Transcriber's Note: 1. Italicized text is rendered as _text_, bold text is rendered as=text=. 2. Superscripted characters are preceeded by ^ (carat). 3. Subscripted characters are surrounded by curly braces ({}) andpreceeded by _ (underline character). TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 33 PUNCTUATION A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUTTHE MARKS OF PUNCTUATION ANDTHEIR USE BOTH GRAMMATICALLYAND TYPOGRAPHICALLY BY FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.  D. EDUCATIONAL DIRECTORUNITED TYPOTHETÆ OF AMERICA PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONUNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA1920 COPYRIGHT, 1920UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICACHICAGO, ILL. PREFACE This book, like the others in this Part, makes no pretense atoriginality. The author has studied and compared a considerable numberof works by the best authorities on the subject and has endeavored toadapt the best of their contents to the use of printers' apprentices. Every author has his own set of rules. At first sight, each set appearsinconsistent with those given by other writers. This inconsistency, however, is generally more apparent than real. It arises fromdifferences in point of view, method of approach, and system ofclassification. An attempt has been made to compile from these sources a set of ruleswhich would bring before the pupil a correct and comprehensive view ofthe best current usage, well illustrated by examples and accompanied bypractical typographical hints. The fact has been kept steadily in mindthat this book is intended for a certain definite class of pupils and nopains have been spared to fit it to their needs. Any treatise consisting, as this one necessarily does, mainly of rulesis practically useful only as a basis for constant and persistent drill. It is, of course, valuable for reference, but the emergencies of theday's work leave no time for consultation. These rules must be learned, and not only learned but assimilated so that their correct applicationbecomes instinctive and instantaneous. This result can be secured onlyby practice. Hence the emphasis laid on the exercises indicated in theparagraphs introductory to the review questions. CONTENTS PAGEINTRODUCTION 1 THE COMMA 7 THE SEMICOLON 14 THE COLON 16 THE PERIOD 18 THE DASH 20 THE PARENTHESIS 23 THE BRACKET 25 THE INTERROGATION 26 THE EXCLAMATION 27 THE APOSTROPHE 28 THE HYPHEN 30 QUOTATION MARKS 31 GENERAL REMARKS 34 SUMMARY 35 SUPPLEMENTARY READING 36 REVIEW QUESTIONS 37 GLOSSARY OF TERMS 40 PUNCTUATION INTRODUCTION Punctuation is a device by which we aid words to tell their story. Wordshave done this at times without such aid, and may now do so, but atconstant risk of serious misunderstanding. This can be easily seen byreading the following lines printed as they would have been written inan ancient manuscript. WETHEPEOPLEOFTHEUNITEDSTATES INORDERTOFORMAMOREPERFECT UNIONESTABLISHJUSTICEINSUREDO MESTICTRANQUILITYPROVIDEFOR THECOMMONDEFENCEPROMOTETHE GENERALWELFAREANDSECURETHE BLESSINGSOFLIBERTYTOOURSELVES ANDOURPOSTERITYDOORDAINAND ESTABLISHTHISCONSTITUTIONFOR THEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA Probably this particular passage could be read without danger of seriousmisunderstanding. The two well-known passages which follow, however, arecases where either a simple statement may become a ridiculous travestyor a serious arraignment may become a eulogy by punctuation. Punctuate the following so as to express two very different meanings: Lord Palmerston then entered on his head a white hat upon his feet large but well polished boots upon his brow a dark cloud in his hand a faithful walking stick in his eye a menacing glare saying nothing. Punctuate the following in two ways: one to represent a very bad man, and the other a very good man: He is an old man and experienced in vice and wickedness he is never found in opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in the downfall of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of his fellow-creatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the peace of society he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is uncommonly diligent in sowing discord among his friends and acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of Christianity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize all public teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil passions he strives hard to build up satans kingdom he lends no aid to the support of the gospel among the heathen he contributes largely to the devil he will never go to heaven he must go where he will receive the just recompense of reward. Punctuation being intended for the sole purpose of making the textintelligible and removing as many of the causes of possiblemisunderstanding as may be, must depend in the last resort on a correctunderstanding of the text. This understanding may be obtained from thetext itself, from the context, that is, the writing as a whole, or fromoutside knowledge about the matter under consideration. The prisoner said the witness was a sneak thief. The prisoner, said the witness, was a sneak thief. The meaning of this sentence depends entirely on the presence or absenceof the two commas. Manuscript comes in to the printer hastily written by the customer, author, or a reporter, or ticked over the telegraph wire, and there islittle or no punctuation. Probably the context will supply the neededinformation and the line may be set up correctly. If there is no way offinding out what the sentence means, follow copy. Insert no punctuationmarks which you are not sure are needed. Punctuation as we know it is of recent invention. The practice of theart of printing brought the necessity for a defined and systematized useof the points which had, most of them, long been in existence, but whichhad been used largely according to the personal preferences of thescribes or copyists. With the coming of the new methods of bookreproduction came the recognized need for standardization andsystematization. The most ancient inscriptions and manuscripts are merely strings ofletters, without spacing between words or sentences and without anypoints of any sort, like the example on page 1. The first mark to be used was the dot, or period. Its original purposewas simply to furnish a resting place for the eye and the mind and sohelp a little in the grouping of the letters into words, clauses, andsentences, which the mind had hitherto been compelled to do unaided. Itwas used at the end of a sentence, at the end of a clause, to indicateabbreviations, to separate crowded words, especially where the sense wasambiguous (ANICEMAN might be either AN ICE MAN or A NICE MAN), or evenas an æsthetic ornament between the letters of an inscription. In earlymanuscripts the period is usually placed high ([Symbol: High Dot])instead of low (. ). Sometimes a slanting mark (/) or a double dot (: or . . ) was used toindicate the end of an important section of the writing or even of asentence. After a time spaces were introduced to show the grouping of the lettersand the words. At first the sentences were separated by spaces, then thelong words, and finally all words. In some languages, as in Italian, there are still combinations of long and short words, such as thecombination of the pronoun with the verb, as in _datemi_, give me. During the manuscript period different schools of copyists and evendifferent individuals used different marks and different systems ofpointing. For a considerable time the location of the dot indicated itsforce. Placed high ([Symbol: High Dot]) it had the force of a period. Placed in a middle position (·) it had the force of a comma. Placed low(. ) it had the force of a semicolon. The rule, however, was notuniversally observed. A Latin manuscript of the seventh century has ahigh dot ([Symbol: High Dot]) equivalent to a comma, a semicolon used asat present, and a dot accompanied by another dot or a dash to indicatethe end of a sentence. A Latin manuscript of the ninth century shows thecomma and an inverted semicolon ([Symbol: Comma above Period]) having avalue between the semicolon and colon. Mediæval manuscript pointing, therefore, approximates modern forms in places, but lacksstandardization into recognized systems. The spread of printing brought new needs into prominence. The earlyprinters used the period at the end of the sentence, the colon, andsometimes the slanting line (/). A reversed semicolon was used as aquestion mark. Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton's successor in the printingbusiness in London, used five points in 1509. They were the period, thesemicolon, the comma, the "interrogative, " and the parenthesis. The systematization of punctuation is due mainly to the careful andscholarly Aldus Manutius, who had opened a printing office in Venice in1494. The great printers of the early day were great scholars as well. For a very long time the chief concern of the printer was the opening ofthe treasures of ancient thought to the world. They were thereforecompelled to be the students, critics, and editors of the oldmanuscripts which served them as copy. They naturally took theirpunctuation from the Greek grammarians, but sometimes with changedmeanings. The semicolon, for instance, is the Greek mark ofinterrogation. The period took its name from the Greek word [Greek: periodos], periodos, meaning a division of a sentence or a thought, as we to-dayspeak of an orator's eloquent periods. The colon comes from the Greek [Greek: kôlon], kolon, meaning a limb. The comma comes from the Greek [Greek: komma], komma, from [Greek:koptein], to cut. The semicolon, of course, is the half colon. The question mark was made by writing the first and last letters of theLatin word _questio_, a question, vertically, [Symbol: q over o] The exclamation point was made by writing the letters of the Latin word_Io_, joy, vertically, [Symbol: I over o] The punctuation marks now in use and treated of in this book are asfollows: , comma ; semicolon : colon . Period ? interrogation ! exclamation( ) parentheses[ ] brackets ' apostrophe - hyphen -- dash" " quotation marks Other important marks used by printers, but not, strictly speaking, marks of punctuation, are fully discussed in the volume on_Abbreviations and Signs_ (No. 37) in this series. There are two systems of punctuation in use, known respectively as theclose and open systems. The close, or stiff, system, using pointswherever they can be used, is of importance in precise composition ofevery sort, such as laws, contracts, legal and ecclesiasticalstatements, and the like. The open, or easy, system, omitting pointswherever they can be omitted, is used generally in the commoner forms ofcomposition. The tendency, sometimes pushed too far, is toward anextremely open style of punctuation. The general attitude of writers andprinters may be summed up by saying that you must justify the use of apunctuation mark, particularly a comma, rather than its omission. But why should the printer bother himself about punctuation at all? Isthat not the business of the author, the editor, and the proofreader?Strictly speaking, yes, but authors generally neglect punctuation, copyis not usually carefully edited before going to the compositor, andproofreader's corrections are expensive. It is therefore important thatthe compositor should be intelligent about punctuation, whether he worksin a large or a small office. The question of how far the printer may go in changing or supplying thepunctuation of copy will depend largely on circumstances. If thecondition of the manuscript is such as to show that the author reallyintended to put a fully punctuated, correctly spelled, and properlycapitalized manuscript into the hands of the printer, he has a right tohave his wishes respected even if his ideas are not those which prevailin the office. In such a case the compositor should follow copyliterally. If any questions are to be raised they should be discussed bythe proofreader _with the author_. The same rule holds in the case ofmanuscripts edited before being sent to the composing room. The editorhas assumed all responsibility for the accuracy of the copy. In a greatmany cases the copy will come in carelessly written and wholly unedited. In such cases the compositor should punctuate as he goes along. This is one of the tasks which subject the compositor to the test ofintelligence. Printing is not now and never will be a purely mechanicaltrade. A printing office is no place for an apprentice who can not learnto think. This book contains a description of the functions of the punctuationmarks and the common rules for their use. Rules for the use ofpunctuation marks are very different from rules for the use of purelymaterial things. They are useless unless applied intelligently. No setof rules could be devised which would work automatically or relieve thecompositor from the necessity of thinking. Punctuation can never bereduced to an exact science. Certain general directions should be borne in mind by writers andprinters. I. Learn by heart the rules for punctuation. II. Note the peculiarities of the best writers and the best printers, especially in contemporary examples. III. Pay constant attention to punctuation in everything you write. IV. Punctuate your sentence while you are writing it. V. Understand what you are printing. _This is of supreme importance. _Punctuation is an aid to understanding. You cannot correctly punctuateanything that you do not understand. THE COMMA The comma is by far the most difficult of all the punctuation marks touse correctly. Usage varies greatly from time to time and among equallygood writers and printers at the same time. Certain general rules may bestated and should be learned. Many cases, however, will arise in whichthe rules will be differently interpreted and differently applied bydifferent people. The comma is the least degree of separation possible of indication inprint. Its business is to define the particles and minor clauses of asentence. A progressive tendency may be seen in the printing of Englishfor centuries toward the elimination of commas, and the substitution ofthe comma for the semicolon and of the semicolon for the colon. Comparea page of the King James version of the Bible, especially in one of itsearlier printings, with a page of serious discourse of to-day and theeffects of the tendency will be easily seen. It is part of the generaltendency toward greater simplicity of expression which has developed theclear and simple English of the best contemporary writers out of theinvolved and ornate style of the period of Queen Elizabeth. An ornateand involved style needs a good deal of punctuation to make itintelligible, while a simple and direct style needs but very littlehelp. This progressive change in the need for punctuation and in the attitudeof writers toward it accounts for the difference in usage and for thedifficulty in fixing rules to cover all cases. The present attitudetoward punctuation, especially the use of the comma, is one of aversion. The writer is always held to justification of the presence of a commarather than of its absence. Nevertheless it is quite possible to go toofar in the omission of commas in ordinary writing. It is quite possibleto construct sentences in such a way as to avoid their use. The resultis a harsh and awkward style, unwarranted by any necessity. Ordinarywriting needs some use of commas to indicate the sense and to preventambiguity. Always remember that the real business of the comma is just that ofhelping the meaning of the words and of preventing ambiguity by showingclearly the separation and connection of words and phrases. If there ispossibility of misunderstanding without a comma, put one in. If thewords tell their story beyond possibility of misunderstanding without acomma, there is no reason for its use. This rule will serve as a fairlydependable guide in the absence of any well recognized rule for aparticular case, or where doubt exists as to the application of a rule. Reversed, and usually in pairs, commas mark the beginning of aquotation. In numerical statements the comma separates Arabic figures by tripletsin classes of hundreds: $5, 276, 492. 72. In tabular work reversed commas are used as a sign for ditto. SCHOOLS TEACHING PRINTING Boston: Boston Typothetæ School of Printing. " Industrial Arts High School. Chicago: Lakeside Press School of Printing. " Chicago Typothetæ School of Printing. " Lane Technical High School. The comma is placed between the words which it is intended to separate. When used in connection with quotation marks, it is always placed insidethem. "Honesty is the best policy, " as the proverb says. _Rules for the Use of the Comma_ 1. After each adjective or adverb in a series of two or more when notconnected by conjunctions. He was a tall, thin, dark man. The rule holds when the last member of the series is preceded by aconjunction. He was tall, thin, and dark. The comma may be omitted when the words are combined into a single idea. A still hot day. An old black coat. 2. After each pair in a series of pairs of words or phrases notconnected by conjunctions. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote. Formerly the master printer, his journeymen, even his apprentices, all lived in the same house. 3. To separate contrasted words. We rule by love, not by force. 4. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction. The press was out of order, but we managed to start it. 5. Before a conjunction when the word which preceded it is qualified byan expression which does not qualify the word which follows theconjunction. He quickly looked up, and spoke. 