ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS NATURE STUDY AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION TORONTOTHE RYERSON PRESS COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BYTHE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIOSecond Printing, 1918Third Printing, 1923Fourth Printing, 1924 Transcriber's note: Minor typos have been corrected. Italics areindicated by subscripts (_) and bold words are indicated by tildes (~). CONTENTS PAGEPREFATORY NOTE 1 COURSE OF STUDY--DETAILS 3 CHAPTER I The Aims of Nature Study; General Methods 13 Concrete Material 15 Topics and material must suit the season; matter suited to the child; use of the commonplace; order of development of lesson; problems in observation; note-books and records 15 The School Garden 19 Suggestions; Garden Expenses 20 The Excursion 23 Its value; difficulties; frequency; suggestions for ungraded schools; the teacher's excursions; a type excursion 23 Collections 29 Animal Studies 29 Domestic animals; references 29 Birds; references 30 Insects; insect collections 34 Butterfly and moth collections 37 Plant Collections 39 CHAPTER II Physical Science Phase of Nature Study 42 Instructions and General Method 42 Value of such lessons; conditions under which experiments should be performed 42 Correlations of physical science phase 44 List of Reference Books and Bulletins on garden and plant study, physical science, and animal study 45 Physical Science--Equipment for Forms III and IV 47 Desirable apparatus 47 Chemicals 48 Apparatus 50 Grenet cells; decomposition apparatus; pneumatic trough; spirit-lamp; barometer; hygrometer; hints 50 Time Apportioned to Nature Study 53 CHAPTER III. FORM I: AUTUMN Garden Work 54 Lessons on a Garden Plant--Pansy 55 Observation Exercises on the Dandelion 57 Correlation with literature and reading 59 Dwarf Nasturtium 59 Seeds 60 Field exercise; class-room lesson based on the collection 60 Seed Dispersal 61 Lesson on seeds that fly; correlations 62 Twigs and Buds 62 Lesson on Twigs 62 Further study of twigs; review lesson 63 Lesson on Buds 65 Review lesson; correlations 65 Leaves 66 Field exercises; class-room lesson on leaves 66 Garden Studies 68 Studies in the Pupil's individual Plot 68 Studies from the Garden as a Whole 69 Bulb Planting 69 Lesson on Bulbs and Bulb Planting 69 Planting the bulb 70 CHAPTER IV. FORM I: WINTER Pet Animals 72 The Rabbit--Lesson on; correlations 72 The Domestic Cat--detailed study 75 The Pigeon--detailed study 76 Winter-blooming Plants--Observation and care of 78 Trees 79 Pines of the Locality 79 The White Pine 79 Field exercises; class-room lesson 79 The Elm--field exercise 82 Domestic Animals 83 The Horse; correlations 83 Domestic Birds 85 The Duck--class-room lesson 85 CHAPTER V. FORM I: SPRING Garden Work 87 Garden Studies--window garden 88 Wild Flowers 90 Recognition of Wild Flowers 91 Lesson in Outline--Bloodroot; correlations 91 Insect Study 93 Cecropia, or Emperor-moth 93 Dragon-fly 94 Other Conspicuous Insects 95 Birds 95 The Robin 96 Field exercises; the nest, eggs, and young 96 The Song-sparrow 97 Field exercises; class-room lesson 97 The Sheep 99 Problems for Field Work 99 CHAPTER VI. FORM II: AUTUMN Bulb Planting Out-of-Doors 101 Bed for growing bulbs; planting of bulbs indoors 101 Garden Work 103 Seed selection; storing seeds; harvesting and storing of garden crops; class-room lesson; autumn cultivation 103 Garden Studies 106 Garden Records; correlations 107 Climbing Plants 108 Trees 109 Storing of Tree Seeds 110 A Flower 110 Type--Nasturtium 110 Soil Studies 112 Kinds of Soil 112 Animal Studies 113 Bird Migration; correlations 113 Common Wild Animals 114 General method for field work 114 The Wood-chuck 116 The Chipmunk--field exercises 117 The Eastern Swallow-tail Butterfly 118 CHAPTER VII. FORM II: WINTER Care of Plants in the Home 120 Trees 121 Collection of Wood Specimens 122 Related Reading 122 The Dog 123 Class-room lesson; observation exercises; correlations 123 Lessons Involving Comparison 125 Cat and dog; experiments for assisting in the study of the cat; comparison of the horse and cow 126 The Squirrel 129 Field exercises; class-room lesson 129 Winter Birds 130 Field exercises; class-room lesson; correlations 130 Animals of the Zoological Gardens 132 CHAPTER VIII. FORM II: SPRING Garden Work 133 Combating Garden Pests 134 Cutworms; root-maggots; flea-beetles 134 Seed Germination 135 Plants for Individual Plots 137 Studies Based on Observations of Growing Plants 137 Planting and care of sweet-peas 138 Wild Flowers 139 Weeds 140 The Apple Tree 141 Field exercise; class-room lesson; field exercise following class-room lesson 141 Bird Study 143 The Toad 143 Field exercises; class-room lesson; detailed study; life history of the toad 143 The Earthworm 147 Class-room lesson; references 148 The Aquarium 149 Aquarium Specimens 150 Mosquito; study of adult form; the development; references 150 Caddice-fly 152 Insects Suitable for Lessons in Form II 153 CHAPTER IX. FORM III: AUTUMN Garden Work 154 Treatment of Fungi 154 Treatment of Insects--cabbage-worm 156 Plants 158 Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials 158 Class-room lesson 158 Garden Studies 159 Annuals, biennials, perennials 159 Special Study of Garden Plants 160 Sweet-pea; pumpkin; corn; correlations 160 Seed Dispersal--Lesson 164 Detailed Study of Seed Dispersal--class-room lesson 165 Seed collections; man as a disperser of seeds 166 The Sugar Maple--field exercises 168 Maple Leaves--class-room lesson; correlations 169 Weed Studies 170 Observation lesson on weed seeds 171 Grasshopper--field exercises; class-room lesson 172 Aphides 174 Tomato Worm--the adult; the chrysalis 175 The Crow; correlations 177 CHAPTER X. FORM III: WINTER Care of Plants in the Home 178 Plant Cuttings 179 Selection of cuttings; potting of rooted cuttings 179 Evergreens--class-room lesson 181 Collection of Wood Specimens 182 Related Reading 183 How Animals Prepare for Winter 183 Summary of Lessons; correlations 184 Chickens 185 Conversation lesson; arithmetic lesson; care and food of chickens 185 Physical Science Phase of Nature Study 188 Solids, Liquids, and Gases 188 Change of State 189 Expansion of Solids 189 Practical applications; questions for further investigation 190 Expansion of Liquids--applications 192 The Thermometer 193 Expansion of Air 194 Sources of Heat and Light 194 Notes for a Series of Lessons 194 Conduction--problems 196 Convection--problems, convection in gases; applications 198 Radiation of Heat--problems 199 CHAPTER XI. FORM III: SPRING Window Boxes 201 Window Gardens 201 Suitable Plants; Fertilizer 202 Soil Studies--constituents 203 Garden Work 206 Tree Seeds 207 Transplanting--flowers, vegetables, tree seedlings 208 Budding 209 Cuttings--leaf cuttings, root cuttings, layering 211 Planting and Care of Herbaceous Perennials 212 Garden Studies--biennials 212 Wild Flowers 213 Study of the Trillium 213 Class-room lesson on the specimens 213 Adaptations of Animals 215 Bird Types 217 Woodpeckers--the downy woodpecker; observations 217 Flycatchers 219 Wrens 219 Insect Types 220 Cabbage-butterfly 220 Tussock-moth 221 Potato beetle 222 References 222 Fish--Observations; problems; references 223 CHAPTER XII. FORM IV: AUTUMN Garden Work 225 Herbaceous Perennials from Seed 226 Trees--Deciduous; references 227 Trees in Relation to their Environment 228 Fruits--Excursion to a well-kept orchard 229 Small Fruits 230 Autumn Wild Flowers--Milkweed; correlations 230 Trees--The White Pine 232 Outline of a class-room lesson on the white pine; correlations; references 235 Apples--Comparative Lesson on Winter Varieties 239 King, Baldwin, Northern Spy 239 Codling moth; references 240 Some Common Animal Forms; references 242 Centipeds and millipeds 243 Salamanders or newts 243 Spiders 244 Bird Studies 245 CHAPTER XIII. FORM IV: WINTER Forest Trees 246 Evergreens; Wood Specimens 246 Fruits 247 Weeds and Weed Seeds 248 Physical Science Phase of Nature Study 248 Water Pressure--exercises 248 Study of Air 249 The barometer; the common pump; expansive force of air; composition of air; oxygen; carbon dioxide; impurities of air 250 Solutions of Solids 255 Solutions of Liquids 256 Solutions of Gases 256 Limestone 256 Carbon 257 Hydrogen 258 Magnets 258 Electricity 259 Steam 260 Farm tools--machines; problems 260 CHAPTER XIV. FORM IV: SPRING Method of Improving Home and School Grounds 263 Making and Care of a Lawn; References 264 Soil Studies 265 Weight 265 Subsoils 266 Fertilizers--experiments 268 Soil-forming Agents 268 Tilling the Soil 269 Garden Work--experiments in plots out-of-doors 270 Function of Parts of Plants 273 How the plant gets its food from the soil; germination of some of the common grains 274 Weeds 278 Vines 279 Wild Flowers 279 Planting of Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous Perennials in Home and School Grounds 280 Shade trees; transplanting 281 Animal Studies 283 Scale Insects 283 San José scale; oyster-shell bark-louse; cutworms; white grubs 283 Crayfish 285 Freshwater Mussel 286 Bird Study 287 Different Aspects of Nature Study 288 PREFATORY NOTE This Manual is placed in the hands of the teachers in the hope that thesuggestions which it contains on lesson topics, materials, books ofreference, and methods in teaching will be found helpful to all teachersand in particular to those who have had little or no instruction inNature Study during their academic or professional training. The first Chapter of the Manual discusses topics which have generalreference to the subject as a whole. The remaining part of the Manualdeals more particularly with the subject in its application to thedifferent Public and Separate School Forms. While this division of thematter into Forms is convenient for general classification, it is not tobe regarded as arbitrary. Materials and methods of presentation suitablefor one class of pupils in a certain Form might, under differentconditions, be quite unsuitable for another class of pupils in the sameForm. For example, work which would be suitable for a class in Form Imade up of pupils admitted to a school at seven or eight years of age, after two years' training in a kindergarten where nature lessonsreceived special attention, would not be suitable for a Form I classmade up of pupils admitted to a school at five years of age with no suchprevious training. In selecting work for any class the teacher, therefore, should not be guided solely by the arbitrary divisions of theManual, but should exercise his own judgment, taking into account hisenvironment and the attainments of his pupils. To facilitate such aselection, page references are given in the details of the Course ofStudy, which in reality forms a detailed expansion of the Public andSeparate School Course in Nature Study. By means of these references, the teacher may find, in any department of the subject, typical mattersuited to the development of his pupils. The numerous type lessons that are contained in the Manual are intendedto suggest principles of method that are to be applied in lessons uponthe same and similar topics, but the teacher is cautioned againstattempting to imitate these lessons. This error can be avoided by theteacher's careful preparation of the lesson. This preparation shouldinclude the careful study of the concrete materials that are to be used. The books, bulletins, etc. , that are named in the Manual as referenceswill be found helpful. To facilitate teaching through the experimental and investigationmethods, special attention has been given to the improvising of simpleapparatus from materials within the reach of every teacher. From the character of the subject the Course of Study must be more orless elastic, and the topics detailed in the programme are intended tobe suggestive rather than prescriptive. It may be that, owing to localconditions, topics not named are among the best that can be used, butall substitutions and changes should be made a subject of consultationwith the Inspector. The treatment of the subject must always be suitedto the age and experience of the pupils, to the seasons of the year, accessibility of materials, etc. Notes should not be dictated by theteacher. Mere information, whether from book, written note, or teacher, is not Nature Study. The acquisition of knowledge must be made secondaryto awakening and maintaining the pupil's interest in nature and totraining him to habits of observation