SELF HELP; WITH ILLUSTRATIONS OF CONDUCT AND PERSEVERANCE

CHAPTER I--SELF-HELP--NATIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL

"The worth of a State, in the long run, is the worth of theindividuals composing it. "--J. S. Mill. 

"We put too much faith in systems, and look too little to men. "--B. Disraeli. 

"Heaven helps those who help themselves" is a well-tried maxim, embodying in a small compass the results of vast human experience. The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in theindividual; and, exhibited in the lives of many, it constitutes thetrue source of national vigour and strength. Help from without isoften enfeebling in its effects, but help from within invariablyinvigorates. Whatever is done FOR men or classes, to a certainextent takes away the stimulus and necessity of doing forthemselves; and where men are subjected to over-guidance and over-government, the inevitable tendency is to render them comparativelyhelpless. 

Even the best institutions can give a man no active help. Perhapsthe most they can do is, to leave him free to develop himself andimprove his individual condition. But in all times men have beenprone to believe that their happiness and well-being were to besecured by means of institutions rather than by their own conduct. Hence the value of legislation as an agent in human advancement hasusually been much over-estimated. To constitute the millionth partof a Legislature, by voting for one or two men once in three orfive years, however conscientiously this duty may be performed, canexercise but little active influence upon any man's life andcharacter. Moreover, it is every day becoming more clearlyunderstood, that the function of Government is negative andrestrictive, rather than positive and active; being resolvableprincipally into protection--protection of life, liberty, andproperty. Laws, wisely administered, will secure men in theenjoyment of the fruits of their labour, whether of mind or body, at a comparatively small personal sacrifice; but no laws, howeverstringent, can make the idle industrious, the thriftless provident, or the drunken sober. Such reforms can only be effected by meansof individual action, economy, and self-denial; by better habits, rather than by greater rights. 

The Government of a nation itself is usually found to be but thereflex of the individuals composing it. The Government that isahead of the people will inevitably be dragged down to their level, as the Government that is behind them will in the long run bedragged up. In the order of nature, the collective character of anation will as surely find its befitting results in its law andgovernment, as water finds its own level. The noble people will benobly ruled, and the ignorant and corrupt ignobly. Indeed allexperience serves to prove that the worth and strength of a Statedepend far less upon the form of its institutions than upon thecharacter of its men. For the nation is only an aggregate ofindividual conditions, and civilization itself is but a question ofthe personal improvement of the men, women, and children of whomsociety is composed. 

National progress is the sum of individual industry, energy, anduprightness, as national decay is of individual idleness, selfishness, and vice. What we are accustomed to decry as greatsocial evils, will, for the most part, be found to be but theoutgrowth of man's own perverted life; and though we may endeavourto cut them down and extirpate them by means of Law, they will onlyspring up again with fresh luxuriance in some other form, unlessthe conditions of personal life and character are radicallyimproved. If this view be correct, then it follows that thehighest patriotism and philanthropy consist, not so much inaltering laws and modifying institutions, as in helping andstimulating men to elevate and improve themselves by their own freeand independent individual action. 

It may be of comparatively little consequence how a man is governedfrom without, whilst everything depends upon how he governs himselffrom within. The greatest slave is not he who is ruled by adespot, great though that evil be, but he who is the thrall of hisown moral ignorance, selfishness, and vice. Nations who are thusenslaved at heart cannot be freed by any mere changes of masters orof institutions; and so long as the fatal delusion prevails, thatliberty solely depends upon and consists in government, so longwill such changes, no matter at what cost they may be effected, have as little practical and lasting result as the shifting of thefigures in a phantasmagoria. The solid foundations of liberty mustrest upon individual character; which is also the only sureguarantee for social security and national progress. John StuartMill truly observes that "even despotism does not produce its worsteffects so long as individuality exists under it; and whatevercrushes individuality IS despotism, by whatever name it be called. "

Old fallacies as to human progress are constantly turning up. Somecall for Caesars, others for Nationalities, and others for Acts ofParliament. We are to wait for Caesars, and when they are found, "happy the people who recognise and follow them. " {1} Thisdoctrine shortly means, everything FOR the people, nothing BYthem, --a doctrine which, if taken as a guide, must, by destroyingthe free conscience of a community, speedily prepare the way forany form of despotism. Caesarism is human idolatry in its worstform--a worship of mere power, as degrading in its effects as theworship of mere wealth would be. A far healthier doctrine toinculcate among the nations would be that of Self-Help; and so soonas it is thoroughly understood and carried into action, Caesarismwill be no more. The two principles are directly antagonistic; andwhat Victor Hugo said of the Pen and the Sword alike applies tothem, "Ceci tuera cela. " [This will kill that. ]

The power of Nationalities and Acts of Parliament is also aprevalent superstition. What William Dargan, one of Ireland'struest patriots, said at the closing of the first Dublin IndustrialExhibition, may well be quoted now. "To tell the truth, " he said, "I never heard the word independence mentioned that my own countryand my own fellow townsmen did not occur to my mind. I have hearda great deal about the independence that we were to get from this, that, and the other place, and of the great expectations we were tohave from persons from other countries coming amongst us. Whilst Ivalue as much as any man the great advantages that must result tous from that intercourse, I have always been deeply impressed withthe feeling that our industrial independence is dependent uponourselves. I believe that with simple industry and carefulexactness in the utilization of our energies, we never had a fairerchance nor a brighter prospect than the present. We have made astep, but perseverance is the great agent of success; and if we butgo on zealously, I believe in my conscience that in a short periodwe shall arrive at a position of equal comfort, of equal happiness, and of equal independence, with that of any other people. "

All nations have been made what they are by the thinking and theworking of many generations of men. Patient and perseveringlabourers in all ranks and conditions of life, cultivators of thesoil and explorers of the mine, inventors and discoverers, manufacturers, mechanics and artisans, poets, philosophers, andpoliticians, all have contributed towards the grand result, onegeneration building upon another's labours, and carrying themforward to still higher stages. This constant succession of nobleworkers--the artisans of civilisation--has served to create orderout of chaos in industry, science, and art; and the living race hasthus, in the course of nature, become the inheritor of the richestate provided by the skill and industry of our forefathers, whichis placed in our hands to cultivate, and to hand down, not onlyunimpaired but improved, to our successors. 

The spirit of self-help, as exhibited in the energetic action ofindividuals, has in all times been a marked feature in the Englishcharacter, and furnishes the true measure of our power as a nation. Rising above the heads of the mass, there were always to be found aseries of individuals distinguished beyond others, who commandedthe public homage. But our progress has also been owing tomultitudes of smaller and less known men. Though only thegenerals' names may be remembered in the history of any greatcampaign, it has been in a great measure through the individualvalour and heroism of the privates that victories have been won. And life, too, is "a soldiers' battle, "--men in the ranks having inall times been amongst the greatest of workers. Many are the livesof men unwritten, which have nevertheless as powerfully influencedcivilisation and progress as the more fortunate Great whose namesare recorded in biography. Even the humblest person, who setsbefore his fellows an example of industry, sobriety, and uprighthonesty of purpose in life, has a present as well as a futureinfluence upon the well-being of his country; for his life andcharacter pass unconsciously into the lives of others, andpropagate good example for all time to come. 

Daily experience shows that it is energetic individualism whichproduces the most powerful effects upon the life and action ofothers, and really constitutes the best practical education. Schools, academies, and colleges, give but the merest beginnings ofculture in comparison with it. Far more influential is the life-education daily given in our homes, in the streets, behindcounters, in workshops, at the loom and the plough, in counting-houses and manufactories, and in the busy haunts of men. This isthat finishing instruction as members of society, which Schillerdesignated "the education of the human race, " consisting in action, conduct, self-culture, self-control, --all that tends to disciplinea man truly, and fit him for the proper performance of the dutiesand business of life, --a kind of education not to be learnt frombooks, or acquired by any amount of mere literary training. Withhis usual weight of words Bacon observes, that "Studies teach nottheir own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation;" a remark that holds true of actual life, aswell as of the cultivation of the intellect itself. For allexperience serves to illustrate and enforce the lesson, that a manperfects himself by work more than by reading, --that it is liferather than literature, action rather than study, and characterrather than biography, which tend perpetually to renovate mankind. 

Biographies of great, but especially of good men, are neverthelessmost instructive and useful, as helps, guides, and incentives toothers. Some of the best are almost equivalent to gospels--teaching high living, high thinking, and energetic action for theirown and the world's good. The valuable examples which they furnishof the power of self-help, of patient purpose, resolute working, and steadfast integrity, issuing in the formation of truly nobleand manly character, exhibit in language not to be misunderstood, what it is in the power of each to accomplish for himself; andeloquently illustrate the efficacy of self-respect and self-reliance in enabling men of even the humblest rank to work out forthemselves an honourable competency and a solid reputation. 

Great men of science, literature, and art--apostles of greatthoughts and lords of the great heart--have belonged to noexclusive class nor rank in life. They have come alike fromcolleges, workshops, and farmhouses, --from the huts of poor men andthe mansions of the rich. Some of God's greatest apostles havecome from "the ranks. " The poorest have sometimes taken thehighest places; nor have difficulties apparently the mostinsuperable proved obstacles in their way. Those verydifficulties, in many instances, would ever seem to have been theirbest helpers, by evoking their powers of labour and endurance, andstimulating into life faculties which might otherwise have laindormant. The instances of obstacles thus surmounted, and oftriumphs thus achieved, are indeed so numerous, as almost tojustify the proverb that "with Will one can do anything. " Take, for instance, the remarkable fact, that from the barber's shop cameJeremy Taylor, the most poetical of divines; Sir Richard Arkwright, the inventor of the spinning-jenny and founder of the cottonmanufacture; Lord Tenterden, one of the most distinguished of LordChief Justices; and Turner, the greatest among landscape painters. 

No one knows to a certainty what Shakespeare was; but it isunquestionable that he sprang from a humble rank. His father was abutcher and grazier; and Shakespeare himself is supposed to havebeen in early life a woolcomber; whilst others aver that he was anusher in a school and afterwards a scrivener's clerk. He trulyseems to have been "not one, but all mankind's epitome. " For suchis the accuracy of his sea phrases that a naval writer alleges thathe must have been a sailor; whilst a clergyman infers, frominternal evidence in his writings, that he was probably a parson'sclerk; and a distinguished judge of horse-flesh insists that hemust have been a horse-dealer. Shakespeare was certainly an actor, and in the course of his life "played many parts, " gathering hiswonderful stores of knowledge from a wide field of experience andobservation. In any event, he must have been a close student and ahard worker; and to this day his writings continue to exercise apowerful influence on the formation of English character. 

The common class of day labourers has given us Brindley theengineer, Cook the navigator, and Burns the poet. Masons andbricklayers can boast of Ben Jonson, who worked at the building ofLincoln's Inn, with a trowel in his hand and a book in his pocket, Edwards and Telford the engineers, Hugh Miller the geologist, andAllan Cunningham the writer and sculptor; whilst amongdistinguished carpenters we find the names of Inigo Jones thearchitect, Harrison the chronometer-maker, John Hunter thephysiologist, Romney and Opie the painters, Professor Lee theOrientalist, and John Gibson the sculptor. 

From the weaver class have sprung Simson the mathematician, Baconthe sculptor, the two Milners, Adam Walker, John Foster, Wilson theornithologist, Dr. Livingstone the missionary traveller, andTannahill the poet. Shoemakers have given us Sir Cloudesley Shovelthe great Admiral, Sturgeon the electrician, Samuel Drew theessayist, Gifford the editor of the 'Quarterly Review, ' Bloomfieldthe poet, and William Carey the missionary; whilst Morrison, another laborious missionary, was a maker of shoe-lasts. Withinthe last few years, a profound naturalist has been discovered inthe person of a shoemaker at Banff, named Thomas Edwards, who, while maintaining himself by his trade, has devoted his leisure tothe study of natural science in all its branches, his researches inconnexion with the smaller crustaceae having been rewarded by thediscovery of a new species, to which the name of "PranizaEdwardsii" has been given by naturalists. 

Nor have tailors been undistinguished. John Stow, the historian, worked at the trade during some part of his life. Jackson, thepainter, made clothes until he reached manhood. The brave Sir JohnHawkswood, who so greatly distinguished himself at Poictiers, andwas knighted by Edward III. For his valour, was in early lifeapprenticed to a London tailor. Admiral Hobson, who broke the boomat Vigo in 1702, belonged to the same calling. He was working as atailor's apprentice near Bonchurch, in the Isle of Wight, when thenews flew through the village that a squadron of men-of-war wassailing off the island. He sprang from the shopboard, and ran downwith his comrades to the beach, to gaze upon the glorious sight. The boy was suddenly inflamed with the ambition to be a sailor; andspringing into a boat, he rowed off to the squadron, gained theadmiral's ship, and was accepted as a volunteer. Years after, hereturned to his native village full of honours, and dined off baconand eggs in the cottage where he had worked as an apprentice. Butthe greatest tailor of all is unquestionably Andrew Johnson, thepresent President of the United States--a man of extraordinaryforce of character and vigour of intellect. In his great speech atWashington, when describing himself as having begun his politicalcareer as an alderman, and run through all the branches of thelegislature, a voice in the crowd cried, "From a tailor up. " Itwas characteristic of Johnson to take the intended sarcasm in goodpart, and even to turn it to account. "Some gentleman says I havebeen a tailor. That does not disconcert me in the least; for whenI was a tailor I had the reputation of being a good one, and makingclose fits; I was always punctual with my customers, and always didgood work. "

Cardinal Wolsey, De Foe, Akenside, and Kirke White were the sons ofbutchers; Bunyan was a tinker, and Joseph Lancaster a basket-maker. Among the great names identified with the invention of the steam-engine are those of Newcomen, Watt, and Stephenson; the first ablacksmith, the second a maker of mathematical instruments, and thethird an engine-fireman. Huntingdon the preacher was originally acoalheaver, and Bewick, the father of wood-engraving, a coalminer. Dodsley was a footman, and Holcroft a groom. Baffin the navigatorbegan his seafaring career as a man before the mast, and SirCloudesley Shovel as a cabin-boy. Herschel played the oboe in amilitary band. Chantrey was a journeyman carver, Etty a journeymanprinter, and Sir Thomas Lawrence the son of a tavern-keeper. Michael Faraday, the son of a blacksmith, was in early lifeapprenticed to a bookbinder, and worked at that trade until hereached his twenty-second year: he now occupies the very firstrank as a philosopher, excelling even his master, Sir Humphry Davy, in the art of lucidly expounding the most difficult and abstrusepoints in natural science. 

Among those who have given the greatest impulse to the sublimescience of astronomy, we find Copernicus, the son of a Polishbaker; Kepler, the son of a German public-house keeper, and himselfthe "garcon de cabaret;" d'Alembert, a foundling picked up onewinter's night on the steps of the church of St. Jean le Rond atParis, and brought up by the wife of a glazier; and Newton andLaplace, the one the son of a small freeholder near Grantham, theother the son of a poor peasant of Beaumont-en-Auge, near Honfleur. Notwithstanding their comparatively adverse circumstances in earlylife, these distinguished men achieved a solid and enduringreputation by the exercise of their genius, which all the wealth inthe world could not have purchased. The very possession of wealthmight indeed have proved an obstacle greater even than the humblemeans to which they were born. The father of Lagrange, theastronomer and mathematician, held the office of Treasurer of Warat Turin; but having ruined himself by speculations, his familywere reduced to comparative poverty. To this circumstance Lagrangewas in after life accustomed partly to attribute his own fame andhappiness. "Had I been rich, " said he, "I should probably not havebecome a mathematician. "

The sons of clergymen and ministers of religion generally, haveparticularly distinguished themselves in our country's history. Amongst them we find the names of Drake and Nelson, celebrated innaval heroism; of Wollaston, Young, Playfair, and Bell, in science;of Wren, Reynolds, Wilson, and Wilkie, in art; of Thurlow andCampbell, in law; and of Addison, Thomson, Goldsmith, Coleridge, and Tennyson, in literature. Lord Hardinge, Colonel Edwardes, andMajor Hodson, so honourably known in Indian warfare, were also thesons of clergymen. Indeed, the empire of England in India was wonand held chiefly by men of the middle class--such as Clive, WarrenHastings, and their successors--men for the most part bred infactories and trained to habits of business. 

Among the sons of attorneys we find Edmund Burke, Smeaton theengineer, Scott and Wordsworth, and Lords Somers, Hardwick, andDunning. Sir William Blackstone was the posthumous son of a silk-mercer. Lord Gifford's father was a grocer at Dover; Lord Denman'sa physician; judge Talfourd's a country brewer; and Lord ChiefBaron Pollock's a celebrated saddler at Charing Cross. Layard, thediscoverer of the monuments of Nineveh, was an articled clerk in aLondon solicitor's office; and Sir William Armstrong, the inventorof hydraulic machinery and of the Armstrong ordnance, was alsotrained to the law and practised for some time as an attorney. Milton was the son of a London scrivener, and Pope and Southey werethe sons of linendrapers. Professor Wilson was the son of aPaisley manufacturer, and Lord Macaulay of an African merchant. Keats was a druggist, and Sir Humphry Davy a country apothecary'sapprentice. Speaking of himself, Davy once said, "What I am I havemade myself: I say this without vanity, and in pure simplicity ofheart. " Richard Owen, the Newton of Natural History, began life asa midshipman, and did not enter upon the line of scientificresearch in which he has since become so distinguished, untilcomparatively late in life. He laid the foundations of his greatknowledge while occupied in cataloguing the magnificent museumaccumulated by the industry of John Hunter, a work which occupiedhim at the College of Surgeons during a period of about ten years. 

Foreign not less than English biography abounds in illustrations ofmen who have glorified the lot of poverty by their labours andtheir genius. In Art we find Claude, the son of a pastrycook;Geefs, of a baker; Leopold Robert, of a watchmaker; and Haydn, of awheelwright; whilst Daguerre was a scene-painter at the Opera. Thefather of Gregory VII. Was a carpenter; of Sextus V. , a shepherd;and of Adrian VI. , a poor bargeman. When a boy, Adrian, unable topay for a light by which to study, was accustomed to prepare hislessons by the light of the lamps in the streets and the churchporches, exhibiting a degree of patience and industry which werethe certain forerunners of his future distinction. Of like humbleorigin were Hauy, the mineralogist, who was the son of a weaver ofSaint-Just; Hautefeuille, the mechanician, of a baker at Orleans;Joseph Fourier, the mathematician, of a tailor at Auxerre; Durand, the architect, of a Paris shoemaker; and Gesner, the naturalist, ofa skinner or worker in hides, at Zurich. This last began hiscareer under all the disadvantages attendant on poverty, sickness, and domestic calamity; none of which, however, were sufficient todamp his courage or hinder his progress. His life was indeed aneminent illustration of the truth of the saying, that those whohave most to do and are willing to work, will find the most time. Pierre Ramus was another man of like character. He was the son ofpoor parents in Picardy, and when a boy was employed to tend sheep. But not liking the occupation he ran away to Paris. Afterencountering much misery, he succeeded in entering the College ofNavarre as a servant. The situation, however, opened for him theroad to learning, and he shortly became one of the mostdistinguished men of his time. 

The chemist Vauquelin was the son of a peasant of Saint-Andre-d'Herbetot, in the Calvados. When a boy at school, though poorlyclad, he was full of bright intelligence; and the master, whotaught him to read and write, when praising him for his diligence, used to say, "Go on, my boy; work, study, Colin, and one day youwill go as well dressed as the parish churchwarden!" A countryapothecary who visited the school, admired the robust boy's arms, and offered to take him into his laboratory to pound his drugs, towhich Vauquelin assented, in the hope of being able to continue hislessons. But the apothecary would not permit him to spend any partof his time in learning; and on ascertaining this, the youthimmediately determined to quit his service. He therefore leftSaint-Andre and took the road for Paris with his havresac on hisback. Arrived there, he searched for a place as apothecary's boy, but could not find one. Worn out by fatigue and destitution, Vauquelin fell ill, and in that state was taken to the hospital, where he thought he should die. But better things were in storefor the poor boy. He recovered, and again proceeded in his searchof employment, which he at length found with an apothecary. Shortly after, he became known to Fourcroy the eminent chemist, whowas so pleased with the youth that he made him his privatesecretary; and many years after, on the death of that greatphilosopher, Vauquelin succeeded him as Professor of Chemistry. Finally, in 1829, the electors of the district of Calvadosappointed him their representative in the Chamber of Deputies, andhe re-entered in triumph the village which he had left so manyyears before, so poor and so obscure. 

England has no parallel instances to show, of promotions from theranks of the army to the highest military offices; which have beenso common in France since the first Revolution. "La carriereouverte aux talents" has there received many strikingillustrations, which would doubtless be matched among ourselveswere the road to promotion as open. Hoche, Humbert, and Pichegru, began their respective careers as private soldiers. Hoche, whilein the King's army, was accustomed to embroider waistcoats toenable him to earn money wherewith to purchase books on militaryscience. Humbert was a scapegrace when a youth; at sixteen he ranaway from home, and was by turns servant to a tradesman at Nancy, aworkman at Lyons, and a hawker of rabbit skins. In 1792, heenlisted as a volunteer; and in a year he was general of brigade. Kleber, Lefevre, Suchet, Victor, Lannes, Soult, Massena, St. Cyr, D'Erlon, Murat, Augereau, Bessieres, and Ney, all rose from theranks. In some cases promotion was rapid, in others it was slow. Saint Cyr, the son of a tanner of Toul, began life as an actor, after which he enlisted in the Chasseurs, and was promoted to acaptaincy within a year. Victor, Duc de Belluno, enlisted in theArtillery in 1781: during the events preceding the Revolution hewas discharged; but immediately on the outbreak of war he re-enlisted, and in the course of a few months his intrepidity andability secured his promotion as Adjutant-Major and chief ofbattalion. Murat, "le beau sabreur, " was the son of a villageinnkeeper in Perigord, where he looked after the horses. He firstenlisted in a regiment of Chasseurs, from which he was dismissedfor insubordination: but again enlisting, he shortly rose to therank of Colonel. Ney enlisted at eighteen in a hussar regiment, and gradually advanced step by step: Kleber soon discovered hismerits, surnaming him "The Indefatigable, " and promoted him to beAdjutant-General when only twenty-five. On the other hand, Soult{2} was six years from the date of his enlistment before he reachedthe rank of sergeant. But Soult's advancement was rapid comparedwith that of Massena, who served for fourteen years before he wasmade sergeant; and though he afterwards rose successively, step bystep, to the grades of Colonel, General of Division, and Marshal, he declared that the post of sergeant was the step which of allothers had cost him the most labour to win. Similar promotionsfrom the ranks, in the French army, have continued down to our ownday. Changarnier entered the King's bodyguard as a private in1815. Marshal Bugeaud served four years in the ranks, after whichhe was made an officer. Marshal Randon, the present FrenchMinister of War, began his military career as a drummer boy; and inthe portrait of him in the gallery at Versailles, his hand restsupon a drum-head, the picture being thus painted at his ownrequest. Instances such as these inspire French soldiers withenthusiasm for their service, as each private feels that he maypossibly carry the baton of a marshal in his knapsack. 

The instances of men, in this and other countries, who, by dint ofpersevering application and energy, have raised themselves from thehumblest ranks of industry to eminent positions of usefulness andinfluence in society, are indeed so numerous that they have longceased to be regarded as exceptional. Looking at some of the moreremarkable, it might almost be said that early encounter withdifficulty and adverse circumstances was the necessary andindispensable condition of success. The British House of Commonshas always contained a considerable number of such self-raised men--fitting representatives of the industrial character of the people;and it is to the credit of our Legislature that they have beenwelcomed and honoured there. When the late Joseph Brotherton, member for Salford, in the course of the discussion on the TenHours Bill, detailed with true pathos the hardships and fatigues towhich he had been subjected when working as a factory boy in acotton mill, and described the resolution which he had then formed, that if ever it was in his power he would endeavour to amelioratethe condition of that class, Sir James Graham rose immediatelyafter him, and declared, amidst the cheers of the House, that hedid not before know that Mr. Brotherton's origin had been sohumble, but that it rendered him more proud than he had ever beforebeen of the House of Commons, to think that a person risen fromthat condition should be able to sit side by side, on equal terms, with the hereditary gentry of the land. 

The late Mr. Fox, member for Oldham, was accustomed to introducehis recollections of past times with the words, "when I was workingas a weaver boy at Norwich;" and there are other members ofparliament, still living, whose origin has been equally humble. Mr. Lindsay, the well-known ship owner, until recently member forSunderland, once told the simple story of his life to the electorsof Weymouth, in answer to an attack made upon him by his politicalopponents. He had been left an orphan at fourteen, and when heleft Glasgow for Liverpool to push his way in the world, not beingable to pay the usual fare, the captain of the steamer agreed totake his labour in exchange, and the boy worked his passage bytrimming the coals in the coal hole. At Liverpool he remained forseven weeks before he could obtain employment, during which time helived in sheds and fared hardly; until at last he found shelter onboard a West Indiaman. He entered as a boy, and before he wasnineteen, by steady good conduct he had risen to the command of aship. At twenty-three he retired from the sea, and settled onshore, after which his progress was rapid "he had prospered, " hesaid, "by steady industry, by constant work, and by ever keeping inview the great principle of doing to others as you would be doneby. "

The career of Mr. William Jackson, of Birkenhead, the presentmember for North Derbyshire, bears considerable resemblance to thatof Mr. Lindsay. His father, a surgeon at Lancaster, died, leavinga family of eleven children, of whom William Jackson was theseventh son. The elder boys had been well educated while thefather lived, but at his death the younger members had to shift forthemselves. William, when under twelve years old, was taken fromschool, and put to hard work at a ship's side from six in themorning till nine at night. His master falling ill, the boy wastaken into the counting-house, where he had more leisure. Thisgave him an opportunity of reading, and having obtained access to aset of the 'Encyclopaedia Britannica, ' he read the volumes throughfrom A to Z, partly by day, but chiefly at night. He afterwardsput himself to a trade, was diligent, and succeeded in it. Now hehas ships sailing on almost every sea, and holds commercialrelations with nearly every country on the globe. 

Among like men of the same class may be ranked the late RichardCobden, whose start in life was equally humble. The son of a smallfarmer at Midhurst in Sussex, he was sent at an early age to Londonand employed as a boy in a warehouse in the City. He was diligent, well conducted, and eager for information. His master, a man ofthe old school, warned him against too much reading; but the boywent on in his own course, storing his mind with the wealth foundin books. He was promoted from one position of trust to another--became a traveller for his house--secured a large connection, andeventually started in business as a calico printer at Manchester. Taking an interest in public questions, more especially in populareducation, his attention was gradually drawn to the subject of theCorn Laws, to the repeal of which he may be said to have devotedhis fortune and his life. It may be mentioned as a curious factthat the first speech he delivered in public was a total failure. But he had great perseverance, application, and energy; and withpersistency and practice, he became at length one of the mostpersuasive and effective of public speakers, extorting thedisinterested eulogy of even Sir Robert Peel himself. M. Drouyn deLhuys, the French Ambassador, has eloquently said of Mr. Cobden, that he was "a living proof of what merit, perseverance, and labourcan accomplish; one of the most complete examples of those men who, sprung from the humblest ranks of society, raise themselves to thehighest rank in public estimation by the effect of their own worthand of their personal services; finally, one of the rarest examplesof the solid qualities inherent in the English character. "

In all these cases, strenuous individual application was the pricepaid for distinction; excellence of any sort being invariablyplaced beyond the reach of indolence. It is the diligent hand andhead alone that maketh rich--in self-culture, growth in wisdom, andin business. Even when men are born to wealth and high socialposition, any solid reputation which they may individually achievecan only be attained by energetic application; for though aninheritance of acres may be bequeathed, an inheritance of knowledgeand wisdom cannot. The wealthy man may pay others for doing hiswork for him, but it is impossible to get his thinking done for himby another, or to purchase any kind of self-culture. Indeed, thedoctrine that excellence in any pursuit is only to be achieved bylaborious application, holds as true in the case of the man ofwealth as in that of Drew and Gifford, whose only school was acobbler's stall, or Hugh Miller, whose only college was a Cromartystone quarry. 

Riches and ease, it is perfectly clear, are not necessary for man'shighest culture, else had not the world been so largely indebted inall times to those who have sprung from the humbler ranks. An easyand luxurious existence does not train men to effort or encounterwith difficulty; nor does it awaken that consciousness of powerwhich is so necessary for energetic and effective action in life. Indeed, so far from poverty being a misfortune, it may, by vigorousself-help, be converted even into a blessing; rousing a man to thatstruggle with the world in which, though some may purchase ease bydegradation, the right-minded and true-hearted find strength, confidence, and triumph. Bacon says, "Men seem neither tounderstand their riches nor their strength: of the former theybelieve greater things than they should; of the latter much less. Self-reliance and self-denial will teach a man to drink out of hisown cistern, and eat his own sweet bread, and to learn and labourtruly to get his living, and carefully to expend the good thingscommitted to his trust. "

Riches are so great a temptation to ease and self-indulgence, towhich men are by nature prone, that the glory is all the greater ofthose who, born to ample fortunes, nevertheless take an active partin the work of their generation--who "scorn delights and livelaborious days. " It is to the honour of the wealthier ranks inthis country that they are not idlers; for they do their fair shareof the work of the state, and usually take more than their fairshare of its dangers. It was a fine thing said of a subalternofficer in the Peninsular campaigns, observed trudging alonethrough mud and mire by the side of his regiment, "There goes15, 000l. A year!" and in our own day, the bleak slopes ofSebastopol and the burning soil of India have borne witness to thelike noble self-denial and devotion on the part of our gentlerclasses; many a gallant and noble fellow, of rank and estate, having risked his life, or lost it, in one or other of those fieldsof action, in the service of his country. 

Nor have the wealthier classes been undistinguished in the morepeaceful pursuits of philosophy and science. Take, for instance, the great names of Bacon, the father of modern philosophy, and ofWorcester, Boyle, Cavendish, Talbot, and Rosse, in science. Thelast named may be regarded as the great mechanic of the peerage; aman who, if he had not been born a peer, would probably have takenthe highest rank as an inventor. So thorough is his knowledge ofsmith-work that he is said to have been pressed on one occasion toaccept the foremanship of a large workshop, by a manufacturer towhom his rank was unknown. The great Rosse telescope, of his ownfabrication, is certainly the most extraordinary instrument of thekind that has yet been constructed. 

But it is principally in the departments of politics and literaturethat we find the most energetic labourers amongst our higherclasses. Success in these lines of action, as in all others, canonly be achieved through industry, practice, and study; and thegreat Minister, or parliamentary leader, must necessarily beamongst the very hardest of workers. Such was Palmerston; and suchare Derby and Russell, Disraeli and Gladstone. These men have hadthe benefit of no Ten Hours Bill, but have often, during the busyseason of Parliament, worked "double shift, " almost day and night. One of the most illustrious of such workers in modern times wasunquestionably the late Sir Robert Peel. He possessed in anextraordinary degree the power of continuous intellectual labour, nor did he spare himself. His career, indeed, presented aremarkable example of how much a man of comparatively moderatepowers can accomplish by means of assiduous application andindefatigable industry. During the forty years that he held a seatin Parliament, his labours were prodigious. He was a mostconscientious man, and whatever he undertook to do, he didthoroughly. All his speeches bear evidence of his careful study ofeverything that had been spoken or written on the subject underconsideration. He was elaborate almost to excess; and spared nopains to adapt himself to the various capacities of his audience. Withal, he possessed much practical sagacity, great strength ofpurpose, and power to direct the issues of action with steady handand eye. In one respect he surpassed most men: his principlesbroadened and enlarged with time; and age, instead of contracting, only served to mellow and ripen his nature. To the last hecontinued open to the reception of new views, and, though manythought him cautious to excess, he did not allow himself to fallinto that indiscriminating admiration of the past, which is thepalsy of many minds similarly educated, and renders the old age ofmany nothing but a pity. 

The indefatigable industry of Lord Brougham has become almostproverbial. His public labours have extended over a period ofupwards of sixty years, during which he has ranged over manyfields--of law, literature, politics, and science, --and achieveddistinction in them all. How he contrived it, has been to many amystery. Once, when Sir Samuel Romilly was requested to undertakesome new work, he excused himself by saying that he had no time;"but, " he added, "go with it to that fellow Brougham, he seems tohave time for everything. " The secret of it was, that he neverleft a minute unemployed; withal he possessed a constitution ofiron. When arrived at an age at which most men would have retiredfrom the world to enjoy their hard-earned leisure, perhaps to dozeaway their time in an easy chair, Lord Brougham commenced andprosecuted a series of elaborate investigations as to the laws ofLight, and he submitted the results to the most scientificaudiences that Paris and London could muster. About the same time, he was passing through the press his admirable sketches of the 'Menof Science and Literature of the Reign of George III. , ' and takinghis full share of the law business and the political discussions inthe House of Lords. Sydney Smith once recommended him to confinehimself to only the transaction of so much business as three strongmen could get through. But such was Brougham's love of work--longbecome a habit--that no amount of application seems to have beentoo great for him; and such was his love of excellence, that it hasbeen said of him that if his station in life had been only that ofa shoe-black, he would never have rested satisfied until he hadbecome the best shoe-black in England. 

Another hard-working man of the same class is Sir E. Bulwer Lytton. Few writers have done more, or achieved higher distinction invarious walks--as a novelist, poet, dramatist, historian, essayist, orator, and politician. He has worked his way step by step, disdainful of ease, and animated throughout by the ardent desire toexcel. On the score of mere industry, there are few living Englishwriters who have written so much, and none that have produced somuch of high quality. The industry of Bulwer is entitled to allthe greater praise that it has been entirely self-imposed. Tohunt, and shoot, and live at ease, --to frequent the clubs and enjoythe opera, with the variety of London visiting and sight-seeingduring the "season, " and then off to the country mansion, with itswell-stocked preserves, and its thousand delightful out-doorpleasures, --to travel abroad, to Paris, Vienna, or Rome, --all thisis excessively attractive to a lover of pleasure and a man offortune, and by no means calculated to make him voluntarilyundertake continuous labour of any kind. Yet these pleasures, allwithin his reach, Bulwer must, as compared with men born to similarestate, have denied himself in assuming the position and pursuingthe career of a literary man. Like Byron, his first effort waspoetical ('Weeds and Wild Flowers'), and a failure. His second wasa novel ('Falkland'), and it proved a failure too. A man of weakernerve would have dropped authorship; but Bulwer had pluck andperseverance; and he worked on, determined to succeed. He wasincessantly industrious, read extensively, and from failure wentcourageously onwards to success. 'Pelham' followed 'Falkland'within a year, and the remainder of Bulwer's literary life, nowextending over a period of thirty years, has been a succession oftriumphs. 

Mr. Disraeli affords a similar instance of the power of industryand application in working out an eminent public career. His firstachievements were, like Bulwer's, in literature; and he reachedsuccess only through a succession of failures. His 'Wondrous Taleof Alroy' and 'Revolutionary Epic' were laughed at, and regarded asindications of literary lunacy. But he worked on in otherdirections, and his 'Coningsby, ' 'Sybil, ' and 'Tancred, ' proved thesterling stuff of which he was made. As an orator too, his firstappearance in the House of Commons was a failure. It was spoken ofas "more screaming than an Adelphi farce. " Though composed in agrand and ambitious strain, every sentence was hailed with "loudlaughter. " 'Hamlet' played as a comedy were nothing to it. But heconcluded with a sentence which embodied a prophecy. Writhingunder the laughter with which his studied eloquence had beenreceived, he exclaimed, "I have begun several times many things, and have succeeded in them at last. I shall sit down now, but thetime will come when you will hear me. " The time did come; and howDisraeli succeeded in at length commanding the attention of thefirst assembly of gentlemen in the world, affords a strikingillustration of what energy and determination will do; for Disraeliearned his position by dint of patient industry. He did not, asmany young men do, having once failed, retire dejected, to mope andwhine in a corner, but diligently set himself to work. Hecarefully unlearnt his faults, studied the character of hisaudience, practised sedulously the art of speech, and industriouslyfilled his mind with the elements of parliamentary knowledge. Heworked patiently for success; and it came, but slowly: then theHouse laughed with him, instead of at him. The recollection of hisearly failure was effaced, and by general consent he was at lengthadmitted to be one of the most finished and effective ofparliamentary speakers. 

Although much may be accomplished by means of individual industryand energy, as these and other instances set forth in the followingpages serve to illustrate, it must at the same time be acknowledgedthat the help which we derive from others in the journey of life isof very great importance. The poet Wordsworth has well said that"these two things, contradictory though they may seem, must gotogether--manly dependence and manly independence, manly relianceand manly self-reliance. " From infancy to old age, all are more orless indebted to others for nurture and culture; and the best andstrongest are usually found the readiest to acknowledge such help. Take, for example, the career of the late Alexis de Tocqueville, aman doubly well-born, for his father was a distinguished peer ofFrance, and his mother a grand-daughter of Malesherbes. Throughpowerful family influence, he was appointed Judge Auditor atVersailles when only twenty-one; but probably feeling that he hadnot fairly won the position by merit, he determined to give it upand owe his future advancement in life to himself alone. "Afoolish resolution, " some will say; but De Tocqueville bravelyacted it out. He resigned his appointment, and made arrangementsto leave France for the purpose of travelling through the UnitedStates, the results of which were published in his great book on'Democracy in America. ' His friend and travelling companion, Gustave de Beaumont, has described his indefatigable industryduring this journey. "His nature, " he says, "was wholly averse toidleness, and whether he was travelling or resting, his mind wasalways at work. . . . With Alexis, the most agreeable conversationwas that which was the most useful. The worst day was the lostday, or the day ill spent; the least loss of time annoyed him. "Tocqueville himself wrote to a friend--"There is no time of life atwhich one can wholly cease from action, for effort without one'sself, and still more effort within, is equally necessary, if notmore so, when we grow old, as it is in youth. I compare man inthis world to a traveller journeying without ceasing towards acolder and colder region; the higher he goes, the faster he oughtto walk. The great malady of the soul is cold. And in resistingthis formidable evil, one needs not only to be sustained by theaction of a mind employed, but also by contact with one's fellowsin the business of life. " {3}

Notwithstanding de Tocqueville's decided views as to the necessityof exercising individual energy and self-dependence, no one couldbe more ready than he was to recognise the value of that help andsupport for which all men are indebted to others in a greater orless degree. Thus, he often acknowledged, with gratitude, hisobligations to his friends De Kergorlay and Stofells, --to theformer for intellectual assistance, and to the latter for moralsupport and sympathy. To De Kergorlay he wrote--"Thine is the onlysoul in which I have confidence, and whose influence exercises agenuine effect upon my own. Many others have influence upon thedetails of my actions, but no one has so much influence as thou onthe origination of fundamental ideas, and of those principles whichare the rule of conduct. " De Tocqueville was not less ready toconfess the great obligations which he owed to his wife, Marie, forthe preservation of that temper and frame of mind which enabled himto prosecute his studies with success. He believed that a noble-minded woman insensibly elevated the character of her husband, while one of a grovelling nature as certainly tended to degrade it. {4}

In fine, human character is moulded by a thousand subtleinfluences; by example and precept; by life and literature; byfriends and neighbours; by the world we live in as well as by thespirits of our forefathers, whose legacy of good words and deeds weinherit. But great, unquestionably, though these influences areacknowledged to be, it is nevertheless equally clear that men mustnecessarily be the active agents of their own well-being and well-doing; and that, however much the wise and the good may owe toothers, they themselves must in the very nature of things be theirown best helpers. 

CHAPTER II--LEADERS OF INDUSTRY--INVENTORS AND PRODUCERS

"Le travail et la Science sont desormais les maitres du monde. "--DeSalvandy. 

"Deduct all that men of the humbler classes have done for Englandin the way of inventions only, and see where she would have beenbut for them. "--Arthur Helps. 

One of the most strongly-marked features of the English people istheir spirit of industry, standing out prominent and distinct intheir past history, and as strikingly characteristic of them now asat any former period. It is this spirit, displayed by the commonsof England, which has laid the foundations and built up theindustrial greatness of the empire. This vigorous growth of thenation has been mainly the result of the free energy ofindividuals, and it has been contingent upon the number of handsand minds from time to time actively employed within it, whether ascultivators of the soil, producers of articles of utility, contrivers of tools and machines, writers of books, or creators ofworks of art. And while this spirit of active industry has beenthe vital principle of the nation, it has also been its saving andremedial one, counteracting from time to time the effects of errorsin our laws and imperfections in our constitution. 

The career of industry which the nation has pursued, has alsoproved its best education. As steady application to work is thehealthiest training for every individual, so is it the bestdiscipline of a state. Honourable industry travels the same roadwith duty; and Providence has closely linked both with happiness. The gods, says the poet, have placed labour and toil on the wayleading to the Elysian fields. Certain it is that no bread eatenby man is so sweet as that earned by his own labour, whether bodilyor mental. By labour the earth has been subdued, and man redeemedfrom barbarism; nor has a single step in civilization been madewithout it. Labour is not only a necessity and a duty, but ablessing: only the idler feels it to be a curse. The duty of workis written on the thews and muscles of the limbs, the mechanism ofthe hand, the nerves and lobes of the brain--the sum of whosehealthy action is satisfaction and enjoyment. In the school oflabour is taught the best practical wisdom; nor is a life of manualemployment, as we shall hereafter find, incompatible with highmental culture. 

Hugh Miller, than whom none knew better the strength and theweakness belonging to the lot of labour, stated the result of hisexperience to be, that Work, even the hardest, is full of pleasureand materials for self-improvement. He held honest labour to bethe best of teachers, and that the school of toil is the noblest ofschools--save only the Christian one, --that it is a school in whichthe ability of being useful is imparted, the spirit of independencelearnt, and the habit of persevering effort acquired. He was evenof opinion that the training of the mechanic, --by the exercisewhich it gives to his observant faculties, from his daily dealingwith things actual and practical, and the close experience of lifewhich he acquires, --better fits him for picking his way along thejourney of life, and is more favourable to his growth as a Man, emphatically speaking, than the training afforded by any othercondition. 

The array of great names which we have already cursorily cited, ofmen springing from the ranks of the industrial classes, who haveachieved distinction in various walks of life--in science, commerce, literature, and art--shows that at all events thedifficulties interposed by poverty and labour are notinsurmountable. As respects the great contrivances and inventionswhich have conferred so much power and wealth upon the nation, itis unquestionable that for the greater part of them we have beenindebted to men of the humblest rank. Deduct what they have donein this particular line of action, and it will be found that verylittle indeed remains for other men to have accomplished. 

Inventors have set in motion some of the greatest industries of theworld. To them society owes many of its chief necessaries, comforts, and luxuries; and by their genius and labour daily lifehas been rendered in all respects more easy as well as enjoyable. Our food, our clothing, the furniture of our homes, the glass whichadmits the light to our dwellings at the same time that it excludesthe cold, the gas which illuminates our streets, our means oflocomotion by land and by sea, the tools by which our variousarticles of necessity and luxury are fabricated, have been theresult of the labour and ingenuity of many men and many minds. Mankind at large are all the happier for such inventions, and areevery day reaping the benefit of them in an increase of individualwell-being as well as of public enjoyment. 

Though the invention of the working steam-engine--the king ofmachines--belongs, comparatively speaking, to our own epoch, theidea of it was born many centuries ago. Like other contrivancesand discoveries, it was effected step by step--one man transmittingthe result of his labours, at the time apparently useless, to hissuccessors, who took it up and carried it forward another stage, --the prosecution of the inquiry extending over many generations. Thus the idea promulgated by Hero of Alexandria was neveraltogether lost; but, like the grain of wheat hid in the hand ofthe Egyptian mummy, it sprouted and again grew vigorously whenbrought into the full light of modern science. The steam-enginewas nothing, however, until it emerged from the state of theory, and was taken in hand by practical mechanics; and what a noblestory of patient, laborious investigation, of difficultiesencountered and overcome by heroic industry, does not thatmarvellous machine tell of! It is indeed, in itself, a monument ofthe power of self-help in man. Grouped around it we find Savary, the military engineer; Newcomen, the Dartmouth blacksmith; Cawley, the glazier; Potter, the engine-boy; Smeaton, the civil engineer;and, towering above all, the laborious, patient, never-tiring JamesWatt, the mathematical-instrument maker. 

Watt was one of the most industrious of men; and the story of hislife proves, what all experience confirms, that it is not the manof the greatest natural vigour and capacity who achieves thehighest results, but he who employs his powers with the greatestindustry and the most carefully disciplined skill--the skill thatcomes by labour, application, and experience. Many men in his timeknew far more than Watt, but none laboured so assiduously as he didto turn all that he did know to useful practical purposes. He was, above all things, most persevering in the pursuit of facts. Hecultivated carefully that habit of active attention on which allthe higher working qualities of the mind mainly depend. Indeed, Mr. Edgeworth entertained the opinion, that the difference ofintellect in men depends more upon the early cultivation of thisHABIT OF ATTENTION, than upon any great disparity between thepowers of one individual and another. 

Even when a boy, Watt found science in his toys. The quadrantslying about his father's carpenter's shop led him to the study ofoptics and astronomy; his ill health induced him to pry into thesecrets of physiology; and his solitary walks through the countryattracted him to the study of botany and history. While carryingon the business of a mathematical-instrument maker, he received anorder to build an organ; and, though without an ear for music, heundertook the study of harmonics, and successfully constructed theinstrument. And, in like manner, when the little model ofNewcomen's steam-engine, belonging to the University of Glasgow, was placed in his hands to repair, he forthwith set himself tolearn all that was then known about heat, evaporation, andcondensation, --at the same time plodding his way in mechanics andthe science of construction, --the results of which he at lengthembodied in his condensing steam-engine. 

For ten years he went on contriving and inventing--with little hopeto cheer him, and with few friends to encourage him. He went on, meanwhile, earning bread for his family by making and sellingquadrants, making and mending fiddles, flutes, and musicalinstruments; measuring mason-work, surveying roads, superintendingthe construction of canals, or doing anything that turned up, andoffered a prospect of honest gain. At length, Watt found a fitpartner in another eminent leader of industry--Matthew Boulton, ofBirmingham; a skilful, energetic, and far-seeing man, whovigorously undertook the enterprise of introducing the condensing-engine into general use as a working power; and the success of bothis now matter of history. {5}

Many skilful inventors have from time to time added new power tothe steam-engine; and, by numerous modifications, rendered itcapable of being applied to nearly all the purposes of manufacture--driving machinery, impelling ships, grinding corn, printing books, stamping money, hammering, planing, and turning iron; in short, ofperforming every description of mechanical labour where power isrequired. One of the most useful modifications in the engine wasthat devised by Trevithick, and eventually perfected by GeorgeStephenson and his son, in the form of the railway locomotive, bywhich social changes of immense importance have been brought about, of even greater consequence, considered in their results on humanprogress and civilization, than the condensing-engine of Watt. 

One of the first grand results of Watt's invention, --which placedan almost unlimited power at the command of the producing classes, --was the establishment of the cotton-manufacture. The person mostclosely identified with the foundation of this great branch ofindustry was unquestionably Sir Richard Arkwright, whose practicalenergy and sagacity were perhaps even more remarkable than hismechanical inventiveness. His originality as an inventor hasindeed been called in question, like that of Watt and Stephenson. Arkwright probably stood in the same relation to the spinning-machine that Watt did to the steam-engine and Stephenson to thelocomotive. He gathered together the scattered threads ofingenuity which already existed, and wove them, after his owndesign, into a new and original fabric. Though Lewis Paul, ofBirmingham, patented the invention of spinning by rollers thirtyyears before Arkwright, the machines constructed by him were soimperfect in their details, that they could not be profitablyworked, and the invention was practically a failure. Anotherobscure mechanic, a reed-maker of Leigh, named Thomas Highs, isalso said to have invented the water-frame and spinning-jenny; butthey, too, proved unsuccessful. 

When the demands of industry are found to press upon the resourcesof inventors, the same idea is usually found floating about in manyminds;--such has been the case with the steam-engine, the safety-lamp, the electric telegraph, and other inventions. Many ingeniousminds are found labouring in the throes of invention, until atlength the master mind, the strong practical man, steps forward, and straightway delivers them of their idea, applies the principlesuccessfully, and the thing is done. Then there is a loud outcryamong all the smaller contrivers, who see themselves distanced inthe race; and hence men such as Watt, Stephenson, and Arkwright, have usually to defend their reputation and their rights aspractical and successful inventors. 

Richard Arkwright, like most of our great mechanicians, sprang fromthe ranks. He was born in Preston in 1732. His parents were verypoor, and he was the youngest of thirteen children. He was neverat school: the only education he received he gave to himself; andto the last he was only able to write with difficulty. When a boy, he was apprenticed to a barber, and after learning the business, heset up for himself in Bolton, where he occupied an undergroundcellar, over which he put up the sign, "Come to the subterraneousbarber--he shaves for a penny. " The other barbers found theircustomers leaving them, and reduced their prices to his standard, when Arkwright, determined to push his trade, announced hisdetermination to give "A clean shave for a halfpenny. " After a fewyears he quitted his cellar, and became an itinerant dealer inhair. At that time wigs were worn, and wig-making formed animportant branch of the barbering business. Arkwright went aboutbuying hair for the wigs. He was accustomed to attend the hiringfairs throughout Lancashire resorted to by young women, for thepurpose of securing their long tresses; and it is said that innegotiations of this sort he was very successful. He also dealt ina chemical hair dye, which he used adroitly, and thereby secured aconsiderable trade. But he does not seem, notwithstanding hispushing character, to have done more than earn a bare living. 

The fashion of wig-wearing having undergone a change, distress fellupon the wig-makers; and Arkwright, being of a mechanical turn, wasconsequently induced to turn machine inventor or "conjurer, " as thepursuit was then popularly termed. Many attempts were made aboutthat time to invent a spinning-machine, and our barber determinedto launch his little bark on the sea of invention with the rest. Like other self-taught men of the same bias, he had already beendevoting his spare time to the invention of a perpetual-motionmachine; and from that the transition to a spinning-machine waseasy. He followed his experiments so assiduously that he neglectedhis business, lost the little money he had saved, and was reducedto great poverty. His wife--for he had by this time married--wasimpatient at what she conceived to be a wanton waste of time andmoney, and in a moment of sudden wrath she seized upon anddestroyed his models, hoping thus to remove the cause of the familyprivations. Arkwright was a stubborn and enthusiastic man, and hewas provoked beyond measure by this conduct of his wife, from whomhe immediately separated. 

In travelling about the country, Arkwright had become acquaintedwith a person named Kay, a clockmaker at Warrington, who assistedhim in constructing some of the parts of his perpetual-motionmachinery. It is supposed that he was informed by Kay of theprinciple of spinning by rollers; but it is also said that the ideawas first suggested to him by accidentally observing a red-hotpiece of iron become elongated by passing between iron rollers. However this may be, the idea at once took firm possession of hismind, and he proceeded to devise the process by which it was to beaccomplished, Kay being able to tell him nothing on this point. Arkwright now abandoned his business of hair collecting, anddevoted himself to the perfecting of his machine, a model of which, constructed by Kay under his directions, he set up in the parlourof the Free Grammar School at Preston. Being a burgess of thetown, he voted at the contested election at which General Burgoynewas returned; but such was his poverty, and such the tattered stateof his dress, that a number of persons subscribed a sum sufficientto have him put in a state fit to appear in the poll-room. Theexhibition of his machine in a town where so many workpeople livedby the exercise of manual labour proved a dangerous experiment;ominous growlings were heard outside the school-room from time totime, and Arkwright, --remembering the fate of Kay, who was mobbedand compelled to fly from Lancashire because of his invention ofthe fly-shuttle, and of poor Hargreaves, whose spinning-jenny hadbeen pulled to pieces only a short time before by a Blackburn mob, --wisely determined on packing up his model and removing to a lessdangerous locality. He went accordingly to Nottingham, where heapplied to some of the local bankers for pecuniary assistance; andthe Messrs. Wright consented to advance him a sum of money oncondition of sharing in the profits of the invention. The machine, however, not being perfected so soon as they had anticipated, thebankers recommended Arkwright to apply to Messrs. Strutt and Need, the former of whom was the ingenious inventor and patentee of thestocking-frame. Mr. Strutt at once appreciated the merits of theinvention, and a partnership was entered into with Arkwright, whoseroad to fortune was now clear. The patent was secured in the nameof "Richard Arkwright, of Nottingham, clockmaker, " and it is acircumstance worthy of note, that it was taken out in 1769, thesame year in which Watt secured the patent for his steam-engine. Acotton-mill was first erected at Nottingham, driven by horses; andanother was shortly after built, on a much larger scale, atCromford, in Derbyshire, turned by a water-wheel, from whichcircumstance the spinning-machine came to be called the water-frame. 

Arkwright's labours, however, were, comparatively speaking, onlybegun. He had still to perfect all the working details of hismachine. It was in his hands the subject of constant modificationand improvement, until eventually it was rendered practicable andprofitable in an eminent degree. But success was only secured bylong and patient labour: for some years, indeed, the speculationwas disheartening and unprofitable, swallowing up a very largeamount of capital without any result. When success began to appearmore certain, then the Lancashire manufacturers fell uponArkwright's patent to pull it in pieces, as the Cornish miners fellupon Boulton and Watt to rob them of the profits of their steam-engine. Arkwright was even denounced as the enemy of the workingpeople; and a mill which he built near Chorley was destroyed by amob in the presence of a strong force of police and military. TheLancashire men refused to buy his materials, though they wereconfessedly the best in the market. Then they refused to paypatent-right for the use of his machines, and combined to crush himin the courts of law. To the disgust of right-minded people, Arkwright's patent was upset. After the trial, when passing thehotel at which his opponents were staying, one of them said, loudenough to be heard by him, "Well, we've done the old shaver atlast;" to which he coolly replied, "Never mind, I've a razor leftthat will shave you all. " He established new mills in Lancashire, Derbyshire, and at New Lanark, in Scotland. The mills at Cromfordalso came into his hands at the expiry of his partnership withStrutt, and the amount and the excellence of his products weresuch, that in a short time he obtained so complete a control of thetrade, that the prices were fixed by him, and he governed the mainoperations of the other cotton-spinners. 

Arkwright was a man of great force of character, indomitablecourage, much worldly shrewdness, with a business faculty almostamounting to genius. At one period his time was engrossed bysevere and continuous labour, occasioned by the organising andconducting of his numerous manufactories, sometimes from four inthe morning till nine at night. At fifty years of age he set towork to learn English grammar, and improve himself in writing andorthography. After overcoming every obstacle, he had thesatisfaction of reaping the reward of his enterprise. Eighteenyears after he had constructed his first machine, he rose to suchestimation in Derbyshire that he was appointed High Sheriff of thecounty, and shortly after George III. Conferred upon him the honourof knighthood. He died in 1792. Be it for good or for evil, Arkwright was the founder in England of the modern factory system, a branch of industry which has unquestionably proved a source ofimmense wealth to individuals and to the nation. 

All the other great branches of industry in Britain furnish likeexamples of energetic men of business, the source of much benefitto the neighbourhoods in which they have laboured, and of increasedpower and wealth to the community at large. Amongst such might becited the Strutts of Belper; the Tennants of Glasgow; the Marshallsand Gotts of Leeds; the Peels, Ashworths, Birleys, Fieldens, Ashtons, Heywoods, and Ainsworths of South Lancashire, some ofwhose descendants have since become distinguished in connectionwith the political history of England. Such pre-eminently were thePeels of South Lancashire. 

The founder of the Peel family, about the middle of last century, was a small yeoman, occupying the Hole House Farm, near Blackburn, from which he afterwards removed to a house situated in Fish Lanein that town. Robert Peel, as he advanced in life, saw a largefamily of sons and daughters growing up about him; but the landabout Blackburn being somewhat barren, it did not appear to himthat agricultural pursuits offered a very encouraging prospect fortheir industry. The place had, however, long been the seat of adomestic manufacture--the fabric called "Blackburn greys, "consisting of linen weft and cotton warp, being chiefly made inthat town and its neighbourhood. It was then customary--previousto the introduction of the factory system--for industrious yeomenwith families to employ the time not occupied in the fields inweaving at home; and Robert Peel accordingly began the domestictrade of calico-making. He was honest, and made an honest article;thrifty and hardworking, and his trade prospered. He was alsoenterprising, and was one of the first to adopt the cardingcylinder, then recently invented. 

But Robert Peel's attention was principally directed to thePRINTING of calico--then a comparatively unknown art--and for sometime he carried on a series of experiments with the object ofprinting by machinery. The experiments were secretly conducted inhis own house, the cloth being ironed for the purpose by one of thewomen of the family. It was then customary, in such houses as thePeels, to use pewter plates at dinner. Having sketched a figure orpattern on one of the plates, the thought struck him that animpression might be got from it in reverse, and printed on calicowith colour. In a cottage at the end of the farm-house lived awoman who kept a calendering machine, and going into her cottage, he put the plate with colour rubbed into the figured part and somecalico over it, through the machine, when it was found to leave asatisfactory impression. Such is said to have been the origin ofroller printing on calico. Robert Peel shortly perfected hisprocess, and the first pattern he brought out was a parsley leaf;hence he is spoken of in the neighbourhood of Blackburn to this dayas "Parsley Peel. " The process of calico printing by what iscalled the mule machine--that is, by means of a wooden cylinder inrelief, with an engraved copper cylinder--was afterwards brought toperfection by one of his sons, the head of the firm of Messrs. Peeland Co. , of Church. Stimulated by his success, Robert Peel shortlygave up farming, and removing to Brookside, a village about twomiles from Blackburn, he devoted himself exclusively to theprinting business. There, with the aid of his sons, who were asenergetic as himself, he successfully carried on the trade forseveral years; and as the young men grew up towards manhood, theconcern branched out into various firms of Peels, each of whichbecame a centre of industrial activity and a source of remunerativeemployment to large numbers of people. 

From what can now be learnt of the character of the original anduntitled Robert Peel, he must have been a remarkable man--shrewd, sagacious, and far-seeing. But little is known of him exceptingfrom traditions and the sons of those who knew him are fast passingaway. His son, Sir Robert, thus modestly spoke of him:- "My fathermay be truly said to have been the founder of our family; and he soaccurately appreciated the importance of commercial wealth in anational point of view, that he was often heard to say that thegains to individuals were small compared with the national gainsarising from trade. "

Sir Robert Peel, the first baronet and the second manufacturer ofthe name, inherited all his father's enterprise, ability, andindustry. His position, at starting in life, was little above thatof an ordinary working man; for his father, though laying thefoundations of future prosperity, was still struggling with thedifficulties arising from insufficient capital. When Robert wasonly twenty years of age, he determined to begin the business ofcotton-printing, which he had by this time learnt from his father, on his own account. His uncle, James Haworth, and William Yates ofBlackburn, joined him in his enterprise; the whole capital whichthey could raise amongst them amounting to only about 500l. , theprincipal part of which was supplied by William Yates. The fatherof the latter was a householder in Blackburn, where he was wellknown and much respected; and having saved money by his business, he was willing to advance sufficient to give his son a start in thelucrative trade of cotton-printing, then in its infancy. RobertPeel, though comparatively a mere youth, supplied the practicalknowledge of the business; but it was said of him, and proved true, that he "carried an old head on young shoulders. " A ruined corn-mill, with its adjoining fields, was purchased for a comparativelysmall sum, near the then insignificant town of Bury, where theworks long after continued to be known as "The Ground;" and a fewwooden sheds having been run up, the firm commenced their cotton-printing business in a very humble way in the year 1770, adding toit that of cotton-spinning a few years later. The frugal style inwhich the partners lived may be inferred from the followingincident in their early career. William Yates, being a married manwith a family, commenced housekeeping on a small scale, and, tooblige Peel, who was single, he agreed to take him as a lodger. The sum which the latter first paid for board and lodging was only8s. A week; but Yates, considering this too little, insisted on theweekly payment being increased a shilling, to which Peel at firstdemurred, and a difference between the partners took place, whichwas eventually compromised by the lodger paying an advance ofsixpence a week. William Yates's eldest child was a girl namedEllen, and she very soon became an especial favourite with theyoung lodger. On returning from his hard day's work at "TheGround, " he would take the little girl upon his knee, and say toher, "Nelly, thou bonny little dear, wilt be my wife?" to which thechild would readily answer "Yes, " as any child would do. "ThenI'll wait for thee, Nelly; I'll wed thee, and none else. " AndRobert Peel did wait. As the girl grew in beauty towardswomanhood, his determination to wait for her was strengthened; andafter the lapse of ten years--years of close application tobusiness and rapidly increasing prosperity--Robert Peel marriedEllen Yates when she had completed her seventeenth year; and thepretty child, whom her mother's lodger and father's partner hadnursed upon his knee, became Mrs. Peel, and eventually Lady Peel, the mother of the future Prime Minister of England. Lady Peel wasa noble and beautiful woman, fitted to grace any station in life. She possessed rare powers of mind, and was, on every emergency, thehigh-souled and faithful counsellor of her husband. For many yearsafter their marriage, she acted as his amanuensis, conducting theprincipal part of his business correspondence, for Mr. Peel himselfwas an indifferent and almost unintelligible writer. She died in1803, only three years after the Baronetcy had been conferred uponher husband. It is said that London fashionable life--so unlikewhat she had been accustomed to at home--proved injurious to herhealth; and old Mr. Yates afterwards used to say, "if Robert hadn'tmade our Nelly a 'Lady, ' she might ha' been living yet. "

The career of Yates, Peel, & Co. , was throughout one of great anduninterrupted prosperity. Sir Robert Peel himself was the soul ofthe firm; to great energy and application uniting much practicalsagacity, and first-rate mercantile abilities--qualities in whichmany of the early cotton-spinners were exceedingly deficient. Hewas a man of iron mind and frame, and toiled unceasingly. Inshort, he was to cotton printing what Arkwright was to cotton-spinning, and his success was equally great. The excellence of thearticles produced by the firm secured the command of the market, and the character of the firm stood pre-eminent in Lancashire. Besides greatly benefiting Bury, the partnership planted similarextensive works in the neighbourhood, on the Irwell and the Roch;and it was cited to their honour, that, while they sought to raiseto the highest perfection the quality of their manufactures, theyalso endeavoured, in all ways, to promote the well-being andcomfort of their workpeople; for whom they contrived to provideremunerative employment even in the least prosperous times. 

Sir Robert Peel readily appreciated the value of all new processesand inventions; in illustration of which we may allude to hisadoption of the process for producing what is called RESIST WORK incalico printing. This is accomplished by the use of a paste, orresist, on such parts of the cloth as were intended to remainwhite. The person who discovered the paste was a traveller for aLondon house, who sold it to Mr. Peel for an inconsiderable sum. It required the experience of a year or two to perfect the systemand make it practically useful; but the beauty of its effect, andthe extreme precision of outline in the pattern produced, at onceplaced the Bury establishment at the head of all the factories forcalico printing in the country. Other firms, conducted with likespirit, were established by members of the same family at Burnley, Foxhill bank, and Altham, in Lancashire; Salley Abbey, inYorkshire; and afterwards at Burton-on-Trent, in Staffordshire;these various establishments, whilst they brought wealth to theirproprietors, setting an example to the whole cotton trade, andtraining up many of the most successful printers and manufacturersin Lancashire. 

Among other distinguished founders of industry, the Rev. WilliamLee, inventor of the Stocking Frame, and John Heathcoat, inventorof the Bobbin-net Machine, are worthy of notice, as men of greatmechanical skill and perseverance, through whose labours a vastamount of remunerative employment has been provided for thelabouring population of Nottingham and the adjacent districts. Theaccounts which have been preserved of the circumstances connectedwith the invention of the Stocking Frame are very confused, and inmany respects contradictory, though there is no doubt as to thename of the inventor. This was William Lee, born at Woodborough, avillage some seven miles from Nottingham, about the year 1563. According to some accounts, he was the heir to a small freehold, while according to others he was a poor scholar, {6} and had tostruggle with poverty from his earliest years. He entered as asizar at Christ College, Cambridge, in May, 1579, and subsequentlyremoved to St. John's, taking his degree of B. A. In 1582-3. It isbelieved that he commenced M. A. In 1586; but on this point thereappears to be some confusion in the records of the University. Thestatement usually made that he was expelled for marrying contraryto the statutes, is incorrect, as he was never a Fellow of theUniversity, and therefore could not be prejudiced by taking such astep. 

At the time when Lee invented the Stocking Frame he was officiatingas curate of Calverton, near Nottingham; and it is alleged by somewriters that the invention had its origin in disappointedaffection. The curate is said to have fallen deeply in love with ayoung lady of the village, who failed to reciprocate hisaffections; and when he visited her, she was accustomed to pay muchmore attention to the process of knitting stockings and instructingher pupils in the art, than to the addresses of her admirer. Thisslight is said to have created in his mind such an aversion toknitting by hand, that he formed the determination to invent amachine that should supersede it and render it a gainlessemployment. For three years he devoted himself to the prosecutionof the invention, sacrificing everything to his new idea. At theprospect of success opened before him, he abandoned his curacy, anddevoted himself to the art of stocking making by machinery. Thisis the version of the story given by Henson {7} on the authority ofan old stocking-maker, who died in Collins's Hospital, Nottingham, aged ninety-two, and was apprenticed in the town during the reignof Queen Anne. It is also given by Deering and Blackner as thetraditional account in the neighbourhood, and it is in some measureborne out by the arms of the London Company of Frame-Work Knitters, which consists of a stocking frame without the wood-work, with aclergyman on one side and a woman on the other as supporters. {8}

Whatever may have been the actual facts as to the origin of theinvention of the Stocking Loom, there can be no doubt as to theextraordinary mechanical genius displayed by its inventor. That aclergyman living in a remote village, whose life had for the mostpart been spent with books, should contrive a machine of suchdelicate and complicated movements, and at once advance the art ofknitting from the tedious process of linking threads in a chain ofloops by three skewers in the fingers of a woman, to the beautifuland rapid process of weaving by the stocking frame, was indeed anastonishing achievement, which may be pronounced almost unequalledin the history of mechanical invention. Lee's merit was all thegreater, as the handicraft arts were then in their infancy, andlittle attention had as yet been given to the contrivance ofmachinery for the purposes of manufacture. He was under thenecessity of extemporising the parts of his machine as he bestcould, and adopting various expedients to overcome difficulties asthey arose. His tools were imperfect, and his materials imperfect;and he had no skilled workmen to assist him. According totradition, the first frame he made was a twelve gauge, without leadsinkers, and it was almost wholly of wood; the needles being alsostuck in bits of wood. One of Lee's principal difficultiesconsisted in the formation of the stitch, for want of needle eyes;but this he eventually overcame by forming eyes to the needles witha three-square file. {9} At length, one difficulty after anotherwas successfully overcome, and after three years' labour themachine was sufficiently complete to be fit for use. The quondamcurate, full of enthusiasm for his art, now began stocking weavingin the village of Calverton, and he continued to work there forseveral years, instructing his brother James and several of hisrelations in the practice of the art. 

Having brought his frame to a considerable degree of perfection, and being desirous of securing the patronage of Queen Elizabeth, whose partiality for knitted silk stockings was well known, Leeproceeded to London to exhibit the loom before her Majesty. Hefirst showed it to several members of the court, among others toSir William (afterwards Lord) Hunsdon, whom he taught to work itwith success; and Lee was, through their instrumentality, at lengthadmitted to an interview with the Queen, and worked the machine inher presence. Elizabeth, however, did not give him theencouragement that he had expected; and she is said to have opposedthe invention on the ground that it was calculated to deprive alarge number of poor people of their employment of hand knitting. Lee was no more successful in finding other patrons, andconsidering himself and his invention treated with contempt, heembraced the offer made to him by Sully, the sagacious minister ofHenry IV. , to proceed to Rouen and instruct the operatives of thattown--then one of the most important manufacturing centres ofFrance--in the construction and use of the stocking-frame. Leeaccordingly transferred himself and his machines to France, in1605, taking with him his brother and seven workmen. He met with acordial reception at Rouen, and was proceeding with the manufactureof stockings on a large scale--having nine of his frames in fullwork, --when unhappily ill fortune again overtook him. Henry IV. , his protector, on whom he had relied for the rewards, honours, andpromised grant of privileges, which had induced Lee to settle inFrance, was murdered by the fanatic Ravaillac; and theencouragement and protection which had heretofore been extended tohim were at once withdrawn. To press his claims at court, Leeproceeded to Paris; but being a protestant as well as a foreigner, his representations were treated with neglect; and worn out withvexation and grief, this distinguished inventor shortly after diedat Paris, in a state of extreme poverty and distress. 

Lee's brother, with seven of the workmen, succeeded in escapingfrom France with their frames, leaving two behind. On James Lee'sreturn to Nottinghamshire, he was joined by one Ashton, a miller ofThoroton, who had been instructed in the art of frame-work knittingby the inventor himself before he left England. These two, withthe workmen and their frames, began the stocking manufacture atThoroton, and carried it on with considerable success. The placewas favourably situated for the purpose, as the sheep pastured inthe neighbouring district of Sherwood yielded a kind of wool of thelongest staple. Ashton is said to have introduced the method ofmaking the frames with lead sinkers, which was a great improvement. The number of looms employed in different parts of Englandgradually increased; and the machine manufacture of stockingseventually became an important branch of the national industry. 

One of the most important modifications in the Stocking-Frame wasthat which enabled it to be applied to the manufacture of lace on alarge scale. In 1777, two workmen, Frost and Holmes, were bothengaged in making point-net by means of the modifications they hadintroduced in the stocking-frame; and in the course of about thirtyyears, so rapid was the growth of this branch of production that1500 point-net frames were at work, giving employment to upwards of15, 000 people. Owing, however, to the war, to change of fashion, and to other circumstances, the Nottingham lace manufacture rapidlyfell off; and it continued in a decaying state until the inventionof the Bobbin-net Machine by John Heathcoat, late M. P. ForTiverton, which had the effect of at once re-establishing themanufacture on solid foundations. 

John Heathcoat was the youngest son of a respectable small farmerat Duffield, Derbyshire, where he was born in 1783. When at schoolhe made steady and rapid progress, but was early removed from it tobe apprenticed to a frame-smith near Loughborough. The boy soonlearnt to handle tools with dexterity, and he acquired a minuteknowledge of the parts of which the stocking-frame was composed, aswell as of the more intricate warp-machine. At his leisure hestudied how to introduce improvements in them, and his friend, Mr. Bazley, M. P. , states that as early as the age of sixteen, heconceived the idea of inventing a machine by which lace might bemade similar to Buckingham or French lace, then all made by hand. The first practical improvement he succeeded in introducing was inthe warp-frame, when, by means of an ingenious apparatus, hesucceeded in producing "mitts" of a lacy appearance, and it wasthis success which determined him to pursue the study of mechanicallace-making. The stocking-frame had already, in a modified form, been applied to the manufacture of point-net lace, in which themesh was LOOPED as in a stocking, but the work was slight andfrail, and therefore unsatisfactory. Many ingenious Nottinghammechanics had, during a long succession of years, been labouring atthe problem of inventing a machine by which the mesh of threadsshould be TWISTED round each other on the formation of the net. Some of these men died in poverty, some were driven insane, and allalike failed in the object of their search. The old warp-machineheld its ground. 

When a little over twenty-one years of age, Heathcoat went toNottingham, where he readily found employment, for which he soonreceived the highest remuneration, as a setter-up of hosiery andwarp-frames, and was much respected for his talent for invention, general intelligence, and the sound and sober principles thatgoverned his conduct. He also continued to pursue the subject onwhich his mind had before been occupied, and laboured to compassthe contrivance of a twist traverse-net machine. He first studiedthe art of making the Buckingham or pillow-lace by hand, with theobject of effecting the same motions by mechanical means. It was along and laborious task, requiring the exercise of greatperseverance and ingenuity. His master, Elliot, described him atthat time as inventive, patient, self-denying, and taciturn, undaunted by failures and mistakes, full of resources andexpedients, and entertaining the most perfect confidence that hisapplication of mechanical principles would eventually be crownedwith success. 

It is difficult to describe in words an invention so complicated asthe bobbin-net machine. It was, indeed, a mechanical pillow formaking lace, imitating in an ingenious manner the motions of thelace-maker's fingers in intersecting or tying the meshes of thelace upon her pillow. On analysing the component parts of a pieceof hand-made lace, Heathcoat was enabled to classify the threadsinto longitudinal and diagonal. He began his experiments by fixingcommon pack-threads lengthwise on a sort of frame for the warp, andthen passing the weft threads between them by common plyers, delivering them to other plyers on the opposite side; then, aftergiving them a sideways motion and twist, the threads were repassedback between the next adjoining cords, the meshes being thus tiedin the same way as upon pillows by hand. He had then to contrive amechanism that should accomplish all these nice and delicatemovements, and to do this cost him no small amount of mental toil. Long after he said, "The single difficulty of getting the diagonalthreads to twist in the allotted space was so great that if it hadnow to be done, I should probably not attempt its accomplishment. "His next step was to provide thin metallic discs, to be used asbobbins for conducting the threads backwards and forwards throughthe warp. These discs, being arranged in carrier-frames placed oneach side of the warp, were moved by suitable machinery so as toconduct the threads from side to side in forming the lace. Heeventually succeeded in working out his principle withextraordinary skill and success; and, at the age of twenty-four, hewas enabled to secure his invention by a patent. 

During this time his wife was kept in almost as great anxiety ashimself, for she well knew of his trials and difficulties while hewas striving to perfect his invention. Many years after they hadbeen successfully overcome, the conversation which took place oneeventful evening was vividly remembered. "Well, " said the anxiouswife, "will it work?" "No, " was the sad answer; "I have had totake it all to pieces again. " Though he could still speakhopefully and cheerfully, his poor wife could restrain her feelingsno longer, but sat down and cried bitterly. She had, however, onlya few more weeks to wait, for success long laboured for and richlydeserved, came at last, and a proud and happy man was JohnHeathcoat when he brought home the first narrow strip of bobbin-netmade by his machine, and placed it in the hands of his wife. 

As in the case of nearly all inventions which have provedproductive, Heathcoat's rights as a patentee were disputed, and hisclaims as an inventor called in question. On the supposedinvalidity of the patent, the lace-makers boldly adopted thebobbin-net machine, and set the inventor at defiance. But otherpatents were taken out for alleged improvements and adaptations;and it was only when these new patentees fell out and went to lawwith each other that Heathcoat's rights became established. Onelace-manufacturer having brought an action against another for analleged infringement of his patent, the jury brought in a verdictfor the defendant, in which the judge concurred, on the ground thatBOTH the machines in question were infringements of Heathcoat'spatent. It was on the occasion of this trial, "Boville v. Moore, "that Sir John Copley (afterwards Lord Lyndhurst), who was retainedfor the defence in the interest of Mr. Heathcoat, learnt to workthe bobbin-net machine in order that he might master the details ofthe invention. On reading over his brief, he confessed that he didnot quite understand the merits of the case; but as it seemed tohim to be one of great importance, he offered to go down into thecountry forthwith and study the machine until he understood it;"and then, " said he, "I will defend you to the best of my ability. "He accordingly put himself into that night's mail, and went down toNottingham to get up his case as perhaps counsel never got it upbefore. Next morning the learned sergeant placed himself in alace-loom, and he did not leave it until he could deftly make apiece of bobbin-net with his own hands, and thoroughly understoodthe principle as well as the details of the machine. When the casecame on for trial, the learned sergeant was enabled to work themodel on the table with such case and skill, and to explain theprecise nature of the invention with such felicitous clearness, asto astonish alike judge, jury, and spectators; and the thoroughconscientiousness and mastery with which he handled the case had nodoubt its influence upon the decision of the court. 

After the trial was over, Mr. Heathcoat, on inquiry, found aboutsix hundred machines at work after his patent, and he proceeded tolevy royalty upon the owners of them, which amounted to a largesum. But the profits realised by the manufacturers of lace werevery great, and the use of the machines rapidly extended; while theprice of the article was reduced from five pounds the square yardto about five pence in the course of twenty-five years. During thesame period the average annual returns of the lace-trade have beenat least four millions sterling, and it gives remunerativeemployment to about 150, 000 workpeople. 

To return to the personal history of Mr. Heathcoat. In 1809 wefind him established as a lace-manufacturer at Loughborough, inLeicestershire. There he carried on a prosperous business forseveral years, giving employment to a large number of operatives, at wages varying from 5l. To 10l. A week. Notwithstanding thegreat increase in the number of hands employed in lace-makingthrough the introduction of the new machines, it began to bewhispered about among the workpeople that they were supersedinglabour, and an extensive conspiracy was formed for the purpose ofdestroying them wherever found. As early as the year 1811 disputesarose between the masters and men engaged in the stocking and lacetrades in the south-western parts of Nottinghamshire and theadjacent parts of Derbyshire and Leicestershire, the result ofwhich was the assembly of a mob at Sutton, in Ashfield, whoproceeded in open day to break the stocking and lace-frames of themanufacturers. Some of the ringleaders having been seized andpunished, the disaffected learnt caution; but the destruction ofthe machines was nevertheless carried on secretly wherever a safeopportunity presented itself. As the machines were of so delicatea construction that a single blow of a hammer rendered themuseless, and as the manufacture was carried on for the most part indetached buildings, often in private dwellings remote from towns, the opportunities of destroying them were unusually easy. In theneighbourhood of Nottingham, which was the focus of turbulence, themachine-breakers organized themselves in regular bodies, and heldnocturnal meetings at which their plans were arranged. Probablywith the view of inspiring confidence, they gave out that they wereunder the command of a leader named Ned Ludd, or General Ludd, andhence their designation of Luddites. Under this organizationmachine-breaking was carried on with great vigour during the winterof 1811, occasioning great distress, and throwing large numbers ofworkpeople out of employment. Meanwhile, the owners of the framesproceeded to remove them from the villages and lone dwellings inthe country, and brought them into warehouses in the towns fortheir better protection. 

The Luddites seem to have been encouraged by the lenity of thesentences pronounced on such of their confederates as had beenapprehended and tried; and, shortly after, the mania broke outafresh, and rapidly extended over the northern and midlandmanufacturing districts. The organization became more secret; anoath was administered to the members binding them to obedience tothe orders issued by the heads of the confederacy; and the betrayalof their designs was decreed to be death. All machines were doomedby them to destruction, whether employed in the manufacture ofcloth, calico, or lace; and a reign of terror began which lastedfor years. In Yorkshire and Lancashire mills were boldly attackedby armed rioters, and in many cases they were wrecked or burnt; sothat it became necessary to guard them by soldiers and yeomanry. The masters themselves were doomed to death; many of them wereassaulted, and some were murdered. At length the law wasvigorously set in motion; numbers of the misguided Luddites wereapprehended; some were executed; and after several years' violentcommotion from this cause, the machine-breaking riots were atlength quelled. 