6. Between relative clauses which explain the antecedent, or whichintroduce a new thought. The type, which was badly worn, was not fit for the job. If the relative clause limits the meaning of the antecedent, but doesnot explain it and does not add a new thought, the comma is not used. He did only that which he was told to do. 7. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from thecontext. The school, you may be glad to know, is very successful. The books, which I have read, are returned with gratitude. He was pleased, I suppose, with his work. If the connection of such expressions is so close as to form oneconnected idea the comma is not used. The press nearest the south window is out of order. If the connection of such expressions is remote, parentheses are used. The Committee (appointed under vote of April 10, 1909) organized and proceeded with business. 8. To separate the co-ordinate clauses of compound sentences if suchclauses are simple in construction and closely related. He was kind, not indulgent, to his men; firm, but just, in discipline; courteous, but not familiar, to all. 9. To separate quotations, or similar brief expressions from thepreceding part of the sentence. Cæsar reported to the Senate, "I came, I saw, I conquered. " The question is, What shall we do next? 10. To indicate the omission of the verb in compound sentences having acommon verb in several clauses. One man glories in his strength, another in his wealth, another in his learning. 11. To separate phrases containing the case absolute from the rest ofthe sentence. The form having been locked up, a proof was taken. 12. Between words or phrases in apposition to each other. I refer to DeVinne, the great authority on Printing. The comma is omitted when such an apposition is used as a single phraseor a compound name. The poet Longfellow was born in Portland. The word _patriotic_ is now in extensive use. 13. After phrases and clauses which are placed at the beginning of asentence by inversion. Worn out by hard wear, the type at last became unfit for use. Ever since, he has been fond of celery. The comma is omitted if the phrase thus used is very short. Of success there could be no doubt. 14. Introductory phrases beginning with _if_, _when_, _wherever_, _whenever_, and the like should generally be separated from the rest ofthe sentence by a comma, even when the statement may appear to bedirect. When a plain query has not been answered, it is best to follow copy. If the copy is hard to read, the compositor will set but few pages. 15. To separate introductory words and phrases and independent adverbsfrom the rest of the sentence. Now, what are you going to do there? I think, also, Franklin owed much of his success to his strong common sense. This idea, however, had already been grasped by others. Of course the comma is not used when these adverbs are used in theordinary way. They also serve who only stand and wait. This must be done, however contrary to our inclinations. 16. To separate words or phrases of direct address from the context. I submit, gentlemen, to your judgment. From today, my son, your future is in your own hands. 17. Between the name of a person and his title or degree. Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States. Charles W. Eliot, LL. D. 18. Before the word _of_ connecting a proper name with residence orposition. Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts. Elihu B. Root, Senator from New York. 19. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, wheninformal. Dear John, When the salutation is formal a colon should be used. My dear Mr. Smith: 20. To separate the closing salutation of a formal letter from the restof the sentence of which it forms a part. Soliciting your continued patronage, I am, Very sincerely yours, John W. Smith. 21. To separate two numbers. January 31, 1915. By the end of 1914, 7062 had been built. 22. To indicate an ellipsis. Subscription for the course, one dollar. Exceptions to this rule are made in very brief sentences, especially inadvertisements: Tickets 25 cents. Price one dollar. The foregoing rules for the use of the comma have been compiled fromthose given by a considerable number of authorities. Further examinationof authorities would probably have added to the number and to thecomplexity of these rules. No two sets of rules which have come underthe writer's observation are alike. Positive disagreements in moderntreatises on the subject are few. The whole matter, however, turns somuch on the use made of certain general principles and the field is sovast that different writers vary greatly in their statements and even intheir ideas of what ought to be stated. It is very difficult to strikethe right mean between a set of rules too fragmentary and too incompletefor any real guidance and a set of rules too long to be remembered andused. After all possible has been done to indicate the best usage it remainstrue that the writer or the printer must, in the last resort, dependvery largely on himself for the proper application of certainprinciples. The compositor may find himself helped, or restricted, bythe established style of the office, or he may at times be held tostrict following of copy. When left to himself he must be guided by thefollowing general principles: I. The comma is used to separate for the eye what is separate inthought. The comma is not intended to break the matter up into lengths suited tothe breath of one reading aloud. The comma is not an æsthetic device to improve the appearance of theline. II. The sole purpose of the comma is the unfolding of the sense of thewords. III. The comma cannot be correctly used without a thorough understandingof the sense of the words. IV. In case of doubt, omit the comma. THE SEMICOLON The semicolon is used to denote a degree of separation greater than thatindicated by the comma, but less than that indicated by the colon. Itprevents the repetition of the comma and keeps apart the more importantmembers of the sentence. The semicolon is generally used in longsentences, but may sometimes be properly used in short ones. _Rules for the Use of the Semicolon_ 1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex or containcommas. Franklin, like many others, was a printer; but, unlike the others, he was student, statesman, and publicist as well. With ten per cent of this flour the bread acquired a slight flavor of rye; fifteen per cent gave it a dark color; a further addition made the baked crumb very hard. The meeting was composed of representatives from the following districts: Newton, 4 delegates, 2 substitutes; Dorchester, 6 delegates, 3 substitutes; Quincy, 8 delegates, 4 substitutes; Brookline, 10 delegates, 5 substitutes. 2. When the members of a compound sentence contain statements distinct, but not sufficiently distinct to be thrown into separate sentences. Sit thou a patient looker-on; Judge not the play before the play be done; Her plot has many changes; every day Speaks a new scene. The last act crowns the play. 3. When each of the members of a compound sentence makes a distinctstatement and has some dependence on statements in the other member ormembers of the sentence. Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars; she hath killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath furnished her table. Each member of this sentence is nearly complete. It is not quite a fulland definite statement, but it is much more than a mere amplificationsuch as we might get by leaving out _she hath_ every time after thefirst. In the former case we should use periods. In the latter we shoulduse commas. 4. A comma is ordinarily used between the clauses of a compound sentencethat are connected by a simple conjunction, but a semicolon may be usedbetween clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs. Compare the followingexamples: The play was neither edifying nor interesting to him, and he decided to change his plans. The play was neither edifying nor interesting to him; therefore he decided to change his plans. 5. To indicate the chapter references in scriptural citations. Matt. I: 5, 7, 9; v: 1-10; xiv: 3, 8, 27. The semicolon should always be put outside quotation marks unless itforms a part of the quotation itself. "Take care of the cents and the dollars will take care of themselves"; a very wise old saying. THE COLON The colon marks the place of transition in a long sentence consisting ofmany members and involving a logical turn of the thought. Both the colonand semicolon are much less used now than formerly. The present tendencyis toward short, simple, clear sentences, with consequent littlepunctuation, and that of the open style. Such sentences need little orno aid to tell their story. _Rules for the Use of the Colon_ 1. Before _as_, _viz. _, _that is_, _namely_, etc. , when these wordsintroduce a series of particular terms in apposition with a generalterm. The American flag has three colors: namely, red, white, and blue. 2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of twoor more clauses divided by semicolons. The Englishman was calm and self-possessed; his antagonist impulsive and self-confident: the Englishman was the product of a volunteer army of professional soldiers; his antagonist was the product of a drafted army of unwilling conscripts. 