in water andstraighten the bent straws; build the roof steep like the one shown inFig. 57 and make a wooden needle a foot long and pointed at both ends asshown in Fig. 59; tie your thatching twine to the middle of the needle, then take your rye or wheat straw, hay, or bulrushes, gather it intobundles four inches thick and one foot wide, like those shown in Fig. 60, and lay them along next to the eaves of your house as in Fig. 58. Sew themin place by running the needle up through the wire netting to the man onthe outside who in turn pushes it back to the man on the inside. Make aknot at each wisp of the thatch until one layer is finished, let the lowerends overhang the eaves, then proceed as illustrated by Fig. 66 anddescribed under the heading of the bog ken. 

If in place of a simple ornament you want to make a real house of it and apretty one at that, fill up the space between the walls with mud andplaster it on the outside with cement or concrete and you will have acheap concrete house. The wire netting will hold the plaster or theconcrete and consequently it is not necessary to make the covering ofcement as thick as in ordinary buildings, for after the mud is dried uponthe inside it will, with its crust of cement or plaster, be practically asgood as a solid concrete wall. 

Fig. 57. Fig. 58. Fig. 59. Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Fig. 62. 

[Illustration: Ornamental sod house for the lawn. ]

XII

HOW TO BUILD ELEVATED SHACKS, SHANTIES, AND SHELTERS

FOR many reasons it is sometimes necessary or advisable to have one's campon stilts, so to speak. Especially is this true in the more tropicalcountries where noxious serpents and insects abound. A simple form ofstilted shack is shown by Fig. 63. To build this shack we must first erectan elevated platform (Fig. 64). This is made by setting four forked sticksof equal height in the ground and any height from the ground to suit theideas of the camp builder. If, for some reason, the uprights are "wabbly"the frame may be stiffened by lashing diagonal cross sticks to the frame. After you have erected the four uprights, lay two poles through thecrotches, as in Fig. 64, and make a platform by placing other poles acrossthese, after which a shelter may be made in the form of an open Adirondackcamp or any of the forms previously described. Fig. 65 shows the frameworkfor the open camp of Adirondack style with the uprights lashed to the sidebars; if you have nails, of course, you can nail these together, but theseplans are made on the assumption that you have no nails for that purpose, which will probably be true if you have been long in the woods. 

Fig. 63. Fig. 64. Fig. 65. 

[Illustration: A simple stilt camp. ]

XIII

THE BOG KEN

KEN is a name now almost obsolete but the bog ken is a house built onstilts where the ground is marshy, damp, and unfit to sleep upon. As youwill see by the diagram (Fig. 66), the house is built upon a platformsimilar to the one last described; in this instance, however, the shelteritself is formed by a series of arches similar to the Iroquois (Fig. 41). The uprights on the two sides have their ends bent over and lashedtogether, forming arches for the roof. Over the arches are lashedhorizontal poles the same as those described in the construction of theIroquois lodge. Fig. 67 shows one way to prevent "varmints" of any kindfrom scaling the supporting poles and creeping into your camp. 

The protection consists of a tin pan with a hole in the bottom slid overthe supporting poles. Fig. 66 shows how to lash the thatching on to thepoles and Fig. 68 shows how to spring the sticks in place for a railingaround your front porch or balcony. 

The floor to this bog ken is a little more elaborate than that of the lastdescribed camp because the poles have all been halved before laying themfor the floor. These are supposed to be afterwards covered with browse, hay, or rushes and the roof shingled with bark or thatched. 

Thatching

Soak your straw or hay well in water and smooth it out flat and regular. The steeper the roofs the longer the thatch will last. In this bog ken ourroof happens to be a rounded one, an arched roof; but it is sheltering atemporary house and the thatch will last as long as the shack. While thereal pioneer uses whatever material he finds at hand, it does no harm forhim to know that to make a really good thatch one should use only strawwhich is fully ripe and has been thrashed clean with an old-fashionedflail. The straw must be clear of all seed or grain and kept straight, notmussed up, crumpled, and broken. If any grain is left in the straw it willattract field-mice, birds, domestic mice and rats, domestic turkeys andchickens, and these creatures in burrowing and scratching for food willplay havoc with the roof. 

Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. 

[Illustration: Details of bog ken. ]

It is not necessary to have straight and even rafters, because the humps, bumps, and hollows caused by crooked sticks are concealed by the mattressof straw. Take a bundle of thatch in your hands, squeeze it together, andplace it so that the butt ends project about three inches beyond the floor(_A_, Fig. 66); tie the thatch closely to the lower rafter and the onenext above it, using for the purpose twine, marlin, raffia, orwell-twisted white hickory bark. This first row should be thus tied nearboth ends to prevent the wind from getting under it and lifting it up. Next put on another row of wisps of thatch over the first and the buttends come even with the first, but tie this one to the third row ofrafters not shown in diagram. The butts of the third row of thatch (_B_, Fig. 66) should be about nine inches up on the front rows; put this on asbefore and proceed the same way with _C_, _D_, _E_, and _F_, Fig. 66, until the roof is completed. The thatch should be ten or twelve inchesthick for a permanent hut but need not be so for a temporary shed. 

As there is no comb to this roof the top must be protected where thethatches from each side join, and to do this fasten a thatch over the topand bind it on both sides but not in the middle, so that it covers themeeting of the thatches on both sides of the shack; this top piece shouldbe stitched or bound on with wire if you have it, or fastened with willowwithe or even wisps of straw if you are an expert. A house, twenty bythirty feet, made of material found on the place and thatched with strawcosts the builder only fifty cents for nails and four days' work for twopersons. A good thatched roof will last as long as a modern shingle roof, for in olden days when shingles were good and split out of blocks, notsawed, and were well seasoned before using, they were not expected to lastmuch over fifteen years; a well-made thatched roof will last fifteen ortwenty years. 

Fig. 70. 

[Illustration: Snow-shoe foundation for bog ken. ]

But a real bog ken is one that is built over boggy or marshy places toosoft to support an ordinary structure. To overcome this difficultyrequired considerable study and experiment, but at length the author hitupon a simple plan which has proved effective. If you wish to build a duckhunter's camp on the soft meadows, or for any other reason you desire acamp on treacherous, boggy ground, you may build one by first making athick mattress of twigs and sticks as shown by Fig. 70. This mattress actson the principle of a snow-shoe and prevents your house from sinking bydistributing the weight equally over a wide surface. The mattress shouldbe carefully made of sticks having their branches trimmed off sufficientlyto allow them to lie in regular courses as in the diagram. The firstcourse should be laid one way and the next course at right angles to thefirst, and so on, until the mattress is sufficiently thick for thepurpose. 

Standing on the mattress, it will be an easy matter with your hands toforce the sharpened ends of your upright posts _A_, _B_, _C_, and _D_ downinto the yielding mud, but be careful not to push them too far because insome of these marshes the mud is practically bottomless. It is onlynecessary for the supports to sink in the mud far enough to make themstand upright. 

Fig. 71. 

[Illustration: Framework of simple bog ken. ]

The next step is to lay, at right angles to the top layer of brush, aseries of rods or poles between your uprights as shown in Fig. 70; thentake two more poles, place them at right angles to the last ones, andpress them down until they fit snugly on top of the other poles, and therenail them fast to the uprights as shown in Fig. 70, after which to furtherbind them you may nail a diagonal from _A_ to _D_ and _B_ to _C_, but thismay not be necessary. 

When you have proceeded thus far you may erect a framework like that shownin Fig. 71, and build a platform by flooring the crosspieces or horizontalbars with halves of small logs, Fig. 71. 

It is now a simple matter to erect a shack which may be roofed with barkas in Fig. 72 or thatched as in Fig. 74. Fig. 72 shows the unfinishedshack in order that its construction may be easily seen; this one is beingroofed with birch bark. A fireplace may be made by enclosing a bed of mud(Fig. 73) between or inside of the square formed by four logs. On thisclay or mud you can build your camp-fire or cooking fire or mosquitosmudge with little or no danger of setting fire to your house. 

The mosquito smudge will not be found necessary if there is any breezeblowing at all, because these insects cling to the salt hay or bog-grassand do not rise above it except in close, muggy weather where no breezedisturbs them. I have slept a few feet over bog meadows without beingdisturbed by mosquitoes when every blade of grass on the meadows was blackwith these insects, but there was a breeze blowing which kept themosquitoes at home. 

Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. 

[Illustration: Adaptation of a bark shack to the bog ken foundation. ]

XIV

OVER-WATER CAMPS

NOW that we know how to camp on solid ground and on the quaking bog wecannot finish up the subject of stilt camps without including oneover-water camp. If the water has a muddy bottom it is a simple matter toforce your supporting posts into the mud; this may be done by driving themin with a wooden mallet made of a section of log or it may be done byfastening poles on each side of the post and having a crowd of men jump upand down on the poles until the posts are forced into the bottom. 

If you are building a pretentious structure the piles may be driven withthe ordinary pile-driver. But if your camp on the water is over a hardbottom of rock or sand through which you cannot force your supports youmay take a lot of old barrels (Fig. 75), knock the tops and bottoms out ofthem, nail some cross planks on the ends of your spiles, slide the barrelsover the spiles, then set them in place in the water and hold them thereby filling the barrels with rocks, stones, or coarse gravel. Fig. 77 showsa foundation made in this manner; this method is also useful in buildingpiers (Fig. 78). But if you are in the woods, out of reach of barrels orother civilized lumber, you can make yourself cribs by driving a square ora circle of sticks in the ground a short distance and then twining rootsor pliable branches inside and outside the stakes, basket fashion, asshown in Fig. 76. When the crib is complete it may be carefully removedfrom the ground and used as the barrels were used by filling them withstones to support the uprights. Fig. 79 shows an ordinary portable housesuch as are advertised in all the sportsmen's papers, which has beenerected upon a platform over the water. 

Fig. 75. Fig. 76. Fig. 77. Fig. 78. Fig. 79. 

[Illustration: Showing how to make foundations for over-water camps. ]

My experience with this sort of work leads me to advise the use of pilesupon which to build in place of piers of stones. Where I have used suchpiers upon small inland lakes the tremendous push of the freezing ice hasupset them, whereas the ice seems to slide around the piles withoutpushing them over. The real danger with piles lies in the fact that if thewater rises after the ice has frozen around the uprights the water willlift the ice up and the ice will sometimes pull the piles out of thebottom like a dentist pulls teeth. Nevertheless, piles are much better fora foundation for a camp or pier than any crib of rocks, and that is thereason I have shown the cribs in Figs. 75 and 77, made so as to rest uponthe bottom supposedly below the level of the winter ice. 

XV

SIGNAL-TOWER, GAME LOOKOUT, AND RUSTIC OBSERVATORY

IF my present reader happens to be a Boy Scout or a scout-master who wantsthe scouts to build a tower for exhibition purposes, he can do so byfollowing the directions here given, but if there is real necessity forhaste in the erection of this tower, of course we cannot build one as tallas we might where we have more time. With a small tower all the joints maybe quickly lashed together with strong, heavy twine, rope, or even wire;and in the wilderness it will probably be necessary to bind the jointswith pliable roots, or cordage made of bark or withes; but as this is nota book on woodcraft we will suppose that the reader has secured the propermaterial for fastening the joints of the frame of this signal-tower and hemust now shoulder his axe and go to the woods in order to secure thenecessary timber. First let him cut eight straight poles--that is, asstraight as he can find them. These poles should be about four and onehalf inches in diameter at their base and sixteen and one half feet long. After all the branches are trimmed off the poles, cut four more stickseach nine feet long and two and a half or three inches in diameter at thebase; when these are trimmed into shape one will need twenty six or sevenmore stout sticks each four and one half feet long for braces and forflooring for the platform. 

Kite Frame

It being supposed that your timber is now all in readiness at the spotwhere you are to erect the tower, begin by laying out on the ground whatwe call the "kite frame. " First take three of the four-and-one-half-footsticks, _A_, _B_, _C_ (Fig. 82), and two of the nine-foot sticks _D_ and_E_ (Fig. 82), and, placing them on a level stretch of ground, arrangethem in the form of a parallelogram. Put _A_ for the top rail at the topof the parallelogram and _C_ for the bottom of the parallelogram and letthem rest upon the sides _D_ and _E_, but put _B_ under the sides _D_ and_E_. In order to bind these together securely, the ends of all the sticksmust be allowed to project a few inches. _B_ should be far enough below_A_ to give the proper height for a railing around the platform. Theplatform itself rests upon _B_. _A_ forms the top railing to the fencearound it. 

Now take two of your sixteen-and-one-half-foot poles and place themdiagonally from corner to corner of the parallelogram with the small endsof the poles lying over the ends of _A_ and the butt ends of the polesextending beyond _C_, as in Fig. 82. Lash these poles securely in place. 

Where the poles cross each other in the _X_, or centre, it is best toflatten them some by scoring and hewing with a hatchet, but care must betaken not to weaken them by scoring too deep. Next take your lash rope, double it, run the loop down under the cross sticks, bring it up on theother side, as in Fig. 83, then pull the two loose ends through the loop. When they are drawn taut (Fig. 84), bend them round in oppositedirections--that is, bend the right-hand end of the rope to the right, down and under the cross sticks, pull it out to the left, as in Fig. 84, then bend the left-hand piece of rope to the left, down and under, pullingit out to the right, as in Fig. 84. Next bring those two pieces up overand tie them together in a square knot, as shown in Figs. 85 and 86. 

Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Fig. 82. Fig. 83. Fig. 84. Fig. 85. Fig. 86. Fig. 87. 

[Illustration: Parts of tower for a wireless, a game lookout, an elevatedcamp or cache. ]

Make a duplicate "kite" frame for the other side exactly as you made thefirst one, and then arrange these two pieces on the ground with the crosssticks _F_ and _F_ on the under-side and with their butt ends opposite thebutts of the similar poles on the other frame and about five feet apart. Fasten a long line to the point where the two _F_ pieces cross each otherand detail a couple of scouts to hold each of the butt ends from slippingby placing one of their feet against the butt, as in Fig. 82, while twogangs of men or boys pull on the ropes and raise the kite frames to thepositions shown in Figs. 81 and 88. 

Be careful, when raising the frames, not to pull them too far so that theymay fall on some unwary workman. When the frames are once erected it is aneasy matter to hold them in place by guy-ropes fastened to stones, stakes, or trees or held by men or boys, while some of the shorter braces arefastened to hold the two kite frames together, as in Fig. 90, wherein youmay see these short braces at the top and bottom. Next, the two other longsticks, legs, or braces (_G_, _G_, Figs. 89 and 90) should be heldtemporarily in position and the place marked where they cross each otherin the centre of the parallelogram which should be the same as it is onthe legs of the two kite frames. The _G_ sticks should now be lashedtogether at the crossing point, as already described and shown by Figs. 83, 84, 85, and 86, when they may be put up against the sides, as in Fig. 89, in which diagram the _G_ poles are made very dark and the kite framesindicated very lightly so as to better show their relative positions. Lashthe _G_ poles at the top and at the other points where they cross theother braces and secure the framework by adding short braces, as indicatedin Fig. 90. 

Fig. 88. Fig. 89. Fig. 90. Fig. 90A. 

[Illustration: Details of scout signal-tower or game lookout. ]

If all the parts are bound together with wire it will hold them moresecurely than nails, with no danger of the poles splitting. A permanenttower of this kind may be erected on which a camp may be built, as shownin Fig. 87. It may be well to note that in the last diagram the tower isonly indicated by a few lines of the frame in order to simplify it andprevent confusion caused by the multiplicity of poles. 

Boy-Scout Tower

If you desire to make a tower taller than the one described it would bebest, perhaps, to take the regular Boy-Scout dimensions as given byScout-master A. G. Clarke:

"Eight pieces 22 feet long, about 5 or 6 inches thick at the base; 4pieces 6 feet long, about 3 or 4 inches thick at the base; 12 pieces 6feet long, about 2½ or 3 inches thick at base; 12 or 15 pieces for bracesand platform about 6 feet long. "

When putting together this frame it may be nailed or spiked, but care mustbe used not to split the timber where it is nailed. With most wood thismay be avoided by driving the spikes or nails several inches back of theends of the sticks. To erect a flagpole or a wireless pole, cut the bottomof the pole wedge-shaped, fit in the space between the cross poles, as inFig. 90 _A_, then lash it fast to the _B_ and _A_ pole, and, to furthersecure it, two other sticks may be nailed to the _F_ poles, one on eachside, between which the bottom of the flagpole is thrust, as shown by Fig. 90 _A_. 

The flooring of the platform must be securely nailed or lashed in place, otherwise there may be some serious accident caused by the boys or menfalling through, a fall of about twenty and one half feet according to thelast measurements given for the frame. 

An observatory of this kind will add greatly to the interest of a mountainhome or seaside home; it is a practical tower for military men to be usedin flag signalling and for improvised wireless; it is also a practicaltower for a lookout in the game fields and a delight to the Boy Scouts. 

XVI

TREE-TOP HOUSES

BY the natural process of evolution we have now arrived at the tree-tophouse. It is interesting to the writer to see the popularity of this styleof an outdoor building, for, while he cannot lay claim to originating it, he was the first to publish the working drawings of a tree-house. Theseplans first appeared in _Harper's Round Table_; afterward he made othersfor the _Ladies' Home Journal_ and later published them in "The Jack ofAll Trades. "

Having occasion to travel across the continent shortly after the firstplans were published, he was amused to see all along the route, here andthere in back-yard fruit-trees, shade-trees, and in forest-trees, queerlittle shanties built by the boys, high up among the boughs. 

In order to build a house one must make one's plans _to fit the tree_. Ifit is to be a one-tree house, spike on the trunk two quartered pieces ofsmall log one on each side of the trunk (Figs. 91 and 92). Across theselay a couple of poles and nail them to the trunk of the tree (Fig. 91);then at right angles to these lay another pair of poles, as shown in theright-hand diagram (Fig. 91). Nail these securely in place and support theends of the four poles by braces nailed to the trunk of the tree below. The four cross-sills will then (Fig. 95) serve as a foundation upon whichto begin your work. Other joists can now be laid across these first andsupported by braces running diagonally down to the trunk of the tree, asshown in Fig. 95. After the floor is laid over the joist any form ofshack, from a rude, open shed to a picturesque thatch-roofed cottage, maybe erected upon it. It is well to support the two middle rafters of yourroof by quartered pieces of logs, as the middle rafters are supported inFig. 95; by quartered logs shown in Fig. 92. 

Fig. 91. Fig. 92. Fig. 93. Fig. 94. Fig. 95. Fig. 96. Fig. 97. 

[Illustration: Details of tree-top houses. ]

If the house is a two-tree house, run your cross-sill sticks from trunk totrunk, as in Fig. 94; then make two T-braces, like the one in Fig. 94 _A_, of two-inch planks with braces secured by iron straps, or use heaviertimber, and bolt the parts together securely (Fig. 93), or use logs andpoles (Fig. 94), after which hang these T's over the ends of your twocross sticks, as in Fig. 94, and spike the uprights of the T's securely tothe tree trunks. On top of the T you can rest a two-by-four and supportthe end by diagonals nailed to the tree trunk (Fig. 94) after the mannerof the diagonals in Fig. 95. You will note in Fig. 95 that cleats orblocks are spiked to the tree below the end of the diagonals in order tofurther secure them. It is sometimes necessary in a two-tree house toallow for the movement of the tree trunks. In Florida a gentleman did thisby building his tree-house on the _B_ sills (Fig. 94) and making themmovable to allow for the play of the tree trunks. Fig. 96 shows a two-treehouse and Fig. 97 shows a thatch-roofed cottage built among the topbranches of a single tree. 

It goes without saying that in a high wind one does not want to stay longin a tree-top house; in fact, during some winds that I have experienced Iwould have felt much safer had I been in a cyclone cellar; but if thebraces of a tree-house are securely made and the trees selected have good, heavy trunks, your tree-top house will stand all the ordinary summer blowsand winter storms. One must remember that even one's own home is notsecure enough to stand some of those extraordinary gales, tornadoes, andhurricanes which occasionally visit parts of our country. 

Since I published the first plans of a tree-top house many people haveadopted the idea and built quite expensive structures in the boughs of thetrees. Probably all these buildings are intact at the present writing. 

The boys at Lynn, Mass. , built a very substantial house in the trees, andthe truant officer claimed that the lads hid away there so that they couldplay "hookey" from school; but if this is true, and there seems to be somedoubt about it, it must be remembered that the fault was probably with_the schools_ and not the boys, for boys who have ingenuity and gritenough to build a substantial house in a tree cannot be bad boys;industry, skill, and laborious work are not the attributes of the bad boy. 

Some New York City boys built a house in the trees at One Hundred andSixty-ninth Street, but here the police interfered, claiming that it wasagainst a city ordinance to build houses in shade-trees, and maybe it is;but, fortunately for the boys, there are other trees which may be used forthis purpose. There is now, or was recently, an interesting tree-house onFlatbush Avenue, Brooklyn; a house so commodious that it was capable ofaccommodating as many as fifteen people; but it was not as pretty andattractive a tree-house as the one located at the foot of Mount Tamalpais, in Mill Valley, San Francisco, which is built after the plan shown by Fig. 95. This California house is attached to the trunk of a big redwood treeand is reached by a picturesque bridge spanning a rocky canyon. 

Tree-houses are also used as health resorts, and recently there was agentleman of Plainfield, Mass. , living in a tree-house because he foundthe pure air among the leaves beneficial; while down in Ecuador anotherman, who feared malarial mosquitoes and objected to wild beasts andsnakes, built himself a house on top of an ibo-tree, seventy feet from theground. This is quite a pretentious structure and completely hides andcovers the top of the tree. It is located on the banks of the EscondidoRiver; and in this tropical country, while it may be a safe retreat fromthe pests enumerated, it might not be so safe from lightning in one ofthose violent tropical storms. But it is probably as safe as any house inthat country, for one must take chances no matter what kind of a house onedwells in. 

Primitive and savage men all over the world for thousands of years havebuilt dwellings in tree tops. In the Philippines many natives live intree-top houses. The Kinnikars, hill-tribesmen of Travancore, India, aresaid to live in houses built in the trees, but in New Guinea it seems thatsuch houses are only provided for the girls, and every night the duskylassies are sent to bed in shacks perched in the tree tops; then, to makesafety doubly safe, the watchful parents take away the ladders and theirdaughters cannot reach the ground until the ladders are replaced in themorning. 