and investigation. As a guide to the minimum of work required, it is suggested that atleast one lesson be taught from the subjects outlined under each generalheading in the detailed Course of Study, with a minimum average of threelessons from the subjects under each general heading. PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY DETAILS FORM I AUTUMN GARDEN WORK AND GARDEN STUDIES: Division of the garden plots, removal of weeds and observations on theseweeds, identification of garden plants, observation lessons based ongarden plants, selection of seeds, harvesting and disposing of the crop. (See pp. 54-9. ) STUDY OF PLANTS: Class lessons based on a flowering garden plant, as pansy, aster, nasturtium; study of a field plant, as buttercup, goldenrod, dandelion. (See pp. 55-9. ) Potted and garden plants: Observation lesson based on a bulb; plantingbulbs in pots, or in the garden. (See pp. 69-71. ) BIRDS AND CONSPICUOUS INSECTS: Identification of a few common birds, as robin, English sparrow, meadow-lark; observation lessons on the habits of these birds;collection of the adult forms, the larvæ and the cocoons of a few commonmoths and butterflies, as emperor-moth, promothea moth, easternswallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 30-9 and 93-8. ) COMMON TREES: Identification of a few common trees, as white pine, elm, maple;observations on the general shape, branches, leaves, and bark of thesetrees. (See pp. 62-7 and 79-82. ) WINTER FARM ANIMALS, INCLUDING FOWLS: Habits and characteristics of a few domestic animals, as horse, cow, sheep, hen, duck; the uses of these animals, and how to take care ofthem. (See pp. 83-6. ) PET ANIMALS: Observations on the habits, movements, and characteristics of petanimals, as cat, pigeon, bantam, rabbit, etc. ; conversations about thenatural homes and habits of these animals, and inferences upon theircare. (See pp. 72-7. ) COMMON TREES: Observations on the branching of common trees. (See pp. 79-82. ) SPRING GARDEN WORK: Preparation, planting, and care of the garden plot; observations on thegrowing plants. (See pp. 87-90. ) FLOWERS: Identification and study of a few spring flowers, as trillium, bloodroot, hepatica, spring-beauty. (See pp. 90-2. ) BIRDS AND INSECTS: Identification and study of the habits of a few common birds, assong-sparrow, blue-bird, wren; observations of the form and habits of afew common insects, as house-fly, dragon-fly. (See pp. 30-3 and 93-9. ) COMMON TREES: Observations on the opening buds of the trees which were studied in theAutumn. (See p. 65. ) FORM II AUTUMN BIRDS AND INSECTS: Autumn migration of birds; identification and observations on the habitsand movements of a few common insects, including their larval forms, asgrasshopper, eastern swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 113-4 and 118-9. ) ANIMALS OF THE FARM, FIELD, AND WOOD: Observations on the homes and habits of wild animals, as frog, toad, squirrel, ground-hog; habits and structures, including adaptivefeatures, of domestic animals, as dog, cat, horse, cow. (See pp. 83 and123-30. ) TREES OF THE FARM, ROADSIDE, WOOD, AND ORCHARD: Observations on the shapes, sizes, rate of growth, and usefulness ofcommon orchard, shade, and forest trees, as apple, elm, horse-chestnut. (See pp. 109-10. ) WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS: Identification and study of a few common weeds, noting their means ofpersistence and dispersal. (See pp. 139-40. ) CARE OF POTTED AND GARDEN PLANTS: Preparation of pots and garden beds for bulbs; selecting and storinggarden seeds; observations on the habits of climbing plants, andapplication of the knowledge gained to the care required for theseplants. (See pp. 101-9 and 120. ) WINTER BIRDS: Identification of winter birds and study of their means of protectionand of obtaining food. (See pp. 130-2. ) ANIMALS OF THE FARM: Comparative study of the horse and cow, of the dog and cat, and of theduck and hen. (See pp. 123-8. ) ANIMALS OF THE PARK AND ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN: Observations on the general structural features, noting the naturaladaptations of such animals as bear, lion, deer, tiger, etc. (See p. 132. ) TREES: Winter study of trees, noting buds, branches, and foliage of spruce, cedar, horse-chestnut, etc. (See pp. 121-3. ) SPRING BIRDS AND INSECTS: Observations on the structure, adaptations and development of insectlarvæ kept in an aquarium, as larva of mosquito, dragon-fly, caddice-fly; spring migration of birds. (See pp. 149-153. ) ANIMALS OF THE FIELD AND WOODS: Observations on the forms, homes, habits, and foods of wild animals, continued. (See pp. 114-8, 143-9. ) ORCHARD TREES: The buds and blossoms of apple, and cherry or plum, observed through thestages up to fruit formation. (See pp. 141-3. ) EXPERIMENTS IN THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS: Germination of seeds and general observations on the stages ofdevelopment; testing the conditions required for seed germination;introductory exercises in soil study as a preparation for seed planting. (See pp. 133-8 and 112-3. ) WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS: Field and class-room study of marsh marigold, Jack-in-the-pulpit, violet, etc. (See pp. 139-40. ) FORM III AUTUMN BIRDS AND INSECTS: Observations on the habits and the ravages of common noxious insects, ascabbage-worm, grasshopper, tussock-moth, etc. ; discussion of means ofchecking these insects. (See pp. 156-7 and 172-7. ) FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY: Field study and class-room lessons on the habits and structure, including adaptive features, of common animals, as musk-rat, fox, fish, sheep. (See pp. 99 and 183-5. ) GARDEN AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS: Harvesting of garden and field crops; preparation of cuttings fromgeraniums, begonia, currant, etc. ; identification of garden plants; seeddispersal. (See pp. 154, 179-80, and 164-8. ) STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS: Characteristics of annuals, biennials, and perennials; life histories ofcommon plants, as sweet-pea, Indian corn, etc. (See pp. 158-64 and168-70. ) STUDY OF WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION: Identification of the common noxious weeds of the locality; collection, description, and identification of weed seeds; cause of the prevalenceof the weeds studied, and means of checking them. (See pp. 164-8 and170-2. ) WINTER FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY: Habits and instincts of common domestic animals, as fowls, sheep, andhogs; the economic values of these animals. (See pp. 185-8. ) GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS: The characteristics of common house plants, and care of these plants. (See pp. 178-9. ) STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS: Comparative study of common evergreens, as balsam, spruce, hemlock, etc. ; collection of wood specimens. (See pp. 181-3. ) OBSERVATIONS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA: Simple experiments to show the nature of solids, liquids, and gases. (See pp. 188-9. ) HEAT PHENOMENA: Source of heat, changes of volume in solids, liquids, and gases, accompanying changes in temperature; heat transmission; the thermometerand its uses. (See pp. 189-200. ) SPRING BIRDS AND INSECTS: Field and class lessons on the habits, movements, and foods of commonbirds, as crow, woodpecker, king-bird, phoebe, blackbird, etc. (See pp. 217-22. ) GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS: Care of garden plots; transplanting; testing best varieties; making of, and caring for, window boxes; propagation of plants by budding, cuttings, and layering. (See pp. 201-3 and 208-13. ) COMMON WILD FLOWERS: Field lessons on the habitat of common wild flowers; class-room study ofthe plant organs including floral organs; study of weeds and weed seedscontinued, also the study of garden and field annuals, biennials, andperennials. (See Autumn. ) (See pp. 170-2 and 212-5. ) SOIL STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTS: The components of soils, their origin, properties, and especially theirwater absorbing and retaining properties; the relation of soils to plantgrowth; experiments demonstrating the benefits of mulching and ofdrainage. (See pp. 203-6. ) FORM IV AUTUMN INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS: Identification of common insects and observations on their habits; meansof combating such insects, as codling moth, etc. ; bird identification, and study of typical members of some common families, as woodpeckers, flycatchers; spiders. (See pp. 217-22 and 240-5. ) ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS: Observations and conclusions based upon experimental plots; commonshrubs, vines, and trees, and how to grow them. (See pp. 225-30 and279. ) FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS: Simple experiments illustrating roots as organs of absorption, stems asorgans of transmission, and leaves as organs of respiration, transpiration, and food building. (See pp. 273-8. ) ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS: Comparative study of varieties of winter apples, of fall apples, or ofother fruits of the locality; visits to orchards; weed studiescontinued. (See Form III. ) (See pp. 229-30 and 239-40. ) RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS: Soil-forming agents, as running water, ice, frost, heat, wind, plants, and animals, and inferences as to methods of tillage. (See pp. 268-70. ) WINTER AIR AND LIQUID PRESSURE: Simple illustrations of the buoyancy of liquids and of air; simple teststo demonstrate that air fills space and exerts pressure; the applicationof air pressure in the barometer, the common pump, the bicycle tire, etc. (See pp. 248-52. ) OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE: Generate each of these gases and test for properties, as colour, odour, combustion, action with lime-water; the place occupied by these gases innature. (See pp. 252-5. ) PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF HEAT, STEAM, AND ELECTRICITY: Making a simple voltaic cell, an electro-magnet, and a simpleelectroscope. Test the current by means of the two latter and also withan electric bell. Explain the application of the above in the electrictelegraph and motor. Simple demonstration of pressure of steam; historyand uses of the steam-engine. (See pp. 259-60. ) SPRING INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS: Identification of noxious insects and observations thereon; study ofrepresentatives of common families of birds, as thrushes, warblers, sparrows; economic values of birds. (See pp. 283-5 and 286-7. ) AQUATIC ANIMALS: Observation exercises upon the habits, movements, and structures, including adaptive features of aquatic animals, as crayfish, mussel, tadpole, etc. (See pp. 285-6. ) ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS: Experimental plots demonstrating the benefits of seed selection;ornamental plots of flowering perennials and bulbous plants; how toimprove the school grounds and the home lawns. (See pp. 270-3 and263-5. ) TREE STUDIES: Comparison of the values of the common varieties of shade trees, how toplant and how to take care of shade trees. (See pp. 280-2. ) THE FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS: Examination of the organs of common flowers; use of root, flower organs, fruit, and seed. (See pp. 273-8. ) ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS: Plants of the lawn and garden; weed studies. (See pp. 263-5, 270-3, and278-9. ) RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS: Study of subsoils; capillarity in soils; benefits of crop rotations andmulching; experiments in fertilizing, mulching, depth of planting, andcloseness of planting. (See pp. 265-7. ) NATURE STUDY CHAPTER I THE AIMS OF NATURE STUDY Nature Study means primarily the study of natural things and preferablyof living things. Like all other subjects, it must justify its positionon the school curriculum by proving its power to equip the pupil for theresponsibilities of citizenship. That citizen is best prepared for lifewho lives in most sympathetic and intelligent relation to hisenvironment, and it is the primary aim of Nature Study to maintain thebond of interest which unites the child's life to the objects andphenomena which surround him. To this end it is necessary to adapt theteaching, in matter and