3. Before particular elements in a definite statement. Bad: He asked what caused the accident? Right: He asked, "What caused the accident?" Napoleon said to his army at the battle of the Pyramids: "Soldiers, forty centuries are looking down upon you. " The duties of the superintendent are grouped under three heads: first, etc. 4. Before formal quotations. Write a short essay on the following topic: "What is wrong with our industrial system?" When the formal introduction is brief, a comma may be used. St. Paul said, "Bear ye one another's burdens. " 5. After the formal salutatory phrase at the opening of a letter. My dear Sir: When the letter is informal use a comma. Dear John, 6. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references. John xix: 22. 7. Between the city of publication and the name of the publisher inliterary references. "The Practice of Typography. " New York: Oswald Publishing Company. The colon has been similarly employed in the imprints on the title pagesof books. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1880. DeVinne remarks upon this use of the colon that it is traditional andcan not be explained. The colon is sometimes used between the hours and minutes in indicatingtime, like: 11:42 a. M. DeVinne does not approve of this, though other authorities give it asthe rule. It is probably better to use the period in spite of its use asa decimal point, which use was probably the motive for seeking somethingelse to use in writing time indications. In railroad printing the houris often separated from the minutes by a simple space without anypunctuation. THE PERIOD The period, or full stop, marks the end of a declarative sentence. As asign it has several other uses which will appear in the paragraphsfollowing. _Rules for the Use of the Period_ 1. At the end of every sentence unless interrogative or exclamatory. 2. After abbreviations. Nicknames, _Sam_, _Tom_, etc. , are not regarded as abbreviations. The metric symbols are treated as abbreviations but the chemical symbols are not. M. (metre) and mg. (milligram) but H_{2} O and Na Cl. Per cent is not regarded as an abbreviation. The names of book sizes (12mo 16mo) are not regarded as abbreviations. The period is now generally omitted in display matter after Running heads, Cut-in side-notes, Central head-lines, Box heads in tables, Signatures at the end of letters. The period is omitted After Roman numerals, even though they have the value of ordinals. After MS and similar symbols. In technical matter, after the recognized abbreviations for linguistic epochs. IE (Indo-European), MHG (Middle High German) and after titles of well-known publications indicated by initials such as AAAPS (Annals of the American Academy of Political Science). When a parenthesis forms the end of a declarative sentence the period isplaced outside the parenthesis, as in the preceding example. A period isplaced inside a parenthesis only in two cases. 1. After an abbreviation. This was 50 years ago (i. E. 1860 A. D. ) 2. At the end of an independent sentence lying entirely within theparenthesis. Lincoln was at the height of his powers in 1860 (He was elected to the presidency at this time. ) When a sentence ends with a quotation, the period always goes inside thequotation marks. I have just read DeVinne's "Practice of Typography. " The same rule applies to the use of the other low marks, comma, semicolon, and colon, in connection with quotation marks. Unlike mostrules of grammar and punctuation, this rule does not rest on a logicalbasis. It rests on purely typographic considerations, as the arrangementof points indicated by the rule gives a better looking line than can besecured by any other arrangement. _Other Uses of the Period_ 1. The period is used as a decimal point. 2. The period is used in groups, separated by spaces, to indicate anellipsis. He read as follows: "The gentleman said .  .  .  . He was there and saw .  .  .  .  the act in question. " THE DASH The dash is a very useful mark which has been greatly overworked bycareless writers. It is very easy to make in manuscript and serves as aconvenient cover for the writer's ignorance of what point shouldproperly be used. The conspicuousness of the dash makes it a very useful mark for guidingthe eye of the reader to the unity of the sentence. It is particularlyuseful in legal pleadings where there is much repetition of statementand great elaboration of detail. In such cases commas, semicolons, andeven parentheses are so multiplied that the relation of the clauses islost sight of. The confusion thus arising may often be cleared up byintelligent use of the dash. The dash is sometimes used to connect a side heading with the text thatfollows, or to connect the end of that text with the name of the writer. A RULE FOR PEACE. --If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably with all men. --_St. Paul. _ The dash is sometimes used in catalogue work as a ditto mark. DE VINNE, THEODORE LOW. Historic Printing Types. New York, 1886. ----The Invention of Printing. Francis Hart & Co. , New York, 1878. ----Plain Printing Types. Oswald Publishing Co. , New York, 1914. French printers use the dash in printing dialogue as a partialsubstitute for quotation marks. Quotation marks are placed at thebeginning and end of the dialogue and a dash precedes each speech. Thisform is used even if the dialogue is extended over many pages. _Rules for the Use of the Dash_ 1. To mark abrupt changes in sentiment and in construction. Have you ever heard--but how should you hear? 2. To mark pauses and repetitions used for dramatic or rhetoricaleffect. They make a desert, and call it--peace. Thou, great Anna, whom three states obey, Who sometimes counsel takes--and sometimes tea. 3. To express in one sentence great contrariety of action or emotion orto increase the speed of the discourse by a succession of snappyphrases. She starts--she moves--she seems to feel The thrill of life along her keel. In this connection DeVinne gives the following excellent example fromSterne: Nature instantly ebbed again;--the film returned to its place;--the pulse fluttered, --stopped, --went on, --throbbed, --stopped again, --moved, --stopped, --Shall I go on?--No. Attention may be called to Sterne's use of the semicolon and the commawith the dash, a use now obsolete except in rare cases. 4. To separate the repetition or different amplifications of the samestatement. The infinite importance of what he has to do--the goading conviction that it must be done--the dreadful combination in his mind of both the necessity and the incapacity--the despair of crowding the concerns of an age into a moment--the impossibility of beginning a repentance which should have been completed--of setting about a peace which should have been concluded--of suing for a pardon which should have been obtained--all these complicated concerns intolerably augment the sufferings of the victims. 5. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concludingclause. Railroads and steamships, factories and warehouses, wealth and luxury--these are not civilization. 6. When a sentence is abruptly terminated. If I thought he said it I would-- 7. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completedsentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence. He wondered what the foreman would say--he had a way of saying the unexpected. 8. To connect extreme dates in time indication. The war of 1861--1865. The war of 1861-1865. 9. To define verse references in the Bible or page references in books. Matt. V: 1--11. Matt. V: 1-11. See pp. 50--53. See pp. 50-53. NOTE. In instances such as given in the two preceding rules the en dashmay sometimes serve if the em dash appears too conspicuous. 