The most important thing about all this is that a tree-house is always asource of delight to the boys and young people, and, furthermore, the boyshave over and over again proved to the satisfaction of the author thatthey themselves are perfectly competent to build these shacks, and notonly to build them but to avoid accidents and serious falls while engagedin the work. 

XVII

CACHES

THE difference between tomahawk shacks and axe houses reminds me of thedifference between the ileum and the jejunum, of which my classmate oncesaid: "There is no way of telling the beginning of one or the ending oft'other 'cept by the pale-pinkish hue of the latter. "

It must be confessed that some of the shacks described in the precedingpages are rather stout and massive to be classed as tomahawk shelters, but, as indicated by my reference to physiology, this is not the writer'sfault. The trouble is owing to the fact that nature abhors the arbitrarydivision line which man loves to make for his own convenience. Thetomahawk shacks gradually evolve into axe camps and houses and "there isno telling the beginning of one and the end of t'other. " Hence, when I saythat all the previous shacks, sheds, shelters, and shanties are fashionedwith a hatchet, the statement must be accepted as true only so far as _itis_ possible to build them without an axe; but in looking over the diagramit is evident at a glance that the logs are growing so thick that thenecessity of the woodman's axe is more and more apparent; nevertheless, the accompanying caches have been classed with the tomahawk group and wewill allow them to remain there. 

Wherever man travels in the wilderness he finds it necessary tocache--that is, hide or secure some of his goods or provisions. Thesecurity of these caches (Figs. 98-111) is considered sacred in the wildsand they are not disturbed by savages or whites; but bears, foxes, huskydogs, porcupines, and wolverenes are devoid of any conscientious scruplesand unless the cache is absolutely secure they will raid it. 

Fig. 98. Fig. 99. Fig. 100. Fig. 101. Fig. 102. Fig. 103. Fig. 104. Fig. 105. 

[Illustration: Simple forms of caches. ]

The first cache (Fig. 98) is called the "prospector's cache" and consistssimply of a stick lashed to two trees and another long pole laid acrossthis to which the goods are hung, swinging beneath like a hammock. Thiscache is hung high enough to be out of reach of a standing bear. 

The tripod cache (Fig. 100) consists of three poles lashed at the top withthe goods hung underneath. 

Another form of the prospector's cache is shown by Fig. 102, where twopoles are used in place of one and an open platform of sticks laid acrossthe poles; the goods are placed upon the platform. 

The tenderfoot's cache (Fig. 105) is one used only for temporary purposesas it is too easily knocked over and would be of no use where animals aslarge as bears might wreck it. It consists of two sticks lashed togetherat their small ends and with their butt ends buried in the earth; theirtops are secured by a rope to a near-by tree while the duffel is suspendedfrom the top of the longest pole. 

The "Montainais" cache is an elevated platform upon which the goods areplaced and covered with skins or tarpaulin or tent-cloth (Fig. 99). 

The "Andrew Stone" cache is a miniature log cabin placed on the ground andthe top covered with halved logs usually weighted down with stones (Fig. 101). 

The "Belmore Browne" cache consists of a pole or a half of a log placed inthe fork of the two trees on top of which the goods are held in place by arope and the whole covered with a piece of canvas lashed together witheyelets, like a shoe (Fig. 103). 

The "Herschel Parker" cache is used where the articles to be cached are ina box. For this cache two poles are lashed to two trees, one on each sideof the trees (Fig. 104), and across the two poles the box is placed. 

We now come to more pretentious caches, the first of which is the"Susitna, " which is a little log cabin built on a table with four longlegs. The poles or logs composing the legs of the table are cut in apeculiar fashion, as shown in the diagram to the left of Fig. 107; this isintended to prevent animals from climbing to the top; also, as a furtherprotection, pieces of tin are sometimes tacked around the poles so as togive no foothold to the claws of the little animals. 

Fig. 106 shows two other methods sometimes adopted to protect small cachesand Fig. 108 is still another method of using logs which have the rootsstill attached to them for supports. Such logs can be used where theground is too stony to dig holes for posts. 

Fig. 109 shows another form of the Susitna cache wherein the goods arepacked in a box-like structure and covered with tent-cloth tightly lasheddown. 

The "Dillon Wallace" cache (Fig. 110) is simply a tent erected over thegoods and perched on an elevated platform. 

The "Fred Vreeland" cache is a good, solid, practical storehouse. It isbuilt of small logs on a platform, as shown by Fig. 111, and the bottom ofthe building is smaller than it is at the eaves. It is covered with a highthatched roof and is ornamental as well as useful. 

Fig. 106. Fig. 107. Fig. 108. Fig. 109. Fig. 110. Fig. 111. 

[Illustration: Cabin caches. ]

These caches might really belong to a book of woodcraft, but it is anothercase of the "ileum and jejunum, " and we will rule that they technicallycome under the head of shacks, sheds, shelters, and shanties and so areincluded in this volume; but there is another and a very good reason forpublishing them in this book, and that is because some of them, like Figs. 107 and 111, suggest novel forms of ornamental houses on country estates, houses which may be used for corn-cribs or other storage or, like thetree-top houses, used for pleasure and amusement. 

XVIII

HOW TO USE AN AXE

THE old backwoodsmen were as expert with their axes as they were withtheir rifles and they were just as careful in the selection of these toolsas they were in the selection of their arms. Many a time I have seen thempick up a "store" axe, sight along the handle, and then cast itcontemptuously aside; they demanded of their axes that the cutting edgeshould be exactly in line with the point in the centre of the butt end ofthe handle. They also kept their axes so sharp that they could whittlewith them like one can with a good jack-knife; furthermore, they allowed_no one_ but themselves to use their own particular axe. In my log housein the mountains of Pike County, Pa. , I have a table fashioned entirelywith an axe; even the ends of the boards which form the top of the tablewere cut off by Siley Rosencranz with his trusty axe because he had nosaw. 

Both General Grant and Abraham Lincoln were expert axemen, and probably anumber of other Presidents were also skilful in the use of this tool; butit is not expected that the modern vacation pioneer shall be an expert, consequently a few simple rules and suggestions will be here given toguide the amateur and he must depend upon his own judgment and commonsense to work out the minor problems which will beset him in the use ofthis tool. 

Dangers

All edged tools are dangerous when in the hands of "chumps, " dangerous tothemselves and to any one else who is near them. For instance, only achump will use an axe when its head is loose and is in danger of flyingoff the handle; only a chump will use his _best_ axe to cut roots orsticks lying flat on the ground where he is liable to strike stones andother objects and take the edge off the blade. Only a chump will leave anaxe lying around on the ground for people to stumble over; if there is astump handy at your camp and you are through using the axe, strike theblade into the top of the stump and leave the axe sticking there, where itwill be safe from injury. 

Remember, before chopping down a tree or before using the axe at all, tosee that there is enough space above and around you to enable you to swingthe axe clear (Fig. 112) without the danger of striking bushes oroverhanging branches which may deflect the blade and cause accidents moreor less serious. 

Do not stand behind a tree as it falls (Fig. 115), for the boughs maystrike those of a standing tree, causing the butt to shoot back or "kick, "and many a woodsman has lost his life from the kick of a falling tree. Before chopping a tree down, select the place where it is to fall, a placewhere it will not be liable to lodge in another tree on its way down. Donot try to fell a tree against the wind. 

Cut a notch on the side of the tree facing the direction you wish it tofall (Fig. 113) and cut it half-way through the trunk. Make the notch, orkerf, large enough to avoid pinching your axe in it. If you discover thatthe notch is going to be too small, cut a new notch, _X_ (Fig. 116), someinches above your first one, then split off the piece _X_, _Y_ between thetwo notches, and again make the notch _X_, _Z_, and split off the piece_Z_, _W_, _Y_ (Fig. 116), until you make room for the axe to continue yourchopping. When the first kerf is finished begin another one on theopposite side of the tree a little higher than the first one (Fig. 114). When the wood between the two notches becomes too small to support theweight of the tree, the top of the tree will begin to tremble and waverand give you plenty of time to step to one side before it falls. 

Fig. 112. Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 115. Fig. 116. Fig. 117. Fig. 118. 

[Illustration: How to "fall" a tree and how to take off the bark. ]

If the tree (Fig. 117) is inclined in the opposite direction from whichyou wish it to fall, it is sometimes possible (Fig. 117) to block up thekerf on the inclined side and then by driving the wedge over the blockforce the tree to fall in the direction desired; but if the tree inclinestoo far this cannot be done. 

There was a chestnut-tree standing close to my log house and leaningtoward the building. Under ordinary circumstances felling this tree wouldcause it to strike the house with all the weight of its trunk andbranches. When I told Siley Rosencranz I wanted that tree cut down hesighted up the tree, took a chew of tobacco, and walked away. For severaldays he went through the same performance, until at last one day hebrought out his trusty axe and made the chips fly. Soon the chestnut waslying prone on the ground _pointing away_ from the house. What this oldbackwoodsman did was to wait until a strong wind had sprung up, blowing inthe direction that he wanted the tree to fall, and his skilful choppingwith the aid of the wind placed the tree exactly where he wished it. 

Fig. 118 shows how to make the cuts on a standing tree in order to removethe bark, which is done in the same manner as that described for removingthe birch bark (Fig. 38). 

XIX

HOW TO SPLIT LOGS, MAKE SHAKES, SPLITS, OR CLAPBOARDS. HOW TO CHOP A LOGIN HALF. HOW TO FLATTEN A LOG. ALSO SOME DON'TS

LOGS are usually split by the use of wedges, but it is possible to splitthem by the use of two axes. Fig. 119 shows both methods. To split withthe axe, strike it smartly into the wood at the small end so as to start acrack, then sink the axe in the crack, _A_. Next take the second axe andstrike it in line with the first one at _B_. If this is done properly itshould open the crack wide enough to release the first axe withouttrouble, which may then be struck in the log at _C_. In this manner it ispossible to split a straight-grained piece of timber without the use ofwedges. The first axe should be struck in at the smaller or top end of thelog. To split a log with wedges, take your axe in your left hand and aclub in your right hand and, by hammering the head of your axe with theclub, drive the blade into the small end of the log far enough to make acrack deep enough to hold the thin edge of your wedges. Make this crackall the way across the end of the log, as in Fig. 119. Put two wedges inthe end of the log, as in the diagram, and drive them until the woodbegins to split and crack along the sides of the log; then follow up thiscrack with other wedges, as shown at _D_ and _E_, until the log is splitin half. 

While ordinary wood splits easily enough with the grain, it is verydifficult to drive an axe through the wood at right angles to the grain, as shown by diagram to the left (Fig. 120); hence, if the amateur bechopping wood, if he will strike a slanting blow, like the one to theright in Fig. 120, he will discover that the blade of his axe will enterthe wood; whereas, in the first position, where he strikes the grain atright angles, it will only make a dent in the wood and bounce the axeback; but in striking a diagonal blow he must use care not to slant hisaxe too far or the blade of the axe may only scoop out a shallow chip andswing around, seriously injuring the axeman or some one else. 

If it is desired to cut off the limb of a tree, do not disfigure the treeby tearing the bark down; trees are becoming too scarce for us to injurethem unnecessarily; if you cut part way through the limb on the under-side(see the right-hand diagram, Fig. 121) and then cut partly through fromthe top side, the limb will fall off without tearing the bark down thetrunk; but if you cut only from the top (see left-hand diagram, Fig. 121), sooner or later the weight of the limb will tear it off and make an uglywound down the front of the tree, which in time decays, makes a hollow, and ultimately destroys the tree. A neatly cut branch, on the other hand, when the stub has been sheared off close to the bark, will heal up, leaving only an eye-mark on the bark to tell where the limb once grew. 

If it is desired to chop a log up into shorter pieces, remember to standon the log to do your chopping, as in Fig. 122. This will do away with thenecessity of rolling the log over when you want to chop on the other side. Do not forget to make the kerf, or notch, _C_, _D_ the same as _A_, _B_;in other words, the distance across the notch should equal the diameter ofthe log. If you start with too narrow a kerf, or notch, before you finishyou will be compelled to widen it. 

Fig. 119. Fig. 120. Fig. 121. Fig. 122. Fig. 123. Fig. 124. Fig. 125. 

Fig. 126. Fig. 127. Fig. 128. Fig. 129. Fig. 130. Fig. 131. Fig. 131A. 

Fig. 131B. 

[Illustration: How to split a log, chop a log, flatten a log, and trim atree. ]

To flatten a log you must _score and hew_ it. Scoring consists in making anumber of notches, _C_, _D_, _E_, _F_, _G_, _H_, _J_, etc. , to the depthof the line _A_, _B_ (Figs. 123 and 124); hewing it is the act of choppingoff or splitting off the pieces _A_, _C_ and _C_, _D_ and _D_, _E_, etc. , leaving the surface flat, as shown by Fig. 125, which was known among thepioneers as a puncheon and with which they floored their cabins before theadvent of the saw-mill and milled lumber. 

Perhaps it will be advisable for the amateur to take a chalk-line and snapit from _A_ to _B_ (Fig. 123), so that he may be certain to have the flatsurface level. The expert axeman will do this by what he calls"sensiation. " It might be well to say here that if you select forpuncheons wood with a straight grain and wood that will split easily youwill simplify your task, but even mean, stubborn wood may be flattened byscoring and hewing. Quoting from Horace Kephart's excellent book onwoodcraft, an experienced man can tell a straight-grained log "by merelyscanning the bark"; if the ridges and furrows of the bark run straight upand down the wood will have a corresponding straight grain, but if theyare spiral the wood will split "waney" or not at all. "Waney" is a goodword, almost as good as "sensiation"; so when you try to quarter a logwith which to chink your cabin or log house don't select a "waney" log. Toquarter a log split it as shown in Fig. 119 and split it along the dottedlines shown in the end view of Fig. 126. 

In the Maine woods the woodsmen are adepts in making shakes, splits, clapboards, or shingles by the use of only an axe and splitting them outof the billets of wood from four to six feet long. The core of the log(Fig. 130) is first cut out and then the pieces are split out, havingwedge-shaped edges, as shown by the lines marked on Fig. 127. They alsosplit out boards after the manner shown by Fig. 128. In making either theboards or the shakes, if it is found that the wood splinters down into thebody of the log too far or into the board or shake too far, you mustcommence at the other end of the billet or log and split it up to meet thefirst split, or take hold of the split or board with your hands and deftlytear it from the log, an art which only experience can teach. I have seentwo-story houses composed of nothing but a framework with sides and roofshingled over with these splits. In the West they call these "shake"cabins. 

It may be wise before we close this axeman's talk to caution the readeragainst chopping firewood by resting one end of the stick to be cut on alog and the other end on the ground, as shown in Fig. 131, and thenstriking this stick a sharp blow with the axe in the middle. The effect ofthis often is to send the broken piece or fragment gyrating through theair, as is shown by the dotted lines, and many a woodchopper has lost aneye from a blow inflicted by one of these flying pieces; indeed, I havehad some of my friends meet with this serious and painful accident fromthe same cause, and I have seen men in the lumber fields who have beenblinded in a similar manner. 

There are two sorts of axes in general use among the lumbermen; but thedouble-bitted axe (131 _A_) appears to be the most popular amonglumberjacks. My readers, however, are not lumberjacks but campers, and adouble-bitted axe is a nuisance around camps. It is always dangerous andeven when one blade is sunk into the tree the other blade is sticking out, a menace to everybody and everything that comes near it. But the realold-fashioned reliable axe (131 _B_) is the one that is exceedingly usefulin a camp, around a country place, or a farm. I even have one now in mystudio closet here in the city of New York, but I keep it more forsentiment's sake than for any real use it may be to me here. 

XX

AXEMEN'S CAMPS

The Stefansson Sod Shack

NOW that we know how to wield the axe we can begin on more ambitiousstructures than those preceding. We may now build camps in which we uselogs instead of poles. Most of these camps are intended to be covered withsod or earth and are nearly related to the old prairie dugout. The sodhouse is used in the arctic regions because it is warm inside, and it isused in the arid regions because it is cool inside. You will note that theprinciple on which the Stefansson is constructed (Fig. 135) is practicallythe same as that of the Pontiac (Fig. 36); the Stefansson frame, however, is made of larger timbers than the Pontiac because it not only mustsupport a roof and side of logs and sod but must also be able to sustainany quantity of snow. 

First erect two forked upright sticks (Fig. 132), and then steady them bytwo braces. Next lay four more logs or sticks for the side-plates withtheir butt ends on the ridge-pole and their small ends on the ground as inFig. 133. Support these logs by a number of small uprights--as many as maybe necessary for the purpose. The uprights may have forks at the top orhave the top ends cut wedge-shaped to fit in notches made for that purposein the side-plates as shown by Fig. 133 _A_. The shortest uprights at theend of the roof should be forked so that the projecting fork will tend tokeep the roof logs from sliding down. The roof is made by a number ofstraight rafters placed one with the butt in front, next with the butt inthe rear alternately, so that they will fit snugly together until thewhole roof is covered. The sides are made by setting a number of sticks ina trench and slanting them against the roof; both sides, front, and rearof the building should project six inches above the roof in order to holdthe sod and dirt and keep it from sliding off. 

Fig. 132. Fig. 133. Fig. 133A Fig. 134. Fig. 135. 

[Illustration: Details of the Stefansson sod shack. ]

Up in the north country one must not expect to find green, closely croppedlawns or even green fields of wild sod in all places. Although in someparts the grass grows taller than a man's head, in other places the sod isonly called so by courtesy; it really consists of scraggy grass thinlydistributed on gravelly and sandy, loose soil, and consequently we mustsecure the sod by having the walls project a little above the rafters allaround the building. Of course, in summer weather this roof will leak, butthen one may live in a tent; but when cold weather comes and the sod isfrozen hard and banked up with snow the Stefansson makes a good, warmdwelling. 

The same style of a camp can be made in the temperate zone of smallertrees and shingled with browse, or in the South of cane or bamboo andshingled with palmetto leaves, or in the Southwest of cottonwood where itmay be covered with adobe or mud. Fig. 134 shows a Stefansson shack roofedwith sod. The front is left uncovered to show its construction and also toshow how the doorway is made by simply leaving an opening like that in atent. In winter this may have a hallway built like the one described inthe Navajo earth lodge (Fig. 35) or in the Pawnee hogan (Figs. 42 and 43), and in milder weather the doorway may be protected with a skin. An openingis left in the roof over the fireplace, which answers the purpose of achimney. 

The author aims to take hints from all the primitive dwellings which maybe of service to outdoor people; the last one described was arbitrarilynamed the Stefansson because that explorer built himself such shelters inthe far North, but he did not invent them. He borrowed the general planfrom the natives of the northern country and adapted it to his use, thereby placing the official stamp on this shack as a useful building foroutdoor people and, consequently, as deserving a place in this book. 

XXI

RAILROAD-TIE SHACKS, BARREL SHACKS, AND CHIMEHUEVIS

NO observing person has travelled far upon the American railroads withoutnoticing, alongside the tracks, the queer little houses built of railroadties by Italian laborers. These shacks are known by the name of dagoes(Fig. 136) and are made in different forms, according to the ingenuity ofthe builder. The simplest form is the tent-shaped shown in Fig. 136, withthe ends of the ties rested together in the form of a tent and with noother support but their own weight (see the diagram to the right, Fig. 136). I would not advise boys to build this style, because it might make atrap to fall in upon them with serious results, but if they use aridge-pole like the one shown in Fig. 139 and against it rest the tiesthey will do away with the danger of being caught in a deadfall trap. Ofcourse, it is understood that the ridge-pole itself must first be secure. 

Railroad ties being flat (Fig. 137), they may be built up into solid walls(Fig. 137) and make neat sides for a little house; or they may be set upon edge (Fig. 138) and secured in place by stakes driven upon each side ofthem; or they may be made into the form of an open Adirondack camp (Figs. 139 and 140) by resting the ties on a ridge-pole supported by a pair of"shears" at each end; the shears, as you will observe, consist of twosticks bound together near the top and then spread apart to receive theridge-pole in the crotch. 

Fig. 136. Fig. 137. Fig. 138. Fig. 139. Fig. 140. Fig. 141. Fig. 142. Fig. 143. 

[Illustration: Railroad-tie shacks, barrel shack, and a Chimehuevis. ]

All of these structures are usually covered with dirt and sod, and theymake very comfortable little camps. 

In the Southwest a simple shelter, the "Chimehuevis, " is made by enclosinga room in upright poles (Fig. 141) and then surrounding it with a circleof poles supporting a log or pole roof covered with sod, making a goodcamp for hot weather. 

Fig. 142 shows a barrel dugout. It is made by digging a place for it inthe bank and, after the floor is levelled off, setting rows of barrelsaround the foundation, filling these barrels with sand, gravel, or dirt, then placing another row on top of the first, leaving spaces for a windowand a door, after which the walls are roofed with logs and covered withsod, in the same manner as the ones previously described. The dirt is nextfilled around the sides, except at the window opening, as shown by Fig. 142. A barrel also does duty as a chimney. 

Shacks like this are used by homesteaders, miners, trappers, and hunters;in fact, these people use any sort of material they have at hand. When amining-camp is near by the freight wagons are constantly bringing insupplies, and these supplies are done up in packages of some kind. Boardsare frequently worth more a yard than silk, or were in the olden days, andso the home builders used other material. They built themselves houses ofdiscarded beer bottles, of kerosene cans, of packing-boxes, of any andevery thing. Usually these houses were dugouts, as is the barrel one shownin Fig. 142. In the big-tree country they not infrequently made a house ofa hollow stump of a large redwood, and one stone-mason hollowed out a hugebowlder for his dwelling; but such shacks belong among the freak shelters. The barrel one, however, being the more practical and one that can beused almost anywhere where timber is scarce but where goods aretransported in barrels, deserves a place here among our shacks, shelters, and shanties. 

XXII

THE BARABARA

THE houses along the coast of the Bering Sea are called barabaras, but theones that we are going to build now are in form almost identical with thePawnee hogan (Figs. 42 and 43), the real difference being in the peculiarlog work of the barabara in place of the teepee-like rafters of the saidhogan. 