method, to the conditions of the child's life, that he may learn to understand the secrets of nature and be the betterable to control and utilize the forces of his natural environment. At all times, the teacher must keep in mind the fact that it is not thequantity of matter taught but the interest aroused and the spirit ofinvestigation fostered, together with carefulness and thoroughness, which are the important ends to be sought. With a mind trained toexperiment and stimulated by a glimpse into nature's secrets, the workerfinds in his labour a scientific interest that lifts it above drudgery, while, from a fuller understanding of the forces which he must combator with which he must co-operate, he reaps better rewards for hislabours. The claims of Nature Study to an educative value are based not upon adesire to displace conventional education, but to supplement it, and tolay a foundation for subsequent reading. Constant exercise of the sensesstrengthens these sources of information and develops alertness, and atthe same time the child is kept on familiar ground--the world ofrealities. It is for these reasons that Nature Study is frequentlydefined as "The Natural Method of Study". Independent observation andinference should be encouraged to the fullest degree, for one of themost important, though one of the rarer accomplishments of the modernintellect, is to think independently and to avoid the easier mode ofaccepting the opinions of others. Reading from nature books, the studyof pictures, and other such matter, is not Nature Study. These maysupplement Nature Study, but must not displace the actual vitalizingcontact between the child and natural objects and forces. It is this contact which is at the basis of clear, definite knowledge;and clearness of thought and a feeling of at-homeness with the subjectis conducive to clearness and freedom of expression. The Nature Studylesson should therefore be used as a basis for language lessons. Undoubtedly one of the most important educative values that can beclaimed for Nature Study is its influence in training the pupil toappreciate natural objects and phenomena. This implies the widening andenriching of human interests through nurturing the innate tendency ofthe child to love the fields and woods and birds; the checking of theselfish and destructive impulses by leading him to see the usefulness ofeach creature, the harmony of its relation to its environment, and thesignificance of its every part. Nor is it a mistake to cultivate themore sentimental love of nature which belongs to the artist and thepoet. John Ruskin emphasizes this value in these words: "All otherefforts are futile unless you have taught the children to love trees andbirds and flowers". GENERAL METHODS IN NATURE STUDY CONCRETE MATERIAL It is evident that concrete material must be provided and so distributedthat each member of the class will have a direct opportunity to exercisehis senses, and, from his observations, to deduce inferences and formjudgments. The objects chosen should be mainly from the common things ofthe locality. The teacher should be guided in the selection by theinterests of the pupils, first finding out from them the things uponwhich they are expending their wonder and inquiry. Trees, field crops, flowers, birds, animals of the parks, woods, or farmyard, all formsuitable subjects for study. TOPICS AND MATERIAL MUST SUIT THE SEASON The material should be selected not only with reference to locality butalso with due regard to season. For example, better Nature Study lessonscan be taught on the elm tree of the school grounds than on the giantDouglas fir of British Columbia; and on the oriole whose nest is in theelm tree than on the eagle portrayed in Roberts' animal stories; and itis manifestly unwise to teach lessons on snow in summer, or on flowersand ants in winter. MATTER MUST BE SUITED TO THE CHILD For the urban pupil the treatment of the material must be different fromthat in the case of the pupil of the rural school. Rural school pupilshave already formed an extensive acquaintance with many plants andanimals which are entirely unknown to the children of the city. Thesimpler facts which are interesting and instructive to the pupils of theurban classes would prove commonplace and trivial to rural pupils. Forexample, while it is necessary to show the city child a squirrel that hemay learn the size, colour, and general appearance of the animal, theefforts of the pupil of the rural school should be directed to thediscovery of the less evident facts of squirrel life. USE OF THE COMMONPLACE It must be kept in mind that besides leading the pupils to discover newsources of interest, the teacher should strive to accomplish that whichis even greater, namely, to lead them to discover new truth and newbeauty in old, familiar objects. It may be true that "familiarity breedscontempt" and there is always a danger that the objects with whichchildren have associated in early life may be passed by as uninterestingwhile they go in search of something "new and interesting". For example, to be able to recognize many plants and to call them byname is no doubt something of an accomplishment, but it should not bethe chief aim of the teacher in conducting Nature Study lessons onplants. It is of much greater importance that the child should be led tolove the flowers and to appreciate their beauty and their utility. Suchappreciation will result in the desire to protect and to produce fineflowers and useful plants, and this end can be reached only throughintelligent acquaintanceship. There can be no true appreciation withoutknowledge, and this the child gets chiefly by personal observation andexperiment. With reference to the wild flowers of the woods and fields, the method employed is that of continuous observation. ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON Each animal or plant should be studied as a living, active organism. Theattention of the pupils should be focused upon activities; for theseappeal to the child nature and afford the best means for securinginterest and attention. What does this animal do? How does it do it? Howis it fitted for doing this? How does this plant grow? What fits it forgrowing in this way? These are questions which should exercise the mindof the child. They are questions natural in the spirit of inquiry inchild nature and give vitality to nature teaching. They are an effectivemeans of establishing a bond of sympathy between the child and nature. The child who takes care of a plant or animal because it is his own, does so at first from a purely personal motive, which is perfectlynatural to childhood; but while he studies its needs and observes itsmovements and changes, gradually and unconsciously this interest will betransferred to the plant or animal for its own sake. The nature of thechild is thus broadened during the process. PROBLEMS IN OBSERVATION In studying the material provided, whether it be in the class-room, orduring a nature excursion, or by observations made in the farmyard athome, the teacher must guide the efforts of the pupils by assigning tothem definite and suitable problems. Care must be taken to reach thehappy mean of giving specific directions without depriving the pupils ofthe pleasure of making original discovery. For example, instead ofasking them to study the foot of the horse and learn all they can aboutit, more specific problems should be assigned, such as: Observe how thehoof is placed on the ground in walking. What are the arrangements forlessening the shock when the hoof strikes the ground? Examine the undersurface of the hoof and discover what prevents the unshod horse fromslipping. NOTE-BOOKS AND RECORDS In Grades higher than Form I, written exercises should be required andalso sketches representing the objects studied. For this purpose aNature Study note-book is necessary--a loose-leaf note-book beingpreferable because of necessary corrections, rearrangements, additions, or omissions. In all records and reports, independence of thought and of expressionshould be encouraged. The drawing and the oral or written descriptionshould express what is actually observed, not what the book or somemember of the class says has been, or should be, observed. Thedescriptions should be in the pupil's own words, because these are mostin keeping with his own ideas on the subject. More correct forms ofexpression may be obtained when notes are taken from the teacher'sdictation, but this is fatal to the development of originality. The disparity of the results in individual work gives opportunity forimpressing upon the pupil, in the first place, the necessity for moreaccurate observation and, secondly, the impossibility of reaching acorrect general conclusion without having studied a large number ofexamples. The development of critical and judicious minds, which mayresult from carefully observing many examples and generalizing fromthese observations, is vastly more important than the memorizing of manyfacts. THE SCHOOL GARDEN In the study of garden plants there is added a certain new interestarising out of experimentation, cultivation, and ownership. The love ofthe gardener has in it elements that the love of the naturalist does notusually possess--a sort of paternal love and care for the plantsproduced in his garden; but every gardener should be a naturalist aswell. Most people have a higher appreciation for that which they own andwhich they have produced or acquired at some expense or personalsacrifice; therefore it is that the growing of plants in home and schoolgardens or in pots and window boxes is so strongly advocated throughoutthis Course. Ownership always implies responsibility, which is at oncethe chief safeguard of society and the foundation of citizenship. Acareless boy will never respect the property of others so much as whenhe himself has proprietary interests involved. We believe, therefore, that every teacher should encourage his pupils to cultivate plants and, if possible, to own a plot of ground however small. The teacher should not merely aim at _making_ a garden in the schoolgrounds. The great question is rather how best to use a school garden inconnection with the training of boys and girls. To learn to do gardenwork well is indeed worth while and provides a highly beneficial kind ofmanual training. To understand something of soils and methods ofcultivation, of fertilizers and drainage, the best kinds of flowers, vegetables, fruits, and farm crops, and how to grow them successfully, is very important in such a great agricultural country as this; but thegreatest of all results which we may hope to realize in connection withschool gardening is the ennobling of life and character. The pupils aretaught to observe the growing plants with great care, notingdevelopments day by day. This adds to their appreciation of the beautiesand adaptations found among plants on every side, and cannot fail toproduce good results in moral as well as in mental development. Theteachers must always remember that the gardeners with whom they areworking are more important than the gardens which they cultivate. The best garden is not always the largest and most elaborate one. It israther the garden that both teacher and pupils have been most deeplyinterested in. It is the garden in which they have experienced mostpleasure and profit that makes them want to have another better than thelast. No school is too small to have a garden of some kind, and nogarden is too small to become the joy and pride of some boy or girl. SUGGESTIONS For the benefit of teachers beginning their duties on the first ofSeptember, in school sections where school gardening has never beencarried on, the following suggestions are offered: 1. See if the grounds will permit of a part being used for a garden. Toascertain this, note the size of the present grounds and see if theymeet the requirements of the Department as laid down in the Regulations. If they do not, consult your Inspector at once and acquaint him withyour plans. If the grounds are to be enlarged, try to take in sufficientland of good quality to make a good garden. The part chosen for thegarden should be both convenient and safe. Examine the soil to see if itis well drained and sufficiently deep to permit of good cultivation. Lack of fertility can be overcome by good fertilizing. 