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SCARABS. 

THEHISTORY, MANUFACTURE AND RELIGIOUSSYMBOLISM

OF THE

SCARABÆUS, IN

ANCIENT EGYPT, PHŒNICIA, SARDINIA, ETRURIA, ETC. 

ALSO

REMARKS ON THE LEARNING, PHILOSOPHY, ARTS, ETHICS, PSYCHOLOGY, IDEAS AS TO THE IMMORTALITY OFTHE SOUL, ETC. , OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS, PHŒNICIANS, ETC. 

BY

ISAAC MYER, LL. B. 

Member of the American Oriental Society. The American Numismaticand Archæological Society. The Numismatic and AntiquarianSociety of Philadelphia. La Société Royale de Numismatiquede Belgique. The Oriental Club ofPhiladelphia. The New York HistoricalSociety Historical Society ofthe State of Pennsylvania, etc. 

AUTHOR OF THE QABBALAH. THE PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OFSOLOMON B. YEHUDAH IBN. GEBIROL, OR AVICEBRON;THE WATERLOO MEDAL, ETC. 

FOR SALE BY

EDWIN W. DAYTON, NO. 641 MADISON AVENUE, NEW YORK. 

OTTO HARRASSOWITZ, Querstrasse No. 14, LEIPZIG. 

ÉMILE BOUILLON, No. 67, Rue de Richelieu, PARIS. 

1894. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1894, byISAAC MYER, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 

ALL RIGHTS OF TRANSLATION RESERVED. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The following work is taken in part, from an address delivered by mebefore, The American Numismatic and Archæological Society, at its Hallin the City of New York, on March 30th, 1893. Since that time I havebeen led into a train of thought, having as its basis a morephilosophical treatment of the meaning of the scarabæus as a symbol, in the religious metaphysic conception of it by the Ancient Egyptians, and have added much new matter. I am convinced that at the period whenwe first meet with the symbol of the scarabæus in Egypt, it wasalready the symbol and tangible expression of an elevated religiousidea, embracing that of a future life of the human soul, aresurrection of it from the dead, and most likely, of a reward orpunishment to it in the future life, based on its conduct when in theterrestrial life. 

We know from the inscription on the lid of the coffin of Men-kau-Ra, king of the IVth, the Memphite Dynasty, (_circa_ 3633-3600 B. C. , ) andbuilder of the Third Pyramid at Gizeh; that some of the most elevatedconceptions of the _Per-em-hru_, i. E. , the so-called, Book of theDead, were at that time in existence as accepted facts. The dead oneat this early period became an Osiris, living eternally. We have everyreason to think, that the use of the models of the scarabæus as thesymbol of the resurrection or new-birth, and the future eternal lifeof the triumphant or justified dead, existed as an accepted dogma, before the earliest historical knowledge we have thus far been ableto acquire of the Ancient Egyptians. 

It most probably ante-dated the epoch of Mena, the first historicalEgyptian king. How long before his period it existed, in the presentcondition of our knowledge of the ancient history and thought ofEgypt, it is impossible to surmise. Of the aborigines of the land ofEgypt we do not know nor are we very likely to know, anything. Of therace known to us as the Egyptian we can now assert with muchcertainty, that it was a Caucasian people, and likely came from anoriginal home in Asia. When the invader arrived in the valley of theNile, he appears to have been highly civilized and to have had anelevated form of religious belief. 

The oldest stelæ known, one of which is now in the Ashmolean Museum atOxford, England, and the other in the Museum at Gizeh, Egypt; weremade for the tomb of Shera, who is called on them, "a prophet" and "aroyal relative. " He was a priest of the period of Sent, the fifth kingof the IInd Dynasty, who was living about 4000 B. C. The stele is shownby Lepsius in his _Auswahl_, Plate 9, and is the earliest example of ahieroglyphic inscription known. These stelæ are in the form of a falsedoor. 

Upon these stelæ of Shera, is inscribed the Egyptian prayer for thesoul of the dead called, the _Suten-hotep-ta_, from its first words. The _Suten-hotep-ta_ was supposed to have been delivered by divinerevelation. An old text speaks of, a "_Suten-hotep-ta_ exactlycorresponding to the texts of sacrificial offerings, handed down bythe ancients as proceeding from the mouth of God. "[1] This prayerinscribed on the steles mentioned, asks that there may be granted thedeceased in the other world, funeral oblations, "thousands of oxen, linen bandages, cakes, vessels of wine, incense, etc. " This shows thatat this very early period there was a belief in Egypt of the futurelife of the _Ba_, the responsible soul, and of the _Ka_, the vitalsoul, of the deceased. The word _Ka_ enters into the names of kingsKa-kau, Nefer-ka-Ra, and Nefer-ka-seker of the IInd Dynasty (4133-3966B. C. ) In the same Dynasty the word _Ba_, the name of the responsiblesoul, and _Baiu_ its plural, enter into the names Neter-Baiu andBa-en-neter. _Ab_, i. E. , the heart, also enters into the name ofPer-ab-sen of this Dynasty. We also have _Ba_ in the name ofMer-ba-pen, sixth king of the Ist Dynasty. 

It was during the reign of king Sent, that a medical papyrus wasedited which shows it was the result of years of experience. Fromwhat we have just said it is extremely likely, that the body wasmummified in Egypt from the earliest period of which we haveknowledge. 

Manetho says that Teta, the second king of the 1st Dynasty, _circa_4366 B. C. , wrote a book on anatomy, and experimented with drugs orchemicals. Shesh, the mother of this king, invented a hair wash. [2]

We can from the foregoing assume with some certainty, that before thehistorical period in Ancient Egypt, a religious belief existed, funeral ceremonies, and an expectation of an eternal life of the soulafter the death of the body of man on this earth; whether a belief inrewards or punishments to be suffered or enjoyed by the soul aftersuch death, for actions done by man in this earthly life, existed atthat time, we cannot as yet, with certainty, affirm; but it is quitelikely it did. In this connection a study of the "Pyramid Texts"published by Maspero in his _Recueil de Travaux_, is of great value tothe student. 

An element of great value to the student of religions is, that thescarabæus symbol, is the earliest expression of the most ancient ideaof the immortality of the soul after death that has reached our day, taking us back however to a period which may be considered ascivilized and enlightened and yet, so encompassed with the mists ofthe past, that the mental eye of to-day cannot grasp that past withmuch tangibility, and giving us almost cause to think, that thedoctrine of the immortality of the human soul was a remnant of anearly divine revelation, or at least, an advanced instinct of earlyhumanity; for it is a curious phase of archaic Egyptian thought, thatthe further we go back in our investigations of the origins of itsreligious ideas, the more ideal and elevated they appear as to thespiritual powers and the unseen world. Idolatry made its greatestadvance subsequent to the epoch of the Ancient Empire, and progresseduntil it finally merged itself into the animalism of the New Empireand the gross paganism of the Greeks and Romans. 

We have not yet many religious texts of the Ancient Empire that havebeen fully studied and made known, but those that have been, exhibitan idealism as to the Supreme Deity and a belief in the immortality ofthe soul, based on the pious, ethical and charitable conduct of man, which speak highly for an early very elevated thought in religiousideas. 

There is however one thought which must strike the student ofreligions forcibly, that is the fact, that the idea of the re-birthand future eternal life of the pious and moral dead, existed among theAncient Egyptians as an accepted dogma, long before the period inwhich Moses is said to have lived. Moses has been asserted both in theNew Testament (Acts VII. , 22), and by the so-called profane writersPhilo and Josephus, to have been learned in all the wisdom andknowledge of the Egyptians of his time, yet we have not in the pagesof the Pentateuch, which is usually by the theologians ascribed tohim, any direct assertion of the doctrine of a future life or of animmortality of the human soul, or of a future reward or punishment ina future state of the soul. Ideas are therein set forth however, of aseparation of the spiritual part of man into different divisions. 

It may be, that the doctrine of the immortality of the soul was notaccepted as a religious dogma, by the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, anapparently Asiatic race, probably Semitic, of which we have not as yetvery much knowledge. It is likely that it was under the Hyksos thatthe Hebrew, Joseph, was advanced to high honors in Egypt, and undertheir kings, that the influx and increase of the Hebrew population inEgypt began and prospered. 

It may be advanced with much certainty, that the Hebrew peopleresiding in Ancient Egypt, must have been acquainted with many of theEgyptian ideas on the subject of the eternal future life of the soulof the dead, and the reward or punishment of it in that future life, for these ideas were undoubtedly widely and generally known by theEgyptian people, and were too thoroughly formulated in the active anddaily life of the Ancient Egyptian population, not to have been knownby the Hebrews living in daily contact with them, but the Hebrews maynot have accepted them as a verity. 

It may have been, that as the idea of the future existence of the soulin its perfection, was based upon the mummification and preservationof the body of the dead, so that the _Ka_ might remain with it, and goout and revisit it in the tomb; and also, on inscriptions either onthe walls of the tomb or the papyri deposited with the body; thatMoses, knowing that in his wanderings and journeyings, it would beimpossible to have performed those ceremonies and preliminariesnecessary under the Egyptian system, for the proper burial of thecorpse; its mummification and the preparation of the funeralinscriptions or papyri, considered as necessary to be inscribed on thewalls of the tomb, or on the papyri, to be buried with the corpse, soas to assist the soul against the perils it was supposed it wouldencounter in its journey through the Underworld;[3] was thereforecompelled to abandon a dogma based on preliminaries and preparationshe could not, during such wanderings, have performed. This would bepartly an explanation of a subject which has for many years causedmuch dispute among very erudite theologians. 

In order to get some knowledge of the religious philosophical ideas ofthe Ancient Egyptians, a thorough study of the collection of papyricalled, the _Per-em-hru_ or Book of the Dead, is absolutely necessary, also the texts on the walls of the tombs of the Ancient Empireespecially those found at Saqqarah. The work of M. Edouard Naville onthe _Per-em-hru_ lately published, although it refers more especiallyto the Theban period, is of great value in this investigation, andwhen it has been translated into a modern language by a thoroughlycompetent scholar, will be a key to open many of the now hidden butelevated ideas in the religious philosophy of the Ancient Egyptians. 

The edition of the Book of the Dead which I have quoted from is thatof M. Paul Pierret, _conservateur_ of the Egyptian Museum of theLouvre, Paris, France. [4] This is founded on the Papyrus of Turin, which is of about the XXVIth Dynasty, the Saïtic period; thetranslator has also used in his work, the Egyptian manuscripts of theLouvre to assist in the elucidation of his readings of the Papyrus ofTurin. His work is an advance on that of Dr. Samuel Birch, given in1867, in the Vth volume of Baron von Bunsen's work on Egypt's Place inUniversal History. A new translation of the Book of the Dead is nowpassing through the English press, by P. Le Page Renouf, Esq. , butonly a few chapters thus far have been printed. Mr. Renouf's work asan Egyptologist, deserves much more attention and credit from thelearned of both his own and other countries, than it has so farreceived. 

The following among Greek and other ancient writers have mentioned thescarabæus, mostly in connection with Egypt. Orpheus, Theophrastus, Aristophanes, Pliny, Plutarch, Ælian, Clement of Alexandria, Porphyry, Horapollon, Diogenes Laertius, who cites as works in whichit was mentioned, the Natural Philosophy by Manetho (_circa_ 286-247B. C. , ) the History of the Philosophy of the Egyptians, by Hecatæus (ofAbdera? _circa_ 331 B. C. , ) and the writings of Aristagoras (_circa_325-300 B. C. , ) Eusebius, Arnobius, Epiphanius and Ausonius. 

The subject has been somewhat neglected in modern times. Two smallbrochures on the subject were published by Johann Joachim Bellermann, under the title of; _Ueber die Scarabäen-Gemmen, nebst Versuchen diedarauf befindlichen Hieroglyphen zu erklären_, one in 1820, the other1821. Another very small catalogue entitled; _Scarabées Égyptiens, figurés du Musée des Antiquea de sa majesté l'Empereur, Vienne, del'Imprimerie d'Antoine Strauss_, 1824, was published in that year inVienna. None of the above contain information of importance on thesubject. 

Dr. Samuel Birch published the first classified collection in his;Catalogue of the collection of Egyptian Antiquities at AlnwickCastle, [5] in which he describes 565 scarabs, signets, etc. In 1884the Rev. W. J. Loftie published his; An Essay of Scarabs, London, small4to, no date, 125 numbered copies printed. It contained a brief essay, pp. V-XXXII. , on scarabs, and a short description of 192. Hiscollection was purchased in 1890 by the Trustees of the BritishMuseum. In the summer of 1876, I published in, The Evening Telegraph, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, during the Centennial Exhibition; twoEssays on Scarabæi and Cicadæ, and on those exhibited, especiallythose in the Egyptian Section and those in the Castellani Collection. In 1887, Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, F. S. A. , gave a description of 150scarabs in his, Catalogue of the Egyptian Collection of the HarrowSchool Museum, with translations of most of the inscriptions uponthem. In 1888, Dr. A. S. Murray and Mr. Hamilton Smith in their, Catalogue of Gems, gave a list of scarabs and scaraboids. In 1889 Mr. Flinders Petrie published, Historical Scarabs: A series of Drawingsfrom the Principal Collections, Arranged Chronologically. This bookhas only nine small pages of description but they are valuable. Inhis, History of Egypt, Prof. Wiedemann has catalogued a great manyscarabs. I have not seen any of the above works except that byBellermann, that published in Vienna, and those by Loftie and Petrie, all of which I have in my Library. Since my book was printed, I havehad my attention called to, The Mummy, Chapters on Egyptian FuneralArchæology, by E. A. Wallis Budge, Litt. D. , F. S. A. , Cambridge. At theUniversity Press, 1893. In this p. 231 _et seq. _, the learned authorhas a very interesting chapter on Scarabs. 

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Lepsius, _Denkmal_ III. , pl. 13. 

[2] _Papyrus Ebers_, Bd. II. , _Glossarium Hieroglyphicum_, by Stern, p. 47. The Mummy, etc. , by E. A. Wallis Budge, Litt. D. , F. S. A. , etc. Cambridge, 1893, pp. 176, 219, 353. Egypt Under the Pharaohs. London, 1891, pp. 27, 28. An interesting but condensed account of AncientEgyptian medical knowledge, with references to the papyri, is given byM. Maspero in his, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient_, Paris, 1886, pp. 73-77. 

[3] We use the word Underworld advisedly, it may be that the meaningof the word so translated, is that of a higher or opposite world toour terrestrial world. 

[4] _Le Livre des Morts, des Anciens Égyptiens, traduction complèted'après le Papyrus de Turin et les manuscrits du Louvre, accompagnéede Notes et suivie d'un Index analytique. Paris, Ernest Leroux, 1882. _

[5] Privately printed by the Duke of Northumberland. London, 1880. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION v-xxii

TABLE OF CONTENTS xxiii-xxvii

I. 

Forms of the Word Scarabæus. Veneration of the AncientEgyptians for the scarabæus. Entomology of the insect. Symbolism of according to Plutarch, Pliny andHorapollo. Its astronomical value. Worship of insectsby other peoples. Symbolism, with the Egyptians, of thescarabæus. Uses of it with them 1-17

II. 

Manufacture of the Scarabæi. Materials. Inscriptionson. Different periods of manufacture and thepeculiarities of. How to judge of the epoch. 18-29

III. 

Method, period and antiquity, of engraving the scaraband other forms. Use of rings. Mention of, and ofengraving and sealing, in the Old Testament. Use ofcylinder signets by the Egyptians. Relations withMesopotamia. Carving of diorite and other hard stone. The Egyptians did not borrow their engraving and thescarab, from Mesopotamia. Disuse of scarabs 30-45

IV. 

The oldest scarabs. Classification and value of thescarab to the scholar of to-day. Large inscribedhistorical scarabs 46-56

V. 

Where usually found and the mode of wearing scarabs bythe Egyptians, Book of the Dead. Egyptian scarabs foundin Mesopotamia. The scarab in Christianity 57-64

VI. 

The position of the scarab in Ancient Egyptian religionand the Book of the Dead. Egyptian philosophy. Advancedintellectuality of Egypt six thousand years ago. Deities of libraries and learning. Ancient librariansand books. The division of learned men into differentbranches of study. The statements of Greek writers onEgyptian thought not to be depended upon. Quotationsfrom the Book of the Dead on the symbolism of thescarabæus deity. The symbolism of the Great Sphinx. Further quotations from the Book of the Dead, on thesymbolism of the scarab deity 65-90

VII. 

Importance of the heart in the Ancient Egyptianreligion. Immortality of the soul according to thatreligion. Symbolism of the scarab in their doctrine ofsuch immortality. No thing in this universe absolutelydestroyed, only changed. The idea of metempsychosis inAncient Egypt. Elevated ideas as to the deity. Hymn toAmmon-Ra cited. Quotations as to Egyptian philosophy, evolution of the universe and kosmogony. Of Khepra andof Tum or Atmu. Egyptian psychology and its divisions 91-122

VIII. 

Forgery of scarabs in modern times. Difficulty ofdetecting such. Other Egyptian antiquities alsocounterfeited by the present inhabitants of Egypt 123-127

IX. 

Phœnician scarabs. Manufactured mostly as article oftrade. Used inscribed scarabs as seals in commercialand other transactions. Many scarabs found in Sardinia 128-133

X. 

Etruscan scarabs. Origin of and where found. Copiedfrom Egyptian but with changes in subjects, size andornamentation. The engraving of. Where usually found. Uses by the Etruscans. Greek and Roman scarabs. Gnostic, of the Basilidians 134-143

APPENDIX A 145-154

INDEX 155-177

ON SCARABS. 

 FORMS OF THE WORD SCARABÆUS. VENERATION OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS FOR THE SCARABÆUS. ENTOMOLOGY OF THE INSECT. SYMBOLISM OF ACCORDING TO PLUTARCH, PLINY AND HORAPOLLO. ITS ASTRONOMICAL VALUE. WORSHIP OF INSECTS BY OTHER PEOPLES. SYMBOLISM, WITH THE EGYPTIANS, OF THE SCARABÆUS. USES OF IT WITH THEM. 

Among the many animals, insects and creatures, held in veneration assymbols by the Ancient Egyptians; the one universally in use as asymbol from a most remote period, were insects of the family of thescarabæidæ. 

The Greek name of the models of these was _Skarabaios_, _Skarabos_, _Karabos_, _Karabis_; the Sanskrit, _Carabha_, which like the Latin_Locusta_, designated both the lobster and the grasshopper. The Latinname derived from the Greek, was, _Scarabæus_, the French, _Scarabée_. To the people of our day, the high position enjoyed in the religion ofAncient Egypt by this insect, appears very strange, for to us, thereis nothing attractive about it. With that people however it held, forsome fifty centuries; the position in their religion which the Latincross now holds with us as Christians, and if we consider for aninstant, our own veneration for the latter; it would doubtless havebeen considered, by those unfamiliar with our religion, as also basedon a veneration for a very strange emblem; for the cross was theinstrument used by the Romans for punishing with death, murderers andcriminals of the lowest type; and what would be thought to-day, of aman worshipping the gallows or the guillotine, or carrying copiesmodeled from the same, suspended from his neck. However we of to-dayall understand the emblem of the cross, and the Ancient Egyptians intheir time, all understood the emblem of the scarab. 

"Men are rarely conscious of the prejudices, which really incapacitatethem, from forming impartial and true judgments on systems alien totheir own habits of thought. And philosophers who may pride themselveson their freedom from prejudice, may yet fail to understand; wholeclasses of psychological phenomena which are the result of religiouspractice, and are familiar to those alone to whom such practice ishabitual. "[6] Said Thespesion to Apollonius Tyanæus, according to thebiography of the latter, by Philostratus; "The Egyptians do notventure to give form to their deities, they only give them in symbolswhich have an occult meaning. "

The family of the _Scarabæidæ_ or _Coprophagi_ is quite large, thetype of the family is the genus _Ateuchus_, the members of this genusare more frequently found in the old world than the new, and of itsforty species, thirty belong to Africa. 

The sacred scarab of the Egyptians was termed by Linnæus, the_Scarabæus sacer_, but later writers have named it, _Ateuchus sacer_. This insect is found throughout Egypt, the southern part of Europe, inChina, the East Indies, in Barbary and at the Cape of Good Hope, Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is black and about one inch inlength. 

There was also another species of the scarabæus valued by the AncientEgyptians, that termed by Cuvier, the _Ateuchus sacer Ægyptiorum_, which is larger and wider than the others of its family; it is ofgreen golden tints, and is now found principally in Egypt and Nubia. Pliny, in his Natural History says: "The green scarabæus has theproperty of rendering the sight more piercing, (i. E. , curing fatigueof the eye from its green color, ) of those who gaze upon it; hence itis, that the engravers of precious stones use these insects to steadytheir sight. "[7] M. Latreille thinks; the species he named _AteuchusÆgyptiorum_, or ήλιοχχνθαρος, and which is of a green color, was thatwhich especially engaged the attention of the Ancient Egyptians. 

The Egyptian also held in estimation, the species _Buprestis_ and the_Cantharis_ and _Copris_, and used them as he did the members of thetrue family of the scarabæidæ, and S. Passalacqua found a species of_Buprestis_, embalmed in a tomb at Thebes. 

