Copyright (C) 1998 by F. B. Lozo

Introductory Note:

Sequential Problem Solving is written for those with a whole brainthinking style. It is for those who seek to validate the propriety ofwhen and under what circumstances they utilize each aspect of theirintellect. Sequential Problem Solving helps those with a logicalnature to develop creative right brain intuitive processes in a waythat can be efficiently utilized by the orderly left brain to developnew solutions to both old and everyday problems. Included are basicstudy skills for high school and college students. 

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Sequential Problem Solving:

A STUDENT HANDBOOK

With

Checklists for Successful Critical Thinking. 

By

Fredric B. Lozo

Mathis, Texas

Copyright 1998 F. B. Lozo

ISBN 0-9674166-2-0

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION Problem solving checklist flowchart

RESEARCH SKILLS Rapid Reading MemorizationPRACTICAL PROBLEM SOLVING Learning Stream Of ConsciousnessPROBLEM SOLVING STEPS Problem Identification as the first step of problem solving Fact Gathering in problem solving Logic Fallacies Emotional Fallacies Credibility Fallacies Fact And Opinion Deductive Reasoning Developing a Solution Time Material Manpower Trying the Solution Manpower Management Leadership Styles Dealing With Interpersonal ConflictINTERPERSONAL PROBLEM SOLVING External Conflicts Internal Conflicts Dealing with the "Unattached" Person Interpersonal relationships -- ValuesPROBLEM SOLVING EVASIONSAPPENDIX 1 -- OUTLINE STYLESAPPENDIX 2 -- PERSUASIVE ARGUMENT FORMAPPENDIX 3 -- ARGUMENTATIVE FALLACIESREFERENCESBIBLIOGRAPHYINDEX

Introduction

We are constantly trying to make some sense of our world and the waypeople treat each other. The purpose of this book is to provide asystematic way of analyzing situations and planning actions. 

Sequential Problem Solving is written for those who want to reassurethemselves that their thinking is logically correct rather thanemotionally or impulsively misguided. It provides step by stepprocedures for applying computer-like decision making to daily living. Many ordinary problems involve not only physical, concrete parts butalso interpersonal elements. Thus problem solving involves both thephysical world and the interpersonal world. For instance, whensolutions to physical problems are implemented, the job manager mustdecide which of several leadership-managerial styles is appropriate. Are the workers mature enough and knowledgeable enough to worktogether as a team without supervision, or are the workers so immatureand unruly that an authoritarian task master leadership style will berequired, or will the workers need a teacher-leader for some period oftime before they become a team?

The underlying principle, throughout Sequential Problem Solving, is anobligation to help each other as citizens of a world community, and anacknowledgement that our real enemy is often ourselves. Our commonproblem is understanding ourselves in order to be a friend to others. Sequential Problem Solving provides us with a way of checking for thekindness factor in problem solving, with the goal of helping othersand being a good citizen in the world community. 

A separate section, Dealing with Unattached People, is devoted tothe problem of neighbors in the world community who are untrustworthyfor some period of time, from the view point that today's enemies aretomorrow's friends. 

Some neighbors in the world community are, from time to time, untrustworthy. Since opportunities for misunderstanding are greater ina climate of mistrust, later sections are included that deal withmistrust and ways that we can gauge interpersonal situations andselect an appropriate leadership style to match it. 

Sequential Problem Solving begins with the mechanics of learning andthe role of memorization in learning. The techniques of effectivememorization follow, as well as other important learning skills. 

This book contains many step by step checklists, much like pilots useto make certain that things of importance are not overlooked. Theseindividual checklists are tied together in a broad flowchart thatprovides a sequential decision making pathway. The contents of thechecklists are things that many adults utilize instinctively, withoutconscious thought. However these checklist can provide adults with amore positive way of checking their own thinking, in times of stress, and a way for students to become instinctive users of sound logicpractices. Teachers may find that students instantaneously begin toact more mature because of the realization that their peers have acommon body of knowledge about values and character traits andchecklists to evaluate the behavior of others. For teachers, thesequence of presentation here can be readily altered to suit theteachable moment, that moment when a unique, high interest situationarises that lends itself to discussion of a particular topic. Thesequence presented here is merely one way in which the variousinterlocking subjects can be presented. 

This presentation is intentionally concise to provide the reader witha composite picture of the use of checklists in logical thinking, without burdening the reader with statistical findings or repetitioushistorical background information. 

The ideas presented here are referenced to credible academic researchwherever possible. Endnotes are used extensively to direct the readerto in-depth authoritative resources, and additional references areprovided for each section at the back of the book. 

In this book I have used the pronoun "he" for humanity in general, rather than using he/she or similar conventions. This usage wasselected to enhance the flow of the written word and should not betaken literally. The word "he" is used here to include both women andmen and applies to them with equality. 

Solving problems is a daily, if not hourly, part of our lives. It istherefore useful to put the mechanics of problem solving and humaninterpersonal relationships into flowchart form, so that when stressis intense we have some way of making more certain that we arethinking flawlessly. (A comprehensive flowchart is included in theHTML version. )

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Research Skills. 

Rapid Reading. 

Effective learners use certain reading techniques[1] that greatlyincrease both their comprehension and the time required to learn newsubjects. 

One useful method of reducing new material learning time is the SQ3Rmethod[2]:

 Scan. Question. Read. Review. Recite. 

Scanning provides a rapid overview. Many well written books followlogical outlines that can orient the reader to the subject matter. The outline might follow this pattern:

Title. Table of Contents. Main Introduction and conclusion. Chapter 1. Introduction. Conclusion. Chapter 2. Chapter 3. Conclusion. Definitions. 

Questioning is a natural, instinctive, second step that most learnersfollow. In the scanning process, certain questions naturally arise. These should be noted in a short list of questions to be answeredthrough reading. The questioning procedure helps the reader stayfocused. 

Reading occurs very rapidly if a systematic plan is followed:

First, determine the main idea from the title, the first paragraph, and the last paragraph. 

Second, determine if a large subject is divided into smaller subjectswith some outlining scheme. 

Next, follow the title, introduction, body, conclusion rule to findthe main idea of each smaller section. Each smaller section can thenbe scanned for keywords. Keyword recognition signals the reader to paycloser attention for critical definitions and ideas that follow. 

Finally, review as often as necessary to keep focused. Outlining andnote taking often help. 

Reviewing new material on a strict schedule is necessary to solidifynew material in the memory, and to transfer it from short term memoryto long term memory. 

Forgetfulness is a matter of periodic review. Memorization throughrepetition and forgetfulness follow a similar pattern. Each is gainedor lost by halves for the same time period. The following graphillustrates the phenomenon. 

The memory loss/recall increase with review phenomenon has beenverified many times. [3]

Generally memory is lost by one-half for each doubled time increment. One day after first learning one-half is lost. By day two, one-half ofthat remaining memory is lost, and by day four, one-half again islost. By day four, only one-sixteenth of the original memory isintact. 

At a similar rate, with review after one day only one-half of thematerial that was reviewed will be lost. If reviewed again on day two, the amount lost is again divided by two. If reviewed six times in athirty-two day period, the about retained will be more thanninety-eight percent and the amount lost will only be about twoper-cent in the next thirty-two days versus fifty per-cent in one day. 

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Memorization

Three common ways of remembering are: repetition, association, andexaggeration. [4] An similar skill is outlining, and samples ofvarious outlining styles can be found in Appendix 1. 

Repetition is the key to long term memory. Physiologically, when braincells are activated by the memory process, the nerve cell coating, known as the glial sheath, increases in thickness and becomes thickerand thicker with each repetition, strengthening the electrical pathwayin brain that constitutes memory. In addition, when associationsbetween parts of a thing remembered are formed, the nerve cell bodysends out axon runners to other associated memory cells. These axonrunners from one cell connect through synapses to dendrite runners onother cells. As the axon-dendrite pathway is used repetitiously, thesurrounding glial cells become larger and more tightly wrapped aroundthe electrically conductive axon-dendrite pathways, therebytransforming the memory from a short-term memory to a long-termmemory. [5]

Memories of similar objects reside in nearby regions of the brain, while memories of exotic or exaggerated objects are farther away. Byforming memories with creative and unusual associations, many morepathways are established, much like a spider weaving a bigger andbigger web, in which each part leads to the center by manyinterconnected pathways. 