10. A dash preceded by a colon is sometimes used before a long quotationforming a new paragraph. In other cases no point need accompany thedash. The dash is sometimes used as a substitute for commas. Writers on thesubject say that this use occurs when the connection between theparenthetical clause and the context is closer than would be indicatedby commas. The distinction, if real, is difficult to see. It would bebetter if none but the most experienced writers attempted the use of thedash in this way. Dashes are often used instead of marks of parenthesis. It is better tolet each mark do its own work. THE PARENTHESIS The parenthesis, commonly used in pairs, encloses expressions which haveno essential connection with the rest of the sentence, but are importantto its full comprehension. It is liable to be neglected by writersbecause the dash is easier to make, and by printers because it isgenerally thought to mar the beauty of the line. Its distinct uses, however, should not be neglected. _Rules for the Use of the Parenthesis_ 1. To introduce into a sentence matter which is not essentiallyconnected with the rest of the sentence, but aids in making it clear. Trouble began when the apprentice (who had been strictly forbidden to do so) undertook to do some work on his own account. This year (1914) saw the outbreak of a general war. 2. In reports of speeches to enclose the name of a person who has beenreferred to, or to indicate expressions on the part of the audience. The honorable gentleman who has just spoken (Mr. Lodge) has no superior on this floor in his knowledge of international law. (Applause. ) 3. Parentheses enclosing interrogation points or exclamation points aresometimes introduced into a sentence to cast doubt on a statement or toexpress surprise or contempt. He said that on the fifth of January (?) he was in New York. This most excellent (!) gentleman. 4. Parentheses are used, generally in pairs, sometimes singly, toenclose the reference letters or figures used to mark division andclassification in arguments or in precise statements. This is done because: (a) it is clearer; (b) it is shorter. These signs may be printed in several ways. (a) a) (^a) ^a) (1) 1) (^1) ^1) The old-fashioned form of parenthesis, always made too thin, may need athin space between it and its adjoining character when it is placed tooclose to any letter that nearly fills the body in height, as in( Hall ). The space may not be needed when the proximate character has ashoulder, as in ( Art), or when the parenthesis follows a period. ) The italic form of parenthesis is objectionable in book work. Distinction is sought for the word in italic and not for the parenthesisenclosing the word. The italic parenthesis may be used in job-work orfull display lines of italic letters. THE BRACKET Brackets are used in pairs, like the parentheses. In Job compositioneither brackets or parentheses may be used, as suits the fancy or isconvenient. In descriptive text matter, however, brackets should not beused where parentheses are clearly indicated. _Rules for the Use of the Bracket_ 1. To enclose words or phrases which are entirely independent of therest of the sentence. The enclosed words are usually comments, queries, corrections, criticisms, or directions inserted by some person other than theoriginal writer or speaker. 2. To enclose passages of doubtful authenticity in reprints of earlymanuscripts, special amendments to bills under legislativeconsideration, or any other portions of a text which need peculiaridentification. 3. In legal or ecclesiastical papers to indicate numerical words whichmay have to be changed, or to indicate where details are to be supplied. This is the first [_second or third_] publication. The officers shall remain in office [_here state the time_] or until their successors are duly qualified. 4. To avoid the confusion caused by a parenthesis within a parenthesis. 5. A single bracket is used to enclose the ending of a long line ofpoetry which will not fit the register and has to be run over into anadjoining line. Doubt whether to use parentheses or brackets can usually be settled bythis general principle: Parentheses always enclose remarks apparently made by the writer of thetext. Brackets enclose remarks certainly made by the editor or reporterof that text. THE INTERROGATION The interrogation is the point that asks questions. It should always beplaced outside quotation marks unless it is a part of the quotationitself. _Rules for the Use of the Interrogation_ 1. The interrogation point is used at the end of every direct question. Are you there? Indirect questions, that is, statements that a question has been asked, do not require the interrogation. He asked me if I was there. He asked the question, Are you there? and received no answer. 2. At the end of each of a series of questions thrown into a singlesentence. Did he speak in an ordinary tone? or shout? or whisper? 3. The interrogation, like a certain inflection in the voice, mayindicate that a sentence, though declarative in form, is really aquestion and requires an answer. You are, of course, familiar with New York? THE EXCLAMATION The exclamation mark is the mark of strong emotion. _Rules for the Use of the Exclamation_ 1. After every expression of great surprise or emotion. Look, my lord! it comes! Angels and ministers of grace defend us! Alas! my father. 2. After interjections and other exclamatory words. Hurrah! Good! Away! Oh! Where the exclamations are repeated without particularly emphasizingeach one, each may be followed by a comma except the last. Ha, ha, ha! That's a good joke! O used as a vocative or to express a desire or imprecation does not callfor an exclamation. O John. Oh, yes. O, that night would come! The exclamation is sometimes used in job printing to fill out a displayline or for other inadequate reasons. These uses should be avoided. THE APOSTROPHE The apostrophe is primarily the sign of the possessive case, but it hasseveral other uses. _Rules for the Use of the Apostrophe_ 1. The apostrophe for the possessive case is added only to nouns, not tothe pronouns, which have their distinct possessive forms. _Its_ is apossessive pronoun. _It's_ is an abbreviation for _it is_. Do not use anapostrophe with the possessive adjectives _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, _its_. 2. All nouns in the singular and all nouns in the plural except thoseending in _s_ take an apostrophe and _s_ to form the possessive. Nouns in the plural ending in _s_ take an apostrophe only to form thepossessive. There is much difference of opinion as to the invariability of the ruleconcerning singular nouns in _s_. DeVinne advises following thepronunciation. Where the second _s_ is not pronounced, as often happens, to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another _s_, he recommendsomitting it in print. Moses' hat, for Moses's hat. For conscience' sake. 3. The apostrophe indicates the omission of letters in dialect, infamiliar dialogue, and in poetry. That's 'ow 'tis. 'Twas ever thus. When two words are practically made into one syllable, a thin space maybe put before the apostrophe, except that _don't_, _can't_, _won't_, and_shan't_ are consolidated. This use of a space serves to distinguishbetween the possessive in _s_ and the contraction of _is_. Where death 's abroad and sorrow 's close behind. 4. Figures expressing dates are often abbreviated, but it is not goodgeneral practice. The boys of '61. It happened in '14. 5. The apostrophe is used to form the plural of letters and figures. Cross your t's and dot your i's. Make 3's and 5's more plain. Except in these cases the apostrophe is not a plural sign and should beso used only when it is intended to reproduce a dialect orcolloquialism. Wrong: All the Collins's were there. Right: All the Collinses were there. The final _ed_ of past tenses and past participles was formerlypronounced as a distinct syllable, thus: _clos-ed_, _belov-ed_, and thispronunciation continued in common use in poetry long after it wasdiscontinued in prose. During this period of transition the modernpronunciation was indicated by dropping the _e_ and using an apostrophe, thus: _clos'd_, _belov'd_. It is now understood that while the fullspelling is to be used, the old pronunciation is not to be used unlessspecially indicated by placing a grave accent over the _e_ of the lastsyllable, thus: _belovèd_. At the same period poets, especially, used an apostrophe to indicate asilent _e_ as in _ev'ry_, but the usage is now obsolete. Such abbreviations as _Dep't_, _Gov't_, _Sec'y_, and the like, areobjectionable in print. If such abbreviations are necessary it is betterto use the forms _Dept. _, _Govt. _, _Secy. _ THE HYPHEN The hyphen is used to join compound words; to mark the division of aword too long to go entirely into one line; to separate the syllables ofwords in order to show pronunciation; as a leader in tabular work. Forthis last purpose the period is to be preferred to any other mark inuse. Tabular work without leaders is obscure and thereforeobjectionable. QUOTATION MARKS Quotation marks are signs used to indicate that the writer is givingexactly the words of another. A French printer named Morel used a commain the outer margin to indicate a quoted line about 1550. About acentury later another Frenchman, Ménage, introduced a mark («»)resembling a double parenthesis but shorter. These marks were cast onthe middle of the type body so that they could be reversed for use ateither the beginning or the end of a quotation. The French have retainedthese signs as their quotation marks ever since. When the English adopted the use of quotation marks, they did not takeover the French marks, but substituted two inverted commas at thebeginning and two apostrophes at the end of the quoted paragraph. Thesemarks are typographically unsatisfactory. They are weak and thereforehardly adequate to their purpose in aiding the understanding through theeye. Being cast on the upper part of the type body, they leave a blankspace below and thus impair the beauty of the line and interfere withgood spacing. Certain rules for the position of quotation marks whenused with other marks are based upon these typographical considerationsrather than upon logical considerations. _Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks_ 1. Every direct quotation should be enclosed in double quotation marks. "I will go, " said he, "if I can. " Reports of what another person has said when given in words other thanhis own are called indirect quotations and take no marks. He said he would go if he could. 