At least four species of beetles appear to have been held inveneration and were distinguished, by the absence or presence, ofstriated elytra. The _Ateuchus sacer_ is the one commonly representedon the monuments. The number of the toes, thirty, symbolized the daysof the month, and the movement of the ball, which it manufactured andin which was deposited its egg, symbolized among other things, theaction of Ra, the Egyptian sun-deity, at midday. 

The Egyptian soldier wore the scarab as a charm or amulet, to increasebravery;[8] the women, to increase fertility. The Greeks called it, Helio-cantharus, and, not understanding its significance, weredisposed to ridicule it, as is apparent from the travesty upon it byAristophanes in his comedy of Peace. Pliny also again speaks of it inhis Natural History, saying:

"The scarabæus also, that forms pellets and rolls them along. It is onaccount of this kind of scarabæus that the people of a great part ofEgypt worship those insects as divinities, an usage for which Apiongives a curious reason, asserting, as he does, by way of justifyingthe rites of his nation, that the insect in its operations portraysthe revolution of the sun. There is also another kind of scarabæus, which the magicians recommend to be worn as an amulet--the one thathas small horns[9] thrown backwards--it must be taken up, when usedfor this purpose, with the left hand. A third kind also, known by thename of '_fullo_' and covered with white spots, they recommend to becut asunder and attached to either arm, the other kinds being wornupon the left arm. "[10]

In the work on Egyptian hieroglyphics attributed to a writer calledHorapollo, sometimes incorrectly called, Horus Apollo, the first partof which shows, that it was written by a person who was wellacquainted with the Egyptian monuments and had studied them carefully, we find: "To denote an _only begotten_, or, _generation_, or, a_father_, or, the _world_, or, a _man_, they delineate a scarabæus. And they symbolize by this, an _only begotten_; because the scarabæusis a creature self-produced, being unconceived by a female; for thepropagation of it is unique and after this manner:--when the male isdesirous of procreating, he takes the dung of an ox, and shapes itinto a spherical form like the world; he then rolls it from him by thehinder parts from East to West, looking himself towards the East, thathe may impart to it the figure of the world (for that is borne fromEast to West, while the course of the stars is from West to East;)then having dug a hole, the scarabæus deposits this ball in the earthfor the space of twenty-eight days, (for in so many days the moonpasses through the twelve signs of the zodiac. ) By thus remainingunder the moon, the race of scarabæi is endued with life; and uponthe nine and twentieth day after, having opened the ball, it casts itinto the water, for it is aware, that upon that day the conjunction ofthe moon and sun takes place, as well as the generation of the world. From the ball thus opened in the water, the animals, that is thescarabæi, issue forth. The scarabæus also symbolizes _generation_, forthe reason before mentioned;--and a _father_, because the scarabæus isengendered by a father only;--and the _world_ because in itsgeneration it is fashioned in the form of the world;--and a _man_, because there is not any female race among them. Moreover there arethree species of scarabæi, the first like a cat, [11] and irradiated, which species they have consecrated to the sun from this similarity;for they say that the male cat changes the shape of the pupils of hiseyes according to the course of the sun; for in the morning at therising of the god, they are dilated, and in the middle of the daybecome round, and about sunset, appear less brilliant; whence also, the statue of the god in the city of the sun[12] is of the form of acat. Every scarabæus also has thirty toes, corresponding to the thirtydays duration of the month, during which the rising sun performs hiscourse. The second species is the two-horned and bull-formed; whichare consecrated to the moon; whence the children of the Egyptians say, that the bull in the heavens is the exaltation of this goddess. Thethird species is, the one-horned and Ibis-formed, which they regard assacred to Hermes (i. E. , Thoth. ) in like manner as the bird. "[13][14]

Horapollo also says: "To denote Hephæstos (Ptah, ) they delineate ascarabæus and a vulture, and to denote Athena (Neith, ) a vulture and ascarabæus. "[15]

The scarabæus also had an astronomical value and is placed on somezodiacs in place of the crab. It may be found on the outside, orsquare planisphere, of the zodiac of the Temple of Denderah. Somearchæologists think it preceded the crab, as the emblem of thedivision of the zodiac called by us, Cancer. Its emblem, as shown onthe Hindu zodiac, looks more like a beetle or other insect than itdoes like a crab. [16]

The religious feeling for it, most probably existed among the earlyEthiopians, before the migration of the ancient race who were theoriginators of the Egyptians, into the land on the banks of the Nile. The cult is shown in more modern times by the veneration of theHottentot for the same insect, and from the worship of the HolyCricket by the natives of Madagascar. The Egyptians held the scarabæusespecially sacred to Amen-Ra, i. E. , the mystery of the sun-god. It wastheir symbol of the creative and fertilizing power, of the re-birth, resurrection and immortality of the soul, and was, through this, connected with their astronomical and funeral rites and knowledge. Itwas, as the living insect, the first living creature seen coming tolife from the fertilizing mud of the Nile, under the influence of thehot rays of the sun, after the subsidence of the inundating waters ofthat river. The royal cartouches of their kings is in an oval takenfrom the form of its under side. And this oval form has existed fromthe most remote times that we have any knowledge of the cartouch. 

It is often found portrayed, as if a passenger in a boat, withextended wings; holding in its claws the globe of the sun, or elevatedin the firmament, as the type of the creating power of the sun-god Ra, in the meridian. Other deities are sometimes shown praying to it. [17]

Ptah the Creative Power, and also Khepera, a kosmogonic deity of thehighest type, had the scarab assigned to them as an emblem. It was oneof the forms symbolic of the Demiurge or Maker of our universe. It wasalso the emblem of Ptah Tore, of Memphis, another symbolic form of thecreative power. It was assigned as an emblem of Ptah-Sokari-Osiris, thepigmy deity of Memphis, being placed on his head, and this deity wassometimes represented under the form of a scarab. It was also an emblemof Ra, the sun deity; also, an emblem of the world or universe; andwas, as I have said, connected with astronomy and with funeral rites, and the second birth or re-birth, of the soul. 

Another use of the scarabæus by the Egyptians was as an amulet andtalisman, both for the living and the dead; and for that reason, images, symbols or words; supposed to be agreeable to the deity, or tothe evil spirit sought to be conciliated; were incised, or engraved inintaglio, upon the under side. It was also used as a signet to impresson wax, clay or other material, so as to fasten up doors, boxes, etc. , containing valuable things, so they could not be opened withoutbreaking the impression. The engraving on the under surface of thescarab was also impressed on wax, etc. , to verify the execution of, orto keep secret, written documents; and in some instances, the papyrusor linen, was written upon, then rolled up, and a string used tofasten it; an impression of the signet, made on wax or other material, was then placed on it and the string, so that it could not be openedwithout breaking the impression. 

In very ancient paintings especially those in the tombs of the kingsof Thebes, the scarabæus plays a most remarkable part, as an emblem ofthe creating first source of life, which passes from it to the embryo, through the intermediary of a celestial generator, who is intended torepresent the Makrokosm or great Ideal Man, as the demiurgos. We findthe idea of the Makrokosm or great Ideal Man, permeating thosewritings termed, the Books of Hermes Trismegistos, which have reachedour day, and which, with some more recent matter, contain much veryold, Egyptian philosophy. [18] Statements as to the Ideal Prototype andthe Primordial Man, are apparently, set forth in many of the AncientEgyptian writings. 

FOOTNOTES:

[6] P. Le Page Renouf in: The Origin and Growth of Religion, asillustrated by the Religion of Ancient Egypt. New York, CharlesScribner's Sons, p. 6. 

[7] Pliny's Natural History. Bk. XXIX. , ch. 38 end. Bohn ed. By JohnBostock and H. T. Riley. London, 1856, Vol. V. , p. 416. 

[8] Plutarch says: "The Egyptian warriors had a beetle carved upontheir signets, because there is no such thing as a female beetle; forthey are all males, " etc. --Of Isis and Osiris §§ 10, 74, in Plutarch'sMorals. Wm. W. Goodwin's English edition. Boston, 1878, Vol. IV. , pp. 73, 132. Comp. Ælian X. , 15. 

[9] Probably the "_lucanus_" mentioned in Bk. XI. , ch. 34, supposed tobe the same as, the stag beetle. 

[10] Bk. XXX. , ch. 30. Bohn ed. , Vol. V. , p. 454. See also Vol. III. , p. 34; Bk. XI, ch. 34. 

[11] There is likely the word _eye_ omitted here, it shining like acat's eye. Myer. 

[12] Heliopolis. Myer. 

[13] The Ibis which was sacred to Thoth. Myer. 

[14] The Hieroglyphics of Horapollo Nilous, by Alexander Turner Cory. London, 1840. See also, _Horapollinis Niloi Hieroglyphica edidit_, etc. , _Conradus Leemans, Amstelodami_, 1835. 

[15] Ptah Tore, the deformed pigmy god of Memphis, has a scarabæus onhis head, and sometimes, stands on the figure of a crocodile. Ibid. , Cory's ed. , p. 29. 

[16] _Religions de l'Antiquité_, etc. , _du Dr. Fréd. Creuzer_, editionof J. D. Guigniaut. Paris, 1825, Vol. I. , part 2, Hindu plates XVII. , Egyptian plates XLIX. 

[17] For such pictures see, Thomas J. Pettigrew's Hist. Of EgyptianMummies. London, 1834, Plate 8, Nos, 1, 2 and 3. Wilkinson's Mannersand Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, 2nd Series. London, 1841, Vol. II. , p. 256. _Scarabées Égyptiens, figurés du Musée des Antiquea de samajesté l'empereur, Vienne_, 1824. 

[18] _Religions de l'Antiquité_, etc. , _du Dr. Fréd. Creuzer, refondu_, etc. , par J. D. Guigniaut, Vol. I. , part 2, Note 6, p. 821_et seq. _, p. 948 _et seq. _, Nos. 187 and 187a of Plate XLVIII. Andpp. 80, 82. As to the Makrokosm see, The Qabbalah, etc. , by IsaacMyer. Philadelphia, 1888. Also; _Le Papyrus de Neb-Qed. (Exemplairehiéroglyphique du livre des morts_) etc. , by Théodule Devéria, translation by Paul Pierret. Paris, 1872, p. 9. 

II. 

 MANUFACTURE OF THE SCARABÆI. MATERIALS. INSCRIPTIONS ON. DIFFERENT PERIODS OF MANUFACTURE AND THE PECULIARITIES OF. HOW TO JUDGE OF THE EPOCH. 

The representations of the insect are among the earliest sculpture ofstones known, and were cut in various materials, steatite a species ofsoapstone being one of the earliest used. Some were perhaps firstmoulded in clay, dried, and then cut into shape. 

Many of those in use in Egypt were carved out of opaque orsemi-transparent stones, and those cut in hard stone were usually madeof some one of the following varieties: green basalt, diorite, granite, hæmatite, lapis lazuli, jasper, serpentine, verde antique, smalt, root of emerald, which is the same as plasma or prase[19]cornelian, amethyst, sardonyx, agate and onyx. Those of soft materialwere cut out of steatite, a soft limestone similar to chalk, butusually they were of a white or grayish slaty stone easily cut andwhich stood fire. After having been cut into the correct shape, thesewere glazed in the fire, with enamels of different colors, usually ofa light bluish green. Those found now of a brownish or dirty whitecolor, have lost the original color of the glaze from the ravages oftime. Some were of clay only sun-dried, others of clay burned intopottery. They were also made of porcelain, and also, but rarely, ofcolored glass. They have also been found made of gold, ivory and evenof wood. Champollion thinks, that certain signets found made of woodor pottery bearing the figure of the scarabæus in intaglio, were usedto mark the victims which had been examined and passed as proper forthe sacrifice. The scarabs, as we have remarked, were usually engravedwith incised hieroglyphic symbols on the under side, frequently withthose used on one of his cartouches by the reigning pharaoh, and werethen worn by their owners to show veneration for him, as therepresentative of the deity upon earth, or from national pride. Thenames of deities, officials, private persons, and even only monogramsor devices, at later periods, were engraved on the bases. The bestclass were usually made of a fine, hard, green basalt; sometimes theywere joined to the representation of the human heart on which wasinscribed "Life, Stability and Protection. " This was evidentlytalismanic. 

The principal period of their manufacture in large quantities, was inthe reign of Tehuti-mes, or Thotmes IIIrd, of the XVIIIth Dynasty(_circa_ 1600-1566 B. C. ) Other times were the XIXth and XXthDynasties. 

The large and small scarabs form two classes. Those two to threeinches in length belong to the larger, and were usually for use insideof the mummies in place of the heart. There are also some of verylarge size; one made of basalt now in the British Museum, is five feethigh. 

The making of the shape of the scarab in cameo, in soft material waseasily done, and the incising of its flat under surface with thehieroglyphics not difficult; the artist most likely used, one or moreinstruments of different sizes, formed at the end like a very smallchisel or bradawl, and gouged or punched out the figures andinscriptions desired, before the glazing or enameling was put on, thisgave a flat appearance at the depth or bottom of the incised work. Onthose of hard stone they used hand-drills or the lathe. 

I condense the following remarks, adding however some of my own, froma very valuable little book recently published by the learnedegyptologist Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie, entitled: HistoricalScarabs. [20]

I regret Mr. Petrie's lithographic drawings are so blurred that theyare difficult to read, and hope that he will, in the near future, getout a more artistic and complete book on this important subject. [21]

He shows 2, 220 examples of incised historical scarabs. The firstgenuine historical scarabs he gives copies of, are those of Neb-ka ofthe IIIrd Dynasty; (circa 3933-3900 B. C. ) He also shows some of theperiod of Nefer-ka-Ra or Huni, mentioned in Brugsch's History of thePharaohs, pages 27 and 32; who lived 3800 B. C. The name Ra, formingpart of the king's name at this period, is very unusual. It was notused, as a portion of his name, by any other Egyptian king from theIst Dynasty to the second king of the IVth or Great Pyramid Dynasty, named Tatf-Ra. The next king to him was Khaf-Ra. The reign of Tatf-Rawas preceded by that of Khufu, the Kheops of the Greek writers, builder of the Great Pyramid; (_circa_ 3733-3700 B. C. )

The scarabs of the time of Khufu are all small and of fine work butwithout elaboration, and the colors are delicate, beautiful andpermanent. Under Khaf-Ra or Khefren, there was a deterioration; thework is inferior and the glazing has often perished, indeed goodglazes are rare after this period until the XIth Dynasty; (_circa_2500 B. C. ) The glazes of this latter period are hard, unalterable andof fine colors, some under the XIIth are fine but often they aredecomposed. Blue is a special color of this time and it is also usedin the sculpture. Under Pepi, IVth Dynasty, (_circa_ 3233 B. C. , ) thescroll pattern first arises as a system, but is not found continuouslyin the scarabs of his period. In the XIIth Dynasty, (2466-2266 B. C. , )the continuous scroll pattern was developed, it became general in theXIIIth, (_circa_ 2233 B. C. , )and XIVth Dynasties, and lingered as faras the XIXth (1400 B. C. )

Brown scarabs were originally green glazed but have faded, white wereoriginally blue, excepting possibly some of Amen-hotep IIIrd. Thereare also white and gray, without any glaze remaining, which wereoriginally blue or green. 

The cowroids, with a rope border on the back, are of the Hyksosperiod. 

The XVIIIth Dynasty (1700-1400 B. C. , ) begins with some of a poor stylebut it soon disappeared. The peculiarity of the first part of thisDynasty is the dark green glaze--rather greyish--this was followed bythose of brilliant tints in the time of Amen-hotep IIIrd, (1500-1433B. C. , ) those of red, yellow, violet, chocolate and other colors. Theyare never met with later. 

At the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty, pottery rings came into generaluse and are more frequently met with than scarabs. Their range is fromAmen-hotep IIIrd to Rameses IInd. 

In the XVIIIth Dynasty the art of glazing deteriorated, and most ofthe scarabs of this period have now lost their original colors, andare at present only browns and greys. 

Under Rameses IInd and his successors the work is poorly done. 

In the XXIVth (the Saïtic Period, _circa_ 733 B. C. , ) and in the XXVthDynasties, there was a revival and better work and glaze and thereremain of this time some fine examples. 

The XXVIth (666-528 B. C. Saïtic, ) was poor in results but the workneat. The scarab form had nearly run its course and continued, in adebased style, until the close of the native monarchy with the XXXthDynasty (_circa_ 378 B. C. )

Place had much to do with the difference between scarabs, local stylesof manufacture made more differences than various Dynasties. This is asubject very difficult to investigate; we have but few sources ofinformation on this subject. At ancient Tanis (now called by theArabs, San, ) they are all of schist, rough and small, the glaze nearlyalways gone; within a short distance from there, at Nebesheh, they areusually of pottery with bright apple-green glazes; at Naukratis, theAncient Egyptian name of which was Am and which was a city in the timeof the XIIth Dynasty, they are mostly of soft glazed pottery, or, of ablue paste, and nearly all are small; in the ruins of this city wasfound a factory for making Greek scarabs in imitation of the Egyptianstyle. [22] It is said, that those with scroll border, are from theancient city of Abydos. 

A curious thing is, the re-issue of those of an earlier king by alater monarch, examples of these are, re-issues under queen Hatshepsu(_circa_ 1600 B. C. , ) and Tehuti-mes IIIrd (_circa_ 1600-1566 B. C. , ) ofthe XVIIIth Dynasty. The earlier and later names are often on onescarab. We cannot therefore be sure of the age of a scarab, even fromthe inscription, as it may be of a period subsequent to the king namedon it. However these re-issues were only in a few special periods. Onepoint to be noted is, we find similar work and color in the majorityof those made under each pharaoh, and such style is different fromthat of any earlier or later age; through this we have a guide as tothe original dating of most scarabs from the IVth Dynasty to the end. No subsequent period shows us similarities to the majority of thescarabs of any one king. 

To the unlearned probably all scarabs look alike, but to an eyeeducated on the subject, the peculiarities of each Dynasty, and evenof separate reigns, become evident. The value of scarabs to thehistorian is therefore great, as the study of scarabs will reveal, thenames of kings unknown heretofore from any of the other monuments sofar discovered. 

FOOTNOTES:

[19] This is chalcedony penetrated by minute green fibres ofhornblende. It is now found principally in India and China. The coloris frequently equal to that of the finest emerald, but the yellowpatches or black spots running through it, distinguish its species. Ancient specimens have been found free of these marks and verytransparent. They may have had a method in ancient times of freeingthe stone from these spots. 

[20] Historical Scarabs. A series of Drawings from the PrincipalCollections. Arranged chronologically, by W. M. Flinders Petrie, authorof, Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh, etc. London, D. Nutt, 1889. 

[21] I have generally used in this work the ordinary well known formsof the Egyptian proper names, such as Rameses, Thotmes, Amen-hotep, etc. , instead of the more unusual, but more correct and learned, names: Ra-messu, Tehuti-mes, Amen-hetep, etc. The dates are based onthose of Dr. Heinrich Brugsch-Bey. 

[22] Ten Years Digging in Egypt, etc. , by W. M. Flinders Petrie. London, 1892, p. 45. 

III. 

 METHOD, PERIOD AND ANTIQUITY, OF ENGRAVING THE SCARAB AND OTHER FORMS. USE OF RINGS. MENTION OF, AND OF ENGRAVING AND SEALING, IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. USE OF CYLINDER SIGNETS BY THE EGYPTIANS. RELATIONS WITH MESOPOTAMIA. CARVING OF DIORITE AND OTHER HARD STONE. THE EGYPTIANS DID NOT BORROW THEIR ENGRAVING AND THE SCARAB, FROM MESOPOTAMIA. DISUSE OF SCARABS. 

The art of the lapidary is asserted in the Book of Enoch, to have beentaught to mankind by the angel Azazel, [23] chief of the angels whotook to themselves wives from among the daughters of men. The mostancient method consisted, in obtaining a flat surface by rubbing orscraping, with corundum or other hard and wearing stone, the stone tobe engraved. If a very hard stone, the incising or cutting was done bydrilling, wearing and polishing, through attrition, by means of awooden or metal point, kept in connection with a silicious sand orcorundum, by the medium of oil or water; and also, by the use of thepunch and of the wheel. The Greek artists likely used powdered emeryand copper drills. Bronze and iron drills, and those of other metalsmay have been used at a very early period. Pliny says, corundum wasused in the form of a splinter fixed in an iron style. The ancientsalso appear at a very early period, to have used diamond dust and oil, and diamond splinters, framed in iron. 

It has been shown by recent investigations, that the AncientEgyptians, before the building of the Great Pyramid; cut diorite, syenite and other very hard stone, by means of saws, some of them ninefeet long, having jeweled teeth inserted; and that they excavated thecentre of large blocks of hard stones for use as sarcophagi, etc. , bymeans of tubular or circular hollow drills, the cutting surface ofwhich was armed with jewels. They then took out the core and brokedown the partitions between the drilled holes, with the chisel andhammer, and thus made large excavations in the block of hard stone. They also used lathes at a most archaic period in cutting diorite andother hard stones. [24] They also used the bow-drill, [25] They also mayhave known and used boort. 