To build a barabara you will need eight short posts for the outside walland six or eight longer posts for the inside supports (Fig. 145). Theoutside posts should stand about three feet above the ground after theyhave been planted in the holes dug for the purpose. The top of the postsshould be cut wedge-shaped, as shown by Fig. 144, in order to fit in thenotch _B_ (Fig. 144). The cross logs, where they cross each other, shouldbe notched like those of a log cabin (Figs. 162 and 165) or flattened atthe points of contact. 

Plant your first four posts for the front of your barabara in a line, twoposts for the corners _B_ and _E_ (Fig. 145 _A_), and two at the middle ofthe line _C_ and _D_ for door-jambs (plan, Fig. 145 _A_). The tops ofthese posts should be level with each other so that if a straight log isplaced over them the log will lie level. Next plant the two side-posts _F_and _G_ (Fig. 145 _A_) at equal distances from the two front posts andmake them a few feet farther apart than are the front posts. The sketch ofthe framework is drawn in very steep perspective, that is, it is made asif the spectator was on a hill looking down upon it. It is drawn in thismanner so as to better show the construction, but the location of theposts may be seen in the small plan. Next set the two back posts, _H_ and_K_, and place them much closer together, so that the bottom frame whenthe rails are on the post will be very near the shape of a boy's hexagonalkite. 

Fig. 144. Fig. 145. Fig. 145A. Fig. 146. Fig. 147. Fig. 148. 

[Illustration: The details of a Barabara. ]

Inside erect another set of posts, setting each one opposite the outsideones and about a foot and a half or two feet farther in, or maybe lessdistance, according to the material one is using. Next set some posts forthe hallway or entrance, which will be the door-jambs, and you are readyto build up the log roof. Do this by first setting the rail securely onthe two side-posts on the right and left of the building; then secure theback plate on the two back posts at the rear of the building, next restinga long log over the side rails at the front of the building. Thedoor-posts, of course, must be enough taller than the two end posts toallow for the thickness of the log, so that the front log will rest upontheir top. Next put your two corner logs on, and your outside rail iscomplete. Build the inside rail in the same manner; then continue to buildup with the logs as shown in the diagram until you have a frame like thatin Fig. 145. Fig. 147 shows the inside of the house and the low doorway, and Fig. 148 shows the slanting walls. This frame is supposed to becovered with splits or shakes (Figs. 147 and 148), but, as in all pioneerstructures, if shakes, splits, and clapboards are unobtainable, use thematerial at hand--birch bark, spruce bark, tar paper, old tin roofing, tent-cloth, or sticks, brush, ferns, weeds, or round sticks, to cover itas you did with the Pawnee hogan (Figs. 42 and 43). Then cover it withbrowse, or thatch it with hay or straw and hold the thatch in place withpoles or sticks, as shown in Fig. 146. The barabara may also be coveredwith earth, sod, or mud. 

This sort of a house, if built with planks or boards nailed securely tothe rafters and covered with earth and sod, will make a splendid cavehouse for boys and a playhouse for children on the lawn, and it may becovered with green growing sod so as to have the appearance of anornamental mound. The instinct of the cave-dweller is deeply implanted inthe hearts of boys, and every year we have a list of fatal accidentscaused by the little fellows digging caves in sand-banks or banks ofgravel which frequently fall in and bury the little troglodytes, but theywill be safe in a barabara. The shack is ventilated by a chimney hole inthe roof as shown by Fig. 146. This hole should be protected in aplayhouse. The framework is a good one to use in all parts of the countryfor more or less permanent camps, but the long entrance and low doorwayare unnecessary except in a cold climate or to add to the mystery of thecave house for children. It is a good form for a dugout for a root houseor cyclone cellar. 

XXIII

THE NAVAJO HOGAN, HORNADAY DUGOUT, AND SOD HOUSE

IF the reader has ever built little log-cabin traps he knows just how tobuild a Navajo hogan or at least the particular Navajo hogan shown byFigs. 148 and 150. This one is six-sided and may be improved by notchingthe logs (Figs. 162, 164, 165) and building them up one on top of theother, dome-shaped, to the required height. After laying some rafters forthe roof and leaving a hole for the chimney the frame is complete. In hotcountries no chimney hole is left in the roof, because the people there donot build fires inside the house; they go indoors to keep cool and not toget warm; but the Navajo hogan also makes a good cold-country house inplaces where people really need a fire. Make the doorway by leaving anopening (Fig. 150) and chinking the logs along the opening to hold them inplace until the door-jamb is nailed or pegged to them, and then build ashed entranceway (Fig. 153), which is necessary because the slanting sidesof the house with an unroofed doorway have no protection against the freeentrance of dust and rain or snow, and every section of this country issubject to visits from one of these elements. The house is covered withbrush, browse, or sod. 

Log Dugout

Fig. 152 shows how to make a log dugout by building the walls of the logcabin in a level place dug for it in the bank. Among the log cabins proper(Figs. 162 and 166) we tell how to notch the logs for this purpose. 

Fig. 149. Fig. 150. Fig. 151. Fig. 152. Fig. 153. Fig. 154. 

[Illustration: Forms of dugouts and mound shacks. ]

Fig. 151 shows one of these log dugouts which I have named the Hornadayfrom the fact that Doctor William Hornaday happens to be sitting in frontof the one represented in the sketch. Fig. 154 shows a dugout with wallsmade of sod which is piled up like stones in a stone wall. The roofs ofall these are very flat and made of logs (Figs. 54, 55, and 56), oftenwith a log pegged to the rafters above the eaves to hold the sod. All suchhouses are good in dry countries, cold countries, and countries frequentedby tornadoes or by winds severe enough to blow down ordinary camps. 

The Navajo hogan is an easy sort of a house for boys to build because thelads may use small poles in place of logs with which to build the camp andthus make the labor light enough to suit their undeveloped muscles, butthe next illustration shows how to build an American boy's hogan of milledlumber such as one can procure in thickly settled parts of the country. 

XXIV

HOW TO BUILD AN AMERICAN BOY'S HOGAN

THE first time any working plans of an underground house for boys werepublished was when an article by the present writer on the subjectappeared in the _Ladies' Home Journal_. Afterward it was published with alot of similar material in "The Jack of All Trades. " Since then otherwriters have not hesitated to use the author's sketches with very littlealteration; imitation is the sincerest compliment, although it is notalways fair, but it does, however, show the popularity of theunderground-house idea. 

The American boy's hogan may be built like the preceding shacks of thematerial found in the woods or it may be constructed of old boards andwaste material to be found in village back yards or on the farm, or, ifthe boys have the price or if they can interest their fathers or uncles intheir scheme, it may be built of milled lumber procured at thelumber-yard. 

Frame

Procure some good, sound planks and some pieces of two by four with whichto build your frame. The hogan should be large enough to allow room for atable made of a packing-case, some benches, stools, or chairs, and theceilings should be high enough for the tallest boy to stand erect withoutbumping his head. 

Furniture

One funny thing about this house is that it must be furnished before it isbuilt, because the doorway and passageway will be too small to admit anyfurniture larger than a stool. Select or make your furniture and have itready, then decide upon the location of your hogan, which should be, likethe Western dugouts, on the edge of some bank (Fig. 158). In this diagramthe dotted line shows how the bank originally sloped. 

Foundation

The real hard work connected with this is the digging of the foundation;one Y. M. C. A. Man started to build one of these hogans, but he"weakened" before he had the foundation dug. He wrote the author a longletter complaining of the hard work; at the same time the author wasreceiving letters from _boys_ telling how much fun they had in buildingand finishing their underground houses. 

Caves

Ever since "Robinson Crusoe" and "Swiss Family Robinson" were written cavehouses have been particularly attractive to boys; no doubt they were justas attractive before these books were written, and that may be the reasonthe books themselves are so popular; at any rate, when the author was asmall boy he was always searching for natural caves, or trying to dig themfor himself, and so were all of his companions. One of the most charmingfeatures of the "Tom Sawyer" and "Huckleberry Finn" stories is that partconnected with the cave. 

Fig. 155. Fig. 156. Fig. 157. Fig. 157. A. Fig. 157. B. Fig. 157. C. 

Fig. 158. Fig. 159. Fig. 160. Fig. 161. 

[Illustration: The original American boy's hogan or underground house. ]

Dangerous Caves

The trouble is that with caves which the boys dig for themselves there isalways serious danger of the roof falling in and smothering the youngtroglodytes, but a properly built underground hogan is perfectly safe fromsuch accidents. 

Framing

After you have levelled off the foundation erect the rear posts oftwo-by-fours _A_, _B_ and _C_, _D_ (Fig. 156). These posts should be ofthe same height and tall enough to allow the roof to slant toward thefront as in Fig. 155. The front posts _E_, _F_ and _G_, _H_, althoughshorter than the back posts, should be tall enough to allow headroom. One, two, or three more posts may be erected between the post _A_, _B_ and thepost _C_, _D_ if additional strength is required. The same is true of thesides, and in place of having only one post in the middle of each side(_M_, _N_ and _O_, _P_, Fig. 156), there may be two or three posts, allaccording to the size of the house you are building; the main point is tomake _a compact and strong box_ of your framework so that in the wetweather the banks surrounding it will not be tempted to push in the sidesand spoil your house. 

Decaying Wood

Locust, chestnut, and cedar will last longer than other varieties of woodwhen exposed to contact with damp earth, but common wood, which rotseasily, may be protected by preservatives, one of which is boiledlinseed-oil with pulverized charcoal stirred into it until a black paintis produced. Some people say that a coat of charcoal paint will preserveeven a basswood fence post for a lifetime, and if that is true a hoganprotected by a coating upon the outside of paint made by stirring finecharcoal into boiled linseed-oil until it is as thick as paint will lastlonger than any of my readers will have occasion to use the hogan for aplayhouse. Erect the frame (Fig. 156) by having some boys hold theuprights in place until they can be secured with temporary braces likethose shown running diagonally across from _B_ to _E_ and _A_ to _F_. Youmay then proceed to board up the sides from the outside of the frame byslipping the planks between the frame and the bank and then nailing fromthe inside wherever you lack room upon the outside to swing your hammer. The door-jambs _I_, _J_ and _K_, _L_ will help support the roof. 

The Roof

The roof may be made of lumber, as shown by Fig. 160, or it may be made ofpoles like those shown on the Wyoming Olebo (Fig. 236), or it may be madeof planks and covered with tar paper (Figs. 296, 297, 298, and 299), or itmay be shingled, using barrel staves for shingles, or covered with bits ofold tin roofing tacked over the planking--or anything, in fact, which willkeep out the water. As for looks, that will not count because the roof isto be afterward covered with sod. 

Cliff-House Roof

If you wish to make the roof as the cliff-dwellers made theirs, put yourbiggest logs crosswise from _A_, _M_, _E_ to _C_, _O_, _G_ of your housefor rafters, and across the larger logs lay a lot of small poles as closetogether as may be, running from the back to the front of the house. Fillin the cracks between with moss or calk them with dry grass; on themplace a layer of brush, browse, or small sticks and over this a thickcoating of clay, hard-pan, or ordinary mud and pack it down hard bytramping it with your feet until it becomes a smooth and tightly packedcrust; over this you can put your sod and weeds to conceal your secret. 

Passageway

To make the frame for the underground hall or passageway (Fig. 156), firstnail _Q_, _S_ across the door-jambs to form the top to the doorway, afterwhich put in the supports _Q_, _R_ and _S_, _T_. Next build the frame _U_, _V_, _X_, _W_ and join it to _Q_, _S_ by the two pieces _Q_, _U_ and _S_, _V_ and put in the middle frame support marked _ZZZZ_. 

The passageway should be about six feet long and the front doorway (_U_, _V_, _X_, _W_, Figs. 156 and 157) of sufficient size to enable you tocreep through with comfort. The bottom piece _W_, _X_ can be nailed to acouple of sticks driven in the ground for that purpose. The next thing inorder is the floor, and to make this firm you must lay a number oftwo-by-fours parallel to _B_, _D_ and _F_, _H_ and see that they arelevel. You will need a number of shorter pieces of the same material torun parallel to _F_, _H_ and _W_, _X_ for the hall floor, as may be seenin Fig. 157. Across these nail your floor securely as shown in Fig. 155. 

There are no windows shown in the diagram, but if the builders wish one itcan be placed immediately over the entrance or hallway in the frame marked_I_, _K_, _Q_, _S_ (Fig. 156), in which case the top covering of dirt mustbe shovelled away from it to admit the light in the same manner that it isin the dugout shown in Fig. 142 and also in the small sketch (Fig. 154). The ventilator shown in Fig. 155 may be replaced, if thought desirable, bya chimney for an open fire. On account of the need of ventilation a stovewould not be the proper thing for an underground house, but an open firewould help the ventilation. In the diagram the ventilator is set over asquare hole in the roof; it may be made of a barrel or barrels, with theheads knocked out, placed over the hole in the roof, or kegs, according tothe size of the roof. When your house is complete fill in the dirt aroundthe edges, pack it down good and hard by the use of a piece of scantlingtwo by four or four by four as a rammer, then cover the roof with smallsticks and fine brush and sod it with growing weeds or grass. 

The Door

You should have a good, stout front door (Fig. 157) and a padlock withwhich to secure it from trespassers. 

Aures Hinge

A rustic hinge may be made by splitting a forked branch (Fig. 157 _C_) andusing the two pieces nailed to the sides of the door-jambs (Fig. 157 _A_)to hold the round ends of the rod (Fig. 157 _B_) run through them. Themiddle of the _B_ stick is flattened to fit on the surface of the door towhich it is nailed. This hinge was invented by Scout Victor Aures ofstockade 41144 of Boy Pioneers of America and a description with neatdiagrams sent by the inventor to his chief. When all is completed you canconceal the ventilator with dry brush or by planting weeds or shrubsaround it, which will not interfere with the ventilation but will concealthe suspicious-looking pipe protruding from the ground. The top of theventilator should be protected by slats, as in Fig. 161, or by wirenetting with about one-quarter-inch mesh in order to keep small animalsfrom jumping or hopping down into your club-house. Of course, a few toadsand frogs, field-mice and chipmunks, or even some lizards and harmlesssnakes would not frighten any real boy, but at the same time they do notwant any such creatures living in the same house with them. 

Trap-Door

In place of a ventilator or chimney a trap-door may be placed in the roofand used as a secret entrance, access to inside being had by a ladder. Adescription of an appropriate ladder follows (Figs. 169 and 170). 

Fig. 159 shows a rude way to make a chandelier, and as long as yourcandles burn brightly you may know that the air in your little hogan ispure and fresh. When such a chandelier is used pieces of tin should benailed above the candles to prevent the heat from burning holes throughthe roof. 

XXV

HOW TO CUT AND NOTCH LOGS

BOYS you have now passed through the _grammar school_ of shack making, youare older than you were when you began, you have acquired more skill andmore muscle, and it is time to begin to handle the woodsman's axe, tohandle it skilfully and to use it as a tool with which to fashion anythingfrom a table to a two-story house. None of you is too young to learn touse the axe. General Grant, George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, BillySunday--all of them could wield an axe by the time they were eight or nineyears old and do it without chopping off their toes or splitting any oneelse's head open. Remember that every time you hurt yourself with an axe Ihave a yellow ribbon for you to wear as a "chump mark"; but, joking aside, we must now get down to serious work of preparing the logs in order tobuild us a little cabin of our own, a log club-house for our gang, or alog camp for our troop of scouts. 

Notching Logs

To make the logs hold together at the corners of our cabins it isnecessary to lock them in some manner, and the usual way is to notch them. You may cut flat notches like those shown in Fig. 162 and this will holdthe logs together, as shown by 162 _E_ or you may only flatten the ends, making the General Putnam joint shown in Fig. 163. This is called afterGeneral Putnam because the log cabins at his old camp near my farm atRedding, Conn. , are made in this manner. Or you may use the Pike notchwhich has a wedge-shaped cut on the lower log, as shown by Fig. 164 _J_, made to fit into a triangular notch shown by 164 _H_. When fitted togetherthese logs look like the sketch marked 164 _F_ which was drawn from acabin built in this manner. 

But the simplest notch is the rounded one shown by _A_, _B_, and _C_ (Fig. 165). When these are locked together they will fit like those shown atFig. 165 _D_. 

Away up North the people dovetail the ends of the logs (Fig. 166) so thattheir ends fit snugly together and are also securely locked by theirdovetail shape. To build a log house, place the two sill logs on theground or on the foundation made for them, then two other logs acrossthem, as shown in Fig. 168. 

Handling the Logs

That the logs may be more easily handled they should be piled up on askidway which is made by resting the top ends of a number of poles upon abig log or some other sort of elevation and their lower ends upon theground. With this arrangement the logs may be rolled off without muchtrouble as they are used. 

Chinking

A log cabin built with hardwood logs or with pitch-pine logs can seldom bemade as tight as one built with the straight spruce logs of the virginforests. The latter will lie as close as the ones shown in Fig. 162 _E_, while the former, on account of their unevenness, will have large cracksbetween them like those shown in Fig. 165 _D_. These cracks may be stoppedup by quartering small pieces of timber (_Y_ and _W_, Fig. 168½) andfitting these quartered pieces into the cracks between the logs where theyare held by spikes. This is called "chinking the cabin. "

Fig. 162. Fig. 162E Fig. 163. Fig. 164. Fig. 164F. Fig. 165. 

Fig. 165C. Fig. 165D. Fig. 166. Fig. 167. Fig. 168. Fig. 168½. 

[Illustration: Showing how the logs are notched. ]

To keep the cold and wind out, the cracks may be "mudded" up on the insidewith clay or ordinary lime mortar. 

Models

Study these diagrams carefully, then sit down on the ground with a pile oflittle sticks alongside of you and a sharp jack-knife in your hand andproceed to experiment by building miniature log cabins. Really, this isthe best way to plan a large cabin if you intend to erect one. From yourmodel you can see at a glance just how to divide your cabin up into rooms, where you want to place the fireplace, windows, and doors; and I wouldadvise you always to make a small model before building. Make the modelabout one foot three inches long by ten inches wide, using sticks for logsa little less than one inch in diameter--that is, one inch through or oneinch thick. I have taken these dimensions or measurements from a littlemodel that I have before me here in my studio, but, of course, you canvary them according to the plans of your cabin. 

XXVI

NOTCHED LOG LADDERS

EVER since man learned to use edged tools he has made ladders or steps, orwhatever you may call them, by notching logs (Figs. 169 and 170). 

Fig. 169. Fig. 170. 

[Illustration: The pioneer log ladder. ]

A few years ago I took a splendid trip among the unnamed lakes and in whatis known as "the unexplored country"--that is, the unmapped country ofnorthwestern Quebec. We travelled over trails that had not been changed byman since canoes were invented. The forests were untouched by the axe ofthe white man. There were no roads, no houses, no fences, no people excepta few wandering Indians, no cattle except caribou and moose, no dogsexcept wolves, and we slept at night on beds of balsam and paddled by daythrough rivers and lakes or carried our luggage and our canoes over theportages from one body of water to another over centuries-old trails. Atone place the trail led up the side of a mountain to the beetling face ofa cliff--a cliff that we had to climb with all our canoes and luggage, andwe climbed it on a couple of notched logs, as shown in Fig. 169. By theway, boys, the Indian with the big load on his back is my old friendBow-Arrow, formerly chief of the Montainais, and the load on his back wassketched from the real one he carried up that ladder portage. This old manwas then sixty years of age. But all this talk is for the purpose oftelling you the use of the notched log. Our pioneer ancestors used them toascend to the loft over their cabins where they slept (Fig. 170). It isalso a good ladder to use for tree-houses and a first-rate one for ourunderground hogans when we have an entrance through the top instead of oneat the side shown by Fig. 156. Since you have learned how to use the axeyou may make one of these primitive ladders to reach the hay-loft in yourbarn, if you have a barn. You may make the ladder of one log if you setthe pole or log upright and notch it on both sides so that you can claspit with your hand and, placing one foot on each side of it, climb up inthat manner. 

XXVII

A POLE HOUSE. HOW TO USE A CROSS-CUT SAW AND A FROE

Pole House

FIG. 171 shows a pole house--that is, a house, the walls of which are madeby setting straight poles up on end with sides against each other andnailing a beam across the top (Fig. 172) and toe-nailing them (Fig. 173);that is, driving the nails slantingly down through the poles to the sillbeneath. Fig. 172 shows how to nail them to the top beam or side-plate. Tobuild a pole house, erect the four corner-posts and any intermediate postswhich may be necessary, nailing the plates on top of the posts to hold theframe together (Fig. 172), afterward fitting the other posts in place, asshown in the sketch. 

We have not yet arrived at the part of the book where we can build asextensive houses as the one shown here. The drawing is only inserted atthis place because it naturally comes with the use of the cross-cut saw. You can, however, without much trouble, build a small pole house withoutthe veranda, and after you have learned how to build the big log housesyou can turn back to this page and try a pole house like Fig. 171. 

Fig. 171. Fig. 172. Fig. 173. Fig. 174. Fig. 175. Fig. 176. Fig. 177. Fig. 178. Fig. 179. 

[Illustration: The use of the saw in log work. ]

Sawing on an Angle

Fig. 174 shows how to saw off poles on the bias, as a woman would say, oron an angle, as a man would say. Suppose, for instance, you want to cutthe poles to fit the dormer over the veranda shown in Fig. 171. Measureoff the height of the middle pole, then the distance along the base fromthe middle pole to the corner at the eaves. Next fit the poles you aregoing to use closely together to cover that distance; hold them in placeby nailing a plank temporarily across the bottom ends; then place anotherplank at the point marked for the height of the middle pole, run it downto the bottom plank, and nail it temporarily along this line. Now takehold of one end of the saw, as the fellow does in Fig. 174, and letanother boy take the other end of the saw; then by working it back andforth along the line you may saw off the protruding ends of the poles. Proceed in the same manner along the base-board. You will then have halfthe dormer poles all nicely tacked together and cut in the right shape sothat they may be evenly fitted in place, and after they are secured therethe marking planks may be knocked off. Fig. 175 shows two boys at work"pit-sawing. " They are sawing planks from a log, which is rather hard workbut not unpleasant. I know, for I have tried it when I was up among themoonshiners in the mountains of Kentucky. Fig. 176 is from a sketch I madeup in Michigan, where two men were sawing down a tree as they frequentlydo nowadays in place of chopping it down with an axe; this tree, however, was first notched with an axe so that it would fall in the rightdirection. Fig. 178 shows the peculiar teeth of one of these two-handledsaws. It is not necessary for you to be expert on the sort of teeth a sawshould have; any saw that cuts well for your purpose is the sort of sawyou need. 