Memory links are also established when a variety of sensations andmuscular activity are engaged. Indeed, some people seem to be moreproficient at learning by either seeing, hearing or writing, but noone method can provide the more numerous pathways provided by allthree in combination. 

Memory is enhanced not only by repetition, but also by association andexaggeration of certain features of the object. Many memories arerecalled as series of objects. For instance, a memory device toremember four common logical fallacies is a picture of the Earth, withthe green continents and blue oceans, viewed from outer space with aflight of white geese circling around it. This image is used to recallthe statement "geese circle every continent. " The first letters ofthat statement (gcec) stand for the logic fallacies of generalization, circularities, either/or, and cause and effect. (These fallacies arediscussed in detail in a later chapter. )

Size, also, seems to play a role in memorization. During the MiddleAges, memory contests were held annually. In one, the winnerremembered one hundred thousand sequential items. [6] A time-provenmemory method from the Middle Ages is association of abstract ideas tolarge objects. The objects used for trigger recall seem to need to beabout the size of a human, so that, if we were blind, we couldidentify the object by touch. Large objects in the memory seem toengage muscular memory areas as well as sight memory areas in thebrain and expand the memory web. For instance, remembering the pointsof a speech about a military battle might involving walking from oneroom to another in a familiar house. In the first room a ship's anchoris propped up in a corner, in the next room is a cannon, in the thirdroom is a large telescope, and the in the fourth room is a horse. Thissequence of anchor, cannon, telescope, horse might remind the speakerthat the speech is about a ship being bombarded from the shore by acannon; and that the cannon was captured when a scouting party saw thecannon through a telescope and sent for the cavalry. 

Imagining numbers as objects in three-dimensional space is a verypowerful way of remembering a series of numbers. This also seems toengage muscular memory. For instance, we might imagine block numbersfor Pi, 3. 1416. These numbered blocks should be about four inches highand one inch thick and should be imagined rotating in space about twofeet to the front and about six inches above eye level. We can imaginethem rotating slowly in a circle through an entire revolution. As theyturn, we can mentally reach out and feel them with our fingers onevery side. Such exercises, involving three-dimensional objects inspace and muscles, allow the associated memory cells to form many, many more links than just a single glance at written numbers willform. Additional associations not only form more axon-dendriteconnections, but also cause an increase in the surrounding glialsheath of the brain cell. 

 * * * * *

Research Skills. 

1. Mindil, Phyllis. _Power Reading_. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1993. 

2. Robinson, Francis P. . _Effective Studying_. 4th ed. New York: Harperand Row, 1970. 

3. Spitzer, Herbert F. "Studies in Retention". _Journal of EducationalPsychology_. Vol. XXX (Dec. 1930) No. 9. 

4. Minninger, Joan. _Total Recall -- How to Boost Your Memory Power_. Emmaus, Pa: Rodale Press, 1984. 

5. _Neural mechanisms of learning and memory_. Mark R. Rosenzweig andEdward L. Bennett, eds. Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press, c1976. 

6. Spense, Jonathan D. _The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci_. New York:Penquin Books, 1984. 

================================

Practical Problem Solving

Sequential Problem Solving is a labor of love for all students whoseek success and for the parents and teachers who guide them. Sequential Problem Solving also provides the lifelong-learner with thesatisfaction of being able to measure his performance. 

The goal of Sequential Problem Solving is to provide learners with aroad map for successfully making decisions. Students can began theiradult lives with a framework that will help them pick noble goals, know themselves, and be prepared for dealing with life's villains. They can thus achieve peace and joy, and can be prepared for makinglife's hard decisions as well. 

Young people often dream of a loving spouse and joyful children. Olderpeople dream of success in business. Still others dream of securing asuitable retirement. Whatever the age or the dream, the problems, ofmaking dreams come true, share some similarities. 

People solving problems share certain common steps in resolving thoseproblems and face certain common difficulties. How do we developsolutions? Where do we get information to work with? Who should wetrust for advise? At what point should we make a decision? What arethe alternatives?

Study leads to success, and organization builds bridges to the future. Organized systematic thinking requires effort, and the effort isjustified by predictable success. This is contrasted to happenstancedecision making based on impulsiveness and wishful thinking. Sequential Problem Solving is about organized thinking, and justifyingdecisions based on solid facts, rather than on impulsiveness oremotional indulgence. Growing to maturity is about planning ratherthan acting on impulses or instant gratification. Instantgratification often has costly consequences that forethought mighthave averted. Sequential Problem Solving is about making dreams cometrue while minimizing the hidden costs. 

I remember well the magic of that first romantic glance across acrowded ballroom, the guileless smile and downcast eyes thatinstantaneously made my heart skip a beat. I remember the soulstirring melody of _Band of Gold_ and the lingering smell of peachesand the gentle winds against my ears on a pleasant summer night. Sequential Problem Solving is about memories and dreams, making themcome true, and keeping them alive. 

Sequential Problem Solving is about becoming both a success and alifelong-learner. Problem solving has two aspects: physical problemsin a scientific environment and personal problems in a spiritual innerworld. This book uses well known classical literary selections asmodels for personal decision making and character development. Theseworks were chosen primarily due to their ready availability. 

Part of the fun of sequential problem solving is mentally rewritingstories to have more favorable outcomes. We imagine favorableoutcomes naturally, but successful people do so in a more systematicfashion, that makes logical outcomes more certain. Using realisticlogic rather than wishful emotion requires that we know ourselves, know our values and where they came from, and know clearly what ourbasic goals are in life. Sequential Problem Solving systematicallyoutlines those aspects of our spiritual inner selves that play a partin our decision making and, largely, determine our success. 

Sequential Problem Solving explores the nature of personal internalconflict and how literary characters change in the course of storiesto overcome personal weaknesses. Successful learners learn torecognize their own internal conflicts and learn that courage is askill anyone can learn to re-direct their own destiny. 

The first step in the adventure of becoming courageous is to writedown a philosophy of life: what we want to achieve and how we plan totreat other people. A few words will do: I want to be happy, healthy, wealthy, have a loving companion, help others, etc. 

Everyone should develop, write down, and periodically review theirphilosophy of life. If we are going to be successful, we need to havea systematic way of going about it. What do we know today abouteffective ways of becoming educated and successful?

At this point in time, my own philosophy for education has 11 parts. 

First, learning has three basic components: specialized knowledge, basic thinking skills, and mature thinking skills. [1] In the study ofDickens' _Great Expectations_, "specialized knowledge" includes Pip'sturbulent relationship to his sister and to her husband Joe. "Basicthinking skills" include the student's memorization of the variouscharacters and the sequence of the plot in the story. "Mature thinkingskills" include the student's analysis of Pip's internal conflict andhow Pip overcomes his internal weaknesses. Mature skills might alsoinclude the creation of an alternative ending of how the story couldhave achieved an even more satisfactory ending. This story is uniquein that there are two published endings: one, the author's originalending, and the second written at the insistence of the author'snewspaper editor. These alternative endings illustrate how we cancreate an alternative environment and make our dreams come true. Sequential Problem Solving is about finding alternative solutions toproblems and executing well researched plans. 

Second, students learn to trust their own ability through success, andthe teacher can help to insure that success. Success can be assured bytailoring the curriculum to the student. The student with severe priorknowledge deficits can usually be rapidly remediated by learning basicthinking skills first: for instance, the basic memorizationtechniques, note taking, outlining, and free association recalltechniques. (These are discussed in detail elsewhere. )

Students should be aware of what they learn and feel pride ofaccomplishment. They should recognize for themselves when theyachieve success in learning. They should learn to constantly monitortheir own performance and the success of their strategies. 