As early as the first Theban Dynasty, the XIIth Egyptian (2466-2266B. C. , ) the Dynasty in which lived the Amen-em-hats and the Usertsens, the great early art period of the Egyptian empire, [26] the Egyptiansengraved on amethyst, jasper and rock crystal, and at that earlyperiod did some of the most beautiful work remaining to us of theirglyptography. The signets however were not always in scarab form, theywere sometimes squares or parallelograms. [27]

There is now in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris, France, the finestold cameo in the world. It is of the reign of Amen-em-hat IIIrd of theXIIth Dynasty, (2300 B. C. ) This was the first Theban Dynasty and is avery rare period for Egyptian cameo work, as they then usuallyincised their engraving on precious stones and did not engrave them inrelief. [28] The stone is a square sardonyx and is engraved in relief, with great fineness on one side, with a figure the name of which canbe read _Ha-ro-bes_, the other side is incised and has the figure of apharaoh killing a prisoner, whom he holds by the beard, with a mace;the cartouch reads, _Ra-en-ma_, i. E. , Amen-em-hat IIIrd. The intagliowork on this side is not equal to that in cameo, on the other. 

There is yet in existence the signet ring of the celebrated QueenHatshepsu (_circa_ 1600-1566 B. C. ) It is made of fine turquoise, cutin the form of a scarab, perforated longitudinally and hung on aswivel. On the under side is engraved the family name of theQueen. [29] There also exists the signet ring of Amen-hotep IInd, (1566-1533 B. C. , ) having inserted in it a fine green glazedscarab. [30]

The description of the working and engraving of precious stones in theVIIth century before our era, is given in Ezekiel[31] where addressingthe king of Tyre, he says: "Thou art covered with precious stones ofall kinds, with the ruby, emerald, diamond, hyacinth, onyx, jasper, sapphire, carbuncle, sardonyx and gold. _The wheels and drills of thelapidaries_, were prepared in thy service for the day in which thouwert created. "

The use of the signet ring is frequently mentioned in the OldTestament. [32] There, are also the phrases, "Sealed up in a bag;"[33]"A book that is sealed;"[34] "Written evidence sealed;"[35] "Sealedwith clay;"[36] "Sealing with the signet of the king. "[37] There arealso many places referring to the use of seals in the New Testament. 

In Genesis, we find Thamar asking from Judah, his seal, seal stringand staff; in pledge. [38] In the same book, but referring to a muchlater period, [39] Pharaoh takes his signet ring, in which was likelyset a scarab, from his hand and puts it on the hand of Joseph, so asto confer sovereign authority upon him. [40]

In Exodus, [41] mention is made of the engraving of _Shoham_ stones asa signet, i. E. , in intaglio, as done by Betzaleel for the ephod of theHigh Priest, and for his breastplate, engraved in the same way; thesewere hard precious stones. We do not know with certainty the names ofthese stones in English. The Hebrew names of those on the first row ofthe ephod, are; _odem_, _piteda_, _bareketh_; second row, _nophesh_, _saphir_, _yahlome_; third row, _leshéme_, _shevo_, _a'halama_; fourthand last row, _tarshish_, _shokam_, _yoshphé_. 

Some archæologists argue, that the original form of the Egyptian sealwas that of a cylinder, and from thence would deduce, that theEgyptians, or at the least Egyptian art, came from Mesopotamia. Iwould now say, that I do not believe that fact can be correctlydeduced, from the cylindrical form sometimes used in Egypt. Thecylinder perforated is only a form of the bead, and beads were one ofthe earliest forms of decoration and ornament, used by primitive man. The earliest shape of genuine seals known and used in Egypt, is thatin the scarab form and that form is peculiarly Egyptian; cylindershowever were sometimes used by that people in early times. TheEgyptians at a time, to us beyond all positive history, took advantageof and used the intaglio seal, so as to secure, by its impression, theauthenticity of personal acts whether done by the sovereign, hischancellor, or his treasurer, or by private individuals; and theysometimes made use of signets of a cylindrical form, which theyapplied upon clay or wax, but such were not frequently used in Egypt. The cartouch of the earliest known king, Mena, (4400 B. C. , ) is in theform of the outline of the under side of the scarab. 

It was because of its shape, the oval, ellipse, or ring form of theline around the cartouch, it not having an end; that the pharaohs, always having in mind immortality, have placed their names within thatform. The incised oval capable of producing millions of impressions, would also be thought of as an emblem of reproduction, renewment andeternity. 

Indeed in all the different epochs of its greatness, we will find usedin Egypt, a few cylinders of hard stone upon which are well engravedcartouches. There is one in serpentine in the National Library ofParis bearing the name of Khufu or Kheops, of the IVth Dynasty, (3733B. C. , ) builder of the Great Pyramid at Gizeh. They have been found ofsoapstone made in the period of the IVth Dynasty, and of schistenameled green, of the periods of Amen-em-hat Ist, Amen-em-hat IIndand of Sovkhotpu IIIrd, pharaohs of the XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties. These were royal cylinders. After the XVIIIth Dynasty such are veryrare in that form. 

"The cylinders, " says a very learned writer upon Oriental Glyptic Art;"whatever may be their material, have never shown the mark of aforeign influence upon the soil of Egypt. Nevertheless the relationsof Egypt and Chaldea date from the very highest antiquity. "[42]Scarabs became unfashionable in Egypt in the XIIth Dynasty andcylinders were largely used. They were used by the Usertsens and theAmen-em-has, but after the XIIth Dynasty cylinders are rare in Egypt. The shape of the cartouch does not appear to have been changed. 

Rings came into fashion with Amen-hotep IIIrd and died out underRameses IInd, the last king whose name we find on a bezel. I do notdeny that relations existed from the most archaic periods between thepeople of Mesopotamia and those of Egypt, the discoveries of themagnificent sculpture in and beautifully incised writing on, greendiorite; one of the hardest, toughest, and heaviest, stones known;found at Telloh by M. De Sarzec, which had to be brought in largeblocks from the quarries of Sinai; take us back to the most remoteperiod, in which we have any knowledge of the inhabitants of LowerMesopotamia. One of the most wonderful ancient statues in existence isthat of king Khaf-Ra of the IVth Dynasty, the Khephren of the Greekwriters, builder of the second Great Pyramid of Gizeh, (_circa_ 3666B. C. , ) now in the Museum of Gizeh, Egypt. This statue, a full sizedportrait-statue, is made of green diorite highly polished and is amagnificent work of Egyptian art. Its base is inscribed: "Image of theGolden Horus, Khephren, beautiful god, lord of diadems. "[43] Thisshows, that the Egyptians worked the quarries of diorite at Sinai andsculptured in it, about 4000 B. C. [44] The figures found at Telloh arein a seated position, are sculptured in archaic Egyptian style, andare covered with beautifully incised writing. [45]

I also know from the cuneiform inscriptions, that relations existedbetween the First Empire of Chaldea and the pharaohs of the GreatPyramids of Gizeh, as early as the reign of the Chaldean kingNaram-Sin; (_circa_ 3755 B. C. ) Subsequent to the periods cited, thereexist a number of historical facts showing the knowledge of eachother, possessed by the inhabitants of the valley of the Nile and thepeople of Mesopotamia. [46]

The same specialist in Oriental glyptics, says: "The efforts of somelearned men to discover traces of a reciprocal influence have beenfruitless. The pyramids of Egypt have no affinity with those ofChaldea, the sculpture of Egypt does not resemble in anything that ofNineveh or Caleh; would the glyptic art have escaped that individualdevelopment which characterizes the two peoples? I think not; at leastwe have no proof of it. "[47]

And a very erudite archæologist of our day, Hodder M. Westropp, holds;that the Assyrian cylinders came into that country from Egypt and didnot come from Assyria into Egypt. [48]

Scarabs went out of use under the so-called Heretic kings of theXVIIIth Dynasty. Some fine enamel work on other subjects was made inthis period, showing that art had not degenerated, indeed thediscoveries made in the ruins of Khuaten, the present town calledTell-el-Amarna, show remains of magnificent monuments sculptured inthe period of the Heretic kings of Egypt, (_circa_ 1466-1400 B. C. )

The scarab became again in use in the time of Hor-em-heb and Sethi I. , and rings again became fashionable in Egypt. 

After the fall of the Ramessidian kings, the priestly Dynasty ofHer-hor does not appear to have made use of them very largely. In therecent great discovery at Dayr-el-Baharee very few were found, andnone bearing the name of Her-hor or his immediate family. 

FOOTNOTES:

[23] The Book of Enoch, etc. , by Rev. George H. Schodde, Ph. D. Andover, 1882, pp. 67, 68. 

[24] Ten Years Digging in Egypt, 1881-1891, by W. M. Flinders Petrie, etc. The Religious Tract Soc. London, 1892, pp. 19, 20, 26 _et seq. _, 119. 

[25] _Ibid. _, p. 119. 

[26] Egypt Under the Pharaohs, etc. , by Heinrich Bragsch-Bey. London, 1891, p. 80 _et seq. _

[27] M. Menant in, _Les Pierres Gravées de la Haute-Asie_. Paris, 1886, Part II. , p. 193 _et seq. _

[28] _Ibid. _, p. 194. 

[29] _Recueil de Travaux Relatifs à la Philol. Et à l'Archéol. Égypt_, etc. , _publié sous la direction de_ G. Maspero. Paris, 1888, Vol. X. , p. 126. 

[30] _Ibid. _

[31] XXVIII. , 13. Comp. De Luynes, _Numismatique des Satrapies_, p. 71. G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art Phènicie_, Vol. III. , p. 632. 

[32] I Kings, XXI. , 8; Deut. XXXII. , 34; Neh. IX. , 38, XI. , 1; Esth. VIII. , 8, 10. 

[33] Job XIV. , 17. 

[34] Isa. XXIX. , 11; Dan. IX. , 24, XII. , 49. 

[35] Jer. XII. , 10, XXXII. , 11, 14, 44. 

[36] Job XXXVIII. , 14; Isa. VIII. , 16. 

[37] Dan. VI. , 17; Esth. III. , 12, VIII. , 8, 10; I Kings, XXI. , 8. 

[38] Gen. XXXVIII. , 18, 25, 26. 

[39] _Ibid. _ XLL, 42. 

[40] Brugsch-Bey says: "The immigration of Joseph into Egypt was about1730 B. C. , near the time of the reign of the Hyksos King, Nub. " EgyptUnder the Pharaohs. London, 1891, p. 120 _et seq. _

[41] XXXIX. , 6, 7, 10, 14. 

[42] M. Joachim Menant, _Les Pierres Gravées de la Haute-Asie. Recherches sur la Glyptique Orientale_. Paris, 1886, Part II. , p. 197. 

[43] Bragsch-Bey in his, Egypt Under the Pharaohs. London, 1891, p. 36_et seq. _

[44] M. Auguste Mariette, Outlines of Ancient Egyptian History, makesthe IVth Dynasty begin at 4235 B. C. 

[45] _Découvertes en Chaldée_ par M. Ernest de Sarzec, etc. _Ouvrageaccompagné de planches_, etc. Paris, 1884, _et seq. _ See also, Articlein Harper's Magazine, January, 1894, and Qabbalah, etc. , by IsaacMyer. Philadelphia, 1888, p. 237 _et seq. _

[46] See the instances given by M. Menant in his _Les Pierres Gravéesde la Haute-Asie. Recherches sur la Glyptique Orientale_, etc. Paris, 1886, p. 197 _et seq. _

[47] _Ibid. _, p. 200. 

[48] Hand-book of Archæology. London, 1867, pp. 253, 289. Recently Dr. Fritz Hommel, in his, _Der babylonische Ursprung der ägyptischenKultur_, München, 1892, has endeavored to prove the contrary. 

IV. 

 THE OLDEST SCARABS. CLASSIFICATION AND VALUE OF THE SCARAB TO THE SCHOLAR OF TO-DAY. LARGE INSCRIBED HISTORICAL SCARABS. 

The oldest scarabs, as to which one can feel any certainty of theirbeing genuine, are those I have mentioned bearing the name of Neb-Kaincised on the under surface. This pharaoh was of the IIIrd Dynastyand was living according to Brugsch-Bey, (3933-3900 B. C. )[49] Thatwould make 5, 826 years past according to Brugsch. Auguste Mariettewould make it much more ancient. 

These scarabs were made of pottery and glazed a pale green. It hasbeen stated by some archæologists that the oldest scarabs were notengraved, the under part being made to represent the legs of thebeetle folded under its body, but this is only a supposition, as theage can only be determined with any certainty, by the inscriptionsincised on the under part and those not so inscribed, may be ofdifferent periods, some of very late times. 

The forms usually met with in the tombs are, first; those with thelower part as a flat level surface for the purpose of having aninscription incised upon it; those having the engraving incised uponsuch a surface; and those with the legs inserted under them inimitation of nature. Sometimes the head and thorax are replaced by ahuman face, and occasionally the body or the elytra have the form ofthe Egyptian royal cap. 

They often hold between the fore-legs representations of the sun. 

The smaller scarabs have as subjects engraved upon them, representations of the Egyptian deities, the names of the reigningpharaohs, of queens, animals, religious symbols, sacred, civil andfuneral emblems, names of priests, nobles, officers of state andprivate individuals, ornaments, plants, and sometimes dates andnumbers written in ciphers. Some have upon them mottoes, such as:"Good Luck, " "A Happy Life, " etc. , being used for sealing letters, etc. , and as presents. The larger sized have frequently texts andparts of chapters from the Book of the Dead. 

We can therefore make a general classification of scarabs into:

I. Mythological or Religious, containing subjects, figures orinscriptions, connected with kosmogony, kosmology, or, religion. 

II. Historical, containing royal cartouches and names of men, andfigures relating to civil customs. 

III. Physiographical, containing animals or plants connected withconsecrated symbols. 

IV. Funereal, connected with the _Ka_ or life of the mummy in thisworld, and with the journey of his _Ba_ or responsible soul, throughthe under-world. 

V. Talisman or Amulets, to preserve the wearer from injury in thisworld, by men or by evil spirits. 

VI. Signets or Seals for official use, to verify documents orevidence, protect property and correspondence, etc. 

VII. And others, which have upon them only ornamental designs, as towhich we cannot, up to this time, ascertain the meaning. 

The Historical scarabs are of great value in ascertaining ordisplaying, in chronological series, the cartouches or shield names, if I may be permitted thus to term them, of the monarchs of Egypt;going from the most remote antiquity of the Egyptian kingdom, to A. D. 200. 

"The Ancient Egyptians, " remarks the Rev. Mr. Loftie, in his admirablelittle book; Of Scarabs, p. 30 _et seq. _, "happy people, had no moneyon which to stamp the image and superscription of their Pharaohs. Acollection of scarabs, inscribed with the names of kings, standstherefore to Egyptian history as a collection of coins stands to thehistory of the younger nations of the earth. The day must come whenour Universities and other bodies of learned folk, will study thebeginnings of things as they are presented in Egyptian history, andsome knowledge of these curious little objects will becomeindispensable to an educated man * * * * The collection now arrangedin the British Museum is second to none. "

I would also say, those in the Louvre at Paris, are now arrangedchronologically. A good collection is also in the Egyptian Museum atGizeh, collected by M. Mariette; formerly it was very fine. Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie asserts[50] that most have been stolen, and furthersays: "I hear that they were mainly sold to General Cesnola for NewYork. " If these are in the possession of the Metropolitan Museum ofNew York City, it possesses a genuine and rare collection of scarabs. 

A large number of scarabs bear the names of the pharaonic kings; thisis not strange when we remember that the pharaoh was Horus, Khepera, and also a son of Ra and of Osiris. These cartouches are those ofkings of orthodox Egyptian descent, we do not find the names of theGreek Ptolemies upon them, the Roman Emperors, as conquerors, sometimes used them but that does not prove their abstract right to doso. 

The latest, in the collection belonging to France, is of Nectanebo thelast native pharaoh, (_circa_ 300 B. C. )

Some of them, as did those of Thotmes IIIrd, bear the inscription, Ra-men-kheper, i. E. , Ra, the sun-god establishes the futureresurrection. This is found on fully one-half of the specimens fromthe XVIIIth Dynasty down. 

The art of making the scarabs as I have said before, varies with theepochs. The most elegantly finished are those of the time of the IVthDynasty (3733-3600 B. C. , ) that of the Great Pyramids; in the XIIthDynasty (2466-2266 B. C. , ) fine work again appears, then comesinartistic work. Again with the XVIIIth Dynasty (1700-1433 B. C. , )arises another period of splendor, and the art after againdeteriorating revived under the XXVIth, the Saïtic Dynasty, (666-528B. C. )

Amenophis (or Amen-hotep) IIIrd of the XVIIIth Dynasty, the Memnon ofthe Greeks, [51] (_circa_ 1500-1466 B. C. , ) had a number of largescarabs made, their object was not sepulchral nor were they to be usedas talisman, but they apparently were made for the incising upon them, of purely historical inscriptions; such monuments are exceedingly rareand are almost limited to the time of this Pharaoh. In the greatbuilding erected by him, now known as the Temple of Luxor, were foundfour of these great inscribed scarabs. Rosellini has given copies andexplanations of two of them. Dr. Samuel Birch has given a translationof them, which I think is subject to revision. [52] One relates to themarriage of Amen-hotep IIIrd in the tenth year of his reign, with hisqueen Thya, (Taia, or Thai;) a second relates to the same subject andto the arrival of Thya and Gilukipa in Egypt, with 317 women; a third, now in the Vatican, mentions a tank or sacred lake, made for the queenThya, in the eleventh year and third month of his reign, to celebratethe Festival of the Waters, on which occasion he entered it, in a boatof "the most gracious Disk of Ra, " i. E. , the sun-god. Thissubstitution of the boat of the "Disk of Ra" for the usual boat ofAmen-Ra, is the first indication of a new, or heretical, sunworship. [53]

One in the Museum of the Louvre (No. 580-747, Vitrine N. ) reads: "Theliving Horus, the bull strong through the _Ma_, the sovereign of thetwo regions, supporter of the laws and preserver of the land(country, ) the Horus triumphant and great by his valor, vanquisher ofthe Asiatics, king of Upper and Lower Egypt, _Ra-ma-neb_ (the prenomenof the king, ) son of the sun, Amenophis III. , giving life. The queen_Taia_ living. 

Account of the lions brought from Asia by his Majesty, namely: fromthe first year to the tenth, savage lions 102. "

Another in the same Museum (582-787, Vitrine N. ) This begins, as thepreceding, with an eulogy of Amenophis III. And follows with: "Theprincipal consort _Taia_, living, the name of her father (is) _Auaa_. The name of her mother (is) _Tuaa_, She is the consort of thevictorious king whose frontiers (extend) to the south as far as _Karo_ (or, Karai, perhaps Soudan, ) to the north as far as Naharina, "i. E. , Mesopotamia. There are many other historical scarabs in thisMuseum but these have the longest and most important inscriptions. 

Another scarab of this Pharaoh is in the collection of the Rev. W. J. Loftie, of London, England. It is large, 3-½ inches long by 2-¼ incheswide, it is made of steatite and glazed; it tells: "The number offierce lions brought in by his majesty, and killed by him, from thebeginning of his first (year) to the tenth year of his reign, were102. "[54]

FOOTNOTES:

[49] Egypt Under the Pharaohs, etc. London, 1891, p. 20. 

[50] Historical Scarabs, etc. , by W. M. Flinders Petrie. London, 1889, p. 14. 

[51] Egypt Under the Pharaohs, by Brugsch-Bey. London, 1891, pp. 205, 206, 208. 

[52] Records of the Past, Vol. XII. , p. 37 _et seq. _

[53] Bunsen. Egypt's Place in Hist. , etc. , III. , p. 142, etc. ; alsoRecords of Past, above cited. 

[54] An Essay of Scarabs, by W. J. Loftie, B. A. , F. S. A. London, (125copies printed, ) pp. 37, 38. 

V. 

 WHERE USUALLY FOUND AND THE MODE OF WEARING SCARABS BY THE EGYPTIANS. BOOK OF THE DEAD. EGYPTIAN SCARABS FOUND IN MESOPOTAMIA. THE SCARAB IN CHRISTIANITY. 

The small sized scarabs were usually incised with hieroglyphics andperforated longitudinally; they are generally found on the breasts ofmummies next the skin or suspended from the neck, by a wire of gold orother metal, or a string going through them, or worn like a ring stoneon the forefinger of the left hand; and sometimes, grasped inside ofthe closed left hand. The inscriptions on them usually run from rightto left. One method of wearing them by the living, a very ancientone, was by stringing them on a cord or a wire, so that they could beworn as a bracelet on the wrist, a necklace around the throat, or as apendant to a necklace. The engraved base serving not only as an amuletbut also as the private signet of the owner. Soldiers wore themsuspended around the neck, as a talisman when going into battle andalso to instil courage in them during the fray. But the most usualmode of mounting them by the living, was as a stone for a finger ringon a swivel, or a wire, passing through the longitudinal perforationand then curved into a ring shape; this was usually worn on theforefinger of the left hand, as that finger was thought by theEgyptians, to contain a nerve leading directly to the heart; theengraved part was turned next to the flesh. M. Mariette says, that themummies of the XIth Dynasty nearly always have a scarab on the littlefinger of the left hand. [55]

Sometimes they were made of baked clay or cut in steatite, with thehead of a hawk, cow, ram, dog, cat, lion, or even of a man, and suchhave been found buried with the mummies. Those found on the breasts ofmummies embalmed most carefully and expensively, and in immediatecontact with the flesh, have sometimes bodies of stone with extendedwings, as if flying; these wings sometimes having been made of metal, frequently of gold, and at other times of cut stone. [56] Those foundmade of stone with extended wings, also had the latter often made oflead or silver; when of blue pottery, the wings were generally made ofthe same material. 