Among the numerous manufacturers whose works were attacked by theLuddites, was the inventor of the bobbin-net machine himself. Onebright sunny day, in the summer of 1816, a body of rioters enteredhis factory at Loughborough with torches, and set fire to it, destroying thirty-seven lace-machines, and above 10, 000l. Worth ofproperty. Ten of the men were apprehended for the felony, andeight of them were executed. Mr. Heathcoat made a claim upon thecounty for compensation, and it was resisted; but the Court ofQueen's Bench decided in his favour, and decreed that the countymust make good his loss of 10, 000l. The magistrates sought tocouple with the payment of the damage the condition that Mr. Heathcoat should expend the money in the county of Leicester; butto this he would not assent, having already resolved on removinghis manufacture elsewhere. At Tiverton, in Devonshire, he found alarge building which had been formerly used as a woollenmanufactory; but the Tiverton cloth trade having fallen into decay, the building remained unoccupied, and the town itself was generallyin a very poverty-stricken condition. Mr. Heathcoat bought the oldmill, renovated and enlarged it, and there recommenced themanufacture of lace upon a larger scale than before; keeping infull work as many as three hundred machines, and employing a largenumber of artisans at good wages. Not only did he carry on themanufacture of lace, but the various branches of business connectedwith it--yarn-doubling, silk-spinning, net-making, and finishing. He also established at Tiverton an iron-foundry and works for themanufacture of agricultural implements, which proved of greatconvenience to the district. It was a favourite idea of his thatsteam power was capable of being applied to perform all the heavydrudgery of life, and he laboured for a long time at the inventionof a steam-plough. In 1832 he so far completed his invention as tobe enabled to take out a patent for it; and Heathcoat's steam-plough, though it has since been superseded by Fowler's, wasconsidered the best machine of the kind that had up to that timebeen invented. 

Mr. Heathcoat was a man of great natural gifts. He possessed asound understanding, quick perception, and a genius for business ofthe highest order. With these he combined uprightness, honesty, and integrity--qualities which are the true glory of humancharacter. Himself a diligent self-educator, he gave readyencouragement to deserving youths in his employment, stimulatingtheir talents and fostering their energies. During his own busylife, he contrived to save time to master French and Italian, ofwhich he acquired an accurate and grammatical knowledge. His mindwas largely stored with the results of a careful study of the bestliterature, and there were few subjects on which he had not formedfor himself shrewd and accurate views. The two thousand workpeoplein his employment regarded him almost as a father, and he carefullyprovided for their comfort and improvement. Prosperity did notspoil him, as it does so many; nor close his heart against theclaims of the poor and struggling, who were always sure of hissympathy and help. To provide for the education of the children ofhis workpeople, he built schools for them at a cost of about 6000l. He was also a man of singularly cheerful and buoyant disposition, afavourite with men of all classes and most admired and beloved bythose who knew him best. 

In 1831 the electors of Tiverton, of which town Mr. Heathcoat hadproved himself so genuine a benefactor, returned him to representthem in Parliament, and he continued their member for nearly thirtyyears. During a great part of that time he had Lord Palmerston forhis colleague, and the noble lord, on more than one publicoccasion, expressed the high regard which he entertained for hisvenerable friend. On retiring from the representation in 1859, owing to advancing age and increasing infirmities, thirteen hundredof his workmen presented him with a silver inkstand and gold pen, in token of their esteem. He enjoyed his leisure for only two moreyears, dying in January, 1861, at the age of seventy-seven, andleaving behind him a character for probity, virtue, manliness, andmechanical genius, of which his descendants may well be proud. 

We next turn to a career of a very different kind, that of theillustrious but unfortunate Jacquard, whose life also illustratesin a remarkable manner the influence which ingenious men, even ofthe humblest rank, may exercise upon the industry of a nation. Jacquard was the son of a hard-working couple of Lyons, his fatherbeing a weaver, and his mother a pattern reader. They were toopoor to give him any but the most meagre education. When he was ofage to learn a trade, his father placed him with a book-binder. Anold clerk, who made up the master's accounts, gave Jacquard somelessons in mathematics. He very shortly began to display aremarkable turn for mechanics, and some of his contrivances quiteastonished the old clerk, who advised Jacquard's father to put himto some other trade, in which his peculiar abilities might havebetter scope than in bookbinding. He was accordingly putapprentice to a cutler; but was so badly treated by his master, that he shortly afterwards left his employment, on which he wasplaced with a type-founder. 

His parents dying, Jacquard found himself in a measure compelled totake to his father's two looms, and carry on the trade of a weaver. He immediately proceeded to improve the looms, and became soengrossed with his inventions that he forgot his work, and verysoon found himself at the end of his means. He then sold the loomsto pay his debts, at the same time that he took upon himself theburden of supporting a wife. He became still poorer, and tosatisfy his creditors, he next sold his cottage. He tried to findemployment, but in vain, people believing him to be an idler, occupied with mere dreams about his inventions. At length heobtained employment with a line-maker of Bresse, whither he went, his wife remaining at Lyons, earning a precarious living by makingstraw bonnets. 

We hear nothing further of Jacquard for some years, but in theinterval he seems to have prosecuted his improvement in thedrawloom for the better manufacture of figured fabrics; for, in1790, he brought out his contrivance for selecting the warpthreads, which, when added to the loom, superseded the services ofa draw-boy. The adoption of this machine was slow but steady, andin ten years after its introduction, 4000 of them were found atwork in Lyons. Jacquard's pursuits were rudely interrupted by theRevolution, and, in 1792, we find him fighting in the ranks of theLyonnaise Volunteers against the Army of the Convention under thecommand of Dubois Crance. The city was taken; Jacquard fled andjoined the Army of the Rhine, where he rose to the rank ofsergeant. He might have remained a soldier, but that, his only sonhaving been shot dead at his side, he deserted and returned toLyons to recover his wife. He found her in a garret still employedat her old trade of straw-bonnet making. While living inconcealment with her, his mind reverted to the inventions overwhich he had so long brooded in former years; but he had no meanswherewith to prosecute them. Jacquard found it necessary, however, to emerge from his hiding-place and try to find some employment. He succeeded in obtaining it with an intelligent manufacturer, andwhile working by day he went on inventing by night. It hadoccurred to him that great improvements might still be introducedin looms for figured goods, and he incidentally mentioned thesubject one day to his master, regretting at the same time that hislimited means prevented him from carrying out his ideas. Happilyhis master appreciated the value of the suggestions, and withlaudable generosity placed a sum of money at his disposal, that hemight prosecute the proposed improvements at his leisure. 

In three months Jacquard had invented a loom to substitutemechanical action for the irksome and toilsome labour of theworkman. The loom was exhibited at the Exposition of NationalIndustry at Paris in 1801, and obtained a bronze medal. Jacquardwas further honoured by a visit at Lyons from the Minister Carnot, who desired to congratulate him in person on the success of hisinvention. In the following year the Society of Arts in Londonoffered a prize for the invention of a machine for manufacturingfishing-nets and boarding-netting for ships. Jacquard heard ofthis, and while walking one day in the fields according to hiscustom, he turned the subject over in his mind, and contrived theplan of a machine for the purpose. His friend, the manufacturer, again furnished him with the means of carrying out his idea, and inthree weeks Jacquard had completed his invention. 

Jacquard's achievement having come to the knowledge of the Prefectof the Department, he was summoned before that functionary, and, onhis explanation of the working of the machine, a report on thesubject was forwarded to the Emperor. The inventor was forthwithsummoned to Paris with his machine, and brought into the presenceof the Emperor, who received him with the consideration due to hisgenius. The interview lasted two hours, during which Jacquard, placed at his ease by the Emperor's affability, explained to himthe improvements which he proposed to make in the looms for weavingfigured goods. The result was, that he was provided withapartments in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, where he hadthe use of the workshop during his stay, and was provided with asuitable allowance for his maintenance. 

Installed in the Conservatoire, Jacquard proceeded to complete thedetails of his improved loom. He had the advantage of minutelyinspecting the various exquisite pieces of mechanism contained inthat great treasury of human ingenuity. Among the machines whichmore particularly attracted his attention, and eventually set himupon the track of his discovery, was a loom for weaving floweredsilk, made by Vaucanson the celebrated automaton-maker. 

Vaucanson was a man of the highest order of constructive genius. The inventive faculty was so strong in him that it may almost besaid to have amounted to a passion, and could not be restrained. The saying that the poet is born, not made, applies with equalforce to the inventor, who, though indebted, like the other, toculture and improved opportunities, nevertheless contrives andconstructs new combinations of machinery mainly to gratify his owninstinct. This was peculiarly the case with Vaucanson; for hismost elaborate works were not so much distinguished for theirutility as for the curious ingenuity which they displayed. While amere boy attending Sunday conversations with his mother, he amusedhimself by watching, through the chinks of a partition wall, partof the movements of a clock in the adjoining apartment. Heendeavoured to understand them, and by brooding over the subject, after several months he discovered the principle of the escapement. 

From that time the subject of mechanical invention took completepossession of him. With some rude tools which he contrived, hemade a wooden clock that marked the hours with remarkableexactness; while he made for a miniature chapel the figures of someangels which waved their wings, and some priests that made severalecclesiastical movements. With the view of executing some otherautomata he had designed, he proceeded to study anatomy, music, andmechanics, which occupied him for several years. The sight of theFlute-player in the Gardens of the Tuileries inspired him with theresolution to invent a similar figure that should PLAY; and afterseveral years' study and labour, though struggling with illness, hesucceeded in accomplishing his object. He next produced aFlageolet-player, which was succeeded by a Duck--the most ingeniousof his contrivances, --which swam, dabbled, drank, and quacked likea real duck. He next invented an asp, employed in the tragedy of'Cleopatre, ' which hissed and darted at the bosom of the actress. 

Vaucanson, however, did not confine himself merely to the making ofautomata. By reason of his ingenuity, Cardinal de Fleury appointedhim inspector of the silk manufactories of France; and he was nosooner in office, than with his usual irrepressible instinct toinvent, he proceeded to introduce improvements in silk machinery. One of these was his mill for thrown silk, which so excited theanger of the Lyons operatives, who feared the loss of employmentthrough its means, that they pelted him with stones and had nearlykilled him. He nevertheless went on inventing, and next produced amachine for weaving flowered silks, with a contrivance for giving adressing to the thread, so as to render that of each bobbin orskein of an equal thickness. 

When Vaucanson died in 1782, after a long illness, he bequeathedhis collection of machines to the Queen, who seems to have set butsmall value on them, and they were shortly after dispersed. Buthis machine for weaving flowered silks was happily preserved in theConservatoire des Arts et Metiers, and there Jacquard found itamong the many curious and interesting articles in the collection. It proved of the utmost value to him, for it immediately set him onthe track of the principal modification which he introduced in hisimproved loom. 

One of the chief features of Vaucanson's machine was a piercedcylinder which, according to the holes it presented when revolved, regulated the movement of certain needles, and caused the threadsof the warp to deviate in such a manner as to produce a givendesign, though only of a simple character. Jacquard seized uponthe suggestion with avidity, and, with the genius of the trueinventor, at once proceeded to improve upon it. At the end of amonth his weaving-machine was completed. To the cylinder ofVancanson, he added an endless piece of pasteboard pierced with anumber of holes, through which the threads of the warp werepresented to the weaver; while another piece of mechanism indicatedto the workman the colour of the shuttle which he ought to throw. Thus the drawboy and the reader of designs were both at oncesuperseded. The first use Jacquard made of his new loom was toweave with it several yards of rich stuff which he presented to theEmpress Josephine. Napoleon was highly gratified with the resultof the inventor's labours, and ordered a number of the looms to beconstructed by the best workmen, after Jacquard's model, andpresented to him; after which he returned to Lyons. 

There he experienced the frequent fate of inventors. He wasregarded by his townsmen as an enemy, and treated by them as Kay, Hargreaves, and Arkwright had been in Lancashire. The workmenlooked upon the new loom as fatal to their trade, and feared lestit should at once take the bread from their mouths. A tumultuousmeeting was held on the Place des Terreaux, when it was determinedto destroy the machines. This was however prevented by themilitary. But Jacquard was denounced and hanged in effigy. The'Conseil des prud'hommes' in vain endeavoured to allay theexcitement, and they were themselves denounced. At length, carriedaway by the popular impulse, the prud'hommes, most of whom had beenworkmen and sympathized with the class, had one of Jacquard's loomscarried off and publicly broken in pieces. Riots followed, in oneof which Jacquard was dragged along the quay by an infuriated mobintending to drown him, but he was rescued. 

The great value of the Jacquard loom, however, could not be denied, and its success was only a question of time. Jacquard was urged bysome English silk manufacturers to pass over into England andsettle there. But notwithstanding the harsh and cruel treatment hehad received at the hands of his townspeople, his patriotism wastoo strong to permit him to accept their offer. The Englishmanufacturers, however, adopted his loom. Then it was, and onlythen, that Lyons, threatened to be beaten out of the field, adoptedit with eagerness; and before long the Jacquard machine wasemployed in nearly all kinds of weaving. The result proved thatthe fears of the workpeople had been entirely unfounded. Insteadof diminishing employment, the Jacquard loom increased it at leasttenfold. The number of persons occupied in the manufacture offigured goods in Lyons, was stated by M. Leon Faucher to have been60, 000 in 1833; and that number has since been considerablyincreased. 

As for Jacquard himself, the rest of his life passed peacefully, excepting that the workpeople who dragged him along the quay todrown him were shortly after found eager to bear him in triumphalong the same route in celebration of his birthday. But hismodesty would not permit him to take part in such a demonstration. The Municipal Council of Lyons proposed to him that he shoulddevote himself to improving his machine for the benefit of thelocal industry, to which Jacquard agreed in consideration of amoderate pension, the amount of which was fixed by himself. Afterperfecting his invention accordingly, he retired at sixty to endhis days at Oullins, his father's native place. It was there thathe received, in 1820, the decoration of the Legion of Honour; andit was there that he died and was buried in 1834. A statue waserected to his memory, but his relatives remained in poverty; andtwenty years after his death, his two nieces were under thenecessity of selling for a few hundred francs the gold medalbestowed upon their uncle by Louis XVIII. "Such, " says a Frenchwriter, "was the gratitude of the manufacturing interests of Lyonsto the man to whom it owes so large a portion of its splendour. "

It would be easy to extend the martyrology of inventors, and tocite the names of other equally distinguished men who have, withoutany corresponding advantage to themselves, contributed to theindustrial progress of the age, --for it has too often happened thatgenius has planted the tree, of which patient dulness has gatheredthe fruit; but we will confine ourselves for the present to a briefaccount of an inventor of comparatively recent date, by way ofillustration of the difficulties and privations which it is sofrequently the lot of mechanical genius to surmount. We allude toJoshua Heilmann, the inventor of the Combing Machine. 

Heilmann was born in 1796 at Mulhouse, the principal seat of theAlsace cotton manufacture. His father was engaged in thatbusiness; and Joshua entered his office at fifteen. He remainedthere for two years, employing his spare time in mechanicaldrawing. He afterwards spent two years in his uncle's banking-house in Paris, prosecuting the study of mathematics in theevenings. Some of his relatives having established a small cotton-spinning factory at Mulhouse, young Heilmann was placed withMessrs. Tissot and Rey, at Paris, to learn the practice of thatfirm. At the same time he became a student at the Conservatoiredes Arts et Metiers, where he attended the lectures, and studiedthe machines in the museum. He also took practical lessons inturning from a toymaker. After some time, thus diligentlyoccupied, he returned to Alsace, to superintend the construction ofthe machinery for the new factory at Vieux-Thann, which was shortlyfinished and set to work. The operations of the manufactory were, however, seriously affected by a commercial crisis which occurred, and it passed into other hands, on which Heilmann returned to hisfamily at Mulhouse. 

He had in the mean time been occupying much of his leisure withinventions, more particularly in connection with the weaving ofcotton and the preparation of the staple for spinning. One of hisearliest contrivances was an embroidering-machine, in which twentyneedles were employed, working simultaneously; and he succeeded inaccomplishing his object after about six months' labour. For thisinvention, which he exhibited at the Exposition of 1834, hereceived a gold medal, and was decorated with the Legion of Honour. Other inventions quickly followed--an improved loom, a machine formeasuring and folding fabrics, an improvement of the "bobbin andfly frames" of the English spinners, and a weft winding-machine, with various improvements in the machinery for preparing, spinning, and weaving silk and cotton. One of his most ingeniouscontrivances was his loom for weaving simultaneously two pieces ofvelvet or other piled fabric, united by the pile common to both, with a knife and traversing apparatus for separating the twofabrics when woven. But by far the most beautiful and ingenious ofhis inventions was the combing-machine, the history of which we nowproceed shortly to describe. 

Heilmann had for some years been diligently studying thecontrivance of a machine for combing long-stapled cotton, theordinary carding-machine being found ineffective in preparing theraw material for spinning, especially the finer sorts of yarn, besides causing considerable waste. To avoid these imperfections, the cotton-spinners of Alsace offered a prize of 5000 francs for animproved combing-machine, and Heilmann immediately proceeded tocompete for the reward. He was not stimulated by the desire ofgain, for he was comparatively rich, having acquired a considerablefortune by his wife. It was a saying of his that "one will neveraccomplish great things who is constantly asking himself, how muchgain will this bring me?" What mainly impelled him was theirrepressible instinct of the inventor, who no sooner has amechanical problem set before him than he feels impelled toundertake its solution. The problem in this case was, however, much more difficult than he had anticipated. The close study ofthe subject occupied him for several years, and the expenses inwhich he became involved in connection with it were so great, thathis wife's fortune was shortly swallowed up, and he was reduced topoverty, without being able to bring his machine to perfection. From that time he was under the necessity of relying mainly on thehelp of his friends to enable him to prosecute the invention. 

While still struggling with poverty and difficulties, Heilmann'swife died, believing her husband ruined; and shortly after heproceeded to England and settled for a time at Manchester, stilllabouring at his machine. He had a model made for him by theeminent machine-makers, Sharpe, Roberts, and Company; but still hecould not make it work satisfactorily, and he was at length broughtalmost to the verge of despair. He returned to France to visit hisfamily, still pursuing his idea, which had obtained completepossession of his mind. While sitting by his hearth one evening, meditating upon the hard fate of inventors and the misfortunes inwhich their families so often become involved, he found himselfalmost unconsciously watching his daughters coming their long hairand drawing it out at full length between their fingers. Thethought suddenly struck him that if he could successfully imitatein a machine the process of combing out the longest hair andforcing back the short by reversing the action of the comb, itmight serve to extricate him from his difficulty. It may beremembered that this incident in the life of Heilmann has been madethe subject of a beautiful picture by Mr. Elmore, R. A. , which wasexhibited at the Royal Academy Exhibition of 1862. 

Upon this idea he proceeded, introduced the apparently simple butreally most intricate process of machine-combing, and after greatlabour he succeeded in perfecting the invention. The singularbeauty of the process can only be appreciated by those who havewitnessed the machine at work, when the similarity of its movementsto that of combing the hair, which suggested the invention, is atonce apparent. The machine has been described as "acting withalmost the delicacy of touch of the human fingers. " It combs thelock of cotton AT BOTH ENDS, places the fibres exactly parallelwith each other, separates the long from the short, and unites thelong fibres in one sliver and the short ones in another. In fine, the machine not only acts with the delicate accuracy of the humanfingers, but apparently with the delicate intelligence of the humanmind. 

The chief commercial value of the invention consisted in itsrendering the commoner sorts of cotton available for fine spinning. The manufacturers were thereby enabled to select the most suitablefibres for high-priced fabrics, and to produce the finer sorts ofyarn in much larger quantities. It became possible by its means tomake thread so fine that a length of 334 miles might be spun from asingle pound weight of the prepared cotton, and, worked up into thefiner sorts of lace, the original shilling's worth of cotton-wool, before it passed into the hands of the consumer, might thus beincreased to the value of between 300l. And 400l. Sterling. 

The beauty and utility of Heilmann's invention were at onceappreciated by the English cotton-spinners. Six Lancashire firmsunited and purchased the patent for cotton-spinning for England forthe sum of 30, 000l; the wool-spinners paid the same sum for theprivilege of applying the process to wool; and the Messrs. Marshall, of Leeds, 20, 000l. For the privilege of applying it toflax. Thus wealth suddenly flowed in upon poor Heilmann at last. But he did not live to enjoy it. Scarcely had his long laboursbeen crowned by success than he died, and his son, who had sharedin his privations, shortly followed him. 

It is at the price of lives such as these that the wonders ofcivilisation are achieved. 

CHAPTER III--THE GREAT POTTERS--PALISSY, BOTTGHER, WEDGWOOD

"Patience is the finest and worthiest part of fortitude, and therarest too . . . Patience lies at the root of all pleasures, aswell as of all powers. Hope herself ceases to be happiness whenImpatience companions her. "--John Ruskin. 

"Il y a vingt et cinq ans passez qu'il ne me fut monstre une coupede terre, tournee et esmaillee d'une telle beaute que . . . Deslors, sans avoir esgard que je n'avois nulle connoissance desterres argileuses, je me mis a chercher les emaux, comme un hommequi taste en tenebres. "--Bernard Palissy. 

It so happens that the history of Pottery furnishes some of themost remarkable instances of patient perseverance to be found inthe whole range of biography. Of these we select three of the moststriking, as exhibited in the lives of Bernard Palissy, theFrenchman; Johann Friedrich Bottgher, the German; and JosiahWedgwood, the Englishman. 

Though the art of making common vessels of clay was known to mostof the ancient nations, that of manufacturing enamelled earthenwarewas much less common. It was, however, practised by the ancientEtruscans, specimens of whose ware are still to be found inantiquarian collections. But it became a lost art, and was onlyrecovered at a comparatively recent date. The Etruscan ware wasvery valuable in ancient times, a vase being worth its weight ingold in the time of Augustus. The Moors seem to have preservedamongst them a knowledge of the art, which they were foundpractising in the island of Majorca when it was taken by the Pisansin 1115. Among the spoil carried away were many plates of Moorishearthenware, which, in token of triumph, were embedded in the wallsof several of the ancient churches of Pisa, where they are to beseen to this day. About two centuries later the Italians began tomake an imitation enamelled ware, which they named Majolica, afterthe Moorish place of manufacture. 

The reviver or re-discoverer of the art of enamelling in Italy wasLuca della Robbia, a Florentine sculptor. Vasari describes him asa man of indefatigable perseverance, working with his chisel allday and practising drawing during the greater part of the night. He pursued the latter art with so much assiduity, that when workinglate, to prevent his feet from freezing with the cold, he wasaccustomed to provide himself with a basket of shavings, in whichhe placed them to keep himself warm and enable him to proceed withhis drawings. "Nor, " says Vasari, "am I in the least astonished atthis, since no man ever becomes distinguished in any art whatsoeverwho does not early begin to acquire the power of supporting heat, cold, hunger, thirst, and other discomforts; whereas those personsdeceive themselves altogether who suppose that when taking theirease and surrounded by all the enjoyments of the world they maystill attain to honourable distinction, --for it is not by sleeping, but by waking, watching, and labouring continually, thatproficiency is attained and reputation acquired. "

But Luca, notwithstanding all his application and industry, did notsucceed in earning enough money by sculpture to enable him to liveby the art, and the idea occurred to him that he might neverthelessbe able to pursue his modelling in some material more facile andless dear than marble. Hence it was that he began to make hismodels in clay, and to endeavour by experiment so to coat and bakethe clay as to render those models durable. After many trials heat length discovered a method of covering the clay with a material, which, when exposed to the intense heat of a furnace, becameconverted into an almost imperishable enamel. He afterwards madethe further discovery of a method of imparting colour to theenamel, thus greatly adding to its beauty. 

The fame of Luca's work extended throughout Europe, and specimensof his art became widely diffused. Many of them were sent intoFrance and Spain, where they were greatly prized. At that timecoarse brown jars and pipkins were almost the only articles ofearthenware produced in France; and this continued to be the case, with comparatively small improvement, until the time of Palissy--aman who toiled and fought against stupendous difficulties with aheroism that sheds a glow almost of romance over the events of hischequered life. 

Bernard Palissy is supposed to have been born in the south ofFrance, in the diocese of Agen, about the year 1510. His fatherwas probably a worker in glass, to which trade Bernard was broughtup. His parents were poor people--too poor to give him the benefitof any school education. "I had no other books, " said heafterwards, "than heaven and earth, which are open to all. " Helearnt, however, the art of glass-painting, to which he added thatof drawing, and afterwards reading and writing. 

When about eighteen years old, the glass trade becoming decayed, Palissy left his father's house, with his wallet on his back, andwent out into the world to search whether there was any place in itfor him. He first travelled towards Gascony, working at his tradewhere he could find employment, and occasionally occupying part ofhis time in land-measuring. Then he travelled northwards, sojourning for various periods at different places in France, Flanders, and Lower Germany. 

Thus Palissy occupied about ten more years of his life, after whichhe married, and ceased from his wanderings, settling down topractise glass-painting and land-measuring at the small town ofSaintes, in the Lower Charente. There children were born to him;and not only his responsibilities but his expenses increased, while, do what he could, his earnings remained too small for hisneeds. It was therefore necessary for him to bestir himself. Probably he felt capable of better things than drudging in anemployment so precarious as glass-painting; and hence he wasinduced to turn his attention to the kindred art of painting andenamelling earthenware. Yet on this subject he was whollyignorant; for he had never seen earth baked before he began hisoperations. He had therefore everything to learn by himself, without any helper. But he was full of hope, eager to learn, ofunbounded perseverance and inexhaustible patience. 

It was the sight of an elegant cup of Italian manufacture--mostprobably one of Luca della Robbia's make--which first set Palissya-thinking about the new art. A circumstance so apparentlyinsignificant would have produced no effect upon an ordinary mind, or even upon Palissy himself at an ordinary time; but occurring asit did when he was meditating a change of calling, he at oncebecame inflamed with the desire of imitating it. The sight of thiscup disturbed his whole existence; and the determination todiscover the enamel with which it was glazed thenceforwardpossessed him like a passion. Had he been a single man he mighthave travelled into Italy in search of the secret; but he was boundto his wife and his children, and could not leave them; so heremained by their side groping in the dark in the hope of findingout the process of making and enamelling earthenware. 

At first he could merely guess the materials of which the enamelwas composed; and he proceeded to try all manner of experiments toascertain what they really were. He pounded all the substanceswhich he supposed were likely to produce it. Then he bought commonearthen pots, broke them into pieces, and, spreading his compoundsover them, subjected them to the heat of a furnace which he erectedfor the purpose of baking them. His experiments failed; and theresults were broken pots and a waste of fuel, drugs, time, andlabour. Women do not readily sympathise with experiments whoseonly tangible effect is to dissipate the means of buying clothesand food for their children; and Palissy's wife, however dutiful inother respects, could not be reconciled to the purchase of moreearthen pots, which seemed to her to be bought only to be broken. Yet she must needs submit; for Palissy had become thoroughlypossessed by the determination to master the secret of the enamel, and would not leave it alone. 

For many successive months and years Palissy pursued hisexperiments. The first furnace having proved a failure, heproceeded to erect another out of doors. There he burnt more wood, spoiled more drugs and pots, and lost more time, until povertystared him and his family in the face. "Thus, " said he, "I fooledaway several years, with sorrow and sighs, because I could not atall arrive at my intention. " In the intervals of his experimentshe occasionally worked at his former callings, painting on glass, drawing portraits, and measuring land; but his earnings from thesesources were very small. At length he was no longer able to carryon his experiments in his own furnace because of the heavy cost offuel; but he bought more potsherds, broke them up as before intothree or four hundred pieces, and, covering them with chemicals, carried them to a tile-work a league and a half distant fromSaintes, there to be baked in an ordinary furnace. After theoperation he went to see the pieces taken out; and, to his dismay, the whole of the experiments were failures. But thoughdisappointed, he was not yet defeated; for he determined on thevery spot to "begin afresh. "

His business as a land-measurer called him away for a brief seasonfrom the pursuit of his experiments. In conformity with an edictof the State, it became necessary to survey the salt-marshes in theneighbourhood of Saintes for the purpose of levying the land-tax. Palissy was employed to make this survey, and prepare the requisitemap. The work occupied him some time, and he was doubtless wellpaid for it; but no sooner was it completed than he proceeded, withredoubled zeal, to follow up his old investigations "in the trackof the enamels. " He began by breaking three dozen new earthenpots, the pieces of which he covered with different materials whichhe had compounded, and then took them to a neighbouring glass-furnace to be baked. The results gave him a glimmer of hope. Thegreater heat of the glass-furnace had melted some of the compounds;but though Palissy searched diligently for the white enamel hecould find none. 

For two more years he went on experimenting without anysatisfactory result, until the proceeds of his survey of the salt-marshes having become nearly spent, he was reduced to povertyagain. But he resolved to make a last great effort; and he beganby breaking more pots than ever. More than three hundred pieces ofpottery covered with his compounds were sent to the glass-furnace;and thither he himself went to watch the results of the baking. Four hours passed, during which he watched; and then the furnacewas opened. The material on ONE only of the three hundred piecesof potsherd had melted, and it was taken out to cool. As ithardened, it grew white-white and polished! The piece of potsherdwas covered with white enamel, described by Palissy as "singularlybeautiful!" And beautiful it must no doubt have been in his eyesafter all his weary waiting. He ran home with it to his wife, feeling himself, as he expressed it, quite a new creature. But theprize was not yet won--far from it. The partial success of thisintended last effort merely had the effect of luring him on to asuccession of further experiments and failures. 

In order that he might complete the invention, which he nowbelieved to be at hand, he resolved to build for himself a glass-furnace near his dwelling, where he might carry on his operationsin secret. He proceeded to build the furnace with his own hands, carrying the bricks from the brick-field upon his back. He wasbricklayer, labourer, and all. From seven to eight more monthspassed. At last the furnace was built and ready for use. Palissyhad in the mean time fashioned a number of vessels of clay inreadiness for the laying on of the enamel. After being subjectedto a preliminary process of baking, they were covered with theenamel compound, and again placed in the furnace for the grandcrucial experiment. Although his means were nearly exhausted, Palissy had been for some time accumulating a great store of fuelfor the final effort; and he thought it was enough. At last thefire was lit, and the operation proceeded. All day he sat by thefurnace, feeding it with fuel. He sat there watching and feedingall through the long night. But the enamel did not melt. The sunrose upon his labours. His wife brought him a portion of thescanty morning meal, --for he would not stir from the furnace, intowhich he continued from time to time to heave more fuel. Thesecond day passed, and still the enamel did not melt. The sun set, and another night passed. The pale, haggard, unshorn, baffled yetnot beaten Palissy sat by his furnace eagerly looking for themelting of the enamel. A third day and night passed--a fourth, afifth, and even a sixth, --yes, for six long days and nights did theunconquerable Palissy watch and toil, fighting against hope; andstill the enamel would not melt. 

It then occurred to him that there might be some defect in thematerials for the enamel--perhaps something wanting in the flux; sohe set to work to pound and compound fresh materials for a newexperiment. Thus two or three more weeks passed. But how to buymore pots?--for those which he had made with his own hands for thepurposes of the first experiment were by long baking irretrievablyspoilt for the purposes of a second. His money was now all spent;but he could borrow. His character was still good, though his wifeand the neighbours thought him foolishly wasting his means infutile experiments. Nevertheless he succeeded. He borrowedsufficient from a friend to enable him to buy more fuel and morepots, and he was again ready for a further experiment. The potswere covered with the new compound, placed in the furnace, and thefire was again lit. 

It was the last and most desperate experiment of the whole. Thefire blazed up; the heat became intense; but still the enamel didnot melt. The fuel began to run short! How to keep up the fire?There were the garden palings: these would burn. They must besacrificed rather than that the great experiment should fail. Thegarden palings were pulled up and cast into the furnace. They wereburnt in vain! The enamel had not yet melted. Ten minutes moreheat might do it. Fuel must be had at whatever cost. Thereremained the household furniture and shelving. A crashing noisewas heard in the house; and amidst the screams of his wife andchildren, who now feared Palissy's reason was giving way, thetables were seized, broken up, and heaved into the furnace. Theenamel had not melted yet! There remained the shelving. Anothernoise of the wrenching of timber was heard within the house; andthe shelves were torn down and hurled after the furniture into thefire. Wife and children then rushed from the house, and wentfrantically through the town, calling out that poor Palissy hadgone mad, and was breaking up his very furniture for firewood! {10}

For an entire month his shirt had not been off his back, and he wasutterly worn out--wasted with toil, anxiety, watching, and want offood. He was in debt, and seemed on the verge of ruin. But he hadat length mastered the secret; for the last great burst of heat hadmelted the enamel. The common brown household jars, when taken outof the furnace after it had become cool, were found covered with awhite glaze! For this he could endure reproach, contumely, andscorn, and wait patiently for the opportunity of putting hisdiscovery into practice as better days came round. 

Palissy next hired a potter to make some earthen vessels afterdesigns which he furnished; while he himself proceeded to modelsome medallions in clay for the purpose of enamelling them. Buthow to maintain himself and his family until the wares were madeand ready for sale? Fortunately there remained one man in Sainteswho still believed in the integrity, if not in the judgment, ofPalissy--an inn-keeper, who agreed to feed and lodge him for sixmonths, while he went on with his manufacture. As for the workingpotter whom he had hired, Palissy soon found that he could not payhim the stipulated wages. Having already stripped his dwelling, hecould but strip himself; and he accordingly parted with some of hisclothes to the potter, in part payment of the wages which he owedhim. 

Palissy next erected an improved furnace, but he was so unfortunateas to build part of the inside with flints. When it was heated, these flints cracked and burst, and the spiculae were scatteredover the pieces of pottery, sticking to them. Though the enamelcame out right, the work was irretrievably spoilt, and thus sixmore months' labour was lost. Persons were found willing to buythe articles at a low price, notwithstanding the injury they hadsustained; but Palissy would not sell them, considering that tohave done so would be to "decry and abate his honour;" and so hebroke in pieces the entire batch. "Nevertheless, " says he, "hopecontinued to inspire me, and I held on manfully; sometimes, whenvisitors called, I entertained them with pleasantry, while I wasreally sad at heart. . . . Worst of all the sufferings I had toendure, were the mockeries and persecutions of those of my ownhousehold, who were so unreasonable as to expect me to execute workwithout the means of doing so. For years my furnaces were withoutany covering or protection, and while attending them I have beenfor nights at the mercy of the wind and the rain, without help orconsolation, save it might be the wailing of cats on the one sideand the howling of dogs on the other. Sometimes the tempest wouldbeat so furiously against the furnaces that I was compelled toleave them and seek shelter within doors. Drenched by rain, and inno better plight than if I had been dragged through mire, I havegone to lie down at midnight or at daybreak, stumbling into thehouse without a light, and reeling from one side to another as if Ihad been drunken, but really weary with watching and filled withsorrow at the loss of my labour after such long toiling. But alas!my home proved no refuge; for, drenched and besmeared as I was, Ifound in my chamber a second persecution worse than the first, which makes me even now marvel that I was not utterly consumed bymy many sorrows. "

At this stage of his affairs, Palissy became melancholy and almosthopeless, and seems to have all but broken down. He wanderedgloomily about the fields near Saintes, his clothes hanging intatters, and himself worn to a skeleton. In a curious passage inhis writings he describes how that the calves of his legs haddisappeared and were no longer able with the help of garters tohold up his stockings, which fell about his heels when he walked. {11} The family continued to reproach him for his recklessness, and his neighbours cried shame upon him for his obstinate folly. So he returned for a time to his former calling; and after about ayear's diligent labour, during which he earned bread for hishousehold and somewhat recovered his character among hisneighbours, he again resumed his darling enterprise. But though hehad already spent about ten years in the search for the enamel, itcost him nearly eight more years of experimental plodding before heperfected his invention. He gradually learnt dexterity andcertainty of result by experience, gathering practical knowledgeout of many failures. Every mishap was a fresh lesson to him, teaching him something new about the nature of enamels, thequalities of argillaceous earths, the tempering of clays, and theconstruction and management of furnaces. 

At last, after about sixteen years' labour, Palissy took heart andcalled himself Potter. These sixteen years had been his term ofapprenticeship to the art; during which he had wholly to teachhimself, beginning at the very beginning. He was now able to sellhis wares and thereby maintain his family in comfort. But he neverrested satisfied with what he had accomplished. He proceeded fromone step of improvement to another; always aiming at the greatestperfection possible. He studied natural objects for patterns, andwith such success that the great Buffon spoke of him as "so great anaturalist as Nature only can produce. " His ornamental pieces arenow regarded as rare gems in the cabinets of virtuosi, and sell atalmost fabulous prices. {12} The ornaments on them are for themost part accurate models from life, of wild animals, lizards, andplants, found in the fields about Saintes, and tastefully combinedas ornaments into the texture of a plate or vase. When Palissy hadreached the height of his art he styled himself "Ouvrier de Terreet Inventeur des Rustics Figulines. "

We have not, however, come to an end of the sufferings of Palissy, respecting which a few words remain to be said. Being aProtestant, at a time when religious persecution waxed hot in thesouth of France, and expressing his views without fear, he wasregarded as a dangerous heretic. His enemies having informedagainst him, his house at Saintes was entered by the officers of"justice, " and his workshop was thrown open to the rabble, whoentered and smashed his pottery, while he himself was hurried offby night and cast into a dungeon at Bordeaux, to wait his turn atthe stake or the scaffold. He was condemned to be burnt; but apowerful noble, the Constable de Montmorency, interposed to savehis life--not because he had any special regard for Palissy or hisreligion, but because no other artist could be found capable ofexecuting the enamelled pavement for his magnificent chateau thenin course of erection at Ecouen, about four leagues from Paris. Byhis influence an edict was issued appointing Palissy Inventor ofRustic Figulines to the King and to the Constable, which had theeffect of immediately removing him from the jurisdiction ofBourdeaux. He was accordingly liberated, and returned to his homeat Saintes only to find it devastated and broken up. His workshopwas open to the sky, and his works lay in ruins. Shaking the dustof Saintes from his feet he left the place never to return to it, and removed to Paris to carry on the works ordered of him by theConstable and the Queen Mother, being lodged in the Tuileries {13}while so occupied. 

Besides carrying on the manufacture of pottery, with the aid of histwo sons, Palissy, during the latter part of his life, wrote andpublished several books on the potter's art, with a view to theinstruction of his countrymen, and in order that they might avoidthe many mistakes which he himself had made. He also wrote onagriculture, on fortification, and natural history, on which lattersubject he even delivered lectures to a limited number of persons. He waged war against astrology, alchemy, witchcraft, and likeimpostures. This stirred up against him many enemies, who pointedthe finger at him as a heretic, and he was again arrested for hisreligion and imprisoned in the Bastille. He was now an old man ofseventy-eight, trembling on the verge of the grave, but his spiritwas as brave as ever. He was threatened with death unless herecanted; but he was as obstinate in holding to his religion as hehad been in hunting out the secret of the enamel. The king, HenryIII. , even went to see him in prison to induce him to abjure hisfaith. "My good man, " said the King, "you have now served mymother and myself for forty-five years. We have put up with youradhering to your religion amidst fires and massacres: now I am sopressed by the Guise party as well as by my own people, that I amconstrained to leave you in the hands of your enemies, and to-morrow you will be burnt unless you become converted. " "Sire, "answered the unconquerable old man, "I am ready to give my life forthe glory of God. You have said many times that you have pity onme; and now I have pity on you, who have pronounced the words _I_AM CONSTRAINED! It is not spoken like a king, sire; it is whatyou, and those who constrain you, the Guisards and all your people, can never effect upon me, for I know how to die. " {14} Palissy didindeed die shortly after, a martyr, though not at the stake. Hedied in the Bastille, after enduring about a year's imprisonment, --there peacefully terminating a life distinguished for heroiclabour, extraordinary endurance, inflexible rectitude, and theexhibition of many rare and noble virtues. {15}

The life of John Frederick Bottgher, the inventor of hardporcelain, presents a remarkable contrast to that of Palissy;though it also contains many points of singular and almost romanticinterest. Bottgher was born at Schleiz, in the Voightland, in1685, and at twelve years of age was placed apprentice with anapothecary at Berlin. He seems to have been early fascinated bychemistry, and occupied most of his leisure in making experiments. These for the most part tended in one direction--the art ofconverting common on metals into gold. At the end of severalyears, Bottgher pretended to have discovered the universal solventof the alchemists, and professed that he had made gold by itsmeans. He exhibited its powers before his master, the apothecaryZorn, and by some trick or other succeeded in making him andseveral other witnesses believe that he had actually convertedcopper into gold. 

The news spread abroad that the apothecary's apprentice haddiscovered the grand secret, and crowds collected about the shop toget a sight of the wonderful young "gold-cook. " The king himselfexpressed a wish to see and converse with him, and when FrederickI. Was presented with a piece of the gold pretended to have beenconverted from copper, he was so dazzled with the prospect ofsecuring an infinite quantity of it--Prussia being then in greatstraits for money--that he determined to secure Bottgher and employhim to make gold for him within the strong fortress of Spandau. But the young apothecary, suspecting the king's intention, andprobably fearing detection, at once resolved on flight, and hesucceeded in getting across the frontier into Saxony. 

A reward of a thousand thalers was offered for Bottgher'sapprehension, but in vain. He arrived at Wittenberg, and appealedfor protection to the Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus I. (King of Poland), surnamed "the Strong. " Frederick was himselfvery much in want of money at the time, and he was overjoyed at theprospect of obtaining gold in any quantity by the aid of the youngalchemist. Bottgher was accordingly conveyed in secret to Dresden, accompanied by a royal escort. He had scarcely left Wittenbergwhen a battalion of Prussian grenadiers appeared before the gatesdemanding the gold-maker's extradition. But it was too late:Bottgher had already arrived in Dresden, where he was lodged in theGolden House, and treated with every consideration, though strictlywatched and kept under guard. 

The Elector, however, must needs leave him there for a time, havingto depart forthwith to Poland, then almost in a state of anarchy. But, impatient for gold, he wrote Bottgher from Warsaw, urging himto communicate the secret, so that he himself might practise theart of commutation. The young "gold-cook, " thus pressed, forwardedto Frederick a small phial containing "a reddish fluid, " which, itwas asserted, changed all metals, when in a molten state, intogold. This important phial was taken in charge by the Prince Furstvon Furstenburg, who, accompanied by a regiment of Guards, hurriedwith it to Warsaw. Arrived there, it was determined to makeimmediate trial of the process. The King and the Prince lockedthemselves up in a secret chamber of the palace, girt themselvesabout with leather aprons, and like true "gold-cooks" set to workmelting copper in a crucible and afterwards applying to it the redfluid of Bottgher. But the result was unsatisfactory; fornotwithstanding all that they could do, the copper obstinatelyremained copper. On referring to the alchemist's instructions, however, the King found that, to succeed with the process, it wasnecessary that the fluid should be used "in great purity of heart;"and as his Majesty was conscious of having spent the evening invery bad company he attributed the failure of the experiment tothat cause. A second trial was followed by no better results, andthen the King became furious; for he had confessed and receivedabsolution before beginning the second experiment. 

Frederick Augustus now resolved on forcing Bottgher to disclose thegolden secret, as the only means of relief from his urgentpecuniary difficulties. The alchemist, hearing of the royalintention, again determined to fly. He succeeded in escaping hisguard, and, after three days' travel, arrived at Ens in Austria, where he thought himself safe. The agents of the Elector were, however, at his heels; they had tracked him to the "Golden Stag, "which they surrounded, and seizing him in his bed, notwithstandinghis resistance and appeals to the Austrian authorities for help, they carried him by force to Dresden. From this time he was morestrictly watched than ever, and he was shortly after transferred tothe strong fortress of Koningstein. It was communicated to himthat the royal exchequer was completely empty, and that tenregiments of Poles in arrears of pay were waiting for his gold. The King himself visited him, and told him in a severe tone that ifhe did not at once proceed to make gold, he would be hung! ("Thumir zurecht, Bottgher, sonst lass ich dich hangen"). 

Years passed, and still Bottgher made no gold; but he was not hung. It was reserved for him to make a far more important discovery thanthe conversion of copper into gold, namely, the conversion of clayinto porcelain. Some rare specimens of this ware had been broughtby the Portuguese from China, which were sold for more than theirweight in gold. Bottgher was first induced to turn his attentionto the subject by Walter von Tschirnhaus, a maker of opticalinstruments, also an alchemist. Tschirnhaus was a man of educationand distinction, and was held in much esteem by Prince Furstenburgas well as by the Elector. He very sensibly said to Bottgher, still in fear of the gallows--"If you can't make gold, try and dosomething else; make porcelain. "

The alchemist acted on the hint, and began his experiments, workingnight and day. He prosecuted his investigations for a long timewith great assiduity, but without success. At length some redclay, brought to him for the purpose of making his crucibles, sethim on the right track. He found that this clay, when submitted toa high temperature, became vitrified and retained its shape; andthat its texture resembled that of porcelain, excepting in colourand opacity. He had in fact accidentally discovered red porcelain, and he proceeded to manufacture it and sell it as porcelain. 

Bottgher was, however, well aware that the white colour was anessential property of true porcelain; and he therefore prosecutedhis experiments in the hope of discovering the secret. Severalyears thus passed, but without success; until again accident stoodhis friend, and helped him to a knowledge of the art of makingwhite porcelain. One day, in the year 1707, he found his perruqueunusually heavy, and asked of his valet the reason. The answerwas, that it was owing to the powder with which the wig wasdressed, which consisted of a kind of earth then much used for hairpowder. Bottgher's quick imagination immediately seized upon theidea. This white earthy powder might possibly be the very earth ofwhich he was in search--at all events the opportunity must not belet slip of ascertaining what it really was. He was rewarded forhis painstaking care and watchfulness; for he found, on experiment, that the principal ingredient of the hair-powder consisted ofkaolin, the want of which had so long formed an insuperabledifficulty in the way of his inquiries. 

The discovery, in Bottgher's intelligent hands, led to greatresults, and proved of far greater importance than the discovery ofthe philosopher's stone would have been. In October, 1707, hepresented his first piece of porcelain to the Elector, who wasgreatly pleased with it; and it was resolved that Bottgher shouldbe furnished with the means necessary for perfecting his invention. Having obtained a skilled workman from Delft, he began to TURNporcelain with great success. He now entirely abandoned alchemyfor pottery, and inscribed over the door of his workshop thisdistich:-

"Es machte Gott, der grosse Schopfer, Aus einem Goldmacher einen Topfer. " {16}

Bottgher, however, was still under strict surveillance, for fearlest he should communicate his secret to others or escape theElector's control. The new workshops and furnaces which wereerected for him, were guarded by troops night and day, and sixsuperior officers were made responsible for the personal securityof the potter. 

Bottgher's further experiments with his new furnaces proving verysuccessful, and the porcelain which he manufactured being found tofetch large prices, it was next determined to establish a RoyalManufactory of porcelain. The manufacture of delft ware was knownto have greatly enriched Holland. Why should not the manufactureof porcelain equally enrich the Elector? Accordingly, a decreewent forth, dated the 23rd of January, 1710, for the establishmentof "a large manufactory of porcelain" at the Albrechtsburg inMeissen. In this decree, which was translated into Latin, French, and Dutch, and distributed by the Ambassadors of the Elector at allthe European Courts, Frederick Augustus set forth that to promotethe welfare of Saxony, which had suffered much through the Swedishinvasion, he had "directed his attention to the subterraneantreasures (unterirdischen Schatze)" of the country, and havingemployed some able persons in the investigation, they had succeededin manufacturing "a sort of red vessels (eine Art rother Gefasse)far superior to the Indian terra sigillata;" {17} as also "colouredware and plates (buntes Geschirr und Tafeln) which may be cut, ground, and polished, and are quite equal to Indian vessels, " andfinally that "specimens of white porcelain (Proben von weissemPorzellan)" had already been obtained, and it was hoped that thisquality, too, would soon be manufactured in considerablequantities. The royal decree concluded by inviting "foreignartists and handicraftmen" to come to Saxony and engage asassistants in the new factory, at high wages, and under thepatronage of the King. This royal edict probably gives the bestaccount of the actual state of Bottgher's invention at the time. 

It has been stated in German publications that Bottgher, for thegreat services rendered by him to the Elector and to Saxony, wasmade Manager of the Royal Porcelain Works, and further promoted tothe dignity of Baron. Doubtless he deserved these honours; but histreatment was of an altogether different character, for it wasshabby, cruel, and inhuman. Two royal officials, named Matthieuand Nehmitz, were put over his head as directors of the factory, while he himself only held the position of foreman of potters, andat the same time was detained the King's prisoner. During theerection of the factory at Meissen, while his assistance was stillindispensable, he was conducted by soldiers to and from Dresden;and even after the works were finished, he was locked up nightly inhis room. All this preyed upon his mind, and in repeated lettersto the King he sought to obtain mitigation of his fate. Some ofthese letters are very touching. "I will devote my whole soul tothe art of making porcelain, " he writes on one occasion, "I will domore than any inventor ever did before; only give me liberty, liberty!"

To these appeals, the King turned a deaf ear. He was ready tospend money and grant favours; but liberty he would not give. Heregarded Bottgher as his slave. In this position, the persecutedman kept on working for some time, till, at the end of a year ortwo, he grew negligent. Disgusted with the world and with himself, he took to drinking. Such is the force of example, that it nosooner became known that Bottgher had betaken himself to this vice, than the greater number of the workmen at the Meissen factorybecame drunkards too. Quarrels and fightings without end were theconsequence, so that the troops were frequently called upon tointerfere and keep peace among the "Porzellanern, " as they werenicknamed. After a while, the whole of them, more than threehundred, were shut up in the Albrechtsburg, and treated asprisoners of state. 

Bottgher at last fell seriously ill, and in May, 1713, hisdissolution was hourly expected. The King, alarmed at losing sovaluable a slave, now gave him permission to take carriage exerciseunder a guard; and, having somewhat recovered, he was allowedoccasionally to go to Dresden. In a letter written by the King inApril, 1714, Bottgher was promised his full liberty; but the offercame too late. Broken in body and mind, alternately working anddrinking, though with occasional gleams of nobler intention, andsuffering under constant ill-health, the result of his enforcedconfinement, Bottgher lingered on for a few years more, until deathfreed him from his sufferings on the 13th March, 1719, in thethirty-fifth year of his age. He was buried AT NIGHT--as if he hadbeen a dog--in the Johannis Cemetery of Meissen. Such was thetreatment and such the unhappy end, of one of Saxony's greatestbenefactors. 

The porcelain manufacture immediately opened up an important sourceof public revenue, and it became so productive to the Elector ofSaxony, that his example was shortly after followed by mostEuropean monarchs. Although soft porcelain had been made at St. Cloud fourteen years before Bottgher's discovery, the superiorityof the hard porcelain soon became generally recognised. Itsmanufacture was begun at Sevres in 1770, and it has since almostentirely superseded the softer material. This is now one of themost thriving branches of French industry, of which the highquality of the articles produced is certainly indisputable. 

The career of Josiah Wedgwood, the English potter, was lesschequered and more prosperous than that of either Palissy orBottgher, and his lot was cast in happier times. Down to themiddle of last century England was behind most other nations of thefirst order in Europe in respect of skilled industry. Althoughthere were many potters in Staffordshire--and Wedgwood himselfbelonged to a numerous clan of potters of the same name--theirproductions were of the rudest kind, for the most part only plainbrown ware, with the patterns scratched in while the clay was wet. The principal supply of the better articles of earthenware camefrom Delft in Holland, and of drinking stone pots from Cologne. Two foreign potters, the brothers Elers from Nuremberg, settled fora time in Staffordshire, and introduced an improved manufacture, but they shortly after removed to Chelsea, where they confinedthemselves to the manufacture of ornamental pieces. No porcelaincapable of resisting a scratch with a hard point had yet been madein England; and for a long time the "white ware" made inStaffordshire was not white, but of a dirty cream colour. Such, ina few words, was the condition of the pottery manufacture whenJosiah Wedgwood was born at Burslem in 1730. By the time that hedied, sixty-four years later, it had become completely changed. Byhis energy, skill, and genius, he established the trade upon a newand solid foundation; and, in the words of his epitaph, "converteda rude and inconsiderable manufacture into an elegant art and animportant branch of national commerce. "

Josiah Wedgwood was one of those indefatigable men who from time totime spring from the ranks of the common people, and by theirenergetic character not only practically educate the workingpopulation in habits of industry, but by the example of diligenceand perseverance which they set before them, largely influence thepublic activity in all directions, and contribute in a great degreeto form the national character. He was, like Arkwright, theyoungest of a family of thirteen children. His grandfather andgranduncle were both potters, as was also his father who died whenhe was a mere boy, leaving him a patrimony of twenty pounds. Hehad learned to read and write at the village school; but on thedeath of his father he was taken from it and set to work as a"thrower" in a small pottery carried on by his elder brother. There he began life, his working life, to use his own words, "atthe lowest round of the ladder, " when only eleven years old. Hewas shortly after seized by an attack of virulent smallpox, fromthe effects of which he suffered during the rest of his life, forit was followed by a disease in the right knee, which recurred atfrequent intervals, and was only got rid of by the amputation ofthe limb many years later. Mr. Gladstone, in his eloquent Eloge onWedgwood recently delivered at Burslem, well observed that thedisease from which he suffered was not improbably the occasion ofhis subsequent excellence. "It prevented him from growing up to bethe active, vigorous English workman, possessed of all his limbs, and knowing right well the use of them; but it put him uponconsidering whether, as he could not be that, he might not besomething else, and something greater. It sent his mind inwards;it drove him to meditate upon the laws and secrets of his art. Theresult was, that he arrived at a perception and a grasp of themwhich might, perhaps, have been envied, certainly have been owned, by an Athenian potter. " {18}

When he had completed his apprenticeship with his brother, Josiahjoined partnership with another workman, and carried on a smallbusiness in making knife-hafts, boxes, and sundry articles fordomestic use. Another partnership followed, when he proceeded tomake melon table plates, green pickle leaves, candlesticks, snuffboxes, and such like articles; but he made comparativelylittle progress until he began business on his own account atBurslem in the year 1759. There he diligently pursued his calling, introducing new articles to the trade, and gradually extending hisbusiness. What he chiefly aimed at was to manufacture cream-coloured ware of a better quality than was then produced inStaffordshire as regarded shape, colour, glaze, and durability. Tounderstand the subject thoroughly, he devoted his leisure to thestudy of chemistry; and he made numerous experiments on fluxes, glazes, and various sorts of clay. Being a close inquirer andaccurate observer, he noticed that a certain earth containingsilica, which was black before calcination, became white afterexposure to the heat of a furnace. This fact, observed andpondered on, led to the idea of mixing silica with the red powderof the potteries, and to the discovery that the mixture becomeswhite when calcined. He had but to cover this material with avitrification of transparent glaze, to obtain one of the mostimportant products of fictile art--that which, under the name ofEnglish earthenware, was to attain the greatest commercial valueand become of the most extensive utility. 

Wedgwood was for some time much troubled by his furnaces, thoughnothing like to the same extent that Palissy was; and he overcamehis difficulties in the same way--by repeated experiments andunfaltering perseverance. His first attempts at making porcelainfor table use was a succession of disastrous failures, --the laboursof months being often destroyed in a day. It was only after a longseries of trials, in the course of which he lost time, money, andlabour, that he arrived at the proper sort of glaze to be used; buthe would not be denied, and at last he conquered success throughpatience. The improvement of pottery became his passion, and wasnever lost sight of for a moment. Even when he had mastered hisdifficulties, and become a prosperous man--manufacturing whitestone ware and cream-coloured ware in large quantities for home andforeign use--he went forward perfecting his manufactures, until, his example extending in all directions, the action of the entiredistrict was stimulated, and a great branch of British industry waseventually established on firm foundations. He aimed throughout atthe highest excellence, declaring his determination "to give overmanufacturing any article, whatsoever it might be, rather than todegrade it. "

Wedgwood was cordially helped by many persons of rank andinfluence; for, working in the truest spirit, he readily commandedthe help and encouragement of other true workers. He made forQueen Charlotte the first royal table-service of Englishmanufacture, of the kind afterwards called "Queen's-ware, " and wasappointed Royal Potter; a title which he prized more than if he hadbeen made a baron. Valuable sets of porcelain were entrusted tohim for imitation, in which he succeeded to admiration. SirWilliam Hamilton lent him specimens of ancient art fromHerculaneum, of which he produced accurate and beautiful copies. The Duchess of Portland outbid him for the Barberini Vase when thatarticle was offered for sale. He bid as high as seventeen hundredguineas for it: her grace secured it for eighteen hundred; butwhen she learnt Wedgwood's object she at once generously lent himthe vase to copy. He produced fifty copies at a cost of about2500l. , and his expenses were not covered by their sale; but hegained his object, which was to show that whatever had been done, that English skill and energy could and would accomplish. 

Wedgwood called to his aid the crucible of the chemist, theknowledge of the antiquary, and the skill of the artist. He foundout Flaxman when a youth, and while he liberally nurtured hisgenius drew from him a large number of beautiful designs for hispottery and porcelain; converting them by his manufacture intoobjects of taste and excellence, and thus making them instrumentalin the diffusion of classical art amongst the people. By carefulexperiment and study he was even enabled to rediscover the art ofpainting on porcelain or earthenware vases and similar articles--anart practised by the ancient Etruscans, but which had been lostsince the time of Pliny. He distinguished himself by his owncontributions to science, and his name is still identified with thePyrometer which he invented. He was an indefatigable supporter ofall measures of public utility; and the construction of the Trentand Mersey Canal, which completed the navigable communicationbetween the eastern and western sides of the island, was mainly dueto his public-spirited exertions, allied to the engineering skillof Brindley. The road accommodation of the district being of anexecrable character, he planned and executed a turnpike-roadthrough the Potteries, ten miles in length. The reputation heachieved was such that his works at Burslem, and subsequently thoseat Etruria, which he founded and built, became a point ofattraction to distinguished visitors from all parts of Europe. 

The result of Wedgwood's labours was, that the manufacture ofpottery, which he found in the very lowest condition, became one ofthe staples of England; and instead of importing what we needed forhome use from abroad, we became large exporters to other countries, supplying them with earthenware even in the face of enormousprohibitory duties on articles of British produce. Wedgwood gaveevidence as to his manufactures before Parliament in 1785, onlysome thirty years after he had begun his operations; from which itappeared, that instead of providing only casual employment to asmall number of inefficient and badly remunerated workmen, about20, 000 persons then derived their bread directly from themanufacture of earthenware, without taking into account theincreased numbers to which it gave employment in coal-mines, and inthe carrying trade by land and sea, and the stimulus which it gaveto employment in many ways in various parts of the country. Yet, important as had been the advances made in his time, Mr. Wedgwoodwas of opinion that the manufacture was but in its infancy, andthat the improvements which he had effected were of but smallamount compared with those to which the art was capable ofattaining, through the continued industry and growing intelligenceof the manufacturers, and the natural facilities and politicaladvantages enjoyed by Great Britain; an opinion which has beenfully borne out by the progress which has since been effected inthis important branch of industry. In 1852 not fewer than84, 000, 000 pieces of pottery were exported from England to othercountries, besides what were made for home use. But it is notmerely the quantity and value of the produce that is entitled toconsideration, but the improvement of the condition of thepopulation by whom this great branch of industry is conducted. When Wedgwood began his labours, the Staffordshire district wasonly in a half-civilized state. The people were poor, uncultivated, and few in number. When Wedgwood's manufacture wasfirmly established, there was found ample employment at good wagesfor three times the number of population; while their moraladvancement had kept pace with their material improvement. 

Men such as these are fairly entitled to take rank as theIndustrial Heroes of the civilized world. Their patient self-reliance amidst trials and difficulties, their courage andperseverance in the pursuit of worthy objects, are not less heroicof their kind than the bravery and devotion of the soldier and thesailor, whose duty and pride it is heroically to defend what thesevaliant leaders of industry have so heroically achieved. 

CHAPTER IV--APPLICATION AND PERSEVERANCE

"Rich are the diligent, who can commandTime, nature's stock! and could his hour-glass fall, Would, as for seed of stars, stoop for the sand, And, by incessant labour, gather all. "--D'Avenant. "Allez en avant, et la foi vous viendra!"--D'Alembert. 

The greatest results in life are usually attained by simple means, and the exercise of ordinary qualities. The common life of everyday, with its cares, necessities, and duties, affords ampleopportunity for acquiring experience of the best kind; and its mostbeaten paths provide the true worker with abundant scope for effortand room for self-improvement. The road of human welfare liesalong the old highway of steadfast well-doing; and they who are themost persistent, and work in the truest spirit, will usually be themost successful. 

Fortune has often been blamed for her blindness; but fortune is notso blind as men are. Those who look into practical life will findthat fortune is usually on the side of the industrious, as thewinds and waves are on the side of the best navigators. In thepursuit of even the highest branches of human inquiry, the commonerqualities are found the most useful--such as common sense, attention, application, and perseverance. Genius may not benecessary, though even genius of the highest sort does not disdainthe use of these ordinary qualities. The very greatest men havebeen among the least believers in the power of genius, and asworldly wise and persevering as successful men of the commonersort. Some have even defined genius to be only common senseintensified. A distinguished teacher and president of a collegespoke of it as the power of making efforts. John Foster held it tobe the power of lighting one's own fire. Buffon said of genius "itis patience. "

Newton's was unquestionably a mind of the very highest order, andyet, when asked by what means he had worked out his extraordinarydiscoveries, he modestly answered, "By always thinking unto them. "At another time he thus expressed his method of study: "I keep thesubject continually before me, and wait till the first dawningsopen slowly by little and little into a full and clear light. " Itwas in Newton's case, as in every other, only by diligentapplication and perseverance that his great reputation wasachieved. Even his recreation consisted in change of study, layingdown one subject to take up another. To Dr. Bentley he said: "IfI have done the public any service, it is due to nothing butindustry and patient thought. " So Kepler, another greatphilosopher, speaking of his studies and his progress, said: "Asin Virgil, 'Fama mobilitate viget, vires acquirit eundo, ' so it waswith me, that the diligent thought on these things was the occasionof still further thinking; until at last I brooded with the wholeenergy of my mind upon the subject. "

The extraordinary results effected by dint of sheer industry andperseverance, have led many distinguished men to doubt whether thegift of genius be so exceptional an endowment as it is usuallysupposed to be. Thus Voltaire held that it is only a very slightline of separation that divides the man of genius from the man ofordinary mould. Beccaria was even of opinion that all men might bepoets and orators, and Reynolds that they might be painters andsculptors. If this were really so, that stolid Englishman mightnot have been so very far wrong after all, who, on Canova's death, inquired of his brother whether it was "his intention to carry onthe business!" Locke, Helvetius, and Diderot believed that all menhave an equal aptitude for genius, and that what some are able toeffect, under the laws which regulate the operations of theintellect, must also be within the reach of others who, under likecircumstances, apply themselves to like pursuits. But whileadmitting to the fullest extent the wonderful achievements oflabour, and recognising the fact that men of the most distinguishedgenius have invariably been found the most indefatigable workers, it must nevertheless be sufficiently obvious that, without theoriginal endowment of heart and brain, no amount of labour, howeverwell applied, could have produced a Shakespeare, a Newton, aBeethoven, or a Michael Angelo. 

Dalton, the chemist, repudiated the notion of his being "a genius, "attributing everything which he had accomplished to simple industryand accumulation. John Hunter said of himself, "My mind is like abeehive; but full as it is of buzz and apparent confusion, it isyet full of order and regularity, and food collected with incessantindustry from the choicest stores of nature. " We have, indeed, butto glance at the biographies of great men to find that the mostdistinguished inventors, artists, thinkers, and workers of allkinds, owe their success, in a great measure, to theirindefatigable industry and application. They were men who turnedall things to gold--even time itself. Disraeli the elder held thatthe secret of success consisted in being master of your subject, such mastery being attainable only through continuous applicationand study. Hence it happens that the men who have most moved theworld, have not been so much men of genius, strictly so called, asmen of intense mediocre abilities, and untiring perseverance; notso often the gifted, of naturally bright and shining qualities, asthose who have applied themselves diligently to their work, inwhatsoever line that might lie. "Alas!" said a widow, speaking ofher brilliant but careless son, "he has not the gift ofcontinuance. " Wanting in perseverance, such volatile natures areoutstripped in the race of life by the diligent and even the dull. "Che va piano, va longano, e va lontano, " says the Italian proverb:Who goes slowly, goes long, and goes far. 

Hence, a great point to be aimed at is to get the working qualitywell trained. When that is done, the race will be foundcomparatively easy. We must repeat and again repeat; facility willcome with labour. Not even the simplest art can be accomplishedwithout it; and what difficulties it is found capable of achieving!It was by early discipline and repetition that the late Sir RobertPeel cultivated those remarkable, though still mediocre powers, which rendered him so illustrious an ornament of the BritishSenate. When a boy at Drayton Manor, his father was accustomed toset him up at table to practise speaking extempore; and he earlyaccustomed him to repeat as much of the Sunday's sermon as he couldremember. Little progress was made at first, but by steadyperseverance the habit of attention became powerful, and the sermonwas at length repeated almost verbatim. When afterwards replyingin succession to the arguments of his parliamentary opponents--anart in which he was perhaps unrivalled--it was little surmised thatthe extraordinary power of accurate remembrance which he displayedon such occasions had been originally trained under the disciplineof his father in the parish church of Drayton. 

It is indeed marvellous what continuous application will effect inthe commonest of things. It may seem a simple affair to play upona violin; yet what a long and laborious practice it requires!Giardini said to a youth who asked him how long it would take tolearn it, "Twelve hours a day for twenty years together. "Industry, it is said, fait l'ours danser. The poor figurante mustdevote years of incessant toil to her profitless task before shecan shine in it. When Taglioni was preparing herself for herevening exhibition, she would, after a severe two hours' lessonfrom her father, fall down exhausted, and had to be undressed, sponged, and resuscitated totally unconscious. The agility andbounds of the evening were insured only at a price like this. 

Progress, however, of the best kind, is comparatively slow. Greatresults cannot be achieved at once; and we must be satisfied toadvance in life as we walk, step by step. De Maistre says that "toknow HOW TO WAIT is the great secret of success. " We must sowbefore we can reap, and often have to wait long, content meanwhileto look patiently forward in hope; the fruit best worth waiting foroften ripening the slowest. But "time and patience, " says theEastern proverb, "change the mulberry leaf to satin. "

To wait patiently, however, men must work cheerfully. Cheerfulnessis an excellent working quality, imparting great elasticity to thecharacter. As a bishop has said, "Temper is nine-tenths ofChristianity;" so are cheerfulness and diligence nine-tenths ofpractical wisdom. They are the life and soul of success, as wellas of happiness; perhaps the very highest pleasure in lifeconsisting in clear, brisk, conscious working; energy, confidence, and every other good quality mainly depending upon it. SydneySmith, when labouring as a parish priest at Foston-le-Clay, inYorkshire, --though he did not feel himself to be in his properelement, --went cheerfully to work in the firm determination to dohis best. "I am resolved, " he said, "to like it, and reconcilemyself to it, which is more manly than to feign myself above it, and to send up complaints by the post of being thrown away, andbeing desolate, and such like trash. " So Dr. Hook, when leavingLeeds for a new sphere of labour said, "Wherever I may be, I shall, by God's blessing, do with my might what my hand findeth to do; andif I do not find work, I shall make it. "

Labourers for the public good especially, have to work long andpatiently, often uncheered by the prospect of immediate recompenseor result. The seeds they sow sometimes lie hidden under thewinter's snow, and before the spring comes the husbandman may havegone to his rest. It is not every public worker who, like RowlandHill, sees his great idea bring forth fruit in his life-time. AdamSmith sowed the seeds of a great social amelioration in that dingyold University of Glasgow where he so long laboured, and laid thefoundations of his 'Wealth of Nations;' but seventy years passedbefore his work bore substantial fruits, nor indeed are they allgathered in yet. 

Nothing can compensate for the loss of hope in a man: it entirelychanges the character. "How can I work--how can I be happy, " saida great but miserable thinker, "when I have lost all hope?" One ofthe most cheerful and courageous, because one of the most hopefulof workers, was Carey, the missionary. When in India, it was nouncommon thing for him to weary out three pundits, who officiatedas his clerks, in one day, he himself taking rest only in change ofemployment. Carey, the son of a shoe-maker, was supported in hislabours by Ward, the son of a carpenter, and Marsham, the son of aweaver. By their labours, a magnificent college was erected atSerampore; sixteen flourishing stations were established; the Biblewas translated into sixteen languages, and the seeds were sown of abeneficent moral revolution in British India. Carey was neverashamed of the humbleness of his origin. On one occasion, when atthe Governor-General's table he over-heard an officer opposite himasking another, loud enough to be heard, whether Carey had not oncebeen a shoemaker: "No, sir, " exclaimed Carey immediately; "only acobbler. " An eminently characteristic anecdote has been told ofhis perseverance as a boy. When climbing a tree one day, his footslipped, and he fell to the ground, breaking his leg by the fall. He was confined to his bed for weeks, but when he recovered and wasable to walk without support, the very first thing he did was to goand climb that tree. Carey had need of this sort of dauntlesscourage for the great missionary work of his life, and nobly andresolutely he did it. 

It was a maxim of Dr. Young, the philosopher, that "Any man can dowhat any other man has done;" and it is unquestionable that hehimself never recoiled from any trials to which he determined tosubject himself. It is related of him, that the first time hemounted a horse, he was in company with the grandson of Mr. Barclayof Ury, the well-known sportsman; when the horseman who precededthem leapt a high fence. Young wished to imitate him, but fell offhis horse in the attempt. Without saying a word, he remounted, made a second effort, and was again unsuccessful, but this time hewas not thrown further than on to the horse's neck, to which heclung. At the third trial, he succeeded, and cleared the fence. 

The story of Timour the Tartar learning a lesson of perseveranceunder adversity from the spider is well known. Not lessinteresting is the anecdote of Audubon, the American ornithologist, as related by himself: "An accident, " he says, "which happened totwo hundred of my original drawings, nearly put a stop to myresearches in ornithology. I shall relate it, merely to show howfar enthusiasm--for by no other name can I call my perseverance--may enable the preserver of nature to surmount the mostdisheartening difficulties. I left the village of Henderson, inKentucky, situated on the banks of the Ohio, where I resided forseveral years, to proceed to Philadelphia on business. I looked tomy drawings before my departure, placed them carefully in a woodenbox, and gave them in charge of a relative, with injunctions to seethat no injury should happen to them. My absence was of severalmonths; and when I returned, after having enjoyed the pleasures ofhome for a few days, I inquired after my box, and what I waspleased to call my treasure. The box was produced and opened; butreader, feel for me--a pair of Norway rats had taken possession ofthe whole, and reared a young family among the gnawed bits ofpaper, which, but a month previous, represented nearly a thousandinhabitants of air! The burning beat which instantly rushedthrough my brain was too great to be endured without affecting mywhole nervous system. I slept for several nights, and the dayspassed like days of oblivion--until the animal powers beingrecalled into action through the strength of my constitution, Itook up my gun, my notebook, and my pencils, and went forth to thewoods as gaily as if nothing had happened. I felt pleased that Imight now make better drawings than before; and, ere a period notexceeding three years had elapsed, my portfolio was again filled. "

The accidental destruction of Sir Isaac Newton's papers, by hislittle dog 'Diamond' upsetting a lighted taper upon his desk, bywhich the elaborate calculations of many years were in a momentdestroyed, is a well-known anecdote, and need not be repeated: itis said that the loss caused the philosopher such profound griefthat it seriously injured his health, and impaired hisunderstanding. An accident of a somewhat similar kind happened tothe MS. Of Mr. Carlyle's first volume of his 'French Revolution. 'He had lent the MS. To a literary neighbour to peruse. By somemischance, it had been left lying on the parlour floor, and becomeforgotten. Weeks ran on, and the historian sent for his work, theprinters being loud for "copy. " Inquiries were made, and it wasfound that the maid-of-all-work, finding what she conceived to be abundle of waste paper on the floor, had used it to light thekitchen and parlour fires with! Such was the answer returned toMr. Carlyle; and his feelings may be imagined. There was, however, no help for him but to set resolutely to work to re-write the book;and he turned to and did it. He had no draft, and was compelled torake up from his memory facts, ideas, and expressions, which hadbeen long since dismissed. The composition of the book in thefirst instance had been a work of pleasure; the re-writing of it asecond time was one of pain and anguish almost beyond belief. Thathe persevered and finished the volume under such circumstances, affords an instance of determination of purpose which has seldombeen surpassed. 

The lives of eminent inventors are eminently illustrative of thesame quality of perseverance. George Stephenson, when addressingyoung men, was accustomed to sum up his best advice to them, in thewords, "Do as I have done--persevere. " He had worked at theimprovement of his locomotive for some fifteen years beforeachieving his decisive victory at Rainhill; and Watt was engagedfor some thirty years upon the condensing-engine before he broughtit to perfection. But there are equally striking illustrations ofperseverance to be found in every other branch of science, art, andindustry. Perhaps one of the most interesting is that connectedwith the disentombment of the Nineveh marbles, and the discovery ofthe long-lost cuneiform or arrow-headed character in which theinscriptions on them are written--a kind of writing which had beenlost to the world since the period of the Macedonian conquest ofPersia. 

An intelligent cadet of the East India Company, stationed atKermanshah, in Persia, had observed the curious cuneiforminscriptions on the old monuments in the neighbourhood--so old thatall historical traces of them had been lost, --and amongst theinscriptions which he copied was that on the celebrated rock ofBehistun--a perpendicular rock rising abruptly some 1700 feet fromthe plain, the lower part bearing inscriptions for the space ofabout 300 feet in three languages--Persian, Scythian, and Assyrian. Comparison of the known with the unknown, of the language whichsurvived with the language that had been lost, enabled this cadetto acquire some knowledge of the cuneiform character, and even toform an alphabet. Mr. (afterwards Sir Henry) Rawlinson sent histracings home for examination. No professors in colleges as yetknew anything of the cuneiform character; but there was a ci-devantclerk of the East India House--a modest unknown man of the name ofNorris--who had made this little-understood subject his study, towhom the tracings were submitted; and so accurate was hisknowledge, that, though he had never seen the Behistun rock, hepronounced that the cadet had not copied the puzzling inscriptionwith proper exactness. Rawlinson, who was still in theneighbourhood of the rock, compared his copy with the original, andfound that Norris was right; and by further comparison and carefulstudy the knowledge of the cuneiform writing was thus greatlyadvanced. 

But to make the learning of these two self-taught men of avail, athird labourer was necessary in order to supply them with materialfor the exercise of their skill. Such a labourer presented himselfin the person of Austen Layard, originally an articled clerk in theoffice of a London solicitor. One would scarcely have expected tofind in these three men, a cadet, an India-House clerk, and alawyer's clerk, the discoverers of a forgotten language, and of theburied history of Babylon; yet it was so. Layard was a youth ofonly twenty-two, travelling in the East, when he was possessed witha desire to penetrate the regions beyond the Euphrates. Accompanied by a single companion, trusting to his arms forprotection, and, what was better, to his cheerfulness, politeness, and chivalrous bearing, he passed safely amidst tribes at deadlywar with each other; and, after the lapse of many years, withcomparatively slender means at his command, but aided byapplication and perseverance, resolute will and purpose, and almostsublime patience, --borne up throughout by his passionate enthusiasmfor discovery and research, --he succeeded in laying bare anddigging up an amount of historical treasures, the like of which hasprobably never before been collected by the industry of any oneman. Not less than two miles of bas-reliefs were thus brought tolight by Mr. Layard. The selection of these valuable antiquities, now placed in the British Museum, was found so curiouslycorroborative of the scriptural records of events which occurredsome three thousand years ago, that they burst upon the worldalmost like a new revelation. And the story of the disentombmentof these remarkable works, as told by Mr. Layard himself in his'Monuments of Nineveh, ' will always be regarded as one of the mostcharming and unaffected records which we possess of individualenterprise, industry, and energy. 

The career of the Comte de Buffon presents another remarkableillustration of the power of patient industry as well as of his ownsaying, that "Genius is patience. " Notwithstanding the greatresults achieved by him in natural history, Buffon, when a youth, was regarded as of mediocre talents. His mind was slow in formingitself, and slow in reproducing what it had acquired. He was alsoconstitutionally indolent; and being born to good estate, it mightbe supposed that he would indulge his liking for ease and luxury. Instead of which, he early formed the resolution of denying himselfpleasure, and devoting himself to study and self-culture. Regarding time as a treasure that was limited, and finding that hewas losing many hours by lying a-bed in the mornings, he determinedto break himself of the habit. He struggled hard against it forsome time, but failed in being able to rise at the hour he hadfixed. He then called his servant, Joseph, to his help, andpromised him the reward of a crown every time that he succeeded ingetting him up before six. At first, when called, Buffon declinedto rise--pleaded that he was ill, or pretended anger at beingdisturbed; and on the Count at length getting up, Joseph found thathe had earned nothing but reproaches for having permitted hismaster to lie a-bed contrary to his express orders. At length thevalet determined to earn his crown; and again and again he forcedBuffon to rise, notwithstanding his entreaties, expostulations, andthreats of immediate discharge from his service. One morningBuffon was unusually obstinate, and Joseph found it necessary toresort to the extreme measure of dashing a basin of ice-cold waterunder the bed-clothes, the effect of which was instantaneous. Bythe persistent use of such means, Buffon at length conquered hishabit; and he was accustomed to say that he owed to Joseph three orfour volumes of his Natural History. 

For forty years of his life, Buffon worked every morning at hisdesk from nine till two, and again in the evening from five tillnine. His diligence was so continuous and so regular that itbecame habitual. His biographer has said of him, "Work was hisnecessity; his studies were the charm of his life; and towards thelast term of his glorious career he frequently said that he stillhoped to be able to consecrate to them a few more years. " He was amost conscientious worker, always studying to give the reader hisbest thoughts, expressed in the very best manner. He was neverwearied with touching and retouching his compositions, so that hisstyle may be pronounced almost perfect. He wrote the 'Epoques dela Nature' not fewer than eleven times before he was satisfied withit; although he had thought over the work about fifty years. Hewas a thorough man of business, most orderly in everything; and hewas accustomed to say that genius without order lost three-fourthsof its power. His great success as a writer was the result mainlyof his painstaking labour and diligent application. "Buffon, "observed Madame Necker, "strongly persuaded that genius is theresult of a profound attention directed to a particular subject, said that he was thoroughly wearied out when composing his firstwritings, but compelled himself to return to them and go over themcarefully again, even when he thought he had already brought themto a certain degree of perfection; and that at length he foundpleasure instead of weariness in this long and elaboratecorrection. " It ought also to be added that Buffon wrote andpublished all his great works while afflicted by one of the mostpainful diseases to which the human frame is subject. 