2. A quotation of several paragraphs requires quotation marks at thebeginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only. Inlegal documents, and sometimes elsewhere, quotations are defined andemphasized by putting double commas at the beginning of every line ofthe quotation. The same result may be better obtained by using smaller type, orindenting the quotation, or both. 3. A quotation included within another quotation should be enclosed bysingle quotation marks. He said: "I heard him cry 'Put down that gun, ' and then I heard a shot. " 4. Titles of books, essays, art works, etc. , are usually enclosed inquotation marks. When the books are supposedly familiar to all readers, the marks are not used. You would not print "The Bible, " "ParadiseLost, " "The Iliad. " The titles of books, etc. , are sometimes printed in italics instead ofbeing enclosed in quotation marks. This is a matter of office stylerather than of good or bad practice. 5. In writing about plays or books, the name of the work may be quotedand the name of a character italicized. This is done to avoid confusionbetween the play, the character, and the real person portrayed. "WilliamTell" is a play. _William Tell_ is a character in fiction. William Tellis a national hero of Switzerland. This usage is by no means uniform; here again, we are on the ground ofoffice style. 6. Names of vessels are sometimes quoted, sometimes italicized, andsometimes printed without distinguishing marks. Here we are once more onthe ground of office style. 7. Sentences from a foreign language are usually enclosed in quotationmarks. Single words or phrases are usually printed in italics. Bothitalics and quotation marks should not be used except under certainunusual conditions or when positively ordered by the author. 8. Quotation marks may be used with a word to which the writer desiresto attract particular attention or to which he desires to give anunusual, technical, or ironical meaning. This "gentleman" needs a shave. 9. When a quotation is long or when it is introduced in a formal manner, it is usually preceded by a colon. Isolated words or phrases call for nopoint after the introductory clause. This is true when the phrases soquoted run to considerable length, provided there is no break in theflow of thought and expression. 10. When a quotation ends a sentence the quotation marks are placedafter the period. The comma is always placed inside the quotation marks. The position of the other marks (semicolon, colon, exclamation, andinterrogation) is determined by the sense. If they form a part of thematter quoted, they go inside the quote marks; if not, they go outsidethem. 11. When quotation marks occur at the beginning of a line of poetry, they should go back into the indention space. "Breathes there a man with soul so dead Who never to himself hath said, 'This is my own, my native land'?" This illustration is also a good example of the use of marks incombinations. We have first the single quotation marking the end of theincluded quotation, then the interrogation which ends the sentence, thenthe double quotation marks in their proper position. Quotation marks should not be used needlessly. Very familiar expressionsfrom the best known authors, such as _to the manor born_, _a consciencevoid of offence_, _with malice toward none and charity for all_, havebecome part of the current coin of speech and need not be quoted. Listsof words considered as words merely, lists of books or plays, and othersuch copy should be printed without quotation marks. Sprinkling a pagethickly with quotation marks not only spoils its appearance but makes ithard to read, without adding to its clearness of meaning. GENERAL REMARKS Book titles are now set without points. This fashion was introduced byPickering of London about 1850. This method is generally to theadvantage of the title page thus treated. It is possible, however, tocarry it too far and so to obscure the sense. Commas should not beomitted from firm names, such as Longmans, Green & Co. , as in case ofsuch omission there is no way of knowing whether one or more persons areindicated. Punctuation should not be omitted from the titles which mayaccompany an author's name, nor from the date if day and month are givenas well as year. Avoid the doubling of points wherever possible. When an abbreviationprecedes a colon, omit the period. When an abbreviation precedes acomma, the period is often inserted, but in many cases one or the othercan be dropped to advantage. The dash is not generally preceded by acomma, semicolon, or colon in current printing usage. A comma shouldrarely go before the first parenthesis. If used at all with theparentheses, it should follow the closing parenthesis. When a completesentence is enclosed in parentheses, the period falls within theparentheses. When the enclosure is a brief passage at the end of asentence, the period falls outside the parentheses. Do not put a period before the apostrophe and the possessive _s_ as in_Co. 's_. The word _Company_ may be abbreviated to _Co. _ although it isnot desirable to do so if it can be avoided. The possessive of _Co. _ is_Co's_. SUMMARY 1. A comma separates clauses, phrases, and particles. 2. A semicolon separates different statements. 3. A colon is the transition point of the sentence. 4. A period marks the end of a sentence. 5. A dash marks abruptness or irregularity. 6. Parentheses enclose interpolations in the sentence. 7. Brackets enclose irregularities in the sentence. 8. An interrogation asks a question for an answer. 9. An exclamation marks surprise. 10. An apostrophe marks elisions and the possessive case. 11. Quotation marks define quoted words. SUPPLEMENTARY READING Correct Composition. By DeVinne. Oswald Publishing Company, New York. The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick A. StokesCompany, New York. A Manual for Writers. By Manly and Powell. The University of ChicagoPress, Chicago. Composition and Rhetoric. By Lockwood and Emerson. Ginn & Co. , Boston. The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. By Sherwin Cody. The Old Greek Press, Chicago. Handbook of Composition. By Edwin D. Woolley. D.  C. Heath & Co. , Boston. English Composition, Book One, Enlarged. By Stratton D. Brooks. Ginn &Co. , Boston. REVIEW QUESTIONS SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, areintended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an aidto the student in putting the information contained into definitestatements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means ofsecuring from the student a reproduction of the information in his ownwords. A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure fullacquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidentalomission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed thatnothing should be omitted. In teaching from these books it is very important that these questionsand such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis offrequent written work, and of final examinations. The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only assuresknowledge of material, but the power to express that knowledge correctlyand in good form. If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form itwill be doubly useful. QUESTIONS 1. What is punctuation? 2. How were ancient manuscripts written? 3. What were the first punctuation marks, and how were they used? 4. What can you tell about punctuation marks in the manuscript period? 5. What can you tell about the punctuation of the early printers? 6. Who may be said to have systematized punctuation? 7. Give the names of the principal punctuation marks and the meaning ofthe names. 8. Give a list of the punctuation marks now in use and show how they aremade. 9. Name and describe the two systems of punctuation. 10. What is the tendency in the use of punctuation? 