The Froe

Fig. 179 shows two forms of the froe, an implement used for splittingshakes and shingles and clapboards like those on the roof of Fig. 171. Thefroe is held by the handle with the left hand and hammered on the top witha mallet held in the right hand. Fig. 177 shows two boys sawing a log upinto sections, but for our work in cabin building the woodsman's axe isthe real tool we need. The saw is all right and may be used if you haveit, but it is a little too civilized for real woodcraft work. You cannotthrow one of these saws over your shoulder as you would an axe and gomarching into the woods with any comfort. The saw is also a more dangerousimplement around camp than even a sharp axe. 

XXVIII

LOG-ROLLING AND OTHER BUILDING STUNTS

OF course my readers know all about geometry, but if by the rarest ofchances one of them should not it will not prevent him from using thatscience to square the corners of his log cabin. Builders always have aten-foot measuring rod--that is, a rod or straight stick ten feet long andmarked with a line at each foot from end to end. Make your own ten-footpole of as straight a piece of wood as you can find. With it measure sixfeet carefully on the log _C_, _G_ (Fig. 180) and mark the point at _O_(Fig. 180); measure eight feet on the other log _C_, _A_ (Fig. 180) andmark the point at _N_. If these measurements have been carefully made from_C_ to _O_ and from _C_ to _N_ and your corner is "square, " then yourten-foot pole will reach between the two points _O_ and _N_ with the tipsof the pole exactly touching _O_ and _N_. If it does not exactly fitbetween _N_ and _O_, either the corner is not square or you have notmarked off the distances accurately on the logs. Test the measurements andif they are not found true then push your logs one way or the other untilit is exactly ten feet from _O_ to _N_. Then test the corner at _H_ in thesame manner. 

Fig. 180. Fig. 181. Fig. 182. Fig. 183. 

[Illustration: How to square the corners, roll the logs of cabin, and makelog steps. ]

Log-Rolling

In the olden times log-rolling was always a great frolic and brought thepeople from far and near to lend a helping hand in building the new house. In handling logs, lumbermen have tools made for that purpose--cant-hooks, peevy irons, lannigans, and numerous other implements with names aspeculiar as their looks--but the old backwoodsmen and pioneers who livedin log houses owned no tools but their tomahawks, their axes, and theirrifles, and the logs of most of their houses were rolled in place by themen themselves pushing them up the skids laid against the cabin wall forthat purpose; later, when the peddlers and traders brought ropes to thesettlements, they used these to pull their logs in place. In building mylog house in Pennsylvania we used two methods; one was hand power (Fig. 181). Taking two ropes we fastened the ends securely inside the cabin. Wethen passed the free ends of the ropes around the log, first under it andthen over the top of it, then up to a group of men who, by pulling on thefree ends, rolled the log (Fig. 181) up to the top of the cabin. But whenLafe Jeems and Nate Tanner and Jimmy Rosencranz were supplied with someoxen they fastened a chain to each end of the log (Fig. 182), thenfastened a pulley-block to the other side of the cabin, that is, the sideopposite the skids, and ran the line through the pulley-block to the oxenas it is run to the three men in Fig. 182. When the oxen were started thelog slid up the skids to the loose rafters _N_, _O_, _P_ and when once upthere it was easily shoved and fitted into place. 

Log Steps

Sometimes one wants front steps to one's log house and these may be madeof flattened logs or puncheons, as shown by Fig. 183. 

XXIX

THE ADIRONDACK OPEN LOG CAMP AND A ONE-ROOM CABIN

Adirondack Log Camp

NOT satisfied with the open brush Adirondack camp, the men in those woodsoften build such camps of logs with a puncheon floor and a roof of realshingles. The sketch (Fig. 184) is made from such a camp. At the rear thelogs are notched and placed like those of a log house (Figs. 162, 163, 164, 166), but the front ends of the side logs are toe-nailed (Fig. 173)to the two upright supports. In this particular camp the logs are alsoflattened on the inside in order to give a smoother finish, as they oftenare in old Virginia and Kentucky log houses. In Virginia they formerlyhewed the logs flat with broad axes after the walls were up, but thatrequired a workman of a different type than the ordinary woodsman. Thebroadaxe is seldom used now and may be omitted from our kit. 

Cabin Plan

A one-room log cabin with double bunks at one end makes a good camp (Fig. 185) with room for two or four sleepers according to the width of the bunk(Fig. 186). 

Fig. 184. Fig. 185. Fig. 186. 

[Illustration: The lean-to and one-pen cabin plan. ]

The Bunks

The bunks are made by setting the ends of two poles into holes in the logsbored for that purpose (Fig. 185) and nailing slats across the poles. Overthis a bed of browse is laid and on this blankets are spread and all isthen ready for bedtime. 

XXX

THE NORTHLAND TILT AND INDIAN LOG TENT

Log Tents

SOME years ago in the north country the Indians built themselves log tentslike the one shown in Fig. 187. These were the winter houses in the northcountry. A ridge-pole was set up on two forked sticks and the logs slantedup against each other and rested upon that pole. Smaller poles were thenlaid up against this frame, both front and rear, all of which could thenbe covered with sod or browse and made into a warm winter house. My boyreaders may build a similar house by using small poles instead of biglogs, or they may make a "northland tilt" (Fig. 189), which is amodification of the Indian's log tent and has two side-plates (Fig. 188)instead of one ridge-pole. The log chimney is also added, and when this isconnected with a generous fireplace the fire will brighten and warm theinterior of the tilt and make things comfortable. The chimney may be madeby first building a fireplace of sod or stone, as shown in Figs. 269 and270, on top of which a chimney can be erected in the same manner that youbuild a log house. 

Fig. 187. Fig. 188. Fig. 189. 

[Illustration: Log tilts of the North. ]

The front of the northland tilt is faced in with small logs set on end, asshown in the unfinished one (Fig. 189); this makes a substantial, warmwinter camp. If the logs fit close together on the roof they may be calkedwith moss and dry grass. If the cracks are too wide on account of theunevenness of the log, cover them first with grass, fine brush, or browseand over all place a coating of sod or mud and you will have a house fitfor a king to live in. To tell the truth, it is much too good for a mereking and almost good enough for a real American boy--that is, if anythingis good enough for such a lad. 

CHAPTER XXXI

HOW TO BUILD THE RED JACKET, THE NEW BRUNSWICK, AND THE CHRISTOPHER GIST

THE "Red Jacket" is another camp; but this, you see, has straight walls, marking it as _a white man's camp_ in form not apparently borrowed fromthe red men. It is, however, a good, comfortable, rough camp and Figs. 190and 191 show how it was evolved or grew. To build the Red Jacket one willfirst have to know how to build the more simple forms which we call theNew Brunswick, then the next step will be the Christopher Gist, and lastthe Red Jacket. We will now begin with the New Brunswick. 

The New Brunswick

By referring to Fig. 190 you will see that it is practically a deep, Adirondack, open-face camp with a wind-shield built in front of it. Tobuild this camp, make the plan about six feet by twelve on the ground; ofcourse the back logs must be something over six feet long to allow for sixfeet in the clear. Notch about four or five back logs with the plain, rounded notch already described and illustrated by Fig. 165. Then lay theside sill logs and erect two upright forked sticks for the front of yourcabin to hold the cross stick which supports the roof rafter. Now build upyour cabin as you would a log house, notching only the small ends of theside logs and saving the larger ends for the front; between each of thesechink with other logs shaped to fit the spaces or with pieces of otherlogs so as to make the front higher than the rear. When the logs meet therafter pole all the cracks are chinked up with small pieces of wood andthe crevices calked with moss. Then the roof of bark is put on, shingledas described for the Pontiac, and illustrated by Figs. 36 and 190 _A_. Thebark is kept in place by laying sticks or poles over it to weight it down, as may be seen by the plan of the roof (Fig. 190 _A_), which is supposedto be the way the unfinished roof would look to you if you were lookingdown upon it from the branch of a tree or an aeroplane. After you haveyour open-faced camp finished take some green logs from the fir-trees ifthey are handy and split them in half by one of the methods shown by Fig. 119. Then leaving enough room for a passageway, erect your wind-shield ofgreen logs, resting them against a pole laid between two forked sticks. Besure you have the green, split side of the log facing the camp and thebark side facing outdoors, because the green wood will not burn readily;and as the camp-fire is built close to the wind-shield, if the shield ismade of very inflammable material it will soon burn down. Some woods, youknow, burn well when green and some woods must be made dry before we canuse them for fuel; but the wood we want for the fire-shield is the sortthat will not burn readily; the good-burning woods we save to use in ourfire. 

Christopher Gist

The next camp is the Christopher Gist, named after George Washington'scamping friend. This camp, as you may see by Fig. 191, is built like a NewBrunswick except that the side sill logs are much longer as is also thelog which extends over the doorway. Then, in place of having a wind-shieldbuilt by itself, the wind-shield in Fig. 191 is the other end of the cabinbuilt just the same as the rear end, but it should be built of peeled logsas they are less liable to catch afire than the ones with the bark uponthem. If you feel real lazy it will only be necessary to peel the bark offfrom the inside half of the log. Above the door at the end of the roof ofthe Adirondack camp part of the space is filled by logs running across, with the lower one resting upon the top of the door-jamb; this closes theshed above the wind-shield and leaves a little open yard in front whereinto build your camp-fire. 

Fig. 190. Fig. 190A. Fig. 191. Fig. 192. 

[Illustration: The stages in the evolution of a log cabin. ]

The Red Jacket

The Red Jacket continues the suggestion offered by the Christopher Gistand extends the side walls all the way across to the wind-shield, and thelatter now becomes the true end of the log shack. The side walls and endwall are built up from the top of the shack to form a big, wide logchimney under which the open camp-fire is built on the ground. The RedJacket is roofed with bark in the same manner as the New Brunswick andChristopher Gist and occupies the important position of the missing linkbetween the true log cabin or log house and the rude log camp of thehunter. If you will look at Fig. 184, the open-faced log camp; then Fig. 190, the camp with the wind-shield in front of it; then Fig. 191 with thewind-shield enclosed but still open at the top; then 192 where thewind-shield has turned into a fireplace with a chimney; then Figs. 271 and273, showing the ends of the real log cabin, you will have all the stepsin the growth or evolution which has produced the American log house. 

XXXII

CABIN DOORS AND DOOR-LATCHES, THUMB-LATCHES AND FOOT LATCHES AND HOW TOMAKE THEM

PERHAPS my reader has noticed that, although many of the descriptions ofhow to build the shacks, shanties, shelters, camps, sheds, tilts, and soforth are given with somewhat minute details, little or nothing has beensaid regarding the doors and door-latches. Of course we have no doors onthe open Adirondack camp, but we have passed the open camps now and arewell into cabin work, and all cabins have some sort of a door. All doorshave, or should have, some sort of a door-latch, so the doors anddoor-latches have been saved for this place in the book, where they aresandwiched between the log cabin and the log houses proper, which isprobably the best place for them. The "gummers" who collect spruce gum inthe north woods and the trappers and all of the hermit class of woodsmenfrequently come home to their little shack with their hands full of trapsor with game on their shoulders, and consequently they want to have a doorwhich may be opened without the necessity of dropping their load, and sothey use a foot latch. 

Foot Latch

One of the simplest of the foot latches consists of a piece of wood cutout by the aid of axe and hunting-knife to the form shown by Fig. 199; ahole in the door cut for that purpose admits the flattened and notchedend and upon the inside it fits the round log sill. The owner of theshack, when reaching home, steps upon the foot latch (Fig. 199), whichlifts up the catch (on the inside) and allows the door to swing open. 

Trigger Latch

Fig. 200 shows a more complicated form of latch with a trigger protrudingfrom the lower part of the door, which is hinged to a wooden shaft, andthe shaft in turn is connected with the latch. The fastenings of thetrigger to the shaft and the shaft to the latch are made with hardwoodpegs or wire nails which move freely in their sockets. The latch is thesimplest form of a wooden bar fastened at one end with a screw or nail onwhich it can move up and down freely; the other end is allowed to dropinto the catch. The latch itself is similar to the one shown in Figs. 193and 194. The trigger is also fastened to a block on the outside of thedoor by a nail or peg upon which it moves freely, so that when the weightof the foot is placed upon the trigger outside the door that end is forceddown which pushed the end attached to the shaft up; this pushes the shaftup and the shaft pushes _the latch up_; thus the door is unfastened. Thediagram to the left in Fig. 200 shows the edge of the door with thetrigger on the outside, the shaft upon the inside. The diagram to theright in Fig. 200 shows the inside of the door, the end of the trigger, the shaft, the latch, and the catch. 

The Latch-String

In the preceding locks and fastenings, no matter how generous andhospitable the owner may be, his latch-string never "hangs on theoutside, " but in this one the latch-string literally hangs outside and anyone may enter by pulling it (Figs. 193 and 194). But when the owner is inand does not want to be interrupted he pulls the string in, which tellsthe outsider that he must knock before he can be admitted. This simplestform of latch has been here put upon the simplest form of a door, a doorwith a wooden hinge made by nailing a round rod to the edge of the doorand allowing the ends of the rod to project above and below the door. Inthe sill log below the door a hole about two inches deep is bored toreceive the short end of the hinge rod; above a deeper hole is bored toreceive the long end of the hinge rod. To hang the door run the long endup in the top hole far enough to lift the door sufficiently to be able todrop the lower end of the hinge rod in the lower hole. Your door is thenhung and may swing back and forth at your pleasure. Notwithstanding thefact that such a door admits plenty of cold air, it is a very popular doorfor camps and is even used for log houses. 

Fig. 193. Fig. 194. Fig. 195. Fig. 196. Fig. 197. Fig. 198. 

Fig. 199. Fig. 200. 

[Illustration: Foot and thumb door-latches. ]

Simple Spring-Latch

A simple form of spring-latch is shown by Fig. 196, as you may see, _A_ isa peg driven into the door-jamb. It has a notch in it's outer end so that_B_, a piece of hickory, may be sprung into the notch; _B_ is fastened tothe door by a couple of screws. By pushing the door the latch will slideout of the rounded notch and the door opens. When you pull the door toclose it the end of the spring strikes the rounded end of the _A_ peg and, sliding over it, drops naturally into the slot and holds the door closed. This form of latch is also a good one for gates. 

Better Spring-Latch

Figs. 197 and 198 show more complicated spring-latches but this latch isnot so difficult to make as it may appear in the diagram. _A_ and _D_(197) show, respectively, the wooden catch and the guard confining thelatch. _C_ is another guard made, as you may observe, from a twig with abranch upon it; the twig is split in half and fastened at the base withtwo screws, and at the upper end, where the branch is bent down, isfastened with one screw. A guard like the one shown by _D_ (Fig. 197)would answer the purpose, but I am taking the latch as it was made. Thelower diagram (Fig. 198) shows a side view of the edge of the door withtwo cotton spools fastened at each end of the stick which runs through aslot in the door. _E_ is the cotton spool on the outside of the door and_F_ the cotton spool on the inside of the door. The upper left-handdiagram (Fig. 198) shows the slot in the door and the spool as it appearsfrom the outside. _B_ (Fig. 197) is the spring-latch which is held inplace by the spool _F_. The stick or peg which runs through the spools andthe slot also runs through a hole made for that purpose in thespring-latch, as shown at _F_ (Fig. 197). After the stick with the _E_spool on it has been run through the slot from the outside of the door, thence through the spring-latch _B_ and into the spool _F_, it is fastenedthere by driving around its end some thin wedges of wood or by allowing itto protrude and running a small peg through the protruding end, as shownby _F_, _G_ (Fig. 197, lower diagram). The thin, springy end of your latchis now forced down by a peg or nail in the door at _H_ (Fig. 197) and thetail end of it forced up by a peg or nail at _K_. When this is doneproperly it will give considerable spring to the latch and impart adecided tendency to force the latch into the wooden catch, a tendencywhich can only be overcome by lifting the spool up in the slot and thuslifting the latch and allowing the door to open. Fig. 197 shows the insideof the door with the spring-latch, catches and all complete; it also givesdetails of the wooden catch _A_ with guards _D_ and _C_ and the fasteningof the stick in the spool by a peg driven through the end of the stick at_F_, _G_. This last one is a good jack-knife latch to make for your campor cabin. 

XXXIII

SECRET LOCKS

SECRET locks are more useful than strong ones for a country house which isleft alone during the winter months, for it is not so much cupidity whichcauses such houses to be broken into as it is the curiosity of the nativeboys. But while these lads often do not hesitate to force or pick a lockthey will seldom go as far as to smash a door to effect an entrance;hence, if your lock is concealed your house is safe from all butprofessional thieves, and such gentry seldom waste their time to breakopen a shack which contains nothing of value to them. The latches shown byFigs. 193, 200, and 201 may be made very heavy and strong, and if thetrigger in Fig. 200, the latch-string hole in Fig. 193, and the peg holein Fig. 201 are adroitly concealed they make the safest and most securelocks for summer camps, shacks, and houses. 

If a large bar (Fig. 201½ _B_) be made of one-by-four-inch plank, boltedin the middle of the plank with an iron bolt through the centre of thedoor and fastened on the inside by a nut screwed on to the bolt it willallow the bar to revolve freely on the inside of the door and bar the doorwhen resting in the _A_ and _C_ catches. But if a string is attached toone end it may be unfastened by pulling the string up through the gimlethole in the door. 

To conceal this lock, draw the string through the gimlet hole and fasten anail on the string. When it is undrawn the door bar is horizontal and thedoor consequently barred. Then push the nail in the gimlet hole so thatonly the head appears on the outside and no one not in the secret willever suppose that the innocent-appearing nail is the key to unfasten thedoor. When you wish to open the door from the outside, pluck out the nail, pull the string, and walk in. 

There are a thousand other simple contrivances which will suggestthemselves to the camper, and he can find entertainment for rainy days inplanning and enlarging on the ideas here given. In the real wilderness, however, every camp is open to all comers--that is, the latch-string hangsoutside the door, but the real woodsmen respect the hospitality of theabsent owner and replace whatever food they may use with fresh materialfrom their own packs, wash all dishes they may use, and sweep up and leavethe shack in "apple-pie" order after their uninvited visit, for this isthe law of the wilderness which even horse thieves and bandits respect. 

The Tippecanoe

The Tippecanoe latch is worked with a wooden spring and when properlymade, of well-seasoned wood, will probably outlast a metal one, for woodwill not rust and cannot rot unless subjected to moisture. 

The position of the spring in Fig. 201 shows the latch with the boltsprung back. The fact that the bolt-hole in the catch is empty also tellsthe same story. The drawing of the outside of the door (Fig. 203) shows bythe position of the peg that the door is fastened. To open the door, pushback the bolt by sliding the peg to the opposite end of the slot. From aview of the edge of the door (Fig. 202) one may see how the peg protrudeson the outside of the door. 

Fig. 201. Fig. 201½. Fig. 202. Fig. 203. 

[Illustration: The Tippecanoe. A jack door-latch. ]

Although the Tippecanoe latch is made of quite a number of parts, it isreally a very simple device, but in order to display the simplicity of itsconstruction to the ambitious jack-knife latch maker I have drawn all theparts but the spring stick natural size (Figs. 204 to 207), but since theoriginal diagram is drawn too large for this page and was reduced by theengraver there is a scale of inches at the bottom to give the reader theproportions. 

There are no fixed dimensions for this or any other lock, latch, or catch, but the proportions here given are probably the ones that will fit yourdoor. The foundation block is shown by Fig. 204. Upon this the latch restsand is securely nailed or screwed to the door. Figs. 205 and 206 are twowooden clamps which are fastened to the door and also to the foundationblock (Fig. 204). These clamps must be notched as in the diagrams to allowfor the movement of the bolt, but since the bolt (Fig. 207) is larger andthicker at the butt the notch in Fig. 205 is made just a trifle largerthan the butt end of the bolt and in Fig. 206 the notch is made a triflesmaller than the opposite end of the bolt. The object of the offset on thebolt (Fig. 207) forward of the peg is to make a shoulder to stop it fromshooting too far when the spring is loosened. 

Fig. 204. Fig. 204½. Fig. 205. Fig. 206. Fig. 207. 

[Illustration: Detail parts of Tippecanoe door-latch. ]

The Catch

Figs. 201 and 204½ show the catch which is to be securely fastened to thedoor-jamb. The spring, of course, must be made of well-seasoned, elasticwood. Hickory is the best. This stick may be quite long, say half again aslong in proportion as the one shown in Fig. 201. It must be flattened atthe upper end and secured by two nails and it must be flattened at rightangles to the upper part and somewhat pointed at the lower end so as tofit in a notch in the bolt (Fig. 201). A well-made lock of this sort is asource of constant joy and pride to the maker and he will never tire ofspringing it back and forth and extolling its virtues to his guests. 

XXXIV

HOW TO MAKE THE BOW-ARROW CABIN DOOR AND LATCH AND THE DEMING TWIN BOLTS, HALL, AND BILLY

FIG. 209 shows the inside of the door with the wooden latch in place. Youmay use planks from the sawmill for the door in place of splitting themfrom spruce logs, as the ones here are supposed to be. 

The battens (_A_, _B_, _C_) are made of birch, but you may use anymaterial at hand for them. The hinges (Figs. _E_, 211 _D_, 210) are madeof birch sticks whittled off at the top so as to leave a peg (Fig. _E_, 211) to work in a hole in the flattened end of the horizontal battens (_A_and _C_, Fig. 209). 

The batten _B_ is in two pieces. The top piece serves as a brace for thespring (Fig. _G_, 209) and the bottom piece as a support for the bolt(Fig. _H_, 209 and 212). The battens may be made of a piece of board. Thebolt (Fig. _H_, 212) works free upon a nail in the left-hand end and restsin the catch (Fig. _K_, 215) on the door-jamb. 

The guard (Fig. _J_, 216) fits over the bolt and keeps it in place. Thenotch in the guard must be long enough to give the bolt free play up anddown. 

The spring (Fig. _G_, 209) is fastened with a nail to the door in such amanner that its thin end rests upon the top of the bolt with sufficientforce to bend the spring and hold the bolt down in the catch (Fig. _K_, 215). 