Literary life affords abundant illustrations of the same power ofperseverance; and perhaps no career is more instructive, viewed inthis light, than that of Sir Walter Scott. His admirable workingqualities were trained in a lawyer's office, where he pursued formany years a sort of drudgery scarcely above that of a copyingclerk. His daily dull routine made his evenings, which were hisown, all the more sweet; and he generally devoted them to readingand study. He himself attributed to his prosaic office disciplinethat habit of steady, sober diligence, in which mere literary menare so often found wanting. As a copying clerk he was allowed 3d. For every page containing a certain number of words; and hesometimes, by extra work, was able to copy as many as 120 pages intwenty-four hours, thus earning some 30s. ; out of which he wouldoccasionally purchase an odd volume, otherwise beyond his means. 

During his after-life Scott was wont to pride himself upon being aman of business, and he averred, in contradiction to what he calledthe cant of sonneteers, that there was no necessary connectionbetween genius and an aversion or contempt for the common duties oflife. On the contrary, he was of opinion that to spend some fairportion of every day in any matter-of-fact occupation was good forthe higher faculties themselves in the upshot. While afterwardsacting as clerk to the Court of Session in Edinburgh, he performedhis literary work chiefly before breakfast, attending the courtduring the day, where he authenticated registered deeds andwritings of various kinds. On the whole, says Lockhart, "it formsone of the most remarkable features in his history, that throughoutthe most active period of his literary career, he must have devoteda large proportion of his hours, during half at least of everyyear, to the conscientious discharge of professional duties. " Itwas a principle of action which he laid down for himself, that hemust earn his living by business, and not by literature. On oneoccasion he said, "I determined that literature should be my staff, not my crutch, and that the profits of my literary labour, howeverconvenient otherwise, should not, if I could help it, becomenecessary to my ordinary expenses. "

His punctuality was one of the most carefully cultivated of hishabits, otherwise it had not been possible for him to get throughso enormous an amount of literary labour. He made it a rule toanswer every letter received by him on the same day, except whereinquiry and deliberation were requisite. Nothing else could haveenabled him to keep abreast with the flood of communications thatpoured in upon him and sometimes put his good nature to theseverest test. It was his practice to rise by five o'clock, andlight his own fire. He shaved and dressed with deliberation, andwas seated at his desk by six o'clock, with his papers arrangedbefore him in the most accurate order, his works of referencemarshalled round him on the floor, while at least one favourite doglay watching his eye, outside the line of books. Thus by the timethe family assembled for breakfast, between nine and ten, he haddone enough--to use his own words--to break the neck of the day'swork. But with all his diligent and indefatigable industry, andhis immense knowledge, the result of many years' patient labour, Scott always spoke with the greatest diffidence of his own powers. On one occasion he said, "Throughout every part of my career I havefelt pinched and hampered by my own ignorance. "

Such is true wisdom and humility; for the more a man really knows, the less conceited he will be. The student at Trinity College whowent up to his professor to take leave of him because he had"finished his education, " was wisely rebuked by the professor'sreply, "Indeed! I am only beginning mine. " The superficial personwho has obtained a smattering of many things, but knows nothingwell, may pride himself upon his gifts; but the sage humblyconfesses that "all he knows is, that he knows nothing, " or likeNewton, that he has been only engaged in picking shells by the seashore, while the great ocean of truth lies all unexplored beforehim. 

The lives of second-rate literary men furnish equally remarkableillustrations of the power of perseverance. The late John Britton, author of 'The Beauties of England and Wales, ' and of many valuablearchitectural works, was born in a miserable cot in Kingston, Wiltshire. His father had been a baker and maltster, but wasruined in trade and became insane while Britton was yet a child. The boy received very little schooling, but a great deal of badexample, which happily did not corrupt him. He was early in lifeset to labour with an uncle, a tavern-keeper in Clerkenwell, underwhom he bottled, corked, and binned wine for more than five years. His health failing him, his uncle turned him adrift in the world, with only two guineas, the fruits of his five years' service, inhis pocket. During the next seven years of his life he enduredmany vicissitudes and hardships. Yet he says, in hisautobiography, "in my poor and obscure lodgings, at eighteenpence aweek, I indulged in study, and often read in bed during the winterevenings, because I could not afford a fire. " Travelling on footto Bath, he there obtained an engagement as a cellarman, butshortly after we find him back in the metropolis again almostpenniless, shoeless, and shirtless. He succeeded, however, inobtaining employment as a cellarman at the London Tavern, where itwas his duty to be in the cellar from seven in the morning untileleven at night. His health broke down under this confinement inthe dark, added to the heavy work; and he then engaged himself, atfifteen shillings a week, to an attorney, --for he had beendiligently cultivating the art of writing during the few spareminutes that he could call his own. While in this employment, hedevoted his leisure principally to perambulating the bookstalls, where he read books by snatches which he could not buy, and thuspicked up a good deal of odd knowledge. Then he shifted to anotheroffice, at the advanced wages of twenty shillings a week, stillreading and studying. At twenty-eight he was able to write a book, which he published under the title of 'The Enterprising Adventuresof Pizarro;' and from that time until his death, during a period ofabout fifty-five years, Britton was occupied in laborious literaryoccupation. The number of his published works is not fewer thaneighty-seven; the most important being 'The Cathedral Antiquitiesof England, ' in fourteen volumes, a truly magnificent work; itselfthe best monument of John Britton's indefatigable industry. 

London, the landscape gardener, was a man of somewhat similarcharacter, possessed of an extraordinary working power. The son ofa farmer near Edinburgh, he was early inured to work. His skill indrawing plans and making sketches of scenery induced his father totrain him for a landscape gardener. During his apprenticeship hesat up two whole nights every week to study; yet he worked harderduring the day than any labourer. In the course of his nightstudies he learnt French, and before he was eighteen he translateda life of Abelard for an Encyclopaedia. He was so eager to makeprogress in life, that when only twenty, while working as agardener in England, he wrote down in his note-book, "I am nowtwenty years of age, and perhaps a third part of my life has passedaway, and yet what have I done to benefit my fellow men?" anunusual reflection for a youth of only twenty. From French heproceeded to learn German, and rapidly mastered that language. Having taken a large farm, for the purpose of introducing Scotchimprovements in the art of agriculture, he shortly succeeded inrealising a considerable income. The continent being thrown openat the end of the war, he travelled abroad for the purpose ofinquiring into the system of gardening and agriculture in othercountries. He twice repeated his journeys, and the results werepublished in his Encyclopaedias, which are among the mostremarkable works of their kind, --distinguished for the immense massof useful matter which they contain, collected by an amount ofindustry and labour which has rarely been equalled. 

The career of Samuel Drew is not less remarkable than any of thosewhich we have cited. His father was a hard-working labourer of theparish of St. Austell, in Cornwall. Though poor, he contrived tosend his two sons to a penny-a-week school in the neighbourhood. Jabez, the elder, took delight in learning, and made great progressin his lessons; but Samuel, the younger, was a dunce, notoriouslygiven to mischief and playing truant. When about eight years oldhe was put to manual labour, earning three-halfpence a day as abuddle-boy at a tin mine. At ten he was apprenticed to ashoemaker, and while in this employment he endured much hardship, --living, as he used to say, "like a toad under a harrow. " He oftenthought of running away and becoming a pirate, or something of thesort, and he seems to have grown in recklessness as he grew inyears. In robbing orchards he was usually a leader; and, as hegrew older, he delighted to take part in any poaching or smugglingadventure. When about seventeen, before his apprenticeship wasout, he ran away, intending to enter on board a man-of-war; but, sleeping in a hay-field at night cooled him a little, and hereturned to his trade. 

Drew next removed to the neighbourhood of Plymouth to work at hisshoemaking business, and while at Cawsand he won a prize forcudgel-playing, in which he seems to have been an adept. Whileliving there, he had nearly lost his life in a smuggling exploitwhich he had joined, partly induced by the love of adventure, andpartly by the love of gain, for his regular wages were not morethan eight shillings a-week. One night, notice was giventhroughout Crafthole, that a smuggler was off the coast, ready toland her cargo; on which the male population of the place--nearlyall smugglers--made for the shore. One party remained on the rocksto make signals and dispose of the goods as they were landed; andanother manned the boats, Drew being of the latter party. Thenight was intensely dark, and very little of the cargo had beenlanded, when the wind rose, with a heavy sea. The men in theboats, however, determined to persevere, and several trips weremade between the smuggler, now standing farther out to sea, and theshore. One of the men in the boat in which Drew was, had his hatblown off by the wind, and in attempting to recover it, the boatwas upset. Three of the men were immediately drowned; the othersclung to the boat for a time, but finding it drifting out to sea, they took to swimming. They were two miles from land, and thenight was intensely dark. After being about three hours in thewater, Drew reached a rock near the shore, with one or two others, where he remained benumbed with cold till morning, when he and hiscompanions were discovered and taken off, more dead than alive. Akeg of brandy from the cargo just landed was brought, the headknocked in with a hatchet, and a bowlfull of the liquid presentedto the survivors; and, shortly after, Drew was able to walk twomiles through deep snow, to his lodgings. 

This was a very unpromising beginning of a life; and yet this sameDrew, scapegrace, orchard-robber, shoemaker, cudgel-player, andsmuggler, outlived the recklessness of his youth and becamedistinguished as a minister of the Gospel and a writer of goodbooks. Happily, before it was too late, the energy whichcharacterised him was turned into a more healthy direction, andrendered him as eminent in usefulness as he had before been inwickedness. His father again took him back to St. Austell, andfound employment for him as a journeyman shoemaker. Perhaps hisrecent escape from death had tended to make the young man serious, as we shortly find him attracted by the forcible preaching of Dr. Adam Clarke, a minister of the Wesleyan Methodists. His brotherhaving died about the same time, the impression of seriousness wasdeepened; and thenceforward he was an altered man. He began anewthe work of education, for he had almost forgotten how to read andwrite; and even after several years' practice, a friend comparedhis writing to the traces of a spider dipped in ink set to crawlupon paper. Speaking of himself, about that time, Drew afterwardssaid, "The more I read, the more I felt my own ignorance; and themore I felt my ignorance, the more invincible became my energy tosurmount it. Every leisure moment was now employed in reading onething or another. Having to support myself by manual labour, mytime for reading was but little, and to overcome this disadvantage, my usual method was to place a book before me while at meat, and atevery repast I read five or six pages. " The perusal of Locke's'Essay on the Understanding' gave the first metaphysical turn tohis mind. "It awakened me from my stupor, " said he, "and inducedme to form a resolution to abandon the grovelling views which I hadbeen accustomed to entertain. "

Drew began business on his own account, with a capital of a fewshillings; but his character for steadiness was such that aneighbouring miller offered him a loan, which was accepted, and, success attending his industry, the debt was repaid at the end of ayear. He started with a determination to "owe no man anything, "and he held to it in the midst of many privations. Often he wentto bed supperless, to avoid rising in debt. His ambition was toachieve independence by industry and economy, and in this hegradually succeeded. In the midst of incessant labour, hesedulously strove to improve his mind, studying astronomy, history, and metaphysics. He was induced to pursue the latter study chieflybecause it required fewer books to consult than either of theothers. "It appeared to be a thorny path, " he said, "but Idetermined, nevertheless, to enter, and accordingly began to treadit. "

Added to his labours in shoemaking and metaphysics, Drew became alocal preacher and a class leader. He took an eager interest inpolitics, and his shop became a favourite resort with the villagepoliticians. And when they did not come to him, he went to them totalk over public affairs. This so encroached upon his time that hefound it necessary sometimes to work until midnight to make up forthe hours lost during the day. His political fervour become thetalk of the village. While busy one night hammering away at ashoe-sole, a little boy, seeing a light in the shop, put his mouthto the keyhole of the door, and called out in a shrill pipe, "Shoemaker! shoe-maker! work by night and run about by day!" Afriend, to whom Drew afterwards told the story, asked, "And did notyou run after the boy, and strap him?" "No, no, " was the reply;"had a pistol been fired off at my ear, I could not have been moredismayed or confounded. I dropped my work, and said to myself, 'True, true! but you shall never have that to say of me again. ' Tome that cry was as the voice of God, and it has been a word inseason throughout my life. I learnt from it not to leave till to-morrow the work of to-day, or to idle when I ought to be working. "

From that moment Drew dropped politics, and stuck to his work, reading and studying in his spare hours: but he never allowed thelatter pursuit to interfere with his business, though it frequentlybroke in upon his rest. He married, and thought of emigrating toAmerica; but he remained working on. His literary taste first tookthe direction of poetical composition; and from some of thefragments which have been preserved, it appears that hisspeculations as to the immateriality and immortality of the soulhad their origin in these poetical musings. His study was thekitchen, where his wife's bellows served him for a desk; and hewrote amidst the cries and cradlings of his children. Paine's 'Ageof Reason' having appeared about this time and excited muchinterest, he composed a pamphlet in refutation of its arguments, which was published. He used afterwards to say that it was the'Age of Reason' that made him an author. Various pamphlets fromhis pen shortly appeared in rapid succession, and a few yearslater, while still working at shoemaking, he wrote and publishedhis admirable 'Essay on the Immateriality and Immortality of theHuman Soul, ' which he sold for twenty pounds, a great sum in hisestimation at the time. The book went through many editions, andis still prized. 

Drew was in no wise puffed up by his success, as many young authorsare, but, long after he had become celebrated as a writer, used tobe seen sweeping the street before his door, or helping hisapprentices to carry in the winter's coals. Nor could he, for sometime, bring himself to regard literature as a profession to liveby. His first care was, to secure an honest livelihood by hisbusiness, and to put into the "lottery of literary success, " as hetermed it, only the surplus of his time. At length, however, hedevoted himself wholly to literature, more particularly inconnection with the Wesleyan body; editing one of their magazines, and superintending the publication of several of theirdenominational works. He also wrote in the 'Eclectic Review, ' andcompiled and published a valuable history of his native county, Cornwall, with numerous other works. Towards the close of hiscareer, he said of himself, --"Raised from one of the loweststations in society, I have endeavoured through life to bring myfamily into a state of respectability, by honest industry, frugality, and a high regard for my moral character. Divineprovidence has smiled on my exertions, and crowned my wishes withsuccess. "

The late Joseph Hume pursued a very different career, but worked inan equally persevering spirit. He was a man of moderate parts, butof great industry and unimpeachable honesty of purpose. The mottoof his life was "Perseverance, " and well, he acted up to it. Hisfather dying while he was a mere child, his mother opened a smallshop in Montrose, and toiled hard to maintain her family and bringthem up respectably. Joseph she put apprentice to a surgeon, andeducated for the medical profession. Having got his diploma, hemade several voyages to India as ship's surgeon, {19} andafterwards obtained a cadetship in the Company's service. Noneworked harder, or lived more temperately, than he did, and, securing the confidence of his superiors, who found him a capableman in the performance of his duty, they gradually promoted him tohigher offices. In 1803 he was with the division of the army underGeneral Powell, in the Mahratta war; and the interpreter havingdied, Hume, who had meanwhile studied and mastered the nativelanguages, was appointed in his stead. He was next made chief ofthe medical staff. But as if this were not enough to occupy hisfull working power, he undertook in addition the offices ofpaymaster and post-master, and filled them satisfactorily. He alsocontracted to supply the commissariat, which he did with advantageto the army and profit to himself. After about ten years'unremitting labour, he returned to England with a competency; andone of his first acts was to make provision for the poorer membersof his family. 

But Joseph Hume was not a man to enjoy the fruits of his industryin idleness. Work and occupation had become necessary for hiscomfort and happiness. To make himself fully acquainted with theactual state of his own country, and the condition of the people, he visited every town in the kingdom which then enjoyed any degreeof manufacturing celebrity. He afterwards travelled abroad for thepurpose of obtaining a knowledge of foreign states. Returned toEngland, he entered Parliament in 1812, and continued a member ofthat assembly, with a short interruption, for a period of aboutthirty-four years. His first recorded speech was on the subject ofpublic education, and throughout his long and honourable career hetook an active and earnest interest in that and all other questionscalculated to elevate and improve the condition of the people--criminal reform, savings-banks, free trade, economy andretrenchment, extended representation, and such like measures, allof which he indefatigably promoted. Whatever subject he undertook, he worked at with all his might. He was not a good speaker, butwhat he said was believed to proceed from the lips of an honest, single-minded, accurate man. If ridicule, as Shaftesbury says, bethe test of truth, Joseph Hume stood the test well. No man wasmore laughed at, but there he stood perpetually, and literally, "athis post. " He was usually beaten on a division, but the influencewhich he exercised was nevertheless felt, and many importantfinancial improvements were effected by him even with the votedirectly against him. The amount of hard work which he contrivedto get through was something extraordinary. He rose at six, wroteletters and arranged his papers for parliament; then, afterbreakfast, he received persons on business, sometimes as many astwenty in a morning. The House rarely assembled without him, andthough the debate might be prolonged to two or three o'clock in themorning, his name was seldom found absent from the division. Inshort, to perform the work which he did, extending over so long aperiod, in the face of so many Administrations, week after week, year after year, --to be outvoted, beaten, laughed at, standing onmany occasions almost alone, --to persevere in the face of everydiscouragement, preserving his temper unruffled, never relaxing inhis energy or his hope, and living to see the greater number of hismeasures adopted with acclamation, must be regarded as one of themost remarkable illustrations of the power of human perseverancethat biography can exhibit. 

CHAPTER V--HELPS AND OPPORTUNITIES--SCIENTIFIC PURSUITS

"Neither the naked hand, nor the understanding, left to itself, cando much; the work is accomplished by instruments and helps, ofwhich the need is not less for the understanding than the hand. "--Bacon. 

"Opportunity has hair in front, behind she is bald; if you seizeher by the forelock you may hold her, but, if suffered to escape, not Jupiter himself can catch her again. "--From the Latin. 

Accident does very little towards the production of any greatresult in life. Though sometimes what is called "a happy hit" maybe made by a bold venture, the common highway of steady industryand application is the only safe road to travel. It is said of thelandscape painter Wilson, that when he had nearly finished apicture in a tame, correct manner, he would step back from it, hispencil fixed at the end of a long stick, and after gazing earnestlyon the work, he would suddenly walk up and by a few bold touchesgive a brilliant finish to the painting. But it will not do forevery one who would produce an effect, to throw his brush at thecanvas in the hope of producing a picture. The capability ofputting in these last vital touches is acquired only by the labourof a life; and the probability is, that the artist who has notcarefully trained himself beforehand, in attempting to produce abrilliant effect at a dash, will only produce a blotch. 

Sedulous attention and painstaking industry always mark the trueworker. The greatest men are not those who "despise the day ofsmall things, " but those who improve them the most carefully. Michael Angelo was one day explaining to a visitor at his studio, what he had been doing at a statue since his previous visit. "Ihave retouched this part--polished that--softened this feature--brought out that muscle--given some expression to this lip, andmore energy to that limb. " "But these are trifles, " remarked thevisitor. "It may be so, " replied the sculptor, "but recollect thattrifles make perfection, and perfection is no trifle. " So it wassaid of Nicholas Poussin, the painter, that the rule of his conductwas, that "whatever was worth doing at all was worth doing well;"and when asked, late in life, by his friend Vigneul de Marville, bywhat means he had gained so high a reputation among the painters ofItaly, Poussin emphatically answered, "Because I have neglectednothing. "

Although there are discoveries which are said to have been made byaccident, if carefully inquired into, it will be found that therehas really been very little that was accidental about them. Forthe most part, these so-called accidents have only beenopportunities, carefully improved by genius. The fall of the appleat Newton's feet has often been quoted in proof of the accidentalcharacter of some discoveries. But Newton's whole mind had alreadybeen devoted for years to the laborious and patient investigationof the subject of gravitation; and the circumstance of the applefalling before his eyes was suddenly apprehended only as geniuscould apprehend it, and served to flash upon him the brilliantdiscovery then opening to his sight. In like manner, thebrilliantly-coloured soap-bubbles blown from a common tobacco pipe--though "trifles light as air" in most eyes--suggested to Dr. Younghis beautiful theory of "interferences, " and led to his discoveryrelating to the diffraction of light. Although great men arepopularly supposed only to deal with great things, men such asNewton and Young were ready to detect the significance of the mostfamiliar and simple facts; their greatness consisting mainly intheir wise interpretation of them. 

The difference between men consists, in a great measure, in theintelligence of their observation. The Russian proverb says of thenon-observant man, "He goes through the forest and sees nofirewood. " "The wise man's eyes are in his head, " says Solomon, "but the fool walketh in darkness. " "Sir, " said Johnson, on oneoccasion, to a fine gentleman just returned from Italy, "some menwill learn more in the Hampstead stage than others in the tour ofEurope. " It is the mind that sees as well as the eye. Whereunthinking gazers observe nothing, men of intelligent visionpenetrate into the very fibre of the phenomena presented to them, attentively noting differences, making comparisons, and recognizingtheir underlying idea. Many before Galileo had seen a suspendedweight swing before their eyes with a measured beat; but he was thefirst to detect the value of the fact. One of the vergers in thecathedral at Pisa, after replenishing with oil a lamp which hungfrom the roof, left it swinging to and fro; and Galileo, then ayouth of only eighteen, noting it attentively, conceived the ideaof applying it to the measurement of time. Fifty years of studyand labour, however, elapsed, before he completed the invention ofhis Pendulum, --the importance of which, in the measurement of timeand in astronomical calculations, can scarcely be overrated. Inlike manner, Galileo, having casually heard that one Lippershey, aDutch spectacle-maker, had presented to Count Maurice of Nassau aninstrument by means of which distant objects appeared nearer to thebeholder, addressed himself to the cause of such a phenomenon, which led to the invention of the telescope, and proved thebeginning of the modern science of astronomy. Discoveries such asthese could never have been made by a negligent observer, or by amere passive listener. 

While Captain (afterwards Sir Samuel) Brown was occupied instudying the construction of bridges, with the view of contrivingone of a cheap description to be thrown across the Tweed, nearwhich he lived, he was walking in his garden one dewy autumnmorning, when he saw a tiny spider's net suspended across his path. The idea immediately occurred to him, that a bridge of iron ropesor chains might be constructed in like manner, and the result wasthe invention of his Suspension Bridge. So James Watt, whenconsulted about the mode of carrying water by pipes under theClyde, along the unequal bed of the river, turned his attention oneday to the shell of a lobster presented at table; and from thatmodel he invented an iron tube, which, when laid down, was foundeffectually to answer the purpose. Sir Isambert Brunel took hisfirst lessons in forming the Thames Tunnel from the tiny shipworm:he saw how the little creature perforated the wood with its well-armed head, first in one direction and then in another, till thearchway was complete, and then daubed over the roof and sides witha kind of varnish; and by copying this work exactly on a largescale, Brunel was at length enabled to construct his shield andaccomplish his great engineering work. 

It is the intelligent eye of the careful observer which gives theseapparently trivial phenomena their value. So trifling a matter asthe sight of seaweed floating past his ship, enabled Columbus toquell the mutiny which arose amongst his sailors at not discoveringland, and to assure them that the eagerly sought New World was notfar off. There is nothing so small that it should remainforgotten; and no fact, however trivial, but may prove useful insome way or other if carefully interpreted. Who could haveimagined that the famous "chalk cliffs of Albion" had been built upby tiny insects--detected only by the help of the microscope--ofthe same order of creatures that have gemmed the sea with islandsof coral! And who that contemplates such extraordinary results, arising from infinitely minute operations, will venture to questionthe power of little things?

It is the close observation of little things which is the secret ofsuccess in business, in art, in science, and in every pursuit inlife. Human knowledge is but an accumulation of small facts, madeby successive generations of men, the little bits of knowledge andexperience carefully treasured up by them growing at length into amighty pyramid. Though many of these facts and observations seemedin the first instance to have but slight significance, they are allfound to have their eventual uses, and to fit into their properplaces. Even many speculations seemingly remote, turn out to bethe basis of results the most obviously practical. In the case ofthe conic sections discovered by Apollonius Pergaeus, twentycenturies elapsed before they were made the basis of astronomy--ascience which enables the modern navigator to steer his way throughunknown seas and traces for him in the heavens an unerring path tohis appointed haven. And had not mathematicians toiled for solong, and, to uninstructed observers, apparently so fruitlessly, over the abstract relations of lines and surfaces, it is probablethat but few of our mechanical inventions would have seen thelight. 

When Franklin made his discovery of the identity of lightning andelectricity, it was sneered at, and people asked, "Of what use isit?" To which his reply was, "What is the use of a child? It maybecome a man!" When Galvani discovered that a frog's leg twitchedwhen placed in contact with different metals, it could scarcelyhave been imagined that so apparently insignificant a fact couldhave led to important results. Yet therein lay the germ of theElectric Telegraph, which binds the intelligence of continentstogether, and, probably before many years have elapsed, will "put agirdle round the globe. " So too, little bits of stone and fossil, dug out of the earth, intelligently interpreted, have issued in thescience of geology and the practical operations of mining, in whichlarge capitals are invested and vast numbers of persons profitablyemployed. 

The gigantic machinery employed in pumping our mines, working ourmills and manufactures, and driving our steam-ships andlocomotives, in like manner depends for its supply of power upon soslight an agency as little drops of water expanded by heat, --thatfamiliar agency called steam, which we see issuing from that commontea-kettle spout, but which, when put up within an ingeniouslycontrived mechanism, displays a force equal to that of millions ofhorses, and contains a power to rebuke the waves and set even thehurricane at defiance. The same power at work within the bowels ofthe earth has been the cause of those volcanoes and earthquakeswhich have played so mighty a part in the history of the globe. 

It is said that the Marquis of Worcester's attention was firstaccidentally directed to the subject of steam power, by the tightcover of a vessel containing hot water having been blown off beforehis eyes, when confined a prisoner in the Tower. He published theresult of his observations in his 'Century of Inventions, ' whichformed a sort of text-book for inquirers into the powers of steamfor a time, until Savary, Newcomen, and others, applying it topractical purposes, brought the steam-engine to the state in whichWatt found it when called upon to repair a model of Newcomen'sengine, which belonged to the University of Glasgow. Thisaccidental circumstance was an opportunity for Watt, which he wasnot slow to improve; and it was the labour of his life to bring thesteam-engine to perfection. 

This art of seizing opportunities and turning even accidents toaccount, bending them to some purpose is a great secret of success. Dr. Johnson has defined genius to be "a mind of large generalpowers accidentally determined in some particular direction. " Menwho are resolved to find a way for themselves, will always findopportunities enough; and if they do not lie ready to their hand, they will make them. It is not those who have enjoyed theadvantages of colleges, museums, and public galleries, that haveaccomplished the most for science and art; nor have the greatestmechanics and inventors been trained in mechanics' institutes. Necessity, oftener than facility, has been the mother of invention;and the most prolific school of all has been the school ofdifficulty. Some of the very best workmen have had the mostindifferent tools to work with. But it is not tools that make theworkman, but the trained skill and perseverance of the man himself. Indeed it is proverbial that the bad workman never yet had a goodtool. Some one asked Opie by what wonderful process he mixed hiscolours. "I mix them with my brains, sir, " was his reply. It isthe same with every workman who would excel. Ferguson mademarvellous things--such as his wooden clock, that accuratelymeasured the hours--by means of a common penknife, a tool ineverybody's hand; but then everybody is not a Ferguson. A pan ofwater and two thermometers were the tools by which Dr. Blackdiscovered latent heat; and a prism, a lens, and a sheet ofpasteboard enabled Newton to unfold the composition of light andthe origin of colours. An eminent foreign savant once called uponDr. Wollaston, and requested to be shown over his laboratories inwhich science had been enriched by so many important discoveries, when the doctor took him into a little study, and, pointing to anold tea-tray on the table, containing a few watch-glasses, testpapers, a small balance, and a blowpipe, said, "There is all thelaboratory that I have!"

Stothard learnt the art of combining colours by closely studyingbutterflies' wings: he would often say that no one knew what heowed to these tiny insects. A burnt stick and a barn door servedWilkie in lieu of pencil and canvas. Bewick first practiseddrawing on the cottage walls of his native village, which hecovered with his sketches in chalk; and Benjamin West made hisfirst brushes out of the cat's tail. Ferguson laid himself down inthe fields at night in a blanket, and made a map of the heavenlybodies by means of a thread with small beads on it stretchedbetween his eye and the stars. Franklin first robbed thethundercloud of its lightning by means of a kite made with twocross sticks and a silk handkerchief. Watt made his first model ofthe condensing steam-engine out of an old anatomist's syringe, usedto inject the arteries previous to dissection. Gifford worked hisfirst problems in mathematics, when a cobbler's apprentice, uponsmall scraps of leather, which he beat smooth for the purpose;whilst Rittenhouse, the astronomer, first calculated eclipses onhis plough handle. 

The most ordinary occasions will furnish a man with opportunitiesor suggestions for improvement, if he be but prompt to takeadvantage of them. Professor Lee was attracted to the study ofHebrew by finding a Bible in that tongue in a synagogue, whileworking as a common carpenter at the repairs of the benches. Hebecame possessed with a desire to read the book in the original, and, buying a cheap second-hand copy of a Hebrew grammar, he set towork and learnt the language for himself. As Edmund Stone said tothe Duke of Argyle, in answer to his grace's inquiry how he, a poorgardener's boy, had contrived to be able to read Newton's Principiain Latin, "One needs only to know the twenty-four letters of thealphabet in order to learn everything else that one wishes. "Application and perseverance, and the diligent improvement ofopportunities, will do the rest. 

Sir Walter Scott found opportunities for self-improvement in everypursuit, and turned even accidents to account. Thus it was in thedischarge of his functions as a writer's apprentice that he firstvisited the Highlands, and formed those friendships among thesurviving heroes of 1745 which served to lay the foundation of alarge class of his works. Later in life, when employed asquartermaster of the Edinburgh Light Cavalry, he was accidentallydisabled by the kick of a horse, and confined for some time to hishouse; but Scott was a sworn enemy to idleness, and he forthwithset his mind to work. In three days he had composed the firstcanto of 'The Lay of the Last Minstrel, ' which he shortly afterfinished, --his first great original work. 

The attention of Dr. Priestley, the discoverer of so many gases, was accidentally drawn to the subject of chemistry through hisliving in the neighbourhood of a brewery. When visiting the placeone day, he noted the peculiar appearances attending the extinctionof lighted chips in the gas floating over the fermented liquor. Hewas forty years old at the time, and knew nothing of chemistry. Heconsulted books to ascertain the cause, but they told him little, for as yet nothing was known on the subject. Then he began toexperiment, with some rude apparatus of his own contrivance. Thecurious results of his first experiments led to others, which inhis hands shortly became the science of pneumatic chemistry. Aboutthe same time, Scheele was obscurely working in the same directionin a remote Swedish village; and he discovered several new gases, with no more effective apparatus at his command than a fewapothecaries' phials and pigs' bladders. 

Sir Humphry Davy, when an apothecary's apprentice, performed hisfirst experiments with instruments of the rudest description. Heextemporised the greater part of them himself, out of the motleymaterials which chance threw in his way, --the pots and pans of thekitchen, and the phials and vessels of his master's surgery. Ithappened that a French ship was wrecked off the Land's End, and thesurgeon escaped, bearing with him his case of instruments, amongstwhich was an old-fashioned glyster apparatus; this article hepresented to Davy, with whom he had become acquainted. Theapothecary's apprentice received it with great exultation, andforthwith employed it as a part of a pneumatic apparatus which hecontrived, afterwards using it to perform the duties of an air-pumpin one of his experiments on the nature and sources of heat. 

In like manner Professor Faraday, Sir Humphry Davy's scientificsuccessor, made his first experiments in electricity by means of anold bottle, white he was still a working bookbinder. And it is acurious fact that Faraday was first attracted to the study ofchemistry by hearing one of Sir Humphry Davy's lectures on thesubject at the Royal Institution. A gentleman, who was a member, calling one day at the shop where Faraday was employed in bindingbooks, found him poring over the article "Electricity" in anEncyclopaedia placed in his hands to bind. The gentleman, havingmade inquiries, found that the young bookbinder was curious aboutsuch subjects, and gave him an order of admission to the RoyalInstitution, where he attended a course of four lectures deliveredby Sir Humphry. He took notes of them, which he showed to thelecturer, who acknowledged their scientific accuracy, and wassurprised when informed of the humble position of the reporter. Faraday then expressed his desire to devote himself to theprosecution of chemical studies, from which Sir Humphry at firstendeavoured to dissuade him: but the young man persisting, he wasat length taken into the Royal Institution as an assistant; andeventually the mantle of the brilliant apothecary's boy fell uponthe worthy shoulders of the equally brilliant bookbinder'sapprentice. 

The words which Davy entered in his note-book, when about twentyyears of age, working in Dr. Beddoes' laboratory at Bristol, wereeminently characteristic of him: "I have neither riches, norpower, nor birth to recommend me; yet if I live, I trust I shallnot be of less service to mankind and my friends, than if I hadbeen born with all these advantages. " Davy possessed thecapability, as Faraday does, of devoting the whole power of hismind to the practical and experimental investigation of a subjectin all its bearings; and such a mind will rarely fail, by dint ofmere industry and patient thinking, in producing results of thehighest order. Coleridge said of Davy, "There is an energy andelasticity in his mind, which enables him to seize on and analyzeall questions, pushing them to their legitimate consequences. Every subject in Davy's mind has the principle of vitality. Livingthoughts spring up like turf under his feet. " Davy, on his part, said of Coleridge, whose abilities he greatly admired, "With themost exalted genius, enlarged views, sensitive heart, andenlightened mind, he will be the victim of a want of order, precision, and regularity. "

The great Cuvier was a singularly accurate, careful, andindustrious observer. When a boy, he was attracted to the subjectof natural history by the sight of a volume of Buffon whichaccidentally fell in his way. He at once proceeded to copy thedrawings, and to colour them after the descriptions given in thetext. While still at school, one of his teachers made him apresent of 'Linnaeus's System of Nature;' and for more than tenyears this constituted his library of natural history. At eighteenhe was offered the situation of tutor in a family residing nearFecamp, in Normandy. Living close to the sea-shore, he was broughtface to face with the wonders of marine life. Strolling along thesands one day, he observed a stranded cuttlefish. He was attractedby the curious object, took it home to dissect, and thus began thestudy of the molluscae, in the pursuit of which he achieved sodistinguished a reputation. He had no books to refer to, exceptingonly the great book of Nature which lay open before him. The studyof the novel and interesting objects which it daily presented tohis eyes made a much deeper impression on his mind than any writtenor engraved descriptions could possibly have done. Three yearsthus passed, during which he compared the living species of marineanimals with the fossil remains found in the neighbourhood, dissected the specimens of marine life that came under his notice, and, by careful observation, prepared the way for a complete reformin the classification of the animal kingdom. About this timeCuvier became known to the learned Abbe Teissier, who wrote toJussieu and other friends in Paris on the subject of the youngnaturalist's inquiries, in terms of such high commendation, thatCuvier was requested to send some of his papers to the Society ofNatural History; and he was shortly after appointed assistant-superintendent at the Jardin des Plantes. In the letter written byTeissier to Jussieu, introducing the young naturalist to hisnotice, he said, "You remember that it was I who gave Delambre tothe Academy in another branch of science: this also will be aDelambre. " We need scarcely add that the prediction of Teissierwas more than fulfilled. 

It is not accident, then, that helps a man in the world so much aspurpose and persistent industry. To the feeble, the sluggish andpurposeless, the happiest accidents avail nothing, --they pass themby, seeing no meaning in them. But it is astonishing how much canbe accomplished if we are prompt to seize and improve theopportunities for action and effort which are constantly presentingthemselves. Watt taught himself chemistry and mechanics whileworking at his trade of a mathematical-instrument maker, at thesame time that he was learning German from a Swiss dyer. Stephenson taught himself arithmetic and mensuration while workingas an engineman during the night shifts; and when he could snatch afew moments in the intervals allowed for meals during the day, heworked his sums with a bit of chalk upon the sides of the collierywaggons. Dalton's industry was the habit of his life. He beganfrom his boyhood, for he taught a little village-school when he wasonly about twelve years old, --keeping the school in winter, andworking upon his father's farm in summer. He would sometimes urgehimself and companions to study by the stimulus of a bet, thoughbred a Quaker; and on one occasion, by his satisfactory solution ofa problem, he won as much as enabled him to buy a winter's store ofcandles. He continued his meteorological observations until a dayor two before he died, --having made and recorded upwards of 200, 000in the course of his life. 

With perseverance, the very odds and ends of time may be worked upinto results of the greatest value. An hour in every day withdrawnfrom frivolous pursuits would, if profitably employed, enable aperson of ordinary capacity to go far towards mastering a science. It would make an ignorant man a well-informed one in less than tenyears. Time should not be allowed to pass without yielding fruits, in the form of something learnt worthy of being known, some goodprinciple cultivated, or some good habit strengthened. Dr. MasonGood translated Lucretius while riding in his carriage in thestreets of London, going the round of his patients. Dr. Darwincomposed nearly all his works in the same way while driving aboutin his "sulky" from house to house in the country, --writing downhis thoughts on little scraps of paper, which he carried about withhim for the purpose. Hale wrote his 'Contemplations' whiletravelling on circuit. Dr. Burney learnt French and Italian whiletravelling on horseback from one musical pupil to another in thecourse of his profession. Kirke White learnt Greek while walkingto and from a lawyer's office; and we personally know a man ofeminent position who learnt Latin and French while going messagesas an errand-boy in the streets of Manchester. 

Daguesseau, one of the great Chancellors of France, by carefullyworking up his odd bits of time, wrote a bulky and able volume inthe successive intervals of waiting for dinner, and Madame deGenlis composed several of her charming volumes while waiting forthe princess to whom she gave her daily lessons. Elihu Burrittattributed his first success in self-improvement, not to genius, which he disclaimed, but simply to the careful employment of thoseinvaluable fragments of time, called "odd moments. " While workingand earning his living as a blacksmith, he mastered some eighteenancient and modern languages, and twenty-two European dialects. 

What a solemn and striking admonition to youth is that inscribed onthe dial at All Souls, Oxford--"Pereunt et imputantur"--the hoursperish, and are laid to our charge. Time is the only littlefragment of Eternity that belongs to man; and, like life, it cannever be recalled. "In the dissipation of worldly treasure, " saysJackson of Exeter, "the frugality of the future may balance theextravagance of the past; but who can say, 'I will take fromminutes to-morrow to compensate for those I have lost to-day'?"Melancthon noted down the time lost by him, that he might therebyreanimate his industry, and not lose an hour. An Italian scholarput over his door an inscription intimating that whosoever remainedthere should join in his labours. "We are afraid, " said somevisitors to Baxter, "that we break in upon your time. " "To be sureyou do, " replied the disturbed and blunt divine. Time was theestate out of which these great workers, and all other workers, formed that rich treasury of thoughts and deeds which they haveleft to their successors. 

The mere drudgery undergone by some men in carrying on theirundertakings has been something extraordinary, but the drudgerythey regarded as the price of success. Addison amassed as much asthree folios of manuscript materials before he began his'Spectator. ' Newton wrote his 'Chronology' fifteen times overbefore he was satisfied with it; and Gibbon wrote out his 'Memoir'nine times. Hale studied for many years at the rate of sixteenhours a day, and when wearied with the study of the law, he wouldrecreate himself with philosophy and the study of the mathematics. Hume wrote thirteen hours a day while preparing his 'History ofEngland. ' Montesquieu, speaking of one part of his writings, saidto a friend, "You will read it in a few hours; but I assure you ithas cost me so much labour that it has whitened my hair. "

The practice of writing down thoughts and facts for the purpose ofholding them fast and preventing their escape into the dim regionof forgetfulness, has been much resorted to by thoughtful andstudious men. Lord Bacon left behind him many manuscripts entitled"Sudden thoughts set down for use. " Erskine made great extractsfrom Burke; and Eldon copied Coke upon Littleton twice over withhis own hand, so that the book became, as it were, part of his ownmind. The late Dr. Pye Smith, when apprenticed to his father as abookbinder, was accustomed to make copious memoranda of all thebooks he read, with extracts and criticisms. This indomitableindustry in collecting materials distinguished him through life, his biographer describing him as "always at work, always inadvance, always accumulating. " These note-books afterwards proved, like Richter's "quarries, " the great storehouse from which he drewhis illustrations. 

The same practice characterized the eminent John Hunter, whoadopted it for the purpose of supplying the defects of memory; andhe was accustomed thus to illustrate the advantages which onederives from putting one's thoughts in writing: "It resembles, " hesaid, "a tradesman taking stock, without which he never knowseither what he possesses or in what he is deficient. " John Hunter--whose observation was so keen that Abernethy was accustomed tospeak of him as "the Argus-eyed"--furnished an illustrious exampleof the power of patient industry. He received little or noeducation till he was about twenty years of age, and it was withdifficulty that he acquired the arts of reading and writing. Heworked for some years as a common carpenter at Glasgow, after whichhe joined his brother William, who had settled in London as alecturer and anatomical demonstrator. John entered his dissecting-room as an assistant, but soon shot ahead of his brother, partly byvirtue of his great natural ability, but mainly by reason of hispatient application and indefatigable industry. He was one of thefirst in this country to devote himself assiduously to the study ofcomparative anatomy, and the objects he dissected and collectedtook the eminent Professor Owen no less than ten years to arrange. The collection contains some twenty thousand specimens, and is themost precious treasure of the kind that has ever been accumulatedby the industry of one man. Hunter used to spend every morningfrom sunrise until eight o'clock in his museum; and throughout theday he carried on his extensive private practice, performed hislaborious duties as surgeon to St. George's Hospital and deputysurgeon-general to the army; delivered lectures to students, andsuperintended a school of practical anatomy at his own house;finding leisure, amidst all, for elaborate experiments on theanimal economy, and the composition of various works of greatscientific importance. To find time for this gigantic amount ofwork, he allowed himself only four hours of sleep at night, and anhour after dinner. When once asked what method he had adopted toinsure success in his undertakings, he replied, "My rule is, deliberately to consider, before I commence, whether the thing bepracticable. If it be not practicable, I do not attempt it. If itbe practicable, I can accomplish it if I give sufficient pains toit; and having begun, I never stop till the thing is done. To thisrule I owe all my success. "

Hunter occupied a great deal of his time in collecting definitefacts respecting matters which, before his day, were regarded asexceedingly trivial. Thus it was supposed by many of hiscontemporaries that he was only wasting his time and thought instudying so carefully as he did the growth of a deer's horn. ButHunter was impressed with the conviction that no accurate knowledgeof scientific facts is without its value. By the study referredto, he learnt how arteries accommodate themselves to circumstances, and enlarge as occasion requires; and the knowledge thus acquiredemboldened him, in a case of aneurism in a branch artery, to tiethe main trunk where no surgeon before him had dared to tie it, andthe life of his patient was saved. Like many original men, heworked for a long time as it were underground, digging and layingfoundations. He was a solitary and self-reliant genius, holding onhis course without the solace of sympathy or approbation, --for butfew of his contemporaries perceived the ultimate object of hispursuits. But like all true workers, he did not fail in securinghis best reward--that which depends less upon others than uponone's self--the approval of conscience, which in a right-minded maninvariably follows the honest and energetic performance of duty. 

Ambrose Pare, the great French surgeon, was another illustriousinstance of close observation, patient application, andindefatigable perseverance. He was the son of a barber at Laval, in Maine, where he was born in 1509. His parents were too poor tosend him to school, but they placed him as foot-boy with the cureof the village, hoping that under that learned man he might pick upan education for himself. But the cure kept him so busily employedin grooming his mule and in other menial offices that the boy foundno time for learning. While in his service, it happened that thecelebrated lithotomist, Cotot, came to Laval to operate on one ofthe cure's ecclesiastical brethren. Pare was present at theoperation, and was so much interested by it that he is said to havefrom that time formed the determination of devoting himself to theart of surgery. 

Leaving the cure's household service, Pare apprenticed himself to abarber-surgeon named Vialot, under whom he learnt to let blood, draw teeth, and perform the minor operations. After four years'experience of this kind, he went to Paris to study at the school ofanatomy and surgery, meanwhile maintaining himself by his trade ofa barber. He afterwards succeeded in obtaining an appointment asassistant at the Hotel Dieu, where his conduct was so exemplary, and his progress so marked, that the chief surgeon, Goupil, entrusted him with the charge of the patients whom he could nothimself attend to. After the usual course of instruction, Pare wasadmitted a master barber-surgeon, and shortly after was appointedto a charge with the French army under Montmorenci in Piedmont. Pare was not a man to follow in the ordinary ruts of hisprofession, but brought the resources of an ardent and originalmind to bear upon his daily work, diligently thinking out forhimself the rationale of diseases and their befitting remedies. Before his time the wounded suffered much more at the hands oftheir surgeons than they did at those of their enemies. To stopbleeding from gunshot wounds, the barbarous expedient was resortedto of dressing them with boiling oil. Haemorrhage was also stoppedby searing the wounds with a red-hot iron; and when amputation wasnecessary, it was performed with a red-hot knife. At first Paretreated wounds according to the approved methods; but, fortunately, on one occasion, running short of boiling oil, he substituted amild and emollient application. He was in great fear all nightlest he should have done wrong in adopting this treatment; but wasgreatly relieved next morning on finding his patients comparativelycomfortable, while those whose wounds had been treated in the usualway were writhing in torment. Such was the casual origin of one ofPare's greatest improvements in the treatment of gun-shot wounds;and he proceeded to adopt the emollient treatment in all futurecases. Another still more important improvement was his employmentof the ligature in tying arteries to stop haemorrhage, instead ofthe actual cautery. Pare, however, met with the usual fate ofinnovators and reformers. His practice was denounced by hissurgical brethren as dangerous, unprofessional, and empirical; andthe older surgeons banded themselves together to resist itsadoption. They reproached him for his want of education, moreespecially for his ignorance of Latin and Greek; and they assailedhim with quotations from ancient writers, which he was unableeither to verify or refute. But the best answer to his assailantswas the success of his practice. The wounded soldiers called outeverywhere for Pare, and he was always at their service: he tendedthem carefully and affectionately; and he usually took leave ofthem with the words, "I have dressed you; may God cure you. "

After three years' active service as army-surgeon, Pare returned toParis with such a reputation that he was at once appointed surgeonin ordinary to the King. When Metz was besieged by the Spanisharmy, under Charles V. , the garrison suffered heavy loss, and thenumber of wounded was very great. The surgeons were few andincompetent, and probably slew more by their bad treatment than theSpaniards did by the sword. The Duke of Guise, who commanded thegarrison, wrote to the King imploring him to send Pare to his help. The courageous surgeon at once set out, and, after braving manydangers (to use his own words, "d'estre pendu, estrangle ou mis enpieces"), he succeeded in passing the enemy's lines, and enteredMetz in safety. The Duke, the generals, and the captains gave himan affectionate welcome; while the soldiers, when they heard of hisarrival, cried, "We no longer fear dying of our wounds; our friendis among us. " In the following year Pare was in like manner withthe besieged in the town of Hesdin, which shortly fell before theDuke of Savoy, and he was taken prisoner. But having succeeded incuring one of the enemy's chief officers of a serious wound, he wasdischarged without ransom, and returned in safety to Paris. 

The rest of his life was occupied in study, in self-improvement, inpiety, and in good deeds. Urged by some of the most learned amonghis contemporaries, he placed on record the results of his surgicalexperience, in twenty-eight books, which were published by him atdifferent times. His writings are valuable and remarkable chieflyon account of the great number of facts and cases contained inthem, and the care with which he avoids giving any directionsresting merely upon theory unsupported by observation. Parecontinued, though a Protestant, to hold the office of surgeon inordinary to the King; and during the Massacre of St. Bartholomew heowed his life to the personal friendship of Charles IX. , whom hehad on one occasion saved from the dangerous effects of a woundinflicted by a clumsy surgeon in performing the operation ofvenesection. Brantome, in his 'Memoires, ' thus speaks of theKing's rescue of Pare on the night of Saint Bartholomew--"He sentto fetch him, and to remain during the night in his chamber andwardrobe-room, commanding him not to stir, and saying that it wasnot reasonable that a man who had preserved the lives of so manypeople should himself be massacred. " Thus Pare escaped the horrorsof that fearful night, which he survived for many years, and waspermitted to die in peace, full of age and honours. 

Harvey was as indefatigable a labourer as any we have named. Hespent not less than eight long years of investigation and researchbefore he published his views of the circulation of the blood. Herepeated and verified his experiments again and again, probablyanticipating the opposition he would have to encounter from theprofession on making known his discovery. The tract in which he atlength announced his views, was a most modest one, --but simple, perspicuous, and conclusive. It was nevertheless received withridicule, as the utterance of a crack-brained impostor. For sometime, he did not make a single convert, and gained nothing butcontumely and abuse. He had called in question the reveredauthority of the ancients; and it was even averred that his viewswere calculated to subvert the authority of the Scriptures andundermine the very foundations of morality and religion. Hislittle practice fell away, and he was left almost without a friend. This lasted for some years, until the great truth, held fast byHarvey amidst all his adversity, and which had dropped into manythoughtful minds, gradually ripened by further observation, andafter a period of about twenty-five years, it became generallyrecognised as an established scientific truth. 

The difficulties encountered by Dr. Jenner in promulgating andestablishing his discovery of vaccination as a preventive of small-pox, were even greater than those of Harvey. Many, before him, hadwitnessed the cow-pox, and had heard of the report current amongthe milkmaids in Gloucestershire, that whoever had taken thatdisease was secure against small-pox. It was a trifling, vulgarrumour, supposed to have no significance whatever; and no one hadthought it worthy of investigation, until it was accidentallybrought under the notice of Jenner. He was a youth, pursuing hisstudies at Sodbury, when his attention was arrested by the casualobservation made by a country girl who came to his master's shopfor advice. The small-pox was mentioned, when the girl said, "Ican't take that disease, for I have had cow-pox. " The observationimmediately riveted Jenner's attention, and he forthwith set aboutinquiring and making observations on the subject. His professionalfriends, to whom he mentioned his views as to the prophylacticvirtues of cow-pox, laughed at him, and even threatened to expelhim from their society, if he persisted in harassing them with thesubject. In London he was so fortunate as to study under JohnHunter, to whom he communicated his views. The advice of the greatanatomist was thoroughly characteristic: "Don't think, but TRY; bepatient, be accurate. " Jenner's courage was supported by theadvice, which conveyed to him the true art of philosophicalinvestigation. He went back to the country to practise hisprofession and make observations and experiments, which hecontinued to pursue for a period of twenty years. His faith in hisdiscovery was so implicit that he vaccinated his own son on threeseveral occasions. At length he published his views in a quarto ofabout seventy pages, in which he gave the details of twenty-threecases of successful vaccination of individuals, to whom it wasfound afterwards impossible to communicate the small-pox either bycontagion or inoculation. It was in 1798 that this treatise waspublished; though he had been working out his ideas since the year1775, when they had begun to assume a definite form. 

How was the discovery received? First with indifference, then withactive hostility. Jenner proceeded to London to exhibit to theprofession the process of vaccination and its results; but not asingle medical man could be induced to make trial of it, and afterfruitlessly waiting for nearly three months, he returned to hisnative village. He was even caricatured and abused for his attemptto "bestialize" his species by the introduction into their systemsof diseased matter from the cow's udder. Vaccination was denouncedfrom the pulpit as "diabolical. " It was averred that vaccinatedchildren became "ox-faced, " that abscesses broke out to "indicatesprouting horns, " and that the countenance was gradually"transmuted into the visage of a cow, the voice into the bellowingof bulls. " Vaccination, however, was a truth, and notwithstandingthe violence of the opposition, belief in it spread slowly. In onevillage, where a gentleman tried to introduce the practice, thefirst persons who permitted themselves to be vaccinated wereabsolutely pelted and driven into their houses if they appeared outof doors. Two ladies of title--Lady Ducie and the Countess ofBerkeley--to their honour be it remembered--had the courage tovaccinate their children; and the prejudices of the day were atonce broken through. The medical profession gradually came round, and there were several who even sought to rob Dr. Jenner of themerit of the discovery, when its importance came to be recognised. Jenner's cause at last triumphed, and he was publicly honoured andrewarded. In his prosperity he was as modest as he had been in hisobscurity. He was invited to settle in London, and told that hemight command a practice of 10, 000l. A year. But his answer was, "No! In the morning of my days I have sought the sequestered andlowly paths of life--the valley, and not the mountain, --and now, inthe evening of my days, it is not meet for me to hold myself up asan object for fortune and for fame. " During Jenner's own life-timethe practice of vaccination became adopted all over the civilizedworld; and when he died, his title as a Benefactor of his kind wasrecognised far and wide. Cuvier has said, "If vaccine were theonly discovery of the epoch, it would serve to render itillustrious for ever; yet it knocked twenty times in vain at thedoors of the Academies. "

Not less patient, resolute, and persevering was Sir Charles Bell inthe prosecution of his discoveries relating to the nervous system. Previous to his time, the most confused notions prevailed as to thefunctions of the nerves, and this branch of study was little moreadvanced than it had been in the times of Democritus and Anaxagorasthree thousand years before. Sir Charles Bell, in the valuableseries of papers the publication of which was commenced in 1821, took an entirely original view of the subject, based upon a longseries of careful, accurate, and oft-repeated experiments. Elaborately tracing the development of the nervous system up fromthe lowest order of animated being, to man--the lord of the animalkingdom, --he displayed it, to use his own words, "as plainly as ifit were written in our mother-tongue. " His discovery consisted inthe fact, that the spinal nerves are double in their function, andarise by double roots from the spinal marrow, --volition beingconveyed by that part of the nerves springing from the one root, and sensation by the other. The subject occupied the mind of SirCharles Bell for a period of forty years, when, in 1840, he laidhis last paper before the Royal Society. As in the cases of Harveyand Jenner, when he had lived down the ridicule and opposition withwhich his views were first received, and their truth came to berecognised, numerous claims for priority in making the discoverywere set up at home and abroad. Like them, too, he lost practiceby the publication of his papers; and he left it on record that, after every step in his discovery, he was obliged to work harderthan ever to preserve his reputation as a practitioner. The greatmerits of Sir Charles Bell were, however, at length fullyrecognised; and Cuvier himself, when on his death-bed, finding hisface distorted and drawn to one side, pointed out the symptom tohis attendants as a proof of the correctness of Sir Charles Bell'stheory. 

An equally devoted pursuer of the same branch of science was thelate Dr. Marshall Hall, whose name posterity will rank with thoseof Harvey, Hunter, Jenner, and Bell. During the whole course ofhis long and useful life he was a most careful and minute observer;and no fact, however apparently insignificant, escaped hisattention. His important discovery of the diastaltic nervoussystem, by which his name will long be known amongst scientificmen, originated in an exceedingly simple circumstance. Wheninvestigating the pneumonic circulation in the Triton, thedecapitated object lay upon the table; and on separating the tailand accidentally pricking the external integument, he observed thatit moved with energy, and became contorted into various forms. Hehad not touched a muscle or a muscular nerve; what then was thenature of these movements? The same phenomena had probably beenoften observed before, but Dr. Hall was the first to apply himselfperseveringly to the investigation of their causes; and heexclaimed on the occasion, "I will never rest satisfied until Ihave found all this out, and made it clear. " His attention to thesubject was almost incessant; and it is estimated that in thecourse of his life he devoted not less than 25, 000 hours to itsexperimental and chemical investigation. He was at the same timecarrying on an extensive private practice, and officiating aslecturer at St. Thomas's Hospital and other Medical Schools. Itwill scarcely be credited that the paper in which he embodied hisdiscovery was rejected by the Royal Society, and was only acceptedafter the lapse of seventeen years, when the truth of his views hadbecome acknowledged by scientific men both at home and abroad. 

The life of Sir William Herschel affords another remarkableillustration of the force of perseverance in another branch ofscience. His father was a poor German musician, who brought up hisfour sons to the same calling. William came over to England toseek his fortune, and he joined the band of the Durham Militia, inwhich he played the oboe. The regiment was lying at Doncaster, where Dr. Miller first became acquainted with Herschel, havingheard him perform a solo on the violin in a surprising manner. TheDoctor entered into conversation with the youth, and was so pleasedwith him, that he urged him to leave the militia and take up hisresidence at his house for a time. Herschel did so, and while atDoncaster was principally occupied in violin-playing at concerts, availing himself of the advantages of Dr. Miller's library to studyat his leisure hours. A new organ having been built for the parishchurch of Halifax, an organist was advertised for, on whichHerschel applied for the office, and was selected. Leading thewandering life of an artist, he was next attracted to Bath, wherehe played in the Pump-room band, and also officiated as organist inthe Octagon chapel. Some recent discoveries in astronomy havingarrested his mind, and awakened in him a powerful spirit ofcuriosity, he sought and obtained from a friend the loan of a two-foot Gregorian telescope. So fascinated was the poor musician bythe science, that he even thought of purchasing a telescope, butthe price asked by the London optician was so alarming, that hedetermined to make one. Those who know what a reflecting telescopeis, and the skill which is required to prepare the concave metallicspeculum which forms the most important part of the apparatus, willbe able to form some idea of the difficulty of this undertaking. Nevertheless, Herschel succeeded, after long and painful labour, incompleting a five-foot reflector, with which he had thegratification of observing the ring and satellites of Saturn. Notsatisfied with his triumph, he proceeded to make other instrumentsin succession, of seven, ten, and even twenty feet. Inconstructing the seven-foot reflector, he finished no fewer thantwo hundred specula before he produced one that would bear anypower that was applied to it, --a striking instance of thepersevering laboriousness of the man. While gauging the heavenswith his instruments, he continued patiently to earn his bread bypiping to the fashionable frequenters of the Pump-room. So eagerwas he in his astronomical observations, that he would steal awayfrom the room during an interval of the performance, give a littleturn at his telescope, and contentedly return to his oboe. Thusworking away, Herschel discovered the Georgium Sidus, the orbit andrate of motion of which he carefully calculated, and sent theresult to the Royal Society; when the humble oboe player foundhimself at once elevated from obscurity to fame. He was shortlyafter appointed Astronomer Royal, and by the kindness of GeorgeIII. Was placed in a position of honourable competency for life. He bore his honours with the same meekness and humility which haddistinguished him in the days of his obscurity. So gentle andpatient, and withal so distinguished and successful a follower ofscience under difficulties, perhaps cannot be found in the entirehistory of biography. 

The career of William Smith, the father of English geology, thoughperhaps less known, is not less interesting and instructive as anexample of patient and laborious effort, and the diligentcultivation of opportunities. He was born in 1769, the son of ayeoman farmer at Churchill, in Oxfordshire. His father dying whenhe was but a child, he received a very sparing education at thevillage school, and even that was to a considerable extentinterfered with by his wandering and somewhat idle habits as a boy. His mother having married a second time, he was taken in charge byan uncle, also a farmer, by whom he was brought up. Though theuncle was by no means pleased with the boy's love of wanderingabout, collecting "poundstones, " "pundips, " and other stonycuriosities which lay scattered about the adjoining land, he yetenabled him to purchase a few of the necessary books wherewith toinstruct himself in the rudiments of geometry and surveying; forthe boy was already destined for the business of a land-surveyor. One of his marked characteristics, even as a youth, was theaccuracy and keenness of his observation; and what he once clearlysaw he never forgot. He began to draw, attempted to colour, andpractised the arts of mensuration and surveying, all withoutregular instruction; and by his efforts in self-culture, he shortlybecame so proficient, that he was taken on as assistant to a localsurveyor of ability in the neighbourhood. In carrying on hisbusiness he was constantly under the necessity of traversingOxfordshire and the adjoining counties. One of the first things heseriously pondered over, was the position of the various soils andstrata that came under his notice on the lands which he surveyed ortravelled over; more especially the position of the red earth inregard to the lias and superincumbent rocks. The surveys ofnumerous collieries which he was called upon to make, gave himfurther experience; and already, when only twenty-three years ofage, he contemplated making a model of the strata of the earth. 

While engaged in levelling for a proposed canal in Gloucestershire, the idea of a general law occurred to him relating to the strata ofthat district. He conceived that the strata lying above the coalwere not laid horizontally, but inclined, and in one direction, towards the east; resembling, on a large scale, "the ordinaryappearance of superposed slices of bread and butter. " Thecorrectness of this theory he shortly after confirmed byobservations of the strata in two parallel valleys, the "redground, " "lias, " and "freestone" or "oolite, " being found to comedown in an eastern direction, and to sink below the level, yieldingplace to the next in succession. He was shortly enabled to verifythe truth of his views on a larger scale, having been appointed toexamine personally into the management of canals in England andWales. During his journeys, which extended from Bath to Newcastle-on-Tyne, returning by Shropshire and Wales, his keen eyes werenever idle for a moment. He rapidly noted the aspect and structureof the country through which he passed with his companions, treasuring up his observations for future use. His geologic visionwas so acute, that though the road along which he passed from Yorkto Newcastle in the post chaise was from five to fifteen milesdistant from the hills of chalk and oolite on the east, he wassatisfied as to their nature, by their contours and relativeposition, and their ranges on the surface in relation to the liasand "red ground" occasionally seen on the road. 

The general results of his observation seem to have been these. Henoted that the rocky masses of country in the western parts ofEngland generally inclined to the east and south-east; that the redsandstones and marls above the coal measures passed beneath thelias, clay, and limestone, that these again passed beneath thesands, yellow limestones and clays, forming the table-land of theCotswold Hills, while these in turn passed beneath the great chalkdeposits occupying the eastern parts of England. He furtherobserved, that each layer of clay, sand, and limestone held its ownpeculiar classes of fossils; and pondering much on these things, heat length came to the then unheard-of conclusion, that eachdistinct deposit of marine animals, in these several strata, indicated a distinct sea-bottom, and that each layer of clay, sand, chalk, and stone, marked a distinct epoch of time in the history ofthe earth. 

This idea took firm possession of his mind, and he could talk andthink of nothing else. At canal boards, at sheep-shearings, atcounty meetings, and at agricultural associations, 'Strata Smith, 'as he came to be called, was always running over with the subjectthat possessed him. He had indeed made a great discovery, thoughhe was as yet a man utterly unknown in the scientific world. Heproceeded to project a map of the stratification of England; butwas for some time deterred from proceeding with it, being fullyoccupied in carrying out the works of the Somersetshire coal canal, which engaged him for a period of about six years. He continued, nevertheless, to be unremitting in his observation of facts; and hebecame so expert in apprehending the internal structure of adistrict and detecting the lie of the strata from its externalconfiguration, that he was often consulted respecting the drainageof extensive tracts of land, in which, guided by his geologicalknowledge, he proved remarkably successful, and acquired anextensive reputation. 

One day, when looking over the cabinet collection of fossilsbelonging to the Rev. Samuel Richardson, at Bath, Smith astonishedhis friend by suddenly disarranging his classification, and re-arranging the fossils in their stratigraphical order, saying--"These came from the blue lias, these from the over-lying sand andfreestone, these from the fuller's earth, and these from the Bathbuilding stone. " A new light flashed upon Mr. Richardson's mind, and he shortly became a convert to and believer in William Smith'sdoctrine. The geologists of the day were not, however, so easilyconvinced; and it was scarcely to be tolerated that an unknownland-surveyor should pretend to teach them the science of geology. But William Smith had an eye and mind to penetrate deep beneath theskin of the earth; he saw its very fibre and skeleton, and, as itwere, divined its organization. His knowledge of the strata in theneighbourhood of Bath was so accurate, that one evening, whendining at the house of the Rev. Joseph Townsend, he dictated to Mr. Richardson the different strata according to their order ofsuccession in descending order, twenty-three in number, commencingwith the chalk and descending in continuous series down to thecoal, below which the strata were not then sufficiently determined. To this was added a list of the more remarkable fossils which hadbeen gathered in the several layers of rock. This was printed andextensively circulated in 1801. 

He next determined to trace out the strata through districts asremote from Bath as his means would enable him to reach. For yearshe journeyed to and fro, sometimes on foot, sometimes on horseback, riding on the tops of stage coaches, often making up by night-travelling the time he had lost by day, so as not to fail in hisordinary business engagements. When he was professionally calledaway to any distance from home--as, for instance, when travellingfrom Bath to Holkham, in Norfolk, to direct the irrigation anddrainage of Mr. Coke's land in that county--he rode on horseback, making frequent detours from the road to note the geologicalfeatures of the country which he traversed. 

For several years he was thus engaged in his journeys to distantquarters in England and Ireland, to the extent of upwards of tenthousand miles yearly; and it was amidst this incessant andlaborious travelling, that he contrived to commit to paper hisfast-growing generalizations on what he rightly regarded as a newscience. No observation, howsoever trivial it might appear, wasneglected, and no opportunity of collecting fresh facts wasoverlooked. Whenever he could, he possessed himself of records ofborings, natural and artificial sections, drew them to a constantscale of eight yards to the inch, and coloured them up. Of hiskeenness of observation take the following illustration. Whenmaking one of his geological excursions about the country nearWoburn, as he was drawing near to the foot of the Dunstable chalkhills, he observed to his companion, "If there be any broken groundabout the foot of these hills, we may find SHARK'S TEETH;" and theyhad not proceeded far, before they picked up six from the whitebank of a new fence-ditch. As he afterwards said of himself, "Thehabit of observation crept on me, gained a settlement in my mind, became a constant associate of my life, and started up in activityat the first thought of a journey; so that I generally went offwell prepared with maps, and sometimes with contemplations on itsobjects, or on those on the road, reduced to writing before itcommenced. My mind was, therefore, like the canvas of a painter, well prepared for the first and best impressions. "

Notwithstanding his courageous and indefatigable industry, manycircumstances contributed to prevent the promised publication ofWilliam Smith's 'Map of the Strata of England and Wales, ' and itwas not until 1814 that he was enabled, by the assistance of somefriends, to give to the world the fruits of his twenty years'incessant labour. To prosecute his inquiries, and collect theextensive series of facts and observations requisite for hispurpose, he had to expend the whole of the profits of hisprofessional labours during that period; and he even sold off hissmall property to provide the means of visiting remoter parts ofthe island. Meanwhile he had entered on a quarrying speculationnear Bath, which proved unsuccessful, and he was under thenecessity of selling his geological collection (which was purchasedby the British Museum), his furniture and library, reserving onlyhis papers, maps, and sections, which were useless save to himself. He bore his losses and misfortunes with exemplary fortitude; andamidst all, he went on working with cheerful courage and untiringpatience. He died at Northampton, in August, 1839, while on hisway to attend the meeting of the British Association at Birmingham. 

It is difficult to speak in terms of too high praise of the firstgeological map of England, which we owe to the industry of thiscourageous man of science. An accomplished writer says of it, "Itwas a work so masterly in conception and so correct in generaloutline, that in principle it served as a basis not only for theproduction of later maps of the British Islands, but for geologicalmaps of all other parts of the world, wherever they have beenundertaken. In the apartments of the Geological Society Smith'smap may yet be seen--a great historical document, old and worn, calling for renewal of its faded tints. Let any one conversantwith the subject compare it with later works on a similar scale, and he will find that in all essential features it will not sufferby the comparison--the intricate anatomy of the Silurian rocks ofWales and the north of England by Murchison and Sedgwick being thechief additions made to his great generalizations. " {20} Thegenius of the Oxfordshire surveyor did not fail to be dulyrecognised and honoured by men of science during his lifetime. In1831 the Geological Society of London awarded to him the Wollastonmedal, "in consideration of his being a great original discovererin English geology, and especially for his being the first in thiscountry to discover and to teach the identification of strata, andto determine their succession by means of their imbedded fossils. "William Smith, in his simple, earnest way, gained for himself aname as lasting as the science he loved so well. To use the wordsof the writer above quoted, "Till the manner as well as the fact ofthe first appearance of successive forms of life shall be solved, it is not easy to surmise how any discovery can be made in geologyequal in value to that which we owe to the genius of WilliamSmith. "

Hugh Miller was a man of like observant faculties, who studiedliterature as well as science with zeal and success. The book inwhich he has told the story of his life, ('My Schools andSchoolmasters'), is extremely interesting, and calculated to beeminently useful. It is the history of the formation of a trulynoble character in the humblest condition of life; and inculcatesmost powerfully the lessons of self-help, self-respect, and self-dependence. While Hugh was but a child, his father, who was asailor, was drowned at sea, and he was brought up by his widowedmother. He had a school training after a sort, but his bestteachers were the boys with whom he played, the men amongst whom heworked, the friends and relatives with whom he lived. He read muchand miscellaneously, and picked up odd sorts of knowledge from manyquarters, --from workmen, carpenters, fishermen and sailors, andabove all, from the old boulders strewed along the shores of theCromarty Frith. With a big hammer which had belonged to his great-grandfather, an old buccaneer, the boy went about chipping thestones, and accumulating specimens of mica, porphyry, garnet, andsuch like. Sometimes he had a day in the woods, and there, too, the boy's attention was excited by the peculiar geologicalcuriosities which came in his way. While searching among the rockson the beach, he was sometimes asked, in irony, by the farmservants who came to load their carts with sea-weed, whether he"was gettin' siller in the stanes, " but was so unlucky as never tobe able to answer in the affirmative. When of a suitable age hewas apprenticed to the trade of his choice--that of a workingstonemason; and he began his labouring career in a quarry lookingout upon the Cromarty Frith. This quarry proved one of his bestschools. The remarkable geological formations which it displayedawakened his curiosity. The bar of deep-red stone beneath, and thebar of pale-red clay above, were noted by the young quarryman, whoeven in such unpromising subjects found matter for observation andreflection. Where other men saw nothing, he detected analogies, differences, and peculiarities, which set him a-thinking. Hesimply kept his eyes and his mind open; was sober, diligent, andpersevering; and this was the secret of his intellectual growth. 

His curiosity was excited and kept alive by the curious organicremains, principally of old and extinct species of fishes, ferns, and ammonites, which were revealed along the coast by the washingsof the waves, or were exposed by the stroke of his mason's hammer. He never lost sight of the subject; but went on accumulatingobservations and comparing formations, until at length, many yearsafterwards, when no longer a working mason, he gave to the worldhis highly interesting work on the Old Red Sandstone, which at onceestablished his reputation as a scientific geologist. But thiswork was the fruit of long years of patient observation andresearch. As he modestly states in his autobiography, "the onlymerit to which I lay claim in the case is that of patient research--a merit in which whoever wills may rival or surpass me; and thishumble faculty of patience, when rightly developed, may lead tomore extraordinary developments of idea than even genius itself. "

The late John Brown, the eminent English geologist, was, likeMiller, a stonemason in his early life, serving an apprenticeshipto the trade at Colchester, and afterwards working as a journeymanmason at Norwich. He began business as a builder on his ownaccount at Colchester, where by frugality and industry he secured acompetency. It was while working at his trade that his attentionwas first drawn to the study of fossils and shells; and heproceeded to make a collection of them, which afterwards grew intoone of the finest in England. His researches along the coasts ofEssex, Kent, and Sussex brought to light some magnificent remainsof the elephant and rhinoceros, the most valuable of which werepresented by him to the British Museum. During the last few yearsof his life he devoted considerable attention to the study of theForaminifera in chalk, respecting which he made several interestingdiscoveries. His life was useful, happy, and honoured; and he diedat Stanway, in Essex, in November 1859, at the ripe age of eightyyears. 

Not long ago, Sir Roderick Murchison discovered at Thurso, in thefar north of Scotland, a profound geologist, in the person of abaker there, named Robert Dick. When Sir Roderick called upon himat the bakehouse in which he baked and earned his bread, RobertDick delineated to him, by means of flour upon the board, thegeographical features and geological phenomena of his nativecounty, pointing out the imperfections in the existing maps, whichhe had ascertained by travelling over the country in his leisurehours. On further inquiry, Sir Roderick ascertained that thehumble individual before him was not only a capital baker andgeologist, but a first-rate botanist. "I found, " said thePresident of the Geographical Society, "to my great humiliationthat the baker knew infinitely more of botanical science, ay, tentimes more, than I did; and that there were only some twenty orthirty specimens of flowers which he had not collected. Some hehad obtained as presents, some he had purchased, but the greaterportion had been accumulated by his industry, in his native countyof Caithness; and the specimens were all arranged in the mostbeautiful order, with their scientific names affixed. "

Sir Roderick Murchison himself is an illustrious follower of theseand kindred branches of science. A writer in the 'QuarterlyReview' cites him as a "singular instance of a man who, havingpassed the early part of his life as a soldier, never having hadthe advantage, or disadvantage as the case might have been, of ascientific training, instead of remaining a fox-hunting countrygentleman, has succeeded by his own native vigour and sagacity, untiring industry and zeal, in making for himself a scientificreputation that is as wide as it is likely to be lasting. He tookfirst of all an unexplored and difficult district at home, and, bythe labour of many years, examined its rock-formations, classedthem in natural groups, assigned to each its characteristicassemblage of fossils, and was the first to decipher two greatchapters in the world's geological history, which must alwayshenceforth carry his name on their title-page. Not only so, but heapplied the knowledge thus acquired to the dissection of largedistricts, both at home and abroad, so as to become the geologicaldiscoverer of great countries which had formerly been 'terraeincognitae. '" But Sir Roderick Murchison is not merely ageologist. His indefatigable labours in many branches of knowledgehave contributed to render him among the most accomplished andcomplete of scientific men. 

CHAPTER VI--WORKERS IN ART

"If what shone afar so grand, Turn to nothing in thy hand, On again; the virtue liesIn struggle, not the prize. "--R. M. Milnes. 

"Excelle, et tu vivras. "--Joubert. 

Excellence in art, as in everything else, can only be achieved bydint of painstaking labour. 

There is nothing less accidental than the painting of a finepicture or the chiselling of a noble statue. Every skilled touchof the artist's brush or chisel, though guided by genius, is theproduct of unremitting study. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds was such a believer in the force of industry, that he held that artistic excellence, "however expressed bygenius, taste, or the gift of heaven, may be acquired. " Writing toBarry he said, "Whoever is resolved to excel in painting, or indeedany other art, must bring all his mind to bear upon that one objectfrom the moment that he rises till he goes to bed. " And on anotheroccasion he said, "Those who are resolved to excel must go to theirwork, willing or unwilling, morning, noon, and night: they willfind it no play, but very hard labour. " But although diligentapplication is no doubt absolutely necessary for the achievement ofthe highest distinction in art, it is equally true that without theinborn genius, no amount of mere industry, however well applied, will make an artist. The gift comes by nature, but is perfected byself-culture, which is of more avail than all the impartededucation of the schools. 

Some of the greatest artists have had to force their way upward inthe face of poverty and manifold obstructions. Illustriousinstances will at once flash upon the reader's mind. ClaudeLorraine, the pastrycook; Tintoretto, the dyer; the twoCaravaggios, the one a colour-grinder, the other a mortar-carrierat the Vatican; Salvator Rosa, the associate of bandits; Giotto, the peasant boy; Zingaro, the gipsy; Cavedone, turned out of doorsto beg by his father; Canova, the stone-cutter; these, and manyother well-known artists, succeeded in achieving distinction bysevere study and labour, under circumstances the most adverse. 

Nor have the most distinguished artists of our own country beenborn in a position of life more than ordinarily favourable to theculture of artistic genius. Gainsborough and Bacon were the sonsof cloth-workers; Barry was an Irish sailor boy, and Maclise abanker's apprentice at Cork; Opie and Romney, like Inigo Jones, were carpenters; West was the son of a small Quaker farmer inPennsylvania; Northcote was a watchmaker, Jackson a tailor, andEtty a printer; Reynolds, Wilson, and Wilkie, were the sons ofclergymen; Lawrence was the son of a publican, and Turner of abarber. Several of our painters, it is true, originally had someconnection with art, though in a very humble way, --such as Flaxman, whose father sold plaster casts; Bird, who ornamented tea-trays;Martin, who was a coach-painter; Wright and Gilpin, who were ship-painters; Chantrey, who was a carver and gilder; and David Cox, Stanfield, and Roberts, who were scene-painters. 

It was not by luck or accident that these men achieved distinction, but by sheer industry and hard work. Though some achieved wealth, yet this was rarely, if ever, the ruling motive. Indeed, no merelove of money could sustain the efforts of the artist in his earlycareer of self-denial and application. The pleasure of the pursuithas always been its best reward; the wealth which followed but anaccident. Many noble-minded artists have preferred following thebent of their genius, to chaffering with the public for terms. Spagnoletto verified in his life the beautiful fiction of Xenophon, and after he had acquired the means of luxury, preferredwithdrawing himself from their influence, and voluntarily returnedto poverty and labour. When Michael Angelo was asked his opinionrespecting a work which a painter had taken great pains to exhibitfor profit, he said, "I think that he will be a poor fellow so longas he shows such an extreme eagerness to become rich. "

Like Sir Joshua Reynolds, Michael Angelo was a great believer inthe force of labour; and he held that there was nothing which theimagination conceived, that could not be embodied in marble, if thehand were made vigorously to obey the mind. He was himself one ofthe most indefatigable of workers; and he attributed his power ofstudying for a greater number of hours than most of hiscontemporaries, to his spare habits of living. A little bread andwine was all he required for the chief part of the day whenemployed at his work; and very frequently he rose in the middle ofthe night to resume his labours. On these occasions, it was hispractice to fix the candle, by the light of which he chiselled, onthe summit of a paste-board cap which he wore. Sometimes he wastoo wearied to undress, and he slept in his clothes, ready tospring to his work so soon as refreshed by sleep. He had afavourite device of an old man in a go-cart, with an hour-glassupon it bearing the inscription, Ancora imparo! Still I amlearning. 

Titian, also, was an indefatigable worker. His celebrated "PietroMartire" was eight years in hand, and his "Last Supper" seven. Inhis letter to Charles V. He said, "I send your Majesty the 'LastSupper' after working at it almost daily for seven years--doposette anni lavorandovi quasi continuamente. " Few think of thepatient labour and long training involved in the greatest works ofthe artist. They seem easy and quickly accomplished, yet with howgreat difficulty has this ease been acquired. "You charge me fiftysequins, " said the Venetian nobleman to the sculptor, "for a bustthat cost you only ten days' labour. " "You forget, " said theartist, "that I have been thirty years learning to make that bustin ten days. " Once when Domenichino was blamed for his slowness infinishing a picture which was bespoken, he made answer, "I amcontinually painting it within myself. " It was eminentlycharacteristic of the industry of the late Sir Augustus Callcott, that he made not fewer than forty separate sketches in thecomposition of his famous picture of "Rochester. " This constantrepetition is one of the main conditions of success in art, as inlife itself. 