11. Why is it necessary for a compositor to understand punctuation? 12. When should the compositor follow copy and when not? 13. What five general directions should always be remembered? 14. What is the comma used for? 15. What is the tendency in the use of commas? 16. What are reversed commas used for? 17. How are commas used with numerals? 18. How are commas used in table work? 19. How are commas placed in relation to the words whose meaning theyhelp? 20. Give the rules for the use of the comma. 21. What are the four general principles for the use of the comma? 22. What is the semicolon used for? 23. Give the rules for the use of the semicolon. 24. What is the colon used for? 25. Give the rules for the use of the colon. 26. What is the period used for? 27. Where are periods used? 28. Where are periods omitted? 29. How do we use the period in connection with parentheses? 30. How do we use the period in connection with quotation marks? 31. What is the reason for this rule? 32. What other uses has the period? 33. What is the dash used for? 34. What special use of the dash is found in French books? 35. Give the rules for the use of the dash. 36. Are other punctuation marks used with the dash? 37. What is the parenthesis used for? 38. Give the rules for the use of the parenthesis. 39. When would you use letter spacing with the parenthesis, and why? 40. What use is made of the italic parenthesis? 41. Give the rules for the use of the brackets. 42. What is the distinction in use between the bracket and theparenthesis? 43. What is the interrogation point used for? 44. Give the rules for the use of the interrogation. 45. What is the exclamation point used for? 46. Give the rules for the use of the exclamation. 47. What is the apostrophe used for? 48. Give the rules for the use of the apostrophe. 49. What is the use of the apostrophe in past participles? 50. What is said of the use of the apostrophe in such abbreviations as_Dep't_? 51. What is the hyphen used for? 52. What are quotation marks used for? 53. Give the rules for the use of quotation marks. 54. When are quotation marks omitted? 55. How are book titles now punctuated? 56. Should punctuation marks be doubled? 57. How is the comma used with parentheses? 58. How would you punctuate the possessive of an abbreviation, forexample, _the Doctor's house_, using the abbreviation _Dr. _? 59. Give a brief summarized statement of the use of the twelvepunctuation marks. GLOSSARY ABSOLUTE--Free from the usual grammatical relations. ANTECEDENT--That to which a relative pronoun or a relative clauserefers. APPOSITION--When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear oremphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun, the two are said to bein apposition. CLAUSE--A group of words consisting of a subject and predicate withtheir modifiers and forming a part of a sentence; a sentence within asentence. COMPOUND SENTENCE--A sentence consisting of several clauses. COÖRDINATE CLAUSES--Clauses of equal rank. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE--A sentence which states a fact. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE--A sentence which utters an exclamation. INDEPENDENT ADVERBS--Adverbs not in grammatical relations with otherwords in the sentence. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE--A sentence which asks a question. MINOR CLAUSES--Clauses other than the principal clause or main statementof a sentence. PARENTHETICAL--Incidental; not an essential part of a sentence orstatement. PARTICLE--One of the minor parts of speech not inflected, that is, notundergoing changes in form. PHRASE--An expression consisting usually of but a few words, denoting asingle idea, or forming a separate part of a sentence. RELATIVE CLAUSE--A clause joined to the rest of the sentence by arelative pronoun. SALUTATION--A form of greeting, especially at the beginning or end of aletter. SALUTATORY PHRASE--The words forming a salutation, or greeting. TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICALSERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of theCommittee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in tradeclasses, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals. Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group ofauthors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers ofthe United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with acomprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of theprinting craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5×8 inches. Theirgeneral make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc. , has been, as far aspracticable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particularcontents and other chief features of each volume will be found under eachtitle in the following list. Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in eachpublication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information andessential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has beentaken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose ofbringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in thedifferent fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defineddrawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additionalclearness to the text. In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use intrade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied bya list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or departmenttreated is also added to many of the books. These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITEDTYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U.  S.  A. PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ =1. = =Type: a Primer of Information= By A.  A. Stewart Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font schemes, etc. , with a brief description of their manufacture. 44 pp. ; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. =2. = =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A.  A. Stewart A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp. ; illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. =3. = =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A.  A. Stewart A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp. ; illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. =4. = =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A.  A. Stewart Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp. ; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. =5. = =Proof Presses= By A.  A. Stewart A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp. ; illustrated; 41 review questions; glossary. =6. = =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on automatic presses of small size. 51 pp. ; illustrated; 49 review questions; glossary. =7. = =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp. ; illustrated; 47 review questions; glossary. =8. = =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. =9. = =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 pp. ; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. =10. = =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting paper, 70 pp. ; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. =11. = =Printers' Rollers= By A.  A. Stewart A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care of inking rollers. 46 pp. ; illustrated; 61 review questions; glossary. =12. = =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp. ; 100 review questions; glossary. =13. = =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright A primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp. ; illustrated; 62 review questions; glossary. =14. = =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. =15. = =Electrotyping and Sterotyping= By Harris B. Hatch and A.  A. Stewart A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping. 94 pp. ; illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries. PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_ =16. = =Typesetting= By A.  A. Stewart A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. =17. = =Printers' Proofs= By A.  A. Stewart The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. =18. = =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVéze Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make good display in typography. 63 pp. ; examples; 55 review questions; glossary. =19. = =General Job Composition= How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. =20. = =Book Composition= By J.  W. Bothwell Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition, " revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J.  W. Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp. ; illustrated; 525 review questions; glossary. =21. = =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples of more difficult composition. 