The thumb-latch (Fig. _L_, 213) is whittled out in the form shown, andfastened in a slot cut in the door by a nail driven through the edge ofthe door (Fig. _M_, 213) and through a hole in the thumb-latch (Fig. _L_, 213). On this nail the latch works up and down. 

Fig. 217 shows the outside of the door and you can see that by pressingdown the thumb-latch on the outside it will lift it up on the inside, andwith it the bolt lifts up the free end of the latch and thus unfastens thedoor. 

The handle (Figs. 217 and 214 _N_) is used in place of a door-knob. It ismade of yellow birch bent in hot water. 

The Deming Twin Lock

E. W. Deming, the painter of Indian pictures, the mighty hunter, andfellow member of the Camp-Fire Club of America, is a great woodsman. Notonly is he a great woodsman but he is the father of _twins_, and so wehave thought that he possesses all the characteristics necessary toentitle him to a place in this book, and after him and his twins we havenamed the twin bolts shown by Fig. 208. 

The lower or Hall bolt is shot into a hole in the door-sill, and the upperor Billy bolt is shot into a hole in the door-jamb above the door. Theholes should be protected upon the surface of the wood by pieces of tin orsheet iron with holes cut in them to admit the bolt. The tins may betacked over the bolt-hole in the sill for the Hall bolt and on thebolt-hole overhead for the Billy bolt, and it will prevent the splittingaway of the wood around the holes. 

Guards

Two guards, _A_ and _B_ (Fig. 208), made as in Fig. 216, protect the boltsand act as guides to keep them from swinging out of position; two springs_C_ and _D_ (Fig. 208), made of well-seasoned hickory and attached to thebattens on the door by nails or screws, force the bolts down and up intothe bolt-holes (Fig. 208). To release the bolts, the spring must be drawnback as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 208. This may be done by meansof a string or picture wire, which is fastened in the ends of the boltsand runs through a hole in the ends of the spring and is attached to thelever _E_ (Fig. 208). When the end of this lever is pushed down into theposition shown by the dotted line and arrow-point, it lifts up the Hallbolt at the bottom of the door and pulls down the Billy bolt overhead, thus unfastening the door. 

Fig. 208. Fig. 209. Fig. 210. Fig. 211. Fig. 212. Fig. 213. 

Fig. 214. Fig. 215. Fig. 216. Fig. 217. 

[Illustration: Jack-knife latches suitable for Canada and America. ]

But, of course, if one is outside the door one cannot reach the lever _E_;so, to overcome this difficulty, a hole is bored through the centralbatten of the door and the latch-string is tied to the top end of thelever and the other end is run through the hole bored in the door (Fig. 208). 

The end outside of the door is then tied to a nail; by pulling the nailyou pull down the lever _E_, which undoes the bolts and opens the door. 

When it is desired to leave the door locked, after it is closed, push thenail into the latch-string hole so that only the head will be visible fromthe outside. When the nail and string are arranged in this manner, astranger will see no means of opening the door, and, as there are manynail-heads in all rough doors, the one to which the latch-string isattached will not attract the attention of any one who is unacquaintedwith the Deming twin bolt. 

XXXV

THE AURES LOCK LATCH

THE Aures lock differs from the preceding ones in the use of metalsprings, but wooden ones may be substituted; for instance, a wooden springlike the one in Fig. 209 may be put under the bolt or latch shown in Fig. 219, which is practically the same latch; that is, if you turn the latchin Fig. 209 upside down it will make the latch shown in Fig. 219; also, ifyou take the bolt or lock _B_ in Fig. 219 and make it of one piece of woodwith a spring to it, like the one shown in Fig. 208 or Fig. 209, or makeit exactly like the one shown in Fig. 201, the Aures lock can be madealtogether of wood. But with this lock, as described below, metal springswere used (Figs. 219, 220, and 221). 

The Door

The door shows the two strings _H_ and _K_ coming through gimlet holesnear the top. Fig. 218 represents the outside of the door. The strings maybe concealed by covering their ends with a board as shown in this diagram, but even if they are not concealed, one unacquainted with the lock willnot know how to work them in order to open the door. 

_A_ in Figs. 219, 220, and 221 is the latch which is made of a piece ofwood about eight or nine inches long by about one and one half inches wideby an inch or three quarters of an inch thick. A hole is drilled near thecentre of the latch and a screw placed through which is screwed into thedoor so that the latch will extend about two or three inches beyond theend of the door. 

_D_ (Figs. 219, 220, and 221) is a catch or stop which is fastened to thedoor-jamb and keeps the end of the latch from flying too far up to lockthe door. 

_B_ (Fig. 219) is the key which is made of the same sort of wood as thelatch; a hole is drilled in this also but it is here placed about one inchfrom the top. A screw is run through this, as in the hole in the latch, and screwed into the door (Fig. 219). 

Fig. _C_, 219 is a small block of wood on which a steel-band spring hasbeen screwed to keep the key in its proper place. The block is screwed tothe door a short distance above the top of the key. 

Fig. _J_, 219 is a nail or peg placed in the door close beside the keywhen the key is vertical; this is intended to prevent the key from beingshoved over too far by the force of the band spring _F_. 

Fig. 219 _L_ is a steel wire spring (a window-shade spring will answer thepurpose), fastened to the door at one end and to the latch at the otherend, and serves to keep the latch down and in place when locked. 

Fig. 219 _K_ is the latch-string, one end of which is fastened to one endof the latch and the other end run through a hole near the top of the doorand extending outside the same as the latch-string (Fig. 218). 

Fig. 219 shows the positions of the latch and key when the latch islocked; to open the lock from the outside it is necessary to pull the keystring first (_H_, Fig. 220), which releases the key; then pull thelatch-string, thus lifting the latch while still holding the key string. The key string is now let go; the spring forcing the key into the positionshown in Fig. 221 will keep the door unlocked. 

When leaving the room, all that is necessary is to pull the key stringwhich lifts the key, then let go the latch-string, and the latch willspring back to its locked position and the key will also fly back into itsposition as in Fig. 219. Any one not knowing the combination will beunable to open the door. 

Fig. 218. Fig. 219. Fig. 220. Fig. 221. Fig. 222. Fig. 223. 

Fig. 224. Fig. 225. Fig. 226. Fig. 227. Fig. 228. 

[Illustration: Home-made cabin door-locks. ]

The Compass Lock

This lock is made on the same principle as the combination safe lock, butit is a lock any bright boy can make for himself. In the first place, instead of numbers, use compass divisions; that is, use a disk with thepoints of the compass scratched on it and an ordinary door-knob with anindex mark filed on its base, as shown by Fig. 224 where the finger ispointing. 

Hunt up three old door-knobs like those shown in Figs. 222, 224, and 225. When you take one of the door-knobs off one end of the shaft you will findseveral small screw holes in the steel shaft (Fig. 222). Over this end youset a block of hardwood which you fashion out of a square block (Fig. 223)by first cutting off the corners as shown by the dotted lines, thenwhittling the angles off until it becomes rounded like a compass face;after which saw off an arc, that is, part of a circle, as shown in Figs. 224, 226, and 227. Next make a square hole through the centre of thecircle to fit the square end of the steel shaft of the door-knob. Thesquare hole is not the centre of the block as it is now cut, but it is thecentre of the block as it was when it was round; that is, the centre ofthe circle. Insert the square end of the steel shaft into the square holein the block, and, through a hole carefully drilled for the purpose, put ascrew down through the hole in the end of the steel shaft (Fig. 224); thiswill firmly fix the block on the end of the knob. Of course, the knob mustbe inserted through the door before the block is permanently fastenedupon the end of the shaft. Fig. 225 shows the edge of the door with thethree knobs in place. If these knobs are so turned (Fig. 226) that theirflat edges are parallel with the crack of the door, there is nothing toprevent you from opening the door; but if the knobs are so turned (Fig. 227) that the blocks overlap the crack of the door, the door cannot beopened without breaking the lock. 

It is evident that we must have some sort of a mark to tell us how to makethe proper combination so that the door may be opened. To do this, takethe metal washer of the door-knob (the upper figure in Fig. 228) or acircular piece or disk of tin and divide it up like a compass (Fig. 228). Fasten these disks securely on to the door with nails or screws; place allof the disks with the north point pointing to the top of the door and inline with each other. File in the circular base of each door-knob (Fig. 224) a little notch at the black mark where the finger is pointing, thenput the door-knobs in place and fasten them there (Fig. 225) by screwingthe block on their ends (Fig. 224) and securing the screws in the blocksby running them through the shaft. Carefully turn the knobs so that theblock on the inside fits like those shown in Fig. 226. Jot down in yournotebook the position of the index on each knob (finger point, 224); onemay read northeast, another may read southwest, and another may readsouth. When one wants to open the door one must turn the knobs so thatthey will read according to the notes and the door may be opened; butunless the indexes read as noted some of them will be turned as in Fig. 227, locking the door, and it may not be opened. 

When the door is closed, twist the knobs around and it will lock them sothat no one else can open the door unless they know the combination. Thefact that there _is_ a combination will not be suggested to a stranger bythe compasses, although it might be suggested if there were figures inplace of compass points. But even supposing they did suspect a combinationit would take a long time for them to work it out, and no one would do itbut a thief. A burglar, however, would not take the time; he would pryopen the door with his "jimmy" and, as I have said before, these locks arefor the purpose of keeping out tramps, vagrants, and inquisitive boys. 

We have no locks yet invented which will keep out a real, professionalburglar if he has reason to suppose there are valuables inside. 

The safety of your log cabin depends principally upon the fact thatvaluables are not kept in such shacks, and real burglars know it. 

XXXVI

THE AMERICAN LOG CABIN

NOW that we know how to make doors and door-latches, locks, bolts, andbars, we may busy ourselves with building an American log cabin. It is allwell enough to build our shacks and shanties and camps of logs with thebark on them, but, when one wishes to build a log cabin, one wants a housethat will last. Abraham Lincoln's log cabin is still in existence, but itwas built of logs with no bark on them. There is a two-story log housestill standing in Dayton, O. ; it is said to have been built before thetown was there; but there is no bark on the logs. Bark holds moisture andmoisture creates decay by inviting fibrous and threadlike cousins of thetoadstool to grow on the damp wood and work their way into its substance. The bark also shelters all sorts of boring insects and the boring insectsmake holes through the logs which admit the rain and in the end causedecay, so that the first thing to remember is to peel the logs of whichyou propose to build the cabin. There is now, or was lately, a log cabinon Hempstead Plains, L. I. , near the road leading from Mineola toManhassett; it is supposed to have been built when the first whitesettlers began to arrive on Long Island, but this was what was known as a"blockhouse, " a small fort. In 1906 Mr. I. P. Sapington said: "I thinkthat I am the only man now living who helped build General Grant's logcabin. " Grant's house was what is popularly known in the South as a"saddle-bag" log house, or, as the old Southwestern settlers called it, a"two-pen, " the pens being two enclosures with a wide passageway or gallerybetween them, one roof extending over both pens and the gallery. 

General Grant was not afraid of work, and, like a good scout, was alwayswilling to help a neighbor. He had a team of big horses, a gray and a bay, and the loads of cord-wood he hauled to St. Louis were so big that theyare still talked of by the old settlers. In the summer of 1854 Grantstarted his log cabin, and all his neighbors turned in to help him buildhis house. 

American Log House

The American log house differs from the Canadian log house principally inthe shape of the roof. Our old settlers made steep gambrel roofs to shedthe rain. 

 "Gambrel! Gambrel? Let me beg You'll look at a horse's hinder leg; First great angle above the hoof, That's the gambrel, hence the gambrel roof. "

The Canadians put very flat roofs on their log cabins, usually composed oflogs laid over the rafters, making them strong enough to support the heavyweight of snow. The American log cabins, as a rule, are built in a milderclimate, and the flat sod roof is peculiar to our Northern boundary andthe hot, arid parts of our country. We build the chimneys outside of ourlog cabins because, as the old settlers would say, "thar's more room outthar" (see Figs. 271, 273). 

One-Pen Cabin

Fig. 229 is a one-pen cabin. To build it we first snake our logs to a skidnear the site of our proposed cabin (Fig. 167), from which we can roll ourlogs to our house as we need them. Lay out the corners and square them(Fig. 180); notch the logs with a rounded or U-shaped notch (Fig. 165). Remember that all the logs should be two or three feet longer than thewalls of the proposed building, but the notches must be the same distanceapart in order to make even walls. The protruding ends of the logs may beallowed to stick out as they happen to come, no matter how irregular theymay be, until the cabin is erected; then with a two-handed saw and a boyat each end they can be trimmed off evenly, thus giving a neat finish tothe house. 

Fig. 229. Fig. 230. Fig. 231. Fig. 232. Fig. 233. Fig. 234. 

[Illustration: Hints and suggestions in cabin construction. ]

Sills

The largest, straightest, and best logs should be saved for sills orfoundations. If you are building a "mudsill, " that is, a building upon theground itself, the sill logs will be subject to dampness which will causethem to rot unless they are protected by some wood preservative. 

Wood Preservative

If the logs are painted with two or three coats of creosote before theyare laid upon the ground, it will protect them for an indefinite time andprevent decay. Hugh P. Baker, dean of the New York State College ofForestry, writes me that--

 two or three applications of warm oil with a brush will be very helpful and will probably be all that the ordinary man can do. Creosote is the best preservative because of its penetrating power and the way it acts upon the fibres of wood, and in the end is cheaper than a good many other things which have been used to preserve timber. In fact, various forms of creosote are best-known preservers of organic matter. There is no advantage in using charcoal at all and I presume suggestions have been made for using it because we know that charred wood is more durable. Linseed-oil is good; ordinary white-lead paint will be better, but neither of them is as effective as creosote, and both are more expensive. You will find that carbolineum and other patent preparations are recommended very highly; they are good but expensive and the difference in price between these patent preparations and ordinary creosote is much larger than is justified by their increased value. Creosote can be procured in large or small quantities from a number of concerns. I think we have been getting it for about ten dollars per barrel of fifty or fifty-three gallons. 

Creosote

may be purchased in large or small quantities from various manufacturingcompanies, such as the Barret Manufacturing Company, 17 Battery Place, NewYork City, and the Chattfield Manufacturing Company, Carthage, O. , handleit in large quantities. 

Openings

Build the pen as if it were to have no openings, either doors, windows, orfireplaces. When you reach the point where the top of the door, window, orfireplace is to be (Fig. 229) saw out a section of the log to mark theplace and admit a saw when it is desired to finish the opening as shown inthe diagram and continue building until you have enough logs in place totack on cleats like those shown in Figs. 229, 230, and 231, after whichthe openings may be sawed out. The cleats will hold the ends of the logsin place until the boards _U_ (Fig. 232) for the door-jambs, window-frames, or the framework over the fireplace can be nailed to theends of the logs and thus hold them permanently in place. If your house isa "mudsill, " wet the floor until it becomes spongy, then with the buttend of a log ram the dirt down hard until you have an even, hardfloor--such a floor as some of the greatest men of this nation first creptover when they were babies. But if you want a board floor, you mustnecessarily have floor-joists; these are easily made of milled lumber oryou may use the rustic material of which your house is built and selectsome straight logs for your joists. Of course, these joists must have aneven top surface, which may be made by flattening the logs by scoring andhewing them as illustrated by Figs. 123, 124, and 125 and previouslydescribed. It will then be necessary to cut the ends of the joist squareand smaller than the rest of the log (Fig. _A_, 229); the square ends mustbe made to fit easily into the notches made in the sill logs (_B_, Fig. 229) so that they will all be even and ready for the flooring (_C_, Fig. 229). For a house ten feet wide the joists should be half a foot indiameter, that is, half a foot through from one side to the other; forlarger spans use larger logs for the joists. 

Foundation

If your house is not a "mudsill" you may rest your sill logs upon posts orstone piles; in either case, in the Northern States, they should extendthree feet below the ground, so as to be below frost-line and prevent theupheaval of the spring thaw from throwing your house "out of plumb. "

Roofing

All the old-time log cabins were roofed with shakes, splits, clapboards, or hand-rived shingles as already described and illustrated by Figs. 126, 128, 129, and 130; but to-day they are usually shingled with themachine-sawed shingle of commerce. You may, however, cover the roof withplanks as shown by Fig. 233 or with bark weighted down with poles asshown by Fig. 234. In covering it with board or plank nail the latter onas you would on a floor, then lay another course of boards over the crackswhich show between the boards on the first course. 

Gables

The gable ends of the cabin should be built up of logs with the rafters ofthe roof running between the logs as they are in Figs. 229 and 233, butthe roof may be built, as it frequently is nowadays, of mill lumber, inwhich case it may be framed as shown by Figs. 49, 51, and the gable endabove the logs filled in with upright poles as shown in Figs. 173 and 247, or planked up as shown in the Southern saddle-bag (Fig. 241), or the endsmay be boarded up and covered with tar paper as shown in Fig. 248, or thegable end may be shingled with ordinary shingles (Fig. 79). 

Steep Roof

Remember that the steeper the roof is the longer the shingles will last, because the water will run off readily and quickly on a steep surface andthe shingles have an opportunity to dry quickly; besides which the snowslides off a steep roof and the driving rains do not beat under theshingles. If you are using milled lumber for the roof, erect the raftersat the gable end first, with the ridge board as shown in Fig. 263 and ingreater detail in Fig. 49. Put the other rafters two or three feet apart. 

Let your roof overhang the walls by at least seven or eight inches so asto keep the drip from the rain free of the wall. It is much easier for thearchitect to draw a log house than it is for a builder to erect one, forthe simple reason that the draughtsman can make his logs as straight as hechooses, also that he can put the uneven places where they fit best; butexcept in well-forested countries the tree trunks do not grow as straightas the logs in my pictures and you must pick out the logs which will fittogether. Run them alternately butt and head; that is, if you put thethick end of the log at the right-hand end of your house, with the smallend at the left, put the next log with the small end at the right andthick end at the left; otherwise, if all the thick ends are put at oneside and the small ends at the other, your house will be taller at one endthan at the other as is the case with some of our previous shacks andcamps (Figs. 190, 191, and 192) which are purposely built that way. 

If it is planned to have glass window lights, make your window openings ofthe proper size to fit the window-frames which come with the sashes fromthe factory. In any case, if the cabin is to be left unoccupied you shouldhave heavy shutters to fit in the window opening so as to keep outtrespassers. 

Chinking

If your logs are uneven and leave large spaces between them, they may bechinked up by filling the spaces with mud plaster or cement, and thenforcing in quartered pieces of small logs and nailing them or spiking themin position. If your logs are straight spruce logs and fit snugly, thecracks may be calked up with swamp moss (Sphagnum), or like a boat, withoakum, or the larger spaces may be filled with flat stones and coveredwith mud. This mud will last from one to seven or eight years; I have someon my own log cabin that has been there even a longer time. 

XXXVII

A HUNTER'S OR FISHERMAN'S CABIN

IN all the hilly and mountainous States there are tracts of forest landsand waste lands of no use to the farmer and of no use to settlers, butsuch places offer ideal spots for summer camps for boys and naturalists, for fishermen and sportsmen, and here they may erect their cabins (_seeFrontispiece_) and enjoy themselves in a healthy, natural manner. Thesecabins will vary according to the wants of the owners, according to thematerial at hand and the land upon which they are built. By extending therafters of the roof, the latter may be extended (_see Frontispiece_) toprotect the front and make a sort of piazza which may be floored withpuncheons. 

The logs forming the sides of the house may be allowed to extend so as tomake a wall or fence, as they do on the right-hand side of theFrontispiece, thus preventing the danger of falling over the cliff uponwhich this cabin is perched and receiving injury or an unlooked-forducking in the lake. They may also be extended as they are on the left, tomake a shield behind which a wood-yard is concealed, or to protect anenclosure for the storage of the larger camp utensils. 

In fact, this drawing is made as a suggestion and not to be copiedexactly, because every spot differs from every other spot, and one wantsto make one's house conform to the requirements of its location; forinstance, the logs upon the right-hand side might be allowed to extendall the way up to the roof, as they do at the bottom, and thus make acosey corner protected from the wind and storm. 

The windows in such a cabin may be made very small, for all work issupposed to be done outdoors, and when more light is needed on the insidethe door may be left open. In a black-fly country or a mosquito country, however, when you are out of reach of screen doors, mosquito-netting maybe tacked over the windows and a portière of mosquito-netting over thedoorway. 

XXXVIII

HOW TO MAKE A WYOMING OLEBO, A HOKO RIVER OLEBO, A SHAKE CABIN, A CANADIANMOSSBACK, AND A TWO-PEN OR SOUTHERN SADDLE-BAG HOUSE

ONE of the charms of a log-cabin building is the many possibilities ofnovelties suggested by the logs themselves. In the hunter's cabin (_seeFrontispiece_) we have seen how the ends of the logs were allowed to stickout in front and form a rail for the front stoop; the builders of theolebos have followed this idea still further. 

The Wyoming Olebo

In Fig. 236 we see that the side walls of the pen are allowed to extend oneach side so as to enclose a roofed-over open-air room, or, if you chooseto so call it, a front porch, veranda, stoop, piazza, or gallery, according to the section of the country in which you live. 