No matter how generous nature has been in bestowing the gift ofgenius, the pursuit of art is nevertheless a long and continuouslabour. Many artists have been precocious, but without diligencetheir precocity would have come to nothing. The anecdote relatedof West is well known. When only seven years old, struck with thebeauty of the sleeping infant of his eldest sister whilst watchingby its cradle, he ran to seek some paper and forthwith drew itsportrait in red and black ink. The little incident revealed theartist in him, and it was found impossible to draw him from hisbent. West might have been a greater painter, had he not beeninjured by too early success: his fame, though great, was notpurchased by study, trials, and difficulties, and it has not beenenduring. 

Richard Wilson, when a mere child, indulged himself with tracingfigures of men and animals on the walls of his father's house, witha burnt stick. He first directed his attention to portraitpainting; but when in Italy, calling one day at the house ofZucarelli, and growing weary with waiting, he began painting thescene on which his friend's chamber window looked. When Zucarelliarrived, he was so charmed with the picture, that he asked ifWilson had not studied landscape, to which he replied that he hadnot. "Then, I advise you, " said the other, "to try; for you aresure of great success. " Wilson adopted the advice, studied andworked hard, and became our first great English landscape painter. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds, when a boy, forgot his lessons, and tookpleasure only in drawing, for which his father was accustomed torebuke him. The boy was destined for the profession of physic, buthis strong instinct for art could not be repressed, and he became apainter. Gainsborough went sketching, when a schoolboy, in thewoods of Sudbury; and at twelve he was a confirmed artist: he wasa keen observer and a hard worker, --no picturesque feature of anyscene he had once looked upon, escaping his diligent pencil. William Blake, a hosier's son, employed himself in drawing designson the backs of his father's shop-bills, and making sketches on thecounter. Edward Bird, when a child only three or four years old, would mount a chair and draw figures on the walls, which he calledFrench and English soldiers. A box of colours was purchased forhim, and his father, desirous of turning his love of art toaccount, put him apprentice to a maker of tea-trays! Out of thistrade he gradually raised himself, by study and labour, to the rankof a Royal Academician. 

Hogarth, though a very dull boy at his lessons, took pleasure inmaking drawings of the letters of the alphabet, and his schoolexercises were more remarkable for the ornaments with which heembellished them, than for the matter of the exercises themselves. In the latter respect he was beaten by all the blockheads of theschool, but in his adornments he stood alone. His father put himapprentice to a silversmith, where he learnt to draw, and also toengrave spoons and forks with crests and ciphers. From silver-chasing, he went on to teach himself engraving on copper, principally griffins and monsters of heraldry, in the course ofwhich practice he became ambitious to delineate the varieties ofhuman character. The singular excellence which he reached in thisart, was mainly the result of careful observation and study. Hehad the gift, which he sedulously cultivated, of committing tomemory the precise features of any remarkable face, and afterwardsreproducing them on paper; but if any singularly fantastic form oroutre face came in his way, he would make a sketch of it on thespot, upon his thumb-nail, and carry it home to expand at hisleisure. Everything fantastical and original had a powerfulattraction for him, and he wandered into many out-of-the-way placesfor the purpose of meeting with character. By this careful storingof his mind, he was afterwards enabled to crowd an immense amountof thought and treasured observation into his works. Hence it isthat Hogarth's pictures are so truthful a memorial of thecharacter, the manners, and even the very thoughts of the times inwhich he lived. True painting, he himself observed, can only belearnt in one school, and that is kept by Nature. But he was not ahighly cultivated man, except in his own walk. His schooleducation had been of the slenderest kind, scarcely even perfectinghim in the art of spelling; his self-culture did the rest. For along time he was in very straitened circumstances, but neverthelessworked on with a cheerful heart. Poor though he was, he contrivedto live within his small means, and he boasted, with becomingpride, that he was "a punctual paymaster. " When he had conqueredall his difficulties and become a famous and thriving man, he lovedto dwell upon his early labours and privations, and to fight overagain the battle which ended so honourably to him as a man and sogloriously as an artist. "I remember the time, " said he on oneoccasion, "when I have gone moping into the city with scarce ashilling, but as soon as I have received ten guineas there for aplate, I have returned home, put on my sword, and sallied out withall the confidence of a man who had thousands in his pockets. "

"Industry and perseverance" was the motto of the sculptor Banks, which he acted on himself, and strongly recommended to others. Hiswell-known kindness induced many aspiring youths to call upon himand ask for his advice and assistance; and it is related that oneday a boy called at his door to see him with this object, but theservant, angry at the loud knock he had given, scolded him, and wasabout sending him away, when Banks overhearing her, himself wentout. The little boy stood at the door with some drawings in hishand. "What do you want with me?" asked the sculptor. "I want, sir, if you please, to be admitted to draw at the Academy. " Banksexplained that he himself could not procure his admission, but heasked to look at the boy's drawings. Examining them, he said, "Time enough for the Academy, my little man! go home--mind yourschooling--try to make a better drawing of the Apollo--and in amonth come again and let me see it. " The boy went home--sketchedand worked with redoubled diligence--and, at the end of the month, called again on the sculptor. The drawing was better; but againBanks sent him back, with good advice, to work and study. In aweek the boy was again at his door, his drawing much improved; andBanks bid him be of good cheer, for if spared he would distinguishhimself. The boy was Mulready; and the sculptor's augury was amplyfulfilled. 

The fame of Claude Lorraine is partly explained by hisindefatigable industry. Born at Champagne, in Lorraine, of poorparents, he was first apprenticed to a pastrycook. His brother, who was a wood-carver, afterwards took him into his shop to learnthat trade. Having there shown indications of artistic skill, atravelling dealer persuaded the brother to allow Claude toaccompany him to Italy. He assented, and the young man reachedRome, where he was shortly after engaged by Agostino Tassi, thelandscape painter, as his house-servant. In that capacity Claudefirst learnt landscape painting, and in course of time he began toproduce pictures. We next find him making the tour of Italy, France, and Germany, occasionally resting by the way to paintlandscapes, and thereby replenish his purse. On returning to Romehe found an increasing demand for his works, and his reputation atlength became European. He was unwearied in the study of nature inher various aspects. It was his practice to spend a great part ofhis time in closely copying buildings, bits of ground, trees, leaves, and such like, which he finished in detail, keeping thedrawings by him in store for the purpose of introducing them in hisstudied landscapes. He also gave close attention to the sky, watching it for whole days from morning till night, and noting thevarious changes occasioned by the passing clouds and the increasingand waning light. By this constant practice he acquired, althoughit is said very slowly, such a mastery of hand and eye aseventually secured for him the first rank among landscape painters. 

Turner, who has been styled "the English Claude, " pursued a careerof like laborious industry. He was destined by his father for hisown trade of a barber, which he carried on in London, until one daythe sketch which the boy had made of a coat of arms on a silversalver having attracted the notice of a customer whom his fatherwas shaving, the latter was urged to allow his son to follow hisbias, and he was eventually permitted to follow art as aprofession. Like all young artists, Turner had many difficultiesto encounter, and they were all the greater that his circumstanceswere so straitened. But he was always willing to work, and to takepains with his work, no matter how humble it might be. He was gladto hire himself out at half-a-crown a night to wash in skies inIndian ink upon other people's drawings, getting his supper intothe bargain. Thus he earned money and acquired expertness. Thenhe took to illustrating guide-books, almanacs, and any sort ofbooks that wanted cheap frontispieces. "What could I have donebetter?" said he afterwards; "it was first-rate practice. " He dideverything carefully and conscientiously, never slurring over hiswork because he was ill-remunerated for it. He aimed at learningas well as living; always doing his best, and never leaving adrawing without having made a step in advance upon his previouswork. A man who thus laboured was sure to do much; and his growthin power and grasp of thought was, to use Ruskin's words, "assteady as the increasing light of sunrise. " But Turner's geniusneeds no panegyric; his best monument is the noble gallery ofpictures bequeathed by him to the nation, which will ever be themost lasting memorial of his fame. 

To reach Rome, the capital of the fine arts, is usually the highestambition of the art student. But the journey to Rome is costly, and the student is often poor. With a will resolute to overcomedifficulties, Rome may however at last be reached. Thus FrancoisPerrier, an early French painter, in his eager desire to visit theEternal City, consented to act as guide to a blind vagrant. Afterlong wanderings he reached the Vatican, studied and became famous. Not less enthusiasm was displayed by Jacques Callot in hisdetermination to visit Rome. Though opposed by his father in hiswish to be an artist, the boy would not be baulked, but fled fromhome to make his way to Italy. Having set out without means, hewas soon reduced to great straits; but falling in with a band ofgipsies, he joined their company, and wandered about with them fromone fair to another, sharing in their numerous adventures. Duringthis remarkable journey Callot picked up much of that extraordinaryknowledge of figure, feature, and character which he afterwardsreproduced, sometimes in such exaggerated forms, in his wonderfulengravings. 

When Callot at length reached Florence, a gentleman, pleased withhis ingenious ardour, placed him with an artist to study; but hewas not satisfied to stop short of Rome, and we find him shortly onhis way thither. At Rome he made the acquaintance of Porigi andThomassin, who, on seeing his crayon sketches, predicted for him abrilliant career as an artist. But a friend of Callot's familyhaving accidentally encountered him, took steps to compel thefugitive to return home. By this time he had acquired such a loveof wandering that he could not rest; so he ran away a second time, and a second time he was brought back by his elder brother, whocaught him at Turin. At last the father, seeing resistance was invain, gave his reluctant consent to Callot's prosecuting hisstudies at Rome. Thither he went accordingly; and this time heremained, diligently studying design and engraving for severalyears, under competent masters. On his way back to France, he wasencouraged by Cosmo II. To remain at Florence, where he studied andworked for several years more. On the death of his patron hereturned to his family at Nancy, where, by the use of his burin andneedle, he shortly acquired both wealth and fame. When Nancy wastaken by siege during the civil wars, Callot was requested byRichelieu to make a design and engraving of the event, but theartist would not commemorate the disaster which had befallen hisnative place, and he refused point-blank. Richelieu could notshake his resolution, and threw him into prison. There Callot metwith some of his old friends the gipsies, who had relieved hiswants on his first journey to Rome. When Louis XIII. Heard of hisimprisonment, he not only released him, but offered to grant himany favour he might ask. Callot immediately requested that his oldcompanions, the gipsies, might be set free and permitted to beg inParis without molestation. This odd request was granted oncondition that Callot should engrave their portraits, and hence hiscurious book of engravings entitled "The Beggars. " Louis is saidto have offered Callot a pension of 3000 livres provided he wouldnot leave Paris; but the artist was now too much of a Bohemian, andprized his liberty too highly to permit him to accept it; and hereturned to Nancy, where he worked till his death. His industrymay be inferred from the number of his engravings and etchings, ofwhich he left not fewer than 1600. He was especially fond ofgrotesque subjects, which he treated with great skill; his freeetchings, touched with the graver, being executed with especialdelicacy and wonderful minuteness. 

Still more romantic and adventurous was the career of BenvenutoCellini, the marvellous gold worker, painter, sculptor, engraver, engineer, and author. His life, as told by himself, is one of themost extraordinary autobiographies ever written. Giovanni Cellini, his father, was one of the Court musicians to Lorenzo de Medici atFlorence; and his highest ambition concerning his son Benvenuto wasthat he should become an expert player on the flute. But Giovannihaving lost his appointment, found it necessary to send his son tolearn some trade, and he was apprenticed to a goldsmith. The boyhad already displayed a love of drawing and of art; and, applyinghimself to his business, he soon became a dexterous workman. Having got mixed up in a quarrel with some of the townspeople, hewas banished for six months, during which period he worked with agoldsmith at Sienna, gaining further experience in jewellery andgold-working. 

His father still insisting on his becoming a flute-player, Benvenuto continued to practise on the instrument, though hedetested it. His chief pleasure was in art, which he pursued withenthusiasm. Returning to Florence, he carefully studied thedesigns of Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo; and, still furtherto improve himself in gold-working, he went on foot to Rome, wherehe met with a variety of adventures. He returned to Florence withthe reputation of being a most expert worker in the preciousmetals, and his skill was soon in great request. But being of anirascible temper, he was constantly getting into scrapes, and wasfrequently under the necessity of flying for his life. Thus hefled from Florence in the disguise of a friar, again taking refugeat Sienna, and afterwards at Rome. 

During his second residence in Rome, Cellini met with extensivepatronage, and he was taken into the Pope's service in the doublecapacity of goldsmith and musician. He was constantly studying andimproving himself by acquaintance with the works of the bestmasters. He mounted jewels, finished enamels, engraved seals, anddesigned and executed works in gold, silver, and bronze, in such astyle as to excel all other artists. Whenever he heard of agoldsmith who was famous in any particular branch, he immediatelydetermined to surpass him. Thus it was that he rivalled the medalsof one, the enamels of another, and the jewellery of a third; infact, there was not a branch of his business that he did not feelimpelled to excel in. 

Working in this spirit, it is not so wonderful that Cellini shouldhave been able to accomplish so much. He was a man ofindefatigable activity, and was constantly on the move. At onetime we find him at Florence, at another at Rome; then he is atMantua, at Rome, at Naples, and back to Florence again; then atVenice, and in Paris, making all his long journeys on horseback. He could not carry much luggage with him; so, wherever he went, heusually began by making his own tools. He not only designed hisworks, but executed them himself, --hammered and carved, and castand shaped them with his own hands. Indeed, his works have theimpress of genius so clearly stamped upon them, that they couldnever have been designed by one person, and executed by another. The humblest article--a buckle for a lady's girdle, a seal, alocket, a brooch, a ring, or a button--became in his hands abeautiful work of art. 

Cellini was remarkable for his readiness and dexterity inhandicraft. One day a surgeon entered the shop of Raffaello delMoro, the goldsmith, to perform an operation on his daughter'shand. On looking at the surgeon's instruments, Cellini, who waspresent, found them rude and clumsy, as they usually were in thosedays, and he asked the surgeon to proceed no further with theoperation for a quarter of an hour. He then ran to his shop, andtaking a piece of the finest steel, wrought out of it a beautifullyfinished knife, with which the operation was successfullyperformed. 

Among the statues executed by Cellini, the most important are thesilver figure of Jupiter, executed at Paris for Francis I. , and thePerseus, executed in bronze for the Grand Duke Cosmo of Florence. He also executed statues in marble of Apollo, Hyacinthus, Narcissus, and Neptune. The extraordinary incidents connected withthe casting of the Perseus were peculiarly illustrative of theremarkable character of the man. 

The Grand Duke having expressed a decided opinion that the model, when shown to him in wax, could not possibly be cast in bronze, Cellini was immediately stimulated by the predicted impossibility, not only to attempt, but to do it. He first made the clay model, baked it, and covered it with wax, which he shaped into the perfectform of a statue. Then coating the wax with a sort of earth, hebaked the second covering, during which the wax dissolved andescaped, leaving the space between the two layers for the receptionof the metal. To avoid disturbance, the latter process wasconducted in a pit dug immediately under the furnace, from whichthe liquid metal was to be introduced by pipes and apertures intothe mould prepared for it. 

Cellini had purchased and laid in several loads of pine-wood, inanticipation of the process of casting, which now began. Thefurnace was filled with pieces of brass and bronze, and the firewas lit. The resinous pine-wood was soon in such a furious blaze, that the shop took fire, and part of the roof was burnt; while atthe same time the wind blowing and the rain filling on the furnace, kept down the heat, and prevented the metals from melting. Forhours Cellini struggled to keep up the heat, continually throwingin more wood, until at length he became so exhausted and ill, thathe feared he should die before the statue could be cast. He wasforced to leave to his assistants the pouring in of the metal whenmelted, and betook himself to his bed. While those about him werecondoling with him in his distress, a workman suddenly entered theroom, lamenting that "Poor Benvenuto's work was irretrievablyspoiled!" On hearing this, Cellini immediately sprang from his bedand rushed to the workshop, where he found the fire so much gonedown that the metal had again become hard. 

Sending across to a neighbour for a load of young oak which hadbeen more than a year in drying, he soon had the fire blazing againand the metal melting and glittering. The wind was, however, stillblowing with fury, and the rain falling heavily; so, to protecthimself, Cellini had some tables with pieces of tapestry and oldclothes brought to him, behind which he went on hurling the woodinto the furnace. A mass of pewter was thrown in upon the othermetal, and by stirring, sometimes with iron and sometimes with longpoles, the whole soon became completely melted. At this juncture, when the trying moment was close at hand, a terrible noise as of athunderbolt was heard, and a glittering of fire flashed beforeCellini's eyes. The cover of the furnace had burst, and the metalbegan to flow! Finding that it did not run with the propervelocity, Cellini rushed into the kitchen, bore away every piece ofcopper and pewter that it contained--some two hundred porringers, dishes, and kettles of different kinds--and threw them into thefurnace. Then at length the metal flowed freely, and thus thesplendid statue of Perseus was cast. 

The divine fury of genius in which Cellini rushed to his kitchenand stripped it of its utensils for the purposes of his furnace, will remind the reader of the like act of Pallissy in breaking uphis furniture for the purpose of baking his earthenware. Excepting, however, in their enthusiasm, no two men could be lessalike in character. Cellini was an Ishmael against whom, accordingto his own account, every man's hand was turned. But about hisextraordinary skill as a workman, and his genius as an artist, there cannot be two opinions. 

Much less turbulent was the career of Nicolas Poussin, a man aspure and elevated in his ideas of art as he was in his daily life, and distinguished alike for his vigour of intellect, his rectitudeof character, and his noble simplicity. He was born in a veryhumble station, at Andeleys, near Rouen, where his father kept asmall school. The boy had the benefit of his parent's instruction, such as it was, but of that he is said to have been somewhatnegligent, preferring to spend his time in covering his lesson-books and his slate with drawings. A country painter, much pleasedwith his sketches, besought his parents not to thwart him in histastes. The painter agreed to give Poussin lessons, and he soonmade such progress that his master had nothing more to teach him. Becoming restless, and desirous of further improving himself, Poussin, at the age of 18, set out for Paris, painting signboardson his way for a maintenance. 

At Paris a new world of art opened before him, exciting his wonderand stimulating his emulation. He worked diligently in manystudios, drawing, copying, and painting pictures. After a time, heresolved, if possible, to visit Rome, and set out on his journey;but he only succeeded in getting as far as Florence, and againreturned to Paris. A second attempt which he made to reach Romewas even less successful; for this time he only got as far asLyons. He was, nevertheless, careful to take advantage of allopportunities for improvement which came in his way, and continuedas sedulous as before in studying and working. 

Thus twelve years passed, years of obscurity and toil, of failuresand disappointments, and probably of privations. At length Poussinsucceeded in reaching Rome. There he diligently studied the oldmasters, and especially the ancient statues, with whose perfectionhe was greatly impressed. For some time he lived with the sculptorDuquesnoi, as poor as himself, and assisted him in modellingfigures after the antique. With him he carefully measured some ofthe most celebrated statues in Rome, more particularly the'Antinous:' and it is supposed that this practice exercisedconsiderable influence on the formation of his future style. Atthe same time he studied anatomy, practised drawing from the life, and made a great store of sketches of postures and attitudes ofpeople whom he met, carefully reading at his leisure such standardbooks on art as he could borrow from his friends. 

During all this time he remained very poor, satisfied to becontinually improving himself. He was glad to sell his picturesfor whatever they would bring. One, of a prophet, he sold foreight livres; and another, the 'Plague of the Philistines, ' he soldfor 60 crowns--a picture afterwards bought by Cardinal de Richelieufor a thousand. To add to his troubles, he was stricken by a cruelmalady, during the helplessness occasioned by which the Chevalierdel Posso assisted him with money. For this gentleman Poussinafterwards painted the 'Rest in the Desert, ' a fine picture, whichfar more than repaid the advances made during his illness. 

The brave man went on toiling and learning through suffering. Still aiming at higher things, he went to Florence and Venice, enlarging the range of his studies. The fruits of hisconscientious labour at length appeared in the series of greatpictures which he now began to produce, --his 'Death of Germanicus, 'followed by 'Extreme Unction, ' the 'Testament of Eudamidas, ' the'Manna, ' and the 'Abduction of the Sabines. '

The reputation of Poussin, however, grew but slowly. He was of aretiring disposition and shunned society. People gave him creditfor being a thinker much more than a painter. When not actuallyemployed in painting, he took long solitary walks in the country, meditating the designs of future pictures. One of his few friendswhile at Rome was Claude Lorraine, with whom he spent many hours ata time on the terrace of La Trinite-du-Mont, conversing about artand antiquarianism. The monotony and the quiet of Rome were suitedto his taste, and, provided he could earn a moderate living by hisbrush, he had no wish to leave it. 

But his fame now extended beyond Rome, and repeated invitationswere sent him to return to Paris. He was offered the appointmentof principal painter to the King. At first he hesitated; quotedthe Italian proverb, Chi sta bene non si muove; said he had livedfifteen years in Rome, married a wife there, and looked forward todying and being buried there. Urged again, he consented, andreturned to Paris. But his appearance there awakened muchprofessional jealousy, and he soon wished himself back in Romeagain. While in Paris he painted some of his greatest works--his'Saint Xavier, ' the 'Baptism, ' and the 'Last Supper. ' He was keptconstantly at work. At first he did whatever he was asked to do, such as designing frontispieces for the royal books, moreparticularly a Bible and a Virgil, cartoons for the Louvre, anddesigns for tapestry; but at length he expostulated:- "It isimpossible for me, " he said to M. De Chanteloup, "to work at thesame time at frontispieces for books, at a Virgin, at a picture ofthe Congregation of St. Louis, at the various designs for thegallery, and, finally, at designs for the royal tapestry. I haveonly one pair of hands and a feeble head, and can neither be helpednor can my labours be lightened by another. "

Annoyed by the enemies his success had provoked and whom he wasunable to conciliate, he determined, at the end of less than twoyears' labour in Paris, to return to Rome. Again settled there inhis humble dwelling on Mont Pincio, he employed himself diligentlyin the practice of his art during the remaining years of his life, living in great simplicity and privacy. Though suffering much fromthe disease which afflicted him, he solaced himself by study, always striving after excellence. "In growing old, " he said, "Ifeel myself becoming more and more inflamed with the desire ofsurpassing myself and reaching the highest degree of perfection. "Thus toiling, struggling, and suffering, Poussin spent his lateryears. He had no children; his wife died before him; all hisfriends were gone: so that in his old age he was left absolutelyalone in Rome, so full of tombs, and died there in 1665, bequeathing to his relatives at Andeleys the savings of his life, amounting to about 1000 crowns; and leaving behind him, as a legacyto his race, the great works of his genius. 

The career of Ary Scheffer furnishes one of the best examples inmodern times of a like high-minded devotion to art. Born atDordrecht, the son of a German artist, he early manifested anaptitude for drawing and painting, which his parents encouraged. His father dying while he was still young, his mother resolved, though her means were but small, to remove the family to Paris, inorder that her son might obtain the best opportunities forinstruction. There young Scheffer was placed with Guerin thepainter. But his mother's means were too limited to permit him todevote himself exclusively to study. She had sold the few jewelsshe possessed, and refused herself every indulgence, in order toforward the instruction of her other children. Under suchcircumstances, it was natural that Ary should wish to help her; andby the time he was eighteen years of age he began to paint smallpictures of simple subjects, which met with a ready sale atmoderate prices. He also practised portrait painting, at the sametime gathering experience and earning honest money. He graduallyimproved in drawing, colouring, and composition. The 'Baptism'marked a new epoch in his career, and from that point he went onadvancing, until his fame culminated in his pictures illustrativeof 'Faust, ' his 'Francisca de Rimini, ' 'Christ the Consoler, ' the'Holy Women, ' 'St. Monica and St. Augustin, ' and many other nobleworks. 

"The amount of labour, thought, and attention, " says Mrs. Grote, "which Scheffer brought to the production of the 'Francisca, ' musthave been enormous. In truth, his technical education having beenso imperfect, he was forced to climb the steep of art by drawingupon his own resources, and thus, whilst his hand was at work, hismind was engaged in meditation. He had to try various processes ofhandling, and experiments in colouring; to paint and repaint, withtedious and unremitting assiduity. But Nature had endowed him withthat which proved in some sort an equivalent for shortcomings of aprofessional kind. His own elevation of character, and hisprofound sensibility, aided him in acting upon the feelings ofothers through the medium of the pencil. " {21}

One of the artists whom Scheffer most admired was Flaxman; and heonce said to a friend, "If I have unconsciously borrowed from anyone in the design of the 'Francisca, ' it must have been fromsomething I had seen among Flaxman's drawings. " John Flaxman wasthe son of a humble seller of plaster casts in New Street, CoventGarden. When a child, he was such an invalid that it was hiscustom to sit behind his father's shop counter propped by pillows, amusing himself with drawing and reading. A benevolent clergyman, the Rev. Mr. Matthews, calling at the shop one day, saw the boytrying to read a book, and on inquiring what it was, found it to bea Cornelius Nepos, which his father had picked up for a few penceat a bookstall. The gentleman, after some conversation with theboy, said that was not the proper book for him to read, but that hewould bring him one. The next day he called with translations ofHomer and 'Don Quixote, ' which the boy proceeded to read with greatavidity. His mind was soon filled with the heroism which breathedthrough the pages of the former, and, with the stucco Ajaxes andAchilleses about him, ranged along the shop shelves, the ambitiontook possession of him, that he too would design and embody inpoetic forms those majestic heroes. 

Like all youthful efforts, his first designs were crude. The proudfather one day showed some of them to Roubilliac the sculptor, whoturned from them with a contemptuous "pshaw!" But the boy had theright stuff in him; he had industry and patience; and he continuedto labour incessantly at his books and drawings. He then tried hisyoung powers in modelling figures in plaster of Paris, wax, andclay. Some of these early works are still preserved, not becauseof their merit, but because they are curious as the first healthyefforts of patient genius. It was long before the boy could walk, and he only learnt to do so by hobbling along upon crutches. Atlength he became strong enough to walk without them. 

The kind Mr. Matthews invited him to his house, where his wifeexplained Homer and Milton to him. They helped him also in hisself-culture--giving him lessons in Greek and Latin, the study ofwhich he prosecuted at home. By dint of patience and perseverance, his drawing improved so much that he obtained a commission from alady, to execute six original drawings in black chalk of subjectsin Homer. His first commission! What an event in the artist'slife! A surgeon's first fee, a lawyer's first retainer, alegislator's first speech, a singer's first appearance behind thefoot-lights, an author's first book, are not any of them more fullof interest to the aspirant for fame than the artist's firstcommission. The boy at once proceeded to execute the order, and hewas both well praised and well paid for his work. 

At fifteen Flaxman entered a pupil at the Royal Academy. Notwithstanding his retiring disposition, he soon became knownamong the students, and great things were expected of him. Norwere their expectations disappointed: in his fifteenth year hegained the silver prize, and next year he became a candidate forthe gold one. Everybody prophesied that he would carry off themedal, for there was none who surpassed him in ability andindustry. Yet he lost it, and the gold medal was adjudged to apupil who was not afterwards heard of. This failure on the part ofthe youth was really of service to him; for defeats do not longcast down the resolute-hearted, but only serve to call forth theirreal powers. "Give me time, " said he to his father, "and I willyet produce works that the Academy will be proud to recognise. " Heredoubled his efforts, spared no pains, designed and modelledincessantly, and made steady if not rapid progress. But meanwhilepoverty threatened his father's household; the plaster-cast tradeyielded a very bare living; and young Flaxman, with resolute self-denial, curtailed his hours of study, and devoted himself tohelping his father in the humble details of his business. He laidaside his Homer to take up the plaster-trowel. He was willing towork in the humblest department of the trade so that his father'sfamily might be supported, and the wolf kept from the door. Tothis drudgery of his art he served a long apprenticeship; but itdid him good. It familiarised him with steady work, and cultivatedin him the spirit of patience. The discipline may have been hard, but it was wholesome. 

Happily, young Flaxman's skill in design had reached the knowledgeof Josiah Wedgwood, who sought him out for the purpose of employinghim to design improved patterns of china and earthenware. It mayseem a humble department of art for such a genius as Flaxman towork in; but it really was not so. An artist may be labouringtruly in his vocation while designing a common teapot or water-jug. Articles in daily use amongst the people, which are before theireyes at every meal, may be made the vehicles of education to all, and minister to their highest culture. The most ambitious artistway thus confer a greater practical benefit on his countrymen thanby executing an elaborate work which he may sell for thousands ofpounds to be placed in some wealthy man's gallery where it ishidden away from public sight. Before Wedgwood's time the designswhich figured upon our china and stoneware were hideous both indrawing and execution, and he determined to improve both. Flaxmandid his best to carry out the manufacturer's views. He suppliedhim from time to time with models and designs of various pieces ofearthenware, the subjects of which were principally from ancientverse and history. Many of them are still in existence, and someare equal in beauty and simplicity to his after designs for marble. The celebrated Etruscan vases, specimens of which were to be foundin public museums and in the cabinets of the curious, furnished himwith the best examples of form, and these he embellished with hisown elegant devices. Stuart's 'Athens, ' then recently published, furnished him with specimens of the purest-shaped Greek utensils;of these he adopted the best, and worked them into new shapes ofelegance and beauty. Flaxman then saw that he was labouring in agreat work--no less than the promotion of popular education; and hewas proud, in after life, to allude to his early labours in thiswalk, by which he was enabled at the same time to cultivate hislove of the beautiful, to diffuse a taste for art among the people, and to replenish his own purse, while he promoted the prosperity ofhis friend and benefactor. 

At length, in the year 1782, when twenty-seven years of age, hequitted his father's roof and rented a small house and studio inWardour Street, Soho; and what was more, he married--Ann Denman wasthe name of his wife--and a cheerful, bright-souled, noble womanshe was. He believed that in marrying her he should be able towork with an intenser spirit; for, like him, she had a taste forpoetry and art; and besides was an enthusiastic admirer of herhusband's genius. Yet when Sir Joshua Reynolds--himself abachelor--met Flaxman shortly after his marriage, he said to him, "So, Flaxman, I am told you are married; if so, sir, I tell you youare ruined for an artist. " Flaxman went straight home, sat downbeside his wife, took her hand in his, and said, "Ann, I am ruinedfor an artist. " "How so, John? How has it happened? and who hasdone it?" "It happened, " he replied, "in the church, and AnnDenman has done it. " He then told her of Sir Joshua's remark--whose opinion was well known, and had often been expressed, that ifstudents would excel they must bring the whole powers of their mindto bear upon their art, from the moment they rose until they wentto bed; and also, that no man could be a GREAT artist unless hestudied the grand works of Raffaelle, Michael Angelo, and others, at Rome and Florence. "And I, " said Flaxman, drawing up his littlefigure to its full height, "_I_ would be a great artist. " "And agreat artist you shall be, " said his wife, "and visit Rome too, ifthat be really necessary to make you great. " "But how?" askedFlaxman. "WORK AND ECONOMISE, " rejoined the brave wife; "I willnever have it said that Ann Denman ruined John Flaxman for anartist. " And so it was determined by the pair that the journey toRome was to be made when their means would admit. "I will go toRome, " said Flaxman, "and show the President that wedlock is for aman's good rather than his harm; and you, Ann, shall accompany me. "

Patiently and happily the affectionate couple plodded on duringfive years in their humble little home in Wardour Street, alwayswith the long journey to Rome before them. It was never lost sightof for a moment, and not a penny was uselessly spent that could besaved towards the necessary expenses. They said no word to any oneabout their project; solicited no aid from the Academy; but trustedonly to their own patient labour and love to pursue and achievetheir object. During this time Flaxman exhibited very few works. He could not afford marble to experiment in original designs; buthe obtained frequent commissions for monuments, by the profits ofwhich he maintained himself. He still worked for Wedgwood, who wasa prompt paymaster; and, on the whole, he was thriving, happy, andhopeful. His local respectability was even such as to bring localhonours and local work upon him; for he was elected by theratepayers to collect the watch-rate for the Parish of St. Anne, when he might be seen going about with an ink-bottle suspended fromhis button-hole, collecting the money. 

At length Flaxman and his wife having accumulated a sufficientstore of savings, set out for Rome. Arrived there, he appliedhimself diligently to study, maintaining himself, like other poorartists, by making copies from the antique. English visitorssought his studio, and gave him commissions; and it was then thathe composed his beautiful designs illustrative of Homer, AEschylus, and Dante. The price paid for them was moderate--only fifteenshillings a-piece; but Flaxman worked for art as well as money; andthe beauty of the designs brought him other friends and patrons. He executed Cupid and Aurora for the munificent Thomas Hope, andthe Fury of Athamas for the Earl of Bristol. He then prepared toreturn to England, his taste improved and cultivated by carefulstudy; but before he left Italy, the Academies of Florence andCarrara recognised his merit by electing him a member. 

His fame had preceded him to London, where he soon found abundantemployment. While at Rome he had been commissioned to execute hisfamous monument in memory of Lord Mansfield, and it was erected inthe north transept of Westminster Abbey shortly after his return. It stands there in majestic grandeur, a monument to the genius ofFlaxman himself--calm, simple, and severe. No wonder that Banks, the sculptor, then in the heyday of his fame, exclaimed when he sawit, "This little man cuts us all out!"

When the members of the Royal Academy heard of Flaxman's return, and especially when they had an opportunity of seeing and admiringhis portrait-statue of Mansfield, they were eager to have himenrolled among their number. He allowed his name to be proposed inthe candidates' list of associates, and was immediately elected. Shortly after, he appeared in an entirely new character. Thelittle boy who had begun his studies behind the plaster-cast-seller's shop-counter in New Street, Covent Garden, was now a manof high intellect and recognised supremacy in art, to instructstudents, in the character of Professor of Sculpture to the RoyalAcademy! And no man better deserved to fill that distinguishedoffice; for none is so able to instruct others as he who, forhimself and by his own efforts, has learnt to grapple with andovercome difficulties. 

After a long, peaceful, and happy life, Flaxman found himselfgrowing old. The loss which he sustained by the death of hisaffectionate wife Ann, was a severe shock to him; but he survivedher several years, during which he executed his celebrated "Shieldof Achilles, " and his noble "Archangel Michael vanquishing Satan, "--perhaps his two greatest works. 

Chantrey was a more robust man;--somewhat rough, but hearty in hisdemeanour; proud of his successful struggle with the difficultieswhich beset him in early life; and, above all, proud of hisindependence. He was born a poor man's child, at Norton, nearSheffield. His father dying when he was a mere boy, his mothermarried again. Young Chantrey used to drive an ass laden withmilk-cans across its back into the neighbouring town of Sheffield, and there serve his mother's customers with milk. Such was thehumble beginning of his industrial career; and it was by his ownstrength that he rose from that position, and achieved the highesteminence as an artist. Not taking kindly to his step-father, theboy was sent to trade, and was first placed with a grocer inSheffield. The business was very distasteful to him; but, passinga carver's shop window one day, his eye was attracted by theglittering articles it contained, and, charmed with the idea ofbeing a carver, he begged to be released from the grocery businesswith that object. His friends consented, and he was boundapprentice to the carver and gilder for seven years. His newmaster, besides being a carver in wood, was also a dealer in printsand plaster models; and Chantrey at once set about imitating both, studying with great industry and energy. All his spare hours weredevoted to drawing, modelling, and self-improvement, and he oftencarried his labours far into the night. Before his apprenticeshipwas out--at the ace of twenty-one--he paid over to his master thewhole wealth which he was able to muster--a sum of 50l. --to cancelhis indentures, determined to devote himself to the career of anartist. He then made the best of his way to London, and withcharacteristic good sense, sought employment as an assistantcarver, studying painting and modelling at his bye-hours. Amongthe jobs on which he was first employed as a journeyman carver, wasthe decoration of the dining-room of Mr. Rogers, the poet--a roomin which he was in after years a welcome visitor; and he usuallytook pleasure in pointing out his early handywork to the guestswhom he met at his friend's table. 

Returning to Sheffield on a professional visit, he advertisedhimself in the local papers as a painter of portraits in crayonsand miniatures, and also in oil. For his first crayon portrait hewas paid a guinea by a cutler; and for a portrait in oil, aconfectioner paid him as much as 5l. And a pair of top boots!Chantrey was soon in London again to study at the Royal Academy;and next time he returned to Sheffield he advertised himself asready to model plaster busts of his townsmen, as well as paintportraits of them. He was even selected to design a monument to adeceased vicar of the town, and executed it to the generalsatisfaction. When in London he used a room over a stable as astudio, and there he modelled his first original work forexhibition. It was a gigantic head of Satan. Towards the close ofChantrey's life, a friend passing through his studio was struck bythis model lying in a corner. "That head, " said the sculptor, "wasthe first thing that I did after I came to London. I worked at itin a garret with a paper cap on my head; and as I could then affordonly one candle, I stuck that one in my cap that it might movealong with me, and give me light whichever way I turned. " Flaxmansaw and admired this head at the Academy Exhibition, andrecommended Chantrey for the execution of the busts of fouradmirals, required for the Naval Asylum at Greenwich. Thiscommission led to others, and painting was given up. But for eightyears before, he had not earned 5l. By his modelling. His famoushead of Horne Tooke was such a success that, according to his ownaccount, it brought him commissions amounting to 12, 000l. 

Chantrey had now succeeded, but he had worked hard, and fairlyearned his good fortune. He was selected from amongst sixteencompetitors to execute the statue of George III. For the city ofLondon. A few years later, he produced the exquisite monument ofthe Sleeping Children, now in Lichfield Cathedral, --a work of greattenderness and beauty; and thenceforward his career was one ofincreasing honour, fame, and prosperity. His patience, industry, and steady perseverance were the means by which he achieved hisgreatness. Nature endowed him with genius, and his sound senseenabled him to employ the precious gift as a blessing. He wasprudent and shrewd, like the men amongst whom he was born; thepocket-book which accompanied him on his Italian tour containingmingled notes on art, records of daily expenses, and the currentprices of marble. His tastes were simple, and he made his finestsubjects great by the mere force of simplicity. His statue ofWatt, in Handsworth church, seems to us the very consummation ofart; yet it is perfectly artless and simple. His generosity tobrother artists in need was splendid, but quiet and unostentatious. He left the principal part of his fortune to the Royal Academy forthe promotion of British art. 

The same honest and persistent industry was throughout distinctiveof the career of David Wilkie. The son of a Scotch minister, hegave early indications of an artistic turn; and though he was anegligent and inapt scholar, he was a sedulous drawer of faces andfigures. A silent boy, he already displayed that quietconcentrated energy of character which distinguished him throughlife. He was always on the look-out for an opportunity to draw, --and the walls of the manse, or the smooth sand by the river side, were alike convenient for his purpose. Any sort of tool wouldserve him; like Giotto, he found a pencil in a burnt stick, aprepared canvas in any smooth stone, and the subject for a picturein every ragged mendicant he met. When he visited a house, hegenerally left his mark on the walls as an indication of hispresence, sometimes to the disgust of cleanly housewives. Inshort, notwithstanding the aversion of his father, the minister, tothe "sinful" profession of painting, Wilkie's strong propensity wasnot to be thwarted, and he became an artist, working his waymanfully up the steep of difficulty. Though rejected on his firstapplication as a candidate for admission to the Scottish Academy, at Edinburgh, on account of the rudeness and inaccuracy of hisintroductory specimens, he persevered in producing better, until hewas admitted. But his progress was slow. He applied himselfdiligently to the drawing of the human figure, and held on with thedetermination to succeed, as if with a resolute confidence in theresult. He displayed none of the eccentric humour and fitfulapplication of many youths who conceive themselves geniuses, butkept up the routine of steady application to such an extent that hehimself was afterwards accustomed to attribute his success to hisdogged perseverance rather than to any higher innate power. "Thesingle element, " he said, "in all the progressive movements of mypencil was persevering industry. " At Edinburgh he gained a fewpremiums, thought of turning his attention to portrait painting, with a view to its higher and more certain remuneration, buteventually went boldly into the line in which he earned his fame, --and painted his Pitlessie Fair. What was bolder still, hedetermined to proceed to London, on account of its presenting somuch wider a field for study and work; and the poor Scotch ladarrived in town, and painted his Village Politicians while livingin a humble lodging on eighteen shillings a week. 

Notwithstanding the success of this picture, and the commissionswhich followed it, Wilkie long continued poor. The prices whichhis works realized were not great, for he bestowed upon them somuch time and labour, that his earnings continued comparativelysmall for many years. Every picture was carefully studied andelaborated beforehand; nothing was struck off at a heat; manyoccupied him for years--touching, retouching, and improving themuntil they finally passed out of his hands. As with Reynolds, hismotto was "Work! work! work!" and, like him, he expressed greatdislike for talking artists. Talkers may sow, but the silent reap. "Let us be DOING something, " was his oblique mode of rebuking theloquacious and admonishing the idle. He once related to his friendConstable that when he studied at the Scottish Academy, Graham, themaster of it, was accustomed to say to the students, in the wordsof Reynolds, "If you have genius, industry will improve it; if youhave none, industry will supply its place. " "So, " said Wilkie, "Iwas determined to be very industrious, for I knew I had no genius. "He also told Constable that when Linnell and Burnett, his fellow-students in London, were talking about art, he always contrived toget as close to them as he could to hear all they said, "for, " saidhe, "they know a great deal, and I know very little. " This wassaid with perfect sincerity, for Wilkie was habitually modest. Oneof the first things that he did with the sum of thirty pounds whichhe obtained from Lord Mansfield for his Village Politicians, was tobuy a present--of bonnets, shawls, and dresses--for his mother andsister at home, though but little able to afford it at the time. Wilkie's early poverty had trained him in habits of strict economy, which were, however, consistent with a noble liberality, as appearsfrom sundry passages in the Autobiography of Abraham Raimbach theengraver. 

William Etty was another notable instance of unflagging industryand indomitable perseverance in art. His father was a ginger-breadand spicemaker at York, and his mother--a woman of considerableforce and originality of character--was the daughter of aropemaker. The boy early displayed a love of drawing, coveringwalls, floors, and tables with specimens of his skill; his firstcrayon being a farthing's worth of chalk, and this giving place toa piece of coal or a bit of charred stick. His mother, knowingnothing of art, put the boy apprentice to a trade--that of aprinter. But in his leisure hours he went on with the practice ofdrawing; and when his time was out he determined to follow hisbent--he would be a painter and nothing else. Fortunately hisuncle and elder brother were able and willing to help him on in hisnew career, and they provided him with the means of entering aspupil at the Royal Academy. We observe, from Leslie'sAutobiography, that Etty was looked upon by his fellow students asa worthy but dull, plodding person, who would never distinguishhimself. But he had in him the divine faculty of work, anddiligently plodded his way upward to eminence in the highest walksof art. 

Many artists have had to encounter privations which have triedtheir courage and endurance to the utmost before they succeeded. What number may have sunk under them we can never know. Martinencountered difficulties in the course of his career such asperhaps fall to the lot of few. More than once he found himself onthe verge of starvation while engaged on his first great picture. It is related of him that on one occasion he found himself reducedto his last shilling--a BRIGHT shilling--which he had kept becauseof its very brightness, but at length he found it necessary toexchange it for bread. He went to a baker's shop, bought a loaf, and was taking it away, when the baker snatched it from him, andtossed back the shilling to the starving painter. The brightshilling had failed him in his hour of need--it was a bad one!Returning to his lodgings, he rummaged his trunk for some remainingcrust to satisfy his hunger. Upheld throughout by the victoriouspower of enthusiasm, he pursued his design with unsubdued energy. He had the courage to work on and to wait; and when, a few daysafter, he found an opportunity to exhibit his picture, he was fromthat time famous. Like many other great artists, his life provesthat, in despite of outward circumstances, genius, aided byindustry, will be its own protector, and that fame, though shecomes late, will never ultimately refuse her favours to real merit

The most careful discipline and training after academic methodswill fail in making an artist, unless he himself take an activepart in the work. Like every highly cultivated man, he must bemainly self-educated. When Pugin, who was brought up in hisfather's office, had learnt all that he could learn of architectureaccording to the usual formulas, he still found that he had learnedbut little; and that he must begin at the beginning, and passthrough the discipline of labour. Young Pugin accordingly hiredhimself out as a common carpenter at Covent Garden Theatre--firstworking under the stage, then behind the flys, then upon the stageitself. He thus acquired a familiarity with work, and cultivatedan architectural taste, to which the diversity of the mechanicalemployment about a large operatic establishment is peculiarlyfavourable. When the theatre closed for the season, he worked asailing-ship between London and some of the French ports, carryingon at the same time a profitable trade. At every opportunity hewould land and make drawings of any old building, and especially ofany ecclesiastical structure which fell in his way. Afterwards hewould make special journeys to the Continent for the same purpose, and returned home laden with drawings. Thus he plodded andlaboured on, making sure of the excellence and distinction which heeventually achieved. 

A similar illustration of plodding industry in the same walk ispresented in the career of George Kemp, the architect of thebeautiful Scott Monument at Edinburgh. He was the son of a poorshepherd, who pursued his calling on the southern slope of thePentland Hills. Amidst that pastoral solitude the boy had noopportunity of enjoying the contemplation of works of art. Ithappened, however, that in his tenth year he was sent on a messageto Roslin, by the farmer for whom his father herded sheep, and thesight of the beautiful castle and chapel there seems to have made avivid and enduring impression on his mind. Probably to enable himto indulge his love of architectural construction, the boy besoughthis father to let him be a joiner; and he was accordingly putapprentice to a neighbouring village carpenter. Having served histime, he went to Galashiels to seek work. As he was plodding alongthe valley of the Tweed with his tools upon his back, a carriageovertook him near Elibank Tower; and the coachman, doubtless at thesuggestion of his master, who was seated inside, having asked theyouth how far he had to walk, and learning that he was on his wayto Galashiels, invited him to mount the box beside him, and thus toride thither. It turned out that the kindly gentleman inside wasno other than Sir Walter Scott, then travelling on his officialduty as Sheriff of Selkirkshire. Whilst working at Galashiels, Kemp had frequent opportunities of visiting Melrose, Dryburgh, andJedburgh Abbeys, which he studied carefully. Inspired by his loveof architecture, he worked his way as a carpenter over the greaterpart of the north of England, never omitting an opportunity ofinspecting and making sketches of any fine Gothic building. On oneoccasion, when working in Lancashire, he walked fifty miles toYork, spent a week in carefully examining the Minster, and returnedin like manner on foot. We next find him in Glasgow, where heremained four years, studying the fine cathedral there during hisspare time. He returned to England again, this time working hisway further south; studying Canterbury, Winchester, Tintern, andother well-known structures. In 1824 he formed the design oftravelling over Europe with the same object, supporting himself byhis trade. Reaching Boulogne, he proceeded by Abbeville andBeauvais to Paris, spending a few weeks making drawings and studiesat each place. His skill as a mechanic, and especially hisknowledge of mill-work, readily secured him employment wherever hewent; and he usually chose the site of his employment in theneighbourhood of some fine old Gothic structure, in studying whichhe occupied his leisure. After a year's working, travel, and studyabroad, he returned to Scotland. He continued his studies, andbecame a proficient in drawing and perspective: Melrose was hisfavourite ruin; and he produced several elaborate drawings of thebuilding, one of which, exhibiting it in a "restored" state, wasafterwards engraved. He also obtained employment as a modeller ofarchitectural designs; and made drawings for a work begun by anEdinburgh engraver, after the plan of Britton's 'CathedralAntiquities. ' This was a task congenial to his tastes, and helaboured at it with an enthusiasm which ensured its rapid advance;walking on foot for the purpose over half Scotland, and living asan ordinary mechanic, whilst executing drawings which would havedone credit to the best masters in the art. The projector of thework having died suddenly, the publication was however stopped, andKemp sought other employment. Few knew of the genius of this man--for he was exceedingly taciturn and habitually modest--when theCommittee of the Scott Monument offered a prize for the bestdesign. The competitors were numerous--including some of thegreatest names in classical architecture; but the designunanimously selected was that of George Kemp, who was working atKilwinning Abbey in Ayrshire, many miles off, when the letterreached him intimating the decision of the committee. Poor Kemp!Shortly after this event he met an untimely death, and did not liveto see the first result of his indefatigable industry and self-culture embodied in stone, --one of the most beautiful andappropriate memorials ever erected to literary genius. 

John Gibson was another artist full of a genuine enthusiasm andlove for his art, which placed him high above those sordidtemptations which urge meaner natures to make time the measure ofprofit. He was born at Gyffn, near Conway, in North Wales--the sonof a gardener. He early showed indications of his talent by thecarvings in wood which he made by means of a common pocket knife;and his father, noting the direction of his talent, sent him toLiverpool and bound him apprentice to a cabinet-maker and wood-carver. He rapidly improved at his trade, and some of his carvingswere much admired. He was thus naturally led to sculpture, andwhen eighteen years old he modelled a small figure of Time in wax, which attracted considerable notice. The Messrs. Franceys, sculptors, of Liverpool, having purchased the boy's indentures, took him as their apprentice for six years, during which his geniusdisplayed itself in many original works. From thence he proceededto London, and afterwards to Rome; and his fame became European. 

Robert Thorburn, the Royal Academician, like John Gibson, was bornof poor parents. His father was a shoe-maker at Dumfries. BesidesRobert there were two other sons; one of whom is a skilful carverin wood. One day a lady called at the shoemaker's and foundRobert, then a mere boy, engaged in drawing upon a stool whichserved him for a table. She examined his work, and observing hisabilities, interested herself in obtaining for him some employmentin drawing, and enlisted in his behalf the services of others whocould assist him in prosecuting the study of art. The boy wasdiligent, pains-taking, staid, and silent, mixing little with hiscompanions, and forming but few intimacies. About the year 1830, some gentlemen of the town provided him with the means ofproceeding to Edinburgh, where he was admitted a student at theScottish Academy. There he had the advantage of studying undercompetent masters, and the progress which he made was rapid. FromEdinburgh he removed to London, where, we understand, he had theadvantage of being introduced to notice under the patronage of theDuke of Buccleuch. We need scarcely say, however, that of whateveruse patronage may have been to Thorburn in giving him anintroduction to the best circles, patronage of no kind could havemade him the great artist that he unquestionably is, without nativegenius and diligent application. 

Noel Paton, the well-known painter, began his artistic career atDunfermline and Paisley, as a drawer of patterns for table-clothsand muslin embroidered by hand; meanwhile working diligently athigher subjects, including the drawing of the human figure. Hewas, like Turner, ready to turn his hand to any kind of work, andin 1840, when a mere youth, we find him engaged, among his otherlabours, in illustrating the 'Renfrewshire Annual. ' He worked hisway step by step, slowly yet surely; but he remained unknown untilthe exhibition of the prize cartoons painted for the houses ofParliament, when his picture of the Spirit of Religion (for whichhe obtained one of the first prizes) revealed him to the world as agenuine artist; and the works which he has since exhibited--such asthe 'Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania, ' 'Home, ' and 'The bluidyTryste'--have shown a steady advance in artistic power and culture. 

Another striking exemplification of perseverance and industry inthe cultivation of art in humble life is presented in the career ofJames Sharples, a working blacksmith at Blackburn. He was born atWakefield in Yorkshire, in 1825, one of a family of thirteenchildren. His father was a working ironfounder, and removed toBury to follow his business. The boys received no schooleducation, but were all sent to work as soon as they were able; andat about ten James was placed in a foundry, where he was employedfor about two years as smithy-boy. After that he was sent into theengine-shop where his father worked as engine-smith. The boy'semployment was to heat and carry rivets for the boiler-makers. Though his hours of labour were very long--often from six in themorning until eight at night--his father contrived to give him somelittle teaching after working hours; and it was thus that hepartially learned his letters. An incident occurred in the courseof his employment among the boiler-makers, which first awakened inhim the desire to learn drawing. He had occasionally been employedby the foreman to hold the chalked line with which he made thedesigns of boilers upon the floor of the workshop; and on suchoccasions the foreman was accustomed to hold the line, and directthe boy to make the necessary dimensions. James soon became soexpert at this as to be of considerable service to the foreman; andat his leisure hours at home his great delight was to practisedrawing designs of boilers upon his mother's floor. On oneoccasion, when a female relative was expected from Manchester topay the family a visit, and the house had been made as decent aspossible for her reception, the boy, on coming in from the foundryin the evening, began his usual operations upon the floor. He hadproceeded some way with his design of a large boiler in chalk, whenhis mother arrived with the visitor, and to her dismay found theboy unwashed and the floor chalked all over. The relative, however, professed to be pleased with the boy's industry, praisedhis design, and recommended his mother to provide "the littlesweep, " as she called him, with paper and pencils. 

Encouraged by his elder brother, he began to practise figure andlandscape drawing, making copies of lithographs, but as yet withoutany knowledge of the rules of perspective and the principles oflight and shade. He worked on, however, and gradually acquiredexpertness in copying. At sixteen, he entered the Bury Mechanic'sInstitution in order to attend the drawing class, taught by anamateur who followed the trade of a barber. There he had a lessona week during three months. The teacher recommended him to obtainfrom the library Burnet's 'Practical Treatise on Painting;' but ashe could not yet read with ease, he was under the necessity ofgetting his mother, and sometimes his elder brother, to readpassages from the book for him while he sat by and listened. Feeling hampered by his ignorance of the art of reading, and eagerto master the contents of Burnet's book, he ceased attending thedrawing class at the Institute after the first quarter, and devotedhimself to learning reading and writing at home. In this he soonsucceeded; and when he again entered the Institute and took out'Burnet' a second time, he was not only able to read it, but tomake written extracts for further use. So ardently did he studythe volume, that he used to rise at four o'clock in the morning toread it and copy out passages; after which he went to the foundryat six, worked until six and sometimes eight in the evening; andreturned home to enter with fresh zest upon the study of Burnet, which he continued often until a late hour. Parts of his nightswere also occupied in drawing and making copies of drawings. Onone of these--a copy of Leonardo da Vinci's "Last Supper"--he spentan entire night. He went to bed indeed, but his mind was soengrossed with the subject that he could not sleep, and rose againto resume his pencil. 

He next proceeded to try his hand at painting in oil, for whichpurpose he procured some canvas from a draper, stretched it on aframe, coated it over with white lead, and began painting on itwith colours bought from a house-painter. But his work proved atotal failure; for the canvas was rough and knotty, and the paintwould not dry. In his extremity he applied to his old teacher, thebarber, from whom he first learnt that prepared canvas was to behad, and that there were colours and varnishes made for the specialpurpose of oil-painting. As soon therefore, as his means wouldallow, he bought a small stock of the necessary articles and beganafresh, --his amateur master showing him how to paint; and the pupilsucceeded so well that he excelled the master's copy. His firstpicture was a copy from an engraving called "Sheep-shearing, " andwas afterwards sold by him for half-a-crown. Aided by a shillingGuide to Oil-painting, he went on working at his leisure hours, andgradually acquired a better knowledge of his materials. He madehis own easel and palette, palette-knife, and paint-chest; hebought his paint, brushes, and canvas, as he could raise the moneyby working over-time. This was the slender fund which his parentsconsented to allow him for the purpose; the burden of supporting avery large family precluding them from doing more. Often he wouldwalk to Manchester and back in the evenings to buy two or threeshillings' worth of paint and canvas, returning almost at midnight, after his eighteen miles' walk, sometimes wet through andcompletely exhausted, but borne up throughout by his inexhaustiblehope and invincible determination. The further progress of theself-taught artist is best narrated in his own words, ascommunicated by him in a letter to the author:-

"The next pictures I painted, " he says, "were a Landscape byMoonlight, a Fruitpiece, and one or two others; after which Iconceived the idea of painting 'The Forge. ' I had for some timethought about it, but had not attempted to embody the conception ina drawing. I now, however, made a sketch of the subject uponpaper, and then proceeded to paint it on canvas. The picturesimply represents the interior of a large workshop such as I havebeen accustomed to work in, although not of any particular shop. It is, therefore, to this extent, an original conception. Havingmade an outline of the subject, I found that, before I couldproceed with it successfully, a knowledge of anatomy wasindispensable to enable me accurately to delineate the muscles ofthe figures. My brother Peter came to my assistance at thisjuncture, and kindly purchased for me Flaxman's 'Anatomicalstudies, '--a work altogether beyond my means at the time, for itcost twenty-four shillings. This book I looked upon as a greattreasure, and I studied it laboriously, rising at three o'clock inthe morning to draw after it, and occasionally getting my brotherPeter to stand for me as a model at that untimely hour. Although Igradually improved myself by this practice, it was some time beforeI felt sufficient confidence to go on with my picture. I also felthampered by my want of knowledge of perspective, which Iendeavoured to remedy by carefully studying Brook Taylor's'Principles;' and shortly after I resumed my painting. Whileengaged in the study of perspective at home, I used to apply forand obtain leave to work at the heavier kinds of smith work at thefoundry, and for this reason--the time required for heating theheaviest iron work is so much longer than that required for heatingthe lighter, that it enabled me to secure a number of spare minutesin the course of the day, which I carefully employed in makingdiagrams in perspective upon the sheet iron casing in front of thehearth at which I worked. "

Thus assiduously working and studying, James Sharples steadilyadvanced in his knowledge of the principles of art, and acquiredgreater facility in its practice. Some eighteen months after theexpiry of his apprenticeship he painted a portrait of his father, which attracted considerable notice in the town; as also did thepicture of "The Forge, " which he finished soon after. His successin portrait-painting obtained for him a commission from the foremanof the shop to paint a family group, and Sharples executed it sowell that the foreman not only paid him the agreed price ofeighteen pounds, but thirty shillings to boot. While engaged onthis group he ceased to work at the foundry, and he had thoughts ofgiving up his trade altogether and devoting himself exclusively topainting. He proceeded to paint several pictures, amongst others ahead of Christ, an original conception, life-size, and a view ofBury; but not obtaining sufficient employment at portraits tooccupy his time, or give him the prospect of a steady income, hehad the good sense to resume his leather apron, and go on workingat his honest trade of a blacksmith; employing his leisure hours inengraving his picture of "The Forge, " since published. He wasinduced to commence the engraving by the following circumstance. AManchester picture-dealer, to whom he showed the painting, let dropthe observation, that in the hands of a skilful engraver it wouldmake a very good print. Sharples immediately conceived the idea ofengraving it himself, though altogether ignorant of the art. Thedifficulties which he encountered and successfully overcame incarrying out his project are thus described by himself:-

"I had seen an advertisement of a Sheffield steel-plate maker, giving a list of the prices at which he supplied plates of varioussizes, and, fixing upon one of suitable dimensions, I remitted theamount, together with a small additional sum for which I requestedhim to send me a few engraving tools. I could not specify thearticles wanted, for I did not then know anything about the processof engraving. However, there duly arrived with the plate three orfour gravers and an etching needle; the latter I spoiled before Iknew its use. While working at the plate, the Amalgamated Societyof Engineers offered a premium for the best design for anemblematical picture, for which I determined to compete, and I wasso fortunate as to win the prize. Shortly after this I removed toBlackburn, where I obtained employment at Messrs. Yates', engineers, as an engine-smith; and continued to employ my leisuretime in drawing, painting, and engraving, as before. With theengraving I made but very slow progress, owing to the difficultiesI experienced from not possessing proper tools. I then determinedto try to make some that would suit my purpose, and after severalfailures I succeeded in making many that I have used in the courseof my engraving. I was also greatly at a loss for want of a propermagnifying glass, and part of the plate was executed with no otherassistance of this sort than what my father's spectacles afforded, though I afterwards succeeded in obtaining a proper magnifier, which was of the utmost use to me. An incident occurred while Iwas engraving the plate, which had almost caused me to abandon italtogether. It sometimes happened that I was obliged to lay itaside for a considerable time, when other work pressed; and inorder to guard it against rust, I was accustomed to rub over thegraven parts with oil. But on examining the plate after one ofsuch intervals, I found that the oil had become a dark stickysubstance extremely difficult to get out. I tried to pick it outwith a needle, but found that it would almost take as much time asto engrave the parts afresh. I was in great despair at this, butat length hit upon the expedient of boiling it in water containingsoda, and afterwards rubbing the engraved parts with a tooth-brush;and to my delight found the plan succeeded perfectly. My greatestdifficulties now over, patience and perseverance were all that wereneeded to bring my labours to a successful issue. I had neitheradvice nor assistance from any one in finishing the plate. If, therefore, the work possess any merit, I can claim it as my own;and if in its accomplishment I have contributed to show what can bedone by persevering industry and determination, it is all thehonour I wish to lay claim to. "

It would be beside our purpose to enter upon any criticism of "TheForge" as an engraving; its merits having been already fullyrecognised by the art journals. The execution of the work occupiedSharples's leisure evening hours during a period of five years; andit was only when he took the plate to the printer that he for thefirst time saw an engraved plate produced by any other man. Tothis unvarnished picture of industry and genius, we add one othertrait, and it is a domestic one. "I have been married sevenyears, " says he, "and during that time my greatest pleasure, afterI have finished my daily labour at the foundry, has been to resumemy pencil or graver, frequently until a late hour of the evening, my wife meanwhile sitting by my side and reading to me from someinteresting book, "--a simple but beautiful testimony to thethorough common sense as well as the genuine right-heartedness ofthis most interesting and deserving workman. 

The same industry and application which we have found to benecessary in order to acquire excellence in painting and sculpture, are equally required in the sister art of music--the one being thepoetry of form and colour, the other of the sounds of nature. Handel was an indefatigable and constant worker; he was never castdown by defeat, but his energy seemed to increase the more thatadversity struck him. When a prey to his mortifications as aninsolvent debtor, he did not give way for a moment, but in one yearproduced his 'Saul, ' 'Israel, ' the music for Dryden's 'Ode, ' his'Twelve Grand Concertos, ' and the opera of 'Jupiter in Argos, 'among the finest of his works. As his biographer says of him, "Hebraved everything, and, by his unaided self, accomplished the workof twelve men. "

Haydn, speaking of his art, said, "It consists in taking up asubject and pursuing it. " "Work, " said Mozart, "is my chiefpleasure. " Beethoven's favourite maxim was, "The barriers are noterected which can say to aspiring talents and industry, 'Thus farand no farther. '" When Moscheles submitted his score of 'Fidelio'for the pianoforte to Beethoven, the latter found written at thebottom of the last page, "Finis, with God's help. " Beethovenimmediately wrote underneath, "O man! help thyself!" This was themotto of his artistic life. John Sebastian Bach said of himself, "I was industrious; whoever is equally sedulous, will be equallysuccessful. " But there is no doubt that Bach was born with apassion for music, which formed the mainspring of his industry, andwas the true secret of his success. When a mere youth, his elderbrother, wishing to turn his abilities in another direction, destroyed a collection of studies which the young Sebastian, beingdenied candles, had copied by moonlight; proving the strong naturalbent of the boy's genius. Of Meyerbeer, Bayle thus wrote fromMilan in 1820:- "He is a man of some talent, but no genius; helives solitary, working fifteen hours a day at music. " Yearspassed, and Meyerbeer's hard work fully brought out his genius, asdisplayed in his 'Roberto, ' 'Huguenots, ' 'Prophete, ' and otherworks, confessedly amongst the greatest operas which have beenproduced in modern times. 

Although musical composition is not an art in which Englishmen haveas yet greatly distinguished themselves, their energies having forthe most part taken other and more practical directions, we are notwithout native illustrations of the power of perseverance in thisspecial pursuit. Arne was an upholsterer's son, intended by hisfather for the legal profession; but his love of music was sogreat, that he could not be withheld from pursuing it. Whileengaged in an attorney's office, his means were very limited, but, to gratify his tastes, he was accustomed to borrow a livery and gointo the gallery of the Opera, then appropriated to domestics. Unknown to his father he made great progress with the violin, andthe first knowledge his father had of the circumstance was whenaccidentally calling at the house of a neighbouring gentleman, tohis surprise and consternation he found his son playing the leadinginstrument with a party of musicians. This incident decided thefate of Arne. His father offered no further opposition to hiswishes; and the world thereby lost a lawyer, but gained a musicianof much taste and delicacy of feeling, who added many valuableworks to our stores of English music. 

The career of the late William Jackson, author of 'The Deliveranceof Israel, ' an oratorio which has been successfully performed inthe principal towns of his native county of York, furnishes aninteresting illustration of the triumph of perseverance overdifficulties in the pursuit of musical science. He was the son ofa miller at Masham, a little town situated in the valley of theYore, in the north-west corner of Yorkshire. Musical taste seemsto have been hereditary in the family, for his father played thefife in the band of the Masham Volunteers, and was a singer in theparish choir. His grandfather also was leading singer and ringerat Masham Church; and one of the boy's earliest musical treats wasto be present at the bell pealing on Sunday mornings. During theservice, his wonder was still more excited by the organist'sperformance on the barrel-organ, the doors of which were thrownopen behind to let the sound fully into the church, by which thestops, pipes, barrels, staples, keyboard, and jacks, were fullyexposed, to the wonderment of the little boys sitting in thegallery behind, and to none more than our young musician. At eightyears of age he began to play upon his father's old fife, which, however, would not sound D; but his mother remedied the difficultyby buying for him a one-keyed flute; and shortly after, a gentlemanof the neighbourhood presented him with a flute with four silverkeys. As the boy made no progress with his "book learning, " beingfonder of cricket, fives, and boxing, than of his school lessons--the village schoolmaster giving him up as "a bad job"--his parentssent him off to a school at Pateley Bridge. While there he foundcongenial society in a club of village choral singers at BrighouseGate, and with them he learnt the sol-fa-ing gamut on the oldEnglish plan. He was thus well drilled in the reading of music, inwhich he soon became a proficient. His progress astonished theclub, and he returned home full of musical ambition. He now learntto play upon his father's old piano, but with little melodiousresult; and he became eager to possess a finger-organ, but had nomeans of procuring one. About this time, a neighbouring parishclerk had purchased, for an insignificant sum, a small disabledbarrel-organ, which had gone the circuit of the northern countieswith a show. The clerk tried to revive the tones of theinstrument, but failed; at last he bethought him that he would trythe skill of young Jackson, who had succeeded in making somealterations and improvements in the hand-organ of the parishchurch. He accordingly brought it to the lad's house in a donkeycart, and in a short time the instrument was repaired, and playedover its old tunes again, greatly to the owner's satisfaction. 

The thought now haunted the youth that he could make a barrel-organ, and he determined to do so. His father and he set to work, and though without practice in carpentering, yet, by dint of hardlabour and after many failures, they at last succeeded; and anorgan was constructed which played ten tunes very decently, and theinstrument was generally regarded as a marvel in the neighbourhood. Young Jackson was now frequently sent for to repair old churchorgans, and to put new music upon the barrels which he added tothem. All this he accomplished to the satisfaction of hisemployers, after which he proceeded with the construction of afour-stop finger-organ, adapting to it the keys of an oldharpsichord. This he learnt to play upon, --studying 'Callcott'sThorough Bass' in the evening, and working at his trade of a millerduring the day; occasionally also tramping about the country as a"cadger, " with an ass and a cart. During summer he worked in thefields, at turnip-time, hay-time, and harvest, but was neverwithout the solace of music in his leisure evening hours. He nexttried his hand at musical composition, and twelve of his anthemswere shown to the late Mr. Camidge, of York, as "the production ofa miller's lad of fourteen. " Mr. Camidge was pleased with them, marked the objectionable passages, and returned them with theencouraging remark, that they did the youth great credit, and thathe must "go on writing. "

A village band having been set on foot at Masham, young Jacksonjoined it, and was ultimately appointed leader. He played all theinstruments by turns, and thus acquired a considerable practicalknowledge of his art: he also composed numerous tunes for theband. A new finger-organ having been presented to the parishchurch, he was appointed the organist. He now gave up hisemployment as a journeyman miller, and commenced tallow-chandling, still employing his spare hours in the study of music. In 1839 hepublished his first anthem--'For joy let fertile valleys sing;' andin the following year he gained the first prize from theHuddersfield Glee Club, for his 'Sisters of the Lea. ' His otheranthem 'God be merciful to us, ' and the 103rd Psalm, written for adouble chorus and orchestra, are well known. In the midst of theseminor works, Jackson proceeded with the composition of hisoratorio, --'The Deliverance of Israel from Babylon. ' His practicewas, to jot down a sketch of the ideas as they presented themselvesto his mind, and to write them out in score in the evenings, afterhe had left his work in the candle-shop. His oratorio waspublished in parts, in the course of 1844-5, and he published thelast chorus on his twenty-ninth birthday. The work was exceedinglywell received, and has been frequently performed with much successin the northern towns. Mr. Jackson eventually settled as aprofessor of music at Bradford, where he contributed in no smalldegree to the cultivation of the musical taste of that town and itsneighbourhood. Some years since he had the honour of leading hisfine company of Bradford choral singers before Her Majesty atBuckingham Palace; on which occasion, as well as at the CrystalPalace, some choral pieces of his composition, were performed withgreat effect. {22}

Such is a brief outline of the career of a self-taught musician, whose life affords but another illustration of the power of self-help, and the force of courage and industry in enabling a man tosurmount and overcome early difficulties and obstructions of noordinary kind. 

CHAPTER VII--INDUSTRY AND THE PEERAGE

"He either fears his fate too much, Or his deserts are small, That dares not put it to the touch, To gain or lose it all. "--Marquis of Montrose. 

"He hath put down the mighty from their seats; and exalted them oflow degree. "--St. Luke. 

We have already referred to some illustrious Commoners raised fromhumble to elevated positions by the power of application andindustry; and we might point to even the Peerage itself asaffording equally instructive examples. One reason why the Peerageof England has succeeded so well in holding its own, arises fromthe fact that, unlike the peerages of other countries, it has beenfed, from time to time, by the best industrial blood of thecountry--the very "liver, heart, and brain of Britain. " Like thefabled Antaeus, it has been invigorated and refreshed by touchingits mother earth, and mingling with that most ancient order ofnobility--the working order. 

The blood of all men flows from equally remote sources; and thoughsome are unable to trace their line directly beyond theirgrandfathers, all are nevertheless justified in placing at the headof their pedigree the great progenitors of the race, as LordChesterfield did when he wrote, "ADAM de Stanhope--EVE deStanhope. " No class is ever long stationary. The mighty fall, andthe humble are exalted. New families take the place of the old, who disappear among the ranks of the common people. Burke's'Vicissitudes of Families' strikingly exhibit this rise and fall offamilies, and show that the misfortunes which overtake the rich andnoble are greater in proportion than those which overwhelm thepoor. This author points out that of the twenty-five baronsselected to enforce the observance of Magna Charta, there is notnow in the House of Peers a single male descendant. Civil wars andrebellions ruined many of the old nobility and dispersed theirfamilies. Yet their descendants in many cases survive, and are tobe found among the ranks of the people. Fuller wrote in his'Worthies, ' that "some who justly hold the surnames of Bohuns, Mortimers, and Plantagenets, are hid in the heap of common men. "Thus Burke shows that two of the lineal descendants of the Earl ofKent, sixth son of Edward I. , were discovered in a butcher and atoll-gatherer; that the great grandson of Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of the Duke of Clarance, sank to the condition of acobbler at Newport, in Shropshire; and that among the linealdescendants of the Duke of Gloucester, son of Edward III. , was thelate sexton of St George's, Hanover Square. It is understood thatthe lineal descendant of Simon de Montfort, England's premierbaron, is a saddler in Tooley Street. One of the descendants ofthe "Proud Percys, " a claimant of the title of Duke ofNorthumberland, was a Dublin trunk-maker; and not many years sinceone of the claimants for the title of Earl of Perth presentedhimself in the person of a labourer in a Northumberland coal-pit. Hugh Miller, when working as a stone-mason near Edinburgh, wasserved by a hodman, who was one of the numerous claimants for theearldom of Crauford--all that was wanted to establish his claimbeing a missing marriage certificate; and while the work was goingon, the cry resounded from the walls many times in the day, of--"John, Yearl Crauford, bring us anither hod o'lime. " One of OliverCromwell's great grandsons was a grocer on Snow Hill, and others ofhis descendants died in great poverty. Many barons of proud namesand titles have perished, like the sloth, upon their family tree, after eating up all the leaves; while others have been overtaken byadversities which they have been unable to retrieve, and sunk atlast into poverty and obscurity. Such are the mutabilities of rankand fortune. 

The great bulk of our peerage is comparatively modern, so far asthe titles go; but it is not the less noble that it has beenrecruited to so large an extent from the ranks of honourableindustry. In olden times, the wealth and commerce of London, conducted as it was by energetic and enterprising men, was aprolific source of peerages. Thus, the earldom of Cornwallis wasfounded by Thomas Cornwallis, the Cheapside merchant; that of Essexby William Capel, the draper; and that of Craven by William Craven, the merchant tailor. The modern Earl of Warwick is not descendedfrom the "King-maker, " but from William Greville, the woolstapler;whilst the modern dukes of Northumberland find their head, not inthe Percies, but in Hugh Smithson, a respectable London apothecary. The founders of the families of Dartmouth, Radnor, Ducie, andPomfret, were respectively a skinner, a silk manufacturer, amerchant tailor, and a Calais merchant; whilst the founders of thepeerages of Tankerville, Dormer, and Coventry, were mercers. Theancestors of Earl Romney, and Lord Dudley and Ward, were goldsmithsand jewellers; and Lord Dacres was a banker in the reign of CharlesI. , as Lord Overstone is in that of Queen Victoria. EdwardOsborne, the founder of the Dukedom of Leeds, was apprentice toWilliam Hewet, a rich clothworker on London Bridge, whose onlydaughter he courageously rescued from drowning, by leaping into theThames after her, and eventually married. Among other peeragesfounded by trade are those of Fitzwilliam, Leigh, Petre, Cowper, Darnley, Hill, and Carrington. The founders of the houses of Foleyand Normanby were remarkable men in many respects, and, asfurnishing striking examples of energy of character, the story oftheir lives is worthy of preservation. 

The father of Richard Foley, the founder of the family, was a smallyeoman living in the neighbourhood of Stourbridge in the time ofCharles I. That place was then the centre of the iron manufactureof the midland districts, and Richard was brought up to work at oneof the branches of the trade--that of nail-making. He was thus adaily observer of the great labour and loss of time caused by theclumsy process then adopted for dividing the rods of iron in themanufacture of nails. It appeared that the Stourbridge nailerswere gradually losing their trade in consequence of the importationof nails from Sweden, by which they were undersold in the market. It became known that the Swedes were enabled to make their nails somuch cheaper, by the use of splitting mills and machinery, whichhad completely superseded the laborious process of preparing therods for nail-making then practised in England. 

Richard Foley, having ascertained this much, determined to makehimself master of the new process. He suddenly disappeared fromthe neighbourhood of Stourbridge, and was not heard of for severalyears. No one knew whither he had gone, not even his own family;for he had not informed them of his intention, lest he should fail. He had little or no money in his pocket, but contrived to get toHull, where he engaged himself on board a ship bound for a Swedishport, and worked his passage there. The only article of propertywhich he possessed was his fiddle, and on landing in Sweden hebegged and fiddled his way to the Dannemora mines, near Upsala. Hewas a capital musician, as well as a pleasant fellow, and sooningratiated himself with the iron-workers. He was received intothe works, to every part of which he had access; and he seized theopportunity thus afforded him of storing his mind withobservations, and mastering, as he thought, the mechanism of ironsplitting. After a continued stay for this purpose, he suddenlydisappeared from amongst his kind friends the miners--no one knewwhither. 

Returned to England, he communicated the results of his voyage toMr. Knight and another person at Stourbridge, who had sufficientconfidence in him to advance the requisite funds for the purpose oferecting buildings and machinery for splitting iron by the newprocess. But when set to work, to the great vexation anddisappointment of all, and especially of Richard Foley, it wasfound that the machinery would not act--at all events it would notsplit the bars of iron. Again Foley disappeared. It was thoughtthat shame and mortification at his failure had driven him away forever. Not so! Foley had determined to master this secret of iron-splitting, and he would yet do it. He had again set out forSweden, accompanied by his fiddle as before, and found his way tothe iron works, where he was joyfully welcomed by the miners; and, to make sure of their fiddler, they this time lodged him in thevery splitting-mill itself. There was such an apparent absence ofintelligence about the man, except in fiddle-playing, that theminers entertained no suspicions as to the object of theirminstrel, whom they thus enabled to attain the very end and aim ofhis life. He now carefully examined the works, and soon discoveredthe cause of his failure. He made drawings or tracings of themachinery as well as he could, though this was a branch of artquite new to him; and after remaining at the place long enough toenable him to verify his observations, and to impress themechanical arrangements clearly and vividly on his mind, he againleft the miners, reached a Swedish port, and took ship for England. A man of such purpose could not but succeed. Arrived amongst hissurprised friends, he now completed his arrangements, and theresults were entirely successful. By his skill and his industry hesoon laid the foundations of a large fortune, at the same time thathe restored the business of an extensive district. He himselfcontinued, during his life, to carry on his trade, aiding andencouraging all works of benevolence in his neighbourhood. Hefounded and endowed a school at Stourbridge; and his son Thomas (agreat benefactor of Kidderminster), who was High Sheriff ofWorcestershire in the time of "The Rump, " founded and endowed anhospital, still in existence, for the free education of children atOld Swinford. All the early Foleys were Puritans. Richard Baxterseems to have been on familiar and intimate terms with variousmembers of the family, and makes frequent mention of them in his'Life and Times. ' Thomas Foley, when appointed high sheriff of thecounty, requested Baxter to preach the customary sermon before him;and Baxter in his 'Life' speaks of him as "of so just and blamelessdealing, that all men he ever had to do with magnified his greatintegrity and honesty, which were questioned by none. " The familywas ennobled in the reign of Charles the Second. 

William Phipps, the founder of the Mulgrave or Normanby family, wasa man quite as remarkable in his way as Richard Foley. His fatherwas a gunsmith--a robust Englishman settled at Woolwich, in Maine, then forming part of our English colonies in America. He was bornin 1651, one of a family of not fewer than twenty-six children (ofwhom twenty-one were sons), whose only fortune lay in their stouthearts and strong arms. William seems to have had a dash of theDanish-sea blood in his veins, and did not take kindly to the quietlife of a shepherd in which he spent his early years. By naturebold and adventurous, he longed to become a sailor and roam throughthe world. He sought to join some ship; but not being able to findone, he apprenticed himself to a shipbuilder, with whom hethoroughly learnt his trade, acquiring the arts of reading andwriting during his leisure hours. Having completed hisapprenticeship and removed to Boston, he wooed and married a widowof some means, after which he set up a little shipbuilding yard ofhis own, built a ship, and, putting to sea in her, he engaged inthe lumber trade, which he carried on in a plodding and laboriousway for the space of about ten years. 