On the lids of the outer cases of many coffins, especially of thefinest; the position over the breast of the mummy was occupied by alarge winged scarabæus, moulded apparently, of pasteboard or ofsuccessive layers of gummed linen, and then beautifully painted incolors. This was to act as the protector Khepra, of the _ka_ orimmaterial vitality of the _sahu_ or mummy. The Egyptians had acomplicated psychology which we will refer to more fully hereafter. 

Those within the coverings were most probably put inside of the mummywrappings to act as talisman, like the writing upon the linenwrappings, and the bandelettes inscribed with texts from the Book ofthe Dead, or, the _Shait an Sensen_, i. E. , Book of the Breathings ofLife, and as also were enclosed, copies of entire chapters and parts, of the Book of the Dead, written upon papyrus or linen; or inscribedon the large stone scarabs, which were put in the body of the corpse, to take the place of the heart, the last having been deposited withthe lungs, in the jar of Tuamautef, one of the four Canopic jars. Theidea being to drive away evil spirits, supposed to be injurious to thepassage of the soul of the dead, upon its journey through theunder-world to the new birth and power of transformation, in theeternal heaven of the Egyptians. 

There appears to have been two divisions of that eternal heaven, onecalled _Aar_ and _Aanru_, the place in which agricultural labors wereperformed, and the other _Hotep_, the place of repose. Both arementioned in the Book of the Dead. 

Indeed some chapters of the Book of the Dead were only inscribed onthe linen winding sheet of the mummy, and the texts of the CLIVthchapter were only recovered recently, upon the unrolling of the mummyof Tehuti-mes, or Thotmes, IIIrd (1600 B. C. , ) of the XVIIIth Dynasty, the great warrior king of Egypt, found a few years past atDayr-el-Baharee; inscribed upon his linen winding sheet. As thewinding sheet was the only proper place for this text, and as it isunique, it likely would not ever have been known, if this Pharaoh'smummy had not been discovered unmutilated. 

The small scarabs were usually placed upon the eyes or the breast, sometimes over the stomach. They were strung into a net to cover thecorpse and were sewed on the wrappings. As many as three thousand havebeen found in one tomb. 

Egyptian scarabs were found by Mr. Layard, in his explorations on thebanks of the Khabour in Mesopotamia, at Arban; and he gives plates ofthe same. [57] Three are of the reigns of the Egyptian kings ThotmesIIIrd, and one of Amenophis IIIrd. They are mostly of steachist, andof the XVIIIth Dynasty. He found one of hard stone, an agate, engravedwith an Assyrian emblem. [58] He also found at Nimrûd; cubes of bronzeupon which were scarabs with outstretched wings, inlaid in gold, [59]and bronze bowls with conventional forms of the scarab, ratherPhœnician than Egyptian, in the centre of the inside. [60]

After the Christian era the influence of cult of the scarab was stillfelt. St. Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, calls Jesus: "The goodScarabæus, who rolled up before him the hitherto unshapen mud of ourbodies. "[61] St. Epiphanius has been quoted as saying of Christ: "Heis the scarabæus of God, " and indeed it appears likely that what maybe called, Christian forms of the scarab, yet exist. One has beendescribed as representing the crucifixion of Jesus; it is white andthe engraving is in green, on the back are two palm branches; manyothers have been found apparently engraved with the Latin cross. [62]

FOOTNOTES:

[55] Cat. Of the Museum of Boulak, p. 34. 

[56] Pettigrew, Hist. Of Mummies, p. 220. 

[57] Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, etc. , by AustenH. Layard, M. P. New York, 1853, p. 280 _et seq. _

[58] _Ibid. _, p. 595. 

[59] _Ibid. _, p. 196. 

[60] _Ibid. _, p. 186. 

[61] Works, Paris, 1686, Vol. I. , col. 1528, No. 113. EgyptianMythology and Egyptian Christianity, etc. , by Samuel Sharpe. London, 1863, p. 3. 

[62] An Essay of Scarabs, by W. J. Loftie, B. A. , F. S. A. , pp. 58, 59. 

VI. 

 THE POSITION OF THE SCARAB IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION AND THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. EGYPTIAN PHILOSOPHY. ADVANCED INTELLECTUALITY OF EGYPT SIX THOUSAND YEARS AGO. DEITIES OF LIBRARIES AND LEARNING. ANCIENT LIBRARIANS AND BOOKS. THE DIVISION OF LEARNED MEN INTO DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF STUDY. THE STATEMENTS OF GREEK WRITERS ON EGYPTIAN THOUGHT NOT TO BE DEPENDED UPON. QUOTATIONS FROM THE BOOK OF THE DEAD ON THE SYMBOLISM OF THE SCARABÆUS DEITY. THE SYMBOLISM OF THE GREAT SPHINX. FURTHER QUOTATIONS FROM THE BOOK OF THE DEAD, ON THE SYMBOLISM OF THE SCARAB DEITY. 

As I have already said: the larger scarabs are usually found in thebody of the mummy in place of the heart, which was always taken out ofthe corpse and placed in one of the visceral vases, that of Tuamautef. The scarab was a symbol of the re-birth, resurrection and the eternallife of the soul, pronounced pure at the psychostasia; and we knowfrom the Book of the Dead, that at the moment of resurrection, inanalogy to the beginning of terrestrial life, it was the heart thatwas asserted to be given to the dead so as to receive the firstvitality of the second birth, it was through the heart that the mummywould revive, thence the inscribed scarab was placed in the mummy inthe place formerly occupied by its heart when in terrestrial life. Sometimes the representation of a human heart was engraved on thescarabæus. The small scarabs are not often found inside of the mummy. But frequently large stone scarabs have been found in it in the placeof the heart, on which, incised in very small characters, are portionsof the Book of the Dead. Those usually inscribed are, the XXXthchapter or those parts of the LXIVth, line 34, or of the XXVIIthchapters, which relate to the heart of a man. They begin usually withthe formula: "My heart which comes from my mother, my heart which isnecessary for my transformations, " etc. They are, following thecommands in the Book of the Dead, frequently set in gold, sometimes inbronze, and sometimes are incised with the shape of the hieroglyph forthe heart. 

At some very remote period, so remote that we cannot even surmise itsdate, the scarabæus symbol was considered as embodying not only theidea of the creator but also, the idea of the life beyond the grave ineternal futurity. Some scholars assert that the Egyptians rejectedevery abstraction and did not have any philosophy. This I do not andcannot believe from my investigations of their learning, but I dothink, that we have not yet grasped nor understood that philosophy inits fullness, from the few remnants of it which have reached our day. The oldest texts and monuments show, a high condition of culture andthought as well as artistic feeling; the unknown deity was idealizedand never represented to the eye on the monuments of early times; theGreat Sphinx, itself a philosophical abstraction, was made long beforethe historical period; and the Book of the Dead, shows beneath itspages, a hidden religious metaphysical philosophy not yet unraveled. This was, likely, secretly taught by word of mouth as Qabbalah or OralTradition to the initiates, and was never put into writing. Some ofthese ideas we have just grasped, for instance, we now have someknowledge of the Egyptian divisions of the spiritual or immaterialpart of man, of his psychology, and upon studying these divisions onecan readily imagine, a secret religious philosophy accompanying thoseseparations of the spiritual in man. We are also obtaining someknowledge, of their idea of God and of their kosmology and kosmogony. 

Six thousand years ago Egypt had attained great advancement. "Itsreligion was established. It possessed a language and writing. Artunder the IVth and Vth Dynasties had reached a height which thefollowing Dynasties[63] never surpassed. It had an especiallycomplicated administration, the result of many years. The Egyptianshad civil grades and religious grades, bishops as well as prefects. Registration of land surveys existed. The pharaoh had his organizedcourt, and a large number of functionaries, powerfully and wiselyarranged, gravitated around him. Literature was honored and books werecomposed on morals, some of which have reached our day. This was underthe Ancient Empire during which existed the builders of thePyramids. "[64] The deities of literature and of libraries alreadyexisted, they were Thoth, the Greek Hermes; Atmu, of Thebes; _Ma_ or_Maat_, goddess of the harmony of the entire universe, or its law ofexistence, and of righteousness; Pacht, the mistress of thoughts;Safekh, goddess of books, who presided over the foundations ofmonuments and who was venerated at Memphis as early as the IVthDynasty; Selk, who was also the goddess of libraries. 

"In one of the tombs at Gizeh, a great functionary of the first periodof the VIth Dynasty (_circa_ 3300 B. C. , ) takes the title of: 'Governorof the House of Books. ' This simple mention incidentally occurringbetween two titles, more exalted, would suffice, in the absence ofothers, to show us the extraordinary development which had beenreached in the civilization of Egypt at that time. Not only had thatpeople a literature, but that literature was sufficiently large tofill libraries; and its importance was so great, that one of thefunctionaries of the court was especially attached to the care andpreservation of the royal library. He had, without doubt, in hiskeeping with the contemporaneous works, the books written under thefirst Dynasties, books of the time of Mena and perhaps of kingsanterior to Mena. The works in the library would be composed ofreligious works; chapters of the Book of the Dead, copied afterauthentic texts preserved in the Temples; scientific treatises ongeometry, medicine and astronomy; historic books in which werepreserved the sayings and doings of the ancient kings, together withthe number of the years of their lives and the exact duration of theirreigns; manuals of philosophy and practical morals and perhaps someromances, " etc. [65]

The learned of that ancient people followed special lines of study andthought. There was a division of them known as the _Herseshta_, orTeachers of Mysteries. These were subdivided, among other divisionsinto: "The Mystery Teachers of Heaven, " or, the astronomers andastrologers; "The Mystery Teachers of All Lands, " or, the geographersand those who studied other peoples and countries; "The MysteryTeachers of the Depth, " likely, the possessors of a knowledge ofminerals, mining, varieties of rocks, etc. ; "Mystery Teachers of theSecret Word, " doubtless those interested in abstract thought, religious metaphysics and philosophy; "Mystery Teachers of the SacredLanguage, " men who devoted themselves to grammar and the form ofwriting; "Mystery Teachers of Pharaoh, or, 'of all the commands ofPharaoh, '" wise men, likely private scribes and secretaries of theking; "Mystery Teachers who examine Words, " likely learned men who satas judges to hear complaints, and sift the opposing statements oflitigants and witnesses. The learned writers known as scribes werealso divided into many branches. [66]

We cannot accept the statements of most of the Greek authors upon thissubject, for the study of the last few years of the Ancient Egyptianpapyri and other remains, shows that they either did not know or theywillfully misrepresented, Egyptian abstract thought; about the onlyworks, outside of the papyri and the monuments, from which we cangather as to it with any sureness, meagre details; are the writingsattributed to Hermes Trismegistos; the Osiris and Isis, of Plutarch;the work ascribed to Horapollon, and the book of Iamblichus, entitled:A Treatise on the Mysteries. The Greek writers upon Ancient Egypt, Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Thales, Plato, Pythagoras, Solon, and others, of less note; give but little assistance, indeed in manycases their statements are misleading. It is a question yet to besolved, as to how much of the foundations of the philosophy ofPythagoras, Plato, Solon and other Greek writers, were obtained fromthe learned men of Egypt or their writings. [67]

Chapter XXX. Of the _Per-em-hru_, or, Book of the Dead, has frequentlyin the papyrus copies, a picture of the soul of the dead in adorationbefore a scarabæus set upright upon a support. This chapter isentitled: "Chapter of not allowing the heart of a man to haveopposition made to it in the divine inferior region. " It says towardsthe end: "This chapter is to be said over a scarabæus of hard stone, formed and set in gold, which should be placed in the breast of theman, after the opening of the mouth has been made and the headanointed with oil; then the following words shall be said over him inright of a magical charm: 'My heart which comes to me from my mother, my heart which is necessary to me for my transformations. '" See, Appendix A. 

The whole of this chapter was frequently engraved upon the largescarabs, which were placed in the breasts of the mummies in place ofthe heart. 

The LXIVth chapter of the Book of the Dead, is one of the oldest ofthe entire collection and line 34 _et seq. _, uses the same language asto the heart, and says: "Put it on a scarabæus of hard stone set ingold, in the breast of the mummy, having engraved on it: 'My heart ismy mother, '" etc. This chapter is fuller than the other just cited. 

The CLXIIIrd chapter, lines 9, 10, says: "O Amen bull-scarabæus, master of the eyes: 'Terrible with the pupil of the eye' is thy name. The Osiris * * * (here the name of the deceased was inserted, ) is theemanation of thy two eyes. " That is, Amen is here invoked as thebull-symbol of generation and also as the scarabæus, that is, as thecreator who has engendered himself. 

Chapter CLXV. Of the same book, has as a vignette or picture: The godKhem, ithyphallic, with the body of a scarab, etc. , line 11 reads: "Ido all thy words. Saying (them) over the image of the god raising thearm, having the double plume upon his head, the legs separated and thebody of the scarabæus. "

The rising sun or Horus, in whose arms it was asserted, the dead aroseinto the upper life, was represented by the scarabæus under the nameof Khepra, Khepera, or Khepri, this name among its other meaningssignifying: "The itself transforming, " and this is hieroglyphicallywritten by the use of the scarabæus. The body of Khepera as a deity issurmounted in some of the representations, by a scarab in place of ahuman head. 

In chapter XXIV. Of the Book of the Dead, we read: "Khepra transformsitself, (or, gives itself a form to itself, ) on high, from the thighof its mother. " This is more fully developed in a papyrus in theLouvre which reads: "The majesty of this great god attains that reign(the twelfth division of the subterranean world, responding to thetwelfth hour of the night, ) which is the end of absolute darkness. Thebirth of this great god, when it became Khepra, took place in thatregion * * * It went out from the inferior region. It joined the boat_mad_. It raised itself above the thighs of Nut. "

"O Khepra who created itself on high, from the thigh of its mother, i. E. , Nu, or Nut. "[68]

Nut was the goddess personifying the vault of heaven, the sky, and thespace, in which the sun was supposed to have been born. The scarab itmust be remembered was in the Egyptian thought, an androgyne. 

In a papyrus now in Turin, Italy, we may read: "I am Khepera, themorning; Ra, the midday; Tum, the evening. " It is said of Khepra as ofHorus, that it produced the _Ma_, i. E. , the law or harmony whichuphold the universe, and it is merged with a form of Horus, under thename of: "Harmakhis-Khepra who gives itself its form. " One of theparts played by Khepra in Ancient Egyptian thought, is condensed inthat figure which we find on the top of some of the Osirian naos's orarks, the scarab in the middle of the disk emerging from the horizon. 

The perpetuity of the transformations or the power to become, wheneverit pleased, the form it desired; was everywhere recalled to the mindof the people of Ancient Egypt, by the symbolic figure of the scarab, the hieroglyph of the words: _To become_, _to be_, _to be existing_, as also creator, an amulet of power above all others. "Khepra in itsbark is Har-em-Khu (or, Harmakhis) himself, " (chapter XVII. Book ofthe Dead, line 79. ) The latter is the sun re-born every day at sunrisein the East under the name of Horus, it is: "Horus in the horizon, "the conqueror of darkness. The scarab as Tum-Ra-Khepra is the, "illuminator of the double earth at its going out of the under-world, great god, and master of the _Ma_:" that is, of the Harmony and Law, whereby the universe came into being and exists. 

The similarity attached to the idea in the symbolism of the sphinx, causes the close student of Egyptology to see, that the scarab and thesphinx represent similar ideas. The Great Sphinx of Gizeh near theGreat Pyramids, is an image of Ra-Harmakhis or, "Horus in the twohorizons, " (the rising and the setting sun;) one of the names of thesphinx is _seshep_ (i. E. , to make the light. ) The sphinx is said tobe, an emblem of energy and force united to intellect, it is one ofthe very earliest of the Ancient Egyptian emblems, that of Gizeh wasold and needing repairs when the Pyramids were being built; (_circa_3733 B. C. ) That abstraction does not appear to me, to be beyond thephilosophy of the archaic Egyptians. The head of the Great Sphinxsignified the _Khu_, or intellectual part of the soul, in theirpsychology; and the lion-shaped body, signified force, vitality orenergy, the life principle or _Ka_. [69]

The promise of the resurrection of the soul was symbolized, by theGreat Sphinx of Gizeh, old at the beginning of the Ancient Empire; bythe Phœnix, and by the Scarab, the antiquity of the symbolism of whichno Egyptologist has yet fathomed. We have it set forth in writing onthe inscriptions of the earliest Dynasties. [70]

On a stele found between the paws of the Great Sphinx of Gizeh is:"The majesty of this beautiful god speaks by its own mouth, as afather speaks to his child, saying: Look to me, let thine eye rest onme, my son Thutmes! I, thy father, Harmakhu-Khepra-Ra-Tum, I give theethe kingdom. " This monarch was Thutmes IVth (1533 B. C. )[71]

In the interior of the pyramid of Mer-en-Ra (or Mirinri Ist, ) 3200B. C. , was inscribed on the walls: "And they installing this_Mihtimsaouf Mirini_ upon their thrones at the head of the divineNine, mistress of Ra, it who has its dwelling fixed, because theycause that _Mihtimsaouf Mirini_ may be as _Ra, in its name of theScarabæus_, and thou hast entered as to thyself as Ra, " etc. [72]

"Salutation to thee Tumu, [73] salutation to thee, Scarabæus-god, whoart thyself; thou who liftest up, in that holding thy name of lifterup ('from the earth, ' 'the stairway, ' or 'stairs, ') and who art(Khopiru) in this, holding the name of the Scarabæus-god (Khopiru)!Salutation to thee Eye of Horus, whom it has furnished with its twocreating hands (Tumuï, )" etc. [74]

Chapter XVII. , line 75, of the Book of the Dead, reads: "O Khepra inits boat! the society of the gods is its body, in other words, it isEternity. "

Chapter XXIV. , lines 1, 2, say: "I am Khepra who gives to itself aform on high, from the thigh of its mother, making a wolf-dog, forthose who are in the celestial abyss, and the phœnix, for those whoare among the divine chiefs. " That is, as Harmakhis. 

Chapter XV. , lines 3, 4, read: "Salutation to thee, Harmakhis-Kheprawho to itself gives a form to itself! Splendid is thy rising in thehorizon, illuminating the double earth with thy rays. " The samechapter, line 47, reads: "Khepra, father of the gods! He (the defunct)has never any more injury to fear, thanks to that deliverance. "

Chapter CXXXIV. , line 2, says: "Homage to Khepra in its boat who everyday overthrows Apap. " Comp. , chapter CXXX. , line 21, XLI. , line 2. Apap was the evil serpent, the executioner of the gods, that is, theprincipal evil one; and Khepra, the scarabæus deity, overthrows theprincipal evil one, every day, according to this text. 

"The Osiris * * * (name of the defunct was inserted in this blank, ) isconsidered as a lord of eternity, he is considered as Khepra, he islord of the diadem, he is in the eye of the sun, " etc. , says chapterXLII. , lines 12, 13 _et seq. _

And in chapter XVII. , which is one of the oldest chapters of the_Per-em-hru_, lines 76, 77, 78, is; "O Khepra in thy boat! (i. E. , asHarmakhis) the body of the gods is even thy body, or so to say, it isEternity. Save Osiris * * * from those watching judges (i. E. , Isis andNephthys, ) to whom the master of spells has entrusted, at hispleasure, the watching of his enemies--whom the executioner willstrike--and from whose observation none escape. Let me not fall undertheir sword; let me not go into their place of torture; let me notremain supplicating in their abodes; let me not come into their placefor execution; let me not sit down in their boilers; let me not dothose things which are done by those whom the gods detest, " etc. 

Further according to the Book of the Dead, the soul of the dead man, says: "I fly among those of the divine essence, I become in it, Khepra. . . I am that, which is in the bosom of the gods. " (Chapter LXXXIII. , lines 1, 2. )

Another text reads: "O it who establishes the mysteries which are inme, produce the transformations as Khepra, going out of the conditionof the disk so as to give light (or, to enlighten. )" Chapter LXIV. , line 16. (Comp. Also chapter XCIII. )

Another text says: "I give vigor to the murdering sword which is inthe hand of Khepra against the rebels. " (Chapter XCV. , line 3. )

Khepra is also called, Tum-Khepra. (Chapter CXLI. , line 6. )

Reaching the eternal abode, the soul, says: "I am intact, intact as myfather Osiris-Khepra, of whom the image is, the man whose body is notdecomposed. " (Chapter CLIV. , lines 1, 2. )

On articles of furniture, on toys, on the coffins of mummies, onpapyri and linen and other monuments, the scarabæus appears and setsoff in a strong light, the Egyptian belief in the resurrection andre-birth of the pious dead. The very idea of the transformation isshown, by the hieroglyph of the scarab for the word _Kheper_, i. E. , _to be_, to _become_, to _raise up_. One of the most urgent prayers tobe found in many places, in the Book of the Dead as made by thedeceased, is, that he may go out of the under-world to the higherregions of light, and have power to "go forth as a living soul, totake all the forms which may please him. " Chabas says as to this: "Weknow that such was the principal beatitude of the elect in theEgyptian heaven; it allowed the faculty of transformation into all theuniverse under the form wished for. " The god Khepra with folding wingssymbolized these metamorphoses. 