2. See that the fences and gates are in good repair. When circumstanceswill permit, a woven wire fence that will exclude dogs, pigs, andpoultry is most desirable. If not used to inclose the whole grounds, itshould at least inclose the part used for gardening. 3. Begin modestly and provide room for extension as the work progresses. Sow clover on the part to be held in reserve for future gardeningoperations. 4. If local public sentiment is not strongly in favour of schoolgardening, or is somewhat adverse, begin on a small scale. If the workis well done, you will soon have both moral and financial support. 5. See that the land is well drained. Plough it early in the autumn and, if a load of well-rotted manure is available, spread it on the landbefore ploughing. Commercial fertilizer may also be used on the plotsthe following spring, but no stable manure. 6. In spring, when dry enough, cultivate thoroughly with disc and dragharrows. Build up a compost heap in the rear of the garden with sods andstable manure, for use in the autumn and also the following spring. GARDEN EXPENSES In connection with those schools where the teacher holds a diploma fromthe Ontario Agricultural College in Elementary Agriculture andHorticulture, there is no difficulty in meeting the expenses for seeds, tools, fertilizers, and labour, as the Government grant for suchpurposes is sufficient. In other schools, however, where the teacherholds no such diploma (and such is the case in most of the schools asyet), other means of meeting the expenses must be resorted to. Thefollowing are offered as suggestions along this line: 1. Part of the grant made to every school for the maintaining of theschool grounds should be available for school garden expenses. 2. An occasional school entertainment may add funds that could not beused to better advantage. 3. An occasional load of stable manure supplied free from neighbouringfarms will help to solve the fertilizer problem. 4. Donations of plants and seeds by the parents and other interestedpersons and societies will be forthcoming, if the teacher is in earnestand his pupils interested. 5. If it is required, the trustees could make a small grant each yeartoward the cost of tools. 6. Fencing and cultivation of the garden can often be provided for byvolunteer assistance from the men of the school section. 7. It is often possible to grow a garden crop on a fairly large scale, the school being formed into a company for this purpose and the proceedsto be used to meet garden expenses. 8. The pupils can readily bring the necessary tools from home for thefirst season's work. 9. Many Agricultural and Horticultural societies offer very substantialcash prizes for school garden exhibits, and all funds so obtained shouldbe used to improve the garden from which the exhibits were taken. 10. An earnest, resourceful teacher will find a way of meeting thenecessary expenses. THE EXCURSION Nature Study is essentially an outdoor subject. While it is true that aconsiderable amount of valuable work may be done in the class-room bythe aid of aquaria, insectaria, and window boxes, yet the great book ofnature lies outside the school-house walls. The teacher must lead ordirect his pupils to that book and help them to read with reverentspirit what is written there by its great Author. ~Value. ~--The school excursion is valuable chiefly because it brings thepupil into close contact with the objects that he is studying, permitshim to get his knowledge at first hand, and gives him an opportunity ofstudying these objects in their natural environment. Incidentally theexcursion yields outdoor exercise under the very best conditions--noslight advantage for city children especially; and it gives the teachera good opportunity to study the pupils from a new standpoint. It alsoprovides a means of gathering Nature Study material. ~Difficulties. ~--Where is the time to be found? How can a large class ofchildren be managed in the woods or fields? If only one class be taken, how, in an ungraded school, are the rest of the children to be employed?Will the excursion not degenerate into a mere outing? What if the woodsare miles away? These are all real problems, and the Nature Studyteacher, desirous of doing his work well, will have to face some of themat least. SHORT EXCURSIONS The excursion need not occupy much time. It should be well plannedbeforehand. _One_ object only should be kept in view and announced tothe class before starting. Matters foreign or subordinate to thisshould be neglected for the time. The following are suggested as objectsfor excursions: ~Objects. ~--A bird's nest in an adjacent meadow; a ground-hog's hole; amusk-rat's home; crayfish or clams in the stream near by; a pine (orother) tree; a toad's day-resort; the soil of a field; the pests of aneighbouring orchard; a stone-heap or quarry; ants' nests or earthworms'holes; the weeds of the school yard; buds; the vegetable or animal lifeof a pond; sounds of spring; tracks in the snow; a spider's web. Such excursions may be accomplished at the expenditure of very littletime. Many of them will take the pupils no farther than the boundariesof the school yard. Of course the locality will influence the character of the excursion, asit will that of the whole of the work done in Nature Study, but in anyplace the thoughtful teacher may find material for open-air work at hisvery door. Much outside work can be done without interfering with the regularprogramme. The teacher may arrange a systematic list of questions andproblems for the pupils to solve from their own observations, and theseobservations may be made by the pupils at play hours, or while coming orgoing from school, or on Saturdays. The following will serve as anexample of the treatment that may be followed: ~Pests of Apple Trees. ~--Look on the twigs of your apple trees for littlescales. Bring an infected branch to school. Note whetherunhealthy-looking or dead branches are infected. Examine scales with alens. Loosen one, turn it over, and examine with a lens the under side. For eggs, look closely at the twigs in June. Do you see white specksmoving? If so examine them with a lens. Are there any small, prematurely ripe apples on the ground in theorchard? Cut into one of these and look for a "worm". Look for appleswith worm holes in the side. Are there worms in these apples? What is inthem? Note the dirty marks that the larva has left. Keep several applesin a close box and watch for the "worms" to come out. Examine the barkof apple trees for pupæ in the fall. FREQUENCY OF EXCURSIONS As to the frequency of excursions, the teacher will be the best judge. It is desirable that they occur naturally in the course of the NatureStudy work as the need for them arises. One short trip each week with asingle object in view is much more satisfactory than a whole afternooneach term spent in aimless wandering about the woods. EXCURSIONS TO A DISTANCE Long-distance excursions will of necessity be infrequent. If the woodsare far away, one such trip in May or June would prove valuable toenable the pupils to become acquainted with wild flowers, and another inOctober to gather tree seeds, autumn leaves, pupæ, and other materialfor winter study. When a large class is to be taken on an excursion, preparations must be made with special care. The teacher and one or twoassistants should go over the ground beforehand and arrange for the workto be done. Some work must be given to every pupil, and prompt obedienceto every command and signal must be required. The class, for example, may decide to search a small wood or meadow to find out what flowers arethere. The pupils should be dispersed throughout the field to hunt forspecimens and to meet at a known signal to compare notes. SUGGESTIONS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS 1. The teacher may take all the classes, choosing an object of studyfrom which he can teach lessons suitable to all ages, a bird's nest, forexample. 2. In many sections, the little ones are dismissed at 3. 30 p. M. Opportunity is thus given for an excursion with the seniors. 3. The older pupils may be assigned work and left in charge of amonitor, elected by themselves, who shall be responsible for theirconduct, while the teacher is working outside with the lower Forms. 4. Boys who are naturally interested in outdoor work should beencouraged to show the others anything of interest they may have found. 5. An occasional Saturday excursion may be arranged. ~Discipline. ~--The teacher should insist on making the excursion a seriouspart of the school work, not merely recreation. School-room behaviourcannot be expected, but the boisterous conduct of the playground shouldgive place to earnest expectancy. The pupils should keep within sound ofthe teacher's voice (a sharp whistle may be used) and should promptlyrespond to every call. Topics of conversations should as far as possiblebe restricted to those pertaining to the object of the excursion orrelated matters. In visiting woods, children should be trained to study flowers in theirenvironment and leave them there, plucking or digging for none exceptfor some excellent reason. The same respect should be shown to birds andtheir nests, and to insects, and all other living things encountered. THE TEACHER'S EXCURSIONS As soon as possible after coming to a section, the teacher shouldacquaint himself with the woods, groves, streams, or other haunts thatmay provide him with material for his indoor or outdoor work. He canthen direct the pupils effectively. The teacher should go over the routeof an excursion shortly before it takes place. This prevents waste oftime in looking for the objects that he wishes his pupils to see. If theteacher wishes to increase his love for nature, he must take many walkswithout his pupils. The school garden offers a partial solution of the difficultiesmentioned above. It brings a large amount of material to the doors ofthe school. Plants of the farm or the garden may be studied undervarious changeable conditions, and it will be seen that insect pests, weeds, and fungous diseases follow the lessons on plants, while lessonson birds and toads follow those on insects. With sections of the gardendevoted to the cultivation of wild flowers, ferns, and forest trees, thespecially organized excursion will become less of a necessity, althoughit will still continue to be a valuable factor in Nature Study work. After an excursion is over, it should be discussed in class. The variousfacts learned should be reviewed and related. If any pupils have madeinaccurate observations, they should be required to observe again tocorrect their errors. Finally, the excursion may form the subject of acomposition. A TYPE EXCURSION ~A Bird's Nest. ~--The children have been instructed to study themeadow-lark, beginning about March twenty-first. While engaged in thiswork, a nest is discovered near the school. The teacher is informed andthe pupils are conducted to the spot. What is growing in the field? Is there a long or a short growth? Did themother bird make much noise as she rose from the nest? Did this help toreveal its presence? Is the nest easy to see? The class will halt a fewpaces from it and try to find it. How many eggs? Their colour? Note thearch of grass so beautifully concealing the nest. Returning to school, the facts observed are reviewed. The pupils maythen express themselves by written composition or by drawings, paintings, or modellings of the nest, the eggs, or the surroundings. Frequent visits to the nest should not be made, and the pupils should bewarned not to disturb the bird, as she may desert the nest on slightprovocation. A second excursion may be made, when the eggs are hatched, to see theyoung birds. ~A Wasp's Nest. ~--A nest having been discovered, the pupils note how it issuspended and how it is situated with regard to concealment or toprotection from rain, its colour, the material of the nest, and theposition of the entrance. Is the opening ever deserted? How many waspsenter and how many leave the nest in a minute? Try to follow one andwatch what he does. Wasps may be found biting wood from an old boardfence. This they chew into pulp, and from this pulp their paper is made. Get the children to verify this by observations. If the nest is likelyto become a nuisance, smoke out the wasps, take the nest carefully down, and use it for indoor study, examining the inside of the nest toascertain the nature and the structure of the comb which, in this caseis entirely devoted to larvæ. COLLECTIONS General school collections of such objects as noxious weeds, weed seeds, wild flowers, noxious insects, leaves of forest trees, rocks or stonesof the locality, etc. , should be undertaken. All the pupils should contribute as many specimens as possible to eachcollection and should assist in the work of preparing them. In addition to the above collections it is advisable that pupils whoshow special interest in this phase of nature work should be encouragedto make individual collections. Collections, when properly prepared, have a value within themselves, because of the beauty and variety of the forms that they contain, andalso because of their usefulness in illustrating nature lessons and inthe identifying of insects, weeds, etc. Nevertheless the chief value ofthe collection rests in the making of it, because of the training thatit gives the collector in carefulness and thoroughness, and also becauseit causes the child to study natural objects in their naturalsurroundings. ANIMAL STUDIES DOMESTIC ANIMALS The teacher, before attempting to teach lessons on domestic animals, should carefully consider how his lessons will best fulfil the followingimportant aims: 1. The cultivation of a deeper sympathy for, and a more completeunderstanding of, farm animals. 