It happened that one day, whilst passing through the crookedstreets of old Boston, he overheard some sailors talking to eachother of a wreck which had just taken place off the Bahamas; thatof a Spanish ship, supposed to have much money on board. Hisadventurous spirit was at once kindled, and getting together alikely crew without loss of time, he set sail for the Bahamas. Thewreck being well in-shore, he easily found it, and succeeded inrecovering a great deal of its cargo, but very little money; andthe result was, that he barely defrayed his expenses. His successhad been such, however, as to stimulate his enterprising spirit;and when he was told of another and far more richly laden vesselwhich had been wrecked near Port de la Plata more than half acentury before, he forthwith formed the resolution of raising thewreck, or at all events of fishing up the treasure. 

Being too poor, however, to undertake such an enterprise withoutpowerful help, he set sail for England in the hope that he mightthere obtain it. The fame of his success in raising the wreck offthe Bahamas had already preceded him. He applied direct to theGovernment. By his urgent enthusiasm, he succeeded in overcomingthe usual inertia of official minds; and Charles II. Eventuallyplaced at his disposal the "Rose Algier, " a ship of eighteen gunsand ninety-five men, appointing him to the chief command. 

Phipps then set sail to find the Spanish ship and fish up thetreasure. He reached the coast of Hispaniola in safety; but how tofind the sunken ship was the great difficulty. The fact of thewreck was more than fifty years old; and Phipps had only thetraditionary rumours of the event to work upon. There was a widecoast to explore, and an outspread ocean without any trace whateverof the argosy which lay somewhere at its bottom. But the man wasstout in heart and full of hope. He set his seamen to work to dragalong the coast, and for weeks they went on fishing up sea-weed, shingle, and bits of rock. No occupation could be more trying toseamen, and they began to grumble one to another, and to whisperthat the man in command had brought them on a fool's errand. 

At length the murmurers gained head, and the men broke into openmutiny. A body of them rushed one day on to the quarter-deck, anddemanded that the voyage should be relinquished. Phipps, however, was not a man to be intimidated; he seized the ringleaders, andsent the others back to their duty. It became necessary to bringthe ship to anchor close to a small island for the purpose ofrepairs; and, to lighten her, the chief part of the stores waslanded. Discontent still increasing amongst the crew, a new plotwas laid amongst the men on shore to seize the ship, throw Phippsoverboard, and start on a piratical cruize against the Spaniards inthe South Seas. But it was necessary to secure the services of thechief ship carpenter, who was consequently made privy to the pilot. This man proved faithful, and at once told the captain of hisdanger. Summoning about him those whom he knew to be loyal, Phippshad the ship's guns loaded which commanded the shore, and orderedthe bridge communicating with the vessel to be drawn up. When themutineers made their appearance, the captain hailed them, and toldthe men he would fire upon them if they approached the stores(still on land), --when they drew back; on which Phipps had thestores reshipped under cover of his guns. The mutineers, fearfulof being left upon the barren island, threw down their arms andimplored to be permitted to return to their duty. The request wasgranted, and suitable precautions were taken against futuremischief. Phipps, however, took the first opportunity of landingthe mutinous part of the crew, and engaging other men in theirplaces; but, by the time that he could again proceed actively withhis explorations, he found it absolutely necessary to proceed toEngland for the purpose of repairing the ship. He had now, however, gained more precise information as to the spot where theSpanish treasure ship had sunk; and, though as yet baffled, he wasmore confident than ever of the eventual success of his enterprise. 

Returned to London, Phipps reported the result of his voyage to theAdmiralty, who professed to be pleased with his exertions; but hehad been unsuccessful, and they would not entrust him with anotherking's ship. James II. Was now on the throne, and the Governmentwas in trouble; so Phipps and his golden project appealed to themin vain. He next tried to raise the requisite means by a publicsubscription. At first he was laughed at; but his ceaselessimportunity at length prevailed, and after four years' dinning ofhis project into the ears of the great and influential--duringwhich time he lived in poverty--he at length succeeded. A companywas formed in twenty shares, the Duke of Albermarle, son of GeneralMonk, taking the chief interest in it, and subscribing theprincipal part of the necessary fund for the prosecution of theenterprise. 

Like Foley, Phipps proved more fortunate in his second voyage thanin his first. The ship arrived without accident at Port de laPlata, in the neighbourhood of the reef of rocks supposed to havebeen the scene of the wreck. His first object was to build a stoutboat capable of carrying eight or ten oars, in constructing whichPhipps used the adze himself. It is also said that he constructeda machine for the purpose of exploring the bottom of the seasimilar to what is now known as the Diving Bell. Such a machinewas found referred to in books, but Phipps knew little of books, and may be said to have re-invented the apparatus for his own use. He also engaged Indian divers, whose feats of diving for pearls, and in submarine operations, were very remarkable. The tender andboat having been taken to the reef, the men were set to work, thediving bell was sunk, and the various modes of dragging the bottomof the sea were employed continuously for many weeks, but withoutany prospect of success. Phipps, however, held on valiantly, hoping almost against hope. At length, one day, a sailor, lookingover the boat's side down into the clear water, observed a curioussea-plant growing in what appeared to be a crevice of the rock; andhe called upon an Indian diver to go down and fetch it for him. Onthe red man coming up with the weed, he reported that a number ofships guns were lying in the same place. The intelligence was atfirst received with incredulity, but on further investigation itproved to be correct. Search was made, and presently a diver cameup with a solid bar of silver in his arms. When Phipps was shownit, he exclaimed, "Thanks be to God! we are all made men. " Divingbell and divers now went to work with a will, and in a few days, treasure was brought up to the value of about 300, 000 pounds, withwhich Phipps set sail for England. On his arrival, it was urgedupon the king that he should seize the ship and its cargo, underthe pretence that Phipps, when soliciting his Majesty's permission, had not given accurate information respecting the business. Butthe king replied, that he knew Phipps to be an honest man, and thathe and his friends should divide the whole treasure amongst them, even though he had returned with double the value. Phipps's sharewas about 20, 000 pounds, and the king, to show his approval of hisenergy and honesty in conducting the enterprise, conferred upon himthe honour of knighthood. He was also made High Sheriff of NewEngland; and during the time he held the office, he did valiantservice for the mother country and the colonists against theFrench, by expeditions against Port Royal and Quebec. He also heldthe post of Governor of Massachusetts, from which he returned toEngland, and died in London in 1695. 

Phipps throughout the latter part of his career, was not ashamed toallude to the lowness of his origin, and it was matter of honestpride to him that he had risen from the condition of common shipcarpenter to the honours of knighthood and the government of aprovince. When perplexed with public business, he would oftendeclare that it would be easier for him to go back to his broad axeagain. He left behind him a character for probity, honesty, patriotism, and courage, which is certainly not the least nobleinheritance of the house of Normanby. 

William Petty, the founder of the house of Lansdowne, was a man oflike energy and public usefulness in his day. He was the son of aclothier in humble circumstances, at Romsey, in Hampshire, where hewas born in 1623. In his boyhood he obtained a tolerable educationat the grammar school of his native town; after which he determinedto improve himself by study at the University of Caen, in Normandy. Whilst there he contrived to support himself unassisted by hisfather, carrying on a sort of small pedler's trade with "a littlestock of merchandise. " Returning to England, he had himself boundapprentice to a sea captain, who "drubbed him with a rope's end"for the badness of his sight. He left the navy in disgust, takingto the study of medicine. When at Paris he engaged in dissection, during which time he also drew diagrams for Hobbes, who was thenwriting his treatise on Optics. He was reduced to such povertythat he subsisted for two or three weeks entirely on walnuts. Butagain he began to trade in a small way, turning an honest penny, and he was enabled shortly to return to England with money in hispocket. Being of an ingenious mechanical turn, we find him takingout a patent for a letter-copying machine. He began to write uponthe arts and sciences, and practised chemistry and physic with suchsuccess that his reputation shortly became considerable. Associating with men of science, the project of forming a Societyfor its prosecution was discussed, and the first meetings of theinfant Royal Society were held at his lodgings. At Oxford he actedfor a time as deputy to the anatomical professor there, who had agreat repugnance to dissection. In 1652 his industry was rewardedby the appointment of physician to the army in Ireland, whither hewent; and whilst there he was the medical attendant of threesuccessive lords-lieutenant, Lambert, Fleetwood, and HenryCromwell. Large grants of forfeited land having been awarded tothe Puritan soldiery, Petty observed that the lands were veryinaccurately measured; and in the midst of his many avocations heundertook to do the work himself. His appointments became sonumerous and lucrative that he was charged by the envious withcorruption, and removed from them all; but he was again taken intofavour at the Restoration. 

Petty was a most indefatigable contriver, inventor, and organizerof industry. One of his inventions was a double-bottomed ship, tosail against wind and tide. He published treatises on dyeing, onnaval philosophy, on woollen cloth manufacture, on politicalarithmetic, and many other subjects. He founded iron works, openedlead mines, and commenced a pilchard fishery and a timber trade; inthe midst of which he found time to take part in the discussions ofthe Royal Society, to which he largely contributed. He left anample fortune to his sons, the eldest of whom was created BaronShelburne. His will was a curious document, singularlyillustrative of his character; containing a detail of the principalevents of his life, and the gradual advancement of his fortune. His sentiments on pauperism are characteristic: "As for legaciesfor the poor, " said he, "I am at a stand; as for beggars by tradeand election, I give them nothing; as for impotents by the hand ofGod, the public ought to maintain them; as for those who have beenbred to no calling nor estate, they should be put upon theirkindred;" . . . "wherefore I am contented that I have assisted allmy poor relations, and put many into a way of getting their ownbread; have laboured in public works; and by inventions have soughtout real objects of charity; and I do hereby conjure all whopartake of my estate, from time to time, to do the same at theirperil. Nevertheless to answer custom, and to take the surer side, I give 20l. To the most wanting of the parish wherein I die. " Hewas interred in the fine old Norman church of Romsey--the townwherein he was born a poor man's son--and on the south side of thechoir is still to be seen a plain slab, with the inscription, cutby an illiterate workman, "Here Layes Sir William Petty. "

Another family, ennobled by invention and trade in our own day, isthat of Strutt of Belper. Their patent of nobility was virtuallysecured by Jedediah Strutt in 1758, when he invented his machinefor making ribbed stockings, and thereby laid the foundations of afortune which the subsequent bearers of the name have largelyincreased and nobly employed. The father of Jedediah was a farmerand malster, who did but little for the education of his children;yet they all prospered. Jedediah was the second son, and when aboy assisted his father in the work of the farm. At an early agehe exhibited a taste for mechanics, and introduced severalimprovements in the rude agricultural implements of the period. Onthe death of his uncle he succeeded to a farm at Blackwall, nearNormanton, long in the tenancy of the family, and shortly after hemarried Miss Wollatt, the daughter of a Derby hosier. Havinglearned from his wife's brother that various unsuccessful attemptshad been made to manufacture ribbed-stockings, he proceeded tostudy the subject with a view to effect what others had failed inaccomplishing. He accordingly obtained a stocking-frame, and aftermastering its construction and mode of action, he proceeded tointroduce new combinations, by means of which he succeeded ineffecting a variation in the plain looped-work of the frame, andwas thereby enabled to turn out "ribbed" hosiery. Having secured apatent for the improved machine, he removed to Derby, and thereentered largely on the manufacture of ribbed-stockings, in which hewas very successful. He afterwards joined Arkwright, of the meritsof whose invention he fully satisfied himself, and found the meansof securing his patent, as well as erecting a large cotton-mill atCranford, in Derbyshire. After the expiry of the partnership withArkwright, the Strutts erected extensive cotton-mills at Milford, near Belper, which worthily gives its title to the present head ofthe family. The sons of the founder were, like their father, distinguished for their mechanical ability. Thus William Strutt, the eldest, is said to have invented a self-acting mule, thesuccess of which was only prevented by the mechanical skill of thatday being unequal to its manufacture. Edward, the son of William, was a man of eminent mechanical genius, having early discovered theprinciple of suspension-wheels for carriages: he had a wheelbarrowand two carts made on the principle, which were used on his farmnear Belper. It may be added that the Strutts have throughout beendistinguished for their noble employment of the wealth which theirindustry and skill have brought them; that they have sought in allways to improve the moral and social condition of the work-peoplein their employment; and that they have been liberal donors inevery good cause--of which the presentation, by Mr. Joseph Strutt, of the beautiful park or Arboretum at Derby, as a gift to thetownspeople for ever, affords only one of many illustrations. Theconcluding words of the short address which he delivered onpresenting this valuable gift are worthy of being quoted andremembered:- "As the sun has shone brightly on me through life, itwould be ungrateful in me not to employ a portion of the fortune Ipossess in promoting the welfare of those amongst whom I live, andby whose industry I have been aided in its organisation. "

No less industry and energy have been displayed by the many bravemen, both in present and past times, who have earned the peerage bytheir valour on land and at sea. Not to mention the older feudallords, whose tenure depended upon military service, and who sooften led the van of the English armies in great nationalencounters, we may point to Nelson, St. Vincent, and Lyons--toWellington, Hill, Hardinge, Clyde, and many more in recent times, who have nobly earned their rank by their distinguished services. But plodding industry has far oftener worked its way to the peerageby the honourable pursuit of the legal profession, than by anyother. No fewer than seventy British peerages, including twodukedoms, have been founded by successful lawyers. Mansfield andErskine were, it is true, of noble family; but the latter used tothank God that out of his own family he did not know a lord. {23}The others were, for the most part, the sons of attorneys, grocers, clergymen, merchants, and hardworking members of the middle class. Out of this profession have sprung the peerages of Howard andCavendish, the first peers of both families having been judges;those of Aylesford, Ellenborough, Guildford, Shaftesbury, Hardwicke, Cardigan, Clarendon, Camden, Ellesmere, Rosslyn; andothers nearer our own day, such as Tenterden, Eldon, Brougham, Denman, Truro, Lyndhurst, St. Leonards, Cranworth, Campbell, andChelmsford. 

Lord Lyndhurst's father was a portrait painter, and that of St. Leonards a perfumer and hairdresser in Burlington Street. YoungEdward Sugden was originally an errand-boy in the office of thelate Mr. Groom, of Henrietta Street, Cavendish Square, acertificated conveyancer; and it was there that the future LordChancellor of Ireland obtained his first notions of law. Theorigin of the late Lord Tenterden was perhaps the humblest of all, nor was he ashamed of it; for he felt that the industry, study, andapplication, by means of which he achieved his eminent position, were entirely due to himself. It is related of him, that on oneoccasion he took his son Charles to a little shed, then standingopposite the western front of Canterbury Cathedral, and pointing itout to him, said, "Charles, you see this little shop; I havebrought you here on purpose to show it you. In that shop yourgrandfather used to shave for a penny: that is the proudestreflection of my life. " When a boy, Lord Tenterden was a singer inthe Cathedral, and it is a curious circumstance that hisdestination in life was changed by a disappointment. When he andMr. Justice Richards were going the Home Circuit together, theywent to service in the cathedral; and on Richards commending thevoice of a singing man in the choir, Lord Tenterden said, "Ah! thatis the only man I ever envied! When at school in this town, wewere candidates for a chorister's place, and he obtained it. "

Not less remarkable was the rise to the same distinguished officeof Lord Chief Justice, of the rugged Kenyon and the robustEllenborough; nor was he a less notable man who recently held thesame office--the astute Lord Campbell, late Lord Chancellor ofEngland, son of a parish minister in Fifeshire. For many years heworked hard as a reporter for the press, while diligently preparinghimself for the practice of his profession. It is said of him, that at the beginning of his career, he was accustomed to walk fromcounty town to county town when on circuit, being as yet too poorto afford the luxury of posting. But step by step he rose slowlybut surely to that eminence and distinction which ever follow acareer of industry honourably and energetically pursued, in thelegal, as in every other profession. 

There have been other illustrious instances of Lords Chancellorswho have plodded up the steep of fame and honour with equal energyand success. The career of the late Lord Eldon is perhaps one ofthe most remarkable examples. He was the son of a Newcastle coal-fitter; a mischievous rather than a studious boy; a greatscapegrace at school, and the subject of many terrible thrashings, --for orchard-robbing was one of the favourite exploits of thefuture Lord Chancellor. His father first thought of putting himapprentice to a grocer, and afterwards had almost made up his mindto bring him up to his own trade of a coal-fitter. But by thistime his eldest son William (afterwards Lord Stowell) who hadgained a scholarship at Oxford, wrote to his father, "Send Jack upto me, I can do better for him. " John was sent up to Oxfordaccordingly, where, by his brother's influence and his ownapplication, he succeeded in obtaining a fellowship. But when athome during the vacation, he was so unfortunate--or rather sofortunate, as the issue proved--as to fall in love; and runningacross the Border with his eloped bride, he married, and as hisfriends thought, ruined himself for life. He had neither house norhome when he married, and had not yet earned a penny. He lost hisfellowship, and at the same time shut himself out from prefermentin the Church, for which he had been destined. He accordinglyturned his attention to the study of the law. To a friend hewrote, "I have married rashly; but it is my determination to workhard to provide for the woman I love. "

John Scott came up to London, and took a small house in CursitorLane, where he settled down to the study of the law. He workedwith great diligence and resolution; rising at four every morningand studying till late at night, binding a wet towel round his headto keep himself awake. Too poor to study under a special pleader, he copied out three folio volumes from a manuscript collection ofprecedents. Long after, when Lord Chancellor, passing downCursitor Lane one day, he said to his secretary, "Here was my firstperch: many a time do I recollect coming down this street withsixpence in my hand to buy sprats for supper. " When at lengthcalled to the bar, he waited long for employment. His first year'searnings amounted to only nine shillings. For four years heassiduously attended the London Courts and the Northern Circuit, with little better success. Even in his native town, he seldom hadother than pauper cases to defend. The results were indeed sodiscouraging, that he had almost determined to relinquish hischance of London business, and settle down in some provincial townas a country barrister. His brother William wrote home, "Businessis dull with poor Jack, very dull indeed!" But as he had escapedbeing a grocer, a coal-fitter, and a country parson so did he alsoescape being a country lawyer. 

An opportunity at length occurred which enabled John Scott toexhibit the large legal knowledge which he had so laboriouslyacquired. In a case in which he was engaged, he urged a legalpoint against the wishes both of the attorney and client whoemployed him. The Master of the Rolls decided against him, but onan appeal to the House of Lords, Lord Thurlow reversed the decisionon the very point that Scott had urged. On leaving the House thatday, a solicitor tapped him on the shoulder and said, "Young man, your bread and butter's cut for life. " And the prophecy proved atrue one. Lord Mansfield used to say that he knew no intervalbetween no business and 3000l. A-year, and Scott might have toldthe same story; for so rapid was his progress, that in 1783, whenonly thirty-two, he was appointed King's Counsel, was at the headof the Northern Circuit, and sat in Parliament for the borough ofWeobley. It was in the dull but unflinching drudgery of the earlypart of his career that he laid the foundation of his futuresuccess. He won his spurs by perseverance, knowledge, and ability, diligently cultivated. He was successively appointed to theoffices of solicitor and attorney-general, and rose steadilyupwards to the highest office that the Crown had to bestow--that ofLord Chancellor of England, which he held for a quarter of acentury. 

Henry Bickersteth was the son of a surgeon at Kirkby Lonsdale, inWestmoreland, and was himself educated to that profession. As astudent at Edinburgh, he distinguished himself by the steadinesswith which he worked, and the application which he devoted to thescience of medicine. Returned to Kirkby Lonsdale, he took anactive part in his father's practice; but he had no liking for theprofession, and grew discontented with the obscurity of a countrytown. He went on, nevertheless, diligently improving himself, andengaged on speculations in the higher branches of physiology. Inconformity with his own wish, his father consented to send him toCambridge, where it was his intention to take a medical degree withthe view of practising in the metropolis. Close application to hisstudies, however, threw him out of health, and with a view to re-establishing his strength he accepted the appointment of travellingphysician to Lord Oxford. While abroad he mastered Italian, andacquired a great admiration for Italian literature, but no greaterliking for medicine than before. On the contrary, he determined toabandon it; but returning to Cambridge, he took his degree; andthat he worked hard may be inferred from the fact that he wassenior wrangler of his year. Disappointed in his desire to enterthe army, he turned to the bar, and entered a student of the InnerTemple. He worked as hard at law as he had done at medicine. Writing to his father, he said, "Everybody says to me, 'You arecertain of success in the end--only persevere;' and though I don'twell understand how this is to happen, I try to believe it as muchas I can, and I shall not fail to do everything in my power. " Attwenty-eight he was called to the bar, and had every step in lifeyet to make. His means were straitened, and he lived upon thecontributions of his friends. For years he studied and waited. Still no business came. He stinted himself in recreation, inclothes, and even in the necessaries of life; struggling onindefatigably through all. Writing home, he "confessed that hehardly knew how he should be able to struggle on till he had fairtime and opportunity to establish himself. " After three years'waiting, still without success, he wrote to his friends that ratherthan be a burden upon them longer, he was willing to give thematter up and return to Cambridge, "where he was sure of supportand some profit. " The friends at home sent him another smallremittance, and he persevered. Business gradually came in. Acquitting himself creditably in small matters, he was at lengthentrusted with cases of greater importance. He was a man who nevermissed an opportunity, nor allowed a legitimate chance ofimprovement to escape him. His unflinching industry soon began totell upon his fortunes; a few more years and he was not onlyenabled to do without assistance from home, but he was in aposition to pay back with interest the debts which he had incurred. The clouds had dispersed, and the after career of Henry Bickerstethwas one of honour, of emolument, and of distinguished fame. Heended his career as Master of the Rolls, sitting in the House ofPeers as Baron Langdale. His life affords only anotherillustration of the power of patience, perseverance, andconscientious working, in elevating the character of theindividual, and crowning his labours with the most completesuccess. 

Such are a few of the distinguished men who have honourably workedtheir way to the highest position, and won the richest rewards oftheir profession, by the diligent exercise of qualities in manyrespects of an ordinary character, but made potent by the force ofapplication and industry. 

CHAPTER VIII--ENERGY AND COURAGE

"A coeur vaillant rien d'impossible. "--Jacques Coeur. 

"Den Muthigen gehort die Welt. "--German Proverb. 

"In every work that he began . . . He did it with all his heart, and prospered. "--II. Chron. XXXI. 21. 

There is a famous speech recorded of an old Norseman, thoroughlycharacteristic of the Teuton. "I believe neither in idols nordemons, " said he, "I put my sole trust in my own strength of bodyand soul. " The ancient crest of a pickaxe with the motto of"Either I will find a way or make one, " was an expression of thesame sturdy independence which to this day distinguishes thedescendants of the Northmen. Indeed nothing could be morecharacteristic of the Scandinavian mythology, than that it had agod with a hammer. A man's character is seen in small matters; andfrom even so slight a test as the mode in which a man wields ahammer, his energy may in some measure be inferred. Thus aneminent Frenchman hit off in a single phrase the characteristicquality of the inhabitants of a particular district, in which afriend of his proposed to settle and buy land. "Beware, " said he, "of making a purchase there; I know the men of that department; thepupils who come from it to our veterinary school at Paris DO NORSTRIKE HARD UPON THE ANVIL; they want energy; and you will not geta satisfactory return on any capital you may invest there. " A fineand just appreciation of character, indicating the thoughtfulobserver; and strikingly illustrative of the fact that it is theenergy of the individual men that gives strength to a State, andconfers a value even upon the very soil which they cultivate. Asthe French proverb has it: "Tant vaut l'homme, tant vaut saterre. "

The cultivation of this quality is of the greatest importance;resolute determination in the pursuit of worthy objects being thefoundation of all true greatness of character. Energy enables aman to force his way through irksome drudgery and dry details, andcarries him onward and upward in every station in life. Itaccomplishes more than genius, with not one-half the disappointmentand peril. It is not eminent talent that is required to ensuresuccess in any pursuit, so much as purpose, --not merely the powerto achieve, but the will to labour energetically and perseveringly. Hence energy of will may be defined to be the very central power ofcharacter in a man--in a word, it is the Man himself. It givesimpulse to his every action, and soul to every effort. True hopeis based on it, --and it is hope that gives the real perfume tolife. There is a fine heraldic motto on a broken helmet in BattleAbbey, "L'espoir est ma force, " which might be the motto of everyman's life. "Woe unto him that is fainthearted, " says the son ofSirach. There is, indeed, no blessing equal to the possession of astout heart. Even if a man fail in his efforts, it will be asatisfaction to him to enjoy the consciousness of having done hisbest. In humble life nothing can be more cheering and beautifulthan to see a man combating suffering by patience, triumphing inhis integrity, and who, when his feet are bleeding and his limbsfailing him, still walks upon his courage. 

Mere wishes and desires but engender a sort of green sickness inyoung minds, unless they are promptly embodied in act and deed. Itwill not avail merely to wait as so many do, "until Blucher comesup, " but they must struggle on and persevere in the mean time, asWellington did. The good purpose once formed must be carried outwith alacrity and without swerving. In most conditions of life, drudgery and toil are to be cheerfully endured as the best and mostwholesome discipline. "In life, " said Ary Scheffer, "nothing bearsfruit except by labour of mind or body. To strive and stillstrive--such is life; and in this respect mine is fulfilled; but Idare to say, with just pride, that nothing has ever shaken mycourage. With a strong soul, and a noble aim, one can do what onewills, morally speaking. "

Hugh Miller said the only school in which he was properly taughtwas "that world-wide school in which toil and hardship are thesevere but noble teachers. " He who allows his application tofalter, or shirks his work on frivolous pretexts, is on the sureroad to ultimate failure. Let any task be undertaken as a thingnot possible to be evaded, and it will soon come to be performedwith alacrity and cheerfulness. Charles IX. Of Sweden was a firmbeliever in the power of will, even in youth. Laying his hand onthe head of his youngest son when engaged on a difficult task, heexclaimed, "He SHALL do it! he SHALL do it!" The habit ofapplication becomes easy in time, like every other habit. Thuspersons with comparatively moderate powers will accomplish much, ifthey apply themselves wholly and indefatigably to one thing at atime. Fowell Buxton placed his confidence in ordinary means andextraordinary application; realizing the scriptural injunction, "Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with all thy might;" andhe attributed his own success in life to his practice of "being awhole man to one thing at a time. "

Nothing that is of real worth can be achieved without courageousworking. Man owes his growth chiefly to that active striving ofthe will, that encounter with difficulty, which we call effort; andit is astonishing to find how often results apparentlyimpracticable are thus made possible. An intense anticipationitself transforms possibility into reality; our desires being oftenbut the precursors of the things which we are capable ofperforming. On the contrary, the timid and hesitating findeverything impossible, chiefly because it seems so. It is relatedof a young French officer, that he used to walk about his apartmentexclaiming, "I WILL be Marshal of France and a great general. " Hisardent desire was the presentiment of his success; for the youngofficer did become a distinguished commander, and he died a Marshalof France. 

Mr. Walker, author of the 'Original, ' had so great a faith in thepower of will, that he says on one occasion he DETERMINED to bewell, and he was so. This may answer once; but, though safer tofollow than many prescriptions, it will not always succeed. Thepower of mind over body is no doubt great, but it may be straineduntil the physical power breaks down altogether. It is related ofMuley Moluc, the Moorish leader, that, when lying ill, almost wornout by an incurable disease, a battle took place between his troopsand the Portuguese; when, starting from his litter at the greatcrisis of the fight, he rallied his army, led them to victory, andinstantly afterwards sank exhausted and expired. 

It is will, --force of purpose, --that enables a man to do or bewhatever he sets his mind on being or doing. A holy man wasaccustomed to say, "Whatever you wish, that you are: for such isthe force of our will, joined to the Divine, that whatever we wishto be, seriously, and with a true intention, that we become. Noone ardently wishes to be submissive, patient, modest, or liberal, who does not become what he wishes. " The story is told of aworking carpenter, who was observed one day planing a magistrate'sbench which he was repairing, with more than usual carefulness; andwhen asked the reason, he replied, "Because I wish to make it easyagainst the time when I come to sit upon it myself. " Andsingularly enough, the man actually lived to sit upon that verybench as a magistrate. 

Whatever theoretical conclusions logicians may have formed as tothe freedom of the will, each individual feels that practically heis free to choose between good and evil--that he is not as a merestraw thrown upon the water to mark the direction of the current, but that he has within him the power of a strong swimmer, and iscapable of striking out for himself, of buffeting with the waves, and directing to a great extent his own independent course. Thereis no absolute constraint upon our volitions, and we feel and knowthat we are not bound, as by a spell, with reference to ouractions. It would paralyze all desire of excellence were we tothink otherwise. The entire business and conduct of life, with itsdomestic rules, its social arrangements, and its publicinstitutions, proceed upon the practical conviction that the willis free. Without this where would be responsibility?--and what theadvantage of teaching, advising, preaching, reproof, andcorrection? What were the use of laws, were it not the universalbelief, as it is the universal fact, that men obey them or not, very much as they individually determine? In every moment of ourlife, conscience is proclaiming that our will is free. It is theonly thing that is wholly ours, and it rests solely with ourselvesindividually, whether we give it the right or the wrong direction. Our habits or our temptations are not our masters, but we of them. Even in yielding, conscience tells us we might resist; and thatwere we determined to master them, there would not be required forthat purpose a stronger resolution than we know ourselves to becapable of exercising. 

"You are now at the age, " said Lamennais once, addressing a gayyouth, "at which a decision must be formed by you; a little later, and you may have to groan within the tomb which you yourself havedug, without the power of rolling away the stone. That which theeasiest becomes a habit in us is the will. Learn then to willstrongly and decisively; thus fix your floating life, and leave itno longer to be carried hither and thither, like a withered leaf, by every wind that blows. "

Buxton held the conviction that a young man might be very much whathe pleased, provided he formed a strong resolution and held to it. Writing to one of his sons, he said to him, "You are now at thatperiod of life, in which you must make a turn to the right or theleft. You must now give proofs of principle, determination, andstrength of mind; or you must sink into idleness, and acquire thehabits and character of a desultory, ineffective young man; and ifonce you fall to that point, you will find it no easy matter torise again. I am sure that a young man may be very much what hepleases. In my own case it was so. . . . Much of my happiness, andall my prosperity in life, have resulted from the change I made atyour age. If you seriously resolve to be energetic andindustrious, depend upon it that you will for your whole life havereason to rejoice that you were wise enough to form and to act uponthat determination. " As will, considered without regard todirection, is simply constancy, firmness, perseverance, it will beobvious that everything depends upon right direction and motives. Directed towards the enjoyment of the senses, the strong will maybe a demon, and the intellect merely its debased slave; butdirected towards good, the strong will is a king, and the intellectthe minister of man's highest well-being. 

"Where there is a will there is a way, " is an old and true saying. He who resolves upon doing a thing, by that very resolution oftenscales the barriers to it, and secures its achievement. To thinkwe are able, is almost to be so--to determine upon attainment isfrequently attainment itself. Thus, earnest resolution has oftenseemed to have about it almost a savour of omnipotence. Thestrength of Suwarrow's character lay in his power of willing, and, like most resolute persons, he preached it up as a system. "Youcan only half will, " he would say to people who failed. LikeRichelieu and Napoleon, he would have the word "impossible"banished from the dictionary. "I don't know, " "I can't, " and"impossible, " were words which he detested above all others. "Learn! Do! Try!" he would exclaim. His biographer has said ofhim, that he furnished a remarkable illustration of what may beeffected by the energetic development and exercise of faculties, the germs of which at least are in every human heart. 

One of Napoleon's favourite maxims was, "The truest wisdom is aresolute determination. " His life, beyond most others, vividlyshowed what a powerful and unscrupulous will could accomplish. Hethrew his whole force of body and mind direct upon his work. Imbecile rulers and the nations they governed went down before himin succession. He was told that the Alps stood in the way of hisarmies--"There shall be no Alps, " he said, and the road across theSimplon was constructed, through a district formerly almostinaccessible. "Impossible, " said he, "is a word only to be foundin the dictionary of fools. " He was a man who toiled terribly;sometimes employing and exhausting four secretaries at a time. Hespared no one, not even himself. His influence inspired other men, and put a new life into them. "I made my generals out of mud, " hesaid. But all was of no avail; for Napoleon's intense selfishnesswas his ruin, and the ruin of France, which he left a prey toanarchy. His life taught the lesson that power, howeverenergetically wielded, without beneficence, is fatal to itspossessor and its subjects; and that knowledge, or knowingness, without goodness, is but the incarnate principle of Evil. 

Our own Wellington was a far greater man. Not less resolute, firm, and persistent, but more self-denying, conscientious, and trulypatriotic. Napoleon's aim was "Glory;" Wellington's watchword, like Nelson's, was "Duty. " The former word, it is said, does notonce occur in his despatches; the latter often, but neveraccompanied by any high-sounding professions. The greatestdifficulties could neither embarrass nor intimidate Wellington; hisenergy invariably rising in proportion to the obstacles to besurmounted. The patience, the firmness, the resolution, with whichhe bore through the maddening vexations and gigantic difficultiesof the Peninsular campaigns, is, perhaps, one of the sublimestthings to be found in history. In Spain, Wellington not onlyexhibited the genius of the general, but the comprehensive wisdomof the statesman. Though his natural temper was irritable in theextreme, his high sense of duty enabled him to restrain it; and tothose about him his patience seemed absolutely inexhaustible. Hisgreat character stands untarnished by ambition, by avarice, or anylow passion. Though a man of powerful individuality, he yetdisplayed a great variety of endowment. The equal of Napoleon ingeneralship, he was as prompt, vigorous, and daring as Clive; aswise a statesman as Cromwell; and as pure and high-minded asWashington. The great Wellington left behind him an enduringreputation, founded on toilsome campaigns won by skilfulcombination, by fortitude which nothing could exhaust, by sublimedaring, and perhaps by still sublimer patience. 

Energy usually displays itself in promptitude and decision. WhenLedyard the traveller was asked by the African Association when hewould be ready to set out for Africa, he immediately answered, "To-morrow morning. " Blucher's promptitude obtained for him thecognomen of "Marshal Forwards" throughout the Prussian army. WhenJohn Jervis, afterwards Earl St. Vincent, was asked when he wouldbe ready to join his ship, he replied, "Directly. " And when SirColin Campbell, appointed to the command of the Indian army, wasasked when he could set out, his answer was, "To-morrow, "--anearnest of his subsequent success. For it is rapid decision, and asimilar promptitude in action, such as taking instant advantage ofan enemy's mistakes, that so often wins battles. "At Arcola, " saidNapoleon, "I won the battle with twenty-five horsemen. I seized amoment of lassitude, gave every man a trumpet, and gained the daywith this handful. Two armies are two bodies which meet andendeavour to frighten each other: a moment of panic occurs, andTHAT MOMENT must be turned to advantage. " "Every moment lost, "said he at another time, "gives an opportunity for misfortune;" andhe declared that he beat the Austrians because they never knew thevalue of time: while they dawdled, he overthrew them. 

India has, during the last century, been a great field for thedisplay of British energy. From Clive to Havelock and Clyde thereis a long and honourable roll of distinguished names in Indianlegislation and warfare, --such as Wellesley, Metcalfe, Outram, Edwardes, and the Lawrences. Another great but sullied name isthat of Warren Hastings--a man of dauntless will and indefatigableindustry. His family was ancient and illustrious; but theirvicissitudes of fortune and ill-requited loyalty in the cause ofthe Stuarts, brought them to poverty, and the family estate atDaylesford, of which they had been lords of the manor for hundredsof years, at length passed from their hands. The last Hastings ofDaylesford had, however, presented the parish living to his secondson; and it was in his house, many years later, that WarrenHastings, his grandson, was born. The boy learnt his letters atthe village school, on the same bench with the children of thepeasantry. He played in the fields which his fathers had owned;and what the loyal and brave Hastings of Daylesford HAD been, wasever in the boy's thoughts. His young ambition was fired, and itis said that one summer's day, when only seven years old, as helaid him down on the bank of the stream which flowed through thedomain, he formed in his mind the resolution that he would yetrecover possession of the family lands. It was the romantic visionof a boy; yet he lived to realize it. The dream became a passion, rooted in his very life; and he pursued his determination throughyouth up to manhood, with that calm but indomitable force of willwhich was the most striking peculiarity of his character. Theorphan boy became one of the most powerful men of his time; heretrieved the fortunes of his line; bought back the old estate, andrebuilt the family mansion. "When, under a tropical sun, " saysMacaulay, "he ruled fifty millions of Asiatics, his hopes, amidstall the cares of war, finance, and legislation, still pointed toDaylesford. And when his long public life, so singularly chequeredwith good and evil, with glory and obloquy, had at length closedfor ever, it was to Daylesford that he retired to die. "

Sir Charles Napier was another Indian leader of extraordinarycourage and determination. He once said of the difficulties withwhich he was surrounded in one of his campaigns, "They only make myfeet go deeper into the ground. " His battle of Meeanee was one ofthe most extraordinary feats in history. With 2000 men, of whomonly 400 were Europeans, he encountered an army of 35, 000 hardy andwell-armed Beloochees. It was an act, apparently, of the mostdaring temerity, but the general had faith in himself and in hismen. He charged the Belooch centre up a high bank which formedtheir rampart in front, and for three mortal hours the battleraged. Each man of that small force, inspired by the chief, becamefor the time a hero. The Beloochees, though twenty to one, weredriven back, but with their faces to the foe. It is this sort ofpluck, tenacity, and determined perseverance which wins soldiers'battles, and, indeed, every battle. It is the one neck nearer thatwins the race and shows the blood; it is the one march more thatwins the campaign; the five minutes' more persistent courage thatwins the fight. Though your force be less than another's, youequal and outmaster your opponent if you continue it longer andconcentrate it more. The reply of the Spartan father, who said tohis son, when complaining that his sword was too short, "Add a stepto it, " is applicable to everything in life. 

Napier took the right method of inspiring his men with his ownheroic spirit. He worked as hard as any private in the ranks. "The great art of commanding, " he said, "is to take a fair share ofthe work. The man who leads an army cannot succeed unless hiswhole mind is thrown into his work. The more trouble, the morelabour must be given; the more danger, the more pluck must beshown, till all is overpowered. " A young officer who accompaniedhim in his campaign in the Cutchee Hills, once said, "When I seethat old man incessantly on his horse, how can I be idle who amyoung and strong? I would go into a loaded cannon's mouth if heordered me. " This remark, when repeated to Napier, he said wasample reward for his toils. The anecdote of his interview with theIndian juggler strikingly illustrates his cool courage as well ashis remarkable simplicity and honesty of character. On oneoccasion, after the Indian battles, a famous juggler visited thecamp and performed his feats before the General, his family, andstaff. Among other performances, this man cut in two with a strokeof his sword a lime or lemon placed in the hand of his assistant. Napier thought there was some collusion between the juggler and hisretainer. To divide by a sweep of the sword on a man's hand sosmall an object without touching the flesh he believed to beimpossible, though a similar incident is related by Scott in hisromance of the 'Talisman. ' To determine the point, the Generaloffered his own hand for the experiment, and he stretched out hisright arm. The juggler looked attentively at the hand, and said hewould not make the trial. "I thought I would find you out!"exclaimed Napier. "But stop, " added the other, "let me see yourleft hand. " The left hand was submitted, and the man then saidfirmly, "If you will hold your arm steady I will perform the feat. ""But why the left hand and not the right?" "Because the right handis hollow in the centre, and there is a risk of cutting off thethumb; the left is high, and the danger will be less. " Napier wasstartled. "I got frightened, " he said; "I saw it was an actualfeat of delicate swordsmanship, and if I had not abused the man asI did before my staff, and challenged him to the trial, I honestlyacknowledge I would have retired from the encounter. However, Iput the lime on my hand, and held out my arm steadily. The jugglerbalanced himself, and, with a swift stroke cut the lime in twopieces. I felt the edge of the sword on my hand as if a coldthread had been drawn across it. So much (he added) for the braveswordsmen of India, whom our fine fellows defeated at Meeanee. "

The recent terrible struggle in India has served to bring out, perhaps more prominently than any previous event in our history, the determined energy and self-reliance of the national character. Although English officialism may often drift stupidly into giganticblunders, the men of the nation generally contrive to work theirway out of them with a heroism almost approaching the sublime. InMay, 1857, when the revolt burst upon India like a thunder-clap, the British forces had been allowed to dwindle to their extrememinimum, and were scattered over a wide extent of country, many ofthem in remote cantonments. The Bengal regiments, one afteranother, rose against their officers, broke away, and rushed toDelhi. Province after province was lapped in mutiny and rebellion;and the cry for help rose from east to west. Everywhere theEnglish stood at bay in small detachments, beleaguered andsurrounded, apparently incapable of resistance. Their discomfitureseemed so complete, and the utter ruin of the British cause inIndia so certain, that it might be said of them then, as it hadbeen said before, "These English never know when they are beaten. "According to rule, they ought then and there to have succumbed toinevitable fate. 

While the issue of the mutiny still appeared uncertain, Holkar, oneof the native princes, consulted his astrologer for information. The reply was, "If all the Europeans save one are slain, that onewill remain to fight and reconquer. " In their very darkest moment--even where, as at Lucknow, a mere handful of British soldiers, civilians, and women, held out amidst a city and province in armsagainst them--there was no word of despair, no thought ofsurrender. Though cut off from all communication with theirfriends for months, and not knowing whether India was lost or held, they never ceased to have perfect faith in the courage anddevotedness of their countrymen. They knew that while a body ofmen of English race held together in India, they would not be leftunheeded to perish. They never dreamt of any other issue butretrieval of their misfortune and ultimate triumph; and if theworst came to the worst, they could but fall at their post, and diein the performance of their duty. Need we remind the reader of thenames of Havelock, Inglis, Neill, and Outram--men of truly heroicmould--of each of whom it might with truth be said that he had theheart of a chevalier, the soul of a believer, and the temperamentof a martyr. Montalembert has said of them that "they do honour tothe human race. " But throughout that terrible trial almost allproved equally great--women, civilians and soldiers--from thegeneral down through all grades to the private and bugleman. Themen were not picked: they belonged to the same ordinary peoplewhom we daily meet at home--in the streets, in workshops, in thefields, at clubs; yet when sudden disaster fell upon them, each andall displayed a wealth of personal resources and energy, and becameas it were individually heroic. "Not one of them, " saysMontalembert, "shrank or trembled--all, military and civilians, young and old, generals and soldiers, resisted, fought, andperished with a coolness and intrepidity which never faltered. Itis in this circumstance that shines out the immense value of publiceducation, which invites the Englishman from his youth to make useof his strength and his liberty, to associate, resist, fearnothing, to be astonished at nothing, and to save himself, by hisown sole exertions, from every sore strait in life. "

It has been said that Delhi was taken and India saved by thepersonal character of Sir John Lawrence. The very name of"Lawrence" represented power in the North-West Provinces. Hisstandard of duty, zeal, and personal effort, was of the highest;and every man who served under him seemed to be inspired by hisspirit. It was declared of him that his character alone was worthan army. The same might be said of his brother Sir Henry, whoorganised the Punjaub force that took so prominent a part in thecapture of Delhi. Both brothers inspired those who were about themwith perfect love and confidence. Both possessed that quality oftenderness, which is one of the true elements of the heroiccharacter. Both lived amongst the people, and powerfullyinfluenced them for good. Above all as Col. Edwardes says, "theydrew models on young fellows' minds, which they went forth andcopied in their several administrations: they sketched a FAITH, and begot a SCHOOL, which are both living things at this day. " SirJohn Lawrence had by his side such men as Montgomery, Nicholson, Cotton, and Edwardes, as prompt, decisive, and high-souled ashimself. John Nicholson was one of the finest, manliest, andnoblest of men--"every inch a hakim, " the natives said of him--"atower of strength, " as he was characterised by Lord Dalhousie. Inwhatever capacity he acted he was great, because he acted with hiswhole strength and soul. A brotherhood of fakeers--borne away bytheir enthusiastic admiration of the man--even began the worship ofNikkil Seyn: he had some of them punished for their folly, butthey continued their worship nevertheless. Of his sustained energyand persistency an illustration may be cited in his pursuit of the55th Sepoy mutineers, when he was in the saddle for twentyconsecutive hours, and travelled more than seventy miles. When theenemy set up their standard at Delhi, Lawrence and Montgomery, relying on the support of the people of the Punjaub, and compellingtheir admiration and confidence, strained every nerve to keep theirown province in perfect order, whilst they hurled every availablesoldier, European and Sikh, against that city. Sir John wrote tothe commander-in-chief to "hang on to the rebels' noses beforeDelhi, " while the troops pressed on by forced marches underNicholson, "the tramp of whose war-horse might be heard miles off, "as was afterwards said of him by a rough Sikh who wept over hisgrave. 

The siege and storming of Delhi was the most illustrious eventwhich occurred in the course of that gigantic struggle, althoughthe leaguer of Lucknow, during which the merest skeleton of aBritish regiment--the 32nd--held out, under the heroic Inglis, forsix months against two hundred thousand armed enemies, has perhapsexcited more intense interest. At Delhi, too, the British werereally the besieged, though ostensibly the besiegers; they were amere handful of men "in the open"--not more than 3, 700 bayonets, European and native--and they were assailed from day to day by anarmy of rebels numbering at one time as many as 75, 000 men, trainedto European discipline by English officers, and supplied with allbut exhaustless munitions of war. The heroic little band sat downbefore the city under the burning rays of a tropical sun. Death, wounds, and fever failed to turn them from their purpose. Thirtytimes they were attacked by overwhelming numbers, and thirty timesdid they drive back the enemy behind their defences. As CaptainHodson--himself one of the bravest there--has said, "I venture toaver that no other nation in the world would have remained here, oravoided defeat if they had attempted to do so. " Never for aninstant did these heroes falter at their work; with sublimeendurance they held on, fought on, and never relaxed until, dashingthrough the "imminent deadly breach, " the place was won, and theBritish flag was again unfurled on the walls of Delhi. All weregreat--privates, officers, and generals. Common soldiers who hadbeen inured to a life of hardship, and young officers who had beennursed in luxurious homes, alike proved their manhood, and emergedfrom that terrible trial with equal honour. The native strengthand soundness of the English race, and of manly English trainingand discipline, were never more powerfully exhibited; and it wasthere emphatically proved that the Men of England are, after all, its greatest products. A terrible price was paid for this greatchapter in our history, but if those who survive, and those whocome after, profit by the lesson and example, it may not have beenpurchased at too great a cost. 

But not less energy and courage have been displayed in India andthe East by men of various nations, in other lines of action morepeaceful and beneficent than that of war. And while the heroes ofthe sword are remembered, the heroes of the gospel ought not to beforgotten. From Xavier to Martyn and Williams, there has been asuccession of illustrious missionary labourers, working in a spiritof sublime self-sacrifice, without any thought of worldly honour, inspired solely by the hope of seeking out and rescuing the lostand fallen of their race. Borne up by invincible courage andnever-failing patience, these men have endured privations, braveddangers, walked through pestilence, and borne all toils, fatigues, and sufferings, yet held on their way rejoicing, glorying even inmartyrdom itself. Of these one of the first and most illustriouswas Francis Xavier. Born of noble lineage, and with pleasure, power, and honour within his reach, he proved by his life thatthere are higher objects in the world than rank, and nobleraspirations than the accumulation of wealth. He was a truegentleman in manners and sentiment; brave, honourable, generous;easily led, yet capable of leading; easily persuaded, yet himselfpersuasive; a most patient, resolute and energetic man. At the ageof twenty-two he was earning his living as a public teacher ofphilosophy at the University of Paris. There Xavier became theintimate friend and associate of Loyola, and shortly afterwards heconducted the pilgrimage of the first little band of proselytes toRome. 

When John III. Of Portugal resolved to plant Christianity in theIndian territories subject to his influence, Bobadilla was firstselected as his missionary; but being disabled by illness, it wasfound necessary to make another selection, and Xavier was chosen. Repairing his tattered cassock, and with no other baggage than hisbreviary, he at once started for Lisbon and embarked for the East. The ship in which he set sail for Goa had the Governor on board, with a reinforcement of a thousand men for the garrison of theplace. Though a cabin was placed at his disposal, Xavier slept ondeck throughout the voyage with his head on a coil of ropes, messing with the sailors. By ministering to their wants, inventinginnocent sports for their amusement, and attending them in theirsickness, he wholly won their hearts, and they regarded him withveneration. 

Arrived at Goa, Xavier was shocked at the depravity of the people, settlers as well as natives; for the former had imported the viceswithout the restraints of civilization, and the latter had onlybeen too apt to imitate their bad example. Passing along thestreets of the city, sounding his handbell as he went, he imploredthe people to send him their children to be instructed. He shortlysucceeded in collecting a large number of scholars, whom hecarefully taught day by day, at the same time visiting the sick, the lepers, and the wretched of all classes, with the object ofassuaging their miseries, and bringing them to the Truth. No cryof human suffering which reached him was disregarded. Hearing ofthe degradation and misery of the pearl fishers of Manaar, he setout to visit them, and his bell again rang out the invitation ofmercy. He baptized and he taught, but the latter he could only dothrough interpreters. His most eloquent teaching was hisministration to the wants and the sufferings of the wretched. 

On he went, his hand-bell sounding along the coast of Comorin, among the towns and villages, the temples and the bazaars, summoning the natives to gather about him and be instructed. Hehad translations made of the Catechism, the Apostles' Creed, theCommandments, the Lord's Prayer, and some of the devotional officesof the Church. Committing these to memory in their own tongue herecited them to the children, until they had them by heart; afterwhich he sent them forth to teach the words to their parents andneighbours. At Cape Comorin, he appointed thirty teachers, whounder himself presided over thirty Christian Churches, though theChurches were but humble, in most cases consisting only of acottage surmounted by a cross. Thence he passed to Travancore, sounding his way from village to village, baptizing until his handsdropped with weariness, and repeating his formulas until his voicebecame almost inaudible. According to his own account, the successof his mission surpassed his highest expectations. His pure, earnest, and beautiful life, and the irresistible eloquence of hisdeeds, made converts wherever he went; and by sheer force ofsympathy, those who saw him and listened to him insensibly caught aportion of his ardour. 

Burdened with the thought that "the harvest is great and thelabourers are few, " Xavier next sailed to Malacca and Japan, wherehe found himself amongst entirely new races speaking other tongues. The most that he could do here was to weep and pray, to smooth thepillow and watch by the sick-bed, sometimes soaking the sleeve ofhis surplice in water, from which to squeeze out a few drops andbaptize the dying. Hoping all things, and fearing nothing, thisvaliant soldier of the truth was borne onward throughout by faithand energy. "Whatever form of death or torture, " said he, "awaitsme, I am ready to suffer it ten thousand times for the salvation ofa single soul. " He battled with hunger, thirst, privations anddangers of all kinds, still pursuing his mission of love, unrestingand unwearying. At length, after eleven years' labour, this greatgood man, while striving to find a way into China, was strickenwith fever in the Island of Sanchian, and there received his crownof glory. A hero of nobler mould, more pure, self-denying, andcourageous, has probably never trod this earth. 

Other missionaries have followed Xavier in the same field of work, such as Schwartz, Carey, and Marshman in India; Gutzlaff andMorrison in China; Williams in the South Seas; Campbell, Moffattand Livingstone in Africa. John Williams, the martyr of Erromanga, was originally apprenticed to a furnishing ironmonger. Thoughconsidered a dull boy, he was handy at his trade, in which heacquired so much skill that his master usually entrusted him withany blacksmiths work that required the exercise of more thanordinary care. He was also fond of bell-hanging and otheremployments which took him away from the shop. A casual sermonwhich he heard gave his mind a serious bias, and he became aSunday-school teacher. The cause of missions having been broughtunder his notice at some of his society's meetings, he determinedto devote himself to this work. His services were accepted by theLondon Missionary Society; and his master allowed him to leave theironmonger's shop before the expiry of his indentures. The islandsof the Pacific Ocean were the principal scene of his labours--moreparticularly Huahine in Tahiti, Raiatea, and Rarotonga. Like theApostles he worked with his hands, --at blacksmith work, gardening, shipbuilding; and he endeavoured to teach the islanders the art ofcivilised life, at the same time that he instructed them in thetruths of religion. It was in the course of his indefatigablelabours that he was massacred by savages on the shore of Erromanga--none worthier than he to wear the martyr's crown. 

The career of Dr. Livingstone is one of the most interesting ofall. He has told the story of his life in that modest andunassuming manner which is so characteristic of the man himself. His ancestors were poor but honest Highlanders, and it is relatedof one of them, renowned in his district for wisdom and prudence, that when on his death-bed he called his children round him andleft them these words, the only legacy he had to bequeath--"In mylife-time, " said he, "I have searched most carefully through allthe traditions I could find of our family, and I never coulddiscover that there was a dishonest man among our forefathers: if, therefore, any of you or any of your children should take todishonest ways, it will not be because it runs in our blood; itdoes not belong to you: I leave this precept with you--Be honest. "At the age of ten Livingstone was sent to work in a cotton factorynear Glasgow as a "piecer. " With part of his first week's wages hebought a Latin grammar, and began to learn that language, pursuingthe study for years at a night school. He would sit up conning hislessons till twelve or later, when not sent to bed by his mother, for he had to be up and at work in the factory every morning bysix. In this way he plodded through Virgil and Horace, alsoreading extensively all books, excepting novels, that came in hisway, but more especially scientific works and books of travels. Heoccupied his spare hours, which were but few, in the pursuit ofbotany, scouring the neighbourhood to collect plants. He evencarried on his reading amidst the roar of the factory machinery, soplacing the book upon the spinning jenny which he worked that hecould catch sentence after sentence as he passed it. In this waythe persevering youth acquired much useful knowledge; and as hegrew older, the desire possessed him of becoming a missionary tothe heathen. With this object he set himself to obtain a medicaleducation, in order the better to be qualified for the work. Heaccordingly economised his earnings, and saved as much money asenabled him to support himself while attending the Medical andGreek classes, as well as the Divinity Lectures, at Glasgow, forseveral winters, working as a cotton spinner during the remainderof each year. He thus supported himself, during his collegecareer, entirely by his own earnings as a factory workman, neverhaving received a farthing of help from any other source. "Lookingback now, " he honestly says, "at that life of toil, I cannot butfeel thankful that it formed such a material part of my earlyeducation; and, were it possible, I should like to begin life overagain in the same lowly style, and to pass through the same hardytraining. " At length he finished his medical curriculum, wrote hisLatin thesis, passed his examinations, and was admitted alicentiate of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons. At first hethought of going to China, but the war then waging with thatcountry prevented his following out the idea; and having offeredhis services to the London Missionary Society, he was by them sentout to Africa, which he reached in 1840. He had intended toproceed to China by his own efforts; and he says the only pang hehad in going to Africa at the charge of the London MissionarySociety was, because "it was not quite agreeable to one accustomedto work his own way to become, in a manner, dependent upon others. "Arrived in Africa he set to work with great zeal. He could notbrook the idea of merely entering upon the labours of others, butcut out a large sphere of independent work, preparing himself forit by undertaking manual labour in building and other handicraftemployment, in addition to teaching, which, he says, "made megenerally as much exhausted and unfit for study in the evenings asever I had been when a cotton-spinner. " Whilst labouring amongstthe Bechuanas, he dug canals, built houses, cultivated fields, reared cattle, and taught the natives to work as well as worship. When he first started with a party of them on foot upon a longjourney, he overheard their observations upon his appearance andpowers--"He is not strong, " said they; "he is quite slim, and onlyappears stout because he puts himself into those bags (trowsers):he will soon knock up. " This caused the missionary's Highlandblood to rise, and made him despise the fatigue of keeping them allat the top of their speed for days together, until he heard themexpressing proper opinions of his pedestrian powers. What he didin Africa, and how he worked, may be learnt from his own'Missionary Travels, ' one of the most fascinating books of its kindthat has ever been given to the public. One of his last known actsis thoroughly characteristic of the man. The 'Birkenhead' steamlaunch, which he took out with him to Africa, having proved afailure, he sent home orders for the construction of another vesselat an estimated cost of 2000l. This sum he proposed to defray outof the means which he had set aside for his children arising fromthe profits of his books of travels. "The children must make it upthemselves, " was in effect his expression in sending home the orderfor the appropriation of the money. 

The career of John Howard was throughout a striking illustration ofthe same power of patient purpose. His sublime life proved thateven physical weakness could remove mountains in the pursuit of anend recommended by duty. The idea of ameliorating the condition ofprisoners engrossed his whole thoughts and possessed him like apassion; and no toil, nor danger, nor bodily suffering could turnhim from that great object of his life. Though a man of no geniusand but moderate talent, his heart was pure and his will wasstrong. Even in his own time he achieved a remarkable degree ofsuccess; and his influence did not die with him, for it hascontinued powerfully to affect not only the legislation of England, but of all civilised nations, down to the present hour. 

Jonas Hanway was another of the many patient and persevering menwho have made England what it is--content simply to do with energythe work they have been appointed to do, and go to their restthankfully when it is done -

"Leaving no memorial but a worldMade better by their lives. "

He was born in 1712, at Portsmouth, where his father, a storekeeperin the dockyard, being killed by an accident, he was left an orphanat an early age. His mother removed with her children to London, where she had them put to school, and struggled hard to bring themup respectably. At seventeen Jonas was sent to Lisbon to beapprenticed to a merchant, where his close attention to business, his punctuality, and his strict honour and integrity, gained forhim the respect and esteem of all who knew him. Returning toLondon in 1743, he accepted the offer of a partnership in anEnglish mercantile house at St. Petersburg engaged in the Caspiantrade, then in its infancy. Hanway went to Russia for the purposeof extending the business; and shortly after his arrival at thecapital he set out for Persia, with a caravan of English bales ofcloth making twenty carriage loads. At Astracan he sailed forAstrabad, on the south-eastern shore of the Caspian; but he hadscarcely landed his bales, when an insurrection broke out, hisgoods were seized, and though he afterwards recovered the principalpart of them, the fruits of his enterprise were in a great measurelost. A plot was set on foot to seize himself and his party; so hetook to sea and, after encountering great perils, reached Ghilan insafety. His escape on this occasion gave him the first idea of thewords which he afterwards adopted as the motto of his life--"NEVERDESPAIR. " He afterwards resided in St. Petersburg for five years, carrying on a prosperous business. But a relative having left himsome property, and his own means being considerable, he leftRussia, and arrived in his native country in 1755. His object inreturning to England was, as he himself expressed it, "to consulthis own health (which was extremely delicate), and do as much goodto himself and others as he was able. " The rest of his life wasspent in deeds of active benevolence and usefulness to his fellowmen. He lived in a quiet style, in order that he might employ alarger share of his income in works of benevolence. One of thefirst public improvements to which he devoted himself was that ofthe highways of the metropolis, in which he succeeded to a largeextent. The rumour of a French invasion being prevalent in 1755, Mr. Hanway turned his attention to the best mode of keeping up thesupply of seamen. He summoned a meeting of merchants andshipowners at the Royal Exchange, and there proposed to them toform themselves into a society for fitting out landsmen volunteersand boys, to serve on board the king's ships. The proposal wasreceived with enthusiasm: a society was formed, and officers wereappointed, Mr. Hanway directing its entire operations. The resultwas the establishment in 1756 of The Marine Society, an institutionwhich has proved of much national advantage, and is to this day ofgreat and substantial utility. Within six years from itsformation, 5451 boys and 4787 landsmen volunteers had been trainedand fitted out by the society and added to the navy, and to thisday it is in active operation, about 600 poor boys, after a carefuleducation, being annually apprenticed as sailors, principally inthe merchant service. 

Mr. Hanway devoted the other portions of his spare time toimproving or establishing important public institutions in themetropolis. From an early period he took an active interest in theFoundling Hospital, which had been started by Thomas Coram manyyears before, but which, by encouraging parents to abandon theirchildren to the charge of a charity, was threatening to do moreharm than good. He determined to take steps to stem the evil, entering upon the work in the face of the fashionable philanthropyof the time; but by holding to his purpose he eventually succeededin bringing the charity back to its proper objects; and time andexperience have proved that he was right. The Magdalen Hospitalwas also established in a great measure through Mr. Hanway'sexertions. But his most laborious and persevering efforts were inbehalf of the infant parish poor. The misery and neglect amidstwhich the children of the parish poor then grew up, and themortality which prevailed amongst them, were frightful; but therewas no fashionable movement on foot to abate the suffering, as inthe case of the foundlings. So Jonas Hanway summoned his energiesto the task. Alone and unassisted he first ascertained by personalinquiry the extent of the evil. He explored the dwellings of thepoorest classes in London, and visited the poorhouse sick wards, bywhich he ascertained the management in detail of every workhouse inand near the metropolis. He next made a journey into France andthrough Holland, visiting the houses for the reception of the poor, and noting whatever he thought might be adopted at home withadvantage. He was thus employed for five years; and on his returnto England he published the results of his observations. Theconsequence was that many of the workhouses were reformed andimproved. In 1761 he obtained an Act obliging every London parishto keep an annual register of all the infants received, discharged, and dead; and he took care that the Act should work, for he himselfsuperintended its working with indefatigable watchfulness. He wentabout from workhouse to workhouse in the morning, and from onemember of parliament to another in the afternoon, for day afterday, and for year after year, enduring every rebuff, answeringevery objection, and accommodating himself to every humour. Atlength, after a perseverance hardly to be equalled, and afternearly ten years' labour, he obtained another Act, at his soleexpense (7 Geo. III. C. 39), directing that all parish infantsbelonging to the parishes within the bills of mortality should notbe nursed in the workhouses, but be sent to nurse a certain numberof miles out of town, until they were six years old, under the careof guardians to be elected triennially. The poor people calledthis "the Act for keeping children alive;" and the registers forthe years which followed its passing, as compared with those whichpreceded it, showed that thousands of lives had been preservedthrough the judicious interference of this good and sensible man. 

Wherever a philanthropic work was to be done in London, be surethat Jonas Hanway's hand was in it. One of the first Acts for theprotection of chimney-sweepers' boys was obtained through hisinfluence. A destructive fire at Montreal, and another atBridgetown, Barbadoes, afforded him the opportunity for raising atimely subscription for the relief of the sufferers. His nameappeared in every list, and his disinterestedness and sinceritywere universally recognized. But he was not suffered to waste hislittle fortune entirely in the service of others. Five leadingcitizens of London, headed by Mr. Hoare, the banker, without Mr. Hanway's knowledge, waited on Lord Bute, then prime minister, in abody, and in the names of their fellow-citizens requested that somenotice might be taken of this good man's disinterested services tohis country. The result was, his appointment shortly after, as oneof the commissioners for victualling the navy. 

Towards the close of his life Mr. Hanway's health became veryfeeble, and although he found it necessary to resign his office atthe Victualling Board, he could not be idle; but laboured at theestablishment of Sunday Schools, --a movement then in its infancy, --or in relieving poor blacks, many of whom wandered destitute aboutthe streets of the metropolis, --or, in alleviating the sufferingsof some neglected and destitute class of society. Notwithstandinghis familiarity with misery in all its shapes, he was one of themost cheerful of beings; and, but for his cheerfulness he couldnever, with so delicate a frame, have got through so vast an amountof self-imposed work. He dreaded nothing so much as inactivity. Though fragile, he was bold and indefatigable; and his moralcourage was of the first order. It may be regarded as a trivialmatter to mention that he was the first who ventured to walk thestreets of London with an umbrella over his head. But let anymodern London merchant venture to walk along Cornhill in a peakedChinese hat, and he will find it takes some degree of moral courageto persevere in it. After carrying an umbrella for thirty years, Mr. Hanway saw the article at length come into general use. 

Hanway was a man of strict honour, truthfulness, and integrity; andevery word he said might be relied upon. He had so great arespect, amounting almost to a reverence, for the character of thehonest merchant, that it was the only subject upon which he wasever seduced into a eulogium. He strictly practised what heprofessed, and both as a merchant, and afterwards as a commissionerfor victualling the navy, his conduct was without stain. He wouldnot accept the slightest favour of any sort from a contractor; andwhen any present was sent to him whilst at the Victualling Office, he would politely return it, with the intimation that "he had madeit a rule not to accept anything from any person engaged with theoffice. " When he found his powers failing, he prepared for deathwith as much cheerfulness as he would have prepared himself for ajourney into the country. He sent round and paid all histradesmen, took leave of his friends, arranged his affairs, had hisperson neatly disposed of, and parted with life serenely andpeacefully in his 74th year. The property which he left did notamount to two thousand pounds, and, as he had no relatives whowanted it, he divided it amongst sundry orphans and poor personswhom he had befriended during his lifetime. Such, in brief, wasthe beautiful life of Jonas Hanway, --as honest, energetic, hard-working, and true-hearted a man as ever lived. 

The life of Granville Sharp is another striking example of the samepower of individual energy--a power which was afterwards transfusedinto the noble band of workers in the cause of Slavery Abolition, prominent among whom were Clarkson, Wilberforce, Buxton, andBrougham. But, giants though these men were in this cause, Granville Sharp was the first, and perhaps the greatest of themall, in point of perseverance, energy, and intrepidity. He beganlife as apprentice to a linen-draper on Tower Hill; but, leavingthat business after his apprenticeship was out, he next entered asa clerk in the Ordnance Office; and it was while engaged in thathumble occupation that he carried on in his spare hours the work ofNegro Emancipation. He was always, even when an apprentice, readyto undertake any amount of volunteer labour where a useful purposewas to be served. Thus, while learning the linen-drapery business, a fellow apprentice who lodged in the same house, and was aUnitarian, led him into frequent discussions on religious subjects. The Unitarian youth insisted that Granville's Trinitarianmisconception of certain passages of Scripture arose from his wantof acquaintance with the Greek tongue; on which he immediately setto work in his evening hours, and shortly acquired an intimateknowledge of Greek. A similar controversy with another fellow-apprentice, a Jew, as to the interpretation of the prophecies, ledhim in like manner to undertake and overcome the difficulties ofHebrew. 

But the circumstance which gave the bias and direction to the mainlabours of his life originated in his generosity and benevolence. His brother William, a surgeon in Mincing Lane, gave gratuitousadvice to the poor, and amongst the numerous applicants for reliefat his surgery was a poor African named Jonathan Strong. Itappeared that the negro had been brutally treated by his master, aBarbadoes lawyer then in London, and became lame, almost blind, andunable to work; on which his owner, regarding him as of no furthervalue as a chattel, cruelly turned him adrift into the streets tostarve. This poor man, a mass of disease, supported himself bybegging for a time, until he found his way to William Sharp, whogave him some medicine, and shortly after got him admitted to St. Bartholomew's hospital, where he was cured. On coming out of thehospital, the two brothers supported the negro in order to keep himoff the streets, but they had not the least suspicion at the timethat any one had a claim upon his person. They even succeeded inobtaining a situation for Strong with an apothecary, in whoseservice he remained for two years; and it was while he wasattending his mistress behind a hackney coach, that his formerowner, the Barbadoes lawyer, recognized him, and determined torecover possession of the slave, again rendered valuable by therestoration of his health. The lawyer employed two of the LordMayor's officers to apprehend Strong, and he was lodged in theCompter, until he could be shipped off to the West Indies. Thenegro, bethinking him in his captivity of the kind services whichGranville Sharp had rendered him in his great distress some yearsbefore, despatched a letter to him requesting his help. Sharp hadforgotten the name of Strong, but he sent a messenger to makeinquiries, who returned saying that the keepers denied having anysuch person in their charge. His suspicions were roused, and hewent forthwith to the prison, and insisted upon seeing JonathanStrong. He was admitted, and recognized the poor negro, now incustody as a recaptured slave. Mr. Sharp charged the master of theprison at his own peril not to deliver up Strong to any personwhatever, until he had been carried before the Lord Mayor, to whomSharp immediately went, and obtained a summons against thosepersons who had seized and imprisoned Strong without a warrant. The parties appeared before the Lord Mayor accordingly, and itappeared from the proceedings that Strong's former master hadalready sold him to a new one, who produced the bill of sale andclaimed the negro as his property. As no charge of offence wasmade against Strong, and as the Lord Mayor was incompetent to dealwith the legal question of Strong's liberty or otherwise, hedischarged him, and the slave followed his benefactor out of court, no one daring to touch him. The man's owner immediately gave Sharpnotice of an action to recover possession of his negro slave, ofwhom he declared he had been robbed. 

About that time (1767), the personal liberty of the Englishman, though cherished as a theory, was subject to grievousinfringements, and was almost daily violated. The impressment ofmen for the sea service was constantly practised, and, besides thepress-gangs, there were regular bands of kidnappers employed inLondon and all the large towns of the kingdom, to seize men for theEast India Company's service. And when the men were not wanted forIndia, they were shipped off to the planters in the Americancolonies. Negro slaves were openly advertised for sale in theLondon and Liverpool newspapers. Rewards were offered forrecovering and securing fugitive slaves, and conveying them down tocertain specified ships in the river. 

The position of the reputed slave in England was undefined anddoubtful. The judgments which had been given in the courts of lawwere fluctuating and various, resting on no settled principle. Although it was a popular belief that no slave could breathe inEngland, there were legal men of eminence who expressed a directlycontrary opinion. The lawyers to whom Mr. Sharp resorted foradvice, in defending himself in the action raised against him inthe case of Jonathan Strong, generally concurred in this view, andhe was further told by Jonathan Strong's owner, that the eminentLord Chief Justice Mansfield, and all the leading counsel, weredecidedly of opinion that the slave, by coming into England, didnot become free, but might legally be compelled to return again tothe plantations. Such information would have caused despair in amind less courageous and earnest than that of Granville Sharp; butit only served to stimulate his resolution to fight the battle ofthe negroes' freedom, at least in England. "Forsaken, " he said, "by my professional defenders, I was compelled, through the want ofregular legal assistance, to make a hopeless attempt at self-defence, though I was totally unacquainted either with the practiceof the law or the foundations of it, having never opened a law book(except the Bible) in my life, until that time, when I mostreluctantly undertook to search the indexes of a law library, whichmy bookseller had lately purchased. "

The whole of his time during the day was occupied with the businessof the ordnance department, where he held the most laborious postin the office; he was therefore under the necessity of conductinghis new studies late at night or early in the morning. Heconfessed that he was himself becoming a sort of slave. Writing toa clerical friend to excuse himself for delay in replying to aletter, he said, "I profess myself entirely incapable of holding aliterary correspondence. What little time I have been able to savefrom sleep at night, and early in the morning, has been necessarilyemployed in the examination of some points of law, which admittedof no delay, and yet required the most diligent researches andexamination in my study. "

Mr. Sharp gave up every leisure moment that he could command duringthe next two years, to the close study of the laws of Englandaffecting personal liberty, --wading through an immense mass of dryand repulsive literature, and making extracts of all the mostimportant Acts of Parliament, decisions of the courts, and opinionsof eminent lawyers, as he went along. In this tedious andprotracted inquiry he had no instructor, nor assistant, noradviser. He could not find a single lawyer whose opinion wasfavourable to his undertaking. The results of his inquiries were, however, as gratifying to himself, as they were surprising to thegentlemen of the law. "God be thanked, " he wrote, "there isnothing in any English law or statute--at least that I am able tofind out--that can justify the enslaving of others. " He hadplanted his foot firm, and now he doubted nothing. He drew up theresult of his studies in a summary form; it was a plain, clear, andmanly statement, entitled, 'On the Injustice of Tolerating Slaveryin England;' and numerous copies, made by himself, were circulatedby him amongst the most eminent lawyers of the time. Strong'sowner, finding the sort of man he had to deal with, inventedvarious pretexts for deferring the suit against Sharp, and atlength offered a compromise, which was rejected. Granville went oncirculating his manuscript tract among the lawyers, until at lengththose employed against Jonathan Strong were deterred fromproceeding further, and the result was, that the plaintiff wascompelled to pay treble costs for not bringing forward his action. The tract was then printed in 1769. 

In the mean time other cases occurred of the kidnapping of negroesin London, and their shipment to the West Indies for sale. Wherever Sharp could lay hold of any such case, he at once tookproceedings to rescue the negro. Thus the wife of one Hylas, anAfrican, was seized, and despatched to Barbadoes; on which Sharp, in the name of Hylas, instituted legal proceedings against theaggressor, obtained a verdict with damages, and Hylas's wife wasbrought back to England free. 

Another forcible capture of a negro, attended with great cruelty, having occurred in 1770, he immediately set himself on the track ofthe aggressors. An African, named Lewis, was seized one dark nightby two watermen employed by the person who claimed the negro as hisproperty, dragged into the water, hoisted into a boat, where he wasgagged, and his limbs were tied; and then rowing down river, theyput him on board a ship bound for Jamaica, where he was to be soldfor a slave upon his arrival in the island. The cries of the poornegro had, however, attracted the attention of some neighbours; oneof whom proceeded direct to Mr. Granville Sharp, now known as thenegro's friend, and informed him of the outrage. Sharp immediatelygot a warrant to bring back Lewis, and he proceeded to Gravesend, but on arrival there the ship had sailed for the Downs. A writ ofHabeas Corpus was obtained, sent down to Spithead, and before theship could leave the shores of England the writ was served. Theslave was found chained to the main-mast bathed in tears, castingmournful looks on the land from which he was about to be torn. Hewas immediately liberated, brought back to London, and a warrantwas issued against the author of the outrage. The promptitude ofhead, heart, and hand, displayed by Mr. Sharp in this transactioncould scarcely have been surpassed, and yet he accused himself ofslowness. The case was tried before Lord Mansfield--whose opinion, it will be remembered, had already been expressed as decidedlyopposed to that entertained by Granville Sharp. The judge, however, avoided bringing the question to an issue, or offering anyopinion on the legal question as to the slave's personal liberty orotherwise, but discharged the negro because the defendant couldbring no evidence that Lewis was even nominally his property. 

The question of the personal liberty of the negro in England wastherefore still undecided; but in the mean time Mr. Sharp continuedsteady in his benevolent course, and by his indefatigable exertionsand promptitude of action, many more were added to the list of therescued. At length the important case of James Somerset occurred;a case which is said to have been selected, at the mutual desire ofLord Mansfield and Mr. Sharp, in order to bring the great questioninvolved to a clear legal issue. Somerset had been brought toEngland by his master, and left there. Afterwards his mastersought to apprehend him and send him off to Jamaica, for sale. Mr. Sharp, as usual, at once took the negro's case in hand, andemployed counsel to defend him. Lord Mansfield intimated that thecase was of such general concern, that he should take the opinionof all the judges upon it. Mr. Sharp now felt that he would haveto contend with all the force that could be brought against him, but his resolution was in no wise shaken. Fortunately for him, inthis severe struggle, his exertions had already begun to tell:increasing interest was taken in the question, and many eminentlegal gentlemen openly declared themselves to be upon his side. 

The cause of personal liberty, now at stake, was fairly triedbefore Lord Mansfield, assisted by the three justices, --and triedon the broad principle of the essential and constitutional right ofevery man in England to the liberty of his person, unless forfeitedby the law. It is unnecessary here to enter into any account ofthis great trial; the arguments extended to a great length, thecause being carried over to another term, --when it was adjournedand re-adjourned, --but at length judgment was given by LordMansfield, in whose powerful mind so gradual a change had beenworked by the arguments of counsel, based mainly on GranvilleSharp's tract, that he now declared the court to be so clearly ofone opinion, that there was no necessity for referring the case tothe twelve judges. He then declared that the claim of slaverynever can be supported; that the power claimed never was in use inEngland, nor acknowledged by the law; therefore the man JamesSomerset must be discharged. By securing this judgment GranvilleSharp effectually abolished the Slave Trade until then carried onopenly in the streets of Liverpool and London. But he also firmlyestablished the glorious axiom, that as soon as any slave sets hisfoot on English ground, that moment he becomes free; and there canbe no doubt that this great decision of Lord Mansfield was mainlyowing to Mr. Sharp's firm, resolute, and intrepid prosecution ofthe cause from the beginning to the end. 

It is unnecessary further to follow the career of Granville Sharp. He continued to labour indefatigably in all good works. He wasinstrumental in founding the colony of Sierra Leone as an asylumfor rescued negroes. He laboured to ameliorate the condition ofthe native Indians in the American colonies. He agitated theenlargement and extension of the political rights of the Englishpeople; and he endeavoured to effect the abolition of theimpressment of seamen. Granville held that the British seamen, aswell as the African negro, was entitled to the protection of thelaw; and that the fact of his choosing a seafaring life did not inany way cancel his rights and privileges as an Englishman--firstamongst which he ranked personal freedom. Mr. Sharp also laboured, but ineffectually, to restore amity between England and hercolonies in America; and when the fratricidal war of the AmericanRevolution was entered on, his sense of integrity was so scrupulousthat, resolving not in any way to be concerned in so unnatural abusiness, he resigned his situation at the Ordnance Office. 

To the last he held to the great object of his life--the abolitionof slavery. To carry on this work, and organize the efforts of thegrowing friends of the cause, the Society for the Abolition ofSlavery was founded, and new men, inspired by Sharp's example andzeal, sprang forward to help him. His energy became theirs, andthe self-sacrificing zeal in which he had so long laboured single-handed, became at length transfused into the nation itself. Hismantle fell upon Clarkson, upon Wilberforce, upon Brougham, andupon Buxton, who laboured as he had done, with like energy andstedfastness of purpose, until at length slavery was abolishedthroughout the British dominions. But though the names lastmentioned may be more frequently identified with the triumph ofthis great cause, the chief merit unquestionably belongs toGranville Sharp. He was encouraged by none of the world's huzzaswhen he entered upon his work. He stood alone, opposed to theopinion of the ablest lawyers and the most rooted prejudices of thetimes; and alone he fought out, by his single exertions, and at hisindividual expense, the most memorable battle for the constitutionof this country and the liberties of British subjects, of whichmodern times afford a record. What followed was mainly theconsequence of his indefatigable constancy. He lighted the torchwhich kindled other minds, and it was handed on until theillumination became complete. 