It figures continually in the sepulchral paintings on the walls of thehypogea of Thebes, and it announces the second birth of the soul tothe future eternal life. Some figures have the scarab over the head, sometimes in place of the head. In the Great Temple at Edfu a scarabhas been found portrayed with two heads, one of a ram, the symbol ofAmen, or Ammon; the hidden or mysterious highest deity of thepriesthood especially of Thebes; the other of a hawk, the symbol ofHorus, holding in its claws a symbol of the universe. [75] It maysymbolize by this form, the rising sun and the coming of the Springsun of the vernal equinox in the zodiacal sign of the ram, but morelikely has a much deeper religious meaning. [76] Represented with thehead and legs of a man the scarab was an emblem of Ptah. 

FOOTNOTES:

[63] Unless it be the XIIth. Myer. 

[64] _La Galerie de l'Égypte Ancienne_, etc. , by Aug. Ed. Mariette-Bey. Paris, 1878, pp. 46, 47. 

[65] _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient_, by G. Maspero. Paris, 1886, p. 68 _et seq. _

[66] Brugsch-Bey in, Egypt Under the Pharaohs. London, 1891, pp. 25, 26. As to the knowledge of the Ancient Egyptians; Comp. EgyptianScience from the Monuments and Ancient Books, treated as a generalintroduction to the History of Science, by N. E. Johnson, B. A. , etc. London, (1891?) Ten Years Digging in Egypt, 1881-1891, by W. M. Flinders Petrie, etc. London, 1892, pub. By The Religious TractSociety. 

[67] Comp. _La Morale Égyptienne_, etc. , by E. Amelineau. Paris, 1892. Introd. Pp. LXXXII. _et seq. _, XX. _et seq. Ritual Funéraire dePamonth_, by M. Eugène Revillout. Paris, 1889. 

[68] _Le Papyrus de Neb-Qed (exemplaire hiéroglyphique du Livre desMorts, ) reproduit_, etc. , _par_ Théodule Devéria _avec la traductiondu texte par_ Paul Pierret _conservateur-adjoint du Musée Égyptien duLouvre_. Paris, 1872, pl. III. , col. 13, 14, p. 3. 

[69] Comp. As to the Sphinx, Egypt Under the Pharaohs, by HeinrichBrugsch-Bey. London, 1891, pp. 37, 38, and especially p. 199 _et seq. _Also G. Maspero in his, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient_. Paris, 1886, pp. 28, 50, 64, 209. 

[70] Comp. _Recherches sur les monum. Qu'on peut attribuer aux sixpremières Dynasties de Manethon_, etc. , by M. Le vicomte Emmanuel deRougé. Paris, _Imp. Imper. _, 1866. _Recueil de Travaux Relatifs à laPhilol. Et à l'Arch. Égypt. Et Assyri_, edited by Maspero, Vol. III. And IV. , 1882 _et seq. _

[71] Comp. Egypt Under the Pharaohs, etc. , by Heinrich Brugsch-Bey. London, 1891, p. 199 _et seq. _ The Nile. Notes for Travellers in Egyptby E. A. Wallis Budge. Litt. D. , F. S. A. London, 1892, pp. 194-5. Hist. Of the Egyptian Relig. , by Dr. C. P. Tiele, trans. By James Ballingal. Boston, 1882, p. 81 _et seq. _

[72] _Recueil de Travaux Relatifs à la Philol. Et à l'Arch. Égypt. _, etc. , _publié de sous la direction de_ G. Maspero, Vol. XI. , fas. I, pp. 2, 3. See also as to mention of Tumu, the Scarabæus, in thepyramid of Pepi II. (Nefer-ka-Ra) 3166 B. C. _Ibid. _, Vol. XII. , pp. 144, 153. 

[73] Tumu or Tmu was also called Hor-em-khu, i. E. , Horus on thehorizon, or, the rising sun, he was the deity Harmakhis of the Greeks;his symbol, as before mentioned, was the Great Sphinx. Egypt Under thePharaohs, by Brugsch-Bey. London, 1891, pp. 199, 201. As to Tum, see_Supra_. 

[74] _Recueil_, etc. , before cited, Vol. XII. , p. 160 _et seq. _, 189, 190. Pyramid of Pepi II. See also the Book of the Dead, Turin Mss. Ch. CXLI. , A. 6; _Ibid. _, ch. XVII. Beginning; _Ibid. _, ch. LXXIX. , l. 1;_Ibid. _, ch. LXXVIII. , l. 12. 

[75] _Religions de l'Antiquité_, etc. , by J. D. Guigniaut, founded onthe German work of Dr. Fréd. Creuzer. Paris, 1825, Vol. I. , part 2, pl. XLVIII. , 187b. Compare the other curious figures of the scarabæusin this volume, also p. 948 _et seq. _

[76] Comp. Wilkinson, Manners, etc. , of the Ancient Egyptians, 2ndseries, London, 1841, Vol. II. , p. 260, Vol. I. , pp. 250, 256. 

VII. 

 IMPORTANCE OF THE HEART IN THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION. IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL ACCORDING TO THAT RELIGION. SYMBOLISM OF THE SCARAB IN THEIR DOCTRINE OF SUCH IMMORTALITY. NO THING IN THIS UNIVERSE ABSOLUTELY DESTROYED, ONLY CHANGED. THE IDEA OF METEMPSYCHOSIS IN ANCIENT EGYPT. ELEVATED IDEAS AS TO THE DEITY. HYMN TO AMMON-RA CITED. QUOTATIONS AS TO EGYPTIAN PHILOSOPHY, EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE AND KOSMOGONY. OF KHEPRA AND OF TUM OR ATMU. EGYPTIAN PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS DIVISIONS. 

The human heart, the first life principle of human existence andregeneration, the first apparent individuality of embryonic humanlife; was symbolized, in the _Per-em-Hru_, i. E. , the Book of theDead, by Khepra, the scarabæus deity; this is one reason why the texts(chapters XXX. And XXVII. , see also LXIV. , ) which related to theheart, were those usually inscribed on the funeral scarabæi, andconsecrated to the preservation of the heart of the dead. Thecondition of death was described by the Egyptian expression: "The onewhose heart does not beat. " The resurrection or re-birth from the deadonly began, according to the Egyptian idea, when this organ, soessential and necessary to all animal life, was returned to thedeceased _Ba_, i. E. , responsible soul, by the decree of Osiris and thejudges of the dead, which Thoth registers: "To him is accorded thathis heart may be in its place. " Indeed most of the texts of the_Per-em-Hru_, as we have seen, are dedicated to the preservation ofthe heart of the dead one. The philosophic student can therefore fromthis, at once see, the great value of the scarabæus symbol to thewhole religious thought-world of Ancient Egypt. It was the symbol, when returned to the dead, of the regenerated and resurrected life ofthe dead one to the heavenly regions of the blessed for all eternity, to the second birth in the regions of eternal rest and happiness. 

Taking as a model the daily course of the sun, which rising in themorning as Horus; reaching the zenith at noon as Ra; setting in theevening, in the regions of darkness as Tum; and absent during thenight and until the morrow as Osiris; upon which, victorious over thechaotic darkness, it arose in triumph again as Horus; the birth andjourney of man on earth, was considered by the Ancient Egyptians assimilar to the solar journey; and death, the end of that journey, wasassimilated to the course of the sun when at night it was, accordingto their astronomical knowledge, supposed to be in the Lower Regionsor Underworld, the abode of Osiris. When he died, the Egyptian becameas Osiris, "the nocturnal sun;" resurrected, he became Horus, thenew-born and rising sun; in midday, he was Ra. Horus was: "The Old Onewho rejuvenated himself. " Such a re-birth of the dead to immortality, was the recompense promised by the Egyptian religion, to the soul ofthe man pious and good during this life, but the wicked were to betortured, transformed into lower forms, or annihilated. [77] Matter, according to it, does not perish but only changes and the earthitself, was deified as Seb, Isis, Ta-nen, and Ptah-Tatunen. 

What then did matter become, it was transformed, the deities weretransformed. Matter was transformed, --this is explained to us throughthe symbolism of the scarab, the hieroglyph of the word _Kheper_, i. E. , "to be, " "to exist, " "to become, " "to create, " "to emanate;" ofwhich, as I have said, the Great Sphinx is the symbol, and hastherefore the philosophical value of creator and created. [78] God andHis universe, existence and change or transformation, death anddissolution, all which were only considered as regeneration andre-birth in another form. Thence becomes apparent to us, the greatvalue and importance to the Egyptian people of the symbolism of thescarab, it was, to them, the emblematic synthesis of their religion asto-day to Christians, the Latin or the Greek cross, is the emblematicsynthesis of Latin or Greek Christianity. The philosophic Egyptian, thought, the atoms and molecules of all bodies and of all matter, were never destroyed or lost, they were always in motion but wereonly transformed and changed, by death or the dissolution of forms. Death on this earth did not destroy the personality of the humanbeing, that continued beyond death on our earth, and as to those whohad been good and pious during their life here, their personalitycontinued eternally; but the punishment of the wicked was, theannihilation of that personality or an immobility which was almost thesame. The work entitled, Hermes Trismegistos, contains a resumé ofthat idea, saying, among other things: "What was composed is divided. That division is not Death, it is the analysis of a combination; butthe aim of that analysis is not destruction, it is the renewment. Whatis in effect the energy of life? Is it not movement? What then isthere in this world, immovable?"[79]

The everlasting interchange of life and death, flows throughout allthe religious philosophy of the Ancient Egyptians; basing itself onthe continual return of day from night and of day to night, and uponthe apparent course of the sun, they seem to have formulated the ideaof the immortality of the soul of man after death. 

Herodotus tells us, [80] that the Egyptians believed, that the soul ofthe departed passed into an animal, and after having gone through allthe ranks of the animal world, was at the end of three thousand yearsreunited to the human body; but from the remains of the Egyptianreligion we have to-day, next to nothing has been found that willconfirm this statement, but much that shows the Greek authors werefrequently in error. In the realm of the dead, according to the textsof the Book of the Dead, (chapter LXXXIX. And other places, ) theresponsible soul or _Ba_ of the deceased, may become a sparrow-hawk, an adder, a crocodile-headed being, etc. , but only to deceive itsdemon enemies;[81] not until after this, is the _Khu_, theintellectual soul, which accompanies the _Ba_, which is representedunder the symbolized form of a sparrow-hawk with a human head, reunited to the _Ba_. This however all occurs, not on earth, but inthe realms of the dead. The Ancient Egyptian believed, that as thesetting of the sun was an actual separation of the body and soul ofthe sun-god; and its rising, a reunion of the two; so it happened tothe future of the spiritual of man, and that after man's death on thisearth, his spirit, as did that of the sun-god; would arise again tolife, but it would be to a life of immortality in a higher sphere. Iam inclined also to think, that they believed the spiritual body ofthe new-born child came down from the sun-disk or from some veryexalted sphere. [82]

The following quotations from Eugène Grébaut's translation in French, of the Hymn to Ammon-Ra, are important for an understanding of thepositions of Khepra and of Turn during the Theban Dynasties. 

"Hail to thee Ra, lord of the _maat_, (the) mysterious in his shrine. Master (i. E. , father) of the gods, Khepra in its boat, (it) sendingforth the word (i. E. , the creative word, ) the gods came intoexistence. Hail god Tum, maker of intelligent beings, who determinestheir manner of existence, artisan of their existences; (and who)distinguishes (their) colors, one from the other. "[83] "Author ofhumanity, making the form of all things to become (or, former whoproduced every thing;) it is in thy name of Tum-Khepra. "[84] "Kheprais father of the gods and the producer of the _maat_. "[85]

The deities go out of the mouth of their father Khepra, and arenourished by the _maat_, i. E. , the Harmony or Law of the universe;[86]men go out of its eyes, that is from the light of the deity, and it isthis light which vivifies the entire universe. The Hymn says: "O Form, ONE, producing all things, the ONE, who art Alone; producingexistences! Men come forth from Its two eyes, the gods come intoexistence from Its Word. Author of the green pastures, which nourishthe cattle, and of the nutritious plants for the use of mankind. Itwho maketh that fishes live in the rivers and the winged fowl in theair; who giveth the breath of life to (the germ) in the egg. It makethto live birds of all species, and likewise the insects which creep andalso those which fly. It maketh provision for the rats in their holes, and nourisheth the birds that are on the trees. Hail to Thee, O Authorof the totality of all forms. The ONE who art alone, yet numberlessthrough Thy extended arms: watching over all humanity when it sleeps, seeking the good of Its creatures. "[87] I have used the neuter It andnot He, the Egyptian idea of the highest deity was, that it wasandrogenic not masculine. Although it would seem that this Hymn, ofwhich I have cited but a small portion, applied to Ammon-Ra, yet itexpressly says, that: Its name is also Tum (or, Atmu, )--Khepra. [88]

Another text reads: "O Bull of the western region[89] concealed in theconcealed region (i. E. , Amenti or the Underworld) from whom emanatesall the gods (and all) the goddesses who are with him! The Osiris, theHathor * * * (the name of the dead was inserted here) the justified(or, triumphant, ) comes towards thee; the becoming which is in thebecoming of all things when they become. [90] Powerful lords, beneficent, divine, judging the speech (words) of the inhabitants ofthe countries; lords of Truth![91] Hail to thee! gods, essence of theessences without their bodies, ruling the generations of _Ta-nen_(i. E. , of this earth) and the births (begettings) in the temple of_Mesxen_[92] (they raise the generations?) from the first essence ofthe divine essences, third greatness above the father of theirfathers; invoking the soul from its Almightiness when are produced itsDesires (Will;) adoring their Father in his glorifications; _divinePrototypes of the Types of all that exists_, Fathers and Mothers ofthe solar disk, Forms, Great Ancients, Divine Essences, first fromAtum (i. E. , chaos, ) emanating humanity; causing to emerge the forms ofall forms; lords of the divine sustenance; homage to thee! Lords fromeverlasting, possessing eternity, " etc. [93] "All that is done and saidupon earth has its source in the heights, from whence the essences aredispensed to us with measure and equilibrium; and there is notanything, which does not emanate from on high and which does notreturn thereto. "[94]

The verb _Kheper_ usually translated "to be, " "to exist, " "to become, "also has the meaning of "to roll" or "revolve. " The sun apparentlyrolled or revolved around the earth. In the British Museum, in ahieratic papyrus (No. 10, 188, ) Khepera is identified with the deityNeb-er'-ter, and the latter says, in it:--"I am He (It?) who evolvedHimself (Itself?) under the form of the god Khepera. I, the evolverof evolutions, evolved Myself, the evolver of all evolutions, after amultitude of evolutions and developments which came forth from Mymouth. [95] There was not any heaven, earth was not, animals which moveupon the earth and reptiles existed not in that place. I constructedtheir forms out of the inert mass of watery matter. I did not find anyplace upon which I could stand. By the power which was in My Will Ilaid the foundation (of things) in the form of the god Shu[96] and Icreated (emanated?) for them every attribute which they have. I aloneexisted, for I had not, as yet, made Shu emanate from Me, and I hadnot ejected the spittle which became Tefnut (i. E. , the deity orpersonification of, moisture. ) There did not exist any other to workwith Me. By My own Will I laid the foundation of all things, and theevolutions of things, and the evolutions which took place from theevolutions of their births, which took place through the evolutions oftheir offspring, became multiplied. My shadow[97] was united with Me, and produced Shu and Tefnut from the emanation of Myself, * * * thusfrom one deity I became three deities * * * I gathered together Mymembers and wept over them, and from the tears which fell from My eye, men and women sprung into existence. "

The duplicate copy of this chapter reads: "I developed Myself from theprimeval matter which I made. My name is Osiris, the germ of primevalmatter. I have worked My Will to its full extent in this earth, Ihave spread abroad (or, expanded Myself, ) and fitted it * * * Iuttered My Name as a Word of Power, from My own mouth, and Istraightway developed Myself by evolution. I evolved Myself under theform of the evolutions of the god Khepera, and I developed Myself outof the primeval matter which has evolved multitudes of evolutions fromthe beginning of time. No-thing existed on this earth (before Me, ) Imade all things. There was none other who worked with Me at that time. I made all evolutions by means of that soul, which I raised up therefrom inertness out of the watery matter. "[98] This is a most importantpapyrus for a knowledge of Ancient Egyptian philosophy. 

"'In the beginning: When there was not yet heaven, when there was notyet earth, when there were not yet men, when the gods were not yetborn, when there was not yet death. '[99] Nu alone was existing, thewater (or humid) principle of all things, and in that primordialwater, Tumu, the father of the gods. [100] The day of creation came, Shu raised the waters upon the staircase which is in Khmunu. [101] Theearth was made even under his feet, as a long united table; heavenappeared above his head as a ceiling of iron (or steel) upon whichrolled the divine Ocean. Hor (Horus) and his sons Hapi, Amsit (orMestha, ) Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf, the gods of the four cardinalpoints, went out at once and posted themselves at the four corners ofthe inferior table, and received the four angles of the firmament uponthe point of their sceptres; the sun appeared and the voice of thegod, the first day is arisen and the world was thereafter constituted, such as it ought to ever remain!"[102]

"Glory of all things, God, the divine and the divine nature. Principles of the beings; God, the Intelligence, nature and matter. Wisdom manifests the universe, of which the divine is the principle, the nature, energy, necessity, the end and the renewing. 

There was darkness without limit over the abyss and the water, and asubtle and intelligent spirit, contained in chaos by the divinepower. Then gushed forth the holy light, and under the sand (i. E. , theatomic dryness) the elements went forth from the humid essence, andall the gods distributed the fecundity of nature. The universe beingin confusion and disorder, the buoyant elements ascended, and theheavier were established as a foundation under the damp sand, (and)everything became separated by fire and suspended, so as to be raisedby the spirit. "[103]

The Ancient Egyptians made many more statements which undoubtedlyreferred to an unknown, all-powerful, ideal deity of the highestorder, I have a great number of such, but will not bring them forwardin this writing; I refer the reader for some quotations on thissubject, to the valuable writings of Mr. P. Le Page Renouf, especiallyto his; Religion of Ancient Egypt (Hibbert Lectures for 1879), which Ihave already cited in several places. 

It will be seen from these quotations, that Khepra, the scarabæusdeity, especially as Tum-Khepra; occupied a most elevated position, Imight say the most elevated, of all the religious conceptions of theAncient Egyptians, for beyond it, was the unknown ideal deity whomnone could form a conception of. Khepra was asserted to have generatedand caused to come into existence, itself through itself, it united initself, the male and female principles of life. It was androgenic. Thescarabæus was the hieroglyph of the _creator_, the _to be_, _tobecome_, to _exist_, the _eternal_, the _coming into being fromchaotic non-being_, also the _itself transforming_ or _becoming_, the_emanating_ or _creating power_, also, the _universe_. Khepra was"Father of the gods, " connected with the idea of the rising of the sunfrom the darkness of night, Khepra was used to typify the resurrectionfrom the dead of the spirits of men. It represented the active andpositive in antithesis to Atmu, or Tum. With Atmu as Atmu (or, Tum)-Khepra, it represented the positive and negative united, spiritand matter. 

Atmu, Tum or Tmu, was the symbol of the eternal night or darkness ofChaos, which preceded the emanation of light, it was the type ofsenility and absolute death, the negative and end. It was thenocturnal or hidden sun, as Horus was the rising sun, and Ra the risensun, proceeding in its course each day through the firmament. Tum wasnot however considered as absolutely inert, it was the precursor ofthe rising sun, and the point of departure of the setting sun, and wasthe nocturnal sun, and was also a point of departure into existence, of all the created and emanated in the universe. It, as well asKhepra, in some of the texts is called "Father of the gods. "[104]

This deity was the unknown and inaccessible, primordial deity ofchaos, "existing alone in the abyss, " before the appearance of Light. One of the texts reads:

"Homage to thee, sun at its setting, Tum-Harmakhis, god renewing andforming itself in itself, double essence. * * Hail to thee author ofthe gods, who hast suspended heaven for the circulation of thy twoeyes, author of the earth in its extent, and from whom the light is, so as to give to all men the sensation of the sight of his fellowcreature. "[105]

It is of the greatest importance to an understanding of the Egyptianreligion and philosophy, and especially of the _Per-em-hru_, theso-called, Book of the Dead; that the Egyptian psychology becomprehended; in order to enable the reader to do this, I haveprepared the following condensed statement of the same. 

 I. The Body was called _Khat_. This was embalmed and then placed in the tomb. 

 II. The Soul was called, _Ba_ or _Bai_, plur. _Baiu_. This was the part of the spiritual which was thought to contain the elements necessary for the world-life of a man, such as judgment, conscience, etc. It seems to be the same termed _psuke_ or _psyche_ by the Greeks. This _Ba_ performed the pilgrimage in the underworld, and was judged for the conduct of the man it inhabited in this world, by Osiris and the Forty-two judges. It was usually represented as a bird, especially as a human-headed sparrow-hawk. It fluttered to and fro between this world and the next, sometimes visiting the mummy in its tomb. It was sometimes represented as a crane, at others as a lapwing. It is paralleled by the _Rua'h_ of the Hebrew Qabbalah. 