So as to better understand this cabin the plan is drawn in perspective, with the cabin above and made to appear as if some one had lifted thecabin to show the ground-floor plan underneath. The olebo roof is builtupon the same plan as the Kanuck (Fig. 244), with this exception, that inFig. 244 the rooftree or ridge-log is supported by cross logs which are acontinuation of the side of the house (_A_, _A_, Figs. 242, 244, and 245), but in the olebo the ridge pole or log is supported by uprights (Figs. 236 and 237). To build the olebo lay the two side sill logs first (_A_, _B_, and _C_, _D_, Fig. 236), then the two end logs _E_, _F_, and _D_, _B_and proceed to build the cabin as already described, allowing theirregular ends of the logs to extend beyond the cabin until the pen iscompleted and all is ready for the roof, after which the protruding endsof the logs _excepting the two top ones_ may be sawed off to suit thetaste and convenience of the builder. The olebo may be made of any sizethat the logs will permit and one's taste dictate. After the walls arebuilt, erect the log columns at _A_ and _C_ (Fig. 236), cut their topswedge shape to fit in notches in the ends of the projecting side-plates(Fig. 144, _A_ and _B_); next lay the end plate (_G_, Fig. 236) over thetwo top logs on the sides of your house which correspond to theside-plates of an ordinary house. The end plate _G_ is notched to fit ontop of the side-plates, and the tops of the side-plates have been scoredand hewn and flattened, thus making a General Putnam joint like the oneshown above (_G_, Fig. 236); but when the ends of the side logs of thecabin were trimmed off the side-plates or top side logs were allowed toprotrude a foot or more beyond the others; this was to give room for thesupporting upright log columns at _A_ and _C_ (see view of cabin, Fig. 236and the front view, Fig. 237). _H_ and _J_ (Fig. 237) are two more uprightcolumns supporting the end plate which, in turn, supports the shortuprights upon which the two purlins _L_ and _M_ rest; the other purlins_K_ and _N_ rest directly upon the end plate (Fig. 237). The rear end ofthe cabin can have the gable logged up as the front of the house is inFig. 240, or filled in with uprights as in Fig. 247. The roof of the olebois composed of logs, but if one is building an olebo where it will not besubjected during the winter to a great weight of snow, one may make theroof of any material handy. 

Fig. 236. Fig. 237. Fig. 238. Fig. 239. Fig. 240. Fig. 241. 

[Illustration: Some native American log houses. ]

Hoko River Olebo

The Hoko River olebo has logs only up to the ceiling of the first story(Fig. 238), or the half story as the case may be; this part, as you see, is covered with shakes previously illustrated and described (Figs. 127, 128, 129, and 130). The logs supporting the front of the second storyserve their purpose as pillars or supports only during the winter-time, when the heavy load of snow might break off the unsupported front of theolebo. In the summer-time they are taken away and set to one side, leavingthe overhang unsupported in front. The shakes on the side are put on thesame as shingles, overlapping each other and breaking joints as shown inthe illustration. They are nailed to the side poles, the ends of which youmay see protruding in the sketch (Fig. 238). 

The Mossback Cabin

In the north country, where the lumbermen are at work, the farmers orsettlers are looked down upon by the lumberjacks much in the same manneras the civilians in a military government are looked down upon by thesoldiers, and hence the lumberjacks have, in derision, dubbed the settlersmossbacks. 

Mossback

Fig. 239 shows a mossback's house or cabin in the lake lands of Canada. The same type of house I have seen in northern Michigan. This one is atwo-pen house, but the second pen is made like the front to the olebo, byallowing the logs of the walls of the house itself to extend sufficientdistance beyond to make another room, pen, or division. In this particularcase the settler has put a shed roof of boards upon the division, but themain roof is made of logs in the form of tiles. In Canada these are called_les auges_ (pronounced [=o]ge), a name given to them by the Frenchsettlers. The back of this house has a steeper roof than the front, whichroof, as you see, extends above the ends of _les auges_ to keep the rainfrom beating in at the ends of the wooden troughs. Above the logs on thefront side of the small room, pen, or addition the front is covered withshakes. Fig. 240 shows a cabin in the Olympic mountains, but it is onlythe ordinary American log cabin with a shake roof and no windows. Acooking-stove inside answers for heating apparatus and the stovepipeprotrudes above the roof. 

The Southern Saddle-Bag or Two-Pen Cabin

Now we come to the most delightful of all forms of a log house. The oneshown in Fig. 241 is a very simple one, such as might be built by anygroup of boys, but I have lived in such houses down South that were verymuch more elaborate. Frequently they have a second story which extendslike the roof over the open gallery between the pens; the chimneys are atthe gable ends, that is, on the outside of the house, and since we willhave quite a space devoted to fireplaces and chimneys, it is onlynecessary to say here that in many portions of the South the fireplaces, while broad, are often quite shallow and not nearly so deep as some foundin the old houses on Long Island, in New York, and the Eastern States. Theopen gallery makes a delightful, cool lounging place, also a place for theladies to sit and sew, and serves as an open-air dining-room during thewarm weather; this sort of house is inappropriate and ill fitted for theclimate which produced the olebo, the mossback, and the Kanuck, butexactly suited for our Southern States and very pleasant even as farnorth as Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. I have lived in one part of everysummer for the last twenty-two years in the mountains of northernPennsylvania. The saddle-bag may be built by boys with the two rooms tenby ten and a gallery six feet wide, or the two rooms six by six and agallery five feet wide; the plan may be seen on the sketch below the house(Fig. 241). 

Where you only expect to use the house in the summer months, a two-pen orsaddle-bag can be used with comfort even in the Northern States, but inthe winter-time in such States as Michigan and part of New York, thegallery would be filled up with drifting snow. 

XXXIX

NATIVE NAMES FOR THE PARTS OF A KANUCK LOG CABIN, AND HOW TO BUILD ONE

IF the writer forgets himself once in a while and uses words not familiarto his boy readers, he hopes they will forgive him and put all such slipsdown as the result of leaving boys' company once in a while andassociating with men. The reader knows that men dearly love big, ungainlywords and that just as soon as boys do something worth while the men getbusy hunting up some top-heavy name for it. 

When one is talking of foreign things, however, it is well to give theforeign names for those things, and, since the next house to be describedis not a real American one but a native of Canada, the Canadian names aregiven for its parts. While in northern Quebec, making notes for theKanuck, the writer enlisted the interest of a fellow member of theCamp-Fire Club of America, Doctor Alexander Lambert, and through himsecured the names of all parts of the Canadian shack. 

The author is not a French-Canadian, and, although, like most of hisreaders, he studied French at school, what he learned of that greatlanguage is now securely locked up in one of the safe-deposit vaults ofhis brain and the key lost. 

He owns up to his ignorance because he is a scout and would not try todeceive his readers, also because if the reader's knowledge of Frenchenables him to find some error, the writer can sidestep the mistake andsay, "'Tain't mine. " But, joking aside, these names are the ones used inthe Province of Quebec and are here given not because they are good Frenchbut because they are the names used by the builders among the nativesknown by the Indians as _les habitants_

Local Names of Parts of Cabin

 spruce épinette balsam sapin to chop boucher, Figs. 113 and 122 to cut couper logs les bois or les billots, _A_, _A_, _A_, Figs. 242, 245, also 119, 126, etc. Square carré door porte, Figs. 242, 243 window châssis, Fig. 243 window-glass les vitres, 242 the joist on which the floor is laid les traverses, Fig. 49, _B_, _B_, _B_, _B_, Fig. 244 the floor itself plancher the purlins, that is, the two big logs used to support the roof les poudres, _C_, _C_, Fig. 244 the roof couverture, Fig. 242 bark écorce birch bark bouleau the poles put on a birch-bark roof to keep the bark flat les péches, Figs. 41, 234, 242 the hollow half-logs sometimes used like tiling on a roof les auges, Fig. 246 piazza, porch, front stoop, veranda galerie, Figs. 236, 237, and 241

The only thing that needs explanation is the squaring of the round logs ofthe cabin. For instance, instead of leaving the logs absolutely round anduntouched inside the camp, after the logs are placed, they are squared offso as to leave a flat surface (Fig. 125). They call this the _carréage_. Ido not know whether this is a local name or whether it is an expressionpeculiar to that Quebec section of Canada or whether it is simply acorruption of better French. It is derived from the word _carrer_, tosquare. 

Fig. 242. Fig. 243. Fig. 244. Fig. 245. Fig. 246. Fig. 247. 

Fig. 248. Fig. 249. 

[Illustration: Showing construction of the common Canadian log house. ]

The perspective drawings (Figs. 242 and 243) show views of the cabin wecall the Kanuck. The pen is built exactly as it is built in the housesalready described. The windows are placed where the builder desires, as isalso the doorway, but when the side-plate logs, that is

Les Traverses

or top side logs, are put in place, then the traverses logs (_B_, _B_, _B_, _B_, Fig. 244) are laid across the pen from one side-plate to theother, their ends resting on top of the side-plates over the traverseslogs, the two purlins

Les Poudres

(_C_, _C_, Fig. 244) are notched and fitted, and over their ends the twopieces _D_, _D_ are fitted, and, resting on the centres of the _D_ logs, the ridge log (_E_, Fig. 244) is placed. 

Couverture

The roof is made of small logs flattened on the under-side or left intheir rounded form (Fig. 242) and laid from the ridge logs down, extendingover the eaves six or more inches. 

Les Péches

The roof logs are then held in place by poles pegged with wooden pegs tothe roof (_F_, _G_, Fig. 242). 

Roofing Material

The roof is now covered with a thick layer of browse, hay, straw, dryleaves, or dry grass, and on top of this moist blue clay, yellow clay, hard-pan, or simple mud is spread and trampled down hard, forcing thethatch underneath into all the cracks and crannies and forming a firmcovering of clay several inches thick. 

Fireplace

The fireplace and chimney may be built inside or outside the cabin, or thehouse may be heated by a stove and the stovepipe allowed to protrudethrough a hole in the roof large enough to separate the pipe a safedistance from the wood and straw and amply protected by a piece of sheetiron or tin. Then, after you have stored your _butin_ (luggage), you cansit and sing:

 You may pull the _sourdine_ out You may push the _rabat-joie_ in But the _boucan_ goes up the _cheminée_ just the same Just the same, just the same, But the _boucan_ goes up the _cheminée_ just the same. 

When "l'habitant" hears you sing this verse he will not know what yoursong is about, but he will slap you on the back, laugh, and call you _BonHomme chez nous_, but do not get mad at this; it is a compliment and not abad name. 

Clay Roof

A clay roof should be as flat as possible with only pitch enough to shedthe water; a shingle roof should have a rise of at least one foot high tofour feet wide and a thatched roof should have a rise of 45°, that is, the rise of a line drawn from corner to corner of a square. 

Fig. 247 shows a gable filled with upright logs and Fig. 248 shows a tarpaper roof and a gable covered with tar paper. 

Since Kanucks are cold-climate houses, they frequently have novel means ofkeeping them warm; one way that I have frequently seen used is to surroundthem with a log fence shown in Fig. 249, and pack the space between withstable manure or dirt and rotten leaves. 

XL

HOW TO MAKE A POLE HOUSE AND HOW TO MAKE A UNIQUE BUT THOROUGHLY AMERICANTOTEM LOG HOUSE

A POLE house is a log house with the logs set upright. We call it a polehouse because, usually, the logs are smaller than those used for a loghouse. The pole house (Fig. 250) is built in the manner shown by Figs. 171, 172, and 173, but in the present instance the ridge-pole is a logwhich is allowed to extend some distance beyond the house both in frontand rear, and the front end of the ridge-pole is carved in the shape of agrotesque or comical animal's head like those we see on totem-poles. Theroof is made of shakes (see Figs. 126 to 130) and the shakes are held inplace by poles pegged onto the roof in much the same manner as we havedescribed and called _les péches_ for the Kanuck. This pole cabin may havean old-fashioned Dutch door which will add to its quaintness and may havebut one room which will answer the many purposes of a living-room, sleeping-room, and dining-room. A lean-to at the back can be used for akitchen. 

American Totem Log House

But if you really want something unique, build a log house on the generalplan shown by Figs. 251 and 252; then carve the ends of all the extendinglogs to represent the heads of reptiles, beasts, or birds; also carve theposts which support the end logs on the front gallery, porch, or verandain the form of totem-poles. You may add further to the quaint effect byplacing small totem-posts where your steps begin on the walk (Fig. 253)and adding a tall totem-pole (Fig. 255) for your family totem or the totemof your clan. Fig. 252 shows how to arrange and cut your logs for thepens. The dining-room is supposed to be behind the half partition next tothe kitchen; the other half of this room being open, with the front room, it makes a large living-room. The stairs lead up to the sleeping-roomsoverhead; the latter are made by dividing the space with partitions tosuit your convenience. 

Before Building

Take your jack-knife and a number of little sticks to represent the logsof your cabin; call an inch a foot or a half inch a foot as will suit yourconvenience and measure all the sticks on this scale, using inches orparts of inches for feet. Then sit down on the ground or on the floor andexperiment in building a toy house or miniature model until you make onewhich is satisfactory. Next glue the little logs of the pen together; butmake the roof so that it may be taken off and put on like the lid to abox; keep your model to use in place of an architect's drawing; thebackwoods workmen will understand it better than they will a set of plansand sections on paper. Fig. 251 is a very simple plan and only put here asa suggestion. You can put the kitchen at the back of the house instead ofon one side of it or make any changes which suit your fancy; the pen ofthe house may be ten by twelve or twenty by thirty feet, a camp or adwelling; the main point is to finish your house up with totems as shownby Fig. 253, and then tell the other fellows where you got the idea. 

Fig. 250. Fig. 251. Fig. 252. Fig. 253. Fig. 254. Fig. 255. 

[Illustration: A totem motif. An artistic and novel treatment for a loghouse. ]

Peeled Logs

For any structure which is intended to be permanent never use the logswith bark on them; use _peeled_ logs. When your house is finished it maylook very fresh and new without bark, but one season of exposure to theweather will tone it down so that it will be sufficiently rustic to pleaseyour fancy, but if you leave the bark on the logs, a few seasons will rotyour house down, making it _too_ rustic to suit any one's fancy. 

Lay up the pen of this house as already described and illustrated by Figs. 229, 233, etc. , and when the sides and front walls have reached thedesired height, frame your roof after the manner shown by Fig. 49 or anyof the other methods described which may suit your fancy or convenience, but in this case we use the Susitna form for the end plates, which aremade by first severing the root of a tree and leaving an elbow or bend atthe end of the trunk (Fig. 264). This is flattened by scoring and hewingas is described and illustrated under the heading of the Susitna house. The elbows at the terminals of the end plate are carved to representgrotesque heads (Fig. 253). The house when built is something like theWyoming olebo (Fig. 236), but with the difference which will appear aftercareful inspection of the diagram. The Wyoming olebo is a one-story house;this is a two-story house. The Wyoming olebo has a roof built upon amodified plan of a Kanuck; this roof is built on the American log-cabinplan, with the logs continued up to the top of the gable, as are those inthe Olympic (Fig. 240). But the present house is supposed to be _verycarefully_ built; to be sure, it is made of rude material but handled in avery neat and workmanlike manner. Great care must be used in notching andjoining the logs, and only the straightest logs which can be had should beused for the walls of the house. The piazza may need some additionalsupports if there is a wide front to the house, but with a narrow fronthalf, log puncheons will be sufficiently stiff to support themselves. 

Totems

The most difficult part about these descriptions, for the writer, is wherehe attempts to tell you how to make your totems; but remember that atotem, in order to have a _real_ totem look, must be very crude andamateurish, a quality that the reader should be able to give it withoutmuch instruction. The next important thing is that when you make one sideof a head, be it a snake's, a man's, a beast's, or a bird's, make theother side like it. Do not make the head lopsided; make both sides of thesame proportions. Flatten the sides of the end of the log enough to giveyou a smooth surface, then sketch the profile on each side of the log withcharcoal or chalk, carve out the head with a chisel, drawing-knife, andjack-knife, and gouge until you have fashioned it into the shape desired. In order to do this the end of the log should be free from the ground anda convenient distance above it. The carving is best done after the houseis practically finished; but the two end plates had better be carvedbefore they are hoisted into place. 

Totem-Poles

When you carve out the totem-poles (Fig. 256 or 262), the log had betterbe put on an elongated sawbuck arrangement which will hold it free fromthe ground and allow one to turn it over as the work may require. Fig. 259represents a peeled log. On this log one may sketch, with chalk, thevarious figures here represented, then begin by notching the log (Fig. 258) according to the notches which are necessary to carve out the totem. Figs. 260, 261, and 262 show different views of the same totem figures. Fig. 257 shows how to make a variation of the totem-pole. Paint your totemheads and figures red, blue, and yellow, and to suit your fancy; the morestartling they are the better will they imitate the Indian totems. Theweather will eventually tone them down to the harmonious colors of aTurkish rug. 

In "The Boy Pioneers" I have told how to make various other forms oftotems, all of which have since been built by boys and men in differentparts of the country. Mr. Stewart Edward White, a member of the Camp-FireClub of America, woodsman, plainsman, mountaineer, and African hunter andexplorer, built himself a totem in the form of a huge bird twelve feethigh from the plans published in "The Boy Pioneers, " and I anticipate nogreat difficulty will be encountered by those who try to totemize a logcabin after the manner shown by Fig. 258. It will not, however, be a smallboy's work, but the small boys who started at the beginning of this bookare older and more experienced now, and, even if they cannot handle thebig logs themselves, they are perfectly competent to teach their daddiesand uncles and their big brothers how to do it, so they may act as bossbuilders and architects and let the older men do the heavy work. Buthowever you proceed to build this house, when it is finished you will havea typically native building, and at the same time different from allothers, as quaint as any bungling bungalow, and in better taste, becauseit will fit in the landscape and become part of it and look as if it_belonged there_, in place of appearing as if it had been blown by atornado from some box factory and deposited in an unsuitable landscape. 

Fig. 256. Fig. 257. Fig. 258. Fig. 259. Fig. 260. Fig. 261. 

Fig. 262. 

[Illustration: Totem-poles and how to make them. ]

You must understand by this that unsuitable refers to the fact that abungalow _does not_ belong in the American landscape, although many of thecottages and shacks, miscalled bungalows, may be thoroughly American andappropriate to the American surroundings despite the exotic name by whichsome people humble them. 

XLI

HOW TO BUILD A SUSITNA LOG CABIN AND HOW TO CUT TREES FOR THE END PLATES

STANDING on a hill overlooking the salt meadows at Hunter's Point, L. I. , there was an old farmhouse the roof of which projected over both sides ofthe house four or five feet. The hill on which it stood has been cut away, the meadows which it overlooked have been filled up with the dirt from thehill, and only a surveyor with his transit and the old property-lines mapbefore him could ever find the former location of this house, but it issomewhere among the tracks of the Long Island Railroad. 

Opposite the house, on the other side of the railroad track, in thesection known as Dutch Kills of Long Island City, two other houses of thesame style of architecture stood; they had double doors--that is, doorswhich were cut in two half-way up so that you might open the top or bottomhalf or both halves to suit your fancy. The upper panels of these doorshad two drop-lights of glass set in on the bias, and between them, half-way down the upper half, was a great brass knocker with a grip bigenough to accommodate both hands in case you really wanted to make anoise. 

There was another house of this same description in the outskirts ofHoboken, and I often wondered what the origin of that peculiar roof mightbe. I found this type of house as far north toward the Hudson Bay as thesettlements go, and still farther north the Susitna house explains theorigin of the overhanging eaves (Fig. 268). Of course the Susitna, ashere drawn, is not exactly the same as that built by the natives on theSusitna River, but the end plates (Fig. 263) are the same as those used inthe primitive houses of the Northwest. 

How to Cut the Tree

Fig. 264 shows a standing fir-tree and also shows what cuts to make inorder to get the right-shaped log for an end plate. Fig. 265 shows themethod of scoring and hewing necessary in order to flatten the end of thelog as it is in Fig. 266. Fig. 267 shows the style in which the nativesroof their Susitnas with logs. The elbows at the end of the plates (Fig. 266) serve to keep the logs of the roof (Fig. 267) from rolling off, butthe Susitna log cabin which we are building is expected to have a roof(Fig. 268) of thatch or a roof of shingles, because we have passed therude shacks, sheds, and shelters used for camps and are now building realhouses in which we may live. The Susitna may be built of round logs or offlattened logs (_le carréage_), in which case we can use the GeneralPutnam square notch (Fig. 263) for joining the ends of our logs. Inraising the roof, erect the ridge-pole first. The ridge-pole may be set upon two uprights to which it is temporarily nailed, and the upright propsmay be held in place by the two diagonal props or braces, as shown in Fig. 263. If the logs are squared, cut a small bird's-mouth notch in the rafterwhere it extends over the side-plate logs of the pen and bevel the top endof your gable rafters to fit against the ridge-pole as in the diagrams. The other rafters are now easily put in place, but if the logs are roundyou must notch the rafters and side-plates as shown by the diagram betweenFigs. 263 and 267; the dotted lines show where the rafter and the logscome together. Nail your rafters to your ridge-pole and fasten them to theside-plate with wooden pegs or spikes. The ridge-pole may be allowed toextend, as in Fig. 268, on each side of the cabin or the elbows (Fig. 266)may be attached to each end of the ridge-pole with noses turned up andpainted or carved into a fanciful head as in Fig. 268. If the roof is tobe shingled, collect a lot of poles about four inches in diameter, flattenthem on both sides, and nail them to the rafters not more than two inchesapart, allowing the ends of the sticks to extend beyond the walls of thehouse at least six inches. 

Fig. 263. Fig. 264. Fig. 265. Fig. 266. Fig. 267. Fig. 268. 

[Illustration: The Susitna log house. ]

If you desire to make your own shingles, saw up a hemlock, pine, or sprucelog into billets of one foot four inches long, then with a froe and a mall(Fig. 179) split the shingles from the billets of wood, or use a broadaxefor the same purpose. Broadaxes are dangerous weapons in the hands of anamateur, but the writer split shingles with a broadaxe upon the shores ofLake Erie when he was but seven years old and, as near as he can count, hestill has ten toes and ten fingers. If you intend to thatch the roof youneed not flatten the poles which you fasten across the rafters, becausethe thatch will hide all unevenness of the underpinning. The poles may belaid at right angles to the rafters between six and eight inches apart andthe roof thatched as described and illustrated by Fig. 66. The Susitnaform of house is the one from which the old Long Island farmhouses wereevolved, although the old Long Islanders copied theirs from the homes theyleft in Holland, but we must remember that even the effete civilization ofEurope once had a backwoods country a long, long time ago, and then theybuilt their houses from the timbers hewn in the forests as our ownancestors did in this country; consequently, many of the characteristicsof present-day houses which seem to us useless and unnecessary aresurvivals of the necessary characteristics of houses made of crudematerial. 

XLII

HOW TO MAKE A FIREPLACE AND CHIMNEY FOR A SIMPLE LOG CABIN

FIG. 269 shows a simple form of fireplace which is practically thegranddaddy of all the other fireplaces. It consists of three walls forwindbreaks, laid up in stone or sod against some stakes driven in theground for the purpose of supporting them. The four-cornered stakes arenotched or forked and small logs are laid horizontally in these forks andon top of this a pyramidal form of a log pen is built of small logs andbillets, and this answers the purpose of a chimney. This style offireplace is adapted to use in camps and rude shacks like those shown byFigs. 187, 189, 191, and 192; also for the most primitive log cabins, butwhen we make a real log house we usually plan to have a more elaborate ormore finished fireplace and chimney. The ground-plan of Fig. 269 is shownby Fig. 270. 