Before the death of Granville Sharp, Clarkson had already turnedhis attention to the question of Negro Slavery. He had evenselected it for the subject of a college Essay; and his mind becameso possessed by it that he could not shake it off. The spot ispointed out near Wade's Mill, in Hertfordshire, where, alightingfrom his horse one day, he sat down disconsolate on the turf by theroad side, and after long thinking, determined to devote himselfwholly to the work. He translated his Essay from Latin intoEnglish, added fresh illustrations, and published it. Then fellowlabourers gathered round him. The Society for Abolishing the SlaveTrade, unknown to him, had already been formed, and when he heardof it he joined it. He sacrificed all his prospects in life toprosecute this cause. Wilberforce was selected to lead inparliament; but upon Clarkson chiefly devolved the labour ofcollecting and arranging the immense mass of evidence offered insupport of the abolition. A remarkable instance of Clarkson'ssleuth-hound sort of perseverance may be mentioned. The abettorsof slavery, in the course of their defence of the system, maintained that only such negroes as were captured in battle weresold as slaves, and if not so sold, then they were reserved for astill more frightful doom in their own country. Clarkson knew ofthe slave-hunts conducted by the slave-traders, but had nowitnesses to prove it. Where was one to be found? Accidentally, agentleman whom he met on one of his journeys informed him of ayoung sailor, in whose company he had been about a year before, whohad been actually engaged in one of such slave-hunting expeditions. The gentleman did not know his name, and could but indefinitelydescribe his person. He did not know where he was, further thanthat he belonged to a ship of war in ordinary, but at what port hecould not tell. With this mere glimmering of information, Clarksondetermined to produce this man as a witness. He visited personallyall the seaport towns where ships in ordinary lay; boarded andexamined every ship without success, until he came to the very LASTport, and found the young man, his prize, in the very LAST shipthat remained to be visited. The young man proved to be one of hismost valuable and effective witnesses. 

During several years Clarkson conducted a correspondence withupwards of four hundred persons, travelling more than thirty-fivethousand miles during the same time in search of evidence. He wasat length disabled and exhausted by illness, brought on by hiscontinuous exertions; but he was not borne from the field until hiszeal had fully awakened the public mind, and excited the ardentsympathies of all good men on behalf of the slave. 

After years of protracted struggle, the slave trade was abolished. But still another great achievement remained to be accomplished--the abolition of slavery itself throughout the British dominions. And here again determined energy won the day. Of the leaders inthe cause, none was more distinguished than Fowell Buxton, who tookthe position formerly occupied by Wilberforce in the House ofCommons. Buxton was a dull, heavy boy, distinguished for hisstrong self-will, which first exhibited itself in violent, domineering, and headstrong obstinacy. His father died when he wasa child; but fortunately he had a wise mother, who trained his willwith great care, constraining him to obey, but encouraging thehabit of deciding and acting for himself in matters which mightsafely be left to him. His mother believed that a strong will, directed upon worthy objects, was a valuable manly quality ifproperly guided, and she acted accordingly. When others about hercommented on the boy's self-will, she would merely say, "Nevermind--he is self-willed now--you will see it will turn out well inthe end. " Fowell learnt very little at school, and was regarded asa dunce and an idler. He got other boys to do his exercises forhim, while he romped and scrambled about. He returned home atfifteen, a great, growing, awkward lad, fond only of boating, shooting, riding, and field sports, --spending his time principallywith the gamekeeper, a man possessed of a good heart, --anintelligent observer of life and nature, though he could neitherread nor write. Buxton had excellent raw material in him, but hewanted culture, training, and development. At this juncture of hislife, when his habits were being formed for good or evil, he washappily thrown into the society of the Gurney family, distinguishedfor their fine social qualities not less than for theirintellectual culture and public-spirited philanthropy. Thisintercourse with the Gurneys, he used afterwards to say, gave thecolouring to his life. They encouraged his efforts at self-culture; and when he went to the University of Dublin and gainedhigh honours there, the animating passion in his mind, he said, "was to carry back to them the prizes which they prompted andenabled me to win. " He married one of the daughters of the family, and started in life, commencing as a clerk to his uncles Hanbury, the London brewers. His power of will, which made him so difficultto deal with as a boy, now formed the backbone of his character, and made him most indefatigable and energetic in whatever heundertook. He threw his whole strength and bulk right down uponhis work; and the great giant--"Elephant Buxton" they called him, for he stood some six feet four in height--became one of the mostvigorous and practical of men. "I could brew, " he said, "onehour, --do mathematics the next, --and shoot the next, --and each withmy whole soul. " There was invincible energy and determination inwhatever he did. Admitted a partner, he became the active managerof the concern; and the vast business which he conducted felt hisinfluence through every fibre, and prospered far beyond itsprevious success. Nor did he allow his mind to lie fallow, for hegave his evenings diligently to self-culture, studying anddigesting Blackstone, Montesquieu, and solid commentaries onEnglish law. His maxims in reading were, "never to begin a bookwithout finishing it;" "never to consider a book finished until itis mastered;" and "to study everything with the whole mind. "

When only thirty-two, Buxton entered parliament, and at onceassumed that position of influence there, of which every honest, earnest, well-informed man is secure, who enters that assembly ofthe first gentlemen in the world. The principal question to whichhe devoted himself was the complete emancipation of the slaves inthe British colonies. He himself used to attribute the interestwhich he early felt in this question to the influence of PriscillaGurney, one of the Earlham family, --a woman of a fine intellect andwarm heart, abounding in illustrious virtues. When on herdeathbed, in 1821, she repeatedly sent for Buxton, and urged him"to make the cause of the slaves the great object of his life. "Her last act was to attempt to reiterate the solemn charge, and sheexpired in the ineffectual effort. Buxton never forgot hercounsel; he named one of his daughters after her; and on the day onwhich she was married from his house, on the 1st of August, 1834, --the day of Negro emancipation--after his Priscilla had beenmanumitted from her filial service, and left her father's home inthe company of her husband, Buxton sat down and thus wrote to afriend: "The bride is just gone; everything has passed off toadmiration; and THERE IS NOT A SLAVE IN THE BRITISH COLONIES!"

Buxton was no genius--not a great intellectual leader nordiscoverer, but mainly an earnest, straightforward, resolute, energetic man. Indeed, his whole character is most forciblyexpressed in his own words, which every young man might well stampupon his soul: "The longer I live, " said he, "the more I amcertain that the great difference between men, between the feebleand the powerful, the great and the insignificant, is ENERGY--INVINCIBLE DETERMINATION--a purpose once fixed, and then death orvictory! That quality will do anything that can be done in thisworld; and no talents, no circumstances, no opportunities, willmake a two-legged creature a Man without it. "

CHAPTER IX--MEN OF BUSINESS

"Seest thou a man diligent in his business? he shall stand beforekings. "--Proverbs of Solomon. 

"That man is but of the lower part of the world that is not broughtup to business and affairs. "--Owen Feltham

Hazlitt, in one of his clever essays, represents the man ofbusiness as a mean sort of person put in a go-cart, yoked to atrade or profession; alleging that all he has to do is, not to goout of the beaten track, but merely to let his affairs take theirown course. "The great requisite, " he says, "for the prosperousmanagement of ordinary business is the want of imagination, or ofany ideas but those of custom and interest on the narrowest scale. "{24} But nothing could be more one-sided, and in effect untrue, than such a definition. Of course, there are narrow-minded men ofbusiness, as there are narrow-minded scientific men, literary men, and legislators; but there are also business men of large andcomprehensive minds, capable of action on the very largest scale. As Burke said in his speech on the India Bill, he knew statesmenwho were pedlers, and merchants who acted in the spirit ofstatesmen. 

If we take into account the qualities necessary for the successfulconduct of any important undertaking, --that it requires specialaptitude, promptitude of action on emergencies, capacity fororganizing the labours often of large numbers of men, great tactand knowledge of human nature, constant self-culture, and growingexperience in the practical affairs of life, --it must, we think, beobvious that the school of business is by no means so narrow assome writers would have us believe. Mr. Helps had gone much nearerthe truth when he said that consummate men of business are as rarealmost as great poets, --rarer, perhaps, than veritable saints andmartyrs. Indeed, of no other pursuit can it so emphatically besaid, as of this, that "Business makes men. "

It has, however, been a favourite fallacy with dunces in all times, that men of genius are unfitted for business, as well as thatbusiness occupations unfit men for the pursuits of genius. Theunhappy youth who committed suicide a few years since because hehad been "born to be a man and condemned to be a grocer, " proved bythe act that his soul was not equal even to the dignity of grocery. For it is not the calling that degrades the man, but the man thatdegrades the calling. All work that brings honest gain ishonourable, whether it be of hand or mind. The fingers may besoiled, yet the heart remain pure; for it is not material so muchas moral dirt that defiles--greed far more than grime, and vicethan verdigris. 

The greatest have not disdained to labour honestly and usefully fora living, though at the same time aiming after higher things. Thales, the first of the seven sages, Solon, the second founder ofAthens, and Hyperates, the mathematician, were all traders. Plato, called the Divine by reason of the excellence of his wisdom, defrayed his travelling expenses in Egypt by the profits derivedfrom the oil which he sold during his journey. Spinoza maintainedhimself by polishing glasses while he pursued his philosophicalinvestigations. Linnaeus, the great botanist, prosecuted hisstudies while hammering leather and making shoes. Shakespeare wasa successful manager of a theatre--perhaps priding himself moreupon his practical qualities in that capacity than on his writingof plays and poetry. Pope was of opinion that Shakespeare'sprincipal object in cultivating literature was to secure an honestindependence. Indeed he seems to have been altogether indifferentto literary reputation. It is not known that he superintended thepublication of a single play, or even sanctioned the printing ofone; and the chronology of his writings is still a mystery. It iscertain, however, that he prospered in his business, and realizedsufficient to enable him to retire upon a competency to his nativetown of Stratford-upon-Avon. 

Chaucer was in early life a soldier, and afterwards an effectiveCommissioner of Customs, and Inspector of Woods and Crown Lands. Spencer was Secretary to the Lord Deputy of Ireland, was afterwardsSheriff of Cork, and is said to have been shrewd and attentive inmatters of business. Milton, originally a schoolmaster, waselevated to the post of Secretary to the Council of State duringthe Commonwealth; and the extant Order-book of the Council, as wellas many of Milton's letters which are preserved, give abundantevidence of his activity and usefulness in that office. Sir IsaacNewton proved himself an efficient Master of the Mint; the newcoinage of 1694 having been carried on under his immediate personalsuperintendence. Cowper prided himself upon his businesspunctuality, though he confessed that he "never knew a poet, excepthimself, who was punctual in anything. " But against this we mayset the lives of Wordsworth and Scott--the former a distributor ofstamps, the latter a clerk to the Court of Session, --both of whom, though great poets, were eminently punctual and practical men ofbusiness. David Ricardo, amidst the occupations of his dailybusiness as a London stock-jobber, in conducting which he acquiredan ample fortune, was able to concentrate his mind upon hisfavourite subject--on which he was enabled to throw great light--the principles of political economy; for he united in himself thesagacious commercial man and the profound philosopher. Baily, theeminent astronomer, was another stockbroker; and Allen, thechemist, was a silk manufacturer. 

We have abundant illustrations, in our own day, of the fact thatthe highest intellectual power is not incompatible with the activeand efficient performance of routine duties. Grote, the greathistorian of Greece, was a London banker. And it is not long sinceJohn Stuart Mill, one of our greatest living thinkers, retired fromthe Examiner's department of the East India Company, carrying withhim the admiration and esteem of his fellow officers, not onaccount of his high views of philosophy, but because of the highstandard of efficiency which he had established in his office, andthe thoroughly satisfactory manner in which he had conducted thebusiness of his department. 

The path of success in business is usually the path of commonsense. Patient labour and application are as necessary here as inthe acquisition of knowledge or the pursuit of science. The oldGreeks said, "to become an able man in any profession, three thingsare necessary--nature, study, and practice. " In business, practice, wisely and diligently improved, is the great secret ofsuccess. Some may make what are called "lucky hits, " but likemoney earned by gambling, such "hits" may only serve to lure one toruin. Bacon was accustomed to say that it was in business as inways--the nearest way was commonly the foulest, and that if a manwould go the fairest way he must go somewhat about. The journeymay occupy a longer time, but the pleasure of the labour involvedby it, and the enjoyment of the results produced, will be moregenuine and unalloyed. To have a daily appointed task of evencommon drudgery to do makes the rest of life feel all the sweeter. 

The fable of the labours of Hercules is the type of all human doingand success. Every youth should be made to feel that his happinessand well-doing in life must necessarily rely mainly on himself andthe exercise of his own energies, rather than upon the help andpatronage of others. The late Lord Melbourne embodied a piece ofuseful advice in a letter which he wrote to Lord John Russell, inreply to an application for a provision for one of Moore the poet'ssons: "My dear John, " he said, "I return you Moore's letter. Ishall be ready to do what you like about it when we have the means. I think whatever is done should be done for Moore himself. This ismore distinct, direct, and intelligible. Making a small provisionfor young men is hardly justifiable; and it is of all things themost prejudicial to themselves. They think what they have muchlarger than it really is; and they make no exertion. The youngshould never hear any language but this: 'You have your own way tomake, and it depends upon your own exertions whether you starve ornot. ' Believe me, &c. , MELBOURNE. "

Practical industry, wisely and vigorously applied, always producesits due effects. It carries a man onward, brings out hisindividual character, and stimulates the action of others. All maynot rise equally, yet each, on the whole, very much according tohis deserts. "Though all cannot live on the piazza, " as the Tuscanproverb has it, "every one may feel the sun. "

On the whole, it is not good that human nature should have the roadof life made too easy. Better to be under the necessity of workinghard and faring meanly, than to have everything done ready to ourhand and a pillow of down to repose upon. Indeed, to start in lifewith comparatively small means seems so necessary as a stimulus towork, that it may almost be set down as one of the conditionsessential to success in life. Hence, an eminent judge, when askedwhat contributed most to success at the bar, replied, "Some succeedby great talent, some by high connexions, some by miracle, but themajority by commencing without a shilling. "

We have heard of an architect of considerable accomplishments, --aman who had improved himself by long study, and travel in theclassical lands of the East, --who came home to commence thepractice of his profession. He determined to begin anywhere, provided he could be employed; and he accordingly undertook abusiness connected with dilapidations, --one of the lowest and leastremunerative departments of the architect's calling. But he hadthe good sense not to be above his trade, and he had the resolutionto work his way upward, so that he only got a fair start. One hotday in July a friend found him sitting astride of a house roofoccupied with his dilapidation business. Drawing his hand acrosshis perspiring countenance, he exclaimed, "Here's a pretty businessfor a man who has been all over Greece!" However, he did his work, such as it was, thoroughly and well; he persevered until headvanced by degrees to more remunerative branches of employment, and eventually he rose to the highest walks of his profession. 

The necessity of labour may, indeed, be regarded as the main rootand spring of all that we call progress in individuals, andcivilization in nations; and it is doubtful whether any heaviercurse could be imposed on man than the complete gratification ofall his wishes without effort on his part, leaving nothing for hishopes, desires or struggles. The feeling that life is destitute ofany motive or necessity for action, must be of all others the mostdistressing and insupportable to a rational being. The Marquis deSpinola asking Sir Horace Vere what his brother died of, Sir Horacereplied, "He died, Sir, of having nothing to do. " "Alas!" saidSpinola, "that is enough to kill any general of us all. "

Those who fail in life are however very apt to assume a tone ofinjured innocence, and conclude too hastily that everybodyexcepting themselves has had a hand in their personal misfortunes. An eminent writer lately published a book, in which he describedhis numerous failures in business, naively admitting, at the sametime, that he was ignorant of the multiplication table; and he cameto the conclusion that the real cause of his ill-success in lifewas the money-worshipping spirit of the age. Lamartine also didnot hesitate to profess his contempt for arithmetic; but, had itbeen less, probably we should not have witnessed the unseemlyspectacle of the admirers of that distinguished personage engagedin collecting subscriptions for his support in his old age. 

Again, some consider themselves born to ill luck, and make up theirminds that the world invariably goes against them without any faulton their own part. We have heard of a person of this sort, whowent so far as to declare his belief that if he had been a hatterpeople would have been born without heads! There is however aRussian proverb which says that Misfortune is next door toStupidity; and it will often be found that men who are constantlylamenting their luck, are in some way or other reaping theconsequences of their own neglect, mismanagement, improvidence, orwant of application. Dr. Johnson, who came up to London with asingle guinea in his pocket, and who once accurately describedhimself in his signature to a letter addressed to a noble lord, asImpransus, or Dinnerless, has honestly said, "All the complaintswhich are made of the world are unjust; I never knew a man of meritneglected; it was generally by his own fault that he failed ofsuccess. "

Washington Irying, the American author, held like views. "As forthe talk, " said he, "about modest merit being neglected, it is toooften a cant, by which indolent and irresolute men seek to laytheir want of success at the door of the public. Modest merit is, however, too apt to be inactive, or negligent, or uninstructedmerit. Well matured and well disciplined talent is always sure ofa market, provided it exerts itself; but it must not cower at homeand expect to be sought for. There is a good deal of cant tooabout the success of forward and impudent men, while men ofretiring worth are passed over with neglect. But it usuallyhappens that those forward men have that valuable quality ofpromptness and activity without which worth is a mere inoperativeproperty. A barking dog is often more useful than a sleepinglion. "

Attention, application, accuracy, method, punctuality, anddespatch, are the principal qualities required for the efficientconduct of business of any sort. These, at first sight, may appearto be small matters; and yet they are of essential importance tohuman happiness, well-being, and usefulness. They are littlethings, it is true; but human life is made up of comparativetrifles. It is the repetition of little acts which constitute notonly the sum of human character, but which determine the characterof nations. And where men or nations have broken down, it willalmost invariably be found that neglect of little things was therock on which they split. Every human being has duties to beperformed, and, therefore, has need of cultivating the capacity fordoing them; whether the sphere of action be the management of ahousehold, the conduct of a trade or profession, or the governmentof a nation. 

The examples we have already given of great workers in variousbranches of industry, art, and science, render it unnecessaryfurther to enforce the importance of persevering application in anydepartment of life. It is the result of every-day experience thatsteady attention to matters of detail lies at the root of humanprogress; and that diligence, above all, is the mother of goodluck. Accuracy is also of much importance, and an invariable markof good training in a man. Accuracy in observation, accuracy inspeech, accuracy in the transaction of affairs. What is done inbusiness must be well done; for it is better to accomplishperfectly a small amount of work, than to half-do ten times asmuch. A wise man used to say, "Stay a little, that we may make anend the sooner. "

Too little attention, however, is paid to this highly importantquality of accuracy. As a man eminent in practical science latelyobserved to us, "It is astonishing how few people I have met within the course of my experience, who can DEFINE A FACT accurately. "Yet in business affairs, it is the manner in which even smallmatters are transacted, that often decides men for or against you. With virtue, capacity, and good conduct in other respects, theperson who is habitually inaccurate cannot be trusted; his work hasto be gone over again; and he thus causes an infinity of annoyance, vexation, and trouble. 

It was one of the characteristic qualities of Charles James Fox, that he was thoroughly pains-taking in all that he did. Whenappointed Secretary of State, being piqued at some observation asto his bad writing, he actually took a writing-master, and wrotecopies like a schoolboy until he had sufficiently improved himself. Though a corpulent man, he was wonderfully active at picking up cuttennis balls, and when asked how he contrived to do so, heplayfully replied, "Because I am a very pains-taking man. " Thesame accuracy in trifling matters was displayed by him in things ofgreater importance; and he acquired his reputation, like thepainter, by "neglecting nothing. "

Method is essential, and enables a larger amount of work to be gotthrough with satisfaction. "Method, " said the Reverend RichardCecil, "is like packing things in a box; a good packer will get inhalf as much again as a bad one. " Cecil's despatch of business wasextraordinary, his maxim being, "The shortest way to do many thingsis to do only one thing at once;" and he never left a thing undonewith a view of recurring to it at a period of more leisure. Whenbusiness pressed, he rather chose to encroach on his hours of mealsand rest than omit any part of his work. De Witt's maxim was likeCecil's: "One thing at a time. " "If, " said he, "I have anynecessary despatches to make, I think of nothing else till they arefinished; if any domestic affairs require my attention, I givemyself wholly up to them till they are set in order. "

A French minister, who was alike remarkable for his despatch ofbusiness and his constant attendance at places of amusement, beingasked how he contrived to combine both objects, replied, "Simply bynever postponing till to-morrow what should be done to-day. " LordBrougham has said that a certain English statesman reversed theprocess, and that his maxim was, never to transact to-day whatcould be postponed till to-morrow. Unhappily, such is the practiceof many besides that minister, already almost forgotten; thepractice is that of the indolent and the unsuccessful. Such men, too, are apt to rely upon agents, who are not always to be reliedupon. Important affairs must be attended to in person. "If youwant your business done, " says the proverb, "go and do it; if youdon't want it done, send some one else. "

An indolent country gentleman had a freehold estate producing aboutfive hundred a-year. Becoming involved in debt, he sold half theestate, and let the remainder to an industrious farmer for twentyyears. About the end of the term the farmer called to pay hisrent, and asked the owner whether he would sell the farm. "WillYOU buy it?" asked the owner, surprised. "Yes, if we can agreeabout the price. " "That is exceedingly strange, " observed thegentleman; "pray, tell me how it happens that, while I could notlive upon twice as much land for which I paid no rent, you areregularly paying me two hundred a-year for your farm, and are able, in a few years, to purchase it. " "The reason is plain, " was thereply; "you sat still and said GO, I got up and said COME; you laidin bed and enjoyed your estate, I rose in the morning and minded mybusiness. "

Sir Walter Scott, writing to a youth who had obtained a situationand asked for his advice, gave him in reply this sound counsel:"Beware of stumbling over a propensity which easily besets you fromnot having your time fully employed--I mean what the women callDAWDLING. Your motto must be, Hoc age. Do instantly whatever isto be done, and take the hours of recreation after business, neverbefore it. When a regiment is under march, the rear is oftenthrown into confusion because the front do not move steadily andwithout interruption. It is the same with business. If that whichis first in hand is not instantly, steadily, and regularlydespatched, other things accumulate behind, till affairs begin topress all at once, and no human brain can stand the confusion. "

Promptitude in action may be stimulated by a due consideration ofthe value of time. An Italian philosopher was accustomed to calltime his estate: an estate which produces nothing of value withoutcultivation, but, duly improved, never fails to recompense thelabours of the diligent worker. Allowed to lie waste, the productwill be only noxious weeds and vicious growths of all kinds. Oneof the minor uses of steady employment is, that it keeps one out ofmischief, for truly an idle brain is the devil's workshop, and alazy man the devil's bolster. To be occupied is to be possessed asby a tenant, whereas to be idle is to be empty; and when the doorsof the imagination are opened, temptation finds a ready access, andevil thoughts come trooping in. It is observed at sea, that menare never so much disposed to grumble and mutiny as when leastemployed. Hence an old captain, when there was nothing else to do, would issue the order to "scour the anchor!"

Men of business are accustomed to quote the maxim that Time ismoney; but it is more; the proper improvement of it is self-culture, self-improvement, and growth of character. An hour wasteddaily on trifles or in indolence, would, if devoted to self-improvement, make an ignorant man wise in a few years, and employedin good works, would make his life fruitful, and death a harvest ofworthy deeds. Fifteen minutes a day devoted to self-improvement, will be felt at the end of the year. Good thoughts and carefullygathered experience take up no room, and may be carried about asour companions everywhere, without cost or incumbrance. Aneconomical use of time is the true mode of securing leisure: itenables us to get through business and carry it forward, instead ofbeing driven by it. On the other hand, the miscalculation of timeinvolves us in perpetual hurry, confusion, and difficulties; andlife becomes a mere shuffle of expedients, usually followed bydisaster. Nelson once said, "I owe all my success in life tohaving been always a quarter of an hour before my time. "

Some take no thought of the value of money until they have come toan end of it, and many do the same with their time. The hours areallowed to flow by unemployed, and then, when life is fast waning, they bethink themselves of the duty of making a wiser use of it. But the habit of listlessness and idleness may already have becomeconfirmed, and they are unable to break the bonds with which theyhave permitted themselves to become bound. Lost wealth may bereplaced by industry, lost knowledge by study, lost health bytemperance or medicine, but lost time is gone for ever. 

A proper consideration of the value of time, will also inspirehabits of punctuality. "Punctuality, " said Louis XIV. , "is thepoliteness of kings. " It is also the duty of gentlemen, and thenecessity of men of business. Nothing begets confidence in a mansooner than the practice of this virtue, and nothing shakesconfidence sooner than the want of it. He who holds to hisappointment and does not keep you waiting for him, shows that hehas regard for your time as well as for his own. Thus punctualityis one of the modes by which we testify our personal respect forthose whom we are called upon to meet in the business of life. Itis also conscientiousness in a measure; for an appointment is acontract, express or implied, and he who does not keep it breaksfaith, as well as dishonestly uses other people's time, and thusinevitably loses character. We naturally come to the conclusionthat the person who is careless about time will be careless aboutbusiness, and that he is not the one to be trusted with thetransaction of matters of importance. When Washington's secretaryexcused himself for the lateness of his attendance and laid theblame upon his watch, his master quietly said, "Then you must getanother watch, or I another secretary. "

The person who is negligent of time and its employment is usuallyfound to be a general disturber of others' peace and serenity. Itwas wittily said by Lord Chesterfield of the old Duke of Newcastle--"His Grace loses an hour in the morning, and is looking for it allthe rest of the day. " Everybody with whom the unpunctual man hasto do is thrown from time to time into a state of fever: he issystematically late; regular only in his irregularity. He conductshis dawdling as if upon system; arrives at his appointment aftertime; gets to the railway station after the train has started;posts his letter when the box has closed. Thus business is throwninto confusion, and everybody concerned is put out of temper. Itwill generally be found that the men who are thus habitually behindtime are as habitually behind success; and the world generallycasts them aside to swell the ranks of the grumblers and therailers against fortune. 

In addition to the ordinary working qualities the business man ofthe highest class requires quick perception and firmness in theexecution of his plans. Tact is also important; and though this ispartly the gift of nature, it is yet capable of being cultivatedand developed by observation and experience. Men of this qualityare quick to see the right mode of action, and if they havedecision of purpose, are prompt to carry out their undertakings toa successful issue. These qualities are especially valuable, andindeed indispensable, in those who direct the action of other menon a large scale, as for instance, in the case of the commander ofan army in the field. It is not merely necessary that the generalshould be great as a warrior but also as a man of business. Hemust possess great tact, much knowledge of character, and abilityto organize the movements of a large mass of men, whom he has tofeed, clothe, and furnish with whatever may be necessary in orderthat they may keep the field and win battles. In these respectsNapoleon and Wellington were both first-rate men of business. 

Though Napoleon had an immense love for details, he had also avivid power of imagination, which enabled him to look alongextended lines of action, and deal with those details on a largescale, with judgment and rapidity. He possessed such knowledge ofcharacter as enabled him to select, almost unerringly, the bestagents for the execution of his designs. But he trusted as littleas possible to agents in matters of great moment, on whichimportant results depended. This feature in his character isillustrated in a remarkable degree by the 'NapoleonCorrespondence, ' now in course of publication, and particularly bythe contents of the 15th volume, {25} which include the letters, orders, and despatches, written by the Emperor at Finkenstein, alittle chateau on the frontier of Poland in the year 1807, shortlyafter the victory of Eylau. 

The French army was then lying encamped along the river Passargewith the Russians before them, the Austrians on their right flank, and the conquered Prussians in their rear. A long line ofcommunications had to be maintained with France, through a hostilecountry; but so carefully, and with such foresight was thisprovided for, that it is said Napoleon never missed a post. Themovements of armies, the bringing up of reinforcements from remotepoints in France, Spain, Italy, and Germany, the opening of canalsand the levelling of roads to enable the produce of Poland andPrussia to be readily transported to his encampments, had hisunceasing attention, down to the minutest details. We find himdirecting where horses were to be obtained, making arrangements foran adequate supply of saddles, ordering shoes for the soldiers, andspecifying the number of rations of bread, biscuit, and spirits, that were to be brought to camp, or stored in magazines for the useof the troops. At the same time we find him writing to Parisgiving directions for the reorganization of the French College, devising a scheme of public education, dictating bulletins andarticles for the 'Moniteur, ' revising the details of the budgets, giving instructions to architects as to alterations to be made atthe Tuileries and the Church of the Madelaine, throwing anoccasional sarcasm at Madame de Stael and the Parisian journals, interfering to put down a squabble at the Grand Opera, carrying ona correspondence with the Sultan of Turkey and the Schah of Persia, so that while his body was at Finkenstein, his mind seemed to beworking at a hundred different places in Paris, in Europe, andthroughout the world. 

We find him in one letter asking Ney if he has duly received themuskets which have been sent him; in another he gives directions toPrince Jerome as to the shirts, greatcoats, clothes, shoes, shakos, and arms, to be served out to the Wurtemburg regiments; again hepresses Cambaceres to forward to the army a double stock of corn--"The IFS and the BUTS, " said he, "are at present out of season, andabove all it must be done with speed. " Then he informs Daru thatthe army want shirts, and that they don't come to hand. To Massenahe writes, "Let me know if your biscuit and bread arrangements areyet completed. " To the Grand due de Berg, he gives directions asto the accoutrements of the cuirassiers--"They complain that themen want sabres; send an officer to obtain them at Posen. It isalso said they want helmets; order that they be made at Ebling. . .. It is not by sleeping that one can accomplish anything. " Thus nopoint of detail was neglected, and the energies of all werestimulated into action with extraordinary power. Though many ofthe Emperor's days were occupied by inspections of his troops, --inthe course of which he sometimes rode from thirty to forty leaguesa day, --and by reviews, receptions, and affairs of state, leavingbut little time for business matters, he neglected nothing on thataccount; but devoted the greater part of his nights, whennecessary, to examining budgets, dictating dispatches, andattending to the thousand matters of detail in the organization andworking of the Imperial Government; the machinery of which was forthe most part concentrated in his own head. 

Like Napoleon, the Duke of Wellington was a first-rate man ofbusiness; and it is not perhaps saying too much to aver that it wasin no small degree because of his possession of a business facultyamounting to genius, that the Duke never lost a battle. 

While a subaltern, he became dissatisfied with the slowness of hispromotion, and having passed from the infantry to the cavalrytwice, and back again, without advancement, he applied to LordCamden, then Viceroy of Ireland, for employment in the Revenue orTreasury Board. Had he succeeded, no doubt he would have made afirst-rate head of a department, as he would have made a first-ratemerchant or manufacturer. But his application failed, and heremained with the army to become the greatest of British generals. 

The Duke began his active military career under the Duke of Yorkand General Walmoden, in Flanders and Holland, where he learnt, amidst misfortunes and defeats, how bad business arrangements andbad generalship serve to ruin the morale of an army. Ten yearsafter entering the army we find him a colonel in India, reported byhis superiors as an officer of indefatigable energy andapplication. He entered into the minutest details of the service, and sought to raise the discipline of his men to the higheststandard. "The regiment of Colonel Wellesley, " wrote GeneralHarris in 1799, "is a model regiment; on the score of soldierlybearing, discipline, instruction, and orderly behaviour it is aboveall praise. " Thus qualifying himself for posts of greaterconfidence, he was shortly after nominated governor of the capitalof Mysore. In the war with the Mahrattas he was first called uponto try his hand at generalship; and at thirty-four he won thememorable battle of Assaye, with an army composed of 1500 Britishand 5000 sepoys, over 20, 000 Mahratta infantry and 30, 000 cavalry. But so brilliant a victory did not in the least disturb hisequanimity, or affect the perfect honesty of his character. 

Shortly after this event the opportunity occurred for exhibitinghis admirable practical qualities as an administrator. Placed incommand of an important district immediately after the capture ofSeringapatam, his first object was to establish rigid order anddiscipline among his own men. Flushed with victory, the troopswere found riotous and disorderly. "Send me the provost marshal, "said he, "and put him under my orders: till some of the maraudersare hung, it is impossible to expect order or safety. " This rigidseverity of Wellington in the field, though it was the dread, proved the salvation of his troops in many campaigns. His nextstep was to re-establish the markets and re-open the sources ofsupply. General Harris wrote to the Governor-general, stronglycommending Colonel Wellesley for the perfect discipline he hadestablished, and for his "judicious and masterly arrangements inrespect to supplies, which opened an abundant free market, andinspired confidence into dealers of every description. " The sameclose attention to, and mastery of details, characterized himthroughout his Indian career; and it is remarkable that one of hisablest despatches to Lord Clive, full of practical information asto the conduct of the campaign, was written whilst the column hecommanded was crossing the Toombuddra, in the face of the vastlysuperior army of Dhoondiah, posted on the opposite bank, and whilea thousand matters of the deepest interest were pressing upon thecommander's mind. But it was one of his most remarkablecharacteristics, thus to be able to withdraw himself temporarilyfrom the business immediately in hand, and to bend his full powersupon the consideration of matters totally distinct; even the mostdifficult circumstances on such occasions failing to embarrass orintimidate him. 

Returned to England with a reputation for generalship, Sir ArthurWellesley met with immediate employment. In 1808 a corps of 10, 000men destined to liberate Portugal was placed under his charge. Helanded, fought, and won two battles, and signed the Convention ofCintra. After the death of Sir John Moore he was entrusted withthe command of a new expedition to Portugal. But Wellington wasfearfully overmatched throughout his Peninsular campaigns. From1809 to 1813 he never had more than 30, 000 British troops under hiscommand, at a time when there stood opposed to him in the Peninsulasome 350, 000 French, mostly veterans, led by some of Napoleon'sablest generals. How was he to contend against such immense forceswith any fair prospect of success? His clear discernment andstrong common sense soon taught him that he must adopt a differentpolicy from that of the Spanish generals, who were invariablybeaten and dispersed whenever they ventured to offer battle in theopen plains. He perceived he had yet to create the army that wasto contend against the French with any reasonable chance ofsuccess. Accordingly, after the battle of Talavera in 1809, whenhe found himself encompassed on all sides by superior forces ofFrench, he retired into Portugal, there to carry out the settledpolicy on which he had by this time determined. It was, toorganise a Portuguese army under British officers, and teach themto act in combination with his own troops, in the mean timeavoiding the peril of a defeat by declining all engagements. Hewould thus, he conceived, destroy the morale of the French, whocould not exist without victories; and when his army was ripe foraction, and the enemy demoralized, he would then fall upon themwith all his might. 

The extraordinary qualities displayed by Lord Wellington throughoutthese immortal campaigns, can only be appreciated after a perusalof his despatches, which contain the unvarnished tale of themanifold ways and means by which he laid the foundations of hissuccess. Never was man more tried by difficulty and opposition, arising not less from the imbecility, falsehoods and intrigues ofthe British Government of the day, than from the selfishness, cowardice, and vanity of the people he went to save. It may, indeed, be said of him, that he sustained the war in Spain by hisindividual firmness and self-reliance, which never failed him evenin the midst of his great discouragements. He had not only tofight Napoleon's veterans, but also to hold in check the Spanishjuntas and the Portuguese regency. He had the utmost difficulty inobtaining provisions and clothing for his troops; and it willscarcely be credited that, while engaged with the enemy in thebattle of Talavera, the Spaniards, who ran away, fell upon thebaggage of the British army, and the ruffians actually plunderedit! These and other vexations the Duke bore with a sublimepatience and self-control, and held on his course, in the face ofingratitude, treachery, and opposition, with indomitable firmness. He neglected nothing, and attended to every important detail ofbusiness himself. When he found that food for his troops was notto be obtained from England, and that he must rely upon his ownresources for feeding them, he forthwith commenced business as acorn merchant on a large scale, in copartnery with the BritishMinister at Lisbon. Commissariat bills were created, with whichgrain was bought in the ports of the Mediterranean and in SouthAmerica. When he had thus filled his magazines, the overplus wassold to the Portuguese, who were greatly in want of provisions. Heleft nothing whatever to chance, but provided for everycontingency. He gave his attention to the minutest details of theservice; and was accustomed to concentrate his whole energies, fromtime to time, on such apparently ignominious matters as soldiers'shoes, camp-kettles, biscuits and horse fodder. His magnificentbusiness qualities were everywhere felt, and there can be no doubtthat, by the care with which he provided for every contingency, andthe personal attention which he gave to every detail, he laid thefoundations of his great success. {26} By such means hetransformed an army of raw levies into the best soldiers in Europe, with whom he declared it to be possible to go anywhere and doanything. 

We have already referred to his remarkable power of abstractinghimself from the work, no matter how engrossing, immediately inhand, and concentrating his energies upon the details of someentirely different business. Thus Napier relates that it was whilehe was preparing to fight the battle of Salamanca that he had toexpose to the Ministers at home the futility of relying upon aloan; it was on the heights of San Christoval, on the field ofbattle itself, that he demonstrated the absurdity of attempting toestablish a Portuguese bank; it was in the trenches of Burgos thathe dissected Funchal's scheme of finance, and exposed the folly ofattempting the sale of church property; and on each occasion, heshowed himself as well acquainted with these subjects as with theminutest detail in the mechanism of armies. 

Another feature in his character, showing the upright man ofbusiness, was his thorough honesty. Whilst Soult ransacked andcarried away with him from Spain numerous pictures of great value, Wellington did not appropriate to himself a single farthing's worthof property. Everywhere he paid his way, even when in the enemy'scountry. When he had crossed the French frontier, followed by40, 000 Spaniards, who sought to "make fortunes" by pillage andplunder, he first rebuked their officers, and then, finding hisefforts to restrain them unavailing, he sent them back into theirown country. It is a remarkable fact, that, even in France thepeasantry fled from their own countrymen, and carried theirvaluables within the protection of the British lines! At the verysame time, Wellington was writing home to the British Ministry, "Weare overwhelmed with debts, and I can scarcely stir out of my houseon account of public creditors waiting to demand payment of what isdue to them. " Jules Maurel, in his estimate of the Duke'scharacter, says, "Nothing can be grander or more nobly originalthan this admission. This old soldier, after thirty years'service, this iron man and victorious general, established in anenemy's country at the head of an immense army, is afraid of hiscreditors! This is a kind of fear that has seldom troubled themind of conquerors and invaders; and I doubt if the annals of warcould present anything comparable to this sublime simplicity. " Butthe Duke himself, had the matter been put to him, would mostprobably have disclaimed any intention of acting even grandly ornobly in the matter; merely regarding the punctual payment of hisdebts as the best and most honourable mode of conducting hisbusiness. 

The truth of the good old maxim, that "Honesty is the best policy, "is upheld by the daily experience of life; uprightness andintegrity being found as successful in business as in everythingelse. As Hugh Miller's worthy uncle used to advise him, "In allyour dealings give your neighbour the cast of the bank--'goodmeasure, heaped up, and running over, '--and you will not lose by itin the end. " A well-known brewer of beer attributed his success tothe liberality with which he used his malt. Going up to the vatand tasting it, he would say, "Still rather poor, my lads; give itanother cast of the malt. " The brewer put his character into hisbeer, and it proved generous accordingly, obtaining a reputation inEngland, India, and the colonies, which laid the foundation of alarge fortune. Integrity of word and deed ought to be the verycornerstone of all business transactions. To the tradesman, themerchant, and manufacturer, it should be what honour is to thesoldier, and charity to the Christian. In the humblest callingthere will always be found scope for the exercise of thisuprightness of character. Hugh Miller speaks of the mason withwhom he served his apprenticeship, as one who "PUT HIS CONSCIENCEINTO EVERY STONE THAT HE LAID. " So the true mechanic will pridehimself upon the thoroughness and solidity of his work, and thehigh-minded contractor upon the honesty of performance of hiscontract in every particular. The upright manufacturer will findnot only honour and reputation, but substantial success, in thegenuineness of the article which he produces, and the merchant inthe honesty of what he sells, and that it really is what it seemsto be. Baron Dupin, speaking of the general probity of Englishmen, which he held to be a principal cause of their success, observed, "We may succeed for a time by fraud, by surprise, by violence; butwe can succeed permanently only by means directly opposite. It isnot alone the courage, the intelligence, the activity, of themerchant and manufacturer which maintain the superiority of theirproductions and the character of their country; it is far moretheir wisdom, their economy, and, above all, their probity. Ifever in the British Islands the useful citizen should lose thesevirtues, we may be sure that, for England, as for every othercountry, the vessels of a degenerate commerce, repulsed from everyshore, would speedily disappear from those seas whose surface theynow cover with the treasures of the universe, bartered for thetreasures of the industry of the three kingdoms. "

It must be admitted, that Trade tries character perhaps moreseverely than any other pursuit in life. It puts to the severesttests honesty, self-denial, justice, and truthfulness; and men ofbusiness who pass through such trials unstained are perhaps worthyof as great honour as soldiers who prove their courage amidst thefire and perils of battle. And, to the credit of the multitudes ofmen engaged in the various departments of trade, we think it mustbe admitted that on the whole they pass through their trials nobly. If we reflect but for a moment on the vast amount of wealth dailyentrusted even to subordinate persons, who themselves probably earnbut a bare competency--the loose cash which is constantly passingthrough the hands of shopmen, agents, brokers, and clerks inbanking houses, --and note how comparatively few are the breaches oftrust which occur amidst all this temptation, it will probably beadmitted that this steady daily honesty of conduct is mosthonourable to human nature, if it do not even tempt us to be proudof it. The same trust and confidence reposed by men of business ineach other, as implied by the system of Credit, which is mainlybased upon the principle of honour, would be surprising if it werenot so much a matter of ordinary practice in business transactions. Dr. Chalmers has well said, that the implicit trust with whichmerchants are accustomed to confide in distant agents, separatedfrom them perhaps by half the globe--often consigning vast wealthto persons, recommended only by their character, whom perhaps theyhave never seen--is probably the finest act of homage which men canrender to one another. 

Although common honesty is still happily in the ascendant amongstcommon people, and the general business community of England isstill sound at heart, putting their honest character into theirrespective callings, --there are unhappily, as there have been inall times, but too many instances of flagrant dishonesty and fraud, exhibited by the unscrupulous, the over-speculative, and theintensely selfish in their haste to be rich. There are tradesmenwho adulterate, contractors who "scamp, " manufacturers who give usshoddy instead of wool, "dressing" instead of cotton, cast-irontools instead of steel, needles without eyes, razors made only "tosell, " and swindled fabrics in many shapes. But these we must holdto be the exceptional cases, of low-minded and grasping men, who, though they may gain wealth which they probably cannot enjoy, willnever gain an honest character, nor secure that without whichwealth is nothing--a heart at peace. "The rogue cozened not me, but his own conscience, " said Bishop Latimer of a cutler who madehim pay twopence for a knife not worth a penny. Money, earned byscrewing, cheating, and overreaching, may for a time dazzle theeyes of the unthinking; but the bubbles blown by unscrupulousrogues, when full-blown, usually glitter only to burst. TheSadleirs, Dean Pauls, and Redpaths, for the most part, come to asad end even in this world; and though the successful swindles ofothers may not be "found out, " and the gains of their roguery mayremain with them, it will be as a curse and not as a blessing. 

It is possible that the scrupulously honest man may not grow richso fast as the unscrupulous and dishonest one; but the success willbe of a truer kind, earned without fraud or injustice. And eventhough a man should for a time be unsuccessful, still he must behonest: better lose all and save character. For character isitself a fortune; and if the high-principled man will but hold onhis way courageously, success will surely come, --nor will thehighest reward of all be withheld from him. Wordsworth welldescribes the "Happy Warrior, " as he

"Who comprehends his trust, and to the sameKeeps faithful with a singleness of aim;And therefore does not stoop, nor lie in waitFor wealth, or honour, or for worldly state;Whom they must follow, on whose head must fall, Like showers of manna, if they come at all. "

As an example of the high-minded mercantile man trained in uprighthabits of business, and distinguished for justice, truthfulness, and honesty of dealing in all things, the career of the well-knownDavid Barclay, grandson of Robert Barclay, of Ury, the author ofthe celebrated 'Apology for the Quakers, ' may be briefly referredto. For many years he was the head of an extensive house inCheapside, chiefly engaged in the American trade; but likeGranville Sharp, he entertained so strong an opinion against thewar with our American colonies, that he determined to retirealtogether from the trade. Whilst a merchant, he was as muchdistinguished for his talents, knowledge, integrity, and power, ashe afterwards was for his patriotism and munificent philanthropy. He was a mirror of truthfulness and honesty; and, as became thegood Christian and true gentleman, his word was always held to beas good as his bond. His position, and his high character, inducedthe Ministers of the day on many occasions to seek his advice; and, when examined before the House of Commons on the subject of theAmerican dispute, his views were so clearly expressed, and hisadvice was so strongly justified by the reasons stated by him, thatLord North publicly acknowledged that he had derived moreinformation from David Barclay than from all others east of TempleBar. On retiring from business, it was not to rest in luxuriousease, but to enter upon new labours of usefulness for others. Withample means, he felt that he still owed to society the duty of agood example. He founded a house of industry near his residence atWalthamstow, which he supported at a heavy outlay for severalyears, until at length he succeeded in rendering it a source ofcomfort as well as independence to the well-disposed families ofthe poor in that neighbourhood. When an estate in Jamaica fell tohim, he determined, though at a cost of some 10, 000l. , at once togive liberty to the whole of the slaves on the property. He sentout an agent, who hired a ship, and he had the little slavecommunity transported to one of the free American states, wherethey settled down and prospered. Mr. Barclay had been assured thatthe negroes were too ignorant and too barbarous for freedom, and itwas thus that he determined practically to demonstrate the fallacyof the assertion. In dealing with his accumulated savings, he madehimself the executor of his own will, and instead of leaving alarge fortune to be divided among his relatives at his death, heextended to them his munificent aid during his life, watched andaided them in their respective careers, and thus not only laid thefoundation, but lived to see the maturity, of some of the largestand most prosperous business concerns in the metropolis. Webelieve that to this day some of our most eminent merchants--suchas the Gurneys, Hanburys, and Buxtons--are proud to acknowledgewith gratitude the obligations they owe to David Barclay for themeans of their first introduction to life, and for the benefits ofhis counsel and countenance in the early stages of their career. Such a man stands as a mark of the mercantile honesty and integrityof his country, and is a model and example for men of business inall time to come. 

CHAPTER X--MONEY--ITS USE AND ABUSE

"Not for to hide it in a hedge, Nor for a train attendant, But for the glorious privilegeOf being independent. "--Burns. 

"Neither a borrower nor a lender be:For loan oft loses both itself and friend;And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. "--Shakepeare. 

Never treat money affairs with levity--Money is character. --Sir E. L. Bulwer Lytton. 

How a man uses money--makes it, saves it, and spends it--is perhapsone of the best tests of practical wisdom. Although money ought byno means to be regarded as a chief end of man's life, neither is ita trifling matter, to be held in philosophic contempt, representingas it does to so large an extent, the means of physical comfort andsocial well-being. Indeed, some of the finest qualities of humannature are intimately related to the right use of money; such asgenerosity, honesty, justice, and self-sacrifice; as well as thepractical virtues of economy and providence. On the other hand, there are their counterparts of avarice, fraud, injustice, andselfishness, as displayed by the inordinate lovers of gain; and thevices of thriftlessness, extravagance, and improvidence, on thepart of those who misuse and abuse the means entrusted to them. "So that, " as is wisely observed by Henry Taylor in his thoughtful'Notes from Life, ' "a right measure and manner in getting, saving, spending, giving, taking, lending, borrowing, and bequeathing, would almost argue a perfect man. "

Comfort in worldly circumstances is a con ion which every man isjustified in striving to attain by all worthy means. It securesthat physical satisfaction, which is necessary for the culture ofthe better part of his nature; and enables him to provide for thoseof his own household, without which, says the Apostle, a man is"worse than an infidel. " Nor ought the duty to be any the lessindifferent to us, that the respect which our fellow-men entertainfor us in no slight degree depends upon the manner in which weexercise the opportunities which present themselves for ourhonourable advancement in life. The very effort required to bemade to succeed in life with this object, is of itself aneducation; stimulating a man's sense of self-respect, bringing outhis practical qualities, and disciplining him in the exercise ofpatience, perseverance, and such like virtues. The provident andcareful man must necessarily be a thoughtful man, for he lives notmerely for the present, but with provident forecast makesarrangements for the future. He must also be a temperate man, andexercise the virtue of self-denial, than which nothing is so muchcalculated to give strength to the character. John Sterling saystruly, that "the worst education which teaches self denial, isbetter than the best which teaches everything else, and not that. "The Romans rightly employed the same word (virtus) to designatecourage, which is in a physical sense what the other is in a moral;the highest virtue of all being victory over ourselves. 

Hence the lesson of self-denial--the sacrificing of a presentgratification for a future good--is one of the last that is learnt. Those classes which work the hardest might naturally be expected tovalue the most the money which they earn. Yet the readiness withwhich so many are accustomed to eat up and drink up their earningsas they go, renders them to a great extent helpless and dependentupon the frugal. There are large numbers of persons among us who, though enjoying sufficient means of comfort and independence, areoften found to be barely a day's march ahead of actual want when atime of pressure occurs; and hence a great cause of socialhelplessness and suffering. On one occasion a deputation waited onLord John Russell, respecting the taxation levied on the workingclasses of the country, when the noble lord took the opportunity ofremarking, "You may rely upon it that the Government of thiscountry durst not tax the working classes to anything like theextent to which they tax themselves in their expenditure uponintoxicating drinks alone!" Of all great public questions, thereis perhaps none more important than this, --no great work of reformcalling more loudly for labourers. But it must be admitted that"self-denial and self-help" would make a poor rallying cry for thehustings; and it is to be feared that the patriotism of this dayhas but little regard for such common things as individual economyand providence, although it is by the practice of such virtues onlythat the genuine independence of the industrial classes is to besecured. "Prudence, frugality, and good management, " said SamuelDrew, the philosophical shoemaker, "are excellent artists formending bad times: they occupy but little room in any dwelling, but would furnish a more effectual remedy for the evils of lifethan any Reform Bill that ever passed the Houses of Parliament. "Socrates said, "Let him that would move the world move firsthimself. " Or as the old rhyme runs -

"If every one would seeTo his own reformation, How very easilyYou might reform a nation. "

It is, however, generally felt to be a far easier thing to reformthe Church and the State than to reform the least of our own badhabits; and in such matters it is usually found more agreeable toour tastes, as it certainly is the common practice, to begin withour neighbours rather than with ourselves. 

Any class of men that lives from hand to mouth will ever be aninferior class. They will necessarily remain impotent andhelpless, hanging on to the skirts of society, the sport of timesand seasons. Having no respect for themselves, they will fail insecuring the respect of others. In commercial crises, such menmust inevitably go to the wall. Wanting that husbanded power whicha store of savings, no matter how small, invariably gives them, they will be at every man's mercy, and, if possessed of rightfeelings, they cannot but regard with fear and trembling the futurepossible fate of their wives and children. "The world, " once saidMr. Cobden to the working men of Huddersfield, "has always beendivided into two classes, --those who have saved, and those who havespent--the thrifty and the extravagant. The building of all thehouses, the mills, the bridges, and the ships, and theaccomplishment of all other great works which have rendered mancivilized and happy, has been done by the savers, the thrifty; andthose who have wasted their resources have always been theirslaves. It has been the law of nature and of Providence that thisshould be so; and I were an impostor if I promised any class thatthey would advance themselves if they were improvident, thoughtless, and idle. "

Equally sound was the advice given by Mr. Bright to an assembly ofworking men at Rochdale, in 1847, when, after expressing his beliefthat, "so far as honesty was concerned, it was to be found inpretty equal amount among all classes, " he used the followingwords:- "There is only one way that is safe for any man, or anynumber of men, by which they can maintain their present position ifit be a good one, or raise themselves above it if it be a bad one, --that is, by the practice of the virtues of industry, frugality, temperance, and honesty. There is no royal road by which men canraise themselves from a position which they feel to beuncomfortable and unsatisfactory, as regards their mental orphysical condition, except by the practice of those virtues bywhich they find numbers amongst them are continually advancing andbettering themselves. "

There is no reason why the condition of the average workman shouldnot be a useful, honourable, respectable, and happy one. The wholebody of the working classes might, (with few exceptions) be asfrugal, virtuous, well-informed, and well-conditioned as manyindividuals of the same class have already made themselves. Whatsome men are, all without difficulty might be. Employ the samemeans, and the same results will follow. That there should be aclass of men who live by their daily labour in every state is theordinance of God, and doubtless is a wise and righteous one; butthat this class should be otherwise than frugal, contented, intelligent, and happy, is not the design of Providence, butsprings solely from the weakness, self-indulgence, and perversenessof man himself. The healthy spirit of self-help created amongstworking people would more than any other measure serve to raisethem as a class, and this, not by pulling down others, but bylevelling them up to a higher and still advancing standard ofreligion, intelligence, and virtue. "All moral philosophy, " saysMontaigne, "is as applicable to a common and private life as to themost splendid. Every man carries the entire form of the humancondition within him. "

When a man casts his glance forward, he will find that the threechief temporal contingencies for which he has to provide are wantof employment, sickness, and death. The two first he may escape, but the last is inevitable. It is, however, the duty of theprudent man so to live, and so to arrange, that the pressure ofsuffering, in event of either contingency occurring, shall bemitigated to as great an extent as possible, not only to himself, but also to those who are dependent upon him for their comfort andsubsistence. Viewed in this light the honest earning and thefrugal use of money are of the greatest importance. Rightlyearned, it is the representative of patient industry and untiringeffort, of temptation resisted, and hope rewarded; and rightlyused, it affords indications of prudence, forethought and self-denial--the true basis of manly character. Though money representsa crowd of objects without any real worth or utility, it alsorepresents many things of great value; not only food, clothing, andhousehold satisfaction, but personal self-respect and independence. Thus a store of savings is to the working man as a barricadeagainst want; it secures him a footing, and enables him to wait, itmay be in cheerfulness and hope, until better days come round. Thevery endeavour to gain a firmer position in the world has a certaindignity in it, and tends to make a man stronger and better. At allevents it gives him greater freedom of action, and enables him tohusband his strength for future effort. 

But the man who is always hovering on the verge of want is in astate not far removed from that of slavery. He is in no sense hisown master, but is in constant peril of falling under the bondageof others, and accepting the terms which they dictate to him. Hecannot help being, in a measure, servile, for he dares not look theworld boldly in the face; and in adverse times he must look eitherto alms or the poor's rates. If work fails him altogether, he hasnot the means of moving to another field of employment; he is fixedto his parish like a limpet to its rock, and can neither migratenor emigrate. 

To secure independence, the practice of simple economy is all thatis necessary. Economy requires neither superior courage noreminent virtue; it is satisfied with ordinary energy, and thecapacity of average minds. Economy, at bottom, is but the spiritof order applied in the administration of domestic affairs: itmeans management, regularity, prudence, and the avoidance of waste. The spirit of economy was expressed by our Divine Master in thewords 'Gather up the fragments that remain, so that nothing may belost. ' His omnipotence did not disdain the small things of life;and even while revealing His infinite power to the multitude, hetaught the pregnant lesson of carefulness of which all stand somuch in need. 

Economy also means the power of resisting present gratification forthe purpose of securing a future good, and in this light itrepresents the ascendancy of reason over the animal instincts. Itis altogether different from penuriousness: for it is economy thatcan always best afford to be generous. It does not make money anidol, but regards it as a useful agent. As Dean Swift observes, "we must carry money in the head, not in the heart. " Economy maybe styled the daughter of Prudence, the sister of Temperance, andthe mother of Liberty. It is evidently conservative--conservativeof character, of domestic happiness, and social well-being. It is, in short, the exhibition of self-help in one of its best forms. 

Francis Horner's father gave him this advice on entering life:-"Whilst I wish you to be comfortable in every respect, I cannot toostrongly inculcate economy. It is a necessary virtue to all; andhowever the shallow part of mankind may despise it, it certainlyleads to independence, which is a grand object to every man of ahigh spirit. " Burns' lines, quoted at the head of this chapter, contain the right idea; but unhappily his strain of song was higherthan his practice; his ideal better than his habit. When laid onhis death-bed he wrote to a friend, "Alas! Clarke, I begin to feelthe worst. Burns' poor widow, and half a dozen of his dear littleones helpless orphans;--there I am weak as a woman's tear. Enoughof this;--'tis half my disease. "

Every man ought so to contrive as to live within his means. Thispractice is of the very essence of honesty. For if a man do notmanage honestly to live within his own means, he must necessarilybe living dishonestly upon the means of somebody else. Those whoare careless about personal expenditure, and consider merely theirown gratification, without regard for the comfort of others, generally find out the real uses of money when it is too late. Though by nature generous, these thriftless persons are oftendriven in the end to do very shabby things. They waste their moneyas they do their time; draw bills upon the future; anticipate theirearnings; and are thus under the necessity of dragging after them aload of debts and obligations which seriously affect their actionas free and independent men. 

It was a maxim of Lord Bacon, that when it was necessary toeconomize, it was better to look after petty savings than todescend to petty gettings. The loose cash which many persons throwaway uselessly, and worse, would often form a basis of fortune andindependence for life. These wasters are their own worst enemies, though generally found amongst the ranks of those who rail at theinjustice of "the world. " But if a man will not be his own friend, how can he expect that others will? Orderly men of moderate meanshave always something left in their pockets to help others; whereasyour prodigal and careless fellows who spend all never find anopportunity for helping anybody. It is poor economy, however, tobe a scrub. Narrowmindedness in living and in dealing is generallyshort-sighted, and leads to failure. The penny soul, it is said, never came to twopence. Generosity and liberality, like honesty, prove the best policy after all. Though Jenkinson, in the 'Vicarof Wakefield, ' cheated his kind-hearted neighbour Flamborough inone way or another every year, "Flamborough, " said he, "has beenregularly growing in riches, while I have come to poverty and agaol. " And practical life abounds in cases of brilliant resultsfrom a course of generous and honest policy. 

The proverb says that "an empty bag cannot stand upright;" neithercan a man who is in debt. It is also difficult for a man who is indebt to be truthful; hence it is said that lying rides on debt'sback. The debtor has to frame excuses to his creditor forpostponing payment of the money he owes him; and probably also tocontrive falsehoods. It is easy enough for a man who will exercisea healthy resolution, to avoid incurring the first obligation; butthe facility with which that has been incurred often becomes atemptation to a second; and very soon the unfortunate borrowerbecomes so entangled that no late exertion of industry can set himfree. The first step in debt is like the first step in falsehood;almost involving the necessity of proceeding in the same course, debt following debt, as lie follows lie. Haydon, the painter, dated his decline from the day on which he first borrowed money. He realized the truth of the proverb, "Who goes a-borrowing, goesa-sorrowing. " The significant entry in his diary is: "Here begandebt and obligation, out of which I have never been and never shallbe extricated as long as I live. " His Autobiography shows but toopainfully how embarrassment in money matters produces poignantdistress of mind, utter incapacity for work, and constantlyrecurring humiliations. The written advice which he gave to ayouth when entering the navy was as follows: "Never purchase anyenjoyment if it cannot be procured without borrowing of others. Never borrow money: it is degrading. I do not say never lend, butnever lend if by lending you render yourself unable to pay what youowe; but under any circumstances never borrow. " Fichte, the poorstudent, refused to accept even presents from his still poorerparents. 

Dr. Johnson held that early debt is ruin. His words on the subjectare weighty, and worthy of being held in remembrance. "Do not, "said he, "accustom yourself to consider debt only as aninconvenience; you will find it a calamity. Poverty takes away somany means of doing good, and produces so much inability to resistevil, both natural and moral, that it is by all virtuous means tobe avoided. . . . Let it be your first care, then, not to be in anyman's debt. Resolve not to be poor; whatever you have spend less. Poverty is a great enemy to human happiness; it certainly destroysliberty, and it makes some virtues impracticable and othersextremely difficult. Frugality is not only the basis of quiet, butof beneficence. No man can help others that wants help himself; wemust have enough before we have to spare. "

It is the bounden duty of every man to look his affairs in theface, and to keep an account of his incomings and outgoings inmoney matters. The exercise of a little simple arithmetic in thisway will be found of great value. Prudence requires that we shallpitch our scale of living a degree below our means, rather than upto them; but this can only be done by carrying out faithfully aplan of living by which both ends may be made to meet. John Lockestrongly advised this course: "Nothing, " said he, "is likelier tokeep a man within compass than having constantly before his eyesthe state of his affairs in a regular course of account. " The Dukeof Wellington kept an accurate detailed account of all the moneysreceived and expended by him. "I make a point, " said he to Mr. Gleig, "of paying my own bills, and I advise every one to do thesame; formerly I used to trust a confidential servant to pay them, but I was cured of that folly by receiving one morning, to my greatsurprise, duns of a year or two's standing. The fellow hadspeculated with my money, and left my bills unpaid. " Talking ofdebt his remark was, "It makes a slave of a man. I have oftenknown what it was to be in want of money, but I never got intodebt. " Washington was as particular as Wellington was, in mattersof business detail; and it is a remarkable fact, that he did notdisdain to scrutinize the smallest outgoings of his household--determined as he was to live honestly within his means--even whileholding the high office of President of the American Union. 

Admiral Jervis, Earl St. Vincent, has told the story of his earlystruggles, and, amongst other things, of his determination to keepout of debt. "My father had a very large family, " said he, "withlimited means. He gave me twenty pounds at starting, and that wasall he ever gave me. After I had been a considerable time at thestation [at sea], I drew for twenty more, but the bill came backprotested. I was mortified at this rebuke, and made a promise, which I have ever kept, that I would never draw another billwithout a certainty of its being paid. I immediately changed mymode of living, quitted my mess, lived alone, and took up theship's allowance, which I found quite sufficient; washed and mendedmy own clothes; made a pair of trousers out of the ticking of mybed; and having by these means saved as much money as would redeemmy honour, I took up my bill, and from that time to this I havetaken care to keep within my means. " Jervis for six years enduredpinching privation, but preserved his integrity, studied hisprofession with success, and gradually and steadily rose by meritand bravery to the highest rank. 

Mr. Hume hit the mark when he once stated in the House of Commons--though his words were followed by "laughter"--that the tone ofliving in England is altogether too high. Middle-class people aretoo apt to live up to their incomes, if not beyond them: affectinga degree of "style" which is most unhealthy in its effects uponsociety at large. There is an ambition to bring up boys asgentlemen, or rather "genteel" men; though the result frequentlyis, only to make them gents. They acquire a taste for dress, style, luxuries, and amusements, which can never form any solidfoundation for manly or gentlemanly character; and the result is, that we have a vast number of gingerbread young gentry thrown uponthe world, who remind one of the abandoned hulls sometimes pickedup at sea, with only a monkey on board. 

There is a dreadful ambition abroad for being "genteel. " We keepup appearances, too often at the expense of honesty; and, though wemay not be rich, yet we must seem to be so. We must be"respectable, " though only in the meanest sense--in mere vulgaroutward show. We have not the courage to go patiently onward inthe condition of life in which it has pleased God to call us; butmust needs live in some fashionable state to which we ridiculouslyplease to call ourselves, and all to gratify the vanity of thatunsubstantial genteel world of which we form a part. There is aconstant struggle and pressure for front seats in the socialamphitheatre; in the midst of which all noble self-denying resolveis trodden down, and many fine natures are inevitably crushed todeath. What waste, what misery, what bankruptcy, come from allthis ambition to dazzle others with the glare of apparent worldlysuccess, we need not describe. The mischievous results showthemselves in a thousand ways--in the rank frauds committed by menwho dare to be dishonest, but do not dare to seem poor; and in thedesperate dashes at fortune, in which the pity is not so much forthose who fail, as for the hundreds of innocent families who are sooften involved in their ruin. 

The late Sir Charles Napier, in taking leave of his command inIndia, did a bold and honest thing in publishing his strongprotest, embodied in his last General Order to the officers of theIndian army, against the "fast" life led by so many young officersin that service, involving them in ignominious obligations. SirCharles strongly urged, in that famous document--what had almostbeen lost sight of that "honesty is inseparable from the characterof a thorough-bred gentleman;" and that "to drink unpaid-forchampagne and unpaid-for beer, and to ride unpaid-for horses, is tobe a cheat, and not a gentleman. " Men who lived beyond their meansand were summoned, often by their own servants, before Courts ofRequests for debts contracted in extravagant living, might beofficers by virtue of their commissions, but they were notgentlemen. The habit of being constantly in debt, the Commander-in-chief held, made men grow callous to the proper feelings of agentleman. It was not enough that an officer should be able tofight: that any bull-dog could do. But did he hold his wordinviolate?--did he pay his debts? These were among the points ofhonour which, he insisted, illuminated the true gentleman's andsoldier's career. As Bayard was of old, so would Sir CharlesNapier have all British officers to be. He knew them to be"without fear, " but he would also have them "without reproach. "There are, however, many gallant young fellows, both in India andat home, capable of mounting a breach on an emergency amidstbelching fire, and of performing the most desperate deeds ofvalour, who nevertheless cannot or will not exercise the moralcourage necessary to enable them to resist a petty temptationpresented to their senses. They cannot utter their valiant "No, "or "I can't afford it, " to the invitations of pleasure and self-enjoyment; and they are found ready to brave death rather than theridicule of their companions. 

The young man, as he passes through life, advances through a longline of tempters ranged on either side of him; and the inevitableeffect of yielding, is degradation in a greater or a less degree. Contact with them tends insensibly to draw away from him someportion of the divine electric element with which his nature ischarged; and his only mode of resisting them is to utter and to actout his "no" manfully and resolutely. He must decide at once, notwaiting to deliberate and balance reasons; for the youth, like "thewoman who deliberates, is lost. " Many deliberate, withoutdeciding; but "not to resolve, IS to resolve. " A perfect knowledgeof man is in the prayer, "Lead us not into temptation. " Buttemptation will come to try the young man's strength; and onceyielded to, the power to resist grows weaker and weaker. Yieldonce, and a portion of virtue has gone. Resist manfully, and thefirst decision will give strength for life; repeated, it willbecome a habit. It is in the outworks of the habits formed inearly life that the real strength of the defence must lie; for ithas been wisely ordained, that the machinery of moral existenceshould be carried on principally through the medium of the habits, so as to save the wear and tear of the great principles within. Itis good habits, which insinuate themselves into the thousandinconsiderable acts of life, that really constitute by far thegreater part of man's moral conduct. 

Hugh Miller has told how, by an act of youthful decision, he savedhimself from one of the strong temptations so peculiar to a life oftoil. When employed as a mason, it was usual for his fellow-workmen to have an occasional treat of drink, and one day twoglasses of whisky fell to his share, which he swallowed. When hereached home, he found, on opening his favourite book--'Bacon'sEssays'--that the letters danced before his eyes, and that he couldno longer master the sense. "The condition, " he says, "into whichI had brought myself was, I felt, one of degradation. I had sunk, by my own act, for the time, to a lower level of intelligence thanthat on which it was my privilege to be placed; and though thestate could have been no very favourable one for forming aresolution, I in that hour determined that I should never againsacrifice my capacity of intellectual enjoyment to a drinkingusage; and, with God's help, I was enabled to hold by thedetermination. " It is such decisions as this that often form theturning-points in a man's life, and furnish the foundation of hisfuture character. And this rock, on which Hugh Miller might havebeen wrecked, if he had not at the right moment put forth his moralstrength to strike away from it, is one that youth and manhoodalike need to be constantly on their guard against. It is aboutone of the worst and most deadly, as well as extravagant, temptations which lie in the way of youth. Sir Walter Scott usedto say that "of all vices drinking is the most incompatible withgreatness. " Not only so, but it is incompatible with economy, decency, health, and honest living. When a youth cannot restrain, he must abstain. Dr. Johnson's case is the case of many. He said, referring to his own habits, "Sir, I can abstain; but I can't bemoderate. "

But to wrestle vigorously and successfully with any vicious habit, we must not merely be satisfied with contending on the low groundof worldly prudence, though that is of use, but take stand upon ahigher moral elevation. Mechanical aids, such as pledges, may beof service to some, but the great thing is to set up a highstandard of thinking and acting, and endeavour to strengthen andpurify the principles as well as to reform the habits. For thispurpose a youth must study himself, watch his steps, and comparehis thoughts and acts with his rule. The more knowledge of himselfhe gains, the more humble will he be, and perhaps the lessconfident in his own strength. But the discipline will be alwaysfound most valuable which is acquired by resisting small presentgratifications to secure a prospective greater and higher one. Itis the noblest work in self-education--for

"Real glorySprings from the silent conquest of ourselves, And without that the conqueror is noughtBut the first slave. "

Many popular books have been written for the purpose ofcommunicating to the public the grand secret of making money. Butthere is no secret whatever about it, as the proverbs of everynation abundantly testify. "Take care of the pennies and thepounds will take care of themselves. " "Diligence is the mother ofgood luck. " "No pains no gains. " "No sweat no sweet. " "Work andthou shalt have. " "The world is his who has patience andindustry. " "Better go to bed supperless than rise in debt. " Suchare specimens of the proverbial philosophy, embodying the hoardedexperience of many generations, as to the best means of thriving inthe world. They were current in people's mouths long before bookswere invented; and like other popular proverbs they were the firstcodes of popular morals. Moreover they have stood the test oftime, and the experience of every day still bears witness to theiraccuracy, force, and soundness. The proverbs of Solomon are fullof wisdom as to the force of industry, and the use and abuse ofmoney:- "He that is slothful in work is brother to him that is agreat waster. " "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise. " Poverty, says the preacher, shall come upon theidler, "as one that travelleth, and want as an armed man;" but ofthe industrious and upright, "the hand of the diligent makethrich. " "The drunkard and the glutton shall come to poverty; anddrowsiness shall clothe a man with rags. " "Seest thou a mandiligent in his business? he shall stand before kings. " But aboveall, "It is better to get wisdom than gold; for wisdom is betterthan rubies, and all the things that may be desired are not to becompared to it. "

Simple industry and thrift will go far towards making any person ofordinary working faculty comparatively independent in his means. Even a working man may be so, provided he will carefully husbandhis resources, and watch the little outlets of useless expenditure. A penny is a very small matter, yet the comfort of thousands offamilies depends upon the proper spending and saving of pennies. If a man allows the little pennies, the results of his hard work, to slip out of his fingers--some to the beershop, some this way andsome that--he will find that his life is little raised above one ofmere animal drudgery. On the other hand, if he take care of thepennies--putting some weekly into a benefit society or an insurancefund, others into a savings' bank, and confiding the rest to hiswife to be carefully laid out, with a view to the comfortablemaintenance and education of his family--he will soon find thatthis attention to small matters will abundantly repay him, inincreasing means, growing comfort at home, and a mind comparativelyfree from fears as to the future. And if a working man have highambition and possess richness in spirit, --a kind of wealth whichfar transcends all mere worldly possessions--he may not only helphimself, but be a profitable helper of others in his path throughlife. That this is no impossible thing even for a common labourerin a workshop, may be illustrated by the remarkable career ofThomas Wright of Manchester, who not only attempted but succeededin the reclamation of many criminals while working for weekly wagesin a foundry. 

Accident first directed Thomas Wright's attention to the difficultyencountered by liberated convicts in returning to habits of honestindustry. His mind was shortly possessed by the subject; and toremedy the evil became the purpose of his life. Though he workedfrom six in the morning till six at night, still there were leisureminutes that he could call his own--more especially his Sundays--and these he employed in the service of convicted criminals; aclass then far more neglected than they are now. But a few minutesa day, well employed, can effect a great deal; and it will scarcelybe credited, that in ten years this working man, by steadfastlyholding to his purpose, succeeded in rescuing not fewer than threehundred felons from continuance in a life of villany! He came tobe regarded as the moral physician of the Manchester Old Bailey;and where the Chaplain and all others failed, Thomas Wright oftensucceeded. Children he thus restored reformed to their parents;sons and daughters otherwise lost, to their homes; and many areturned convict did he contrive to settle down to honest andindustrious pursuits. The task was by no means easy. It requiredmoney, time, energy, prudence, and above all, character, and theconfidence which character invariably inspires. The mostremarkable circumstance was that Wright relieved many of these pooroutcasts out of the comparatively small wages earned by him atfoundry work. He did all this on an income which did not average, during his working career, 100l. Per annum; and yet, while he wasable to bestow substantial aid on criminals, to whom he owed nomore than the service of kindness which every human being owes toanother, he also maintained his family in comfort, and was, byfrugality and carefulness, enabled to lay by a store of savingsagainst his approaching old age. Every week he apportioned hisincome with deliberate care; so much for the indispensablenecessaries of food and clothing, so much for the landlord, so muchfor the schoolmaster, so much for the poor and needy; and the linesof distribution were resolutely observed. By such means did thishumble workman pursue his great work, with the results we have sobriefly described. Indeed, his career affords one of the mostremarkable and striking illustrations of the force of purpose in aman, of the might of small means carefully and sedulously applied, and, above all, of the power which an energetic and uprightcharacter invariably exercises upon the lives and conduct ofothers. 

There is no discredit, but honour, in every right walk of industry, whether it be in tilling the ground, making tools, weaving fabrics, or selling the products behind a counter. A youth may handle ayard-stick, or measure a piece of ribbon; and there will be nodiscredit in doing so, unless he allows his mind to have no higherrange than the stick and ribbon; to be as short as the one, and asnarrow as the other. "Let not those blush who HAVE, " said Fuller, "but those who HAVE NOT a lawful calling. " And Bishop Hall said, "Sweet is the destiny of all trades, whether of the brow or of themind. " Men who have raised themselves from a humble calling, neednot be ashamed, but rather ought to be proud of the difficultiesthey have surmounted. An American President, when asked what washis coat-of-arms, remembering that he had been a hewer of wood inhis youth, replied, "A pair of shirt sleeves. " A French doctoronce taunted Flechier, Bishop of Nismes, who had been a tallow-chandler in his youth, with the meanness of his origin, to whichFlechier replied, "If you had been born in the same condition thatI was, you would still have been but a maker of candles. "

Nothing is more common than energy in money-making, quiteindependent of any higher object than its accumulation. A man whodevotes himself to this pursuit, body and soul, can scarcely failto become rich. Very little brains will do; spend less than youearn; add guinea to guinea; scrape and save; and the pile of goldwill gradually rise. Osterwald, the Parisian banker, began life apoor man. He was accustomed every evening to drink a pint of beerfor supper at a tavern which he visited, during which he collectedand pocketed all the corks that he could lay his hands on. Ineight years he had collected as many corks as sold for eight louisd'ors. With that sum he laid the foundations of his fortune--gained mostly by stock-jobbing; leaving at his death some threemillions of francs. John Foster has cited a striking illustrationof what this kind of determination will do in money-making. Ayoung man who ran through his patrimony, spending it in profligacy, was at length reduced to utter want and despair. He rushed out ofhis house intending to put an end to his life, and stopped onarriving at an eminence overlooking what were once his estates. Hesat down, ruminated for a time, and rose with the determinationthat he would recover them. He returned to the streets, saw a loadof coals which had been shot out of a cart on to the pavementbefore a house, offered to carry them in, and was employed. Hethus earned a few pence, requested some meat and drink as agratuity, which was given him, and the pennies were laid by. Pursuing this menial labour, he earned and saved more pennies;accumulated sufficient to enable him to purchase some cattle, thevalue of which he understood, and these he sold to advantage. Heproceeded by degrees to undertake larger transactions, until atlength he became rich. The result was, that he more than recoveredhis possessions, and died an inveterate miser. When he was buried, mere earth went to earth. With a nobler spirit, the samedetermination might have enabled such a man to be a benefactor toothers as well as to himself. But the life and its end in thiscase were alike sordid. 

To provide for others and for our own comfort and independence inold age, is honourable, and greatly to be commended; but to hoardfor mere wealth's sake is the characteristic of the narrow-souledand the miserly. It is against the growth of this habit ofinordinate saving that the wise man needs most carefully to guardhimself: else, what in youth was simple economy, may in old agegrow into avarice, and what was a duty in the one case, may becomea vice in the other. It is the LOVE of money--not money itself--which is "the root of evil, "--a love which narrows and contractsthe soul, and closes it against generous life and action. Hence, Sir Walter Scott makes one of his characters declare that "thepenny siller slew more souls than the naked sword slew bodies. " Itis one of the defects of business too exclusively followed, that itinsensibly tends to a mechanism of character. The business mangets into a rut, and often does not look beyond it. If he livesfor himself only, he becomes apt to regard other human beings onlyin so far as they minister to his ends. Take a leaf from suchmen's ledger and you have their life. 

Worldly success, measured by the accumulation of money, is no doubta very dazzling thing; and all men are naturally more or less theadmirers of worldly success. But though men of persevering, sharp, dexterous, and unscrupulous habits, ever on the watch to pushopportunities, may and do "get on" in the world, yet it is quitepossible that they may not possess the slightest elevation ofcharacter, nor a particle of real goodness. He who recognizes nohigher logic than that of the shilling, may become a very rich man, and yet remain all the while an exceedingly poor creature. Forriches are no proof whatever of moral worth; and their glitteroften serves only to draw attention to the worthlessness of theirpossessor, as the light of the glowworm reveals the grub. 

The manner in which many allow themselves to be sacrificed to theirlove of wealth reminds one of the cupidity of the monkey--thatcaricature of our species. In Algiers, the Kabyle peasant attachesa gourd, well fixed, to a tree, and places within it some rice. The gourd has an opening merely sufficient to admit the monkey'spaw. The creature comes to the tree by night, inserts his paw, andgrasps his booty. He tries to draw it back, but it is clenched, and he has not the wisdom to unclench it. So there he stands tillmorning, when he is caught, looking as foolish as may be, thoughwith the prize in his grasp. The moral of this little story iscapable of a very extensive application in life. 

The power of money is on the whole over-estimated. The greatestthings which have been done for the world have not beenaccomplished by rich men, nor by subscription lists, but by mengenerally of small pecuniary means. Christianity was propagatedover half the world by men of the poorest class; and the greatestthinkers, discoverers, inventors, and artists, have been men ofmoderate wealth, many of them little raised above the condition ofmanual labourers in point of worldly circumstances. And it willalways be so. Riches are oftener an impediment than a stimulus toaction; and in many cases they are quite as much a misfortune as ablessing. The youth who inherits wealth is apt to have life madetoo easy for him, and he soon grows sated with it, because he hasnothing left to desire. Having no special object to struggle for, he finds time hang heavy on his hands; he remains morally andspiritually asleep; and his position in society is often no higherthan that of a polypus over which the tide floats. 