36 pp. ; examples; 45 review questions. =22. = =Applied Arithmetic= By E.  E. Sheldon Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with examples and exercises. 159 pp. =23. = =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A.  W. Finlay, Editor Section I--The Linotype By L.  A. Hornstein Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines By Frank H. Smith A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_ =24. = =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. =25. = =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. PART IV--_Presswork_ =26. = =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T.  G. McGrew The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. =27. = =Cylinder Presswork= By T.  G. McGrew Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. =28. = =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions and useful information relating to a variety of printing-press problems. 87 pp. ; 176 review questions. =29. = =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A.  W. Elson A primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. 84 pp. ; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ =30. = =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin A primer of information about the various operations employed in binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. =31. = =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_ =32. = =Word Study and English Grammar= By F.  W. Hamilton A primer of information about words, their relations, and their uses. 68 pp. ; 84 review questions; glossary. =33. = =Punctuation= By F.  W. Hamilton A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp. ; 59 review questions; glossary. =34. = =Capitals= By F.  W. Hamilton A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp. ; 92 review questions; glossary. =35. = =Division of Words= By F.  W. Hamilton Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp. ; 70 review questions. =36. = =Compound Words= By F.  W. Hamilton A study of the principles of compounding, the components of compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp. ; 62 review questions. =37. = =Abbreviations and Signs= By F.  W. Hamilton A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp. ; 32 review questions. =38. = =The Uses of Italic= By F.  W. Hamilton A primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters. 31 pp. ; 37 review questions. =39. = =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, revising, etc. ; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by examples. 59 pp. ; 69 review questions; glossary. =40. = =Preparation of Printers' Copy= By F.  W. Hamilton Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp. ; 67 review questions. =41. = =Printers' Manual of Style= A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. =42. = =The Printer's Dictionary= By A.  A. Stewart A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical terms explained. Illustrated. PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_ =43. = =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 review questions; glossary; bibliography. =44. = =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. =45. = =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; bibliography. =46. = =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. =47. = =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. =48. = =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. PART VIII--_History of Printing_ =49. = =Books Before Typography= By F.  W. Hamilton A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp. ; illustrated; 64 review questions. =50. = =The Invention of Typography= By F.  W. Hamilton A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. 64 pp. ; 62 review questions. =51. = =History of Printing--Part I= By F.  W. Hamilton A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the development of the book, the development of printers' materials, and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp. ; 55 review questions. =52. = =History of Printing--Part II= By F.  W. Hamilton A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp. ; 128 review questions. =53. = =Printing in England= By F.  W. Hamilton A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present time. 89 pp. ; 65 review questions. =54. = =Printing in America= By F.  W. Hamilton A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp. ; 84 review questions. =55. = =Type and Presses in America= By F.  W. Hamilton A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press building in the United States. 52 pp. ; 61 review questions. PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_ =56. = =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. Glossary. =57. = =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. Glossary. =58. = =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. =59. = =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for estimating. Review questions. Glossary. =60. = =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. =61. = =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. PART X--_Miscellaneous_ =62. = =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and rules for safety. =63. = =Topical Index= By F.  W. Hamilton A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. =64. = =Courses of Study= By F.  W. Hamilton A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for classroom and shop work. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendidco-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in theprinting business and its allied industries in the United States ofAmerica. The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under whoseauspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges itsindebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified with this work. While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of thosecontributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a grouplist of co-operating firms would be of interest. The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who haveco-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting thefirst printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising theTypographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee hopeswill be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each volume. The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the manysubscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, E. LAWRENCE FELL, A.  M. GLOSSBRENNER, J. CLYDE OSWALD, TOBY RUBOVITS. FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. CONTRIBUTORS =For Composition and Electrotypes= ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N.  Y. S.  H. BURBANK & CO. , Philadelphia, Pa. J.  S. CUSHING & CO. , Norwood, Mass. THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N.  Y. R.  R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO. , Chicago, Ill. GEO. H. ELLIS CO. , Boston, Mass. EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. F.  H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. STEPHEN GREENE & CO. , Philadelphia, Pa. W.  F. HALL PRINTING CO. , Chicago, Ill. J.  B. LIPPINCOTT CO. , Philadelphia, Pa. MCCALLA & CO. INC. , Philadelphia, Pa. THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New YorkTHE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. POOLE BROS. , Chicago, Ill. EDWARD STERN & CO. , Philadelphia, Pa. THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO. , Roanoke, Va. C.  D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. =For Composition= BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. WILLIAM F. FELL CO. , Philadelphia, Pa. THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N.  Y. OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. =For Electrotypes= BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO. , Chicago, Ill. FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO. , New York, N.  Y. C.  J. PETERS & SON CO. , Boston, Mass. ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO. , Philadelphia, Pa. H.  C. WHITCOMB & CO. , Boston, Mass. =For Engravings= AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO. , Boston, Mass. C.  B. COTTRELL & SONS CO. , Westerly, R.  I. GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO. , Franklin, Mass. HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. INLAND PRINTER CO. , Chicago, Ill. LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N.  Y. GEO. H. MORRILL CO. , Norwood, Mass. OSWALD PUBLISHING CO. , New York, N.  Y. THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. B.  D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. =For Book Paper= AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO. , Holyoke, Mass. WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO. , Mechanicville, N.  Y.