Learning occurs in well ordered ways:[2] first, the student gainsunderstanding of what is read or the teacher explains, then memorizesthe facts of the subject in order to analysis the information laterthrough comparing and contrasting. Next the student may use theinformation to create something new, and finally he should use thememorized information to evaluate his own performance. This sequenceis known to teachers as Bloom's taxonomy. [3]

Students need guidelines for making decisions. Those decisions mayinvolve physical, scientific problems, or they may involveinterpersonal problems, social values and moral decisions. Studentsshould learn a systematic workable framework for making decisions. Allstudents should develop the ability to evaluate their thoughtprocesses as a learned skill. The mature learner should be able torecall the steps of scientific problem solving, recognize specificpersonal values and character traits, and remember the tests forsequential steps in moral decision making. Students should then beable to use apply those mature thinking skills to first literaryscenarios and then to real life problems. Studies of literature enablethe student to extend the analysis to television drama and ultimatelyto real life and to subsequently imagine a variety of suitablealternative outcomes. 

Students should learn to recognize and control certain biologicalfeelings. A student should know how the human brain is organized andrecognize those times when animal-like impulses jeopardize moremature, rational thought. A student should also be able to recall anduse basic information about basic nutrition, rest, and exercise, inorder to minimize the danger of thoughtless impulsiveness. 

Students should develop a sense of belonging to a caring, helpfulhumanity, and develop their own short and long term goals in achievingpeace and joy through helping others in a responsible manner. 

Students should learn the dynamics of basic childcare and theimportance of continuous parental attachment in the first two years ofa baby's life. Students should be aware of how "unattached" childrenare set up for failure and antisocial behavior disorders, by poorbonding with the parent in the first few months and years of life. 

Students should be prepared to deal with manipulative people. Studentsshould learn how to recognize people without a conscience. Studentsshould have strategies for managing interpersonal relationships, bothgood and bad. 

Students should have a knowledge of the religions of the world anddevelop a toleration for other people. 

Finally, students should become citizens of the world, dedicated tohelping others while making their own dreams come true. 

Developing and maintaining a systematic philosophy of life entailsbecoming a lifelong learner. 

 * * * * *

Learning. 

Learning has three basic components: specialized knowledge, basicthinking skills, and mature thinking skills. 

Specialized knowledge is that part of a study that must be memorized. This "disciplinary based knowledge" contains unique terms anddefinitions. Language studies have their unique terms: nominative, comma, plot; mathematics has its: tangent, sum, parabola, etc. Theseare terms that must be memorized in order to understand and use thesubject matter. 

Basic thinking skills include memorization techniques, the stream ofconsciousness technique, outlining, note taking, rapid reading, scanning for main ideas and keywords, questioning, and reorganizing. 

Mature thinking skills include procedures that require specializedknowledge and basic thinking skills, like applying the sequentialsteps of problem solving and following the sequential tests for moraldecision making. 

 * * * * *

STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS

The stream of consciousness technique is a "basic" thinking skill, along side outlining, note taking, rapid reading. The stream ofconsciousness skill is also known as the free-association recalltechnique. 

Both creative writers, artists and scientific problem solvers use thestream of consciousness or free-association skill. This skill is alsoknown as gestation, mulling things over, and getting a handle onthings. The process begins by letting our thoughts flow freely andthen sorting out the ones useful to our problem from the many thatcame to mind. Often many of the random thoughts that come to mind haveno apparent connection to the problem; they are merely connected likecircular links in a spider's web to threads that interconnect withothers and run toward the center of the problem. The free associationtechnique begins by trying to think about nothing in a relaxed, tension-free environment. Try as we might, something always intrudeson our consciousness. It may a line running toward the center of theweb or it may be a seemingly meaningless, circular line. Everythought should be written down as it comes to mind, and the task ofthinking about nothing begun anew. After ten or fifteen minutes, thetrain of intrusive thoughts usually begins to slow down, and we canthen take the list of seemingly unrelated thoughts and sort out theones that relate to the problem. The next step of brainstorming is totake the free association / stream of consciousness list and circlethe words that pertain to the problem, and connect them with "web"lines into "clusters. " These crude webs and clusters can then bereconstructed into a more legible outline. (Several styles ofoutlining are illustrated in the Appendix 2. ) This outline can then beused in the subsequent steps of problem solving. The subsequent stepsof the problem solving procedure involve hypothetico-deductivereasoning and is a part of the scientific method. [4]

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Problem Solving Steps. 

1. Identify the problem (state the hypothesis). 

2. Gather facts: three ways in the order of most reliability. 

 A. Research -- library, Internet. 

 B. Ask someone knowledgeable. 

 C. Brainstorm: free association / stream of consciousness, web and cluster, outline. 

3. Develop several alternative solutions. 

4. Pick a possible solution and try it. 

5. Evaluate the outcome. 

6. Try again if necessary

 * * * * *

_Problem Identification_ as the first step of problem solving

In life, personal problems are often complicated by outsidechallenges. In literature, these forces are called external conflicts. The external conflict may be man challenged by nature, man embattledby society, or one man opposed by another man. In science, problemsare often exclusively matters of a physical nature and the externalconflict is man being challenged by nature. 

Internal conflicts have a personal nature. By comparing personalinternal conflicts to Aristotle's structure for dramas, theseconflicts can often be recognized. Aristotle's drama structure dividedthe play into five acts with a hero, a villain, an external conflictand climax, and an emotional cleansing involving an internal conflict. Real life internal conflicts often involve character traits and valuesthat are easily identified by this method. [5] (Character traits andvalues are discussed in the section on interpersonal relationships. )

 * * * * *

_Fact Gathering_ in Problem Solving. 

The preferred order for gather facts is based on the order ofreliability: library research, asking someone knowledgeable, andbrainstorming. 

Facts should be tested for logic, emotional fallacies, and thecredibility of "expert" witnesses. Facts gained from research in alibrary are easiest to verify, and other methods of gathering factsmust often be re-verified through library research. Logical andemotional weaknesses of arguments can often be recognized by the useof certain fallacy recognition checklists. [6] The most widely used ofthe fallacies is the over or under generalization: everyone (all, without exception, none, never, no one) rode a bicycle when only twoyears old. [7]

 * * * * *

The more common persuasive fallacies are:

Logic Fallacies. 

1. Generalization -- It is raining everywhere. It has not rained anywhere. (The exception is discounted. )

2. Circular argument -- That team is the best because it is the greatest. (Similar adjectives describing each other. )

3. Either or fallacy -- Either the city will drill more wells or it will run out of water. (This ignores the possibility of water pipelines, river dams, desalinization, etc. )

4. Cause and effect fallacies -- two kinds:

 A. Single cause fallacy -- The streets are wet, therefore it has been snowing. (This discounts other causes like rain. )

 B. Guilt by association -- He has a friend that is a Japanese, therefore he must be Japanese in his soul. 

 * * * * *

Emotional Fallacies. (These are intended make a person fear loss offriendship. )[8]

1. Generalization-Everyone is doing it. 

2. Snob Appeal -- A special thing for a special group: Heroes wear only Hot Stuff clothes. 

3. Loaded Language -- Emotionally connotative terms of derision: He is a "Mutt. " (Not only a dog but also a worthless cur. )

4. Name Calling -- This is often used to discredit someone. It is also often a problem evasion rather than a problem solving strategy that uses:

 i. Sarcasm. 

 ii. Cynicism. 

 * * * * *

Credibility Fallacies. 

Credibility fallacies are those in which uncertified people presentthemselves as experts: the famous actor dressed as a doctorrecommending a certain medicine. The actor is not a trainedprofessional and has no professional credibility. 

Fact And Opinion. 

Certain keywords can be often be used to differentiate facts fromopinions. 

1. Generalizations. All inclusive or all exclusive terms that usually have exceptions: everyone, everything, no one, never, always:

 It always rains in the summertime. (This does not take into account long droughts or geographic locations where rain rarely falls. )

 Everyone drives a Ford. 

2. Statements about the future:

 We will never go there. 

3. Statements of opinion:

 It seems to me. 

 In my opinion. 