2. The development of more kindly treatment of domestic animals throughawakened sympathy and more intelligent understanding. 3. Implanting the idea that the best varieties are the most interestingand profitable. The following domestic animals are suggested as being suitable forstudy: horse, cow, sheep, dog, cat, goose, duck, hen. There are two practical methods of observation work; namely, homeobservation and class-room observation. The observation work on some of the animals named must of necessity bedone out of school. In this the teacher can direct the efforts of thepupils by assigning to them definite problems to be solved by theirstudy of the animals. The results of their observations can be discussed in the class inlessons of ten or fifteen minutes length. It may frequently be necessaryto re-assign the problems in order that the pupils may correct theirobservations. It is possible for the teacher or the pupils to bring to the school-roomcertain of the animals, as the dog, cat, duck, hen, and the observationsmay then be made by the whole class directly under the guidance of theteacher. REFERENCES Crawford: _Guide to Nature Study. _ Copp Clark Co. , 90 cents. Dearness: _How to Teach the Nature Study Course. _ Copp Clark Co. , 60cents. Shaler: _Domesticated Animals. _ Scribners, $2. 50. Smith: _The Uses and Abuses of Domestic Animals. _ Jarrold & Sons, 50cents. BIRDS The chief aims in developing lessons on birds are: 1. To teach the children to recognize their bird neighbours, to lovethem for their beauty, and sweet songs, and their sprightly ways. 2. To train the pupils to appreciate them for their usefulness indestroying insect pests. Many persons spend their lives surrounded by singing birds, yet theynever hear their songs. Many children see and hear the birds, but ifthey have not been brought into sympathetic relation with them, theynever learn to appreciate them; on the contrary, their attitude becomesone of indifference or of destructiveness. Too often, boys cruellydestroy the nests and young and persecute the old birds with stone andcatapult. The cowardice of such acts should be condemned, but moreeffective lessons may be taught through leading the children to find inthe birds assistants and companions that contribute to their materialprogress and to their joy in life. With these aims in view, the teacher will readily perceive that the mosteffective work in bird study results from observing the living birds intheir natural environment. Field excursions are valuable for this, butgood results can seldom be attained when the class is large, for birdsare shy and will hide or fly away from the unusual excitement. Quietnessis absolutely necessary for success. Better results are obtained whenonly one or two accompany the teacher. If the teacher selects a few whoare interested in birds, and there are always some pupils in everyschool who are readily interested in bird study, these few can soon bemade sufficiently acquainted with the more common birds, so that theywill be able to point them out to the other pupils of the school, andthus they become the teacher's assistants in the work. By beginning with the most common and conspicuous birds, an acquaintancegrows rapidly. Early spring is a good time to begin, when the firstbirds return from their winter sojourn. The teacher and pupils may nowlearn to recognize the birds, because there are only a few, and theseare easily seen, as the robin, blue-bird, junco, meadow-lark, goldfinch, bronzed grackle, sapsucker, blue jay, downy woodpecker, and flicker. The teacher, assisted by the pupils who already know these birds, directs the younger pupils to where these birds may be seen, and theyare also required to describe the birds observed and to identify them bymeans of the bird chart or colour key. The description should include: Size (compare with some common bird); shape; colour of head, back, andbreast; conspicuous markings, as crest, stripes, bright patches offeathers; movements in flight or on the ground; song, call notes;whether in flocks, or pairs, or single birds. Later in spring, other birds will attract attention, as thesong-sparrow, phoebe, wren, horned lark, cowbird, and red-wingedblackbird; while in summer the oriole, catbird, vesper sparrow, Americanredstart, night hawk, scarlet tanager, and crested flycatcher are someof the birds that will call for attention, because of their plumage, songs, or peculiar habits. When a nest has been found by a pupil, he should report it to theteacher, and the other pupils should be permitted to visit it only uponpromising not to molest the nest or to annoy the mother bird byremaining too long near it. While it is well that the pupils should seethe nest with the young birds, they should be taught to respect thedesire of the bird for quietness and seclusion. In studying the nest, observe: Concealment, protection, size, comfort, number and colour of eggs, young birds, size, colour, covering, food. The pupils should be asked to observe the feeding of birds thus: Watch the wrens returning to the nest; what do they carry to theiryoung? Where do the wrens get the snails and grubs? Observe how therobins find the worms and how they pull them out of the ground. Followthe downy woodpecker to the apple tree and find out what he was pecking. Watch the crow in the pasture field and learn whether this bird killsgrasshoppers and crickets. Observe the birds that pick seeds out of the weeds. Collecting birds' eggs should be condemned, because it nearly alwaysleads to the robbing of the nests. The practice of exchanging eggs isthe chief cause of this; for although an occasional boy will collectwisely, the greater number are simply anxious to add to their collectionwithout regard for the sacredness of the birds' homes. A collection of birds' nests may be made after the nests have beenabandoned for the season, and it will be found useful for interestingthe pupils in the ingenuity, neatness, and instinctive foresight of thebuilders. REFERENCES Chapman and Reed: _Colour Key to North American Birds_ $2. 75 Reed: _Bird Guide, Pts. I and II_ . 75 Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ . 75 Cornish: _Thirty Lessons in Nature Study on Birds. _ Dominion BookCompany 1. 00 _Canadian Birds in Relation to Agriculture. _ This chart has pictures incolours of eighty-eight Canadian birds. G. M. Hendry Co. , $3. 00. _The Audubon Charts. _ These three charts have pictures of fifty-fivebirds; the pictures are larger in the latter charts than in the firstnamed. G. M. Hendry Co. , $2. 00 each. _Coloured Bird Pictures_, Mumford, Chicago, (separate coloured pictures)are very suitable for illustrating nature lessons on birds. INSECTS There are three classes of insects that are of immediate interest to thepupils of the Junior Grades, and the teacher who makes direct use ofthis natural interest has taken possession of the key to success ininsect study in the primary classes. The three classes, basing the classification upon their power to attractattention, are: The beautiful insects, including moths, butterflies, and beetles, The wonderful insects, including such insects as ants, ant-lions, caddice-flies, etc. , The economic insects, including bees, silk-worms, codling-moths, etc. Economic insects are interesting because of their relations to theoccupations of the home. The successful growing of farm, orchard, andgarden crops practically depends upon keeping a proper balance of insectand bird life. The teacher who feels that his knowledge of insects is too limited toallow him to undertake the teaching of this branch of Nature Studyshould cast his misgivings aside; for it is not difficult for theteacher who knows nothing about insects at the outset to becomeacquainted with such members of the three classes named above as attractthe attention of the pupils of the Nature Study classes. The following suggestions in insect study are offered as guides toteacher or pupil: Obtain books and pamphlets from the Department of Agriculture, Toronto, on the subject of Insect Pests on Farm Crops and Fruit Trees. Secure a good general book on insects. _Modern Nature Study_, by Silcoxand Stevenson, contains illustrations of several of the most commonmoths and butterflies, which are clear enough to make possible theidentification of the forms represented. Comstock's _Manual for theStudy of Insects_ is the best general book on the subject. This, andHolland's _The Moth Book_ and _The Butterfly Book_, are valuable forthose who wish to follow the study of insects at any length. Begin by studying the more conspicuous moths, butterflies, and beetles, and especially by studying the injurious forms which thrust themselvesinto prominence by causing destruction of grain, vegetable, or fruitcrops in the locality. The utility phase of lessons on these insectswill appeal to the older children and also to their parents. Moreover, these are the easiest insects to identify and upon which to obtainliterature dealing with their life histories and habits. Carefully observe the colour, size, and shape of the insect, and notethe plant on which it is feeding and its manner of feeding. Consultavailable books on plant pests to find descriptions of the insects thatfeed upon this plant, and study carefully what is said about the insectobserved. If this method is persistently followed, the teacher will besurprised at the rapidity with which his acquaintance with insectsbroadens. Pictures of moths, butterflies, and beetles are of great assistance inthe identification of these insects. A school collection, made from the insects studied, is useful for futurecollection and for identification of insects. Do not allow any insect tobe killed unless it is a good specimen intended to fill a place in thecollection, or unless it is known to be an injurious insect. Theteacher, by exercising proper control of the collecting, has anefficient means of teaching the sacredness of life. The fact should beemphasized that killing even an insect, when there is no good reason fordoing so, is the act of a mean and selfish coward. In addition to a collection of insects, including larval and pupalforms, collections of insect nests, of plant galls, of markings ofengraver beetles, of burrows of tree borers, and of samples of thedestructive workings of insect pests should be made. While nothing is more beautiful than a carefully prepared collection ofmoths, butterflies, and beetles with their infinite variety of form andcolour, nothing is more disgusting than a badly preserved collection ofdistorted, shrivelled, vermin-infested specimens. The teacher shouldavail himself of the collecting instinct which is prominent in boys ofnine to fourteen years of age and of their desire to have things donewell, to develop in them habits of carefulness, neatness, andthoroughness. INSECT COLLECTIONS See Manual on _Manual Training_, for details for making collectingappliances. Agricultural Bulletin No. 8, _Nature Collections for Schools_, Department of Education, Ontario, for detailed instructions on makinginsect collections. The outfit for collecting is neither expensive nor hard to prepare. Itconsists of (1) an insect net for catching the insects, made