 III. The Intellectual part of man's spirit was called, _Xu_ or _Khu_. It was considered as part of the flame detached from the upper divine fire. Freed from mortality it wandered through space and had the power of keeping company with or haunting humanity, and even of entering into and taking possession of the body of a living man. The Egyptians spoke of being possessed with a _khu_ as we would say of a being possessed by a spirit. [106] It was considered as a luminous spirit. It was the Intelligence and answers to the _Nous_ of the Greeks and the _Neshamah_ of the Hebrew Qabbalah. 

 IV. The Shadow or Shade was called, _Khaibit_. This created the Individuality, and was an important part of the personality. There was a valley in which the Shades were, in the Underworld. It was restored to the soul in the second life. They are frequently mentioned in the _Per-em-hru_. His shadow, would early attract the attention of the primitive man. 

 V. The Name was called, _Ren_. This was the Personality, that something, which continued to know itself as a distinct individual, through every change of the atoms and appearances of the body. In the _Per-em-hru_ was written: "The Osiris (then the name of the dead was inserted. )" It was restored eternally to the soul in the second life. The _Ba_ retained the _Ren_ in its journey through the Underworld. 

 VI. The life or Double was called, _Ka_, plur. _Kau_. This was the vital principle, necessary to the existence of man as an animal being on this earth. It was a spiritual double, a second perfect exemplar or copy, of his flesh, blood, etc. , body; but of a matter less dense than corporeal matter, but having all its shape and features, being child, man, or woman, as the living had been. It dwelt with the mummy in the tomb and had a semi-material form and substance, and I am inclined to think, from the texts, it had power to leave the tomb when it pleased but always returned. Its emblem was the _ankh_ or _crux ansata_. It was something like the higher _Nephesh_ of the Hebrew Qabbalah. The sacrificial food left in the tombs and the pictures on their walls were for the benefit of the _Ka_. The _Ka_ corresponded to the Latin, _genius_. Its original meaning may have been _image_;[107] it was like the Greek _eidolon_, i. E. , ghost. The funeral oblations were made to the image or _Ka_. The _Ka_ was a spiritual double of the man, a kind of prototype in the Upper World, of the man in the Lower World, our earth. [108]

 VII. The Mummy or the Husk was called, _Sahu_. It was the body after embalmment. "His body is in the condition of being true; it will not perish. "[109] The _Sahu_ was considered a true being as it was assumed that it would always remain the same. It was like the lower form of the _Nephesh_ of the Hebrew Qabbalah. The atoms of the mummy-body were still intact held together by the _cohesion_ of the particles. This cohesion was looked upon as a spiritual energy keeping the particles together, in the form of the mummy. The word _Sahu_ may sometimes refer to this living personality. 

 VIII. The Heart was called _Ab_. This was thought to be the seat of life, the life being in the blood, and the embryonic life starting with the pulsations of the heart. See, Appendix A. 

The _Ba_, performed the journey through the Underworld accompanied bythe Name and Shadow, until it reached the Hall of Judgment; ifpronounced pure, the Heart was then given it. The Name, Shadow andHeart, then awaited reunion with the _Khu_ and _Ka_ for the conditionof final immortality and the power to make the transformations. Thebody was embalmed and the _Ka_ dwelt in the sepulchre with it, butwent in and out of the tomb. The _Khu_ also accompanied the _Ba_ inits journey through the Underworld and assisted it, but in case of anadverse judgment in the Hall of Osiris and the decree of annihilation;the _Khu_ fled back to its immortal source of life and light. 

Not any of these, by its own nature, could exist for any length oftime entirely separated from the others; if left to itself, that soseparated, would in time dissolve into new elements and if it were thesoul, it would die a second time, the personality and individualitywould then perish and become annihilated; this was the much feared, second death. This however might be prevented by the piety of thesurvivors, in repeating the prayers and litanies and performing thelustrations and sacrifices, for the dead. The lot to do this usuallyfell to the eldest son and in default of sons, to the daughters, etc. , no relations existing, the dead persons' slaves could perform it. Thepriests were also left annuities to perform perpetually, the sacredduties to the dead. Embalmment preventing for centuries, decomposition; continued prayers, devotions and offerings would save, it was believed, the _Ka_, the _Ba_, and the _Khu_, from the seconddeath, and procure for them what was necessary to prolong theirexistence. The _Ka_, they thought, never quitted the place where themummy was except at some time to return. The _Ba_, and the _Khu_ wentaway from it to follow the gods, but they continually returned aswould a traveler who re-entered his house after an absence. The tombwas the defunct's "eternal dwelling house" on earth, the houses of theliving were only as inns or stopping places. In case of a judgment infavor of the _Ba_ in the Hall of Osiris, the _Khu_ united to the _Ba_, _Khaibet_, _Ab_, _Ka_, etc. , rose up to the Egyptian heaven, and thewhole united was able to make whatever transformations pleased it. 

FOOTNOTES:

[77] Comp. Hist. Of the Egypt. Relig. , by Dr. C. P. Tiele. London, 1892, pp. 89, 127, 139. 

[78] Most likely the Egyptian idea was "to emanate" more than "tocreate. "

[79] Louis Ménard's edition. Paris, 1867, p. 89. 

[80] Book II. , ch. 123. 

[81] Hist. Of the Egypt. Relig. , by C. P. Tiele, pp. 47, 71. 

[82] Comp. Hist, of the Egypt. Relig. , by C. P. Tiele. London, 1890, p. 127. The Book of the Dead. Fac-simile of the Papyrus of Ani, etc. , notes by P. Le Page Renouf. London, 1890, p. 16, note. See also_supra_ reference to the _Mesxen_. A similar idea is in the Zohar, compare Qabbalah, etc. , by Isaac Myer. Philadelphia, 1888, pp. 397, 388, 389, 108 _et seq. _, 190, 196, 418, and many other places. 

[83] _Hymne à Ammon-Ra des papyrus Égyptiens du Musée de Boulaq, traduit et commenté_, by Eugène Grébaut, etc. Paris, 1874, p. 11. 

[84] _Ibid. _, p. 28. See also, pp. 115, 120-122, 295. 

[85] _Ibid. _, pp. 112, 115. 

[86] As to the meaning of the important word _maat_, see, Religion ofAncient Egypt, by P. Le Page Renouf--Hibbert Lectures for 1879. NewYork, pp. 73 _et seq. _; 123 _et seq. _ _Hymne à Ammon-Ra_, last beforecited, notes p. 110 _et seq. _

[87] _Hymne à Ammon-Ra_, p. 16 _et seq. _

[88] _Ibid. _, pp. 27, 28. 

[89] Comp. _Hymne à Ammon-Ra_, by E. Grébaut, pp. 3, 4, and notes tosame, p. 39 _et seq. _

[90] Or, "the changing which is in the changing of all things whenthey change. "

[91] That is: "Lords of _maat_, " i. E. , of the harmony of the universe. 

[92] Place of the soul's birth. This refers to the upper prototypicworld. The same idea is in the Zohar. 

[93] _Catalogue des Manuscrits Égyptiens_, etc. , _au Musée Égypt. DuLouvre, par Feu Théodule Devéria_. Paris, 1881, No. 3283; pp. 143, 144. Comp. _Hermès Trismégiste_, par Louis Ménard, second ed. Paris, 1867, pp. 188, 190, 117 _et seq. _; 147. 

[94] _Hermès Trismégiste_, edition last cited, p. 218. 

[95] By the Word or Logos. The Logos occupied an important position inthe Ancient Egyptian religion. See my Article on the subject in, TheOriental Review, January-February, 1893, p. 20 _et seq. _

[96] Shu corresponds to the Makrokosm, the primordial Adam orandrogenic Adam Qadmon, of the first chapter of the Hebrew Book ofGenesis. As to Shu, see: History of the Egypt. Relig. , by Dr. C. P. Tiele. Boston, 1882, pp. 84, 85, 155, 156. 

[97] The Hebrew _She-kheen-ah_, or Glory?

[98] The Nile. Notes for Travellers in Egypt, by E. A. Wallis Budge, Litt. D. , F. S. A. , etc. , second ed. London, 1892, p. 165 _et seq. _

[99] Inscriptions in the pyramid of Pepi I. , l. 664 (_circa_ 3233-3200B. C. , ) in the _Recueil de Travaux Relatifs à la Philol. , et à l'Arch. Égypt. _, etc. , Vol. VIII. , p. 104. 

[100] Comp. The _Per-em-hru_ or, Book of the Dead, edition of Ed. Naville, ch. XVII. , l. 3, 4. In the passage cited from Pepi, I. 664_et seq. _, Tumu is also a primordial deity and its female _sakti_ orprinciple, is Nu or Nut, the sky. 

[101] It is from this action that the deity was named Shu from theroot, _Shu_ to lift up, to raise. Later, through a pun, he obtainedthe meaning of Luminous. Comp. Also Naville's ed. Of the _Per-em-hru_last cited, l. 4 _et seq. _

[102] G. Maspero in the _Revue de l'Hist. Des Religions. Le Livre desMorts_, Vol. XV. , pp. 269, 270. 

[103] Hermès Trismégistos, second ed. , by Louis Ménard. Paris, 1867. Pp. 27, 28. _Hermetis Trismegisti Poemander; ad fidem codicum manuscriptorum recognovit_, by Gustavus Parthey. Berolini, 1854, p. 31. The word "sand" is used to symbolize the positive or atomic dryness, and "damp sand, " the atomic humidity, or the negative. 

[104] Book of the Dead, ch. XVII. , l. 1-4; XV. , l. 28, 29, 43, 47;LXXIX. , l. 1, 2; LXXVIII. , l. 12. _Hymne à Ammon-Ra_, by EugèneGrébaut. Paris, 1874, pp. 11, 28, 112, 115, 120-122, 295. 

[105] Paul Pierret, _Études Égyptol. _, I. , 81. 

[106] F. Chabas, _l'Égyptologie_. Paris, 1878, Vol. II. , p. 103. 

[107] Comp. Trans. Soc. Biblical Literature, Vol. VI. , pp. 494-508. 

[108] Comp. Religion of Ancient Egypt by P. Le Page Renouf, p. 153 _etseq. _

[109] _Mythe d' Horus_, by E. Naville. 

VIII. 

 FORGERY OF SCARABS IN MODERN TIMES. DIFFICULTY OF DETECTING SUCH. OTHER EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES ALSO COUNTERFEITED BY THE PRESENT INHABITANTS OF EGYPT. 

M. Prisse says:[110] "Most of the fellahs who inhabit the land, formerly Memphis and Thebes, live only from the products of theirfinds. Constrained to cease from their lucrative researches, they arereduced to the counterfeiting of figurines, amulets and the otherobjects of art which they formerly found in the earth. Necessity themother of industry has caused them in a short time to make wonderfulprogress. Without any practice in the arts, and with the rudest tools, some of the peasants have carved scarabs and beautiful statuettes andornamented them with hieroglyphic legends. They very well know thatcartouches add much value to the antiquities, and they are never inwant of copies of them either from the great monuments or the originalscarabs. They use in making the copies a limestone of fine and compactgrain, soapstone, serpentine and alabaster. The objects made oflimestone are daubed with bitumen taken from the mummies, or from thecolors taken away from the paintings in the hypogea, finally some arecovered uniformly with a brilliant pottery glaze which renders, it istrue, the forms rather blurred and not easy to see, but whichresembles in a surprising manner, antiquities which the action of fireor of earth, impregnated with saltpetre, have slightly damaged. Thefeigned hieroglyphs therein are mistaken for those as to which thework has been neglected. Their statuettes recall the figurines of poorware, which the Ancient Egyptians placed in so great a number in theirtombs. In spite of their imperfections, the fellahs have beenperfectly successful in deceiving most of the travelers, generallygrossly ignorant of antiquities. Hard stones, such as basalt, greenjasper, burnt serpentine, green feldspar, chalcedony, cornelian, etc. , upon which the rude tools of the fellahs would not have worked, wouldhave become, for the amateurs in antiquities, the only pieces ofauthentic origin; but the Jews of Cairo, also as rapacious and moreable than the Arabs, have engraved with the wheel, scarabs and amuletsdenuded of legends; and finally have entirely counterfeited them, sothat all these little objects are now very much suspected, and theirappreciation to-day, demands understanding of the text much more thanknowledge of Egyptian art. 

Not only the tourists, the people of leisure from Europe, who bringback from all the classic lands some antiquities, in place ofobservation and study, which are not sold; purchase these falsifiedantiquities, but also people who pride themselves upon having aknowledge of archæology, often buy them. Most of the collections ofthe Museums of Europe contain, more or less, objects fabricated in ourday in Egypt. 'Luxor' says M. Mariette, 'is a centre for fabricationsin which scarabs, statuettes and even steles, are imitated with anaddress which often leads astray the most instructed antiquary. '"

Mr. Henry A. Rhind[111] writing in 1862 says: "There is now at Thebesan arch-forger of scarabæi--a certain Ali Gamooni, whose endeavors, in the manufacture of these much sought after relics, have beencrowned with the greatest success. * * Scarabæi of elegant and wellfinished descriptions, are not beyond the range of this curiouscounterfeiter. These he makes of the same material as the ancientsused--a close-grained, easily cut limestone--which, after it is cutinto shape and lettered, receives a greenish glaze by being baked on ashovel with brass filings. Ali not content with closely imitating, haseven aspired to the creative; so antiquarians must be on their guardlest they waste their time and learning, on antiquities of a verymodern date. "[112]

FOOTNOTES:

[110] _Collections d'Antiquités Égypt. Au Caire_, p. 1 _et seq. _

[111] Thebes; its Tombs and their Tenants, ancient and modern. London, 1862. 

[112] _Ibid. _, pp. 253-255. Comp. Gliddon, Indigenous Races, p. 192note. 

IX. 

 PHŒNICIAN SCARABS. MANUFACTURED MOSTLY AS ARTICLE OF TRADE. USED INSCRIBED SCARABS AS SEALS IN COMMERCIAL AND OTHER TRANSACTIONS. MANY SCARABS FOUND IN SARDINIA. 

Archæologists frequently find in lands bordering on the shores of theMediterranean sea, scarabs and scarabeoids, on which are engravedsubjects which are Egyptian, Chaldean, Assyrian, Hittite or Persian;they were intended apparently to be used as signets, and were incisedwith short inscriptions in Phœnician, and sometimes, in Aramaic or inHebrew, giving the name of the owner of the signet. 

These had been mostly manufactured in their entirety, as articles oftrade, for sale by the ancient merchants of Tyre and Sidon, or theywere Egyptian, Assyrian or other originals upon which, Phœnicianlapidaries had engraved the name of the later Phœnician owner. Inspite of not being an artistic people producing works of originality, this people, the great mariners and merchants of antiquity, had in aneminent degree the genius of assimilation or adaptation, andmanufactured cylinders, cones, spheroids, scarabs and signets of allkinds, at first for themselves, and afterwards as an article of saleto the people with whom they traded. 

They also used seals in their commercial and maritime transactions, which they surrounded with the same formalities which we find inAssyria, Babylonia and Chaldea. When they dealt with these lastmentioned peoples, the Phœnicians came into contact with nations, whose most unimportant transactions were put into writing by a scribe, and sealed in the presence of witnesses, with the seal of thecontracting parties. They therefore in dealing with these people wereobliged to have and use signets. [113][114] Such contracts have beenfound dating between 745-729 B. C. 

In the island of Sardinia have been found numerous intaglios under theform of scarabs, they were apparently used as signets. The under partsare incised with Egyptian, Assyro-Chaldean or Persian subjects. In thenecropolis of Tharros, an early Phœnician colony situated near thepresent Torre di San Giovanni di Sinis, have been found more than 600scarabs ornamented with Egyptian, Assyrian and Persian subjects;[115]and one might believe a colony which came from Egypt or Assyriasettled there. These scarabs are usually cut in dark green jasper, some are made of cornelian, others of a glass-paste, rarely inamethyst or sardonyx. The work is variable sometimes carefully done, but none of the scarabs have the clearness of those found in Egypt, nor of the Assyro-Chaldean of Asia. Most of these scarabs, which arealways made in nearly the same form, were mounted, some in gold andothers in silver; also sometimes in other metals which the corrosionsfrom age had already caused to disappear when they were found. 

These intaglios can be divided from the nature of the subjects intothree varieties. The first those imitating the Egyptian; the second, the Assyro-Chaldean; and the third, the Persian. All these scarabs areof Phœnician manufacture, but they were probably made in Sardinia, asthe remains of the workshops and materials used in making them, havebeen found there. They do not go back of 500 B. C. The Phœnicians intheir colonies, showed no more originality in their work than they didin the mother country, and have been only the intermediary agentsbetween the civilization of the Orient and that of the Occident. Thispeople even counterfeited Egyptian manufactures and antiquities inorder to sell them, and the borrowings in their own religion show, they were governed more by the gains of trade than the desires ordepths of piety. There are a number in the Cesnola collection in theMetropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. 

There is a magnificent scarab in green jasper in the British Museum, but where it was produced is not known. It appears to be from thechisel of an Egyptian artist. The base however has been engraved byanother; its subject is clearly Assyrian, in the style of work donewith the drill, by the artists of Calah. In the field of the signet isa symbol unknown to Assyria or Egypt, below this is evidently theEgyptian _ankh_ or _crux ansata_ and below this is the inscription:"(Signet) of Hodo, the Scribe. " This a beautiful specimen of theintelligent work of the Phœnicians. 

FOOTNOTES:

[113] Such contracts written on terra cotta, have been found sealedwith impressions of the finger nails on the margin of the terra cottabefore it was baked; others have had something as to the act done, referred to on the margins, written in Phœnician letters. There hasbeen found an example of this as early as 783 B. C. 

[114] Menant. _Les Pierres Gravées de la Haute-Asie_, p. 211 _et seq. _

[115] Crespi, _Catalogo_, p. 138, No. 1. 

X. 

 ETRUSCAN SCARABS. ORIGIN OF AND WHERE FOUND. COPIED FROM EGYPTIAN BUT WITH CHANGES IN SUBJECTS, SIZE AND ORNAMENTATION. THE ENGRAVING OF. WHERE USUALLY FOUND. USES BY THE ETRUSCANS. GREEK AND ROMAN SCARABS. GNOSTIC, OF THE BASILIDIANS. 

The archaic people of ancient Etruria did not make cameos, their gemswere intaglios and were incised on the under side, on forms shaped inthe model of the scarabæus or beetle. The use of the form thereforewas most likely derived from those used in the valley of the Nile. TheEtruscan scarabs were however not correct representations; they wereconventional and exaggerated resemblances of the insect. 

The Etruscan scarabæus is found in different parts of Italy, quitefrequently at Chiusi, in Tuscany, which was formerly ancient Etruria;from whence, the name Etruscan for those found in this part of Italy, has been derived. 

They were usually manufactured of common red sard, such as is nowoften met with in the beds of Italian torrents, but Etruscan scarabshave also been found made of sardonyx, cornelian, onyx and agate, also, but rarely, of chalcedony. 

The ancient inhabitants of Italy followed the Egyptian form in makingthe representation except, that the back and the wing cases of thescarab are set much higher than the Egyptian, and there is usually araised ridge running along the junction, also the legs are cut out onthe side, and a slight difference exists in the ornamentation andengraving of the wing cases. The stones have been rubbed into shapeapparently by corundum. Few exceed an inch, and most are not over halfan inch in length, whereas the Egyptian were from the size of ourordinary house fly to those a number of feet across. The material ofthe Etruscan is also always semi-transparent, except those burnedwhich has made the sard opaque. The flat side or base was engravedwith intaglio. This engraving though in early examples rude and donewith the drill, was in later times, improved by the use of the wheel, diamond dust and the diamond point, and by the polishing of both thesurface and the incised parts, and also, by the addition, both at thesides and around the engraved base, of an ornamental border of smallstrokes following each other closely, resembling in some specimens, the milling of a coin; in others, it is like a widely linked chain orstring of beads, or a loosely twisted cable, and in others like theornamentation known as "egg moulding. "

In Egyptian scarabs the flat or under part of the stone, which is theside engraved in intaglio, has representations of deities orhieroglyphs; in the Etruscan, the subjects engraved in intaglio on thebase, are representations of animals, wild or domestic, or are thosederived from Egyptian, Assyrian or Babylonian sources, and afteracquaintance with the Greeks, subjects derived from early Greek myths, especially the deeds of Herakles and of the heroes of the Trojan War, of those of Thebes and the sports of the Palæstra. 

Sometimes the name of the subject was engraved on one side of it, andoccasionally the wearer's name or a word of mystic meaning, rarelysymbols or figures of the Etruscan gods or chimæras. The engraving isof great service to the historian and student of the glyptic art, asthe subjects show the transition from Assyrian, Egyptian, and Persianforms and figures, to the archaic Greek and the best period of stoneengraving. 