4. Statements using the emphatic "to be" words. Is, are, was, were, etc. Are often facts that can be proven either true or false, but are not necessarily as true as the "is" implies. 

 He is a genius. 

For the purpose of gathering information in problem solving, facts arestatements that can be readily verified as true or false; opinionscannot be quickly verified. In problem solving, the practical abilityto prove something true without a great deal of effort is the key topractical truth. A statement that might merely hold the possibility ofbeing proven true is, for all practical purposes, an opinion until itis proven true. 

 * * * * *

Deductive Reasoning Errors

Deductive reasoning [9] is stating a series of valid relationshipswith a conclusion about them:

When it rains the streets get wet. It is raining. Therefore thestreets are wet. 

Several types of reasoning fallacies exist: (1) formal deductivefallacies, which occur because of an error in the form of theargument, and (2) informal fallacies that contain false content. 

The informal false content fallacies are listed in Appendix 4 andinclude:

Logic errors. 

* The "straw man" deception. 

* The "false dilemma" deception. 

* The "domino theory" deception. 

* The "two wrongs make a right fallacies" deception. 

Emotional errors. 

* The "attack the speaker" diversion. 

* The "commonly accepted practice" deception. 

* The "appeal to pity" tactic. 

* The "infallible truth or cliche" deception. 

The emotional tactics often include cynicism or sarcasm and aresometimes used to belittle another person. The effect is to make themfeel worthless and unloved. This is an emotional fallacy that attacksa person's need for love and belonging. 10 This is discussed in greaterdetail in the section on Internal conflicts. 

Sometimes debaters attempt to evade answering an argument using the"red herring" diversion. This tactic was named for game poachers thatused a strong smelling fish to mask their scent from dogs used bygame wardens trying to apprehend them. This tactic introduces anotherissue that diverts the discussion. It is often logically unrelated tothe issue, and is often an emotional attack directed at the otherperson. 

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Practical Problem Solving

1. Beyer, Barry K. "Developing a Scope and Sequence for ThinkingSkills Instruction. " _Educational Leadership_ 45(April 1988): 26-30. 

2. A Committee of College and University Examiners. "EducationalObjectives and Curriculum Development. " _Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives -- Handbook 1: The Cognitive Domain_. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc. , 1956. 

3. A Committee of College and University Examiners. "EducationalObjectives and Curriculum Development. " _Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives -- Handbook 2: The Affective Domain_. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc. , 1956. 

4. "The Galileo Affair, " Owen Gingerick, _American Scientific_, August, 1982, #247, p. 132-138. 

5. Aristotle. _Rhetoric and the Poetics_. F. Solmsen, ed. New York:The Modern Library, 1954

6. _Critical Thinking and Reasoning: a handbook for Teachers_. Albany:SUNY, 1976. 

7. "Classifying Fallacies Logically", Ludwig F. Schlecht, _TeachingPhilosophy_, March, 1991, 14:1, p. 53-65

8. Maslow, A. H. _Motivation and Personality_. New York: Harper andRow, 1954. 

9. _Critical Thinking and Reasoning: A Handbook for Teachers_. Albany:The University of the State of New York, 1976. 

10. Maslow, A. H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper andRow, 1954. 

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Developing a Solution. 

Developing solutions should take into account time, material andmanpower. How much time is available to solve a problem? Are thematerials available? Is the manpower available?

Time. 

How much time is available? Often problems are best solved by using"Kentucky windage. " Artillery gunners use the expression, "One over, one under, one dead center. " This refers to making gross adjustmentsrather than walking a solution toward a problem one small step at atime. This technique has also been called "Eliminating the extremes":walking toward the center from either end, half way at a time. Thistechnique reduces the time required to solve a problem in a binaryfashion by halves, rather than in arithmetic progression one smallstep at a time. 

Often the first solutions tried don't work. We may learn more factsabout problems as we try to solve them. Many times a problem requiresre-defining and the entire nature of the solution changes from onetrial to the next. In science, every experiment is valuable becausewhat is disproven is as valuable as the final solution. A disprovensolution reduces the possibilities by providing answers about what isnot possible. 

We need to take into account problems that will arise. It is useful todouble or triple the initial time estimate when beginning newprojects. It is prudent to plan on finishing the job in one-third toone-half of the time we would like to finish the job. This isparticularly true with artistic projects; artists often want to addone final touch, and one more touch ad infinitum (the "Michelangelo"dilemma). 

Timing for the various elements in a job can often be chartedbeginning with the first thing needed to be done and ending with areview of the project and future planning. Such charts are easilyconstructed on spreadsheets with calendar dates in vertical columnsand tasks in horizontal rows. This form of time chart is amarching calendar. Initially, the chart can also be used to backschedule material purchase for future delivery. As sequential tasksare completed, the consecutive days are highlighted. This provides arapid visualization to the project planners of the status of theproject. 

Project Calendar. 

Task. 

 Initial planning. 

 Gather information. 

 Pick team. 

 Make drawings. 

 Assemble materials. 

 Make prototype. 

 Review prototype. 

Manufacture actual product. 

Evaluate project. 

Plan follow up. 

 * * * * *

Material. 

Are the materials available? Can we afford the cost of the materials?Sometimes it is possible to make an "first piece" or "practice piece"out of inexpensive materials. Practice pieces are helpful to learnpractical manufacturing methods. Producing detailed drawings andlisting manufacturing steps often save time and material in the longrun. Practice pieces made of soft and easy to work material, likebalsam wood, also serve the purpose of providing an actual mock upthat can be quickly modified by cut and paste methods. The practicepiece usually does not have to be pretty, only functional. It providesan idea of what changes need to be made before expensive or hard toprocure materials are used. 

 * * * * *

Manpower. 

Is sufficient manpower available to execute the plan? Are the talentsof the available manpower matched to the task?[1] Are the availablepeople qualified to perform the tasks? Are the men being lead by thebest method? Several alternative methods exist for leading or managingworkers on a project. These will be discussed in the section onleadership. 

 * * * * *

Developing a Solution. 

1. Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of MultipleIntelligences. New York: Basic Books, 1983. 

 * * * * *

===================================

Trying the Solution. 

Often complex or new tasks become learning projects, in themselves, totry to more accurately identify the problem, and to gather sufficientfacts through failure in experimentation to make progress. Projectsshould include ongoing evaluation and re-planning. Old Worldcraftsmen, the master craftsmen of yesteryear, had a guiding principlethat continues to have merit: "Any job worth doing is worth doingwell. " Doing a job well often means making a final copy after revisingthe rough draft. 

 * * * * *

Manpower Management. 

Leaders should remember that several approaches to leadership areavailable. No one style is satisfactory for all situations. 

 * * * * *

Leadership Styles. 

Three basic leadership styles exist. They are the authoritarian model, the teacher model, and the team work model. [1]

The authoritarian model is useful for situations requiring immediatecompliance by a subordinate. Soldiers occasionally use theauthoritarian style to demand instant obedience. It is most useful indangerous situations where hesitation in complying might bedisastrous; for instance, when a child is daydreaming and in danger ofwalking off of a sidewalk curb into automobile traffic. In businesssituations, this style is not often used because the authoritarianleader is often destined to fail: "micro-management" often has abelittling effect on subordinates, who subsequently rebel, and failurefollows for three reasons: the authoritarian leader often doesn't havethe expertise, time, or enough energy to do all of the jobs himselfjob without other's help. The authoritarian leadership style is seldomuseful except in emergency situations. [2] (It has been said that araised voice with someone older than five is usually inappropriate. )

The teaching leadership model is more useful because the people doingthe job are contributors. The teacher offers advice and monitorsprogress. [3]

The team work leadership model is sometimes the most useful. Thismodel works when the students become as knowledgeable as the teacherand each can and will do the other's job. This model is often seenwhen someone realizes a job needs doing, and does it without beingtold to do it. These people are conscientious "self-starters. "

 * * * * *

Leadership Styles. 

1. Tannenbaum, Robert and Warren H. Schmidt. "How to Choose aLeadership Pattern. " Harvard Business Review 36(March-April 1958):95-101. 