by sewing abag of cheese-cloth to a stout ring one foot in diameter, which isfastened to a broom handle; (2) a cyanide bottle for killing theinsects, prepared by pouring some soft plaster-paris over a few lumps ofpotassium cyanide (three pieces, each of the size of a pea) in awide-mouthed bottle. When the plaster has set, keep the bottle tightlycorked to retain the poisonous gases. (3) Pins to mount the specimens. Entomological pins, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are the best for general use. Beetles are usually pinned through the right wing-cover at about onefourth of its length from the front end of it. Moths and butterflies arepinned through the thorax. Small insects may be fastened to a very smallpin, which in turn is set into a bit of cork, supported by a pin ofordinary size. (4) Spreading board for moths and butterflies. (5) Insectboxes to hold the specimens. This should be secured before thecollection is begun. It is a common mistake to believe that any boxwhatever will do for storing insects. It is necessary to encourageeffort in drying, spreading, pinning, and labelling, by providing aneffective means of permanently preserving the specimens. In cigar-boxes, pasteboard boxes, and such makeshifts, the specimens soon become broken, covered with dust, and marred in other ways, and the collectors becomediscouraged; hence it is necessary to secure good boxes from dealers inentomological supplies. A sponge saturated with carbon bisulphide should be placed in the box atintervals of not more than three months, to ensure the killing ofparasites that destroy the specimens. Entomological supplies may be obtained from Chapman & Co. , London, Ont. , or from G. M. Hendry Co. , Toronto, Ont. , or from Messrs. Watters Bros. , Guelph, Ont. BUTTERFLY AND MOTH COLLECTIONS For a study of the metamorphosis of butterflies and moths, it isnecessary to have an insect cage. This can be purchased from any dealerin entomological supplies or it may be made by the pupils in the ManualTraining Class. See Manual on _Manual Training_. A very satisfactorycage may be made, by the teacher or larger pupils, from a soap box, bytacking wire gauze over the open surface of the box, removing the nailsfrom one of the boards of the bottom, and converting this board into adoor by attaching it in its former position by light hinges and a hookand staple. The box, if now placed on end with two inches of loose soilin the bottom, will constitute a satisfactory insect cage, or vivarium. A large lamp chimney with gauze tied over the upper end is useful forinclosing a small plant upon which eggs or insect larvæ are developing. The base of the chimney may be thrust an inch into the soil and thedevelopment of the larva as it feeds upon the growing plant can bestudied. The following are larvæ suitable for study and may be found in theplaces named: The tomato worm on tomato or tobacco plants. (Look for stems whoseleaves have been stripped off. ) The milkweed butterfly larvæ on milkweed, The potato beetle on potato vines, The eastern swallow-tail butterfly on parsnip or carrot plants, The tussock-moth on horse-chestnuts, The promothea moth on lilac bushes, The cabbage-butterfly on cabbage or mustard plants, The red-spotted purple, banded purple, and viceroy butterfly larvæ onwillow and alder, Cocoons of tussock-moth and tiger-moth under bark, logs, and rubbish inearly autumn. Larvæ of the emperor-moth (cecropia) may be found wandering about, apparently aimlessly, in September; but they are searching for suitableplaces for attaching their cocoons to orchard and forest trees. After the leaves have fallen from shrubs and trees, cocoons can be foundmore easily on the naked twigs or in withered, rolled-up leaves that arefastened by the silk of the cocoon to the branches. Larvæ, when placed in the cage, should be supplied with green plant foodsuch as they were found feeding upon, and the pupils should beinstructed to observe the chrysalis building or the cocoon weaving. Itwill be found that some larvæ burrow into the soil. During winter the cage should be kept in a cool place, such as a shed, so that the winter conditions may be as nearly natural as possible. In a few cases, the development within the cocoon is quite rapid; andthe adult form hatches out in a few weeks, for example, thecabbage-butterfly, monarch or milkweed butterfly, and tussock-moth. Forthis reason these are preferable for study by Form I pupils. In Aprilthe cage should be placed in the school-room, that the pupils mayobserve the emergence of the insects and the spreading of the wings. Theinsects can be fed with syrup or honey until they are strong, then thepupils should set them free. Reference. --_Reports of the Entomological Society of Ontario_, Department of Agriculture. PLANT COLLECTIONS The instructions given below for collecting, pressing, and mountingplants are applicable to wild flowers, grains, grasses, and weeds. ~The specimen. ~--Select a plant which in form and size is typical of itsspecies and which is in full flower. Care must be taken to dig down andsecure the root. If the plant is too large for the mounting sheet, cut out the centralpart, and use the root, lower leaves, upper leaves, and flower. If theroot is very thick, cut slices lengthwise off the sides so as to reduceit to a flat form that is not too bulky. Before the plant has had time to wither, spread it out flat on a sheetof paper and spread another sheet over it, taking care to straighten theleaves and flower out. Blotting-paper is preferable, but any soft paperthat will absorb moisture will make a very good substitute. ~Pressing and drying. ~--Place several sheets of paper above and below thespecimen. Any number of specimens prepared as described in the lastparagraph may be placed in a pile, one over another, resting on thefloor or on a table. Place on top of the pile a board which is largeenough to cover the surface of the pile, and on the board place a weightof about fifteen pounds of bricks, or other convenient material. A boxcontaining sand, stones, or coal may be used in place of the board andweights. The weight prevents the shrivelling and distortion of theplants. To prevent discoloration and mildewing of the plants, the papers aroundthem must be changed at the end of the following successive intervals:two days, three days, five days, one week, etc. , until they are quitedry. The length of time required for pressing and drying depends uponthe quantity of sap in the plants and also upon the dryness or humidityof the atmosphere. ~Mounting. ~--When dry, the specimens are mounted on sheets of heavy whitepaper. These sheets are cut to a standard size, eleven inches byfourteen inches, or sheets of half this size, namely, seven inches byeleven inches; are permissible. The best method of attaching the plantto the sheet is by pasting narrow strips of gummed paper across theplant in such positions as will serve to hold all parts of it inposition. ~Labelling. ~--The name of the specimen, the date of collection, the placefrom which collected, and the name of the collector are to be neatlywritten in a column in the lower right-hand corner of the sheet. Printedlabels which are pasted on this corner of the sheet are also used. Collections of leaves may be prepared by the same process as that givenfor plants. Leaves will retain their autumn tints if their surface iscovered with varnish or paraffin, which will prevent the admission ofair. To cover with paraffin dip the leaf for a moment into melted paraffin. CHAPTER II PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY INSTRUCTIONS AND GENERAL METHOD The preceding portions of this Manual dealt with living things. There isanother phase of Nature Study which has a more direct relation to thephysical sciences, Chemistry and Physics, two subjects that areessentially experimental in their methods. Although the lessons that follow are grouped in one portion of thisbook, the teacher should understand that he is to introduce them intohis work as the occasion demands. They may be used to throw light onother parts of the school work. The experimental method is somewhatadvanced for young children, hence no lessons are outlined for Forms Iand II. In ungraded schools, Forms III and IV may be combined for thesubject. It will be found most convenient to take this portion of theNature Study during the winter months. VALUE OF SUCH LESSONS 1. They are _interesting_, hence there is attention. The senses must bealert, hence pupils are trained to observe accurately. 2. After the experiment comes the inference, hence reasoning powers aredeveloped. 3. They enable the teacher to make exceedingly _concrete_ some verydifficult abstract principles. 4. They can be _correlated_ with a large number of other subjects andmade to have a beneficial influence on the whole of the school work. 5. The great advance that is being made in all useful inventions to-dayis largely due to the study of the physical sciences. Many boys andgirls (seventy-five per cent. ) never attend the High School. TheElementary School owes them a taste at least of these sciences that havesuch a bearing on their lives, that have surrounded them with so manymechanical contrivances for their comfort and convenience, and thatexplain so many common natural phenomena. Give a boy a taste forexperimental science, and there is some chance that after leaving schoolhe will not throw aside his studies to subsist intellectually on thenewspaper, but that he will continue to investigate for himself, andmake himself a well-informed man, an influential man in his section. TheElementary School must aim at fitting the boys and girls for life. 6. The advent of the experiment marks the downfall of superstition, prejudice, and reliance on authority and tradition. To lead a child tothink for himself is a great achievement. 7. The use of the experiment in gaining knowledge will result in acautiousness in accepting statements and making decisions. CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH EXPERIMENTS SHOULD BE PERFORMED 1. They should be introduced into the school work naturally, as answersto questions which arise either in the regular course of the work orfrom suggestions made by the teacher at appropriate times. 2. As far as possible, the pupils should assist in performing theexperiment. In small rural schools the scarcity of apparatus willnecessitate the teacher's doing most of the work. In Form V classes andContinuation Schools the pupils may do the experiments individually. 3. The bearing of an experiment is not always evident; the teacher mustbe ready with judicious questions to lead the class to the properconclusions. 4. The pupils must be acquainted with all the apparatus used. They mustknow what the teacher is doing and must be near enough to see theresult. 5. A problem may be suggested, and a few days allowed for the pupils tothink out a means of solution. If they invent and make their ownapparatus, so much the better. 6. Whenever possible, the experiment should be applied to some naturalphenomenon or everyday occurrence. CORRELATIONS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE Geography. --The value of Physical Science in the Elementary School islargely due to the light it throws on geographical data. Numerousexamples will appear in the succeeding pages. Hygiene. --Experiments in carbon dioxide, oxygen, air, water, sound, andlight, are absolutely necessary, if the children are to grasp with anydegree of clearness the principles of respiration and ventilation, andthe phenomena of hearing and seeing. Manual Training. --Many pieces of apparatus may be made by the boys intheir work with wood or iron. Some of the elementary principles ofchemistry enable the girls to do their cooking intelligently. Aknowledge of some of the principles of machines will help the pupils tounderstand the tools they may use in any employment. Drawing. --Careful drawing of the apparatus used helps to fix theexperiment in the mind and at the same time gives practice in art. Composition. --Pupils must have ideas before they can write. Thedescription of the experiment will make a good composition exercise, oral or written. LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS AND BULLETINS GARDEN AND PLANT STUDY Bulletins of the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Bulletins of the Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Improvement of School Grounds. Department of Education, Toronto. Atkinson. First Studies of Plant Life. Ginn & Co. 60 cents. Bailey. Manual of Gardening. Macmillan Co. $2. 