Many of the Etruscan examples have been found at Præneste, the modernPalestrina, and in the necropolis of Clusium; some of those foundthere, have engraved on the base the lotus flower with four-wingedfigures of archaic Etruscan form, the kynokephallos ape, the sacredasp or uræus of Egypt, the winged sun of Thebes and the bull Apis; onothers are figures copied from Assyrian originals; on others areHerakles fighting the lion, Herakles stealing the tripod of Apollo anddiscovered by the latter; Ajax and Cassandra, a Harpy, etc. Some ofthese have been found in tombs and other places with the color changedto an opaque white by the action of fire. These have been burned withthe body of their owner when he was cremated. 

The Etruscans have evidently borrowed the form without caring for thecult; there does not appear with them any mysterious, religious orastronomical meaning, nor the veneration for it, which existed amongthe old Egyptians; but no doubt, the representation was considered asa talisman or preservative amulet and was worn as such, but in manyinstances likely, only as a matter of ornament in dress. 

They were pierced like those of Egypt longitudinally, and one methodof wearing them, was, by stringing them, intermingled with beads, as anecklace, but they were also worn as a signet stone in a ring with aswivel, so they could be turned and the incised part used as a seal bythe owner. 

I think it likely that the Etruscans at first, purchased the scarabsfrom the Phœnician traders whose merchant ships, as I have said in thepreceding chapter, trafficked in ornaments and jewelry at an earlyperiod, and who likely, at first, may have brought some from Egypt andafterwards manufactured scarabs as an article of barter. 

There is one peculiarity to be noted in the glyptography of theEtruscans, the absence of a transitional period between the extremelyrude designs of the early style, made almost entirely by the use ofthe drill, and the intaglios of the most beautiful finish in lowrelief. Mr. King, in his work on Antique Gems, says: "While the firstclass offers caricatures of men and animals, the favorite subjectsbeing figures throwing the discus, fawns with amphora, cows withsucking calves, or the latter alone, the second gives us subjectsfrom the Greek mythology, especially scenes from Homer and thetragedians, among which, the stories of Philoctetes and Bellerophonoccur with remarkable frequency. " I think the rudely made are likelyof Etruscan or Phœnician manufacture, the finely executed of Greek. 

The inscriptions on Etruscan stones are nearly always the names of thepersons represented on them. There are but few exceptions to this. Wemay therefore divide Etruscan glyptography into:

I. Etruscan scarabs, with Etruscan or Assyrian subjects. 

II. Etruscan scarabs, with archaic Greek subjects. 

There are many more of the latter than the former. The Greek subjectsmost frequently met with, refer to actions by Herakles, Perseus, Tydeus, Theseus, Peleus, Ulysses, Achilles and Ajax. 

The time of manufacture and use by the Etruscans was most probablybefore the IIIrd century B. C. , at which time, Etruria was conquered bythe Romans, its manufactures destroyed and its artists taken to Rome. 

The Greeks borrowed the form from the Egyptians, but improved on theengraving, which they made more natural and artistic; finally theysuppressed the insect but preserved the oval form of the base. TheRomans also adopted, it may be surmised from the Etruscans, the scarabsignet and retained its form until the later days of the Republic. Winckelmann, says: Those with the figures or heads of Serapis orAnubis incised upon them are of this period. [116] I think it likely, that those with this deity upon them may go back to the period of thePtolemys. 

At the end of the Ist or beginning of the IInd century A. D. , arose thegnostic Egyptian sect called the Basilidians. They introduced anamulet or talisman. It was made oval in the form of the base of theEgyptian scarab. Such talisman were usually made of black Egyptianbasalt, sometimes of sard or other hard stones. Upon them wereengraved mysterious hieroglyphs and figures, called Abraxas, and theyare known as Abraxoides. Among the figures engraved was frequentlythat of the scarabæus. Montfaucon has given a number of them in hisAntiquities. [117] Chifflet has also given several. [118]

FOOTNOTES:

[116] Winckelmann, Art. 2, c. 1. 

[117] Vol. II. , part 2, p. 339. Ed. Of Paris. 

[118] Comp. Fosbrooke Encyc. Of Antiq. London, 1825, part I. , p. 208. 

APPENDIX A. 

The heart of man was considered to be the source from whenceproceeded, not only the beginnings of life but also the beginnings ofthought. It was symbolized by the scarab. Examples of the heart havebeen found, some with a representation of the human head at the top ofthem, and of human hands crossed over them; and others, having afigure of the soul in the shape of a hawk with outstretched wings, incised on one side of the model. 

Since the foregoing chapters were put in type, which were based on theBook of the Dead as published by M. Paul Pierret in a Frenchtranslation, from the Turin papyrus and the papyri in the Louvre, asmentioned in my Introduction; the Translation and Commentary of "TheEgyptian Book of the Dead" by P. Le Page Renouf, Esq. , [A] Parts I. And II. , have appeared. 

Mr. Renouf's translation is based on _Das Ægyptische Todtenbuch derXVIII. Bis XX. Dynastie_ by M. Edouard Naville, [B] and is from papyriof the Theban Dynasties and from a very much older period than that ofthe Turin papyrus. 

The chapters so far given in Mr. Renouf's translation which relate tothe heart, are the 26th, 27th, 28th, 29A, 29B, 30A, and 30B. They areas follows:

 CHAPTER XXVI. 

 _Chapter whereby the Heart is given to a person in the Netherworld. _

 He saith: Heart, [C] mine to me, in the place of Hearts! Whole Heart! mine to me in the place of Whole Hearts!

 Let me have my Heart that it may rest within me; but I shall feed upon the food of Osiris, on the eastern side of the mead of amaranthine flowers. 

 Be mine a bark, for descending the stream and another, for ascending. ā

 I go down into the bark wherein thou art. 

 Be there given to me my mouth wherewith to speak, and my feet for walking; and let me have my arms wherewith to overthrow my adversaries. 

 Let two hands from the Earth open my mouth: Let Seb, the Erpā[D] of the gods, part my two jaws; let him open my two eyes which are closed, and give motion to my two hands which are powerless: and let Anubis give vigour to my legs, that I may raise myself up upon them. 

 And may Sechit, the divine one, lift me up; so that I may arise in Heaven and issue my behest in Memphis. 

 I am in possession of my Heart, I am in possession of my Whole Heart, I am in possession of my arms and I have possession of my legs. 

 [I do whatsoever my Genius (_Ka?_) willeth, and my Soul (_Ba?_) is not bound to my Body (_Khat?_) at the gates of Amenta. ]

 CHAPTER XXVII. 

 _Chapter whereby the Heart of a person is not taken from him in the Netherworld. _

 O ye gods who seize upon Hearts and who pluck out the Whole Heart; and whose hands fashion anew the Heart of a person according to what he hath done; lo now, let that be forgiven to him by you. 

 Hail to you, O ye Lords of Everlasting Time and Eternity!

 Let not my Heart be torn from me by your fingers. 

 Let not my Heart be fashioned anew according to all the evil things said against me. 

 For this Heart of mine is the Heart of the god of mighty names (i. E. , Thoth, ) of the great god whose words are in his members, and who giveth free course to his Heart which is within him. 

 And most keen of insight is his Heart among the gods. Ho to me! Heart of mine; I am in possession of thee, I am thy master, and thou art by me; fall not away from me; I am the dictator whom thou shalt obey in the Netherworld. 

 CHAPTER XXVIII. 

 _Chapter whereby the Heart of a person is not taken from him in the Netherworld. _

 O Lion-God!

 I am Unbu[E] and what I abominate is the block of execution. 

 Let not this Whole Heart of mine be torn from me by the Divine Champions[F] in Heliopolis. 

 O thou who clothest Osiris and hast seen Sutu. 

 O thou who turnest back after having smitten him, and hast accomplished the overthrow. 

 This Whole Heart of mine remaineth weeping over itself in (the) presence of Osiris. 

 Its strength proceedeth from him, it hath obtained it by prayer from him. 

 I have had granted to it and awarded to it, the glow of heart at the hour of the god of the Broad Face, and have offered the sacrificial cakes in Hermopolis. 

 Let not this Whole Heart of mine be torn from me. [G] It is I who entrust to you its place, and vehemently stir your Whole Heart towards it in Sechit-hotepit and the years of triumph over all that it abhors, and taking all provisions at thine appointed time from thine hand after thee. 

 And this Whole Heart of mine is laid upon the tablets of Tmu, who guideth me to the caverns of Sutu and who giveth me back my Whole Heart which hath accomplished its desire in (the) presence of the Divine Circle which is in the Netherworld. 

 The sacrificial joint and the funereal raiment, let those who find them bury them. 

 CHAPTER XXIXA. 

 _Chapter whereby the Heart of a person may not be taken from him in the Netherworld. _

 Back thou Messenger[H] of thy god! Art thou come to carry off by violence this Whole Heart of mine, of the Living. [I] The gods have regard to my offerings and fall upon their faces, all together, upon their own earth. [J]

 Certain chapters referring to the Heart were incised upon hard precious stones, [K] and used as amulets and talisman. The XXVIth upon Lapis-lazuli, the XXVIIth on green Felspar, the XXXth on Serpentine. The following was usually incised on Carnelian. 

 CHAPTER XXIXB. 

 _Chapter of the Heart; upon Carnelian. _

 I am the Heron, the Soul of Ra, who conducts the Glorious ones to the Tuat. 

 It is granted to their Souls (_Baiu?_) to come forth upon the Earth, to do whatsoever their Genius (_Ka?_) willeth. 

 It is granted to the Soul (_Ba?_) of the Osiris (the name of the deceased was inserted here) to come forth upon the Earth to do whatsoever his Genius (_Ka?_) willeth. 

 CHAPTER XXXA. 

 _Chapter whereby the Heart of a person is not kept back from him in the Netherworld. _

 Heart mine which is that of my Mother, Whole Heart mine which was that of my coming upon Earth, Let there be no estoppel against me through evidence; let not hindrance be made to me by the Divine Circle; let there not be a fall of the Scale[L] against me in (the) presence of the great god, Lord of Amenta. 

 Hail, to thee, Heart mine; Hail to thee, Whole Heart mine, Hail to thee, Liver mine!

 Hail to you, ye gods who are on the side lock, conspicuous by your sceptres, announce my glory to Ra and convey it to Nehabkau. 

 [And lo, though he be buried in the deep deep Grave, and bowed down to the region of annihilation, he is glorified there. ]

 CHAPTER XXXB. 

 Heart mine which is that of my Mother, Whole Heart mine which is that of my birth, Let there be no estoppel against me through evidence, let no hindrance be made to me by the Divine Circle; fall thou not against me in (the) presence of him who is at the Balance. 

 Thou art my Genius (_Ka?_) who art by me, the Artist who givest soundness to my limbs. 

 Come forth to the bliss towards which we are bound;

 Let not those Ministrants[M] who deal with a man according to the course of his life give a bad odour to my Name. 

 Pleasant for us, pleasant for the listener, is the joy of the Weighing of the Words. 

 Let not lies be uttered in the presence of the great god (Osiris?) Lord of Amenta. 

 Lo! how great art thou [as the Triumphant one. ]

This chapter is found upon numerous papyri and scarabs. Thedifferences in the texts are many, the principal may be considered asin the 30A and 30B, of Naville's Text. 

The oldest copy we have on a scarab, is on that of king Sebak-em-safof the XIIIth Dynasty. In the British Museum, No. 7876. Dr. SamuelBirch has described it[N] in his study on the "Formulas relating tothe Heart. " He says: "This amulet is of unusual shape; the body of theinsect is made of a remarkably fine green jasper carved into the shapeof the body and head of the insect. This is inserted into a base ofgold in the shape of a tablet. * * * The legs of the insect are * * *of gold and carved in relief * * * The hieroglyphs are incised inoutline, are coarse, and not very legible. "[O]

FOOTNOTES:

[A] Privately printed for, The Society of Biblical Archæology. London, 1893. 

[B] _Berlin, Asher und Co. _, 1886. _Einleitung_, in 4to, v. ; 204 p. ;_1er Band, Text und Vignetten_, in folio, CCXII. Pl. , _2e Band, Varianten_, 447 p. 

[C] The Egyptian texts have two names for the Heart. One _ab_, theother, _hatu_. _Ab_ used as connected with lively motion. The word_hatu_ seems to include not only the heart properly to say, but alsothe lungs, and by it the heart was likely considered also inconnection with the larynx and the respiratory organs of man. Mr. Renouf uses in his translation, for the latter, the expression; WholeHeart. 

[D] See, Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch. , XII. , p. 359. 

[E] One of the names of the solar god. 

[F] Likely the Forty-two Judges of the Psychostasia. Myer. 

[G] M. Pierret stops his translation of this chapter here, saying: Theend of this chapter is absolutely unintelligible; the variants of thehieratic manuscripts do not make it clear. 

[H] The same as, angel, or one sent. 

[I] That is, of the saved, of those declared re-born, in opposition tothe heart of the wicked, those adjudged to be annihilated or sufferthe second death. 

[J] The most ancient copies of this chapter are found, one on thecoffin of Amamu, the other on that of Horhotep. _Mission. Arch. Fran. Au Caire, Tom. I. , p. 157, l. 335-337_. They are not perfect. Thepapyrus of Ani contains an imperfect copy of the chapter. 

[K] See, _Zeits_, 1880, _Einige inedita_ by Prof. Ebers. 

[L] That is at the Psychostasia or weighing of the _Ba_, orresponsible soul, of the defunct. Myer. 

[M] This refers likely to the Forty-two Judges in the Psychostasia. Myer. 

[N] _Zeitschr_, 1870, p. 32. 

[O] See further on the subject of the Heart, _Zeitschr_, 1866, 69 _etseq. _, 1867, pp. 16, 54, and Dr. Samuel Birch in, Catalogue ofEgyptian Antiquities in Alnwick Castle, p. 224. 

INDEX. 

Aanru, the Egyptian heaven, 61. See, Hotep. 

Aar, See, Aanru, 61. 

Ab. The Heart, Introd. Ix. , 119, 145 _et seq. _ See, Heart. 

Abraxas gems, 143. 

Abydos. Scarabs of, 27, 28. 

Amen, 77. See, Ammon. 

Amen-em-hat III. Fine cameo of, 33, 34. 

Amen-hotep II. Signet ring of, 35. 

Amen-hotep, or Amenophis III, Scarabs of, 25, 53, 54, 55, 56. 

Amenophis III. Scarabs of, found in Mesopotamia, 62, 63. 

Amen-Ra. The scarabæus sacred to, 13. 

Amenta, 148, 152, 154. See, Amenti. 

Amenti, 102. See, Amenta. 

Ammon or Amen, 89, 90. 

Ammon-Ra. Hymn to, 99 _et seq. _

Amsit, 108. 

Androgene. The scarabæus an, 79. 

Androgenic idea as to the scarabæus, 7, note. 

_Ankh_, 118. See, _Crux ansata_. 

Annihilated. The wicked, at the psychostasia, adjudged to be, 94, 96. 

Annihilation. The region of, glorification even in, 153. 

Annuities perpetual, left the priests to perform the sacred duties to the dead, 121. 

Anubis, 147. 

Apap, the Evil One, 86. 

Aristophanes ridicules the use of the scarabæus, 7

Assyrian contracts sealed, 129, 130 and note. 

Astrologers, 73. 

Astronomers, 73. 

Astronomy. The scarabæus in, 12, 13. 

_Ateuchus. _ The Genus, 4, 5, 6. 

_Ateuchus sacer Ægyptiorum_, 5, 6. 

_Ateuchus sacer. _ Symbolism of the, 6. 

Athena (Neith) symbolized by a vulture and scarabæus, 12. 

Atmu or Tum, 70, 102, 112. See, Tum and Tmu. 

Atmu-Khepera, 112. 

Atoms and molecules according to the Ancient Egyptians, are not destroyed, 95, 96. 

Atum, 103. 

Azazel. The Angel, taught the art of the lapidary to mankind, 30. 

Ba or Bai, plur. Baiu, the responsible soul, Introd. Ix. , 92, 98, 114, 115, 148, 152. Was judged in the Hall of Osiris, 119, 120. Usually represented as a human headed sparrow-hawk, but sometimes as a crane and at others, as a lapwing, 115. 

Balance. The, 152, 153. 

Basilidian amulets, 143. 

Bibliography of the scarabæus, Introd. Xix. _et seq. _

Birch, Dr. Samuel, on a scarab of Sebak-em-saf, 154. His edition of the Book of the Dead, Introd. Xviii. His writings as to the scarabæus, Introd. Xx. His "Formulas relating to the Heart, " 154. 

Birth. The second, and resurrection from the dead, 89, Introd. Vi. _et seq. _

Body. The, called Khat, 114. 

Book of the Dead, Introd. Xvi. _et seq. _, 60, 66, 75, 76, 86, 92. See, Dr. Samuel Birch, M. Paul Pierret, P. Le Renouf, M. Edouard Naville. Shows a hidden religious metaphysic, 68. Some chapters only inscribed on the winding-sheet of the mummy, 61. Chapters relating to the Heart, 67 and Appendix A. As to Khepra in it, 85. See, Khepra. Edouard Naville's translation of, 146, Introd. Xvii. P. Le Page Renouf's translation of, 145 _et seq. _, Introd. Xviii. 

Books. Ancient, 72. 

Boort. Use of, and diamond dust, 31, 32. 

_Buprestis. _ The, held in estimation, 6. 

Cakes. The sacrificial, Introd. Ix. , 152. 

Cameo. Finest, in the world, 33, 34. 

Cancer. Scarabæus anciently used in Egypt, to represent the zodiacal sign now called, 12. 

Carnelian. The XXIXB. Chapter of the Book of the Dead, usually incised on, 151. 

Cartouch. Reason of the shape of the oval line around the, 14, 38, 39. 

Cartouches. Royal, oval form of the, taken from the shape of the underside of the scarabæus, 14, 38, 39. 

Champions. The Divine, 149. 

Chaos, 103, 107, 108, 112, 113. 

Christ called the scarabæus of God, 63. 

Christian scarabs, 63, 64. 

Circle. The Divine, 150, 152, 153. 

_Coprophagi. _ Family of the, 4. 

Corundum. Use of, in engraving hard stones, 31. 

Cowroids are of the Hyksos period, 25. 

Crab. Zodiacal sign of the, 12. 

Creation, 99 _et seq. _

Creator and created, 95, 99 _et seq. _

Cricket. The Holy, Veneration of the natives of Madagascar for, 13. 

Cross. Position held by of the Latin, as a symbol, 3, 95. Latin and Greek, 95. 

_Crux ansata_, an emblem of the Ka or vitality, 118. 

Cylinders. Engraved, used in Egypt, 39, 40. Not an evidence from their use in Egypt that they came from Mesopotamia. 

Dead. Book of the, See, Book of the Dead. 

Death did not according to the Ancient Egyptian, destroy the personality of man, 96. The Second, 94, 96, 120, 121, 153. 

Deities of Literature and Libraries, 70. 

Deities. The, transformed, 94. 

Deity. The Supreme, Ideas as to, in Ancient Egypt, Introd. Xii. , xiii. The Highest, an androgene, 101, 102. 

Diodorus Siculus, 75. His writings cannot always be depended upon. _Ibid. _

Division of the spiritual in man, 114 _et seq. _

Double. The spiritual, called the Ka, 117. See, Ka. 

Drills. Use of, in ancient times, in cutting hard precious and other stones, 31. 

Early Assyrian sealed contracts, 130 and note. 

_Eidolon_, 118. See, Ka. 

Egypt. Aborigines of the land of, Our knowledge of the, Introd. Vii. Art in, six thousand years ago, 69. Its civilization six thousand years ago, 70. Hebrews in, Introd. Xiv. Ideas as to the Supreme Deity in Ancient, Introd. Xii. Idolatry in, Introd. Xii. Six thousand years ago, had a language, religion and writing, 69. See, Introd. 

Egyptians. The Ancient, highly civilized, 69 _et seq. _, Introd. Vii. Race of the Ancient, was Caucasian, Introd. Vii. Ancient, thought as to the spiritual-world and its inhabitants, elevated, Introd. Xii. Signets, 15, 16, 38 _et seq. _ used symbols, having an occult meaning, to designate their deities, 4. 

Emanation or Creation of all things, 100 _et seq. _

Emery. Use of, 31. 

Engraving of precious stones. Antiquity of the art of, 30 _et seq. _, 33. 

Engraving. Method of engraving in ancient times, 31. On scarabs, 20, 21, 22, 48, 51, 52. 

Enamels on scarabs, 19. 

Enoch. Book of, cited, 30. 

Entomology of the scarabæidæ, 4 _et seq. _

Ephod. Engraved stones in the Hebrew High Priest's, 37. 

Erpā. The, of the gods, 147. 

Etruscan glyptography has not a transitional period, 140. 

Etruscan scarabs, 134 _et seq. _ divisions of, according to subjects engraved thereon, 141. Form of, 135, 136. Usually of a conventional form, 134, 135, 136. Manufacture of, 136, 137. Material of, 135. Time of manufacture and use of, 142. Where found, 134 _et seq. _, 138. Method of wearing, 139. Worn as amulets and for ornament, 139. Those having a white opaqueness have been burned, 139. Subjects engraved on, 137, 138, 140, 141. 