2. Fiedler, Fred E. "The Trouble With Leadership Training Is That itDoesn't Train Leaders. " Psychology Today 6(February 1973): 23-30. 

3. Goodall, H. Lloyd, Jr. Small Group Communications in Organizations. 2nd ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1990. 

=================================

Dealing With Interpersonal Conflict. 

Western World values and ideas of dealing with interpersonal conflictoriginate in the Code of Hammarabi and the Mosaic Code. 

King Solomon in the Bible, following the Ten Commandments of Moses, offers some practical suggestions for dealing with interpersonalconflict. 

In Solomon's Book of Proverbs, one of Solomon's main themes is drawinga consistent distinction between the wise man and the foolish man. Hecharacterizes a foolish man as someone who neither asks for advise noraccepts it. He further characterizes the foolish man as someone who isscornful, divisive, quarrelsome, and mocking of other's efforts withcynicism and sarcasm. 

Solomon's advise for dealing with scornful people has three steps. Thefirst step is to try counseling with them in private, one on one. Failing that, the second step is to counsel with them again, but withtwo people, together, advising the third. The final step is to ceaserelations. 

Solomon's three steps are seen today in practical statesmanship. Weshould remember that today's enemy is tomorrow's friend. Membernations of the United Nations generally apply this same three-stepplan that ends in economic sanctions being applied by the UnitedNations as a whole. Sometimes even ceasing relations with another isnot enough and force of arms must be taken to protect weaker neighborsfrom aggression. 

Whether with neighbors or nations, armed conflict is ultimatelysorrowful. It is an admission that patient diplomacy and logic havenot been successful. It is premeditated violence to protect the weak. Many people, still developing in religious maturity and understanding, feel torment when violence is necessary, because their religiousunderstanding does not extend beyond helping "all" others. It is aquestion of who is helped and why. Some people too choose to pass fromthis life as martyrs. Others feel compelled to stay until the end andprotect the weak like a shepherd keeping predatory dogs away from thehelpless lambs. There may be a time for each course of action. 

The confusion between religion and forcing our will on others iscaused by our understanding of what helping others means. If we helpothers to hurt someone, we become harmful ourselves. We become"Enablers" [1] to those hurting others. Without our consent, theaggressor could not have taken advantage of his weaker neighbor. 

The Eastern religions, particularly Zen Buddhism, which is intimatelyassociated with the Samurai warrior of Japan, take great care to teachtranquility and self-control in the use of force. Anger is not a partof thoughtful action. 

Aikido, The Way of Harmony, teaches tranquility in the use of force, and compares it to the calm in the eye of a hurricane. [2]

The great Christian pastor, Dietrich Bonhoffer, pointed out that "justcauses" for anger did not exist in the earliest accounts of Christ'sSermon on the Mount. [3]

 * * * * *

Dealing with Interpersonal Conflict. 

1. Miller, Angelyn. The Enabler. -- When Helping Harms the Ones YouLove. New York Ballentine Books, 1988. 

2. Stevens, John. Abundant Peace -- the Biography of Morehei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido. Boston: Shambhala, 1987

3. Bobhoeffer, Dietrich. The Cost of Discipleship. New York:Macmillan, 1963. 

 * * * * *

==================================

Interpersonal Problem Solving:

Drama and literary analysis as a tool in personal problem solving. 

The structure of Aristotle's Pentad [1] for five act plays is usefulas a framework for solving personal problems. 

 1. Who is the hero? What are his weaknesses? How is he likely to fall?

 2. Who is the villain? Is the villain another person, nature or society?

 3. What external events lead to the climax with the villain?

 4. How does the climax with the villain turn out?

 5. What did the hero learn about his own internal weaknesses in the encounter with the villain?

This five part framework is useful in separating the external foes weface from the internal conflicts that are our weaknesses. 

External Conflicts. 

External conflicts are usually found to involve either another man, nature or society. In the man versus man conflict, another person isthe adversary. In the man versus nature conflict, the adversary mightbe a hurricane, or the rigors involved in climbing a mountain. In theman versus society conflict, the opponent might be industrialorganizations or lobby groups advocating nuclear waste disposal in theocean. 

The man versus self conflict, such as a man facing a crisis ofcourage, is an internal conflict. 

Internal Conflicts. 

Internal conflicts are man versus himself and man versus Godconflicts. 

The man versus God occurs when a person violates his conscience anddoes something that he knows to be wrong. Many religions advocateresolving the man versus God conflict by admission of wrongdoing andrestitution to those harmed. There may be some people that have noconscience, and the internal conflicts they face are not, as yet, well understood. [2] Those people without a conscience are a continuingsource of grief for humanity and that problem is discussed in thesection on dealing with "unattached people. "

The second type of internal conflict, the man versus self conflictexhibit certain human character weaknesses that can be identified withthe acronym FALL: fear, arrogance, laziness, and loneliness. 

Loneliness is often caused by a combination of several of the otherthree common human weaknesses, for instance, fear and laziness: fearof rejection while trying to find new friends and laziness in makingthe attempt. 

Fear is a very common weakness and is related to our needs. AbrahamMaslow[3] classified these needs as follows:

 1. Physical safety. 

 2. Food and shelter. 

 3. Love or belonging -- the need to love and be loved. 

 4. Career -- the need to be successful at something. 

 5. Self actualization -- the need some people feel to become who God wants them to be. 

People must meet their immediate, basic needs for physical safetybefore they can meet their wishful needs for love or fulfilling acareer. While we strive to behave as thinking people, with wellthought out plans, sometimes we act purely as animals by instinctalone. If we are suddenly frightened by a snarling dog, we react byrunning or fighting, instinctively, without conscious thought. PaulMacLean describes what happens in our brains as a stepping down theevolutionary ladder and using those parts of our "Triune" brain thatoperates on instinct rather than thought. [4]

MacLean divides the Triune brain[5] into three parts that developedover the evolutionary eons. The oldest, which he calls the reptilianbrain, controls aggression and passionate impulsiveness. The middleregion, the limbic system, controls docile, loving emotions. The outerregion, the neo-cortex controls thoughtful planning with an awarenessof consequences and cause-effect relationships. This phenomenon isimportant because fear alone can inhibit successful higher levelthinking by keeping the brain at the lowest (reptilian) levelpreparing to meet the threat. The educator Lev Vygotsky stressed theimportance of creating and maintaining a risk-free environment thatencourages higher level (neo-cortex) thought. [6] The growingrecognition of the Triune Brain might very well have influenced worldpolitics in the replacement of the policy of "mutually assureddestruction" with a "kinder and gentler" statesmanship. 

Maslow's need and MacLean's brain are both related to animal-likebehavioral weaknesses when we react impulsively rather than withthought and planning, and we are more likely to act impulsively whenour physical safety or food and shelter needs are threatened. 

When we do act like animals, we often are ashamed because wemomentarily set aside our conscience. Fear overpowers our desire to beloving because it engages lower brain centers that are not controlledby abstract thought centers in the higher levels of our brain. 

How then can we act like we are created in the image of God instead ofselfish, impulsive animals? We can begin by analyzing what charactersin literature and drama do. We can recognize when fear, arrogance, laziness, or loneliness drives the hero's actions, and imagine how thehero might overcome his weaknesses. We can project a responsibleresolution to the hero's internal conflicts. This exercise ofrecognizing the source of another's actions is merely an intermediatestep in the learning process, however. [7] The final step is when weface our own trails, and face the need to analyze our own reactions tostress, as we have looked at those in dramas. Finally, we can plan ourown future and make it happen, just as we did with alternative endingsto conflicts in dramas. 

Occasionally, people face moral choices that seem to confusing to besolved, and the thinking brain tries to step down a notch. It eithertakes a passive emotional position with MacLean's limbic system, or animpulsive aggressive position with the reptilian system. At thesetimes, a checklist for moral decision making can provide a frameworkfor keeping our actions in the realm of planned activity rather thanimpulse. 