00. Blanchan. Nature's Garden. Doubleday Co. $2. 00. Comstock, A. M. Handbook of Nature Study. Comstock Pub. Co. $3. 25. Gray. Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. Amer. Book Co. $1. 40. Green, Louise. Among School Gardens. Charities Pub. Co. $1. 25. Hodge. Nature Study and Life. Ginn & Co. $1. 50. Holtz. Nature Study. Scribners' Sons. $1. 50. Jackson and Dougherty. Agriculture through the Laboratory and SchoolGarden. Judd. $1. 50. James. Agriculture. Appleton & Co. 80 cents. Keeler. Our Native Trees. Scribners' Sons. $2. 00. Osterhout. Experiments with Plants. Macmillan Co. $1. 50. Parsons. How to Plan the Home Grounds. Doubleday Co. $1. 00. Sergeant. Corn Plants. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 75 cents. PHYSICAL SCIENCE Miller. Minerals and How They Occur. The Copp, Clark Co. $1. 50. Milliken and Gale. First Course in Physics. Ginn & Co. $2. 00. Newman. Laboratory Exercises. Ginn & Co. 10c. Each. Remsen. College Chemistry. Am. Pub. Co. $2. 50. Simmons and Syenhouse. Science of Common Life. The Macmillan Company, $1. 00. Woodhull. Home-made Apparatus. High School Text-books. ANIMAL STUDY Bulletin No. 52. Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Bulletin No. 134. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Bulletin No. 161. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Bulletin No. 124. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Reports of Entomological Society of Ontario. Department of Education. Fishes of Ontario. Nash. Department of Education. Bailey and Coleman. First Course in Biology. The Macmillan Company. $1. 25. Buchanan. Senior Country Reader. The Macmillan Company. 40 cents. Chapman. Bird Life. Appleton. $2. 00. Crawford. Guide to Nature Study. The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents. Dearness. How to Teach the Nature Study Course. The Copp, Clark Co. 60cents. Jordan and Kellogg. Animal Life. Appleton & Co. $1. 20. Kellogg. Elementary Zoology. Holt & Co. $1. 35. Reed. Bird Guide--Parts I and II. Musson Book Co. , Toronto. 40 centseach. Shaler. Domesticated Animals. Scribners' Sons. $2. 50. Silcox and Stevenson. Modern Nature Study. The Macmillan Company. 75cents. NOTE. --The bulletins named above are supplied free to schools. Chemicaland Physical Apparatus and Entomological Supplies may be obtained fromG. M. Hendry Co. , Victoria Street, Toronto. Rocks and Minerals may beobtained from the Ward Natural Science establishment, Rochester, or fromthe Central Scientific Co. , Chicago. PHYSICAL SCIENCE FORMS III AND IV DESIRABLE APPARATUS 1 lb. Glass tubing in 3 ft. Lengths 3/16 in. To 1/4 in. Outside diameter. 6 Florence flasks, 4 oz. To 8 oz. $ . 501 Funnel, 3 in. Diameter . 101 Beaker, 8 oz. . 101 Evaporating dish . 103 ft. Pure gum rubber tubing 1/8 in. Inside . 251/2 sq. Foot thin sheet rubber . 201 doz. Test-tubes 6 in. By 5/8 in. . 201/2 doz. Test-tubes 6 in. By 7/8 in. . 10Capillary glass tubing, 3 sizes . 102 rubber stoppers No. 2, one hole1 " " " 4, " "1 " " " 7, two holes . 302 watch glasses . 10Ball and ring 1. 002 Dry cells . 602 Bar magnets . 501 Chemical thermometer 212 deg. F. To 0 deg. F. . 401 Spirit-lamp . 201 Retort, 4 oz. Stoppered . 15Wax candles . 10Retort stand of iron, two rings . 851 Thistle tube . 10Common corks, assorted . 10Filter paper 5 in. Diameter . 05Test-tube holder . 10Test-tube rack . 10Test-tube cleaner . 101 piece glass tubing 30 in. Long, 1/4 in. Inside, for barometer . 201 clamp for closing rubber tube . 10Covered copper wire . 10Small compass . 50Glass model of common pump 1. 00Globe for weighing air 2. 50Small piece of platinum foil, 1/2 in. By 2 in. . 25Glass prism 60 . 50Tuning fork 4-1/2 in. . 50Electric bell . 50Motor (Ajax) 1. 50Balance 10. 00Air-pump 15. 00Iron wire gauze . 05Sheet metals, iron, copper, zinc, lead, aluminum . 252 lamp chimneys, straight ones preferred, at 10c . 20Iron ball, 2 in. In diameter . 202 dairy thermometers at 15c . 30 CHEMICALS Sulphuric acid, 1 lb. . 10Hydrochloric acid, 8 oz. . 10Nitric acid, 4 oz. . 10Washing soda . 05Sugar . 05Salt . 05Blue vitriol . 10Alum . 05Saltpetre . 05Sulphur . 05Potass. Permanganate . 05Lime . 05Plaster-paris . 05Potass. Bichromate . 10Methylated spirits, 1 pt. . 10Alcohol, 95% . 10Iodine crystals . 10Mercury, 1 lb. 1. 00Pot. Chlorate . 15Manganese dioxide . 10Phosphorus . 10Sweet oil, 2 oz. . 10Benzine, 2 oz. . 10 The following tools will be found very valuable: saw, square, plane, brace and bit, knife, hammer, glass cutter, files--round, flat, andtriangular. Where the circumstances will not allow of the purchase of the precedinglist, the following apparatus is recommended as sufficient for theperformance of a large number of the experiments: 1/2 lb. Glass tubing in 3 ft. Lengths, 3/16 in. And 1/4 in. Outside $ . 202 Florence flasks, 4 oz. . 151 Funnel . 102 ft. Pure gum rubber tubing, 1/8 in. Inside . 151/2 doz. Test-tubes assorted, 5/8 to 7/8 diameter, 6 in. Long . 202 rubber stoppers, No. 2, one hole . 101 rubber stopper, No. 4, one hole . 10Expansion of heat apparatus (made at blacksmith's) . 10Common corks, assorted . 101 chemical thermometer 0 deg. F. To 212 deg. F. . 401 spirit-lamp, 4 oz. . 101 thistle tube . 10Covered wire, copper . 10 CHEMICALS Iodine crystals . 10Sulphuric acid, 1 lb. . 10Methylated spirits 1 pt. . 20Alcohol, 95% . 10Mercury, 1/2 lb. . 50Pot. Chlorate . 15Manganese dioxide . 10 The following may be obtained, for either list, at little or no costfrom household stores or home-made sources: washing soda, sugar, salt, ammonia, coal, coke, saltpetre, sulphur, blue vitriol, alum, potass. Bichromate, blueing, lime, pickle-jars, wire gauze, candles, wire, sheetmetals, test-tube holder and rack, balance, battery cells, horse-shoemagnet, pneumatic trough, lamp chimneys, tin cans, melting spoon, bicycle pump, baking-powder. For home-made apparatus, consult _Laboratory Exercises in Physics_ byNewman, Ginn & Co. , 50c. , and Manual on _Manual Training_. Reference has been made in the preceding experiments to the use ofsimple and easily contrived apparatus. The more of this the pupils cancontrive and make under the direction of the teacher, the more valuablewill be the course in Physical Science. GRENET CELLS Into a pint gem-jar put water 10 parts, sulphuric acid 1 part, potass, bichromate 1 part. Have jar three quarters full. Cut a piece of board 4in. Square, bore two holes in it, and through the holes thrust twopieces of electric light carbon, 5 in. Or 6 in. Long. The outer edges ofthe carbons should not be more than two inches apart. With a saw, cut aslit in the board between the holes and insert a strip of zinc 2 in. By7 in. Previously rubbed over with mercury. Set the three elements in thejar, connect the two carbons to one wire, and the zinc to another. One cell of this kind will run a small motor, operate a telegraphsounder, make a simple electro-magnet, or ring an electric bell; twocells will decompose water: three will heat a piece of fine iron wirered-hot. DECOMPOSITION APPARATUS 1. Cut the neck end from a pickle bottle. Get a No. 1 stopper, (rubber)with two holes in it and insert a piece of platinum foil 2 in. By 1/8in. Into each hole so that 1/2 in. Projects above and below. Insert atight plug beside each strip, thus holding it fast and making thestopper watertight. Insert the stopper into the neck of the jar. Pourinto the vessel thus formed enough water to cover the platinums, and adda few drops of sulphuric acid. Touch the wires from the battery to thelower ends of the strips. Note bubbles of gas arise from the platinums. These may be collected in test-tubes and found by test to be oxygen andhydrogen. 2. Fasten a strip of platinum 1 in. By 1/8 in. To each wire from thebattery and dip these into some acidulated water contained in a tumbler. The decomposition of the water into two gases can be seen, but the gasescannot be collected so readily as in 1 above. Bits of electric lightcarbon will do instead of platinum if the current is not too weak. PNEUMATIC TROUGH When oxygen or other gas is to be collected over water, use a milk panor similarly shaped vessel. SPIRIT-LAMP Use an ink-bottle to contain the alcohol and several strands of stringfor the wick; make a hole in a piece of tin and draw the wick through;then let the tin rest on the neck of the bottle to support the wick. BAROMETER A siphon barometer takes less mercury than a cistern barometer. To theopen end of the barometer tube attach a piece of strong rubber tubing 4in. Long and to this a piece of glass tubing 3 in. Long. Fill the tubethus formed with mercury to within 3 in. From the top. Holding the shortglass tube open end up, turn the long tube closed end up. (A tube of 1/8in. Bore needs only one quarter of the mercury required to fill a tube1/4 in. Bore. ) HYGROMETER For a hygrometer, suspend two dairy thermometers side by side againstthe wall, cover the bulb of one with thin muslin, and let the muslinhang down and dip into water in some small vessel placed about threeinches below the bulb on a little shelf. HINTS To avoid explosions, a spirit-lamp should be kept filled. Toy rubber balloons answer well for sheet rubber. Red ink makes good colouring matter. Make touch-paper by soaking any porous paper in a solution of saltpetre, and drying it. Instead of bending glass tubes, join them with rubber tubing. To make a test-tube holder, fold a sheet of paper until it is about halfan inch wide and wrap this around the tube. To bend glass tubing, hold in the flame of the spirit-lamp and rotatebetween the fingers till it becomes soft and flexible, remove from theflame, and bend. To break glass tubing, first scratch with a file. To break glass bottles, make neatly a deep cut with a file, then touchthe glass near the cut with a red-hot wire. When a crack appears, movethe hot wire and the crack will follow. Several heatings may benecessary. In the case of a heavy glass bottle, file the cut as before, wrap thebottle with string dipped in alcohol, light it, and after it has burned, plunge the bottle vertically into cold water. Melted paraffin is good for closing small leaks. TIME APPORTIONED TO NATURE STUDY The Nature Study lesson should be given a definite place on thetime-table. It is recommended that each class should have at least onelesson of fifteen minutes in length, a week. In addition to this, aboutfive minutes a week should be spent in assigning problems forout-of-door work and in discussing the observations which the pupilshave made on problems previously assigned. CHAPTER III FORM I AUTUMN GARDEN WORK On the re-opening of school after the summer holidays, the pupils shouldsee that their plots are put into good order without delay. If they havebeen neglected during the holidays, a good deal of attention will beneeded, and in some cases it may not be possible to reclaim them becauseof prolonged neglect. If such plots are found, they should be cleanedoff completely, spaded up, and left in readiness for planting thefollowing spring. All plots should be cultivated throughout the month ofSeptember to keep the soil mellow and prevent the growth of weeds. Thepupils should be allowed to pick flowers from their own plots, butshould always leave a few in bloom for the sake of the generalappearance of the garden. Paths should be kept clean, and all rubbish, weeds, dead plants, etc. , removed to the compost heap, which should bein the least conspicuous part of the garden. Hoes, rakes, and claw-handweeders should be used in cleaning up and cultivating the plots. Thesoil should be kept fine and loose on top to prevent drying out. LESSONS ON A GARDEN PLANT PANSY LESSON I ~Materials. ~--A flower for each pupil A plant set into a flower-pot A leaf for each pupil A pile of leaves containing a few pansy leaves and several of other kinds. ~Introduction. ~--A conversation with the pupils about their favouriteflowers. ~Observations. ~--The pansy flowers are now distributed and the generalform of the flower is first noted. The resemblance to the face of ananimal will be discovered. The name _corolla_ is given, but no otherbotanical terms are to be introduced in this lesson. The details of colours, perfumes, velvety feeling of the corolla, andthe number of leaflets in it are next _discovered_ and described by the_pupils_. Lastly, in a withering flower they discover the seed cases andthe little seeds. LESSON II The conception of the relationship between the flower, root, and stem isdeveloped by a method similar to the following: What soon happens to a pansy flower after it is broken from the plant?Are the flowers that you have in your hands withering? How can you keep them from withering? Hence, what must the flower get from the stem? Where does the stem get the moisture? Hence, what is one use of the root? A pupil is asked to pull the plant out of the soil in the flower-pot. What is another use that you have discovered for the root? The plant is now uprooted from the soil, and the pupils examine the rootto find how it is fitted for gathering water and food from the soil andfor holding the plant in place. Note the number of branches touching a great deal of soil and also thetwisted form of the roots for grasping the soil. The form of the leaves is studied by the pupils, and, as a test of theaccuracy of their observation, they are asked to pick out the pansyleaves from the pile of leaves. _To the teacher. _--The pupils must be active participants in the lesson. They must use their eyes, hands, and even their noses in gainingfirst-hand impressions, and they are to be required to express in theirown way the things that they discover. The beautiful flower with itsface like that of an animal is an appeal to the child's imagination, andthe child's interest in the _use_ of things is utilized in the study ofthe relations of root, stem, and flower. This lesson may be used as the basis for busy work by means of thefollowing correlations: 1. With art: Represent the flower in colours. 