"His only labour is to kill the time, And labour dire it is, and weary woe. "

Yet the rich man, inspired by a right spirit, will spurn idlenessas unmanly; and if he bethink himself of the responsibilities whichattach to the possession of wealth and property he will feel even ahigher call to work than men of humbler lot. This, however, mustbe admitted to be by no means the practice of life. The goldenmean of Agur's perfect prayer is, perhaps, the best lot of all, didwe but know it: "Give me neither poverty nor riches; feed me withfood convenient for me. " The late Joseph Brotherton, M. P. , left afine motto to be recorded upon his monument in the Peel Park atManchester, --the declaration in his case being strictly true: "Myrichness consisted not in the greatness of my possessions, but inthe smallness of my wants. " He rose from the humblest station, that of a factory boy, to an eminent position of usefulness, by thesimple exercise of homely honesty, industry, punctuality, and self-denial. Down to the close of his life, when not attendingParliament, he did duty as minister in a small chapel in Manchesterto which he was attached; and in all things he made it appear, tothose who knew him in private life, that the glory he sought wasNOT "to be seen of men, " or to excite their praise, but to earn theconsciousness of discharging the every-day duties of life, down tothe smallest and humblest of them, in an honest, upright, truthful, and loving spirit. 

"Respectability, " in its best sense, is good. The respectable manis one worthy of regard, literally worth turning to look at. Butthe respectability that consists in merely keeping up appearancesis not worth looking at in any sense. Far better and morerespectable is the good poor man than the bad rich one--better thehumble silent man than the agreeable well-appointed rogue who keepshis gig. A well balanced and well-stored mind, a life full ofuseful purpose, whatever the position occupied in it may be, is offar greater importance than average worldly respectability. Thehighest object of life we take to be, to form a manly character, and to work out the best development possible, of body and spirit--of mind, conscience, heart, and soul. This is the end: all elseought to be regarded but as the means. Accordingly, that is notthe most successful life in which a man gets the most pleasure, themost money, the most power or place, honour or fame; but that inwhich a man gets the most manhood, and performs the greatest amountof useful work and of human duty. Money is power after its sort, it is true; but intelligence, public spirit, and moral virtue, arepowers too, and far nobler ones. "Let others plead for pensions, "wrote Lord Collingwood to a friend; "I can be rich without money, by endeavouring to be superior to everything poor. I would have myservices to my country unstained by any interested motive; and oldScott {27} and I can go on in our cabbage-garden without muchgreater expense than formerly. " On another occasion he said, "Ihave motives for my conduct which I would not give in exchange fora hundred pensions. "

The making of a fortune may no doubt enable some people to "entersociety, " as it is called; but to be esteemed there, they mustpossess qualities of mind, manners, or heart, else they are merelyrich people, nothing more. There are men "in society" now, as richas Croesus, who have no consideration extended towards them, andelicit no respect. For why? They are but as money-bags: theironly power is in their till. The men of mark in society--theguides and rulers of opinion--the really successful and useful men--are not necessarily rich men; but men of sterling character, ofdisciplined experience, and of moral excellence. Even the poorman, like Thomas Wright, though he possess but little of thisworld's goods, may, in the enjoyment of a cultivated nature, ofopportunities used and not abused, of a life spent to the best ofhis means and ability, look down, without the slightest feeling ofenvy, upon the person of mere worldly success, the man of money-bags and acres. 

CHAPTER XI--SELF-CULTURE--FACILITIES AND DIFFICULTIES

"Every person has two educations, one which he receives fromothers, and one, more important, which he gives to himself. "--Gibbon. 

"Is there one whom difficulties dishearten--who bends to the storm?He will do little. Is there one who will conquer? That kind ofman never fails. "--John Hunter. 

"The wise and active conquer difficulties, By daring to attempt them: sloth and follyShiver and shrink at sight of toil and danger, And MAKE the impossibility they fear. "--Rowe. 

"The best part of every man's education, " said Sir Walter Scott, "is that which he gives to himself. " The late Sir Benjamin Brodiedelighted to remember this saying, and he used to congratulatehimself on the fact that professionally he was self-taught. Butthis is necessarily the case with all men who have acquireddistinction in letters, science, or art. The education received atschool or college is but a beginning, and is valuable mainlyinasmuch as it trains the mind and habituates it to continuousapplication and study. That which is put into us by others isalways far less ours than that which we acquire by our own diligentand persevering effort. Knowledge conquered by labour becomes apossession--a property entirely our own. A greater vividness andpermanency of impression is secured; and facts thus acquired becomeregistered in the mind in a way that mere imparted information cannever effect. This kind of self-culture also calls forth power andcultivates strength. The solution of one problem helps the masteryof another; and thus knowledge is carried into faculty. Our ownactive effort is the essential thing; and no facilities, no books, no teachers, no amount of lessons learnt by rote will enable us todispense with it. 

The best teachers have been the readiest to recognize theimportance of self-culture, and of stimulating the student toacquire knowledge by the active exercise of his own faculties. They have relied more upon TRAINING than upon telling, and soughtto make their pupils themselves active parties to the work in whichthey were engaged; thus making teaching something far higher thanthe mere passive reception of the scraps and details of knowledge. This was the spirit in which the great Dr. Arnold worked; he stroveto teach his pupils to rely upon themselves, and develop theirpowers by their own active efforts, himself merely guiding, directing, stimulating, and encouraging them. "I would farrather, " he said, "send a boy to Van Diemen's Land, where he mustwork for his bread, than send him to Oxford to live in luxury, without any desire in his mind to avail himself of his advantages. ""If there be one thing on earth, " he observed on another occasion, "which is truly admirable, it is to see God's wisdom blessing aninferiority of natural powers, when they have been honestly, truly, and zealously cultivated. " Speaking of a pupil of this character, he said, "I would stand to that man hat in hand. " Once at Laleham, when teaching a rather dull boy, Arnold spoke somewhat sharply tohim, on which the pupil looked up in his face and said, "Why do youspeak angrily, sir? INDEED, I am doing the best I can. " Yearsafterwards, Arnold used to tell the story to his children, andadded, "I never felt so much in my life--that look and that speechI have never forgotten. "

From the numerous instances already cited of men of humble stationwho have risen to distinction in science and literature, it will beobvious that labour is by no means incompatible with the highestintellectual culture. Work in moderation is healthy, as well asagreeable to the human constitution. Work educates the body, asstudy educates the mind; and that is the best state of society inwhich there is some work for every man's leisure, and some leisurefor every man's work. Even the leisure classes are in a measurecompelled to work, sometimes as a relief from ennui, but in mostcases to gratify an instinct which they cannot resist. Some gofoxhunting in the English counties, others grouse-shooting on theScotch hills, while many wander away every summer to climbmountains in Switzerland. Hence the boating, running, cricketing, and athletic sports of the public schools, in which our young menat the same time so healthfully cultivate their strength both ofmind and body. It is said that the Duke of Wellington, when oncelooking on at the boys engaged in their sports in the play-groundat Eton, where he had spent many of his own younger days, made theremark, "It was there that the battle of Waterloo was won!"

Daniel Malthus urged his son when at college to be most diligent inthe cultivation of knowledge, but he also enjoined him to pursuemanly sports as the best means of keeping up the full working powerof his mind, as well as of enjoying the pleasures of intellect. "Every kind of knowledge, " said he, "every acquaintance with natureand art, will amuse and strengthen your mind, and I am perfectlypleased that cricket should do the same by your arms and legs; Ilove to see you excel in exercises of the body, and I think myselfthat the better half, and much the most agreeable part, of thepleasures of the mind is best enjoyed while one is upon one'slegs. " But a still more important use of active employment is thatreferred to by the great divine, Jeremy Taylor. "Avoid idleness, "he says, "and fill up all the spaces of thy time with severe anduseful employment; for lust easily creeps in at those emptinesseswhere the soul is unemployed and the body is at ease; for no easy, healthful, idle person was ever chaste if he could be tempted; butof all employments bodily labour is the most useful, and of thegreatest benefit for driving away the devil. "

Practical success in life depends more upon physical health than isgenerally imagined. Hodson, of Hodson's Horse, writing home to afriend in England, said, "I believe, if I get on well in India, itwill be owing, physically speaking, to a sound digestion. " Thecapacity for continuous working in any calling must necessarilydepend in a great measure upon this; and hence the necessity forattending to health, even as a means of intellectual labour. It isperhaps to the neglect of physical exercise that we find amongststudents so frequent a tendency towards discontent, unhappiness, inaction, and reverie, --displaying itself in contempt for real lifeand disgust at the beaten tracks of men, --a tendency which inEngland has been called Byronism, and in Germany Wertherism. Dr. Channing noted the same growth in America, which led him to makethe remark, that "too many of our young men grow up in a school ofdespair. " The only remedy for this green-sickness in youth isphysical exercise--action, work, and bodily occupation. 

The use of early labour in self-imposed mechanical employments maybe illustrated by the boyhood of Sir Isaac Newton. Though acomparatively dull scholar, he was very assiduous in the use of hissaw, hammer, and hatchet--"knocking and hammering in his lodgingroom"--making models of windmills, carriages, and machines of allsorts; and as he grew older, he took delight in making littletables and cupboards for his friends. Smeaton, Watt, andStephenson, were equally handy with tools when mere boys; and butfor such kind of self-culture in their youth, it is doubtfulwhether they would have accomplished so much in their manhood. Such was also the early training of the great inventors andmechanics described in the preceding pages, whose contrivance andintelligence were practically trained by the constant use of theirhands in early life. Even where men belonging to the manual labourclass have risen above it, and become more purely intellectuallabourers, they have found the advantages of their early trainingin their later pursuits. Elihu Burritt says he found hard labourNECESSARY to enable him to study with effect; and more than once hegave up school-teaching and study, and, taking to his leather-apronagain, went back to his blacksmith's forge and anvil for his healthof body and mind's sake. 

The training of young men in the use of tools would, at the sametime that it educated them in "common things, " teach them the useof their hands and arms, familiarize them with healthy work, exercise their faculties upon things tangible and actual, give themsome practical acquaintance with mechanics, impart to them theability of being useful, and implant in them the habit ofpersevering physical effort. This is an advantage which theworking classes, strictly so called, certainly possess over theleisure classes, --that they are in early life under the necessityof applying themselves laboriously to some mechanical pursuit orother, --thus acquiring manual dexterity and the use of theirphysical powers. The chief disadvantage attached to the calling ofthe laborious classes is, not that they are employed in physicalwork, but that they are too exclusively so employed, often to theneglect of their moral and intellectual faculties. While theyouths of the leisure classes, having been taught to associatelabour with servility, have shunned it, and been allowed to grow uppractically ignorant, the poorer classes, confining themselveswithin the circle of their laborious callings, have been allowed togrow up in a large proportion of cases absolutely illiterate. Itseems possible, however, to avoid both these evils by combiningphysical training or physical work with intellectual culture: andthere are various signs abroad which seem to mark the gradualadoption of this healthier system of education. 

The success of even professional men depends in no slight degree ontheir physical health; and a public writer has gone so far as tosay that "the greatness of our great men is quite as much a bodilyaffair as a mental one. " {28} A healthy breathing apparatus is asindispensable to the successful lawyer or politician as a well-cultured intellect. The thorough aeration of the blood by freeexposure to a large breathing surface in the lungs, is necessary tomaintain that full vital power on which the vigorous working of thebrain in so large a measure depends. The lawyer has to climb theheights of his profession through close and heated courts, and thepolitical leader has to bear the fatigue and excitement of long andanxious debates in a crowded House. Hence the lawyer in fullpractice and the parliamentary leader in full work are called uponto display powers of physical endurance and activity even moreextraordinary than those of the intellect, --such powers as havebeen exhibited in so remarkable a degree by Brougham, Lyndhurst, and Campbell; by Peel, Graham, and Palmerston--all full-chestedmen. 

Though Sir Walter Scott, when at Edinburgh College, went by thename of "The Greek Blockhead, " he was, notwithstanding hislameness, a remarkably healthy youth: he could spear a salmon withthe best fisher on the Tweed, and ride a wild horse with any hunterin Yarrow. When devoting himself in after life to literarypursuits, Sir Walter never lost his taste for field sports; butwhile writing 'Waverley' in the morning, he would in the afternooncourse hares. Professor Wilson was a very athlete, as great atthrowing the hammer as in his flights of eloquence and poetry; andBurns, when a youth, was remarkable chiefly for his leaping, putting, and wrestling. Some of our greatest divines weredistinguished in their youth for their physical energies. IsaacBarrow, when at the Charterhouse School, was notorious for hispugilistic encounters, in which he got many a bloody nose; AndrewFuller, when working as a farmer's lad at Soham, was chiefly famousfor his skill in boxing; and Adam Clarke, when a boy, was onlyremarkable for the strength displayed by him in "rolling largestones about, "--the secret, possibly, of some of the power which hesubsequently displayed in rolling forth large thoughts in hismanhood. 

While it is necessary, then, in the first place to secure thissolid foundation of physical health, it must also be observed thatthe cultivation of the habit of mental application is quiteindispensable for the education of the student. The maxim that"Labour conquers all things" holds especially true in the case ofthe conquest of knowledge. The road into learning is alike free toall who will give the labour and the study requisite to gather it;nor are there any difficulties so great that the student ofresolute purpose may not surmount and overcome them. It was one ofthe characteristic expressions of Chatterton, that God had sent hiscreatures into the world with arms long enough to reach anything ifthey chose to be at the trouble. In study, as in business, energyis the great thing. There must be the "fervet opus": we must notonly strike the iron while it is hot, but strike it till it is madehot. It is astonishing how much may be accomplished in self-culture by the energetic and the persevering, who are careful toavail themselves of opportunities, and use up the fragments ofspare time which the idle permit to run to waste. Thus Fergusonlearnt astronomy from the heavens, while wrapt in a sheep-skin onthe highland hills. Thus Stone learnt mathematics while working asa journeyman gardener; thus Drew studied the highest philosophy inthe intervals of cobbling shoes; and thus Miller taught himselfgeology while working as a day labourer in a quarry. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds, as we have already observed, was so earnest abeliever in the force of industry that he held that all men mightachieve excellence if they would but exercise the power ofassiduous and patient working. He held that drudgery lay on theroad to genius, and that there was no limit to the proficiency ofan artist except the limit of his own painstaking. He would notbelieve in what is called inspiration, but only in study andlabour. "Excellence, " he said, "is never granted to man but as thereward of labour. " "If you have great talents, industry willimprove them; if you have but moderate abilities, industry willsupply their deficiency. Nothing is denied to well-directedlabour; nothing is to be obtained without it. " Sir Fowell Buxtonwas an equal believer in the power of study; and he entertained themodest idea that he could do as well as other men if he devoted tothe pursuit double the time and labour that they did. He placedhis great confidence in ordinary means and extraordinaryapplication. 

"I have known several men in my life, " says Dr. Ross, "who may berecognized in days to come as men of genius, and they were allplodders, hard-working, INTENT men. Genius is known by its works;genius without works is a blind faith, a dumb oracle. Butmeritorious works are the result of time and labour, and cannot beaccomplished by intention or by a wish. . . . Every great work isthe result of vast preparatory training. Facility comes by labour. Nothing seems easy, not even walking, that was not difficult atfirst. The orator whose eye flashes instantaneous fire, and whoselips pour out a flood of noble thoughts, startling by theirunexpectedness, and elevating by their wisdom and truth, haslearned his secret by patient repetition, and after many bitterdisappointments. " {29}

Thoroughness and accuracy are two principal points to be aimed atin study. Francis Horner, in laying down rules for the cultivationof his mind, placed great stress upon the habit of continuousapplication to one subject for the sake of mastering it thoroughly;he confined himself, with this object, to only a few books, andresisted with the greatest firmness "every approach to a habit ofdesultory reading. " The value of knowledge to any man consists notin its quantity, but mainly in the good uses to which he can applyit. Hence a little knowledge, of an exact and perfect character, is always found more valuable for practical purposes than anyextent of superficial learning. 

One of Ignatius Loyola's maxims was, "He who does well one work ata time, does more than all. " By spreading our efforts over toolarge a surface we inevitably weaken our force, hinder ourprogress, and acquire a habit of fitfulness and ineffectiveworking. Lord St. Leonards once communicated to Sir Fowell Buxtonthe mode in which he had conducted his studies, and thus explainedthe secret of his success. "I resolved, " said he, "when beginningto read law, to make everything I acquired perfectly my own, andnever to go to a second thing till I had entirely accomplished thefirst. Many of my competitors read as much in a day as I read in aweek; but, at the end of twelve months, my knowledge was as freshas the day it was acquired, while theirs had glided away fromrecollection. "

It is not the quantity of study that one gets through, or theamount of reading, that makes a wise man; but the appositeness ofthe study to the purpose for which it is pursued; the concentrationof the mind for the time being on the subject under consideration;and the habitual discipline by which the whole system of mentalapplication is regulated. Abernethy was even of opinion that therewas a point of saturation in his own mind, and that if he took intoit something more than it could hold, it only had the effect ofpushing something else out. Speaking of the study of medicine, hesaid, "If a man has a clear idea of what he desires to do, he willseldom fail in selecting the proper means of accomplishing it. "

The most profitable study is that which is conducted with adefinite aim and object. By thoroughly mastering any given branchof knowledge we render it more available for use at any moment. Hence it is not enough merely to have books, or to know where toread for information as we want it. Practical wisdom, for thepurposes of life, must be carried about with us, and be ready foruse at call. It is not sufficient that we have a fund laid up athome, but not a farthing in the pocket: we must carry about withus a store of the current coin of knowledge ready for exchange onall occasions, else we are comparatively helpless when theopportunity for using it occurs. 

Decision and promptitude are as requisite in self-culture as inbusiness. The growth of these qualities may be encouraged byaccustoming young people to rely upon their own resources, leavingthem to enjoy as much freedom of action in early life as ispracticable. Too much guidance and restraint hinder the formationof habits of self-help. They are like bladders tied under the armsof one who has not taught himself to swim. Want of confidence isperhaps a greater obstacle to improvement than is generallyimagined. It has been said that half the failures in life arisefrom pulling in one's horse while he is leaping. Dr. Johnson wasaccustomed to attribute his success to confidence in his ownpowers. True modesty is quite compatible with a due estimate ofone's own merits, and does not demand the abnegation of all merit. Though there are those who deceive themselves by putting a falsefigure before their ciphers, the want of confidence, the want offaith in one's self, and consequently the want of promptitude inaction, is a defect of character which is found to stand very muchin the way of individual progress; and the reason why so little isdone, is generally because so little is attempted. 

There is usually no want of desire on the part of most persons toarrive at the results of self-culture, but there is a greataversion to pay the inevitable price for it, of hard work. Dr. Johnson held that "impatience of study was the mental disease ofthe present generation;" and the remark is still applicable. Wemay not believe that there is a royal road to learning, but we seemto believe very firmly in a "popular" one. In education, we inventlabour-saving processes, seek short cuts to science, learn Frenchand Latin "in twelve lessons, " or "without a master. " We resemblethe lady of fashion, who engaged a master to teach her on conditionthat he did not plague her with verbs and participles. We get oursmattering of science in the same way; we learn chemistry bylistening to a short course of lectures enlivened by experiments, and when we have inhaled laughing gas, seen green water turned tored, and phosphorus burnt in oxygen, we have got our smattering, ofwhich the most that can be said is, that though it may be betterthan nothing, it is yet good for nothing. Thus we often imagine weare being educated while we are only being amused. 

The facility with which young people are thus induced to acquireknowledge, without study and labour, is not education. It occupiesbut does not enrich the mind. It imparts a stimulus for the time, and produces a sort of intellectual keenness and cleverness; but, without an implanted purpose and a higher object than merepleasure, it will bring with it no solid advantage. In such casesknowledge produces but a passing impression; a sensation, but nomore; it is, in fact, the merest epicurism of intelligence--sensuous, but certainly not intellectual. Thus the best qualitiesof many minds, those which are evoked by vigorous effort andindependent action, sleep a deep sleep, and are often never calledto life, except by the rough awakening of sudden calamity orsuffering, which, in such cases, comes as a blessing, if it servesto rouse up a courageous spirit that, but for it, would have slepton. 

Accustomed to acquire information under the guise of amusement, young people will soon reject that which is presented to them underthe aspect of study and labour. Learning their knowledge andscience in sport, they will be too apt to make sport of both; whilethe habit of intellectual dissipation, thus engendered, cannotfail, in course of time, to produce a thoroughly emasculatingeffect both upon their mind and character. "Multifarious reading, "said Robertson of Brighton, "weakens the mind like smoking, and isan excuse for its lying dormant. It is the idlest of allidlenesses, and leaves more of impotency than any other. "

The evil is a growing one, and operates in various ways. Its leastmischief is shallowness; its greatest, the aversion to steadylabour which it induces, and the low and feeble tone of mind whichit encourages. If we would be really wise, we must diligentlyapply ourselves, and confront the same continuous application whichour forefathers did; for labour is still, and ever will be, theinevitable price set upon everything which is valuable. We must besatisfied to work with a purpose, and wait the results withpatience. All progress, of the best kind, is slow; but to him whoworks faithfully and zealously the reward will, doubtless, bevouchsafed in good time. The spirit of industry, embodied in aman's daily life, will gradually lead him to exercise his powers onobjects outside himself, of greater dignity and more extendedusefulness. And still we must labour on; for the work of self-culture is never finished. "To be employed, " said the poet Gray, "is to be happy. " "It is better to wear out than rust out, " saidBishop Cumberland. "Have we not all eternity to rest in?"exclaimed Arnauld. "Repos ailleurs" was the motto of Marnix de St. Aldegonde, the energetic and ever-working friend of William theSilent. 

It is the use we make of the powers entrusted to us, whichconstitutes our only just claim to respect. He who employs his onetalent aright is as much to be honoured as he to whom ten talentshave been given. There is really no more personal merit attachingto the possession of superior intellectual powers than there is inthe succession to a large estate. How are those powers used--howis that estate employed? The mind may accumulate large stores ofknowledge without any useful purpose; but the knowledge must beallied to goodness and wisdom, and embodied in upright character, else it is naught. Pestalozzi even held intellectual training byitself to be pernicious; insisting that the roots of all knowledgemust strike and feed in the soil of the rightly-governed will. Theacquisition of knowledge may, it is true, protect a man against themeaner felonies of life; but not in any degree against its selfishvices, unless fortified by sound principles and habits. Hence dowe find in daily life so many instances of men who are well-informed in intellect, but utterly deformed in character; filledwith the learning of the schools, yet possessing little practicalwisdom, and offering examples for warning rather than imitation. An often quoted expression at this day is that "Knowledge ispower;" but so also are fanaticism, despotism, and ambition. Knowledge of itself, unless wisely directed, might merely make badmen more dangerous, and the society in which it was regarded as thehighest good, little better than a pandemonium. 

It is possible that at this day we may even exaggerate theimportance of literary culture. We are apt to imagine that becausewe possess many libraries, institutes, and museums, we are makinggreat progress. But such facilities may as often be a hindrance asa help to individual self-culture of the highest kind. Thepossession of a library, or the free use of it, no more constituteslearning, than the possession of wealth constitutes generosity. Though we undoubtedly possess great facilities it is neverthelesstrue, as of old, that wisdom and understanding can only become thepossession of individual men by travelling the old road ofobservation, attention, perseverance, and industry. The possessionof the mere materials of knowledge is something very different fromwisdom and understanding, which are reached through a higher kindof discipline than that of reading, --which is often but a merepassive reception of other men's thoughts; there being little or noactive effort of mind in the transaction. Then how much of ourreading is but the indulgence of a sort of intellectual dram-drinking, imparting a grateful excitement for the moment, withoutthe slightest effect in improving and enriching the mind orbuilding up the character. Thus many indulge themselves in theconceit that they are cultivating their minds, when they are onlyemployed in the humbler occupation of killing time, of whichperhaps the best that can be said is that it keeps them from doingworse things. 

It is also to be borne in mind that the experience gathered frombooks, though often valuable, is but of the nature of LEARNING;whereas the experience gained from actual life is of the nature ofWISDOM; and a small store of the latter is worth vastly more thanany stock of the former. Lord Bolingbroke truly said that"Whatever study tends neither directly nor indirectly to make usbetter men and citizens, is at best but a specious and ingenioussort of idleness, and the knowledge we acquire by it, only acreditable kind of ignorance--nothing more. "

Useful and instructive though good reading may be, it is yet onlyone mode of cultivating the mind; and is much less influential thanpractical experience and good example in the formation ofcharacter. There were wise, valiant, and true-hearted men bred inEngland, long before the existence of a reading public. MagnaCharta was secured by men who signed the deed with their marks. Though altogether unskilled in the art of deciphering the literarysigns by which principles were denominated upon paper, they yetunderstood and appreciated, and boldly contended for, the thingsthemselves. Thus the foundations of English liberty were laid bymen, who, though illiterate, were nevertheless of the very higheststamp of character. And it must be admitted that the chief objectof culture is, not merely to fill the mind with other men'sthoughts, and to be the passive recipient of their impressions ofthings, but to enlarge our individual intelligence, and render usmore useful and efficient workers in the sphere of life to which wemay be called. Many of our most energetic and useful workers havebeen but sparing readers. Brindley and Stephenson did not learn toread and write until they reached manhood, and yet they did greatworks and lived manly lives; John Hunter could barely read or writewhen he was twenty years old, though he could make tables andchairs with any carpenter in the trade. "I never read, " said thegreat physiologist when lecturing before his class; "this"--pointing to some part of the subject before him--"this is the workthat you must study if you wish to become eminent in yourprofession. " When told that one of his contemporaries had chargedhim with being ignorant of the dead languages, he said, "I wouldundertake to teach him that on the dead body which he never knew inany language, dead or living. "

It is not then how much a man may know, that is of importance, butthe end and purpose for which he knows it. The object of knowledgeshould be to mature wisdom and improve character, to render usbetter, happier, and more useful; more benevolent, more energetic, and more efficient in the pursuit of every high purpose in life. "When people once fall into the habit of admiring and encouragingability as such, without reference to moral character--andreligious and political opinions are the concrete form of moralcharacter--they are on the highway to all sorts of degradation. "{30} We must ourselves BE and DO, and not rest satisfied merelywith reading and meditating over what other men have been and done. Our best light must be made life, and our best thought action. Atleast we ought to be able to say, as Richter did, "I have made asmuch out of myself as could be made of the stuff, and no man shouldrequire more;" for it is every man's duty to discipline and guidehimself, with God's help, according to his responsibilities and thefaculties with which he has been endowed. 

Self-discipline and self-control are the beginnings of practicalwisdom; and these must have their root in self-respect. Hopesprings from it--hope, which is the companion of power, and themother of success; for whoso hopes strongly has within him the giftof miracles. The humblest may say, "To respect myself, to developmyself--this is my true duty in life. An integral and responsiblepart of the great system of society, I owe it to society and to itsAuthor not to degrade or destroy either my body, mind, orinstincts. On the contrary, I am bound to the best of my power togive to those parts of my constitution the highest degree ofperfection possible. I am not only to suppress the evil, but toevoke the good elements in my nature. And as I respect myself, soam I equally bound to respect others, as they on their part arebound to respect me. " Hence mutual respect, justice, and order, ofwhich law becomes the written record and guarantee. 

Self-respect is the noblest garment with which a man may clothehimself--the most elevating feeling with which the mind can beinspired. One of Pythagoras's wisest maxims, in his 'GoldenVerses, ' is that with which he enjoins the pupil to "reverencehimself. " Borne up by this high idea, he will not defile his bodyby sensuality, nor his mind by servile thoughts. This sentiment, carried into daily life, will be found at the root of all thevirtues--cleanliness, sobriety, chastity, morality, and religion. "The pious and just honouring of ourselves, " said Milton, may bethought the radical moisture and fountain-head from whence everylaudable and worthy enterprise issues forth. " To think meanly ofone's self, is to sink in one's own estimation as well as in theestimation of others. And as the thoughts are, so will the actsbe. Man cannot aspire if he look down; if he will rise, he mustlook up. The very humblest may be sustained by the properindulgence of this feeling. Poverty itself may be lifted andlighted up by self-respect; and it is truly a noble sight to see apoor man hold himself upright amidst his temptations, and refuse todemean himself by low actions. 

One way in which self-culture may be degraded is by regarding ittoo exclusively as a means of "getting on. " Viewed in this light, it is unquestionable that education is one of the best investmentsof time and labour. In any line of life, intelligence will enablea man to adapt himself more readily to circumstances, suggestimproved methods of working, and render him more apt, skilled andeffective in all respects. He who works with his head as well ashis hands, will come to look at his business with a clearer eye;and he will become conscious of increasing power--perhaps the mostcheering consciousness the human mind can cherish. The power ofself-help will gradually grow; and in proportion to a man's self-respect, will he be armed against the temptation of lowindulgences. Society and its action will be regarded with quite anew interest, his sympathies will widen and enlarge, and he willthus be attracted to work for others as well as for himself. 

Self-culture may not, however, end in eminence, as in the numerousinstances above cited. The great majority of men, in all times, however enlightened, must necessarily be engaged in the ordinaryavocations of industry; and no degree of culture which can beconferred upon the community at large will ever enable them--evenwere it desirable, which it is not--to get rid of the daily work ofsociety, which must be done. But this, we think, may also beaccomplished. We can elevate the condition of labour by allying itto noble thoughts, which confer a grace upon the lowliest as wellas the highest rank. For no matter how poor or humble a man maybe, the great thinker of this and other days may come in and sitdown with him, and be his companion for the time, though hisdwelling be the meanest hut. It is thus that the habit of well-directed reading may become a source of the greatest pleasure andself-improvement, and exercise a gentle coercion, with the mostbeneficial results, over the whole tenour of a man's character andconduct. And even though self-culture may not bring wealth, itwill at all events give one the companionship of elevated thoughts. A nobleman once contemptuously asked of a sage, "What have you gotby all your philosophy?" "At least I have got society in myself, "was the wise man's reply. 

But many are apt to feel despondent, and become discouraged in thework of self-culture, because they do not "get on" in the world sofast as they think they deserve to do. Having planted their acorn, they expect to see it grow into an oak at once. They have perhapslooked upon knowledge in the light of a marketable commodity, andare consequently mortified because it does not sell as theyexpected it would do. Mr. Tremenheere, in one of his 'EducationReports' (for 1840-1), states that a schoolmaster in Norfolk, finding his school rapidly falling off, made inquiry into thecause, and ascertained that the reason given by the majority of theparents for withdrawing their children was, that they had expected"education was to make them better off than they were before, " butthat having found it had "done them no good, " they had taken theirchildren from school, and would give themselves no further troubleabout education!

The same low idea of self-culture is but too prevalent in otherclasses, and is encouraged by the false views of life which arealways more or less current in society. But to regard self-cultureeither as a means of getting past others in the world, or ofintellectual dissipation and amusement, rather than as a power toelevate the character and expand the spiritual nature, is to placeit on a very low level. To use the words of Bacon, "Knowledge isnot a shop for profit or sale, but a rich storehouse for the gloryof the Creator and the relief of man's estate. " It is doubtlessmost honourable for a man to labour to elevate himself, and tobetter his condition in society, but this is not to be done at thesacrifice of himself. To make the mind the mere drudge of thebody, is putting it to a very servile use; and to go about whiningand bemoaning our pitiful lot because we fail in achieving thatsuccess in life which, after all, depends rather upon habits ofindustry and attention to business details than upon knowledge, isthe mark of a small, and often of a sour mind. Such a tempercannot better be reproved than in the words of Robert Southey, whothus wrote to a friend who sought his counsel: "I would give youadvice if it could be of use; but there is no curing those whochoose to be diseased. A good man and a wise man may at times beangry with the world, at times grieved for it; but be sure no manwas ever discontented with the world if he did his duty in it. Ifa man of education, who has health, eyes, hands, and leisure, wantsan object, it is only because God Almighty has bestowed all thoseblessings upon a man who does not deserve them. "

Another way in which education may be prostituted is by employingit as a mere means of intellectual dissipation and amusement. Manyare the ministers to this taste in our time. There is almost amania for frivolity and excitement, which exhibits itself in manyforms in our popular literature. To meet the public taste, ourbooks and periodicals must now be highly spiced, amusing, andcomic, not disdaining slang, and illustrative of breaches of alllaws, human and divine. Douglas Jerrold once observed of thistendency, "I am convinced the world will get tired (at least I hopeso) of this eternal guffaw about all things. After all, life hassomething serious in it. It cannot be all a comic history ofhumanity. Some men would, I believe, write a Comic Sermon on theMount. Think of a Comic History of England, the drollery ofAlfred, the fun of Sir Thomas More, the farce of his daughterbegging the dead head and clasping it in her coffin on her bosom. Surely the world will be sick of this blasphemy. " John Sterling, in a like spirit, said:- "Periodicals and novels are to all in thisgeneration, but more especially to those whose minds are stillunformed and in the process of formation, a new and more effectualsubstitute for the plagues of Egypt, vermin that corrupt thewholesome waters and infest our chambers. "

As a rest from toil and a relaxation from graver pursuits, theperusal of a well-written story, by a writer of genius, is a highintellectual pleasure; and it is a description of literature towhich all classes of readers, old and young, are attracted as by apowerful instinct; nor would we have any of them debarred from itsenjoyment in a reasonable degree. But to make it the exclusiveliterary diet, as some do, --to devour the garbage with which theshelves of circulating libraries are filled, --and to occupy thegreater portion of the leisure hours in studying the preposterouspictures of human life which so many of them present, is worse thanwaste of time: it is positively pernicious. The habitual novel-reader indulges in fictitious feelings so much, that there is greatrisk of sound and healthy feeling becoming perverted or benumbed. "I never go to hear a tragedy, " said a gay man once to theArchbishop of York, "it wears my heart out. " The literary pityevoked by fiction leads to no corresponding action; thesusceptibilities which it excites involve neither inconvenience norself-sacrifice; so that the heart that is touched too often by thefiction may at length become insensible to the reality. The steelis gradually rubbed out of the character, and it insensibly losesits vital spring. "Drawing fine pictures of virtue in one's mind, "said Bishop Butler, "is so far from necessarily or certainlyconducive to form a HABIT of it in him who thus employs himself, that it may even harden the mind in a contrary course, and renderit gradually more insensible. "

Amusement in moderation is wholesome, and to be commended; butamusement in excess vitiates the whole nature, and is a thing to becarefully guarded against. The maxim is often quoted of "All workand no play makes Jack a dull boy;" but all play and no work makeshim something greatly worse. Nothing can be more hurtful to ayouth than to have his soul sodden with pleasure. The bestqualities of his mind are impaired; common enjoyments becometasteless; his appetite for the higher kind of pleasures isvitiated; and when he comes to face the work and the duties oflife, the result is usually aversion and disgust. "Fast" men wasteand exhaust the powers of life, and dry up the sources of truehappiness. Having forestalled their spring, they can produce nohealthy growth of either character or intellect. A child withoutsimplicity, a maiden without innocence, a boy without truthfulness, are not more piteous sights than the man who has wasted and thrownaway his youth in self-indulgence. Mirabeau said of himself, "Myearly years have already in a great measure disinherited thesucceeding ones, and dissipated a great part of my vital powers. "As the wrong done to another to-day returns upon ourselves to-morrow, so the sins of our youth rise up in our age to scourge us. When Lord Bacon says that "strength of nature in youth passeth overmany excesses which are owing a man until he is old, " he exposes aphysical as well as a moral fact which cannot be too well weighedin the conduct of life. "I assure you, " wrote Giusti the Italianto a friend, "I pay a heavy price for existence. It is true thatour lives are not at our own disposal. Nature pretends to givethem gratis at the beginning, and then sends in her account. " Theworst of youthful indiscretions is, not that they destroy health, so much as that they sully manhood. The dissipated youth becomes atainted man; and often he cannot be pure, even if he would. Ifcure there be, it is only to be found in inoculating the mind witha fervent spirit of duty, and in energetic application to usefulwork. 

One of the most gifted of Frenchmen, in point of great intellectualendowments, was Benjamin Constant; but, blase at twenty, his lifewas only a prolonged wail, instead of a harvest of the great deedswhich he was capable of accomplishing with ordinary diligence andself-control. He resolved upon doing so many things, which henever did, that people came to speak of him as Constant theInconstant. He was a fluent and brilliant writer, and cherishedthe ambition of writing works, "which the world would not willinglylet die. " But whilst Constant affected the highest thinking, unhappily he practised the lowest living; nor did thetranscendentalism of his books atone for the meanness of his life. He frequented the gaming-tables while engaged in preparing his workupon religion, and carried on a disreputable intrigue while writinghis 'Adolphe. ' With all his powers of intellect, he was powerless, because he had no faith in virtue. "Bah!" said he, "what arehonour and dignity? The longer I live, the more clearly I seethere is nothing in them. " It was the howl of a miserable man. Hedescribed himself as but "ashes and dust. " "I pass, " said he, "like a shadow over the earth, accompanied by misery and ennui. "He wished for Voltaire's energy, which he would rather havepossessed than his genius. But he had no strength of purpose--nothing but wishes: his life, prematurely exhausted, had becomebut a heap of broken links. He spoke of himself as a person withone foot in the air. He admitted that he had no principles, and nomoral consistency. Hence, with his splendid talents, he contrivedto do nothing; and, after living many years miserable, he died wornout and wretched. 

The career of Augustin Thierry, the author of the 'History of theNorman Conquest, ' affords an admirable contrast to that ofConstant. His entire life presented a striking example ofperseverance, diligence, self culture, and untiring devotion toknowledge. In the pursuit he lost his eyesight, lost his health, but never lost his love of truth. When so feeble that he wascarried from room to room, like a helpless infant, in the arms of anurse, his brave spirit never failed him; and blind and helplessthough he was, he concluded his literary career in the followingnoble words:- "If, as I think, the interest of science is countedin the number of great national interests, I have given my countryall that the soldier, mutilated on the field of battle, gives her. Whatever may be the fate of my labours, this example, I hope, willnot be lost. I would wish it to serve to combat the species ofmoral weakness which is THE DISEASE of our present generation; tobring back into the straight road of life some of those enervatedsouls that complain of wanting faith, that know not what to do, andseek everywhere, without finding it, an object of worship andadmiration. Why say, with so much bitterness, that in the world, constituted as it is, there is no air for all lungs--no employmentfor all minds? Is not calm and serious study there? and is notthat a refuge, a hope, a field within the reach of all of us? Withit, evil days are passed over without their weight being felt. Every one can make his own destiny--every one employ his lifenobly. This is what I have done, and would do again if I had torecommence my career; I would choose that which has brought mewhere I am. Blind, and suffering without hope, and almost withoutintermission, I may give this testimony, which from me will notappear suspicious. There is something in the world better thansensual enjoyments, better than fortune, better than health itself--it is devotion to knowledge. "

Coleridge, in many respects, resembled Constant. He possessedequally brilliant powers, but was similarly infirm of purpose. With all his great intellectual gifts, he wanted the gift ofindustry, and was averse to continuous labour. He wanted also thesense of independence, and thought it no degradation to leave hiswife and children to be maintained by the brain-work of the nobleSouthey, while he himself retired to Highgate Grove to discoursetranscendentalism to his disciples, looking down contemptuouslyupon the honest work going forward beneath him amidst the din andsmoke of London. With remunerative employment at his command hestooped to accept the charity of friends; and, notwithstanding hislofty ideas of philosophy, he condescended to humiliations fromwhich many a day-labourer would have shrunk. How different inspirit was Southey! labouring not merely at work of his own choice, and at taskwork often tedious and distasteful, but alsounremittingly and with the utmost eagerness seeking and storingknowledge purely for the love of it. Every day, every hour had itsallotted employment: engagements to publishers requiring punctualfulfilment; the current expenses of a large household duty toprovide: for Southey had no crop growing while his pen was idle. "My ways, " he used to say, "are as broad as the king's high-road, and my means lie in an inkstand. "

Robert Nicoll wrote to a friend, after reading the 'Recollectionsof Coleridge, ' "What a mighty intellect was lost in that man forwant of a little energy--a little determination!" Nicoll himselfwas a true and brave spirit, who died young, but not before he hadencountered and overcome great difficulties in life. At hisoutset, while carrying on a small business as a bookseller, hefound himself weighed down with a debt of only twenty pounds, whichhe said he felt "weighing like a millstone round his neck, " andthat, "if he had it paid he never would borrow again from mortalman. " Writing to his mother at the time he said, "Fear not for me, dear mother, for I feel myself daily growing firmer and morehopeful in spirit. The more I think and reflect--and thinking, notreading, is now my occupation--I feel that, whether I be growingricher or not, I am growing a wiser man, which is far better. Pain, poverty, and all the other wild beasts of life which soaffrighten others, I am so bold as to think I could look in theface without shrinking, without losing respect for myself, faith inman's high destinies, or trust in God. There is a point which itcosts much mental toil and struggling to gain, but which, when oncegained, a man can look down from, as a traveller from a loftymountain, on storms raging below, while he is walking in sunshine. That I have yet gained this point in life I will not say, but Ifeel myself daily nearer to it. "

It is not ease, but effort--not facility, but difficulty, thatmakes men. There is, perhaps, no station in life, in whichdifficulties have not to be encountered and overcome before anydecided measure of success can be achieved. Those difficultiesare, however, our best instructors, as our mistakes often form ourbest experience. Charles James Fox was accustomed to say that hehoped more from a man who failed, and yet went on in spite of hisfailure, than from the buoyant career of the successful. "It isall very well, " said he, "to tell me that a young man hasdistinguished himself by a brilliant first speech. He may go on, or he may be satisfied with his first triumph; but show me a youngman who has NOT succeeded at first, and nevertheless has gone on, and I will back that young man to do better than most of those whohave succeeded at the first trial. "

We learn wisdom from failure much more than from success. We oftendiscover what WILL do, by finding out what will not do; andprobably he who never made a mistake never made a discovery. Itwas the failure in the attempt to make a sucking-pump act, when theworking bucket was more than thirty-three feet above the surface ofthe water to be raised, that led observant men to study the law ofatmospheric pressure, and opened a new field of research to thegenius of Galileo, Torrecelli, and Boyle. John Hunter used toremark that the art of surgery would not advance until professionalmen had the courage to publish their failures as well as theirsuccesses. Watt the engineer said, of all things most wanted inmechanical engineering was a history of failures: "We want, " hesaid, "a book of blots. " When Sir Humphry Davy was once shown adexterously manipulated experiment, he said--"I thank God I was notmade a dexterous manipulator, for the most important of mydiscoveries have been suggested to me by failures. " Anotherdistinguished investigator in physical science has left it onrecord that, whenever in the course of his researches heencountered an apparently insuperable obstacle, he generally foundhimself on the brink of some discovery. The very greatest things--great thoughts, discoveries, inventions--have usually been nurturedin hardship, often pondered over in sorrow, and at lengthestablished with difficulty. 

Beethoven said of Rossini, that he had in him the stuff to havemade a good musician if he had only, when a boy, been well flogged;but that he had been spoilt by the facility with which he produced. Men who feel their strength within them need not fear to encounteradverse opinions; they have far greater reason to fear undue praiseand too friendly criticism. When Mendelssohn was about to enterthe orchestra at Birmingham, on the first performance of his'Elijah, ' he said laughingly to one of his friends and critics, "Stick your claws into me! Don't tell me what you like, but whatyou don't like!"

It has been said, and truly, that it is the defeat that tries thegeneral more than the victory. Washington lost more battles thanhe gained; but he succeeded in the end. The Romans, in their mostvictorious campaigns, almost invariably began with defeats. Moreauused to be compared by his companions to a drum, which nobody hearsof except it be beaten. Wellington's military genius was perfectedby encounter with difficulties of apparently the most overwhelmingcharacter, but which only served to nerve his resolution, and bringout more prominently his great qualities as a man and a general. So the skilful mariner obtains his best experience amidst stormsand tempests, which train him to self-reliance, courage, and thehighest discipline; and we probably own to rough seas and wintrynights the best training of our race of British seamen, who are, certainly, not surpassed by any in the world. 

Necessity may be a hard schoolmistress, but she is generally foundthe best. Though the ordeal of adversity is one from which wenaturally shrink, yet, when it comes, we must bravely and manfullyencounter it. Burns says truly, "Though losses and crossesBe lessons right severe, There's wit there, you'll get there, You'll find no other where. "

"Sweet indeed are the uses of adversity. " They reveal to us ourpowers, and call forth our energies. If there be real worth in thecharacter, like sweet herbs, it will give forth its finestfragrance when pressed. "Crosses, " says the old proverb, "are theladders that lead to heaven. " "What is even poverty itself, " asksRichter, "that a man should murmur under it? It is but as the painof piercing a maiden's ear, and you hang precious jewels in thewound. " In the experience of life it is found that the wholesomediscipline of adversity in strong natures usually carries with it aself-preserving influence. Many are found capable of bravelybearing up under privations, and cheerfully encounteringobstructions, who are afterwards found unable to withstand the moredangerous influences of prosperity. It is only a weak man whom thewind deprives of his cloak: a man of average strength is more indanger of losing it when assailed by the beams of a too genial sun. Thus it often needs a higher discipline and a stronger character tobear up under good fortune than under adverse. Some generousnatures kindle and warm with prosperity, but there are many on whomwealth has no such influence. Base hearts it only hardens, makingthose who were mean and servile, mean and proud. But whileprosperity is apt to harden the heart to pride, adversity in a manof resolution will serve to ripen it into fortitude. To use thewords of Burke, "Difficulty is a severe instructor, set over us bythe supreme ordinance of a parental guardian and instructor, whoknows us better than we know ourselves, as He loves us better too. He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves, and sharpens ourskill: our antagonist is thus our helper. " Without the necessityof encountering difficulty, life might be easier, but men would beworth less. For trials, wisely improved, train the character, andteach self-help; thus hardship itself may often prove thewholesomest discipline for us, though we recognise it not. Whenthe gallant young Hodson, unjustly removed from his Indian command, felt himself sore pressed down by unmerited calumny and reproach, he yet preserved the courage to say to a friend, "I strive to lookthe worst boldly in the face, as I would an enemy in the field, andto do my appointed work resolutely and to the best of my ability, satisfied that there is a reason for all; and that even irksomeduties well done bring their own reward, and that, if not, stillthey ARE duties. "

The battle of life is, in most cases, fought up-hill; and to win itwithout a struggle were perhaps to win it without honour. If therewere no difficulties there would be no success; if there werenothing to struggle for, there would be nothing to be achieved. Difficulties may intimidate the weak, but they act only as awholesome stimulus to men of resolution and valour. All experienceof life indeed serves to prove that the impediments thrown in theway of human advancement may for the most part be overcome bysteady good conduct, honest zeal, activity, perseverance, and aboveall by a determined resolution to surmount difficulties, and standup manfully against misfortune. 

The school of Difficulty is the best school of moral discipline, for nations as for individuals. Indeed, the history of difficultywould be but a history of all the great and good things that haveyet been accomplished by men. It is hard to say how much northernnations owe to their encounter with a comparatively rude andchangeable climate and an originally sterile soil, which is one ofthe necessities of their condition, --involving a perennial strugglewith difficulties such as the natives of sunnier climes knownothing of. And thus it may be, that though our finest productsare exotic, the skill and industry which have been necessary torear them, have issued in the production of a native growth of mennot surpassed on the globe. 

Wherever there is difficulty, the individual man must come out forbetter for worse. Encounter with it will train his strength, anddiscipline his skill; heartening him for future effort, as theracer, by being trained to run against the hill, at length courseswith facility. The road to success may be steep to climb, and itputs to the proof the energies of him who would reach the summit. But by experience a man soon learns that obstacles are to beovercome by grappling with them, --that the nettle feels as soft assilk when it is boldly grasped, --and that the most effective helptowards realizing the object proposed is the moral conviction thatwe can and will accomplish it. Thus difficulties often fall awayof themselves before the determination to overcome them. 

Much will be done if we do but try. Nobody knows what he can dotill he has tried; and few try their best till they have beenforced to do it. "IF I could do such and such a thing, " sighs thedesponding youth. But nothing will be done if he only wishes. Thedesire must ripen into purpose and effort; and one energeticattempt is worth a thousand aspirations. It is these thorny "ifs"--the mutterings of impotence and despair--which so often hedgeround the field of possibility, and prevent anything being done oreven attempted. "A difficulty, " said Lord Lyndhurst, "is a thingto be overcome;" grapple with it at once; facility will come withpractice, and strength and fortitude with repeated effort. Thusthe mind and character may be trained to an almost perfectdiscipline, and enabled to act with a grace, spirit, and liberty, almost incomprehensible to those who have not passed through asimilar experience. 

Everything that we learn is the mastery of a difficulty; and themastery of one helps to the mastery of others. Things which may atfirst sight appear comparatively valueless in education--such asthe study of the dead languages, and the relations of lines andsurfaces which we call mathematics--are really of the greatestpractical value, not so much because of the information which theyyield, as because of the development which they compel. Themastery of these studies evokes effort, and cultivates powers ofapplication, which otherwise might have lain dormant, Thus onething leads to another, and so the work goes on through life--encounter with difficulty ending only when life and culture end. But indulging in the feeling of discouragement never helped any oneover a difficulty, and never will. D'Alembert's advice to thestudent who complained to him about his want of success inmastering the first elements of mathematics was the right one--"Goon, sir, and faith and strength will come to you. "

The danseuse who turns a pirouette, the violinist who plays asonata, have acquired their dexterity by patient repetition andafter many failures. Carissimi, when praised for the ease andgrace of his melodies, exclaimed, "Ah! you little know with whatdifficulty this ease has been acquired. " Sir Joshua Reynolds, whenonce asked how long it had taken him to paint a certain picture, replied, "All my life. " Henry Clay, the American orator, whengiving advice to young men, thus described to them the secret ofhis success in the cultivation of his art: "I owe my success inlife, " said he, "chiefly to one circumstance--that at the age oftwenty-seven I commenced, and continued for years, the process ofdaily reading and speaking upon the contents of some historical orscientific book. These off-hand efforts were made, sometimes in acornfield, at others in the forest, and not unfrequently in somedistant barn, with the horse and the ox for my auditors. It is tothis early practice of the art of all arts that I am indebted forthe primary and leading impulses that stimulated me onward and haveshaped and moulded my whole subsequent destiny. "

Curran, the Irish orator, when a youth, had a strong defect in hisarticulation, and at school he was known as "stuttering JackCurran. " While he was engaged in the study of the law, and stillstruggling to overcome his defect, he was stung into eloquence bythe sarcasms of a member of a debating club, who characterised himas "Orator Mum;" for, like Cowper, when he stood up to speak on aprevious occasion, Curran had not been able to utter a word. Thetaunt stung him and he replied in a triumphant speech. Thisaccidental discovery in himself of the gift of eloquence encouragedhim to proceed in his studies with renewed energy. He correctedhis enunciation by reading aloud, emphatically and distinctly, thebest passages in literature, for several hours every day, studyinghis features before a mirror, and adopting a method ofgesticulation suited to his rather awkward and ungraceful figure. He also proposed cases to himself, which he argued with as muchcare as if he had been addressing a jury. Curran began businesswith the qualification which Lord Eldon stated to be the firstrequisite for distinction, that is, "to be not worth a shilling. "While working his way laboriously at the bar, still oppressed bythe diffidence which had overcome him in his debating club, he wason one occasion provoked by the Judge (Robinson) into making a verysevere retort. In the case under discussion, Curran observed "thathe had never met the law as laid down by his lordship in any bookin his library. " "That may be, sir, " said the judge, in acontemptuous tone, "but I suspect that YOUR library is very small. "His lordship was notoriously a furious political partisan, theauthor of several anonymous pamphlets characterised by unusualviolence and dogmatism. Curran, roused by the allusion to hisstraitened circumstances, replied thus; "It is very true, my lord, that I am poor, and the circumstance has certainly curtailed mylibrary; my books are not numerous, but they are select, and I hopethey have been perused with proper dispositions. I have preparedmyself for this high profession by the study of a few good works, rather than by the composition of a great many bad ones. I am notashamed of my poverty; but I should be ashamed of my wealth, couldI have stooped to acquire it by servility and corruption. If Irise not to rank, I shall at least be honest; and should I evercease to be so, many an example shows me that an ill-gainedelevation, by making me the more conspicuous, would only make methe more universally and the more notoriously contemptible. "

The extremest poverty has been no obstacle in the way of mendevoted to the duty of self-culture. Professor Alexander Murray, the linguist, learnt to write by scribbling his letters on an oldwool-card with the end of a burnt heather stem. The only bookwhich his father, who was a poor shepherd, possessed, was a pennyShorter Catechism; but that, being thought too valuable for commonuse, was carefully preserved in a cupboard for the Sundaycatechisings. Professor Moor, when a young man, being too poor topurchase Newton's 'Principia, ' borrowed the book, and copied thewhole of it with his own hand. Many poor students, while labouringdaily for their living, have only been able to snatch an atom ofknowledge here and there at intervals, as birds do their food inwinter time when the fields are covered with snow. They havestruggled on, and faith and hope have come to them. A well-knownauthor and publisher, William Chambers, of Edinburgh, speakingbefore an assemblage of young men in that city, thus brieflydescribed to them his humble beginnings, for their encouragement:"I stand before you, " he said, "a self-educated man. My educationwas that which is supplied at the humble parish schools ofScotland; and it was only when I went to Edinburgh, a poor boy, that I devoted my evenings, after the labours of the day, to thecultivation of that intellect which the Almighty has given me. From seven or eight in the morning till nine or ten at night was Iat my business as a bookseller's apprentice, and it was only duringhours after these, stolen from sleep, that I could devote myself tostudy. I did not read novels: my attention was devoted tophysical science, and other useful matters. I also taught myselfFrench. I look back to those times with great pleasure, and amalmost sorry I have not to go through the same experience again;for I reaped more pleasure when I had not a sixpence in my pocket, studying in a garret in Edinburgh, then I now find when sittingamidst all the elegancies and comforts of a parlour. "

William Cobbett's account of how he learnt English Grammar is fullof interest and instruction for all students labouring underdifficulties. "I learned grammar, " said he, "when I was a privatesoldier on the pay of sixpence a day. The edge of my berth, orthat of my guard-bed, was my seat to study in; my knapsack was mybook-case; a bit of board lying on my lap was my writing-table; andthe task did not demand anything like a year of my life. I had nomoney to purchase candle or oil; in winter time it was rarely thatI could get any evening light but that of the fire, and only myturn even of that. And if I, under such circumstances, and withoutparent or friend to advise or encourage me, accomplished thisundertaking, what excuse can there be for any youth, however poor, however pressed with business, or however circumstanced as to roomor other conveniences? To buy a pen or a sheet of paper I wascompelled to forego some portion of food, though in a state ofhalf-starvation: I had no moment of time that I could call my own;and I had to read and to write amidst the talking, laughing, singing, whistling, and brawling of at least half a score of themost thoughtless of men, and that, too, in the hours of theirfreedom from all control. Think not lightly of the farthing that Ihad to give, now and then, for ink, pen, or paper! That farthingwas, alas! a great sum to me! I was as tall as I am now; I hadgreat health and great exercise. The whole of the money, notexpended for us at market, was two-pence a week for each man. Iremember, and well I may! that on one occasion I, after allnecessary expenses, had, on a Friday, made shifts to have ahalfpenny in reserve, which I had destined for the purchase of aredherring in the morning; but, when I pulled off my clothes atnight, so hungry then as to be hardly able to endure life, I foundthat I had lost my halfpenny! I buried my head under the miserablesheet and rug, and cried like a child! And again I say, if, I, under circumstances like these, could encounter and overcome thistask, is there, can there be, in the whole world, a youth to findan excuse for the non-performance?"

We have been informed of an equally striking instance ofperseverance and application in learning on the part of a Frenchpolitical exile in London. His original occupation was that of astonemason, at which he found employment for some time; but workbecoming slack, he lost his place, and poverty stared him in theface. In his dilemma he called upon a fellow exile profitablyengaged in teaching French, and consulted him what he ought to doto earn a living. The answer was, "Become a professor!" "Aprofessor?" answered the mason--"I, who am only a workman, speakingbut a patois! Surely you are jesting?" "On the contrary, I amquite serious, " said the other, "and again I advise you--become aprofessor; place yourself under me, and I will undertake to teachyou how to teach others. " "No, no!" replied the mason, "it isimpossible; I am too old to learn; I am too little of a scholar; Icannot be a professor. " He went away, and again he tried to obtainemployment at his trade. From London he went into the provinces, and travelled several hundred miles in vain; he could not find amaster. Returning to London, he went direct to his former adviser, and said, "I have tried everywhere for work, and failed; I will nowtry to be a professor!" He immediately placed himself underinstruction; and being a man of close application, of quickapprehension, and vigorous intelligence, he speedily mastered theelements of grammar, the rules of construction and composition, and(what he had still in a great measure to learn) the correctpronunciation of classical French. When his friend and instructorthought him sufficiently competent to undertake the teaching ofothers, an appointment, advertised as vacant, was applied for andobtained; and behold our artisan at length become professor! It sohappened, that the seminary to which he was appointed was situatedin a suburb of London where he had formerly worked as a stonemason;and every morning the first thing which met his eyes on looking outof his dressing-room window was a stack of cottage chimneys whichhe had himself built! He feared for a time lest he should berecognised in the village as the quondam workman, and thus bringdiscredit on his seminary, which was of high standing. But he needhave been under no such apprehension, as he proved a most efficientteacher, and his pupils were on more than one occasion publiclycomplimented for their knowledge of French. Meanwhile, he securedthe respect and friendship of all who knew him--fellow-professorsas well as pupils; and when the story of his struggles, hisdifficulties, and his past history, became known to them, theyadmired him more than ever. 

Sir Samuel Romilly was not less indefatigable as a self-cultivator. The son of a jeweller, descended from a French refugee, he receivedlittle education in his early years, but overcame all hisdisadvantages by unwearied application, and by efforts constantlydirected towards the same end. "I determined, " he says, in hisautobiography, "when I was between fifteen and sixteen years ofage, to apply myself seriously to learning Latin, of which I, atthat time, knew little more than some of the most familiar rules ofgrammar. In the course of three or four years, during which I thusapplied myself, I had read almost every prose writer of the age ofpure Latinity, except those who have treated merely of technicalsubjects, such as Varro, Columella, and Celsus. I had gone threetimes through the whole of Livy, Sallust, and Tacitus. I hadstudied the most celebrated orations of Cicero, and translated agreat deal of Homer. Terence, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Juvenal, Ihad read over and over again. " He also studied geography, naturalhistory, and natural philosophy, and obtained a considerableacquaintance with general knowledge. At sixteen he was articled toa clerk in Chancery; worked hard; was admitted to the bar; and hisindustry and perseverance ensured success. He became Solicitor-General under the Fox administration in 1806, and steadily workedhis way to the highest celebrity in his profession. Yet he wasalways haunted by a painful and almost oppressive sense of his owndisqualifications, and never ceased labouring to remedy them. Hisautobiography is a lesson of instructive facts, worth volumes ofsentiment, and well deserves a careful perusal. 

Sir Walter Scott was accustomed to cite the case of his youngfriend John Leyden as one of the most remarkable illustrations ofthe power of perseverance which he had ever known. The son of ashepherd in one of the wildest valleys of Roxburghshire, he wasalmost entirely self educated. Like many Scotch shepherds' sons--like Hogg, who taught himself to write by copying the letters of aprinted book as he lay watching his flock on the hill-side--likeCairns, who from tending sheep on the Lammermoors, raised himselfby dint of application and industry to the professor's chair whichhe now so worthily holds--like Murray, Ferguson, and many more, Leyden was early inspired by a thirst for knowledge. When a poorbarefooted boy, he walked six or eight miles across the moors dailyto learn reading at the little village schoolhouse of Kirkton; andthis was all the education he received; the rest he acquired forhimself. He found his way to Edinburgh to attend the collegethere, setting the extremest penury at defiance. He was firstdiscovered as a frequenter of a small bookseller's shop kept byArchibald Constable, afterwards so well known as a publisher. Hewould pass hour after hour perched on a ladder in mid-air, withsome great folio in his hand, forgetful of the scanty meal of breadand water which awaited him at his miserable lodging. Access tobooks and lectures comprised all within the bounds of his wishes. Thus he toiled and battled at the gates of science until hisunconquerable perseverance carried everything before it. Before hehad attained his nineteenth year he had astonished all theprofessors in Edinburgh by his profound knowledge of Greek andLatin, and the general mass of information he had acquired. Havingturned his views to India, he sought employment in the civilservice, but failed. He was however informed that a surgeon'sassistant's commission was open to him. But he was no surgeon, andknew no more of the profession than a child. He could howeverlearn. Then he was told that he must be ready to pass in sixmonths! Nothing daunted, he set to work, to acquire in six monthswhat usually required three years. At the end of six months hetook his degree with honour. Scott and a few friends helped to fithim out; and he sailed for India, after publishing his beautifulpoem 'The Scenes of Infancy. ' In India he promised to become oneof the greatest of oriental scholars, but was unhappily cut off byfever caught by exposure, and died at an early age. 

The life of the late Dr. Lee, Professor of Hebrew at Cambridge, furnishes one of the most remarkable instances in modern times ofthe power of patient perseverance and resolute purpose in workingout an honourable career in literature. He received his educationat a charity school at Lognor, near Shrewsbury, but so littledistinguished himself there, that his master pronounced him one ofthe dullest boys that ever passed through his hands. He was putapprentice to a carpenter, and worked at that trade until hearrived at manhood. To occupy his leisure hours he took toreading; and, some of the books containing Latin quotations, hebecame desirous of ascertaining what they meant. He bought a Latingrammar, and proceeded to learn Latin. As Stone, the Duke ofArgyle's gardener, said, long before, "Does one need to knowanything more than the twenty-four letters in order to learneverything else that one wishes?" Lee rose early and sat up late, and he succeeded in mastering the Latin before his apprenticeshipwas out. Whilst working one day in some place of worship, a copyof a Greek Testament fell in his way, and he was immediately filledwith the desire to learn that language. He accordingly sold someof his Latin books, and purchased a Greek Grammar and Lexicon. Taking pleasure in learning, he soon mastered the language. Thenhe sold his Greek books, and bought Hebrew ones, and learnt thatlanguage, unassisted by any instructor, without any hope of fame orreward, but simply following the bent of his genius. He nextproceeded to learn the Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan dialects. But his studies began to tell upon his health, and brought ondisease in his eyes through his long night watchings with hisbooks. Having laid them aside for a time and recovered his health, he went on with his daily work. His character as a tradesman beingexcellent, his business improved, and his means enabled him tomarry, which he did when twenty-eight years old. He determined nowto devote himself to the maintenance of his family, and to renouncethe luxury of literature; accordingly he sold all his books. Hemight have continued a working carpenter all his life, had not thechest of tools upon which he depended for subsistence beendestroyed by fire, and destitution stared him in the face. He wastoo poor to buy new tools, so he bethought him of teaching childrentheir letters, --a profession requiring the least possible capital. But though he had mastered many languages, he was so defective inthe common branches of knowledge, that at first he could not teachthem. Resolute of purpose, however, he assiduously set to work, and taught himself arithmetic and writing to such a degree as to beable to impart the knowledge of these branches to little children. His unaffected, simple, and beautiful character gradually attractedfriends, and the acquirements of the "learned carpenter" becamebruited abroad. Dr. Scott, a neighbouring clergyman, obtained forhim the appointment of master of a charity school in Shrewsbury, and introduced him to a distinguished Oriental scholar. Thesefriends supplied him with books, and Lee successively masteredArabic, Persic, and Hindostanee. He continued to pursue hisstudies while on duty as a private in the local militia of thecounty; gradually acquiring greater proficiency in languages. Atlength his kind patron, Dr. Scott, enabled Lee to enter Queen'sCollege, Cambridge; and after a course of study, in which hedistinguished himself by his mathematical acquirements, a vacancyoccurring in the professorship of Arabic and Hebrew, he wasworthily elected to fill the honourable office. Besides ablyperforming his duties as a professor, he voluntarily gave much ofhis time to the instruction of missionaries going forth to preachthe Gospel to eastern tribes in their own tongue. He also madetranslations of the Bible into several Asiatic dialects; and havingmastered the New Zealand language, he arranged a grammar andvocabulary for two New Zealand chiefs who were then in England, which books are now in daily use in the New Zealand schools. Such, in brief, is the remarkable history of Dr. Samuel Lee; and it isbut the counterpart of numerous similarly instructive examples ofthe power of perseverance in self-culture, as displayed in thelives of many of the most distinguished of our literary andscientific men. 

There are many other illustrious names which might be cited toprove the truth of the common saying that "it is never too late tolearn. " Even at advanced years men can do much, if they willdetermine on making a beginning. Sir Henry Spelman did not beginthe study of science until he was between fifty and sixty years ofage. Franklin was fifty before he fully entered upon the study ofNatural Philosophy. Dryden and Scott were not known as authorsuntil each was in his fortieth year. Boccaccio was thirty-fivewhen he commenced his literary career, and Alfieri was forty-sixwhen he began the study of Greek. Dr. Arnold learnt German at anadvanced age, for the purpose of reading Niebuhr in the original;and in like manner James Watt, when about forty, while working athis trade of an instrument maker in Glasgow, learnt French, German, and Italian, to enable himself to peruse the valuable works onmechanical philosophy which existed in those languages. ThomasScott was fifty-six before he began to learn Hebrew. Robert Hallwas once found lying upon the floor, racked by pain, learningItalian in his old age, to enable him to judge of the paralleldrawn by Macaulay between Milton and Dante. Handel was forty-eightbefore he published any of his great works. Indeed hundreds ofinstances might be given of men who struck out an entirely newpath, and successfully entered on new studies, at a comparativelyadvanced time of life. None but the frivolous or the indolent willsay, "I am too old to learn. " {31}

And here we would repeat what we have said before, that it is notmen of genius who move the world and take the lead in it, so muchas men of steadfastness, purpose, and indefatigable industry. Notwithstanding the many undeniable instances of the precocity ofmen of genius, it is nevertheless true that early cleverness givesno indication of the height to which the grown man will reach. Precocity is sometimes a symptom of disease rather than ofintellectual vigour. What becomes of all the "remarkably cleverchildren?" Where are the duxes and prize boys? Trace them throughlife, and it will frequently be found that the dull boys, who werebeaten at school, have shot ahead of them. The clever boys arerewarded, but the prizes which they gain by their greater quicknessand facility do not always prove of use to them. What ought ratherto be rewarded is the endeavour, the struggle, and the obedience;for it is the youth who does his best, though endowed with aninferiority of natural powers, that ought above all others to beencouraged. 

An interesting chapter might be written on the subject ofillustrious dunces--dull boys, but brilliant men. We have room, however, for only a few instances. Pietro di Cortona, the painter, was thought so stupid that he was nicknamed "Ass's Head" when aboy; and Tomaso Guidi was generally known as "Heavy Tom" (MassaccioTomasaccio), though by diligence he afterwards raised himself tothe highest eminence. Newton, when at school, stood at the bottomof the lowest form but one. The boy above Newton having kickedhim, the dunce showed his pluck by challenging him to a fight, andbeat him. Then he set to work with a will, and determined also tovanquish his antagonist as a scholar, which he did, rising to thetop of his class. Many of our greatest divines have been anythingbut precocious. Isaac Barrow, when a boy at the CharterhouseSchool, was notorious chiefly for his strong temper, pugnacioushabits, and proverbial idleness as a scholar; and he caused suchgrief to his parents that his father used to say that, if itpleased God to take from him any of his children, he hoped it mightbe Isaac, the least promising of them all. Adam Clarke, when aboy, was proclaimed by his father to be "a grievous dunce;" thoughhe could roll large stones about. Dean Swift was "plucked" atDublin University, and only obtained his recommendation to Oxford"speciali gratia. " The well-known Dr. Chalmers and Dr. Cook {32}were boys together at the parish school of St. Andrew's; and theywere found so stupid and mischievous, that the master, irritatedbeyond measure, dismissed them both as incorrigible dunces. 

The brilliant Sheridan showed so little capacity as a boy, that hewas presented to a tutor by his mother with the complimentaryaccompaniment that he was an incorrigible dunce. Walter Scott wasall but a dunce when a boy, always much readier for a "bicker, "than apt at his lessons. At the Edinburgh University, ProfessorDalzell pronounced upon him the sentence that "Dunce he was, anddunce he would remain. " Chatterton was returned on his mother'shands as "a fool, of whom nothing could be made. " Burns was a dullboy, good only at athletic exercises. Goldsmith spoke of himself, as a plant that flowered late. Alfieri left college no wiser thanhe entered it, and did not begin the studies by which hedistinguished himself, until he had run half over Europe. RobertClive was a dunce, if not a reprobate, when a youth; but alwaysfull of energy, even in badness. His family, glad to get rid ofhim, shipped him off to Madras; and he lived to lay the foundationsof the British power in India. Napoleon and Wellington were bothdull boys, not distinguishing themselves in any way at school. {33}Of the former the Duchess d'Abrantes says, "he had good health, butwas in other respects like other boys. "

Ulysses Grant, the Commander-in-Chief of the United States, wascalled "Useless Grant" by his mother--he was so dull and unhandywhen a boy; and Stonewall Jackson, Lee's greatest lieutenant, was, in his youth, chiefly noted for his slowness. While a pupil atWest Point Military Academy he was, however, equally remarkable forhis indefatigable application and perseverance. When a task wasset him, he never left it until he had mastered it; nor did he everfeign to possess knowledge which he had not entirely acquired. "Again and again, " wrote one who knew him, "when called upon toanswer questions in the recitation of the day, he would reply, 'Ihave not yet looked at it; I have been engaged in mastering therecitation of yesterday or the day before. ' The result was that hegraduated seventeenth in a class of seventy. There was probably inthe whole class not a boy to whom Jackson at the outset was notinferior in knowledge and attainments; but at the end of the racehe had only sixteen before him, and had outstripped no fewer thanfifty-three. It used to be said of him by his contemporaries, thatif the course had been for ten years instead of four, Jackson wouldhave graduated at the head of his class. " {34}

John Howard, the philanthropist, was another illustrious dunce, learning next to nothing during the seven years that he was atschool. Stephenson, as a youth, was distinguished chiefly for hisskill at putting and wrestling, and attention to his work. Thebrilliant Sir Humphry Davy was no cleverer than other boys: histeacher, Dr. Cardew, once said of him, "While he was with me Icould not discern the faculties by which he was so muchdistinguished. " Indeed, Davy himself in after life considered itfortunate that he had been left to "enjoy so much idleness" atschool. Watt was a dull scholar, notwithstanding the stories toldabout his precocity; but he was, what was better, patient andperseverant, and it was by such qualities, and by his carefullycultivated inventiveness, that he was enabled to perfect his steam-engine. 

What Dr. Arnold said of boys is equally true of men--that thedifference between one boy and another consists not so much intalent as in energy. Given perseverance and energy soon becomeshabitual. Provided the dunce has persistency and application hewill inevitably head the cleverer fellow without those qualities. Slow but sure wins the race. It is perseverance that explains howthe position of boys at school is so often reversed in real life;and it is curious to note how some who were then so clever havesince become so commonplace; whilst others, dull boys, of whomnothing was expected, slow in their faculties but sure in theirpace, have assumed the position of leaders of men. The author ofthis book, when a boy, stood in the same class with one of thegreatest of dunces. One teacher after another had tried his skillupon him and failed. Corporal punishment, the fool's cap, coaxing, and earnest entreaty, proved alike fruitless. Sometimes theexperiment was tried of putting him at the top of his class, and itwas curious to note the rapidity with which he gravitated to theinevitable bottom. The youth was given up by his teachers as anincorrigible dunce--one of them pronouncing him to be a "stupendousbooby. " Yet, slow though he was, this dunce had a sort of dullenergy of purpose in him, which grew with his muscles and hismanhood; and, strange to say, when he at length came to take partin the practical business of life, he was found heading most of hisschool companions, and eventually left the greater number of themfar behind. The last time the author heard of him, he was chiefmagistrate of his native town. 

The tortoise in the right road will beat a racer in the wrong. Itmatters not though a youth be slow, if he be but diligent. Quickness of parts may even prove a defect, inasmuch as the boy wholearns readily will often forget as readily; and also because hefinds no need of cultivating that quality of application andperseverance which the slower youth is compelled to exercise, andwhich proves so valuable an element in the formation of everycharacter. Davy said "What I am I have made myself;" and the sameholds true universally. 

To conclude: the best culture is not obtained from teachers whenat school or college, so much as by our own diligent self-educationwhen we have become men. Hence parents need not be in too greathaste to see their children's talents forced into bloom. Let themwatch and wait patiently, letting good example and quiet trainingdo their work, and leave the rest to Providence. Let them see toit that the youth is provided, by free exercise of his bodilypowers, with a full stock of physical health; set him fairly on theroad of self-culture; carefully train his habits of application andperseverance; and as he grows older, if the right stuff be in him, he will be enabled vigorously and effectively to cultivate himself. 

CHAPTER XII--EXAMPLE--MODELS

"Ever their phantoms rise before us, Our loftier brothers, but one in blood;By bed and table they lord it o'er us, With looks of beauty and words of good. "--John Sterling. 

"Children may be strangled, but Deeds never; they have anindestructible life, both in and out of our consciousness. "--GeorgeEliot. 

"There is no action of man in this life, which is not the beginningof so long a chain of consequences, as that no human providence ishigh enough to give us a prospect to the end. "--Thomas ofMalmesbury. 

Example is one of the most potent of instructors, though it teacheswithout a tongue. It is the practical school of mankind, workingby action, which is always more forcible than words. Precept maypoint to us the way, but it is silent continuous example, conveyedto us by habits, and living with us in fact, that carries us along. Good advice has its weight: but without the accompaniment of agood example it is of comparatively small influence; and it will befound that the common saying of "Do as I say, not as I do, " isusually reversed in the actual experience of life. 

All persons are more or less apt to learn through the eye ratherthan the ear; and, whatever is seen in fact, makes a far deeperimpression than anything that is merely read or heard. This isespecially the case in early youth, when the eye is the chief inletof knowledge. Whatever children see they unconsciously imitate. They insensibly come to resemble those who are about them--asinsects take the colour of the leaves they feed on. Hence the vastimportance of domestic training. For whatever may be theefficiency of schools, the examples set in our Homes must always beof vastly greater influence in forming the characters of our futuremen and women. The Home is the crystal of society--the nucleus ofnational character; and from that source, be it pure or tainted, issue the habits, principles and maxims, which govern public aswell as private life. The nation comes from the nursery. Publicopinion itself is for the most part the outgrowth of the home; andthe best philanthropy comes from the fireside. "To love the littleplatoon we belong to in society, " says Burke, "is the germ of allpublic affections. " From this little central spot, the humansympathies may extend in an ever widening circle, until the worldis embraced; for, though true philanthropy, like charity, begins athome, assuredly it does not end there. 

Example in conduct, therefore, even in apparently trivial matters, is of no light moment, inasmuch as it is constantly becominginwoven with the lives of others, and contributing to form theirnatures for better or for worse. The characters of parents arethus constantly repeated in their children; and the acts ofaffection, discipline, industry, and self-control, which they dailyexemplify, live and act when all else which may have been learnedthrough the ear has long been forgotten. Hence a wise man wasaccustomed to speak of his children as his "future state. " Eventhe mute action and unconscious look of a parent may give a stampto the character which is never effaced; and who can tell how muchevil act has been stayed by the thought of some good parent, whosememory their children may not sully by the commission of anunworthy deed, or the indulgence of an impure thought? The veriesttrifles thus become of importance in influencing the characters ofmen. "A kiss from my mother, " said West, "made me a painter. " Itis on the direction of such seeming trifles when children that thefuture happiness and success of men mainly depend. Fowell Buxton, when occupying an eminent and influential station in life, wrote tohis mother, "I constantly feel, especially in action and exertionfor others, the effects of principles early implanted by you in mymind. " Buxton was also accustomed to remember with gratitude theobligations which he owed to an illiterate man, a gamekeeper, namedAbraham Plastow, with whom he played, and rode, and sported--a manwho could neither read nor write, but was full of natural goodsense and mother-wit. "What made him particularly valuable, " saysBuxton, "were his principles of integrity and honour. He neversaid or did a thing in the absence of my mother of which she wouldhave disapproved. He always held up the highest standard ofintegrity, and filled our youthful minds with sentiments as pureand as generous as could be found in the writings of Seneca orCicero. Such was my first instructor, and, I must add, my best. "

Lord Langdale, looking back upon the admirable example set him byhis mother, declared, "If the whole world were put into one scale, and my mother into the other, the world would kick the beam. " Mrs. Schimmel Penninck, in her old age, was accustomed to call to mindthe personal influence exercised by her mother upon the societyamidst which she moved. When she entered a room it had the effectof immediately raising the tone of the conversation, and as ifpurifying the moral atmosphere--all seeming to breathe more freely, and stand more erectly. "In her presence, " says the daughter, "Ibecame for the time transformed into another person. " So much doesshe moral health depend upon the moral atmosphere that is breathed, and so great is the influence daily exercised by parents over theirchildren by living a life before their eyes, that perhaps the bestsystem of parental instruction might be summed up in these twowords: "Improve thyself. "

There is something solemn and awful in the thought that there isnot an act done or a word uttered by a human being but carries withit a train of consequences, the end of which we may never trace. Not one but, to a certain extent, gives a colour to our life, andinsensibly influences the lives of those about us. The good deedor word will live, even though we may not see it fructify, but sowill the bad; and no person is so insignificant as to be sure thathis example will not do good on the one hand, or evil on the other. The spirits of men do not die: they still live and walk abroadamong us. It was a fine and a true thought uttered by Mr. Disraeliin the House of Commons on the death of Richard Cobden, that "hewas one of those men who, though not present, were still members ofthat House, who were independent of dissolutions, of the capricesof constituencies, and even of the course of time. "

There is, indeed, an essence of immortality in the life of man, even in this world. No individual in the universe stands alone; heis a component part of a system of mutual dependencies; and by hisseveral acts he either increases or diminishes the sum of humangood now and for ever. As the present is rooted in the past, andthe lives and examples of our forefathers still to a great extentinfluence us, so are we by our daily acts contributing to form thecondition and character of the future. Man is a fruit formed andripened by the culture of all the foregoing centuries; and theliving generation continues the magnetic current of action andexample destined to bind the remotest past with the most distantfuture. No man's acts die utterly; and though his body may resolveinto dust and air, his good or his bad deeds will still be bringingforth fruit after their kind, and influencing future generationsfor all time to come. It is in this momentous and solemn fact thatthe great peril and responsibility of human existence lies. 