The Steps of Moral Decision Making. 

Moral decision making involves several growth steps in reachingmaturity. 

Stanley Kohlberg[8] provided us with a framework for making moraldecisions:

Age Test Question

 6 Punishment Will I get caught?

10 Golden Rule How would I like to treated?

13 Everyone Rule What would the world be like if everyone made this same decision?

15 Greater Good Rule Will this decision produce the greatest good for the greatest number?

Adult Higher Authority Rule Is this what God wants me to do?

Religious people often experience great internal conflict when facedMany religions advocate gentleness and helping others, as well asprotecting the weak from harm: a seeming contradiction. Does one havepriority over the other? Part of the answer may involve the Triunebrain and the absence of thought involved in impulsive aggression. Sometimes helping others may involve protecting violent people fromthemselves and that may require the use of force. Often gentle, kindpeople find the use of force quite foreign, and are especiallyvulnerable to harm from people that are termed "unattached. "[9]

Dealing with the "Unattached" Person. 

"Unattached" people refers to people that have a defectiveconscience. [10] Their actions are motivated by a lifelong distrust ofothers and a supreme belief in their own ability. They have no needfor other people. Their brains seem to function at a very lowevolutionary level, but at times they are superficially charming andpersuasive. These people are manipulative and often become sociopaths, and their behavior is thought to have been molded before they were sixmonths of age by insufficiently attentive caretakers. 

"Unattached" people, people who bonded inadequately with theirparents, are frequently very hard to convince with logical argumentsdue to their deep distrust of other people and the pattern of controlbattles continue throughout their lifetime. [11] This sad picture isdrawn from the experiences of those professionals who deal with themon a regular basis. The sociopath's irreversible behavior patternsseems to be founded, physiologically, in well established repetitivememory pathways. Perhaps modern science will find ways to help suchunfortunate people, possibly through more effective chemicalintervention that makes a person feel less threatened, so that theycan learn more productive ways of treating other people. 

Mercifully, some spiritually enlightened people are able to reacholder "Unattached" people and to help them to learn to trust othersand achieve that measure of "peace that surpasses all understanding"spoken of by the Apostle Paul in his Letter to the Phillipians inchapter 4, verse 7: "And the peace of God, which passeth allunderstanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus. "

We are all saddened when others fail to respond to logic and theuse of force is necessary, but the periodic necessity ofusing force to protect others is often unavoidable. Our own internalconflicts of loneliness brought on by dealing with sociopaths isperhaps brought on by our own fear of not being loved by others. The realization of that phenomenon might help us to resolve our owninternal conflict in dealing with the manipulative sociopath. 

One of the problems with dealing with unattached people or sociopathsis the difficulty of recognition. At one time, they seem friendly, intelligent, well adjusted, and exhibit apparent sincerity in wantingto be a friend to others. At other times, their behavior seems to snapover, instantaneously, to that of a selfish ten year old. InKohlberg's view of moral decision making, the age of ten is when aperson begins to use the Everyone Rule (what would the world be likeif everyone did the action in question). Sociopaths often do notconsider others, rather seek instantaneous gratification of their ownimpulsive needs, much like a ten year old. 

Sociopaths are often superficially charming, yet frequently exhibitcertain adverse character traits. They are:

 untrustworthy vs trustworthy disloyal vs. Loyal selfish vs. Helpful unfriendly vs. Friendly discourteous vs. Courteous (polite) mean vs. Kind rebellious vs. Obedient (a team player) wasteful vs. Thrifty cowardly vs. Brave dirty vs. Clean profane vs. Reverent

Other peculiar traits include speech pathologies, and primary process(crazy) lying. Speech pathologies include "baby" talk by an olderperson. Crazy lying includes the child caught with a stolen candy barin his hand who replies, "What candy. "

While often charming, unattached people are basically self-centeredand lack values that guide their conduct with other people. 

Interpersonal relationships -- values. 

Sequential problem solving and dealing with interpersonal relationsinvolves weighing various values and determining what is appropriateor inappropriate behavior. It is, therefore, desirable to have a firmgrasp of our own values. What does society expect of us? What do weexpect of others? What do we expect of ourselves?

The values of the English speaking countries came largely from GreatBritain. The English Common Law system and the Judeo-Christian valuesexpressed in it originated, in part, with King Arthur and the Knightsof the Roundtable. 

King Arthur and his knights left us with some simple guidelines:

 The Knight's Motto -- Be always ready. 

 The Knight's Code: On my honor I will do my best -- To do my duty to God and my King; To obey the Knight's Laws; To help other people at all times; To keep myself physically strong, mentally alert, and morally straight. 

 The Knight's Laws: The Knight is to be: Trustworthy -- I will not lie, cheat, or steal. Loyal -- I will not tolerate those who lie, cheat, or steal. Helpful -- I will help other people at all times. Friendly Courteous Kind Obedient Thrifty Cheerful Brave Clean Reverent

The underlying values of Knighthood and the Bible were eventuallypassed on to the Scouting movement for boys and girls by General SirBaden-Powell about 1908. [12] The priority expressed in the Knight'sCode is God, country, others, self -- the same sequence as in the TenCommandments of Moses:

 1. Thou shalt have no other gods before me. 2. Thou shalt not make any graven images. 3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord in vain. 4. Thou shalt remember the Sabbath to keep it holy. 5. Honor thy mother and father (that thy days may be long in the land which the Lord hath given thee). 6. Thou shalt not murder. 7. Thou not commit adultery. 8. Thou shalt not steal. 9. Thou shalt not lie. 10. Thou shalt not covet. 

The Ten Commandments and the underlying message of the Bible, ofhelping one another, provide us with the framework for appropriateinterpersonal relationships. When the human factor in problem solvingis kept in mind through a list of values and a code of conduct, personal problem solving becomes a matter of analyzing internalconflict (fear, arrogance, laziness, or loneliness). When a problempresents itself and action seems slow, it is helpful to recognize theways people evade problems. 

Problem Solving Evasions. 

1. SUBLIMATION -- sublimation is a compromise involving the gestationphase of problem solving. This often includes hobbies or otherrelaxation things that tend to disengage the left brain and allow theright brain greater autonomy. These relaxation devices allow the rightbrain to both synthesize new solutions and recall long unrememberedsolutions, as well as create new things for the fun of it. Thisactivity occurs naturally. Sometimes sublimation activities are acompulsion driven by feelings of abandonment, as are other compulsionslike substance abuse, gambling, and compulsive spending. 

2. ANGER -- anger is often an immature reaction to frustration orstress, and is not considered a part of higher neo-cortex thinking; itis rather a reptilian reaction in MacLean's Triune Brain scheme. 

Anger is also a step in the Grief Process described by ElisabethKubler-Ross that progresses through denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and finally acceptance. 

3. REGRESSION -- a return to the "Good Ole" Days. This problem evasionmechanism is farther from the problem solving pathway than anger. Itinvolves the return to behavior of an earlier age. 

4. DISTORTION -- these problem evasion mechanisms pass even fartherfrom problem solving toward problem evasion. 

 i. PROJECTION -- attributing unacceptable thoughts and feelings to someone else: "They don't like me. "

 ii. REACTION FORMATION -- forming good feelings for a tyrant to minimize bullying: the terrorized victim reaction. 

 iii. INTELLECTUALIZATION -- continuing research to find fool-proof solutions, rather than taking a chance at failure. 

 iv. DISPLACEMENT -- prejudice, racism. Sarcasm and cynicism are frequently used in expressions of superiority over others. 

5. REPRESSION -- This is the final evasion of problem solving and themost severe. It is a denial mechanism that involves blocking fromconsciousness that the problem ever existed. 

Problem Solving Evasions. 