Mud Hearth

Here you see there is a mud hearth, a wall of clay plastered over thestones of the fireplace. This will prevent the fire from cracking andchipping the stones, but clay is not absolutely necessary in thisfireplace. When, however, you build the walls of your fireplace of logsand your chimney of sticks the clay _is_ necessary to prevent the firefrom igniting the woodwork and consuming it. For a log-framed fireplace, make a large opening in the wall of your house and against the ends of thelogs where you sawed out the opening, erect jamb pieces of planks two orthree inches thick running up to the log over the fireplace and spiked tothe round ends of the logs (see plan, Fig. 272). Next, lay your foundationof sill logs on the fireplace, first two side logs and then a back log, neatly notched so as to look like the logs in the walls of the cabin. Build your fireplace walls as shown by Fig. 271, after which take your mudor clay and make the hearth by hammering the clay down hard until you havea firm, smooth foundation. The front hearth may be made, as shown in thediagram, of stones of any size from pebbles to flagstones, with thesurfaces levelled by sinking the under-part down into the clay until auniform level is reached on top. The fireplace may be built with bricks ofmoist clay and wet clay used for mortar. Make the clay walls of thefireplace at least one foot thick and pack it down hard and tight as youbuild it. If you choose you may make a temporary inside wall of plank asthey do when they make cement walls, and then between the temporary boardwall and the logs put in your moist clay and ram it down hard until thetop of the fireplace is reached, after which the boards may be removed andthe inside of the fireplace smoothed off by wiping it with a wet cloth. 

Stick Chimney

After the walls of logs and clay are built to top of the fireplace proper, split some sticks and make them about one inch wide by one and one halfinch thick, or use the round sticks in the form in which they grow, butpeel off the bark to render them less combustible; then lay them up asshown by Fig. 261, log-cabin style. With the chimney we have four sides tothe wall in place of three sides as in the fireplace. The logs of thefireplace, where they run next to the cabin, may have to be chinked up soas to keep them level, but the chimney should be built level as it hasfour sides to balance it. Leave a space between the chimney and theoutside wall and plaster the sticks thickly with clay upon the outside andmuch thicker with clay upon the inside, as shown by Fig. 271 _A_, which issupposed to be a section of the chimney. 

Fig. 269. Fig. 270. Fig. 271. Fig. 271A. Fig. 272. Fig. 273. 

[Illustration: Detail for fireplaces and flues. ]

Durability

All through the mountains of East Tennessee and Kentucky I have seen thesestick chimneys, some of them many, many years old. In these mountaincountries the fireplaces are lined with stones, but in Illinois, in theolden times, stones were scarce and mud was plenty and the fireplaces weremade like those just described and illustrated by Fig. 272. 

The stone chimney is an advance and improvement upon the log chimney, butI doubt if it requires any more skill to build. 

Chimney Foundation

Dig your foundation for your fireplace and chimney at least three feetdeep; then fill the hole up with small cobblestones or broken bluestoneuntil you have reached nearly the level of the ground; upon this you canbegin to lay your hearth and chimney foundation. If you fail to dig thisfoundation the frost will work the ground under your chimney and thechimney will work with the ground, causing it either to upset or to tiltto one side or the other and spoil the looks of your house, even if itdoes not put your fireplace out of commission. 

Stone Chimney

In laying up the stones for your chimney, remember that it makes nodifference how rough and uneven it is upon the outside. The more uneventhe outside is the more picturesque it will appear, but the smoother andmore even the inside is the less will it collect soot and the less will bethe danger of chimney fires. Lay your stones in mortar or cement. See thateach stone fits firmly in the bed and does not rock and that it breaksjoints with the other stone below it. By breaking joints I mean that thecrack between the two stones on the upper tier should fit over the middleof the stone on the lower tier; this, with the aid of the cement, locksthe stones and prevents any accidental cracks which may open fromextending any further than the two stones between which it started. If, however, you do not break joints, a crack might run from the top to thebottom of the chimney causing it to fall apart. Above the fireplace makefour walls to your chimney, as you did with your stick chimney (Fig. 271), and let the top of the chimney extend above the roof at least three feet;this will not only help the draught but it will also lessen the danger offire. 

XLIII

HEARTHSTONES AND FIREPLACES

IN erecting the fireplace for your cabin the stone work should extend intothe cabin itself, thus protecting the ends of the logs from the fire. Thestone over the top of the fireplace (_A_, _B_, Fig. 274) rests upon twoiron bars; these iron bars are necessary for safety because, although thestone _A_, _B_ may bridge the fireplace successfully, the settling of thechimney or the heat of the fire is liable to crack the stone, in whichcase, unless it is supported by two flat iron bars, it will fall down andwreck your fireplace. The stone _A_, _B_ in Fig. 275, has been cracked forfifteen years but, as it rests upon the flat iron bars beneath, the crackdoes no harm. 

Fig. 274. Fig. 275. 

[Illustration: Fireplace in author's cabin, and suggestion for stone andwood mantel. ]

In Fig. 274 (the ends of the fireplace) the two wing walls of it are builtup inside the cabin to support a plank for a mantelpiece. Another plank_C_, _D_ is nailed under the mantelpiece against the log before the stonework is built up. This is only for the purpose of giving a finish to yourmantelpiece. The hearth in Fig. 274 is made of odd bits of flat stoneslaid in cement, but the hearth in Fig. 275 is one big slab of bluestonejust as it came from the quarry, and the fireplace in Fig. 275 is linedwith fire-brick. The two three-legged stools which you see on each sidewere made by the woodsmen who built the cabin to use in their camp whilethe cabin was being erected. The stools have occupied the position ofhonor on each side of the fireplace now for twenty-seven years. Themantelpiece in this drawing is made of puncheons with the rounded side outon the two supports and the flat side against the wall; of course, for themantel itself, the rounded side must be down and the flat side up. Thisfireplace has been used for cooking purposes and the crane is stillhanging over the flames, while up over the mantel you may see, roughlyindicated, a wrought-iron broiler, a toaster, and a brazier. The flatshovel hanging to the left of the fireplace is what is known as a "peal, "used in olden times to slip under the pies or cakes in the old-fashionedovens in order to remove them without burning one's fingers. 

XLIV

MORE HEARTHS AND FIREPLACES

SOMETIMES it is desired to have a fireplace in the middle of the room. Personally, such a fireplace does not appeal to me, but there are otherpeople who like the novelty of such a fireplace, and Fig. 276 shows oneconstructed of rough stones. The fireplace is high so that one tending itdoes not have to stoop and get a backache. The foundation should be builtin the ground underneath the cabin and up through the floor. A flat stonecovers the top of the fireplace, as in the other drawings. Fig. 277 showsa fireplace with a puncheon support for a plank mantel. 

Fig. 276. Fig. 277. Fig. 278. Fig. 279. Fig. 280. 

[Illustration: Fireplace and mantel of half logs. Also centre fireplacesfor cabin. ]

A Plank Mantel

_A_ and _B_ are two half logs, or puncheons, which run from the floor tothe ceiling on each side of the fireplace. _S_, _S_, _S_ are the logs ofthe cabin walls. _C_ is the puncheon supporting the mantel and _D_ is themantel. Fig. 279 shows a section or a view of the mantel looking down onit from the top, a topographical view of it. Fig. 278 is the same sort ofa view showing the puncheon _A_ at the other end of the mantel before themantel is put in place between the two puncheons _A_ and _B_. In Fig. 279the reader may see that it will be necessary to cut the corners out of themantel-board in order to fit it around the puncheons _A_ and _B_; also, since _A_ and _B_ have rounded surfaces, it will be necessary to so bevelthe ends of the puncheon (_C_, Fig. 277) that they will fit on the roundedsurfaces of _A_ and _B_. Fig. 280 shows the end of _C_ bevelled in aperspective view, and also a profile view of it, with the puncheon _A_indicating the manner in which _C_ must be cut to fit upon the roundedsurface. This makes a simple mantelpiece but a very appropriate one for alog cabin. 

XLV

FIREPLACES AND THE ART OF TENDING THE FIRE

ONE of my readers has written to me asking what to do about a fireplacethat smokes. Not knowing the fireplace in question, I cannot prescribe forthat particular invalid, but I have a long acquaintance with manyfireplaces that smoke and fireplaces that do not--in other words, healthyfireplaces with a good digestion and diseased fireplaces functionallywrong with poor digestion--so perhaps the easiest way to answer thesequestions is to describe a few of my acquaintances among the fireplaceswhich I have studied. 

There is an old fireplace in Small Acres, Binghamton, N. Y. , of which Imade sketches and took measurements which furnished me data by which Ibuilt the fireplaces in my own houses. 

In Binghamton fireplaces the side walls are on an angle and convergetoward the back of the fireplace, as in Fig. 274. The back also pitchesforward, as in Fig. 282. The great advantage of this is the reflecting ofmore heat into the room. 

Fig. 281 shows the fireplace before which I am now working. The fire wasstarted in last November and is now (April 1) still burning, although ithas not been rekindled since it was first lighted. This fireplace is wellconstructed, and on very cold days I have the fire burning out on thehearth fully a foot beyond the line of the mantel without any smoke cominginto my studio. 

Fig. 282 shows a diagram with the dimensions of my studio fireplace andrepresents the vertical section of it. I give these for the benefit of thepeople who want to know how to build a fireplace which will not smoke. But, of course, even the best of fireplaces will smoke if the fire is notproperly arranged. With smoke the angle of reflection would be equal tothe angle of incidence did not the constant tendency of smoke to ascendmodify this rule. 

Throw a rubber ball against the wall and the direction from your hand towhere it strikes the wall makes the angle of incidence; when the ballbounces away from the wall it makes the angle of reflection. 

Management of the Fire

But, before we enter into the question regarding the structure of the fluewe will take up the management of the fire itself. In the first place, there is but one person who can manage a fire, and that is yourself. Servants never did and never will learn the art, and, as I am writing formen, and the ladies are not supposed to read this article, I will statethat the fair sex show a like deficiency in this line. The first thing awoman wants to do with a fire is to make the logs roost on the andirons, the next thing is to remove every speck of ashes from the hearth, and thenshe wonders why the fire won't burn. 

The ashes have not been removed from my studio fire since it was firstlighted last fall. Ashes are absolutely essential to control a wood-fireand to keep the embers burning overnight. Fig. 288 shows the present stateof the ashes in my studio fire. You will see by this diagram that the logsare not resting on the andirons. I only use the andirons as a safeguard tokeep the logs from rolling out on the hearth. If the fire has beenreplenished late in the evening with a fresh log, before retiring I pullthe front or the ornamental parts of the andirons to the hearth and thenlay the shovel and poker across them horizontally. When the burning log iscovered with ashes and the andirons arranged in this manner you can retireat night with a feeling of security and the knowledge that if your housecatches afire it will not be caused by the embers in your fireplace. Thenin the morning all you have to do is to shovel out the ashes from the rearof the fireplace, put in a new backlog, and bed it in with ashes, as shownin Fig. 286. Put your glowing embers next to the backlog and your freshwood on top of that and sit down to your breakfast with the certainty thatyour fire will be blazing before you get up from the table. 

Don't make the mistake of poking a wood-fire, with the idea, by thatmeans, of making it burn more briskly, or boosting up the logs to get adraught under them. 

Two logs placed edge to edge, like those in Fig. 288, with hot coalsbetween them, will make their own draught, which comes in at each end ofthe log, and, what is essential in fire building, they keep the heatbetween themselves, constantly increasing it by reflecting it back fromone to the other. If you happen to be in great haste to make the flamesstart, don't disturb the logs but use a pair of bellows. 

Fig. 287 shows a set of the logs which will make the best-constructedfireplace smoke. The arrow-point shows the line of incidence or thenatural direction which the smoke would take did not the heat carry itupward. 

Fig. 285 shows the same logs arranged so that the angle of incidencestrikes the back of the chimney and the smoke ascends in the full andorderly manner. But both Figs. 285 and 287 are clumsily arranged. The _B_logs in each case should be the backlog and the small logs _A_ and _C_should be in front of _B_. 

Fig. 281. Fig. 282. Fig. 283. Fig. 284. Fig. 285. Fig. 286. 

Fig. 287. Fig. 288. 

[Illustration: Proper and improper ways to build a fireplace and make afire. ]

In all of the fireplaces which we have described you will note that thetop front of the fireplace under the mantel extends down several inchesbelow the angle of the chimney. 

Fig. 283 shows a fireplace that is improperly built. This is from afireplace in a palatial residence in New York City, enclosed in an antiqueItalian marble mantel, yellow with age, which cost a small fortune. Thefireplace was designed and built by a firm of the best architects, composed of men famed throughout the whole of the United States andEurope, _but the fireplace smoked_ because the angle of the chimney wasbelow the opening of the fireplace and, consequently, sent the smoke outinto the room. This had to be remedied by setting a piece of thick plateglass over the top of the fireplace, thus making the opening smaller andextending it below the angle of the chimney. 

Fig. 284 shows the most primitive form of fireplace and chimney. One thata child may see will smoke unless the fire is kept in the extreme back ofthe hearth. 

The advantages of ashes in your fireplace are manifold. They retain theheat, keep the hot coals glowing overnight, and when the fire is too hotmay be used to cover the logs and subdue the heat. But, of course, if youwant a clean hearthstone and the logs roosting upon the andirons, and aredevoid of all the camp-fire sentiment, have some asbestos gas-logs. Therewill be no dust or dirt, no covering up at night with ashes, no bill forcord-wood, and it will look as stiff and prim as any New England old maidand be as devoid of sentiment and art as a department-store bargainpicture frame. 

XLVI

THE BUILDING OF THE LOG HOUSE

How a Forty-Foot-Front, Two-Story Pioneer Log House Was Put Up with theHelp of "Backwoods Farmers"--Making Plans with a Pocket Knife. 

OUR log house on the shore of Big Tink Pond, Pike County, Pa. , was builtlong before the general public had been educated to enjoy the subtlecharms of wild nature, at a time when nature-study was confined toscientists and children, and long before it was fashionable to have wildfowl on one's lawn and wild flowers in one's garden. At that time only afew unconventional souls spent their vacations out of sight of summerhotels, camping on the mountain or forest trails. The present state of thepublic mind in regard to outdoor life has only been developed within thelast few years, and when I first announced my intention of hunting up someaccessible wild corner and there erecting a log house for a summer studioand home I found only unsympathetic listeners. But I was young and rash atthat time, and without any previous experience in building or the aid ofbooks to guide me and with only such help as I could find among backwoodsfarmers I built a forty-foot-front, two-story log house that is probablythe pioneer among log houses erected by city men for summer homes. It gaveMr. Charles Wingate the suggestions from which he evolved Twilight Park inthe Catskills. Twilight Park, being the resort of literary people andtheir friends, did much to popularize log houses with city people. 

The deserted farms of New England offer charming possibilities for thosewhose taste is for nature with a shave, hair cut, and store clothes, butfor lovers of untamed nature the waste lands offer stronger inducementsfor summer-vacation days, and there is no building which fits so naturallyin a wild landscape as a good, old-fashioned log cabin. It looks as if itreally belonged there and not like a windfall from some passing whirlwind. 

When I make the claim that any ordinary man can build himself a summerhome, I do not mean to say that he will not make blunders and plenty ofthem; only fools never make mistakes, wise men profit by them, and thereader may profit by mine, for there is no lack of them in our log houseat Big Tink. But the house still stands on the bank overlooking the lakeand is practically as sound as it was when the last spike was driven, twenty-seven years ago. 

Almost all of the original log cabins that were once sprinkled through theeastern part of our country disappeared with the advent of the saw-mill, and the few which still exist in the northern part of the country east ofthe Alleghany Mountains would not be recognized as log houses by thecasual observer, for the picturesque log exteriors have been concealed bya covering of clapboards. 

To my surprise I discovered that even among the old mountaineers I couldfind none who had ever attended a log-rolling frolic or participated inthe erection of a real log house. Most of these old fellows, however, could remember living in such houses in their youth, but they could notunderstand why any sane man of to-day wanted "to waste so much goodlumber, " and in the quaint old American dialect still preserved in theseregions they explained the wastefulness of my plans and pointed out to methe number of good planks which might be sawed from each log. 

Fig. 289. 

[Illustration: Wildlands, the author's log house in Pike County, Pa. ]

Fig. 290, _B_, shows the plans of the house, which will be seen to be amodification of the Southern "saddle-bag" cabin--two houses under oneroof. By referring to Fig. 289 it will be seen that above the gallerythere is a portico, which we called the "afterthought" because it did notappear upon the original plans. We got the hint, as "Jimmy" called it, when it was noticed that chance had ordained that the two "_A_" logsshould protrude much farther than the others. "Don't saw them off, " Iexclaimed; "we will have a balcony"; and so the two "_A_" logs were left, and this gave us room for a balcony over the gallery, back of which is aten-by-ten bedroom, while the two large bedrooms on each side have doorsopening on the six-foot passageway, which is made still broader by theaddition of the balcony. 

It will be seen that there is a stairway marked out on the ground plan, but there was none on the original plan, for, to tell the honest truth, Idid not know where to put the stairs until the logs were in place. However, it is just such problems that lend charm to the work of buildingyour own house. An architect or a professional builder would have thething all cut and dried beforehand and leave nothing to chance andinspiration; this takes the whole charm out of the work when one isbuilding for recreation and the pleasure to be derived from theoccupation. 

When our house was finished we had no shutters to the windows and no wayof closing up the open ends of the gallery, and my helpers told me that Imust not leave the house that way because stray cattle would use the housefor a stable and break the windows with their horns as they swung theirheads to drive away the flies. So we nailed boards over these openingswhen we closed the house for the winter. Later we invented some shutters(see _C_, Fig. 290) which can be put up with little trouble and in a fewmoments. Fig. 290, _C_, shows how these shutters are put in place andlocked on the inside by a movable sill that is slid up against the bottomof the shutters and fastened in place by iron pins let into holes boredfor the purpose. 

Fig. 290. 

[Illustration: Details of author's log house, Wildlands. ]

Of course, this forms no bar to a professional burglar, but there isnothing inside to tempt cracksmen, and these professional men seldom strayinto the woods. The shutters serve to keep out cattle, small boys, andstray fishermen whose idle curiosity might tempt them to meddle with thecontents of a house less securely fastened. 

A house is never really finished until one loses interest in it and stopstinkering and planning homely improvements. This sort of work is ahealthy, wholesome occupation and just the kind necessary to people ofsedentary occupations or those whose misfortune it is to be engaged insome of the nerve-racking business peculiar to life in big cities. 

Dwellers in our big cities do not seem to realize that there is any otherlife possible for them than a continuous nightmare existence amidmonstrous buildings, noisy traffic, and the tainted air of unsanitarystreets. They seem to have forgotten that the same sun that in summerscorches the towering masonry and paved sidewalks until the canyon-likestreets become unbearable also shines on green woods, tumbling waters, andmirror-like lakes; or, if they are dimly conscious of this fact, theythink such places are so far distant as to be practically out of theirreach in every sense. Yet in reality the wilderness is almost knocking atour doors, for within one hundred miles of New York bears, spottedwildcats, and timid deer live unconfined in their primitive wildcondition. Fish caught in the streams can be cooked for dinner in New Yorkthe same day. 

In 1887, when the writer was himself a bachelor, he went out into thewilderness on the shores of Big Tink Pond, upon which he built the loghouse shown in the sketch. At first he kept bachelor hall there with somechoice spirits, not the kind you find in bottles on the bar-room shelf, but the human kind who love the outdoor world and nature, or he took hisparents and near relatives with him for a vacation in the woods. Like allsensible men, in course of time he married, and then he took his bride outto the cabin in the woods. At length the time came when he found itnecessary to shoulder his axe and go to the woods to secure material for anew _piece of furniture_. He cut the young chestnut-trees, peeled them, and with them constructed a crib; and every year for the last eight yearsthat crib has been occupied part of the season. Thus, you see, a camp ofthis kind becomes hallowed with the most sacred of human memories andbecomes a joy not only to the builder thereof but also to the cominggeneration. At the big, open fire in the grill-room, with theold-fashioned cooking utensils gathered from farmhouses on Long Island, Ihave cooked venison steaks, tenderloin of the great northern hare, theplump, white breasts of the ruffed grouse, all broiled over the hot coalswith slices of bacon, and when done to a turn, placed in a big platterwith fresh butter and served to a crowd who watched the operation andsniffed the delicious odor until they literally drooled at the corners oftheir mouths. As the house was built on a deer runway, all these thingswere products of the surrounding country, and on several occasions theyhave all been served at one meal. 

XLVII

HOW TO LAY A TAR PAPER, BIRCH BARK, OR PATENT ROOFING

Preparing the Roofing for Laying

BIRCH BARK and patent roofing are more pliable than tin or shingles, consequently taking less time to lay and making it easier work. In verycold weather put your patent roofing in a warm room a few hours beforeusing it. Never try to cut birch bark, tar paper, or patent roofing with adull knife. 

Roofing Foundation

No matter what sort of roofing material is used, do not forget the greatimportance of the roofing foundation (Figs. 296 and 298). If thefoundation is poor or uneven the roofing will be poor and uneven, even ifonly the best roofing material is used. The sheathing boards should bematched if possible and of uniform thickness, laid close, and free fromnails, protruding knots, and sharp edges. Do not use green lumber; the sunis almost certain to shrink and warp it. Sometimes it will even break theroofing material. On very particular work, where the rafters are wideapart, the best builders recommend laying a course of boards over theplanking at right angles to it. 

Valleys

If there are valleys in the roof (Fig. 298) use a long strip of roofingand lay it up and down in the direction of the valleys. Press the stripinto the hollow so that it takes the shape of the valley itself. Allow theedges of the roofing to overlap the strip in the valley an equal distanceon both sides of the valley (Fig. 298). 

How to Lay the Roofing

Begin at the eaves to lay the roofing (Fig. 299). Always lay the roll ofpatent roofing with the inside surface to the weather and in the samedirection that the boards run--not at right angles to them. Begin nailingat the centre of the edges of the strips and work both ways to theends--never the reverse, as the roofing may become wrinkled, twisted, orcrooked. Always set caps even with the edge of the laps about two inchesapart between their centres. 