Etruscans at first purchased the scarabs from Phœnicians, 140. Borrowed the form of the scarab but did not care for the cult, 139. 

Eternal life of the soul of man, Introd. Vi. , vii. , ix. , x. , xi. , xii. , xiii. See, the Second Death. 

Eternity. Lords of, 148. 

Eternity of the soul of the good, 96. See, Introduction. 

Ethiopians. Religious feeling for the scarabæus among the, 12, 13. 

Evil One, is Apap, 86. 

Evolution in the Egyptian philosophy, 99 _et seq. _, 104 _et seq. _

Ezekiel's. The prophet, description of the working and engraving of, precious stones, 35. 

Face. Broad, The god of the, 150. 

Felspar. The XXVIIth chapter of the Book of the Dead, incised on green, 151. 

Forgery of scarabs, 123 _et seq. _

Future rewards or punishments to the soul, Introd. Vi. , vii. , x. , xi. See, Annihilation, Wicked, Heaven, Psychostasia, Second Death. 

Genius. The, the Ka, 118, 148, 152, 153. See, Ka. 

Geographers, 73. 

Ghost. See, Ka, Khu, Eidolon. 

Gnostic amulets with the scarabæus portrayed on them, 143. 

God, 109, 110, 110, Introd. Xii. _et seq. _

God and His universe, 95 _et seq. _

Gnostic amulets, 143. 

Good. The soul of the, is eternal, 96. 

Grammarians, 73. 

Grave. Glorification in the deep, 153. 

Great Sphinx. The, a philosophical abstraction, 68. See, Sphinx. 

Greek authors, statements of as to Ancient Egyptian abstract thought, 74. 

Greek authors, cannot be depended upon. _Ibid. _

Greek and other writers, who mention the scarabæus, Introd. Xviii. , xix. 

Greek scarabs, 142. Made in the Egyptian style, a manufactory for such was at Naukratis, 27. 

Greeks called the scarabæus the _Helio-cantharus_, 7. 

Hard stones. Egyptian method of cutting, 32. See, Engraving, also Scarabs. 

Hapi, 108. 

Harmakhis-Khepra, 80, 85. See, Khepra. 

Harmakhu-Khepra-Ra-Tum, 83. 

Harmony and law of the universe, 79, 99, 100. This was called the _Ma_, 81. See, Ma. 

Hathor, 102. 

Hatshepsu. Scarabs of Queen, 28. Signet of, 34. 

Heart. The, was called Ab, 119. See, Ab, also Appendix A. The, 66, 92. See, Appendix A. Considered as the source of life and also the place of the thoughts, 145. Curious representations in connection with the, 145. Was symbolized by the scarab, 146. Was symbolized by Khepra, the scarabæus deity, 92. See, Khepra. Scarabs to take the place of the, 60, 61, 66. Whole, meaning of this expression, 146. The, in the Book of the Dead, 75, 76, and Appendix A. 

Heaven. The Egyptian eternal heaven, 61. See, Aanru and Hotep. 

Hebrew High Priest, names of precious stones in his Ephod, 37. 

Hebrews in Egypt must have had knowledge of, the Egyptian belief in the immortality of the soul and its future reward or punishment, Introd. Xiv. _et seq. _

Hebrew Qabbalah. See, Qabbalah. 

_Helio-cantharus. _ Greek name for the scarabæus, 7. 

Hephæstos (Ptah) symbolized by a scarabæus and vulture, 12. 

Heretic kings. Scarabs not in use by the, 44. 

Hermes Trismegistos cited or quoted, 74, 96, 109, 110. 

Hermopolis, 150. 

Herodotus, 75. Quoted, 97. 

Heron. The, 151. 

Herseshta. See, Teachers of Mysteries. 

Historical scarabs, 49 _et seq. _ value of, to the historian, 50. 

Horapollo quoted as to the scarabæus, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. 

Horapollon, 74. See, Horapollo. 

Hor-em-khu, 84, note. 

Horus, 77, 93, 94, 108, 112. The eye of, 84. 

Horus, Hor-em-Khu and Khepra, 80, 81. 

Hotep. A division of the Egyptian eternal heaven, 61. 

Hottentot. Veneration for the scarabæus by the, 13. 

Hyksos. The, Introd. Xiv. 

Hyksos period. Scarabs of the, 25. 

Iamblichus, 74. 

Ideal Prototype, 16, 17. See, Prototypes. 

Idolatry in Egypt, Introd. Xii. 

Individuality. The, 116. 

Immortality of the soul, 98. See the Introduction. The scarabæus the symbol of the, 13. See also, Scarabs, Scarabæus. Soul, and the Introduction, also Appendix A. 

Incising of scarabs, 22. 

Intellectual part of man's spirit, 115, 116. See, Khu. 

Isis, 86, 94. 

Jesus called, the good Scarabæus, 63. Crucifixion of portrayed on a scarab, 64. 

Jeweled drills and saws. Use of, 31, 32. 

Joseph under the Hyksos, Introd. Xiv. 

Joseph. The signet ring given by Pharaoh to, 36 and note. 

Josephus, Introd. Xiii. 

Judges, 73. 

Judgment of the soul, in the Hall of Osiris, effect of, 120, 121. See, Psychostasia. 

Ka. The, Introd. Ix. , xv. , 60, 82, 148, 152, 153. See, Appendix A, also the Double, and Division of the Spiritual. Dwelt with mummy, had a semi-material form and substance in the shape of the dead one, and had power to go and return when it pleased, 117, 118. 

Ka. It was the Vitality or Double. Plural, Kau, 117 _et seq. _

Ka and Khu. Union of the, 120, 121. See, Khu. 

Khaf-Ra, Khephren or Khefren. Scarabs of the period of, 24. 

Khaf-Ra. See, Khephren. 

Khaibit. The, was the Shade or Shadow of the dead, 116. Parallels the _Tzelem_ of the Hebrew Qabbalah. 

Khat, was the Body, 114, 148. 

Khem, 77. 

_Kheper_ means, to become, to raise up, 88, 89, 95, 104, 111, 112. 

Kheper as the emanator or creator, 101 _et seq. _, 107 _et seq. _

Khepera (Khepra). 104 _et seq. _ See, Khepra. 

Khephren. Statue of, in diorite, 41, 42. See, Khaf-Ra. 

Khepra, 99, 100, 111, 112. 

Khepra. The Scarabæus deity, 86. 

Khepra, also called Khepera, a form of the maker of the Universe which had the scarab as an emblem, 14, 99 _et seq. _ was also called, Tum-Khepra also Osiris-Khepra, 88. Was the symbol of the Heart, 92, 93. Was the transformer, 78. In the Book of the Dead, 78 _et seq. _, 85. As Harmakhis, 85, 86. In the bosom of the gods, 87. Against the rebels, 88. As the Enlightener, 78, 79. Is Eternity, 86. Is the producer of the transformations, 87, 88, 89. 

Khepra overthrows Apap, the evil-serpent, 85, 86. 

Khepri. See, Khepra. 

Khmunu, 108. 

Khopiru, 84. 

Khu. The, 82, 98. The Intellectual part of man's spirit, 115, 116. In case of adverse judgment on the Ba, the Khu fled back to its immortal source, 120. 

Khu and Ka. Union of the, 120, 121. 

Khufu. Scarabs of the period of, 24. 

Lapidary, Antiquity of the art of the, 30. 

Lapis-lazuli. The XXVIth Chapter of the Book of the Dead, incised on, 151. 

Lathes. Use of, 22, 32. 

Librarians. Ancient, 71. 

Libraries. Ancient, 71, 72. 

Life and death. The interchange of, 97. 

Living. The, the saved or re-born, 151 and note. 

Logos. The, 105 and note, 107. See, Word. 

Ma, 81, 79. See, Maat. 

Maat. The Law or Harmony of all created, 70, 99, 100 and note. 

Makrokosm. The, 16, 17 and note. 

Manufacture of scarabæi, 18 _et seq. _, 27. 

Manufacture. Periods of, 21 _et seq. _

Materials used in manufacture, 18, 19, 20. 

Matter is only transformed, 94. 

Mead of amaranthine flowers, 147. 

Medical papyrus, Introd. Ix. , x. 

Men governed by their prejudices, 3. 

Mena, Introd. Vii. , 72. His cartouche inside of the oval form taken from the underside of the scarab, 38. 

Men-kau-Ra. Inscription on the coffin of, Introd. Vi. 

Mer-en-ra, 83. 

Mesopotamia and its relations with Egypt, 41, 42, 43, 44. 

Mesopotamia. Egyptian scarabs found in, 62, 63. 

Messenger. The, of thy god, 151. 

Messenger, the same as angel, 151 note. 

Mestha, 109. 

Mesxen. The reservoir from which came the new souls, 99 note, 103, 104. See, Souls. 

Metaphysicians. Religious, 73. 

Metempsychosis. Mistaken ideas as to Egyptian, 97 _et seq. _

Mineralogists, 73. 

Mirini I. , 83, 84. 

Motion in all things, 96, 97. 

Moses. Reason why he may have omitted putting the doctrine of the future life of the soul in the Pentateuch, Introd. Xv. _et seq. _

Moses and belief in the immortality of the soul, Introd. Xiii. , _et seq. _

Mysteries. The Teachers of, 72. 

Mummy called the, Husk, also the Sahu, 118, 119. 

Names of precious stones in the Ephod of the Hebrew High Priest, 37. 

Naukratis. Scarabs of, 27. 

Naville. M. Edouard, edition of the Book of the Dead, Introd. Xvii. , 146. 

Nebesheh. Scarabs of, 27. 

Neb-ka. Scarabs of, 23, 46. 

Nehabkau, 153. 

Nephesh of the Hebrew Qabbalah, and the lower vitality of the Mummy or Sahu, 118, 119. 

Nephthys, 86. 

Neshamah. The, of the Hebrew Qabbalah, 116. 

Nine. The divine, 83. 

Nothing destroyed, only transformed, 95, 96. 

_Nous. _ The, of the Greeks, 116. 

Nu or, the Sky, 108. See, Nut. 

Nut, 79. 

Oldest scarabs, 46. 

Osiris, 93, 94, 106, 147, 149. The dead one became an Osiris, Introd. Vi. 

Pacht was the Mistress of thoughts, 70. 

Papyrus Ebers. Introd. X. , note. 

Papyrus. Medical, Introd. X. 

Pentateuch. Hebrew, no idea in it, of the immortality of the soul and its future reward or punishment, Introd. Xiii. _et seq. _

_Per-em-hru. _ See, Book of the Dead. 

Pepi I. Scarabs of the period of, 24. 

Personality. The, 116, 117, 119, 120. 

Philo. Introd. Xiii. 

Philosophers, 73. Failure of, to understand psychological phenomena, 3. 

Philosophy. Ancient Egyptian, 68. Of the Ancient Egyptians not yet understood, 68. 

Philostratus quoted, 4. 

Phœnician scarabs, 128 _et seq. _

Phœnicians. The, were copyists, 132. 

Phœnician manufactures of cylinders, signets, etc. , 129 _et seq. _

Pierret. M. Paul, his edition of the Book of the Dead, Introd. Xvii. , xviii. , 145. 

Plato, 75. 

Pliny quoted as to the scarabæus, 7 _et seq. _

Plutarch, 74. Quoted, 7, note. 

Prayers and litanies for the dead, 121. 

Precious stones. Hard, Chapters of the Book of the Dead incised on, 151. Hard, used in making scarabs, 18, 19, 33, 151. In the Ephod of the Hebrew High Priest, 37. 

Primordial Man. The, 16, 17 and note. 

Prototypes. The, 103, 104. See, Mesxen, also Souls. 

_Psyche_, 114, 115. See also, Soul. 

Psychology. Ancient Egyptian, 114 _et seq. _ and the Hebrew Qabbalah. _Ibid. _

Psychology. Ancient Egyptian, as yet only partly understood, 69. 

Psychostasia. The, or weighing of the soul of the dead, 149, 152, 153. See, Future rewards and punishments of the soul. 

Ptah, 90. The scarab an emblem of, he was one of the forms of the creative power, 12, 14. 

Ptah-Sokari-Osiris, was sometimes represented under the form of a scarab, 15. 

Ptah-Tatunen, 94. 

Ptah-Tore, 12 note. 

Punishment in the Underworld, 87. See, Annihilation, also, Psychostasia. 

Pythagoras, 75. 

Qabbalah. The Oral Tradition or, 69. Of the Hebrews and the psychology of the Ancient Egyptians, 115 _et seq. _ the Rua'h of the Hebrew Qabbalah, 115. The Nephesh of the Hebrew Qabbalah, 118, 119. The Neshamah of the Hebrew Qabbalah, 116. 

Qebhsennuf, 109. 

Ra, 79, 83, 93, 94, 112, 151, 153. The scarabæus as the symbol of the creating power of Ra, 14, 15, 84. When used as part of the king's name, 23. 

Ra-Harmakhis, 81. 

Rameses II. Scarabs of the period of, 26. 

Ren, the Name or Personality, 116, 117, 119, 120. 

Renouf. P. Le Page, his edition of the Book of the Dead, Introd. Xviii. , Appendix A. 

Resurrection from the dead, 92, 93, 122. Was symbolized by the scarab, Introd. V. , vi. , vii. See, Immortality of the soul, also, Soul. 

Resurrection of the soul, symbolized by the Great Sphinx, 82. See, Introduction, also, Sphinx. 

Regeneration and re-birth, 95. See, Introduction. See, Soul. 

Rings. Use of, 40, 41. 

Roman scarabs, 142. 

Rua'h. The, of the Hebrew Qabbalah, 115. 

Sacrificial victims. Those examined and passed as right, marked with signets having on them the figure of the scarabæus, 20. 

Safekh, goddess of books, 70, 71. 

Saïtic period. Scarabs of the, 26. 

Sahu. The, or Mummy, 60, 118, 119. May refer sometimes to the living personality of the mummy, 119. 

Sardinia. Scarabs found in, 130, 131. 

Sardinian scarabs. Division according to the subjects, 131, 132. Age of, 132. 

Scarab as a signet, 7. As an amulet, 7. The symbol of the Heart, 66, 67, 145. See, Heart. Chapter XXXB. Of the Book of the Dead on a, 154. A beautiful Assyrian in the British Museum, 133 the synthesis of the Egyptian religion, 95. A symbol of the re-birth, resurrection and eternal life, of the soul pronounced pure, 66. The hieroglyph of, To become, etc. , also, creator, 80. See, Horapollo. 

Scarab. A representation of with two heads, one of a ram, the other of a hawk, 89, 90. The oldest known, that of Neb-ka, 23, 46. An emblem of Ptah, 13, 14. 

Scarabæus. Name of in different languages, 2. Entomology of, 4, 5, 6. Where found, 4. The hieroglyph of "to be, " the emanating or creating, etc. , in, 112. See, _Kheper_. The first living creature seen coming to life, from the mud of the Nile, 13. Symbolism of the, 6. The symbol of, creative and fertilizing power, 7, 8, 13. The symbol of re-birth, resurrection and immortality of the soul, 13. See, Introduction. An early symbol of the idea of a future life of the soul, and its resurrection, and likely of its future reward or punishment, Introd. Vi. , vii. , xi. Emblem of the re-birth and resurrection of the dead, 88. A symbol of the resurrection in the heavenly regions, 92, 93. Held the position among the Ancient Egyptians which the Latin cross holds with us, 2. As an emblem of the creating source of life, portrayed on the tombs of the ancient Theban kings, 16. An amulet or talisman, 15. Astronomical value of the, 12. An early symbol of the zodiacal sign now called Cancer, 12. 

Scarabæus and the Heart in the Book of the Dead, 75 _et seq. _ See, Appendix A. Varieties of the, according to Pliny, 7, 8. Meaning of according to Horapollo, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. Veneration of the Hottentot for, 13. Sacred to Amen-Ra, 13. Winged, 59, 60. Bibliography as to the, Introd. Xix. _et seq. _

Scarabæi. Manufacture of, 18 _et seq. _

Scarabæidæ. The family of, 4. 

Scarabs. Art in making, 52, 53. Forms of usually met with, 47, 48. Difference as to large and small, 21. Divisions of, 48, 49. Where and how worn by the living, 58. Put in place of the Heart inscribed with chapters from the Book of the Dead, 67. See, Appendix A, also Heart. Where found on mummies, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62. Representations of, with the head of a cow, ram _et seq. _, 59. Set in gold, 59. Engraving on, 48. Symbols engraved on, 20, 21. Age of those not engraved on the under or flat part, 46, 47. Unfashionable in the XIIth Dynasty, 40. The oldest thus far known, 46. See, Neb-ka. Difficult to judge of the age of, 28. See, Forgery. Historical, 23 _et seq. _, 49 _et seq. _ great value of a knowledge of, to the historian, 29. 

Scarabs. Knowledge of the age of, 29. Re-issue of, by a later monarch, 28. Etruscan, 134 _et seq. _ See, Etruscan. The material in which Etruscan, were made, 135, 136. Phœnician, 128 _et seq. _ Sardinian, 130, 131. Forgery of, 123 _et seq. _

Seals. Egyptian, some archæologists incorrectly claim, that they came from Mesopotamia, 37, 38 _et seq. _

Sealing mentioned in the Old Testament, 35, 36. Phœnician, 129 _et seq. _

Seb, 94, 147. 

Sebak-em-saf. King, copy of Chapter XXXB of the Book of the Dead on a scarab of, 154. 

Sechit, 147. 

Sechit-hotepit, 150. 

Selk goddess of libraries, 71. 

Sent. King, Introd. Viii. , ix. , x. 

Serpentine. The XXXth Chapter of the Book of the Dead, incised on, 151. 

Shade. The, of the dead, 116. 

_Shait an Sensen. _ The, 60. 

Shepherd Kings. See, Hyksos. 

Shera. Steles from the tomb of, Introd. Viii. 

Shesh. Very ancient recipe of the queen Shesh for washing the hair, Introd. X. 

Shu, 106, 108. 

Signet. The scarab as a, 7, 15, 16. 

Signet ring. Mention of the, in the Old Testament, 35, 36. 

Signets Egyptian, sometimes squares or parallelograms, 33. 

Soldiers wore the scarab to increase bravery, 7, and note. 

Solon, 75. 

Soul. The responsible, called the Ba. See, Ba. 

Soul. Immortality of the, 98. See, Introduction. 

Soul. Immortality of the, and the writings attributed to Moses, Introd. Xiii. _et seq. _

Soul of the good was eternal, 96. 

Soul of the wicked was destroyed, 96. 

Souls. The reservoir of, 99 and note. Note. Comp. Hermes Trismegistos. Book. The Virgin of the World, and Book. The Initiations or Asclepios. 

Sphinx. The Great, an abstraction, 81. Was an image of Ra-Harmakhis, 81. Was Harmakhu-Khepra-Ra-Tum, 83. The philosophical value of the Great, 95. The Great, meaning of, 82, 83. 

Statues of diorite, 41, 42. 

Stele of the Great Sphinx, 83. 

Stelæ. Oldest known, Introd. Vii. , viii. 

Strabo, 75. 

Sutu. The caverns of, 150. 

_Suten-hotep-ta. _ The, Introd, viii. , ix. 

Symbolism of the scarabæus, according to Pliny, 7. See, Scarabæus and Scarabs. 

Tamar. See, Thamar. 

Ta-nen, 94, 103. 

Tanis. Scarabs of, 27. 

Tefnut, 106. 

Teta. King, Introd. X. 

Thales, 75. 

Thamar or Tamar, 36. 

Thespesion quoted, 4. 

Thoth, 70, 74, 148. See, Hermes Trismegistos. 

Thotmes III. , 21, 28. Scarabs of, found in Mesopotamia, 62. Chapter CLIV. Of the Book of the Dead, on his winding-sheet, 61, 62. 

Thotmes IV. , 83. 

Tmu, 150. 

Tuamautef, 109. Content of the vase of, 61, 66. 

Tuat. The, 151. 

Tum or Atmu, 79, 93, 99, 102. See, Atmu. 

Tum not inert, 112, 113. 

Tum-Harmakhis, 113. 

Tum-Khepra, 100, 111. 

Tumu, 84 and note, 108. 

Telloh. Statues found at, 41, 42. 

Transformations. Power of the dead to make, 87, 88, 89. 

Underworld. The, called Amenti and Amenta, 102, 148, 152, 154, Introd. Xvi. The Egyptian word so translated, may apply to a higher or opposite world to ours, Introd. Xvi. , note. 

Universe. Evolution of the, 99 _et seq. _, 104 _et seq. _, 106 _et seq. _ emanation of the, according to Hermes Trismegistos, 109, 110. Production of the, 100, 101. 

Vital principle of the human being after death, the Ka, 117. See, Ka. 

Wicked punished, 94. See Soul, also, Future reward, etc. 

Wicked. The soul of the, annihilated and destroyed, 96. 

Women wore the scarab, 7. 

Word. The, 105 and note, 107. See, Logos. Production or creation, by the, 101 _et seq. _

Zodiac. Emblem on the Hindu, resembles more a beetle than a crab, 12. Of Denderah. Scarabæus on the, 12. 

Zodiacs. The scarabæus in some zodiacs in place of the crab, 12. 

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