 1. ANGER. I. Tears. Ii. Rage. 2. REGRESSION -- "If things were only just like the Good Ole Days. " 3. DISTORTION. I. PROJECTION -- Attributing one's own feelings to someone else: "He hates me. " ii. REACTION FORMATION -- Adopting favorable emotions toward an abusive-domineering bully. "If I love the terrorist, maybe he won't hurt me. " iii. INTELLECTUALIZATION -- "I'll wait until it is totally safe before I do anything. I'll continue to research the problem. " iv. DISPLACEMENT -- racial prejudice, cynicism, sarcasm. 4. REPRESSION -- "This is now not important enough to spend time on. I can't even remember why it was once important. "

 * * * * *

Interpersonal Problem Solving. 

1. Aristotle. _Rhetoric and the Poetics_. F. Solmsen, ed. New York:The Modern Library, 1954. 

2. Magid, Ken and Carole A. McKelvey. _High Risk: Children without aConscience_. New York: Bantam Books, 1987. 

3. Maslow, A. H. _Motivation and Personality_. New York: Harper andRow, 1954. 

4. MacLean, Paul. _Triune Concept of the Brain and Behavior_. Toronto:University of Toronto Press, 1973. 

5. Sagen, Carl. _The Dragons of Eden_. , New York: Ballantine Books, 1977. 

6. Vygotsky, Lev. _Thought and Language_. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1962. 

7. A Committee of College and University Examiners. "EducationalObjectives and Curriculum Development. " _Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives -- Handbook 1: The Cognitive Domain_. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc. , 1956. 

8. Kohlberg, Lawrence. "Moral Education for a Moral Transition. "_Educational Leadership_ 32 (October 1975): 46-54. 

9. Magid, Ken and Carole A. McKelvey. _High Risk: Children without aConscience_. New York: Bantam Books, 1987. 

10. _Unmasking the Psychopath -- Antisocial Personality and RelatedSyndromes_. William H Reid, Darwin Dorr, John I. Walker, Jack W. Bonner, eds. New York: W. W. Norton, 1986. 

11. Cline, Foster. _Understanding and Treating the Severely DisturbedChild_. Evergreen, CO: Evergreen Consultants in Human Behavior, 1979. 

12. Handbook for Boys. New York: Doubleday-Page and Co. , 1911. 

 * * * * *

APPENDIX 1

Outline Styles

1. A. 1. A. B. 2. B. 2. 3. 

I. I. Ii. Iii. II. III. IV. 

APPENDIX 2. 

Persuasive Argument Form. 

First establish topic, audience, and personal position. Then gatherinformation and organize the argument. 

 1. Introduction. Establish friendly intentions with the audience by using a sincere complement. State the topic of the argument. State your personal position. State three points you intend to make in the argument. Arrange these points (A) second best point, (B) weakest point, (C) strongest point. This is known in the study of rhetoric as the Nestorian Order. It achieves interest at the beginning and finishes strong. 

 2. The Body. A. The first point, but the second best argument. 1. First example illustrating point A. 2. Example 2. 3. Example 3. B. The second point and the weakest point 1. The first answer to the audience's anticipated question about some weak point. 2. Answer 2 3. Answer 3 C. The third point and the strongest. 1. First example illustrating point C 2. Example 2 3. Example 3

 3. The Conclusion: Restate your position to the topic. Restate your reasons in the same order as in the introduction and body: A, B, C. Introduce a fourth benefit from taking the position and make it a personal, human interest benefit to leave the audience in a good frame of mind. 

APPENDIX 3

Argumentative Fallacies

Deductive reasoning is stating a series of valid relationships with areasonable conclusion. When it rains the streets get wet. It is raining. Therefore the streets are wet. [1]

Several reasoning fallacies exist: (1)formal deductive fallacies, which occur because of an error in the form of the argument, and (2)informal false content fallacies. 

(1) A formal deductive fallacy might switch a premise with theconclusion:

 The streets are wet. When it rains the streets get wet. Therefore it is raining. 

This conclusion is fallacious because there are other reasons thatcould have caused the street to be wet: snow melt, a street sweeper, etc. 

(2) Several informal false content fallacies are: Logic errors:

* The "straw man" deception. 

This is deceptive attack on an opponents position using a similar butdifferent position. 

"The President states that he is a 'Peace' president, but will helpthose in need. No doubt he will withdraw the NATO peace keeping forcefrom Bosnia and send them to Somalia to assist with the faminerelief. "

What the president meant to say was that he will seek all reasonablediplomatic solutions to international aggression but will not abandoninternational treaties and will assist other nations with militaryforces. 

* The "false dilemma" deception. 

This deception often presents an argument so horrible that it is anunacceptable alternative, and the speaker's argument is presented asthe only alternative. 

"Ebola virus has been accidentally released in Merryman Corporationresearch facility in Maryland. One way to destroy it is to drop anuclear bomb on the facility. Another alternative is to accept theproposal of the Paladin Corporation to take over supervision of thecontract granted to the Merryman Corporation. Paladin estimates thatthey can decontaminate it with lethal gas for a mere ten milliondollars. "

* The "domino theory" deception. 

The domino theory deception makes the claim that if one thing happensanother will invariably follow. 

"If South Vietnam falls to the Communists, every other nation inSoutheast Asia will follow, including Australia. "

* The "two wrongs make a right" deception. 

"It is all right to execute prisoners because South Africa does ittoo. "

Emotional tactics. 

* The "attack the speaker" diversion. 

This fallacy is known as the Ad Hominem fallacy. 

"The mayor proposes opening a day care center for city hall employees. The mayor was once divorced. The mayor is not competent to make familydecisions. "

The mayor's willingness to please his employees and his administrativecompetence are diverted with a personal attack. 

* The "commonly accepted practice" deception. 

This deception often is designed to make an action seem biased orprejudicial. 

"It is common practice to replace computers in business every fiveyears. The military even has a policy to that effect . "

* The "appeal to pity" tactic. 

"If welfare recipients are required to work, many recipients will notbe able to watch television as much. "

* The "infallible truth or cliche" deception. "This meal is not well seasoned. Too many cooks spoil the soup. "

The emotional tactics often include cynicism or sarcasm and are usedto belittle the other person. The emotional tactics are often used tomake another person feel worthless and unloved. 

 * * * * *

Argumentative Fallacies. 

1. Critical Thinking and Reasoning: A Handbook for Teachers. Albany:The University of the State of New York, 1976. 

 * * * * *

REFERENCES. 

Research Skills. 

Edwards, Betty. _Drawing on The Right Side of The Brain_. Los Angeles:Tarcher, Inc. , 1979. 

Lucas, Jerry and Harry Lorayne. _The Memory Book_. New York:Ballantine Books, 1974. 

Mindil, Phyllis. _Power Reading_. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentise Hall, 1993. 

Minninger, Joan. _Total Recall -- How to Boost Your Memory Power_. Emmaus, Pa: Rodale Press, 1984. 

_Neural mechanisms of learning and memory_. Mark R. Rosenzweig andEdward L. Bennett, eds. Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press, 1976. 

Robinson, Francis P. _Effective Studying_. 4th ed. New York: Harperand Row, 1970. 

Spense, Jonathan D. _The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci_. NewYork: Penquin Books, 1984. 

Spitzer, Herbert F. "Studies in Retention. " _Journal of EducationalPsychology_. Vol. XXX (Dec. 1930) No. 9. 

 * * * * *

Practical Problem Solving. 

_Aristotle. Rhetoric and the Poetics_. F. Solmsen, ed. New York: TheModern Library, 1954

Beyer, Barry K. "Developing a Scope and Sequence for Thinking SkillsInstruction. " _Educational Leadership_ 45 (April 1988): 26-30. 

"Classifying Fallacies Logically", Ludwig F. Schlecht, _TeachingPhilosophy_, March, 1991, 14:1, p. 53-65

A Committee of College and University Examiners. "EducationalObjectives and Curriculum Development. " _Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives -- Handbook 1: The Cognitive Domain_. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc. , 1956. 

A Committee of College and University Examiners. "EducationalObjectives and Curriculum Development. " _Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives -- Handbook 2: The Affective Domain_. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc. , 1956. 

_Critical Thinking and Reasoning: A Handbook for Teachers_. Albany:The University of the State of New York, 1976

Gingerick, Owen. "The Galileo Affair. " _American Scientific_. August, 1982, #247, p. 132-138. 