Gutters

To finish gutters, fasten and carefully cement with the pitch or tar orprepared composition the edge of the strip about half-way to the gutter. Bring the other edge onto the roof, then lay the next strip over thisstrip so that it will overlap at least two inches. Proceed to lay thebalance of the roofing in the same way. Never nail the middle of thestrips; nail only along the edges. The end strips should always be lappedover the edges of the roof and fastened (Figs. 297 and 299). 

Before fastening laps paint a two-inch strip with the tar or pitch cementwhich comes with all patent roofing in order to stick it to the lowerstrip of roofing and to make a tight joint when put in place. 

Do not drive nails carelessly or with too much force and be sure the capfits snugly against the roofing. If nails go into holes or open cracks, donot remove them but thoroughly cement around them. Allow six inches foroverlaps for joints where one strip joins another (Fig. 299, _B_). Be surethat two strips of roofing never meet at the ridge leaving a joint toinvite a leak over the ridge-pole. Examine the diagrams if you fail tounderstand the description. 

How to Patch a Shingle Roof

The reader must not suppose that the roof of my camp was made of flannelbecause it shrank, for the whole house, which was made of logs, diminishedin size as the wood became seasoned; so that now each log averages aquarter of an inch less in width than it did when the house was builttwenty odd years ago. There are just one hundred logs in the house, whichmakes the house twenty-five inches smaller than it was when it was built, but I cannot point out the exact spot where the two feet and one inch aremissing. Neither do I know that this had anything to do with the openingin the roof about the chimney; but I do know that the opening graduallybecame wider and wider until it not only admitted the entrance of numerousflying squirrels and other varmints but also let in the rain and snow andconsequently it had to be remedied. Neither the flying squirrels nor theelements can now enter at that point. 

The Connecticut Yankees stop the leaks around the big chimneys of the oldfarmhouses with mortar or concrete, but at permanent camps cement is notalways handy, and even if one is living in a farmhouse it will probablynecessitate quite a long drive to procure it. If, however, there happensto be on hand some strips of the various tar roofing compounds, some oldtin, or even a good piece of oilcloth--by which I mean a piece that may beso worn as to have been cast aside and yet not so perforated with holesthat it will admit the rain--it may be used to stop the leak. 

Fig. 291. Fig. 292. Fig. 293. Fig. 294. Fig. 296. Fig. 297. Fig. 298. Fig. 299. 

[Illustration: How to lay a composition roof and how to cover space aroundflue. (Fig. 295 is on next plate. )]

Fixtures for Applying Roofing

The complete roofing kit consists of cement, caps, and nails. Thegalvanized caps and nails are the best to use; they won't rust. Squarecaps have more binding surface than the ordinary round ones; but we canmend "with any old thing. "

Fig. 291 shows a chimney from which the roof of the house is parted, leaving a good-sized opening around the smoke-stack. To cover this, take apiece of roofing compound, tin, oilcloth, tar paper, or paroid and cut asis shown in the upper diagram (Fig. 292). Make the slits in the two endsof the material of such a length that when the upper ends are bent back, as in the lower diagram (Fig. 292), they will fit snugly around thechimney. You will need one piece like this for each side of the chimney. Where the ends of the chimney butt against the ridge of the roof you willrequire pieces slit in the same manner as the first but _bentdifferently_. The upper lobe in this case is bent on the bias to fit thechimney, while the lower one is bent over the ridge of the roof (Figs. 293and 294). 

To better illustrate how this is done, Fig. 293 is supposed to show thechimney with the roof removed. Fig. 294 is the same view of the chimneywith the two pieces in place. You will need four pieces, two at each endof the chimney, to cover the ridge of the roof. 

With all the many varieties of tar paper and composition roofing therecome tacks or wire nails supplied with round tin disks perforated in thecentre, which are used as washers to prevent the nail from pullingthrough the roofing. 

Fig. 295 shows the chimney with the patches around it tacked in place, andthe protruding ends of the parts trimmed off according to the dottedlines. Fig. 297 shows the way the roofing people put flashing on; but Ilike my own way, as illustrated by Figs. 291, 292, 293, 294, and 295. Itmust not be taken for granted that every camp or farmhouse has a supply oftin washers, but we know that every camp and farmhouse does have a supplyof tin cans, and the washers may be made from these, as shown by Figs. 300and 301. Knock the cans apart at their seams and cut the tin up intopieces like the rectangular one shown under the hand in Fig. 301. Bendthese pieces in their centres so as to make them into squares, then placethem on a piece of soft wood and punch holes in them by driving a wirenail through the tin and you will have better washers than those you canbuy although they may not be so handsome. 

Patched Roofs and New Shingles

Any decent shingled roof should last fifteen years without repairing andmany of them last nearly twice that time. But there comes a time when theroof begins to leak and needs mending; when that time comes, with yourjack-knife whittle a number of little wooden pegs or splints each aboutsix inches long and a little thicker than a pipe-stem with which to

Mark the Holes

Go up in the attic and wherever you see daylight through the roof pushthrough the hole a wooden peg to mark the spot. Then, when you havefinished and are ready to climb on the roof, take off your shoes, put ona pair of woollen socks, and there will be little danger of your slipping. New india rubber shoes with corrugated soles are also good to wear whenclimbing on the roof. 

In Fig. 295½ you will see two of the pegs sticking through the roofmarking the holes, and below is a larger view of one of these pegsconnected with the upper ones by dotted lines. 

Sheet-Iron Shingles

To mend simple cracks or holes like these it is only necessary to bend upbits of tin or sheet iron (Fig. 300) and drive the metal shingle upunderneath the shingle above the hole so that the "weather" part of thetin covers the leak, or drive it under the leaking shingle itself, ordrive a new shingle up under or over the damaged one. Where there is a badplace in the roof it may be necessary to make a patch of a number ofshingles like the one shown in the right-hand corner of Fig. 295½, buteven then it is not necessary to remove the old shingles unless the holeis very large. 

These patches of old tin or new shingles do not look handsome on an oldroof, but they serve their purpose in keeping out the rain and snow andpreventing moisture from rotting the timbers. The weather will soon tonedown the color of the new shingles so that they will not be noticeable andyou will have the satisfaction of having a dry roof over your head. Thereis only one thing worse than a leaky roof and that is a leaky boat. 

Practical Patching

In these days when everybody with a few hundred dollars in pocket is verysensibly using it to buy a farm and farmhouse so as to be able for a partof the year to return to the simple life of our ancestors it is verynecessary that we should also know something of the simple economies ofthose days, for when one finds oneself out on a farm there is no plumberaround the corner and no tinsmith on the next block whom one may call uponto repair breaks and the damage done by time and weather on an oldfarmhouse. The ordinary man under these conditions is helpless, but someare inspired by novel ideas, as, for instance, the man who mended theleaking roof with porous plasters. 

Fig. 295. Fig. 295½. Fig. 300. Fig. 301. Fig. 302. Fig. 303. Fig. 304. 

Fig. 305. Fig. 306. 

[Illustration: How to mend a shingle or tin roof. ]

But for the benefit of those who are not supplied with a stock of porousplasters I will tell how to do the plumbing and how to mend the tin roofwith old bits of tin, rags, and white lead; and to begin with I want toimpress upon the reader's mind that this will be no bungling, unsightlypiece of work, but much more durable and just as neat as any piece of workwhich the professionals would do for him. In the first place, if you havean old tin roof on one of the extensions of your house or on your houseitself, do not be in haste to replace it with a new one. Remember thatmost of the modern sheet tin is made by modern methods and its life is notan extended one. The sheet _steel_ they often use in place of sheet _iron_rapidly disintegrates and such a roof will not last you half the time thata properly patched old one will. 

The roof of the house in which I am writing this article is made of tinand was made about sixty years ago; it has been patched and mended but tono great extent, and it bids fair to outlive me. Had it been made of sheetsteel it would have been necessary to renew it many times since thatperiod. So, if you find that the tin roof to your farmhouse, bungalow, orcamp leaks in consequence of some splits at the seams and a few rust holespatch them yourself. Fig. 301 shows the only material necessary for thatpurpose. You do not even need a pair of shears to cut your tin, for it ismuch better folded over and hammered into shape, as shown by Fig. 301. Fig. 302 shows a crack and some rust holes in the tin roof. Take yourcarpet-tacks and hammer and neatly tack down the edges of the opening, asshown by Fig. 303. If there is any difficulty in driving tacks through thetin roof, use a small wire nail and hammer to first punch the holes. Putthe tacks close together. With your paint-brush thickly coat the mendedparts with white lead, as shown by Fig. 304. Cut a strip of a rag to fitover the holes and tack it at its four corners, as shown by Fig. 305. Now, then, cover the rag with a thick coat (Fig. 306) of the white lead. Nexttack the tin over the wounded spots, putting the tacks close together, asshown by Fig. 306. Afterward coat the tin with a covering of white leadand the patchwork is done. The roof will not leak again at those spots inthe next twenty years. This will leave white, unsightly blotches on theroof, but after the white lead is dry a few dabs with the red roof paintwill make the white patches the same color as the surrounding tin andeffectually conceal them. 

Do not forget the importance of carefully going over your roof after it ismended and make sure that every joint is properly covered, tacked, andthoroughly coated with white lead. Cover all joints, nails, and caps witha coat of white lead. Water will not run through the tin roofing, but itwill find its way through nail holes, rust holes, and open seams if theyare not made absolutely tight. 

Plumbing

After I had finished doctoring up the kitchen roof of my farmhouse, Idiscovered that the drain-pipe from the kitchen sink had a nasty leakwhere the pipe ran through the cellar. Of course, there was no plumberhandy--plumbers do not live in farming districts--so it was "up to" me andmy helper to stop the leak as best we could. A few blows on the lead withthe hammer, carefully administered, almost closed the hole. I then hadrecourse to the white lead which I had been using on the kitchen roof, andI daubed the pipe with paint; still the water oozed through; but after Ihad applied a strip of linen to the leak and then neatly wrapped it roundand painted the whole of it with white lead the leak was effectuallystopped, and the pipe is apparently as good now, six years after themending, as it was when it was new. 

In this sort of work it must be remembered that it is the white lead wedepend upon, and the other material which we use--the tin and therags--are only for the purpose of protecting and holding the white lead inplace. Of course, a roof may be mended with tar, but that is alwaysunsightly and insists upon running when heated by a hot sun; besides, itis most difficult to conceal and does not come ready for use like whitelead. 

If the leak happens to be around the chimney it can be mended by bendingpieces of tin up against the chimney according to the diagram shown forthe tar paper and patent roofings (Figs. 295 and 297). 

Flashings, Chimneys, Walls, Etc. 

Lead or copper is best for flashings, but in case metal is not convenientyou will find that various patent roofing materials are good substitutes. Run the strips of roofing to the angle formed by the object to be flashedand extend the same up the object three or four inches. Fasten thesestrips to the roof in the usual way or by nailing cleats of wood over thetop edges. 

Leaks in tubs, barrels, and tanks used about the farm can be mended withrags, tin, and white lead in the manner described for the roof and pipe. Also leaks in the leaders running from the roof may be treated in the samemanner, but if you must get new leaders for your house by no means replacethe old ones with _galvanized-steel_ tubes. You can tell the differencebetween galvanized steel and galvanized iron by its appearance. The steelis brighter and more silvery than the iron, but my experience is that thesteel will last only two or three years; sometimes one season puts steelpipes out of commission, whereas galvanized iron will last indefinitely. After having three sets of galvanized-steel leaders on my town house, Ihad them replaced with copper leaders; for, although the expense isgreater, I have found it more economical in the end. For people havingplenty of money to spend on their country houses I would advise the use ofcopper leaders, but folks of limited means will save money patching up theold tin ones or old galvanized ones instead of replacing them withgalvanized steel, which is of little service for outdoor wear. There are, I believe, only a few firms who now manufacture galvanized iron, but yourarchitect can find them if you insist upon it. 

XLVIII

HOW TO MAKE A CONCEALED LOG CABIN INSIDE OF A MODERN HOUSE

IT was because the writer knew that a great many men and all the boysrebelled against the conventionalities and restrictions of a modern housethat he first invented and suggested the surprise den and told how to makeone years ago in the _Outing_ magazine. Since that article appeared theidea has been adopted by a number of people. There is a beautiful one inToledo, O. , where the writer was entertained during the floods, and DoctorRoot, of Hartford, Conn. , has even a better one in his home in that Yankeecity. Fig. 308 shows a rough sketch of a corner of Doctor Root's surpriseden which he calls his "loggery. "

From the outside of the house there is no indication of anything upon theinside that may not be found in any conventional dwelling, which is theproper way to build the surprise den. 

Figs. 307, 309, and 310 are sketches made as suggestions to those wishingto add the surprise den to their dwelling. 

To fathers and mothers having sons anywhere from twelve to thirty years ofage, it is almost a necessity nowadays to give these boys a room of theirown, popularly known as the "den, " a retreat where they can go and sit ina chair without having fancy embroidered tidies adhere to their coatcollars, where they can lean back in their chairs, if they choose, with nodanger of ruining the valuable Hepplewhite or breaking the claw feet off arare Chippendale--a place where they can relax. The greater the contrastbetween this room and the rest of the house, the greater will be theenjoyment derived by the boys to whom it belongs. The only two surprisedens which I have personally visited are the pride of the lives of twogentlemen who are both long past the years generally accorded to youth, but both of them are still boys in their hearts. The truth is a surpriseden appeals to any man with romance in his soul; and the more grand, stately, and formal his house may be, the greater will the contrast be andthe greater the surprise of this den. It is a unique idea and makes adelightful smoking-room for the gentlemen of the house as well as a denfor the boys of the house. 

Fig. 307. Fig. 308. Fig. 309. Fig. 310. 

[Illustration: Suggestions for interiors of surprise dens and sketch ofDr. Root's surprise den. ]

If the reader's house is already built, the surprise den may be erected asan addition; it may be built as a log cabin after the manner of any ofthose previously described in this book, or it may be made an imitationlog cabin by using slabs and nailing them on the walls in place of realwhole logs. Doctor Root's surprise den, or "loggery, " is made of wholelogs and chinked with moss. Fig. 310 is supposed to be made of slabs, halflogs, or puncheons nailed to the walls and ceiling and so arranged thatthe visitor cannot detect the deception. Personally, however, I do notlike deception of any sort and would recommend that the house be made, ifpossible, of whole logs; but whatever way you build it, remember that itmust have a generous, wide fireplace, a crane, and a good hearthstone, andthat your furniture must either be made of the material to be found in thewoods or selected from the antique furniture of some old farmhouse, notmahogany furniture, but Windsor chairs, three-legged stools, and deal-woodtables--such furniture as might be found in an old pioneer's home. 

Fig. 311. Fig. 312. Fig. 313. Fig. 314. Fig. 315. Fig. 316. Fig. 317. 

Fig. 318. Fig. 319. Fig. 320. 

[Illustration: Details of combined door-knob and wooden latch. ]

The principal thing to the surprise den, however, is the doorway. Theoutside of the door--that is, the side seen from the main part of thehouse--should be as formal as its surroundings and give no indication ofwhat might be on the other side. If it opens from the most formal room inthe house, so much the better. Fig. 321 shows the outside of the door ofthe surprise den; I do not mean by this outside of the house but a doorwayfacing the dining-room, library, drawing-room, or parlor. Fig. 321 showsone side of the door and Fig. 322 the other side of the same door. In thisinstance one side of the door is supposed to have a bronze escutcheon anda glass knob (Figs. 315 and 316). Of course, any other sort of a knob(Fig. 313) will answer our purpose, but the inside, or the surprise-denside, of the door must have

A Wooden Latch

After some experiments I discovered that this could be easily arranged bycutting a half-round piece of hardwood (_F_, Fig. 312) to fit upon thesquare end _G_ of the knob (Figs. 311 and 313) and be held in place with asmall screw (Fig. 314). When this arrangement is made for the door and theknob put in place as it is in Figs. 315 and 316, a simple wooden latch(Fig. 317) with the catch _K_ (Fig. 319) and the guard (Fig. 320) may befastened upon the den side of the door as shown by _K_, _L_, (Fig. 317). When the door is latched the wooden piece _F_ fits underneath the latch asshown by Fig. 317. When the knob is turned, it turns the half disk andlifts the latch _H_ as shown in Fig. 318; this, of course, opens the door, and the visitor is struck with amazement upon being ushered into a pioneerbackwoods log cabin, where after-dinner coffee may be served, where thegentlemen may retire to smoke their cigars, where the master of the housemay retire, free from the noise of the children, to go over his accounts, write his private letters, or simply sit before the fire and rest histired brain by watching the smoke go up the chimney. 

Fig. 321. Fig. 322. 

[Illustration: The "surprise den. " A log house inside a modern mansion. ]

Here also, over the open fire, fish, game, and chickens may be cooked, asour grandams and granddaddies cooked them, and quaint, old-fashionedluncheons and suppers served on earthenware or tin dishes, camp style. Intruth, the surprise den possesses so many charming possibilities that itis destined to be an adjunct to almost every modern home. It can beenclosed within the walls of a city house, a suburban house, or added as awing to a country house, but in all cases the outside of the surprise denshould conform in material used and general appearance to the rest of thehouse so as not to betray the secret. 

XLIX

HOW TO BUILD APPROPRIATE GATEWAYS FOR GROUNDS ENCLOSING LOG HOUSES, GAMEPRESERVES, RANCHES, BIG COUNTRY ESTATES, AND LAST BUT NOT LEAST BOYSCOUTS' CAMP GROUNDS

THE great danger with rustic work is the temptation, to which mostbuilders yield, to make it too fancy and intricate in place of practicaland simple. Figs. 323, 324, 325, and 326 are as ornamental as one can makethem without incurring the danger of being overdone, too ornate, too fancyto be really appropriate. 

Fig. 323. Fig. 324. Fig. 325. Fig. 326. 

[Illustration: Which would you rather do or go fishing? Suggestions forlog gates. ]

Which Would You Rather Do or Go Fishing?

Fig. 328 is a gate made of upright logs with bevelled tops protected byplank acting as a roof, and a flattened log fitting across the top. Thegate and fence, you may see, are of simple construction; horizontal logsfor the lower part keep out small animals, upright posts and rails for theupper part keep out larger animals and at the same time do not shut outthe view from the outside or the inside of the enclosure. Fig. 324 shows aroof gateway designed and made for the purpose of supplying building sitesfor barn swallows or other useful birds. The fence for this one is adifferent arrangement of logs, practical and not too fancy. Fig. 325 showsa modification of the gate shown by Fig. 323; in this one, however, inplace of a plank protecting bevelled edges of the upright logs, twoflattened logs are spiked on like rafters to a roof, the apex beingsurmounted by a bird-house. Fig. 326 shows another gateway composed of twoupright logs with a cross log overhead in which holes have been excavatedfor the use of white-breasted swallows, bluebirds, woodpeckers, orflickers. Fig. 327 is another simple but picturesque form of gateway, where the cross log at the top has its two ends carved after the fashionof totem-poles. In place of a wooden fence a stone wall is shown. The endsof the logs (Fig. 327), which are embedded in the earth, should first betreated with two or three coats of creosote to prevent decay; but since itis the moisture of the ground that causes the decay, if you arrange yourgate-posts like those shown in the vertical section (Fig. 328), they willlast practically forever. Note that the short gate-post rests upon severalsmall stones with air spaces between them, and pointed ends of the uprightlogs rest upon one big stone. The gate-post is fastened to the logs bycrosspieces of board running horizontally from log to the post, and theseare enclosed inside the stone pier so that they are concealed from view. This arrangement allows all the water to drain from the wood, leaving itdry and thus preventing decay. Fig. 329 shows another form of gate-post ofmore elaborate structure, surmounted by the forked trunk of a tree; theseparts are supposed to be spiked together or secured in place by hardwoodpegs. 

Never forget to add the bird-house or bird shelter to every gateway youmake; it is more important than the gate itself. In my other books I havedescribed and told how to make various forms of bird-houses, including myinvention of the woodpecker's house now being manufactured by many firms, including one in Germany, but the reader should make his own bird-houses. I am glad the manufacturers have taken up these ideas for the good theywill _do the birds_, but the ideas were published first solely for the useof the boys in the hopes of educating them both in the conservation ofbird life and in the manual training necessary to construct bird-houses. 

Fig. 327. Fig. 328. Fig. 329. 

[Illustration: Gateways for game preserves, camps, etc. ]

Fig. 330. Fig. 331. Fig. 332. 

[Illustration: Log gate and details of same. ]

The reader must have, no doubt, noticed that the problems in this bookhave become more and more difficult as we approach the end, but this isbecause everything grows; as we acquire skill we naturally seek more andmore difficult work on which to exercise our skill. These gateways, however, are none of them too difficult for the boys to build themselves. The main problem to overcome in building the picturesque log gateway shownby Fig. 331 is not in laying up the logs or constructing the roof--thereader has already learned how to do both in the forepart of thisbook--but it is in so laying the logs that the slant or incline on the twooutsides will be exactly the same, also in so building the sides that whenyou reach the top of the open way and place your first overhead log, thelog will be exactly horizontal, exactly level, as it must be to carry outthe plan in a workmanlike manner. Fig. 330 shows you the framework of theroof, the ridge-pole of which is a plank cut "sway-backed, " that is, lowerin the centre than at either end. The frame should be roofed withhand-rived shingles, or at least hand-trimmed shingles, if you use themanufactured article of commerce. This gateway is appropriate for a commonpost-and-rail fence or any of the log fences illustrated in the previousdiagrams. Fig. 332 shows how the fence here shown is constructed: the _A_logs are bevelled to fit in diagonally, the _B_ and _C_ logs are set in asshown by the dotted line in Fig. 332. A gateway like the one shown herewould make a splendid and imposing one for a permanent camp, whether it bea Boy Scout, a Girl Pioneer, a private camp for boys, or simply theentrance to a large private estate. 

The writer has made these diagrams so that they may be used by men orboys; the last one shows a gateway large enough to admit a "four-in-hand"stage-coach or an automobile, but the boys may build it in miniature sothat the opening is only large enough to admit a pedestrian. 

 _The End_

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