Mr. Babbage has so powerfully expressed this idea in a noblepassage in one of his writings that we here venture to quote hiswords: "Every atom, " he says, "impressed with good or ill, retainsat once the motions which philosophers and sages have imparted toit, mixed and combined in ten thousand ways with all that isworthless and base; the air itself is one vast library, on whosepages are written FOR EVER all that man has ever said or whispered. There, in their immutable but unerring characters, mixed with theearliest as well as the latest sighs of mortality, stand for everrecorded vows unredeemed, promises unfulfilled; perpetuating, inthe united movements of each particle, the testimony of man'schangeful will. But, if the air we breathe is the never-failinghistorian of the sentiments we have uttered, earth, air, and ocean, are, in like manner, the eternal witnesses of the acts we havedone; the same principle of the equality of action and reactionapplies to them. No motion impressed by natural causes, or byhuman agency, is ever obliterated. . . . If the Almighty stamped onthe brow of the first murderer the indelible and visible mark ofhis guilt, He has also established laws by which every succeedingcriminal is not less irrevocably chained to the testimony of hiscrime; for every atom of his mortal frame, through whatever changesits severed particles may migrate, will still retain adhering toit, through every combination, some movement derived from that verymuscular effort by which the crime itself was perpetrated. "

Thus, every act we do or word we utter, as well as every act wewitness or word we hear, carries with it an influence which extendsover, and gives a colour, not only to the whole of our future life, but makes itself felt upon the whole frame of society. We may not, and indeed cannot, possibly, trace the influence working itselfinto action in its various ramifications amongst our children, ourfriends, or associates; yet there it is assuredly, working on forever. And herein lies the great significance of setting forth agood example, --a silent teaching which even the poorest and leastsignificant person can practise in his daily life. There is no oneso humble, but that he owes to others this simple but pricelessinstruction. Even the meanest condition may thus be made useful;for the light set in a low place shines as faithfully as that setupon a hill. Everywhere, and under almost all circumstances, however externally adverse--in moorland shielings, in cottagehamlets, in the close alleys of great towns--the true man may grow. He who tills a space of earth scarce bigger than is needed for hisgrave, may work as faithfully, and to as good purpose, as the heirto thousands. The commonest workshop may thus be a school ofindustry, science, and good morals, on the one hand; or ofidleness, folly, and depravity, on the other. It all depends onthe individual men, and the use they make of the opportunities forgood which offer themselves. 

A life well spent, a character uprightly sustained, is no slightlegacy to leave to one's children, and to the world; for it is themost eloquent lesson of virtue and the severest reproof of vice, while it continues an enduring source of the best kind of riches. Well for those who can say, as Pope did, in rejoinder to thesarcasm of Lord Hervey, "I think it enough that my parents, such asthey were, never cost me a blush, and that their son, such as heis, never cost them a tear. "

It is not enough to tell others what they are to do, but to exhibitthe actual example of doing. What Mrs. Chisholm described to Mrs. Stowe as the secret of her success, applies to all life. "Ifound, " she said, "that if we want anything DONE, we must go towork and DO: it is of no use merely to talk--none whatever. " Itis poor eloquence that only shows how a person can talk. Had Mrs. Chisholm rested satisfied with lecturing, her project, she waspersuaded, would never have got beyond the region of talk; but whenpeople saw what she was doing and had actually accomplished, theyfell in with her views and came forward to help her. Hence themost beneficent worker is not he who says the most eloquent things, or even who thinks the most loftily, but he who does the mosteloquent acts. 

True-hearted persons, even in the humblest station in life, who areenergetic doers, may thus give an impulse to good works out of allproportion, apparently, to their actual station in society. ThomasWright might have talked about the reclamation of criminals, andJohn Pounds about the necessity for Ragged Schools, and yet donenothing; instead of which they simply set to work without any otheridea in their minds than that of doing, not talking. And how theexample of even the poorest man may tell upon society, hear whatDr. Guthrie, the apostle of the Ragged School movement, says of theinfluence which the example of John Pounds, the humble Portsmouthcobbler, exercised upon his own working career:-

"The interest I have been led to take in this cause is an exampleof how, in Providence, a man's destiny--his course of life, likethat of a river--may be determined and affected by very trivialcircumstances. It is rather curious--at least it is interesting tome to remember--that it was by a picture I was first led to take aninterest in ragged schools--by a picture in an old, obscure, decaying burgh that stands on the shores of the Frith of Forth, thebirthplace of Thomas Chalmers. I went to see this place many yearsago; and, going into an inn for refreshment, I found the roomcovered with pictures of shepherdesses with their crooks, andsailors in holiday attire, not particularly interesting. But abovethe chimney-piece there was a large print, more respectable thanits neighbours, which represented a cobbler's room. The cobblerwas there himself, spectacles on nose, an old shoe between hisknees--the massive forehead and firm mouth indicating greatdetermination of character, and, beneath his bushy eyebrows, benevolence gleamed out on a number of poor ragged boys and girlswho stood at their lessons round the busy cobbler. My curiositywas awakened; and in the inscription I read how this man, JohnPounds, a cobbler in Portsmouth, taking pity on the multitude ofpoor ragged children left by ministers and magistrates, and ladiesand gentlemen, to go to ruin on the streets--how, like a goodshepherd, he gathered in these wretched outcasts--how he hadtrained them to God and to the world--and how, while earning hisdaily bread by the sweat of his brow, he had rescued from miseryand saved to society not less than five hundred of these children. I felt ashamed of myself. I felt reproved for the little I haddone. My feelings were touched. I was astonished at this man'sachievements; and I well remember, in the enthusiasm of the moment, saying to my companion (and I have seen in my cooler and calmermoments no reason for unsaying the saying)--'That man is an honourto humanity, and deserves the tallest monument ever raised withinthe shores of Britain. ' I took up that man's history, and I foundit animated by the spirit of Him who 'had compassion on themultitude. ' John Pounds was a clever man besides; and, like Paul, if he could not win a poor boy any other way, he won him by art. He would be seen chasing a ragged boy along the quays, andcompelling him to come to school, not by the power of a policeman, but by the power of a hot potato. He knew the love an Irishman hadfor a potato; and John Pounds might be seen running holding underthe boy's nose a potato, like an Irishman, very hot, and with acoat as ragged as himself. When the day comes when honour will bedone to whom honour is due, I can fancy the crowd of those whosefame poets have sung, and to whose memory monuments have beenraised, dividing like the wave, and, passing the great, and thenoble, and the mighty of the land, this poor, obscure old manstepping forward and receiving the especial notice of Him who said'Inasmuch as ye did it to one of the least of these, ye did it alsoto Me. '"

The education of character is very much a question of models; wemould ourselves so unconsciously after the characters, manners, habits, and opinions of those who are about us. Good rules may domuch, but good models far more; for in the latter we haveinstruction in action--wisdom at work. Good admonition and badexample only build with one hand to pull down with the other. Hence the vast importance of exercising great care in the selectionof companions, especially in youth. There is a magnetic affinityin young persons which insensibly tends to assimilate them to eachother's likeness. Mr. Edgeworth was so strongly convinced thatfrom sympathy they involuntarily imitated or caught the tone of thecompany they frequented, that he held it to be of the mostessential importance that they should be taught to select the verybest models. "No company, or good company, " was his motto. LordCollingwood, writing to a young friend, said, "Hold it as a maximthat you had better be alone than in mean company. Let yourcompanions be such as yourself, or superior; for the worth of a manwill always be ruled by that of his company. " It was a remark ofthe famous Dr. Sydenham that everybody some time or other would bethe better or the worse for having but spoken to a good or a badman. As Sir Peter Lely made it a rule never to look at a badpicture if he could help it, believing that whenever he did so hispencil caught a taint from it, so, whoever chooses to gaze oftenupon a debased specimen of humanity and to frequent his society, cannot help gradually assimilating himself to that sort of model. 

It is therefore advisable for young men to seek the fellowship ofthe good, and always to aim at a higher standard than themselves. Francis Horner, speaking of the advantages to himself of directpersonal intercourse with high-minded, intelligent men, said, "Icannot hesitate to decide that I have derived more intellectualimprovement from them than from all the books I have turned over. "Lord Shelburne (afterwards Marquis of Lansdowne), when a young man, paid a visit to the venerable Malesherbes, and was so muchimpressed by it, that he said, --"I have travelled much, but I havenever been so influenced by personal contact with any man; and if Iever accomplish any good in the course of my life, I am certainthat the recollection of M. De Malesherbes will animate my soul. "So Fowell Buxton was always ready to acknowledge the powerfulinfluence exercised upon the formation of his character in earlylife by the example of the Gurney family: "It has given a colourto my life, " he used to say. Speaking of his success at the DublinUniversity, he confessed, "I can ascribe it to nothing but myEarlham visits. " It was from the Gurneys he "caught the infection"of self-improvement. 

Contact with the good never fails to impart good, and we carry awaywith us some of the blessing, as travellers' garments retain theodour of the flowers and shrubs through which they have passed. Those who knew the late John Sterling intimately, have spoken ofthe beneficial influence which he exercised on all with whom hecame into personal contact. Many owed to him their first awakeningto a higher being; from him they learnt what they were, and whatthey ought to be. Mr. Trench says of him:- "It was impossible tocome in contact with his noble nature without feeling one's self insome measure ENNOBLED and LIFTED UP, as I ever felt when I lefthim, into a higher region of objects and aims than that in whichone is tempted habitually to dwell. " It is thus that the noblecharacter always acts; we become insensibly elevated by him, andcannot help feeling as he does and acquiring the habit of lookingat things in the same light. Such is the magical action andreaction of minds upon each other. 

Artists, also, feel themselves elevated by contact with artistsgreater than themselves. Thus Haydn's genius was first fired byHandel. Hearing him play, Haydn's ardour for musical compositionwas at once excited, and but for this circumstance, he himselfbelieved that he would never have written the 'Creation. ' Speakingof Handel, he said, "When he chooses, he strikes like thethunderbolt;" and at another time, "There is not a note of him butdraws blood. " Scarlatti was another of Handel's ardent admirers, following him all over Italy; afterwards, when speaking of thegreat master, he would cross himself in token of admiration. Trueartists never fail generously to recognise each other's greatness. Thus Beethoven's admiration for Cherubini was regal: and heardently hailed the genius of Schubert: "Truly, " said he, "inSchubert dwells a divine fire. " When Northcote was a mere youth hehad such an admiration for Reynolds that, when the great painterwas once attending a public meeting down in Devonshire, the boypushed through the crowd, and got so near Reynolds as to touch theskirt of his coat, "which I did, " says Northcote, "with greatsatisfaction to my mind, "--a true touch of youthful enthusiasm inits admiration of genius. 

The example of the brave is an inspiration to the timid, theirpresence thrilling through every fibre. Hence the miracles ofvalour so often performed by ordinary men under the leadership ofthe heroic. The very recollection of the deeds of the valiantstirs men's blood like the sound of a trumpet. Ziska bequeathedhis skin to be used as a drum to inspire the valour of theBohemians. When Scanderbeg, prince of Epirus, was dead, the Turkswished to possess his bones, that each might wear a piece next hisheart, hoping thus to secure some portion of the courage he haddisplayed while living, and which they had so often experienced inbattle. When the gallant Douglas, bearing the heart of Bruce tothe Holy Land, saw one of his knights surrounded and sorely pressedby the Saracens, he took from his neck the silver case containingthe hero's bequest, and throwing it amidst the thickest press ofhis foes, cried, "Pass first in fight, as thou wert wont to do, andDouglas will follow thee, or die;" and so saying, he rushed forwardto the place where it fell, and was there slain. 

The chief use of biography consists in the noble models ofcharacter in which it abounds. Our great forefathers still liveamong us in the records of their lives, as well as in the acts theyhave done, which live also; still sit by us at table, and hold usby the hand; furnishing examples for our benefit, which we maystill study, admire and imitate. Indeed, whoever has left behindhim the record of a noble life, has bequeathed to posterity anenduring source of good, for it serves as a model for others toform themselves by in all time to come; still breathing fresh lifeinto men, helping them to reproduce his life anew, and toillustrate his character in other forms. Hence a book containingthe life of a true man is full of precious seed. It is a stillliving voice; it is an intellect. To use Milton's words, "it isthe precious life-blood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasuredup on purpose to a life beyond life. " Such a book never ceases toexercise an elevating and ennobling influence. But, above all, there is the Book containing the very highest Example set before usto shape our lives by in this world--the most suitable for all thenecessities of our mind and heart--an example which we can onlyfollow afar off and feel after, "Like plants or vines which never saw the sun, But dream of him and guess where he may be, And do their best to climb and get to him. "

Again, no young man can rise from the perusal of such lives asthose of Buxton and Arnold, without feeling his mind and heart madebetter, and his best resolves invigorated. Such biographiesincrease a man's self-reliance by demonstrating what men can be, and what they can do; fortifying his hopes and elevating his aimsin life. Sometimes a young man discovers himself in a biography, as Correggio felt within him the risings of genius on contemplatingthe works of Michael Angelo: "And I too, am a painter, " heexclaimed. Sir Samuel Romilly, in his autobiography, confessedhimself to have been powerfully influenced by the life of the greatand noble-minded French Chancellor Daguesseau:- "The works ofThomas, " says he, "had fallen into my hands, and I had read withadmiration his 'Eloge of Daguesseau;' and the career of honourwhich he represented that illustrious magistrate to have run, excited to a great degree my ardour and ambition, and opened to myimagination new paths of glory. "

Franklin was accustomed to attribute his usefulness and eminence tohis having early read Cotton Mather's 'Essays to do Good'--a bookwhich grew out of Mather's own life. And see how good exampledraws other men after it, and propagates itself through futuregenerations in all lands. For Samuel Drew avers that he framed hisown life, and especially his business habits, after the model lefton record by Benjamin Franklin. Thus it is impossible to say wherea good example may not reach, or where it will end, if indeed ithave an end. Hence the advantage, in literature as in life, ofkeeping the best society, reading the best books, and wiselyadmiring and imitating the best things we find in them. "Inliterature, " said Lord Dudley, "I am fond of confining myself tothe best company, which consists chiefly of my old acquaintance, with whom I am desirous of becoming more intimate; and I suspectthat nine times out of ten it is more profitable, if not moreagreeable, to read an old book over again, than to read a new onefor the first time. "

Sometimes a book containing a noble exemplar of life, taken up atrandom, merely with the object of reading it as a pastime, has beenknown to call forth energies whose existence had not before beensuspected. Alfieri was first drawn with passion to literature byreading 'Plutarch's Lives. ' Loyola, when a soldier serving at thesiege of Pampeluna, and laid up by a dangerous wound in his leg, asked for a book to divert his thoughts: the 'Lives of the Saints'was brought to him, and its perusal so inflamed his mind, that hedetermined thenceforth to devote himself to the founding of areligious order. Luther, in like manner, was inspired to undertakethe great labours of his life by a perusal of the 'Life andWritings of John Huss. ' Dr. Wolff was stimulated to enter upon hismissionary career by reading the 'Life of Francis Xavier;' and thebook fired his youthful bosom with a passion the most sincere andardent to devote himself to the enterprise of his life. WilliamCarey, also, got the first idea of entering upon his sublimelabours as a missionary from a perusal of the Voyages of CaptainCook. 

Francis Horner was accustomed to note in his diary and letters thebooks by which he was most improved and influenced. Amongst thesewere Condorcet's 'Eloge of Haller, ' Sir Joshua Reynolds''Discourses, ' the writings of Bacon, and 'Burnet's Account of SirMatthew Hale. ' The perusal of the last-mentioned book--theportrait of a prodigy of labour--Horner says, filled him withenthusiasm. Of Condorcet's 'Eloge of Haller, ' he said: "I neverrise from the account of such men without a sort of thrillingpalpitation about me, which I know not whether I should calladmiration, ambition, or despair. " And speaking of the'Discourses' of Sir Joshua Reynolds, he said: "Next to thewritings of Bacon, there is no book which has more powerfullyimpelled me to self-culture. He is one of the first men of geniuswho has condescended to inform the world of the steps by whichgreatness is attained. The confidence with which he asserts theomnipotence of human labour has the effect of familiarising hisreader with the idea that genius is an acquisition rather than agift; whilst with all there is blended so naturally and eloquentlythe most elevated and passionate admiration of excellence, thatupon the whole there is no book of a more INFLAMMATORY effect. " Itis remarkable that Reynolds himself attributed his first passionateimpulse towards the study of art, to reading Richardson's accountof a great painter; and Haydon was in like manner afterwardsinflamed to follow the same pursuit by reading of the career ofReynolds. Thus the brave and aspiring life of one man lights aflame in the minds of others of like faculties and impulse; andwhere there is equally vigorous efforts like distinction andsuccess will almost surely follow. Thus the chain of example iscarried down through time in an endless succession of links, --admiration exciting imitation, and perpetuating the truearistocracy of genius. 

One of the most valuable, and one of the most infectious exampleswhich can be set before the young, is that of cheerful working. Cheerfulness gives elasticity to the spirit. Spectres fly beforeit; difficulties cause no despair, for they are encountered withhope, and the mind acquires that happy disposition to improveopportunities which rarely fails of success. The fervent spirit isalways a healthy and happy spirit; working cheerfully itself, andstimulating others to work. It confers a dignity on even the mostordinary occupations. The most effective work, also, is usuallythe full-hearted work--that which passes through the hands or thehead of him whose heart is glad. Hume was accustomed to say thathe would rather possess a cheerful disposition--inclined always tolook at the bright side of things--than with a gloomy mind to bethe master of an estate of ten thousand a year. Granville Sharp, amidst his indefatigable labours on behalf of the slave, solacedhimself in the evenings by taking part in glees and instrumentalconcerts at his brother's house, singing, or playing on the flute, the clarionet or the oboe; and, at the Sunday evening oratorios, when Handel was played, he beat the kettle-drums. He alsoindulged, though sparingly, in caricature drawing. Fowell Buxtonalso was an eminently cheerful man; taking special pleasure infield sports, in riding about the country with his children, and inmixing in all their domestic amusements. 

In another sphere of action, Dr. Arnold was a noble and a cheerfulworker, throwing himself into the great business of his life, thetraining and teaching of young men, with his whole heart and soul. It is stated in his admirable biography, that "the most remarkablething in the Laleham circle was the wonderful healthiness of tonewhich prevailed there. It was a place where a new comer at oncefelt that a great and earnest work was going forward. Every pupilwas made to feel that there was a work for him to do; that hishappiness, as well as his duty, lay in doing that work well. Hencean indescribable zest was communicated to a young man's feelingabout life; a strange joy came over him on discerning that he hadthe means of being useful, and thus of being happy; and a deeprespect and ardent attachment sprang up towards him who had taughthim thus to value life and his own self, and his work and missionin the world. All this was founded on the breadth andcomprehensiveness of Arnold's character, as well as its strikingtruth and reality; on the unfeigned regard he had for work of allkinds, and the sense he had of its value, both for the complexaggregate of society and the growth and protection of theindividual. In all this there was no excitement; no predilectionfor one class of work above another; no enthusiasm for any one-sided object: but a humble, profound, and most religiousconsciousness that work is the appointed calling of man on earth;the end for which his various faculties were given; the element inwhich his nature is ordained to develop itself, and in which hisprogressive advance towards heaven is to lie. " Among the manyvaluable men trained for public life and usefulness by Arnold, wasthe gallant Hodson, of Hodson's Horse, who, writing home fromIndia, many years after, thus spoke of his revered master: "Theinfluence he produced has been most lasting and striking in itseffects. It is felt even in India; I cannot say more than THAT. "

The useful influence which a right-hearted man of energy andindustry may exercise amongst his neighbours and dependants, andaccomplish for his country, cannot, perhaps, be better illustratedthan by the career of Sir John Sinclair; characterized by the AbbeGregoire as "the most indefatigable man in Europe. " He wasoriginally a country laird, born to a considerable estate situatednear John o' Groat's House, almost beyond the beat of civilization, in a bare wild country fronting the stormy North Sea. His fatherdying while he was a youth of sixteen, the management of the familyproperty thus early devolved upon him; and at eighteen he began acourse of vigorous improvement in the county of Caithness, whicheventually spread all over Scotland. Agriculture then was in amost backward state; the fields were unenclosed, the landsundrained; the small farmers of Caithness were so poor that theycould scarcely afford to keep a horse or shelty; the hard work waschiefly done, and the burdens borne, by the women; and if a cottierlost a horse it was not unusual for him to marry a wife as thecheapest substitute. The country was without roads or bridges; anddrovers driving their cattle south had to swim the rivers alongwith their beasts. The chief track leading into Caithness layalong a high shelf on a mountain side, the road being some hundredfeet of clear perpendicular height above the sea which dashedbelow. Sir John, though a mere youth, determined to make a newroad over the hill of Ben Cheilt, the old let-alone proprietors, however, regarding his scheme with incredulity and derision. Buthe himself laid out the road, assembled some twelve hundred workmenearly one summer's morning, set them simultaneously to work, superintending their labours, and stimulating them by his presenceand example; and before night, what had been a dangerous sheeptrack, six miles in length, hardly passable for led horses, wasmade practicable for wheel-carriages as if by the power of magic. It was an admirable example of energy and well-directed labour, which could not fail to have a most salutary influence upon thesurrounding population. He then proceeded to make more roads, toerect mills, to build bridges, and to enclose and cultivate thewaste lands. He introduced improved methods of culture, andregular rotation of crops, distributing small premiums to encourageindustry; and he thus soon quickened the whole frame of societywithin reach of his influence, and infused an entirely new spiritinto the cultivators of the soil. From being one of the mostinaccessible districts of the north--the very ultima Thule ofcivilization--Caithness became a pattern county for its roads, itsagriculture, and its fisheries. In Sinclair's youth, the post wascarried by a runner only once a week, and the young baronet thendeclared that he would never rest till a coach drove daily toThurso. The people of the neighbourhood could not believe in anysuch thing, and it became a proverb in the county to say of anutterly impossible scheme, "Ou, ay, that will come to pass when SirJohn sees the daily mail at Thurso!" But Sir John lived to see hisdream realized, and the daily mail established to Thurso. 

The circle of his benevolent operation gradually widened. Observing the serious deterioration which had taken place in thequality of British wool, --one of the staple commodities of thecountry, --he forthwith, though but a private and little-knowncountry gentleman, devoted himself to its improvement. By hispersonal exertions he established the British Wool Society for thepurpose, and himself led the way to practical improvement byimporting 800 sheep from all countries, at his own expense. Theresult was, the introduction into Scotland of the celebratedCheviot breed. Sheep farmers scouted the idea of south countryflocks being able to thrive in the far north. But Sir Johnpersevered; and in a few years there were not fewer than 300, 000Cheviots diffused over the four northern counties alone. The valueof all grazing land was thus enormously increased; and Scotchestates, which before were comparatively worthless, began to yieldlarge rentals. 

Returned by Caithness to Parliament, in which he remained forthirty years, rarely missing a division, his position gave himfarther opportunities of usefulness, which he did not neglect toemploy. Mr. Pitt, observing his persevering energy in all usefulpublic projects, sent for him to Downing Street, and voluntarilyproposed his assistance in any object he might have in view. Another man might have thought of himself and his own promotion;but Sir John characteristically replied, that he desired no favourfor himself, but intimated that the reward most gratifying to hisfeelings would be Mr. Pitt's assistance in the establishment of aNational Board of Agriculture. Arthur Young laid a bet with thebaronet that his scheme would never be established, adding, "YourBoard of Agriculture will be in the moon!" But vigorously settingto work, he roused public attention to the subject, enlisted amajority of Parliament on his side, and eventually established theBoard, of which he was appointed President. The result of itsaction need not be described, but the stimulus which it gave toagriculture and stock-raising was shortly felt throughout the wholeUnited Kingdom, and tens of thousands of acres were redeemed frombarrenness by its operation. He was equally indefatigable inencouraging the establishment of fisheries; and the successfulfounding of these great branches of British industry at Thurso andWick was mainly due to his exertions. He urged for long years, andat length succeeded in obtaining the enclosure of a harbour for thelatter place, which is perhaps the greatest and most prosperousfishing town in the world. 

Sir John threw his personal energy into every work in which heengaged, rousing the inert, stimulating the idle, encouraging thehopeful, and working with all. When a French invasion wasthreatened, he offered to Mr. Pitt to raise a regiment on his ownestate, and he was as good as his word. He went down to the north, and raised a battalion of 600 men, afterwards increased to 1000;and it was admitted to be one of the finest volunteer regimentsever raised, inspired throughout by his own noble and patrioticspirit. While commanding officer of the camp at Aberdeen he heldthe offices of a Director of the Bank of Scotland, Chairman of theBritish Wool Society, Provost of Wick, Director of the BritishFishery Society, Commissioner for issuing Exchequer Bills, Memberof Parliament for Caithness, and President of the Board ofAgriculture. Amidst all this multifarious and self-imposed work, he even found time to write books, enough of themselves toestablish a reputation. When Mr. Rush, the American Ambassador, arrived in England, he relates that he inquired of Mr. Coke ofHolkham, what was the best work on Agriculture, and was referred toSir John Sinclair's; and when he further asked of Mr. Vansittart, Chancellor of the Exchequer, what was the best work on BritishFinance, he was again referred to a work by Sir John Sinclair, his'History of the Public Revenue. ' But the great monument of hisindefatigable industry, a work that would have appalled other men, but only served to rouse and sustain his energy, was his'Statistical Account of Scotland, ' in twenty-one volumes, one ofthe most valuable practical works ever published in any age orcountry. Amid a host of other pursuits it occupied him nearlyeight years of hard labour, during which he received, and attendedto, upwards of 20, 000 letters on the subject. It was a thoroughlypatriotic undertaking, from which he derived no personal advantagewhatever, beyond the honour of having completed it. The whole ofthe profits were assigned by him to the Society for the Sons of theClergy in Scotland. The publication of the book led to greatpublic improvements; it was followed by the immediate abolition ofseveral oppressive feudal rights, to which it called attention; thesalaries of schoolmasters and clergymen in many parishes wereincreased; and an increased stimulus was given to agriculturethroughout Scotland. Sir John then publicly offered to undertakethe much greater labour of collecting and publishing a similarStatistical Account of England; but unhappily the then Archbishopof Canterbury refused to sanction it, lest it should interfere withthe tithes of the clergy, and the idea was abandoned. 

A remarkable illustration of his energetic promptitude was themanner in which he once provided, on a great emergency, for therelief of the manufacturing districts. In 1793 the stagnationproduced by the war led to an unusual number of bankruptcies, andmany of the first houses in Manchester and Glasgow were tottering, not so much from want of property, but because the usual sources oftrade and credit were for the time closed up. A period of intensedistress amongst the labouring classes seemed imminent, when SirJohn urged, in Parliament, that Exchequer notes to the amount offive millions should be issued immediately as a loan to suchmerchants as could give security. This suggestion was adopted, andhis offer to carry out his plan, in conjunction with certainmembers named by him, was also accepted. The vote was passed lateat night, and early next morning Sir John, anticipating the delaysof officialism and red tape, proceeded to bankers in the city, andborrowed of them, on his own personal security, the sum of70, 000l. , which he despatched the same evening to those merchantswho were in the most urgent need of assistance. Pitt meeting SirJohn in the House, expressed his great regret that the pressingwants of Manchester and Glasgow could not be supplied so soon aswas desirable, adding, "The money cannot be raised for some days. ""It is already gone! it left London by to-night's mail!" was SirJohn's triumphant reply; and in afterwards relating the anecdote headded, with a smile of pleasure, "Pitt was as much startled as if Ihad stabbed him. " To the last this great, good man worked onusefully and cheerfully, setting a great example for his family andfor his country. In so laboriously seeking others' good, it mightbe said that he found his own--not wealth, for his generosityseriously impaired his private fortune, but happiness, and self-satisfaction, and the peace that passes knowledge. A greatpatriot, with magnificent powers of work, he nobly did his duty tohis country; yet he was not neglectful of his own household andhome. His sons and daughters grew up to honour and usefulness; andit was one of the proudest things Sir John could say, when vergingon his eightieth year, that he had lived to see seven sons grownup, not one of whom had incurred a debt he could not pay, or causedhim a sorrow that could have been avoided. 

CHAPTER XIII--CHARACTER--THE TRUE GENTLEMAN

"For who can always act? but he, To whom a thousand memories call, Not being less but more than allThe gentleness he seemed to be, But seemed the thing he was, and joinedEach office of the social hourTo noble manners, as the flowerAnd native growth of noble mind;

And thus he bore without abuseThe grand old name of Gentleman. "--Tennyson. 

"Es bildet ein Talent sich in der Stille, Sich ein Charakter in dem Strom der Welt. "--Goethe. 

"That which raises a country, that which strengthens a country, andthat which dignifies a country, --that which spreads her power, creates her moral influence, and makes her respected and submittedto, bends the hearts of millions, and bows down the pride ofnations to her--the instrument of obedience, the fountain ofsupremacy, the true throne, crown, and sceptre of a nation;--thisaristocracy is not an aristocracy of blood, not an aristocracy offashion, not an aristocracy of talent only; it is an aristocracy ofCharacter. That is the true heraldry of man. "--The Times. 

The crown and glory of life is Character. It is the noblestpossession of a man, constituting a rank in itself, and an estatein the general goodwill; dignifying every station, and exaltingevery position in society. It exercises a greater power thanwealth, and secures all the honour without the jealousies of fame. It carries with it an influence which always tells; for it is theresult of proved honour, rectitude, and consistency--qualitieswhich, perhaps more than any other, command the general confidenceand respect of mankind. 

Character is human nature in its best form. It is moral orderembodied in the individual. Men of character are not only theconscience of society, but in every well-governed State they areits best motive power; for it is moral qualities in the main whichrule the world. Even in war, Napoleon said the moral is to thephysical as ten to one. The strength, the industry, and thecivilisation of nations--all depend upon individual character; andthe very foundations of civil security rest upon it. Laws andinstitutions are but its outgrowth. In the just balance of nature, individuals, nations, and races, will obtain just so much as theydeserve, and no more. And as effect finds its cause, so surelydoes quality of character amongst a people produce its befittingresults. 

Though a man have comparatively little culture, slender abilities, and but small wealth, yet, if his character be of sterling worth, he will always command an influence, whether it be in the workshop, the counting-house, the mart, or the senate. Canning wisely wrotein 1801, "My road must be through Character to power; I will try noother course; and I am sanguine enough to believe that this course, though not perhaps the quickest, is the surest. " You may admiremen of intellect; but something more is necessary before you willtrust them. Hence Lord John Russell once observed in a sentencefull of truth, "It is the nature of party in England to ask theassistance of men of genius, but to follow the guidance of men ofcharacter. " This was strikingly illustrated in the career of thelate Francis Horner--a man of whom Sydney Smith said that the TenCommandments were stamped upon his countenance. "The valuable andpeculiar light, " says Lord Cockburn, "in which his history iscalculated to inspire every right-minded youth, is this. He diedat the age of thirty-eight; possessed of greater public influencethan any other private man; and admired, beloved, trusted, anddeplored by all, except the heartless or the base. No greaterhomage was ever paid in Parliament to any deceased member. Now letevery young man ask--how was this attained? By rank? He was theson of an Edinburgh merchant. By wealth? Neither he, nor any ofhis relations, ever had a superfluous sixpence. By office? Heheld but one, and only for a few years, of no influence, and withvery little pay. By talents? His were not splendid, and he had nogenius. Cautious and slow, his only ambition was to be right. Byeloquence? He spoke in calm, good taste, without any of theoratory that either terrifies or seduces. By any fascination ofmanner? His was only correct and agreeable. By what, then, wasit? Merely by sense, industry, good principles, and a good heart--qualities which no well-constituted mind need ever despair ofattaining. It was the force of his character that raised him; andthis character not impressed upon him by nature, but formed, out ofno peculiarly fine elements, by himself. There were many in theHouse of Commons of far greater ability and eloquence. But no onesurpassed him in the combination of an adequate portion of thesewith moral worth. Horner was born to show what moderate powers, unaided by anything whatever except culture and goodness, mayachieve, even when these powers are displayed amidst thecompetition and jealousy of public life. "

Franklin, also, attributed his success as a public man, not to histalents or his powers of speaking--for these were but moderate--butto his known integrity of character. Hence it was, he says, "thatI had so much weight with my fellow citizens. I was but a badspeaker, never eloquent, subject to much hesitation in my choice ofwords, hardly correct in language, and yet I generally carried mypoint. " Character creates confidence in men in high station aswell as in humble life. It was said of the first Emperor Alexanderof Russia, that his personal character was equivalent to aconstitution. During the wars of the Fronde, Montaigne was theonly man amongst the French gentry who kept his castle gatesunbarred; and it was said of him, that his personal character was abetter protection for him than a regiment of horse would have been. 

That character is power, is true in a much higher sense than thatknowledge is power. Mind without heart, intelligence withoutconduct, cleverness without goodness, are powers in their way, butthey may be powers only for mischief. We may be instructed oramused by them; but it is sometimes as difficult to admire them asit would be to admire the dexterity of a pickpocket or thehorsemanship of a highwayman. 

Truthfulness, integrity, and goodness--qualities that hang not onany man's breath--form the essence of manly character, or, as oneof our old writers has it, "that inbred loyalty unto Virtue whichcan serve her without a livery. " He who possesses these qualities, united with strength of purpose, carries with him a power which isirresistible. He is strong to do good, strong to resist evil, andstrong to bear up under difficulty and misfortune. When Stephen ofColonna fell into the hands of his base assailants, and they askedhim in derision, "Where is now your fortress?" "Here, " was hisbold reply, placing his hand upon his heart. It is in misfortunethat the character of the upright man shines forth with thegreatest lustre; and when all else fails, he takes stand upon hisintegrity and his courage. 

The rules of conduct followed by Lord Erskine--a man of sterlingindependence of principle and scrupulous adherence to truth--areworthy of being engraven on every young man's heart. "It was afirst command and counsel of my earliest youth, " he said, "alwaysto do what my conscience told me to be a duty, and to leave theconsequence to God. I shall carry with me the memory, and I trustthe practice, of this parental lesson to the grave. I havehitherto followed it, and I have no reason to complain that myobedience to it has been a temporal sacrifice. I have found it, onthe contrary, the road to prosperity and wealth, and I shall pointout the same path to my children for their pursuit. "

Every man is bound to aim at the possession of a good character asone of the highest objects of life. The very effort to secure itby worthy means will furnish him with a motive for exertion; andhis idea of manhood, in proportion as it is elevated, will steadyand animate his motive. It is well to have a high standard oflife, even though we may not be able altogether to realize it. "The youth, " says Mr. Disraeli, "who does not look up will lookdown; and the spirit that does not soar is destined perhaps togrovel. " George Herbert wisely writes, "Pitch thy behaviour low, thy projects high, So shall thou humble and magnanimous be. Sink not in spirit; who aimeth at the skyShoots higher much than he that means a tree. "

He who has a high standard of living and thinking will certainly dobetter than he who has none at all. "Pluck at a gown of gold, "says the Scotch proverb, "and you may get a sleeve o't. " Whoevertries for the highest results cannot fail to reach a point far inadvance of that from which he started; and though the end attainedmay fall short of that proposed, still, the very effort to rise, ofitself cannot fail to prove permanently beneficial. 

There are many counterfeits of character, but the genuine articleis difficult to be mistaken. Some, knowing its money value, wouldassume its disguise for the purpose of imposing upon the unwary. Colonel Charteris said to a man distinguished for his honesty, "Iwould give a thousand pounds for your good name. " "Why?" "BecauseI could make ten thousand by it, " was the knave's reply. 

Integrity in word and deed is the backbone of character; and loyaladherence to veracity its most prominent characteristic. One ofthe finest testimonies to the character of the late Sir Robert Peelwas that borne by the Duke of Wellington in the House of Lords, afew days after the great statesman's death. "Your lordships, " hesaid, "must all feel the high and honourable character of the lateSir Robert Peel. I was long connected with him in public life. Wewere both in the councils of our Sovereign together, and I had longthe honour to enjoy his private friendship. In all the course ofmy acquaintance with him I never knew a man in whose truth andjustice I had greater confidence, or in whom I saw a moreinvariable desire to promote the public service. In the wholecourse of my communication with him, I never knew an instance inwhich he did not show the strongest attachment to truth; and Inever saw in the whole course of my life the smallest reason forsuspecting that he stated anything which he did not firmly believeto be the fact. " And this high-minded truthfulness of thestatesman was no doubt the secret of no small part of his influenceand power. 

There is a truthfulness in action as well as in words, which isessential to uprightness of character. A man must really be whathe seems or purposes to be. When an American gentleman wrote toGranville Sharp, that from respect for his great virtues he hadnamed one of his sons after him, Sharp replied: "I must requestyou to teach him a favourite maxim of the family whose name youhave given him--ALWAYS ENDEAVOUR TO BE REALLY WHAT YOU WOULD WISHTO APPEAR. This maxim, as my father informed me, was carefully andhumbly practised by HIS father, whose sincerity, as a plain andhonest man, thereby became the principal feature of his character, both in public and private life. " Every man who respects himself, and values the respect of others, will carry out the maxim in act--doing honestly what he proposes to do--putting the highestcharacter into his work, scamping nothing, but priding himself uponhis integrity and conscientiousness. Once Cromwell said toBernard, --a clever but somewhat unscrupulous lawyer, "I understandthat you have lately been vastly wary in your conduct; do not betoo confident of this; subtlety may deceive you, integrity neverwill. " Men whose acts are at direct variance with their words, command no respect, and what they say has but little weight; eventruths, when uttered by them, seem to come blasted from their lips. 

The true character acts rightly, whether in secret or in the sightof men. That boy was well trained who, when asked why he did notpocket some pears, for nobody was there to see, replied, "Yes, there was: I was there to see myself; and I don't intend ever tosee myself do a dishonest thing. "--This is a simple but notinappropriate illustration of principle, or conscience, dominatingin the character, and exercising a noble protectorate over it; notmerely a passive influence, but an active power regulating thelife. Such a principle goes on moulding the character hourly anddaily, growing with a force that operates every moment. Withoutthis dominating influence, character has no protection, but isconstantly liable to fall away before temptation; and every suchtemptation succumbed to, every act of meanness or dishonesty, however slight, causes self-degradation. It matters not whetherthe act be successful or not, discovered or concealed; the culpritis no longer the same, but another person; and he is pursued by asecret uneasiness, by self-reproach, or the workings of what wecall conscience, which is the inevitable doom of the guilty. 

And here it may be observed how greatly the character may bestrengthened and supported by the cultivation of good habits. Man, it has been said, is a bundle of habits; and habit is secondnature. Metastasio entertained so strong an opinion as to thepower of repetition in act and thought, that he said, "All is habitin mankind, even virtue itself. " Butler, in his 'Analogy, 'impresses the importance of careful self-discipline and firmresistance to temptation, as tending to make virtue habitual, sothat at length it may become more easy to be good than to give wayto sin. "As habits belonging to the body, " he says, "are producedby external acts, so habits of the mind are produced by theexecution of inward practical purposes, i. E. , carrying them intoact, or acting upon them--the principles of obedience, veracity, justice, and charity. " And again, Lord Brougham says, whenenforcing the immense importance of training and example in youth, "I trust everything under God to habit, on which, in all ages, thelawgiver, as well as the schoolmaster, has mainly placed hisreliance; habit, which makes everything easy, and casts thedifficulties upon the deviation from a wonted course. " Thus, makesobriety a habit, and intemperance will be hateful; make prudence ahabit, and reckless profligacy will become revolting to everyprinciple of conduct which regulates the life of the individual. Hence the necessity for the greatest care and watchfulness againstthe inroad of any evil habit; for the character is always weakestat that point at which it has once given way; and it is long beforea principle restored can become so firm as one that has never beenmoved. It is a fine remark of a Russian writer, that "Habits are anecklace of pearls: untie the knot, and the whole unthreads. "

Wherever formed, habit acts involuntarily, and without effort; and, it is only when you oppose it, that you find how powerful it hasbecome. What is done once and again, soon gives facility andproneness. The habit at first may seem to have no more strengththan a spider's web; but, once formed, it binds as with a chain ofiron. The small events of life, taken singly, may seem exceedinglyunimportant, like snow that falls silently, flake by flake; yetaccumulated, these snow-flakes form the avalanche. 

Self-respect, self-help, application, industry, integrity--all areof the nature of habits, not beliefs. Principles, in fact, are butthe names which we assign to habits; for the principles are words, but the habits are the things themselves: benefactors or tyrants, according as they are good or evil. It thus happens that as wegrow older, a portion of our free activity and individualitybecomes suspended in habit; our actions become of the nature offate; and we are bound by the chains which we have woven aroundourselves. 

It is indeed scarcely possible to over-estimate the importance oftraining the young to virtuous habits. In them they are theeasiest formed, and when formed they last for life; like letterscut on the bark of a tree they grow and widen with age. "Train upa child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will notdepart from it. " The beginning holds within it the end; the firststart on the road of life determines the direction and thedestination of the journey; ce n'est que le premier pas qui coute. "Remember, " said Lord Collingwood to a young man whom he loved, "before you are five-and-twenty you must establish a character thatwill serve you all your life. " As habit strengthens with age, andcharacter becomes formed, any turning into a new path becomes moreand more difficult. Hence, it is often harder to unlearn than tolearn; and for this reason the Grecian flute-player was justifiedwho charged double fees to those pupils who had been taught by aninferior master. To uproot an old habit is sometimes a morepainful thing, and vastly more difficult, than to wrench out atooth. Try and reform a habitually indolent, or improvident, ordrunken person, and in a large majority of cases you will fail. For the habit in each case has wound itself in and through the lifeuntil it has become an integral part of it, and cannot be uprooted. Hence, as Mr. Lynch observes, "the wisest habit of all is the habitof care in the formation of good habits. "

Even happiness itself may become habitual. There is a habit oflooking at the bright side of things, and also of looking at thedark side. Dr. Johnson has said that the habit of looking at thebest side of a thing is worth more to a man than a thousand poundsa year. And we possess the power, to a great extent, of soexercising the will as to direct the thoughts upon objectscalculated to yield happiness and improvement rather than theiropposites. In this way the habit of happy thought may be made tospring up like any other habit. And to bring up men or women witha genial nature of this sort, a good temper, and a happy frame ofmind, is perhaps of even more importance, in many cases, than toperfect them in much knowledge and many accomplishments. 

As daylight can be seen through very small holes, so little thingswill illustrate a person's character. Indeed character consists inlittle acts, well and honourably performed; daily life being thequarry from which we build it up, and rough-hew the habits whichform it. One of the most marked tests of character is the mannerin which we conduct ourselves towards others. A graceful behaviourtowards superiors, inferiors, and equals, is a constant source ofpleasure. It pleases others because it indicates respect for theirpersonality; but it gives tenfold more pleasure to ourselves. Every man may to a large extent be a self-educator in goodbehaviour, as in everything else; he can be civil and kind, if hewill, though he have not a penny in his purse. Gentleness insociety is like the silent influence of light, which gives colourto all nature; it is far more powerful than loudness or force, andfar more fruitful. It pushes its way quietly and persistently, like the tiniest daffodil in spring, which raises the clod andthrusts it aside by the simple persistency of growing. 

Even a kind look will give pleasure and confer happiness. In oneof Robertson of Brighton's letters, he tells of a lady who relatedto him "the delight, the tears of gratitude, which she hadwitnessed in a poor girl to whom, in passing, I gave a kind look ongoing out of church on Sunday. What a lesson! How cheaplyhappiness can be given! What opportunities we miss of doing anangel's work! I remember doing it, full of sad feelings, passingon, and thinking no more about it; and it gave an hour's sunshineto a human life, and lightened the load of life to a human heartfor a time!" {35}

Morals and manners, which give colour to life, are of much greaterimportance than laws, which are but their manifestations. The lawtouches us here and there, but manners are about us everywhere, pervading society like the air we breathe. Good manners, as wecall them, are neither more nor less than good behaviour;consisting of courtesy and kindness; benevolence being thepreponderating element in all kinds of mutually beneficial andpleasant intercourse amongst human beings. "Civility, " said LadyMontague, "costs nothing and buys everything. " The cheapest of allthings is kindness, its exercise requiring the least possibletrouble and self-sacrifice. "Win hearts, " said Burleigh to QueenElizabeth, "and you have all men's hearts and purses. " If we wouldonly let nature act kindly, free from affectation and artifice, theresults on social good humour and happiness would be incalculable. The little courtesies which form the small change of life, mayseparately appear of little intrinsic value, but they acquire theirimportance from repetition and accumulation. They are like thespare minutes, or the groat a day, which proverbially produce suchmomentous results in the course of a twelvemonth, or in a lifetime. 

Manners are the ornament of action; and there is a way of speakinga kind word, or of doing a kind thing, which greatly enhances theirvalue. What seems to be done with a grudge, or as an act ofcondescension, is scarcely accepted as a favour. Yet there are menwho pride themselves upon their gruffness; and though they maypossess virtue and capacity, their manner is often such as torender them almost insupportable. It is difficult to like a manwho, though he may not pull your nose, habitually wounds your self-respect, and takes a pride in saying disagreeable things to you. There are others who are dreadfully condescending, and cannot avoidseizing upon every small opportunity of making their greatnessfelt. When Abernethy was canvassing for the office of surgeon toSt. Bartholomew Hospital, he called upon such a person--a richgrocer, one of the governors. The great man behind the counterseeing the great surgeon enter, immediately assumed the grand airtowards the supposed suppliant for his vote. "I presume, Sir, youwant my vote and interest at this momentous epoch of your life?"Abernethy, who hated humbugs, and felt nettled at the tone, replied: "No, I don't: I want a pennyworth of figs; come, looksharp and wrap them up; I want to be off!"

The cultivation of manner--though in excess it is foppish andfoolish--is highly necessary in a person who has occasion tonegociate with others in matters of business. Affability and goodbreeding may even be regarded as essential to the success of a manin any eminent station and enlarged sphere of life; for the want ofit has not unfrequently been found in a great measure to neutralisethe results of much industry, integrity, and honesty of character. There are, no doubt, a few strong tolerant minds which can bearwith defects and angularities of manner, and look only to the moregenuine qualities; but the world at large is not so forbearant, andcannot help forming its judgments and likings mainly according tooutward conduct. 

Another mode of displaying true politeness is consideration for theopinions of others. It has been said of dogmatism, that it is onlypuppyism come to its full growth; and certainly the worst form thisquality can assume, is that of opinionativeness and arrogance. Letmen agree to differ, and, when they do differ, bear and forbear. Principles and opinions may be maintained with perfect suavity, without coming to blows or uttering hard words; and there arecircumstances in which words are blows, and inflict wounds far lesseasy to heal. As bearing upon this point, we quote an instructivelittle parable spoken some time since by an itinerant preacher ofthe Evangelical Alliance on the borders of Wales:- "As I was goingto the hills, " said he, "early one misty morning, I saw somethingmoving on a mountain side, so strange looking that I took it for amonster. When I came nearer to it I found it was a man. When Icame up to him I found he was my brother. "

The inbred politeness which springs from right-heartedness andkindly feelings, is of no exclusive rank or station. The mechanicwho works at the bench may possess it, as well as the clergyman orthe peer. It is by no means a necessary condition of labour thatit should, in any respect, be either rough or coarse. Thepoliteness and refinement which distinguish all classes of thepeople in many continental countries show that those qualitiesmight become ours too--as doubtless they will become with increasedculture and more general social intercourse--without sacrificingany of our more genuine qualities as men. From the highest to thelowest, the richest to the poorest, to no rank or condition in lifehas nature denied her highest boon--the great heart. There neveryet existed a gentleman but was lord of a great heart. And thismay exhibit itself under the hodden grey of the peasant as well asunder the laced coat of the noble. Robert Burns was once taken totask by a young Edinburgh blood, with whom he was walking, forrecognising an honest farmer in the open street. "Why youfantastic gomeral, " exclaimed Burns, "it was not the great coat, the scone bonnet, and the saunders-boot hose that I spoke to, butTHE MAN that was in them; and the man, sir, for true worth, wouldweigh down you and me, and ten more such, any day. " There may be ahomeliness in externals, which may seem vulgar to those who cannotdiscern the heart beneath; but, to the right-minded, character willalways have its clear insignia. 

William and Charles Grant were the sons of a farmer in Inverness-shire, whom a sudden flood stripped of everything, even to the verysoil which he tilled. The farmer and his sons, with the worldbefore them where to choose, made their way southward in search ofemployment until they arrived in the neighbourhood of Bury inLancashire. From the crown of the hill near Walmesley theysurveyed the wide extent of country which lay before them, theriver Irwell making its circuitous course through the valley. Theywere utter strangers in the neighbourhood, and knew not which wayto turn. To decide their course they put up a stick, and agreed topursue the direction in which it fell. Thus their decision wasmade, and they journeyed on accordingly until they reached thevillage of Ramsbotham, not far distant. They found employment in aprint-work, in which William served his apprenticeship; and theycommanded themselves to their employers by their diligence, sobriety, and strict integrity. They plodded on, rising from onestation to another, until at length the two men themselves becameemployers, and after many long years of industry, enterprise, andbenevolence, they became rich, honoured, and respected by all whoknew them. Their cotton-mills and print-works gave employment to alarge population. Their well-directed diligence made the valleyteem with activity, joy, health, and opulence. Out of theirabundant wealth they gave liberally to all worthy objects, erectingchurches, founding schools, and in all ways promoting the well-being of the class of working-men from which they had sprung. Theyafterwards erected, on the top of the hill above Walmesley, a loftytower in commemoration of the early event in their history whichhad determined the place of their settlement. The brothers Grantbecame widely celebrated for their benevolence and their variousgoodness, and it is said that Mr. Dickens had them in his mind'seye when delineating the character of the brothers Cheeryble. Oneamongst many anecdotes of a similar kind may be cited to show thatthe character was by no means exaggerated. A Manchesterwarehouseman published an exceedingly scurrilous pamphlet againstthe firm of Grant Brothers, holding up the elder partner toridicule as "Billy Button. " William was informed by some one ofthe nature of the pamphlet, and his observation was that the manwould live to repent of it. "Oh!" said the libeller, when informedof the remark, "he thinks that some time or other I shall be in hisdebt; but I will take good care of that. " It happens, however, that men in business do not always foresee who shall be theircreditor, and it so turned out that the Grants' libeller became abankrupt, and could not complete his certificate and begin businessagain without obtaining their signature. It seemed to him ahopeless case to call upon that firm for any favour, but thepressing claims of his family forced him to make the application. He appeared before the man whom he had ridiculed as "Billy Button"accordingly. He told his tale and produced his certificate. "Youwrote a pamphlet against us once?" said Mr. Grant. The supplicantexpected to see his document thrown into the fire; instead of whichGrant signed the name of the firm, and thus completed the necessarycertificate. "We make it a rule, " said he, handing it back, "neverto refuse signing the certificate of an honest tradesman, and wehave never heard that you were anything else. " The tears startedinto the man's eyes. "Ah, " continued Mr. Grant, "you see my sayingwas true, that you would live to repent writing that pamphlet. Idid not mean it as a threat--I only meant that some day you wouldknow us better, and repent having tried to injure us. " "I do, Ido, indeed, repent it. " "Well, well, you know us now. But how doyou get on--what are you going to do?" The poor man stated that hehad friends who would assist him when his certificate was obtained. "But how are you off in the mean time?" The answer was, that, having given up every farthing to his creditors, he had beencompelled to stint his family in even the common necessaries oflife, that he might be enabled to pay for his certificate. "Mygood fellow, this will never do; your wife and family must notsuffer in this way; be kind enough to take this ten-pound note toyour wife from me: there, there, now--don't cry, it will be allwell with you yet; keep up your spirits, set to work like a man, and you will raise your head among the best of us yet. " Theoverpowered man endeavoured with choking utterance to express hisgratitude, but in vain; and putting his hand to his face, he wentout of the room sobbing like a child. 

The True Gentleman is one whose nature has been fashioned after thehighest models. It is a grand old name, that of Gentleman, and hasbeen recognized as a rank and power in all stages of society. "TheGentleman is always the Gentleman, " said the old French General tohis regiment of Scottish gentry at Rousillon, "and invariablyproves himself such in need and in danger. " To possess thischaracter is a dignity of itself, commanding the instinctive homageof every generous mind, and those who will not bow to titular rank, will yet do homage to the gentleman. His qualities depend not uponfashion or manners, but upon moral worth--not on personalpossessions, but on personal qualities. The Psalmist brieflydescribes him as one "that walketh uprightly, and workethrighteousness, and speaketh the truth in his heart. "

The gentleman is eminently distinguished for his self-respect. Hevalues his character, --not so much of it only as can be seen ofothers, but as he sees it himself; having regard for the approvalof his inward monitor. And, as he respects himself, so, by thesame law, does he respect others. Humanity is sacred in his eyes:and thence proceed politeness and forbearance, kindness andcharity. It is related of Lord Edward Fitzgerald that, whiletravelling in Canada, in company with the Indians, he was shockedby the sight of a poor squaw trudging along laden with herhusband's trappings, while the chief himself walked onunencumbered. Lord Edward at once relieved the squaw of her packby placing it upon his own shoulders, --a beautiful instance of whatthe French call politesse de coeur--the inbred politeness of thetrue gentleman. 

The true gentleman has a keen sense of honour, --scrupulouslyavoiding mean actions. His standard of probity in word and actionis high. He does not shuffle or prevaricate, dodge or skulk; butis honest, upright, and straightforward. His law is rectitude--action in right lines. When he says YES, it is a law: and hedares to say the valiant NO at the fitting season. The gentlemanwill not be bribed; only the low-minded and unprincipled will sellthemselves to those who are interested in buying them. When theupright Jonas Hanway officiated as commissioner in the victuallingdepartment, he declined to receive a present of any kind from acontractor; refusing thus to be biassed in the performance of hispublic duty. A fine trait of the same kind is to be noted in thelife of the Duke of Wellington. Shortly after the battle ofAssaye, one morning the Prime Minister of the Court of Hyderabadwaited upon him for the purpose of privately ascertaining whatterritory and what advantages had been reserved for his master inthe treaty of peace between the Mahratta princes and the Nizam. Toobtain this information the minister offered the general a verylarge sum--considerably above 100, 000l. Looking at him quietly fora few seconds, Sir Arthur said, "It appears, then, that you arecapable of keeping a secret?" "Yes, certainly, " replied theminister. "THEN SO AM I, " said the English general, smiling, andbowed the minister out. It was to Wellington's great honour, thatthough uniformly successful in India, and with the power of earningin such modes as this enormous wealth, he did not add a farthing tohis fortune, and returned to England a comparatively poor man. 

A similar sensitiveness and high-mindedness characterised his noblerelative, the Marquis of Wellesley, who, on one occasion, positively refused a present of 100, 000l. Proposed to be given himby the Directors of the East India Company on the conquest ofMysore. "It is not necessary, " said he, "for me to allude to theindependence of my character, and the proper dignity attaching tomy office; other reasons besides these important considerationslead me to decline this testimony, which is not suitable to me. ITHINK OF NOTHING BUT OUR ARMY. I should be much distressed tocurtail the share of those brave soldiers. " And the Marquis'sresolution to refuse the present remained unalterable. 

Sir Charles Napier exhibited the same noble self-denial in thecourse of his Indian career. He rejected all the costly giftswhich barbaric princes were ready to lay at his feet, and said withtruth, "Certainly I could have got 30, 000l. Since my coming toScinde, but my hands do not want washing yet. Our dear father'ssword which I wore in both battles (Meanee and Hyderabad) isunstained. "

Riches and rank have no necessary connexion with genuinegentlemanly qualities. The poor man may be a true gentleman, --inspirit and in daily life. He may be honest, truthful, upright, polite, temperate, courageous, self-respecting, and self-helping, --that is, be a true gentleman. The poor man with a rich spirit isin all ways superior to the rich man with a poor spirit. To borrowSt. Paul's words, the former is as "having nothing, yet possessingall things, " while the other, though possessing all things, hasnothing. The first hopes everything, and fears nothing; the lasthopes nothing, and fears everything. Only the poor in spirit arereally poor. He who has lost all, but retains his courage, cheerfulness, hope, virtue, and self-respect, is still rich. Forsuch a man, the world is, as it were, held in trust; his spiritdominating over its grosser cares, he can still walk erect, a truegentleman. 

Occasionally, the brave and gentle character may be found under thehumblest garb. Here is an old illustration, but a fine one. Onceon a time, when the Adige suddenly overflowed its banks, the bridgeof Verona was carried away, with the exception of the centre arch, on which stood a house, whose inhabitants supplicated help from thewindows, while the foundations were visibly giving way. "I willgive a hundred French louis, " said the Count Spolverini, who stoodby, "to any person who will venture to deliver these unfortunatepeople. " A young peasant came forth from the crowd, seized a boat, and pushed into the stream. He gained the pier, received the wholefamily into the boat, and made for the shore, where he landed themin safety. "Here is your money, my brave young fellow, " said thecount. "No, " was the answer of the young man, "I do not sell mylife; give the money to this poor family, who have need of it. "Here spoke the true spirit of the gentleman, though he was but inthe garb of a peasant. 

Not less touching was the heroic conduct of a party of Deal boatmenin rescuing the crew of a collier-brig in the Downs but a shorttime ago. {36} A sudden storm which set in from the north-eastdrove several ships from their anchors, and it being low water, oneof them struck the ground at a considerable distance from theshore, when the sea made a clean breach over her. There was not avestige of hope for the vessel, such was the fury of the wind andthe violence of the waves. There was nothing to tempt the boatmenon shore to risk their lives in saving either ship or crew, for nota farthing of salvage was to be looked for. But the daringintrepidity of the Deal boatmen was not wanting at this criticalmoment. No sooner had the brig grounded than Simon Pritchard, oneof the many persons assembled along the beach, threw off his coatand called out, "Who will come with me and try to save that crew?"Instantly twenty men sprang forward, with "I will, " "and I. " Butseven only were wanted; and running down a galley punt into thesurf, they leaped in and dashed through the breakers, amidst thecheers of those on shore. How the boat lived in such a sea seemeda miracle; but in a few minutes, impelled by the strong arms ofthese gallant men, she flew on and reached the stranded ship, "catching her on the top of a wave"; and in less than a quarter ofan hour from the time the boat left the shore, the six men whocomposed the crew of the collier were landed safe on Walmer Beach. A nobler instance of indomitable courage and disinterested heroismon the part of the Deal boatmen--brave though they are always knownto be--perhaps cannot be cited; and we have pleasure in hereplacing it on record. 

Mr. Turnbull, in his work on 'Austria, ' relates an anecdote of thelate Emperor Francis, in illustration of the manner in which theGovernment of that country has been indebted, for its hold upon thepeople, to the personal qualities of its princes. "At the timewhen the cholera was raging at Vienna, the emperor, with an aide-de-camp, was strolling about the streets of the city and suburbs, when a corpse was dragged past on a litter unaccompanied by asingle mourner. The unusual circumstance attracted his attention, and he learnt, on inquiry, that the deceased was a poor person whohad died of cholera, and that the relatives had not ventured onwhat was then considered the very dangerous office of attending thebody to the grave. 'Then, ' said Francis, 'we will supply theirplace, for none of my poor people should go to the grave withoutthat last mark of respect;' and he followed the body to the distantplace of interment, and, bare-headed, stood to see every rite andobservance respectfully performed. "

Fine though this illustration may be of the qualities of thegentleman, we can match it by another equally good, of two Englishnavvies in Paris, as related in a morning paper a few years ago. "One day a hearse was observed ascending the steep Rue de Clichy onits way to Montmartre, bearing a coffin of poplar wood with itscold corpse. Not a soul followed--not even the living dog of thedead man, if he had one. The day was rainy and dismal; passers bylifted the hat as is usual when a funeral passes, and that was all. At length it passed two English navvies, who found themselves inParis on their way from Spain. A right feeling spoke from beneaththeir serge jackets. 'Poor wretch!' said the one to the other, 'noone follows him; let us two follow!' And the two took off theirhats, and walked bare-headed after the corpse of a stranger to thecemetery of Montmartre. "

Above all, the gentleman is truthful. He feels that truth is the"summit of being, " and the soul of rectitude in human affairs. Lord Chesterfield declared that Truth made the success of agentleman. The Duke of Wellington, writing to Kellerman, on thesubject of prisoners on parole, when opposed to that general in thepeninsula, told him that if there was one thing on which an Englishofficer prided himself more than another, excepting his courage, itwas his truthfulness. "When English officers, " said he, "havegiven their parole of honour not to escape, be sure they will notbreak it. Believe me--trust to their word; the word of an Englishofficer is a surer guarantee than the vigilance of sentinels. "

True courage and gentleness go hand in hand. The brave man isgenerous and forbearant, never unforgiving and cruel. It wasfinely said of Sir John Franklin by his friend Parry, that "he wasa man who never turned his back upon a danger, yet of thattenderness that he would not brush away a mosquito. " A fine traitof character--truly gentle, and worthy of the spirit of Bayard--wasdisplayed by a French officer in the cavalry combat of El Bodon inSpain. He had raised his sword to strike Sir Felton Harvey, butperceiving his antagonist had only one arm, he instantly stopped, brought down his sword before Sir Felton in the usual salute, androde past. To this may be added a noble and gentle deed of Neyduring the same Peninsular War. Charles Napier was taken prisonerat Corunna, desperately wounded; and his friends at home did notknow whether he was alive or dead. A special messenger was sentout from England with a frigate to ascertain his fate. BaronClouet received the flag, and informed Ney of the arrival. "Letthe prisoner see his friends, " said Ney, "and tell them he is well, and well treated. " Clouet lingered, and Ney asked, smiling, "whatmore he wanted"? "He has an old mother, a widow, and blind. " "Hashe? then let him go himself and tell her he is alive. " As theexchange of prisoners between the countries was not then allowed, Ney knew that he risked the displeasure of the Emperor by settingthe young officer at liberty; but Napoleon approved the generousact. 

Notwithstanding the wail which we occasionally hear for thechivalry that is gone, our own age has witnessed deeds of braveryand gentleness--of heroic self-denial and manly tenderness--whichare unsurpassed in history. The events of the last few years haveshown that our countrymen are as yet an undegenerate race. On thebleak plateau of Sebastopol, in the dripping perilous trenches ofthat twelvemonth's leaguer, men of all classes proved themselvesworthy of the noble inheritance of character which theirforefathers have bequeathed to them. But it was in the hour of thegreat trial in India that the qualities of our countrymen shoneforth the brightest. The march of Neill on Cawnpore, of Havelockon Lucknow--officers and men alike urged on by the hope of rescuingthe women and the children--are events which the whole history ofchivalry cannot equal. Outram's conduct to Havelock, in resigningto him, though his inferior officer, the honour of leading theattack on Lucknow, was a trait worthy of Sydney, and alonejustifies the title which has been awarded to him of, "the Bayardof India. " The death of Henry Lawrence--that brave and gentlespirit--his last words before dying, "Let there be no fuss aboutme; let me be buried WITH THE MEN, "--the anxious solicitude of SirColin Campbell to rescue the beleaguered of Lucknow, and to conducthis long train of women and children by night from thence toCawnpore, which he reached amidst the all but overpowering assaultof the enemy, --the care with which he led them across the perilousbridge, never ceasing his charge over them until he had seen theprecious convoy safe on the road to Allahabad, and then burst uponthe Gwalior contingent like a thunder-clap;--such things make usfeel proud of our countrymen and inspire the conviction that thebest and purest glow of chivalry is not dead, but vigorously livesamong us yet. 

Even the common soldiers proved themselves gentlemen under theirtrials. At Agra, where so many poor fellows had been scorched andwounded in their encounter with the enemy, they were brought intothe fort, and tenderly nursed by the ladies; and the rough, gallantfellows proved gentle as any children. During the weeks that theladies watched over their charge, never a word was said by anysoldier that could shock the ear of the gentlest. And when all wasover--when the mortally-wounded had died, and the sick and maimedwho survived were able to demonstrate their gratitude--they invitedtheir nurses and the chief people of Agra to an entertainment inthe beautiful gardens of the Taj, where, amidst flowers and music, the rough veterans, all scarred and mutilated as they were, stoodup to thank their gentle countrywomen who had clothed and fed them, and ministered to their wants during their time of sore distress. In the hospitals at Scutari, too, many wounded and sick blessed thekind English ladies who nursed them; and nothing can be finer thanthe thought of the poor sufferers, unable to rest through pain, blessing the shadow of Florence Nightingale as it fell upon theirpillow in the night watches. 

The wreck of the Birkenhead off the coast of Africa on the 27th ofFebruary, 1852, affords another memorable illustration of thechivalrous spirit of common men acting in this nineteenth century, of which any age might be proud. The vessel was steaming along theAfrican coast with 472 men and 166 women and children on board. The men belonged to several regiments then serving at the Cape, andconsisted principally of recruits who had been only a short time inthe service. At two o'clock in the morning, while all were asleepbelow, the ship struck with violence upon a hidden rock whichpenetrated her bottom; and it was at once felt that she must godown. The roll of the drums called the soldiers to arms on theupper deck, and the men mustered as if on parade. The word waspassed to SAVE THE WOMEN AND CHILDREN; and the helpless creatureswere brought from below, mostly undressed, and handed silently intothe boats. When they had all left the ship's side, the commanderof the vessel thoughtlessly called out, "All those that can swim, jump overboard and make for the boats. " But Captain Wright, of the91st Highlanders, said, "No! if you do that, THE BOATS WITH THEWOMEN MUST BE SWAMPED;" and the brave men stood motionless. Therewas no boat remaining, and no hope of safety; but not a heartquailed; no one flinched from his duty in that trying moment. "There was not a murmur nor a cry amongst them, " said CaptainWright, a survivor, "until the vessel made her final plunge. " Downwent the ship, and down went the heroic band, firing a feu de joieas they sank beneath the waves. Glory and honour to the gentle andthe brave! The examples of such men never die, but, like theirmemories, are immortal. 

There are many tests by which a gentleman may be known; but thereis one that never fails--How does he EXERCISE POWER over thosesubordinate to him? How does he conduct himself towards women andchildren? How does the officer treat his men, the employer hisservants, the master his pupils, and man in every station those whoare weaker than himself? The discretion, forbearance, andkindliness, with which power in such cases is used, may indeed beregarded as the crucial test of gentlemanly character. When LaMotte was one day passing through a crowd, he accidentally trodupon the foot of a young fellow, who forthwith struck him on theface: "Ah, sire, " said La Motte, "you will surely be sorry forwhat you have done, when you know that I AM BLIND. " He who bulliesthose who are not in a position to resist may be a snob, but cannotbe a gentleman. He who tyrannizes over the weak and helpless maybe a coward, but no true man. The tyrant, it has been said, is buta slave turned inside out. Strength, and the consciousness ofstrength, in a right-hearted man, imparts a nobleness to hischaracter; but he will be most careful how he uses it; for

"It is excellentTo have a giant's strength; but it is tyrannousTo use it like a giant. "

Gentleness is indeed the best test of gentlemanliness. Aconsideration for the feelings of others, for his inferiors anddependants as well as his equals, and respect for their self-respect, will pervade the true gentleman's whole conduct. He willrather himself suffer a small injury, than by an uncharitableconstruction of another's behaviour, incur the risk of committing agreat wrong. He will be forbearant of the weaknesses, thefailings, and the errors, of those whose advantages in life havenot been equal to his own. He will be merciful even to his beast. He will not boast of his wealth, or his strength, or his gifts. Hewill not be puffed up by success, or unduly depressed by failure. He will not obtrude his views on others, but speak his mind freelywhen occasion calls for it. He will not confer favours with apatronizing air. Sir Walter Scott once said of Lord Lothian, "Heis a man from whom one may receive a favour, and that's saying agreat deal in these days. "

Lord Chatham has said that the gentleman is characterised by hissacrifice of self and preference of others to himself in the littledaily occurrences of life. In illustration of this ruling spiritof considerateness in a noble character, we may cite the anecdoteof the gallant Sir Ralph Abercromby, of whom it is related, thatwhen mortally wounded in the battle of Aboukir, he was carried in alitter on board the 'Foudroyant;' and, to ease his pain, asoldier's blanket was placed under his head, from which heexperienced considerable relief. He asked what it was. "It's onlya soldier's blanket, " was the reply. "WHOSE blanket is it?" saidhe, half lifting himself up. "Only one of the men's. " "I wish toknow the name of the man whose blanket this is. " "It is DuncanRoy's, of the 42nd, Sir Ralph. " "Then see that Duncan Roy gets hisblanket this very night. " {37} Even to ease his dying agony thegeneral would not deprive the private soldier of his blanket forone night. The incident is as good in its way as that of the dyingSydney handing his cup of water to the private soldier on the fieldof Zutphen. 

The quaint old Fuller sums up in a few words the character of thetrue gentleman and man of action in describing that of the greatadmiral, Sir Francis Drake: "Chaste in his life, just in hisdealings, true of his word; merciful to those that were under him, and hating nothing so much as idlenesse; in matters especially ofmoment, he was never wont to rely on other men's care, how trustyor skilful soever they might seem to be, but, always contemningdanger, and refusing no toyl, he was wont himself to be one(whoever was a second) at every turn, where courage, skill, orindustry, was to be employed. "

Footnotes:

{1} Napoleon III. , 'Life of Caesar. '

{2} Soult received but little education in his youth, and learntnext to no geography until he became foreign minister of France, when the study of this branch of knowledge is said to have givenhim the greatest pleasure. --'OEuvres, &c. , d'Alexis de Tocqueville. Par G. De Beaumont. ' Paris, 1861. I. 52

{3} 'OEuvres et Correspondance inedite d'Alexis de Tocqueville. Par Gustave de Beaumont. ' I. 398. 

{4} "I have seen, " said he, "a hundred times in the course of mylife, a weak man exhibit genuine public virtue, because supportedby a wife who sustained hint in his course, not so much by advisinghim to such and such acts, as by exercising a strengtheninginfluence over the manner in which duty or even ambition was to beregarded. Much oftener, however, it must be confessed, have I seenprivate and domestic life gradually transform a man to whom naturehad given generosity, disinterestedness, and even some capacity forgreatness, into an ambitious, mean-spirited, vulgar, and selfishcreature who, in matters relating to his country, ended byconsidering them only in so far as they rendered his own particularcondition more comfortable and easy. "--'OEuvres de Tocqueville. 'II. 349. 

{5} Since the original publication of this book, the author has inanother work, 'The Lives of Boulton and Watt, ' endeavoured toportray in greater detail the character and achievements of thesetwo remarkable men. 

{6} The following entry, which occurs in the account of moniesdisbursed by the burgesses of Sheffield in 1573 [?] is supposed bysome to refer to the inventor of the stocking frame:- "Item gyvento Willm-Lee, a poore scholler in Sheafield, towards the settynghim to the Universitie of Chambrydge, and buying him bookes andother furnyture [which money was afterwards returned] xiii iiii[13s. 4d. ]. "--Hunter, 'History of Hallamshire, ' 141. 

{7} 'History of the Framework Knitters. '

{8} There are, however, other and different accounts. One is tothe effect that Lee set about studying the contrivance of thestocking-loom for the purpose of lessening the labour of a youngcountry-girl to whom he was attached, whose occupation wasknitting; another, that being married and poor, his wife was underthe necessity of contributing to their joint support by knitting;and that Lee, while watching the motion of his wife's fingers, conceived the idea of imitating their movements by a machine. Thelatter story seems to have been invented by Aaron Hill, Esq. , inhis 'Account of the Rise and Progress of the Beech Oilmanufacture, ' London, 1715; but his statement is altogetherunreliable. Thus he makes Lee to have been a Fellow of a collegeat Oxford, from which he was expelled for marrying an innkeeper'sdaughter; whilst Lee neither studied at Oxford, nor married there, nor was a Fellow of any college; and he concludes by alleging thatthe result of his invention was to "make Lee and his family happy;"whereas the invention brought him only a heritage of misery, and hedied abroad destitute. 

{9} Blackner, 'History of Nottingham. ' The author adds, "We haveinformation, handed down in direct succession from father to son, that it was not till late in the seventeenth century that one mancould manage the working of a frame. The man who was consideredthe workman employed a labourer, who stood behind the frame to workthe slur and pressing motions; but the application of traddles andof the feet eventually rendered the labour unnecessary. "

{10} Palissy's own words are:- "Le bois m'ayant failli, je fuscontraint brusler les estapes (etaies) qui soustenoyent les taillesde mon jardin, lesquelles estant bruslees, je fus constraintbrusler les tables et plancher de la maison, afin de faire fondrela seconde composition. J'estois en une telle angoisse que je nescaurois dire: car j'estois tout tari et deseche a cause du labeuret de la chaleur du fourneau; il y avoit plus d'un mois que machemise n'avoit seiche sur moy, encores pour me consoler on semoquoit de moy, et mesme ceux qui me devoient secourir alloientcrier par la ville que je faisois brusler le plancher: et par telmoyen l'on me faisoit perdre mon credit et m'estimoit-on estre fol. Les autres disoient que je cherchois a faire la fausse monnoye, quiestoit un mal qui me faisoit seicher sur les pieds; et m'en alloispar les rues tout baisse comme un homme honteux: . . . Personne neme secouroit: Mais au contraire ils se mocquoyent de moy, endisant: Il luy appartient bien de mourir de faim, par ce qu'ildelaisse son mestier. Toutes ces nouvelles venoyent a mesaureilles quand je passois par la rue. " 'OEuvres Completes dePalissy. Paris, 1844;' De l'Art de Terre, p. 315. 

{11} "Toutes ces fautes m'ont cause un tel lasseur et tristessed'esprit, qu'auparavant que j'aye rendu mes emaux fusible a unmesme degre de feu, j'ay cuide entrer jusques a la porte dusepulchre: aussi en me travaillant a tels affaires je me suistrouve l'espace de plus se dix ans si fort escoule en ma personne, qu'il n'y avoit aucune forme ny apparence de bosse aux bras ny auxjambes: ains estoyent mes dites jambes toutes d'une venue: desorte que les liens de quoy j'attachois mes bas de chaussesestoyent, soudain que je cheminois, sur les talons avec le residude mes chausses. "--'OEuvres, 319-20. 

{12} At the sale of Mr. Bernal's articles of vertu in London a fewyears since, one of Palissy's small dishes, 12 inches in diameter, with a lizard in the centre, sold for 162l. 

{13} Within the last few months, Mr. Charles Read, a gentlemancurious in matters of Protestant antiquarianism in France, hasdiscovered one of the ovens in which Palissy baked his chefs-d'oeuvre. Several moulds of faces, plants, animals, &c. , were dugup in a good state of preservation, bearing his well-known stamp. It is situated under the gallery of the Louvre, in the Place duCarrousel. 

{14} D'Aubigne, 'Histoire Universelle. ' The historian adds, "Voyez l'impudence de ce bilistre! vous diriez qu'il auroit lu cevers de Seneque: 'On ne peut contraindre celui qui sait mourir:Qui mori scit, cogi nescit. '"

{15} The subject of Palissy's life and labours has been ably andelaborately treated by Professor Morley in his well-known work. Inthe above brief narrative we have for the most part followedPalissy's own account of his experiments as given in his 'Art deTerre. '

{16} "Almighty God, the great Creator, Has changed a goldmaker to a potter. "

{17} The whole of the Chinese and Japanese porcelain was formerlyknown as Indian porcelain--probably because it was first brought bythe Portuguese from India to Europe, after the discovery of theCape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama. 

{18} 'Wedgwood: an Address delivered at Burslem, Oct. 26th, 1863. ' By the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, M. P. 

{19} It was characteristic of Mr. Hume, that, during hisprofessional voyages between England and India, he shoulddiligently apply his spare time to the study of navigation andseamanship; and many years after, it proved of use to him in aremarkable manner. In 1825, when on his passage from London toLeith by a sailing smack, the vessel had scarcely cleared the mouthof the Thames when a sudden storm came on, she was driven out ofher course, and, in the darkness of the night, she struck on theGoodwin Sands. The captain, losing his presence of mind, seemedincapable of giving coherent orders, and it is probable that thevessel would have become a total wreck, had not one of thepassengers suddenly taken the command and directed the working ofthe ship, himself taking the helm while the danger lasted. Thevessel was saved, and the stranger was Mr. Hume. 

{20} 'Saturday Review, ' July 3rd, 1858. 

{21} Mrs. Grote's 'Memoir of the Life of Ary Scheffer, ' p. 67. 

{22} While the sheets of this revised edition are passing throughthe press, the announcement appears in the local papers of thedeath of Mr. Jackson at the age of fifty. His last work, completedshortly before his death, was a cantata, entitled 'The Praise ofMusic. ' The above particulars of his early life were communicatedby himself to the author several years since, while he was stillcarrying on his business of a tallow-chandler at Masham. 

{23} Mansfield owed nothing to his noble relations, who were poorand uninfluential. His success was the legitimate and logicalresult of the means which he sedulously employed to secure it. When a boy he rode up from Scotland to London on a pony--taking twomonths to make the journey. After a course of school and college, he entered upon the profession of the law, and he closed a careerof patient and ceaseless labour as Lord Chief Justice of England--the functions of which he is universally admitted to have performedwith unsurpassed ability, justice, and honour. 

{24} On 'Thought and Action. '

{25} 'Correspondance de Napoleon Ier. , ' publiee par ordre del'Empereur Napoleon III, Paris, 1864. 

{26} The recently published correspondence of Napoleon with hisbrother Joseph, and the Memoirs of the Duke of Ragusa, abundantlyconfirm this view. The Duke overthrew Napoleon's generals by thesuperiority of his routine. He used to say that, if he knewanything at all, he knew how to feed an army. 

{27} His old gardener. Collingwood's favourite amusement wasgardening. Shortly after the battle of Trafalgar a brother admiralcalled upon him, and, after searching for his lordship all over thegarden, he at last discovered him, with old Scott, in the bottom ofa deep trench which they were busily employed in digging. 

{28} Article in the 'Times. '

{29} 'Self-Development: an Address to Students, ' by George Ross, M. D. , pp. 1-20, reprinted from the 'Medical Circular. ' Thisaddress, to which we acknowledge our obligations, contains manyadmirable thoughts on self-culture, is thoroughly healthy in itstone, and well deserves republication in an enlarged form. 

{30} 'Saturday Review. '

{31} See the admirable and well-known book, 'The Pursuit ofKnowledge under Difficulties. '

{32} Late Professor of Moral Philosophy at St. Andrew's. 

{33} A writer in the 'Edinburgh Review' (July, 1859) observes that"the Duke's talents seem never to have developed themselves untilsome active and practical field for their display was placedimmediately before him. He was long described by his Spartanmother, who thought him a dunce, as only 'food for powder. ' Hegained no sort of distinction, either at Eton or at the FrenchMilitary College of Angers. " It is not improbable that acompetitive examination, at this day, might have excluded him fromthe army. 

{34} Correspondent of 'The Times, ' 11th June, 1863. 

{35} Robertson's 'Life and Letters, ' i. 258. 

{36} On the 11th January, 1866. 

{37} Brown's 'Horae Subsecivae. '