Maslow, A. H. _Motivation and Personality_. New York: Harper and Row, 1954. 

 * * * * *

Fallacies. 

"Classifying Fallacies Logically", Ludwig F. Schlecht, _TeachingPhilosophy_, March, 1991, 14:1, p. 53-65

Pospesel, Howard. _Argument -- Deductive Logic Exercises_. EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1971. 

Critical Thinking and Reasoning: a handbook for Teachers. Albany:SUNY, 1976. 

 * * * * *

Developing a Solution. 

Gardner, Howard. _Frames of Mind: The Theory of MultipleIntelligences_. New York: Basic Books, 1983. 

 * * * * *

Leadership Styles. 

Fiedler, Fred E. "The Trouble With Leadership Training Is That itDoesn't Train Leaders. " _Psychology Today_ 6 (February 1973): 23-30. 

Goodall, H. Lloyd, Jr. _Small Group Communications in Organizations_. 2nd ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1990. 

Schultz, Beatrice G. _Communicating in the Small Group -- Theory andPractice_. New York: Harper and Row, 1989. 

Tannenbaum, Robert and Warren H. Schmidt. "How to Choose an LeadershipPattern. " _Harvard Business Review_ 36 (March-April 1958): 95-101. 

Wood, Julia T. "Leading in Purposive Discussions: A study of AdaptiveBehavior. " _Communications Monographs_ 44(June 1977): 152-165. 

 * * * * *

Interpersonal Problem Solving. 

A Committee of College and University Examiners. "EducationalObjectives and Curriculum Development. " _Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives -- Handbook 1: The Cognitive Domain_. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc. , 1956. 

Cline, Foster. _Understanding and Treating the Severely DisturbedChild. Evergreen_, CO: Evergreen Consultants in Human Behavior, 1979. 

Cline, Foster. _Learning Disorder and School Problems_. Evergreen, CO: Evergreen Consultants in Human Behavior, 1979. 

_Critical Thinking and Reasoning: A Handbook for Teachers_. Albany:The University of the State of New York, 1976. 

_Give Them Roots, The Let Them Fly: Understanding Attachment Therapy_. Carole A. McKelvey, ed. Evergreen, Colorado: The Attachment Center atEvergreen, Inc. , 1995

Kohlberg, Lawrence. "Moral Education for a Moral Transition. "_Educational Leadership_ 32 (October 1975): 46-54. 

MacLean, Paul. _Triune Concept of the Brain and Behavior_. TorontoUniversity of Toronto Press, 1973. 

Magid, Ken and Carole A McKelvey. _High Risk: Children without aConscience_. New York: Bantam Books, 1987. 

Maslow, A. H. _Motivation and Personality_. New York: Harper and Row, 1954. 

Sagen, Carl. _The Dragons of Eden_. New York: Ballantine Books, 1977. 

_Unmasking the Psychopath -- Antisocial Personality and RelatedSyndromes_. William H Reid, Darwin Dorr, John I. Walker, Jack W. Bonner, eds. New York: W. W. Norton, 1986. 

Vygotsky, Lev. _Thought and Language_. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1962. 

 * * * * *

Dealing With Interpersonal Conflict. 

Bobhoeffer, Dietrich. _The Cost of Discipleship_. New York: Macmillan, 1963. 

_Handbook for Boys_. New York: Doubleday-Page and Co. , 1911

Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth. _Death: The final stage of growth_. EnglewoodCliffs, N. J. Prentice-Hall, 1975. 

Saotome, Mitsugi. _The Principles of Aikido_. Boston: Shambhala, 1989. 

Stevens John. _Abundant Peace -- the Biography of Morehei Ueshiba, thefounder of Aikido_. Boston: Shambhala, 1987. 

Stevens, John. _The Secrets of Aikido_. Boston: Shambhala, 1995

Turnbull, Stephen. _Samurai Warriors_. London: Blandford Press, 1987. 

 * * * * *

Bibliography. 

_Aristotle. Rhetoric and the Poetics_. F. Solmsen, ed. New York: TheModern Library, 1954

Ashcroft, Leslie. "Defusing 'Empowering': The What and the Why. "_Language Arts_ 64 (February 1987): 142-156. 

Barell, John. "You Asked The Wrong Questions!" _EducationalLeadership_ 42 (May 1985): 18-23. 

Beyer, Barry K. "Improving Thinking Skills -- Practical Approaches. "_Phi Delta Kappan_ 65 (April 1984): 556-560. 

Beyer, Barry K. "Developing a Scope and Sequence for Thinking SkillsInstruction. " _Educational Leadership_ 45 (April 1988): 26-30. 

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Cierzniak, Suzanne Lipetska. _The Question of Critical Thinking: AnAnnotated Bibliography_. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute, 1985. ERIC, ED260 069. 

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Stevens, John. _Abundant Peace -- the Biography of Morehei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido_. Boston: Shambhala, 1987

Stevens, John. _The Secrets of Aikido_. Boston: Shambhala, 1995

Swartz, Robert J. And D. N. Perkins. _Teaching Thinking: Issues andApproaches_. Pacific Grove, CA: Midwest Publications, 1990. 

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_Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice_. Joan Boykoff Baronand Robert J. Sternberg, eds. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1987. 

_Thinking Skills Instruction: Concepts and techniques_. Marcia Heimanand Joshua Sloianko, eds. Washington: National Education Association, 1987. 

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Vygotsky, Lev. _Thought and Language_. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1962. 

Zdenek, Marilee. _The Right-Brain Experience_. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985

Entire Periodical Issues Devoted To Critical Thinking:

_Educational Leadership_ 42 (September 1984). 

_Educational Leadership_ 42 (May 1985). 

_Educational Leadership_ 45 (April 1988). 

_Educational Leadership_ 46 (September 1988). 

_Journal of Teacher Education_ 40 (March-April 1989). 

_Language Arts_ 64 (February 1987). 

_Teaching Philosophy_ 14 (March 1991). 

 * * * * *

Index

Ad hominem fallacyAggressionAikidoAngerAppeal to pity fallaciesArgumentArgumentative fallaciesAristotleArroganceAssociationAuthoritarian leadership styleAxonBibleBrain cellsBrainstormCause and effect fallaciesCircular argumentCircularity fallaciesCommonly accepted practice fallaciesCompromiseCompulsionCompulsive spendingCredibility fallaciesCynicismDecision makingDeductive fallaciesDeductive reasoningDiplomacyDisplacementDistortionDomino theory fallaciesEither/or fallaciesEmotional fallaciesEmotional tacticsEnablersEveryone ruleExaggerationExperimentationExternal conflictFALLFalse content fallaciesFalse dilemma fallaciesFearForgetfulnessFree associationFrustrationGamblingGeneralization fallaciesGestationGlial sheathGodGrief processGuilt by association fallaciesHobbiesHypothetico-deductive reasoningImpulsivenessInfallible truth fallaciesIntellectualizationInternal conflictInterpersonal conflictInterpersonal relationshipsKing ArthurKnight's codeKnight's lawsKnight's mottoKohlbergLeadershipLeft brainLimbic systemLoaded language fallaciesLogicLogic errorsLogic fallaciesLonelinessLoveMacLeanManpowerMaslowMemorizationMemoryMemory lossMiddle AgesName calling fallaciesNeo-cortexNerve cellNestorian orderOutliningPersuasive argumentPersuasive fallaciesProblem solvingProject calendarProjectionProverbsRapid readingReaction formationRecallRegressionRelaxationReligionRepetitionRepressionReptilian brainRetreatRight brainSamuraiSarcasmSelf-startersSingle cause fallaciesSnob appeal fallaciesSociopathSoldiersSolomonSQ3RStraw man fallaciesStream of consciousness. See brainstormSublimationSubordinateSubstance abuseSynapsesSynthesisTeacherTeacher leadership styleTeamwork leadership styleTen CommandmentsThinking skillTriune brainTwo wrongs make a right fallaciesUnattachedUse of forceValuesWork ethicZen Buddhism