2. With reading and literature: The pupils are required to express the meaning and sentiment of thefollowing stanza: The pansy wakes in early spring To make our world more bright; All summer long its happy face Fills children with delight, Lessons similar to those on the pansy may be based upon the followingplants of the garden or field: dandelion, aster, buttercup, nasturtium, goldenrod. The teacher in preparing the lesson should read a descriptionof the plant from a Nature Study book and should also study the plantitself until he is familiar with all the phases of its life. OBSERVATION EXERCISES ON THE DANDELION The exercises given below are suggestive for out of school observationwork, but must not be too long. By way of preparation for an exercise ofthis kind, the interest of the pupils in the dandelion must first bearoused. FIRST EXERCISE The teacher places the pupils at the school windows from whichdandelions are visible and asks them to name any flower that they cansee. A short conversation about the brightness of the flower follows. The pupils are next instructed to: 1. Find dandelions late in the evening, and find out how they prepare togo to sleep and how they are tucked in for the night. 2. Find where the leaves of the dandelion are, and bring a leaf toschool next morning, and also observe how the leaves are grouped orplaced. _To the teacher. _--Dandelion flowers close up in the evening; the greenleaves beneath the head wrap closely around the flowers to form a snugcovering. The leaves have margins with teeth shaped like those of alion, and from this the plant gets its name, for the name is the French_dent de lion_, which is pronounced very much like the word dandelion. The use of the leaf cluster as a system of rain-spouts for guiding therain toward the root should be noted. SECOND EXERCISE 1. Why is the dandelion easy to find? 2. What makes it easy to find even in long grass? 3. What insect friends visit the dandelion? 4. Find out just how these visitors act during their visits, and findwhether they carry anything to or away from the flowers. _To the teacher. _--The bright yellow colour of the dandelion attractsattention. When it grows in long grass, the flower stalk grows long, sothat the flower surmounts its obstructions and climbs up to thesunshine. The flowers are visited by ants, bees, and wasps, and thesemay be seen burrowing into the flowers in search of honey. If theirbodies and legs be touched, the yellow pollen of the flowers will befound sticking to them. THIRD EXERCISE 1. Look for flower heads that do not open to the sun. Do not disturbthem, but watch them for a few days and find out what they become. 2. Examine the large white balls of the dandelions and find out whatthey are. 3. Blow the down away. What does it carry with it? _To the teacher. _--In this exercise the pupils will learn that the largewhite balls are the mature, or ripened, flowers and are composed oflittle brown seeds, each being a little airship for wafting it away. CORRELATION WITH LITERATURE AND READING When the above exercises have been completed, the pupil's knowledge ofthe dandelion may be utilized in interpreting the following stanzas: Oh dandelion! yellow as gold, What do you do all day? I just wait here in the tall green grass Till the children come to play. And what do you do when your hair is white And the children come to play? They take me up in their dimpled hands And blow my hair away. In addition to the dandelion, the following plants are suitable forobservation exercises: morning-glory, wild balsam, sweet-pea, snap-dragon, nasturtium. DWARF NASTURTIUM ~Observations. ~--The size of the plant at the time of flowering; itsleaves--size, colour, shape, length of petiole and how arranged; coloursfound in the flower, comparison with others of same species found in thegarden; size and shape of the flower and the length of its stems. Do theflowers grow higher than the leaves? Do they look better when with theleaves or when alone? Note the perfume and taste of the flower stem, theinsect visitors, and what part of the flower they tried to get at, whenthe first blossom was seen, and how long the blossoms continued to comeout. Do they keep well in bouquets? Do they stand hot, dry weather aswell as other flowers? When did the frost kill them? Compare with theclimbing nasturtium. Find the seeds. SEEDS The autumn months are the best for seed studies, for almost all annualsare ripening their seeds at this time of year. FIELD EXERCISE Assign to the pupils the following exercise: Collect the seed pods from as many plants of your garden plots, or homegardens, or wild plants, as possible, and be careful to write the nameof each plant on the paper in which you put the seed pod of that plant. Notice the part of the plant from which the seed pod is formed. CLASS-ROOM LESSON BASED ON THIS COLLECTION The pupils place the seed pods on their desks, and observations andproblems are dealt with of which the following are representative: How does each seed case open? What are the seeds for? How many seeds are in each case? Why should a plant have so many seeds? How are the seed cases fitted for protecting the seeds? Are any two seeds alike in shape? Are the seeds easy to find if they are spilled upon the ground? What makes them hard to find? Where do nearly all seeds spend the winter? Of what use is the hard shell of the seed? SEED DISPERSAL Study only a few of the more striking examples of seed dispersal withthe Form I class. Seeds that fly and seeds that steal rides are goodexamples of classes of seeds whose methods of dispersal will prove ofinterest to children. LESSON ON SEEDS THAT FLY ~Materials. ~--A milkweed pod; a ripe dandelion head. ~Introduction. ~--A short conversation about the effects of the crowding ofplants, as carrots and turnips, in a garden plot, and hence the need forthe scattering of seeds. ~Observations. ~--Open a milkweed pod in the presence of the class, so thatthey may see how the pod opens, how beautifully the seeds are arranged, and how the silk tufts are so closely packed in together. Allow a pupil to lift a seed out, blow it in the air, and observe howthe silk opens out like an umbrella. Distribute seeds, one to eachpupil. Ask the pupils to find out why this little airship is able tocarry the seed. They will find that the seeds though broad, are thin andlight, and the silky plumes very light. Ask the pupils to release their milkweed seeds at recess, when out ofschool, and find out how far they can fly. This is an interestingexperiment for a windy day. The white balls of the dandelion are next examined, the tiny seeds arefound standing on tiptoe on a raised platform, each grasping a tinyparachute and waiting for a puff of wind to start them off. A pupil ispermitted to give the puff. Seeds are distributed, and the means offlight is compared with that of the milkweed. The shape of the seeds isobserved and also the tiny anchor points at the lower end of the seedfor clutching the ground when the seed alights. Another lesson on seeds that fly can be based on the study of treeseeds, using those of the maple, elm, basswood, pine, and spruce. CORRELATIONS 1. Drawing of milkweed pods and seeds, and drawing of the dandelionseed-ball and the seeds when floating in the air. 2. Reading and literature. Interpret the thought and read expressively: Dainty milkweed babies, wrapped in cradles green, Rocked by Mother Nature, fed by hands unseen, Brown coats have the darlings, slips of milky white, And wings, but that's a secret, they're folded out of sight. TWIGS AND BUDS The study of buds is a part of tree study and may be taken asobservation work in the class-room. This somewhat detailed study shouldfollow the general lessons on tree study. The materials for the lessons may be collected by the pupils at the timeof the field lesson and kept fresh in a jar of water until required foruse. LESSON ON TWIGS ~Materials. ~--A twig of horse-chestnut about six inches long, for eachpupil. A twig of the same tree with the leaves still on it. ~Observations. ~--The twigs are distributed and the teacher asks the pupilsto examine them and to describe all marks and projections that can befound on the twig. Answers are required from the pupils separately. The pupil's answer ineach case should be sufficiently clear for all the class to recognizethe feature that the answer is intended to describe. A few briefquestions will guide the answerer in making his description moredefinite, but the description should be the result of the pupil'sobservation and expressed in his own words. The meaning or use of each feature should be discussed, when possible, immediately after it has been described. The following features will be discovered and the problems suggestedwill be solved: The brown or greenish-brown bark. The buds. One bud (sometimes two) is at the end of the twig. Some buds are along the side of the twig. What caused the end bud to grow larger than the others? There is a leaf scar under each bud. Of what use is it to the bud to be between the twig and the leaf stalk? The bands of rings, one or more on each twig. The tiny oval pores, each surrounded by a little raised band. The detailed study of the buds is left for a separate lesson. FURTHER STUDY OF TWIGS The study in detail of various features is illustrated in the following: Look closely at the leaf scars and describe them fully, as to shape, colour, and marks. Do the scars look like fresh wounds, or are they healed over? Of whatuse to the tree is the healing of the scar? We will learn later that the part of the twig between each pair of bandsof rings represents one year's growth. How old is your twig? Who has theoldest twig? Do all twigs grow at the same rate? Who has the twig that had the most rapid growth? _To the teacher. _--The bud at the end of the twig or its branches iscalled the end bud; there are two leaf scars underneath it. The budsalong the sides of the stem are called side buds, the latter are smallerthan the end bud. The bud situated between the stem of the leaf and thetwig is in a sheltered position. This position also puts the bud closeto the pantry door, for the plant food is prepared in the leaf. The leafscars are yellowish-brown, or if they are the scars from the leaves offormer years, are dark brown in colour. Each scar is shaped like ahorse-shoe and tiny dots are found in the position that the horse-shoenails would have. Even before the leaf falls, a layer of corklikesubstance has formed over the scar. This layer is a protection againstthe entrance of frost and rain and germs of fungi and it also preventsthe loss of sap from the scar. The tiny oval pores, each as large as thepoint of a needle, are the breathing pores of the twig. The bands ofrings are the scars of the scales of the end buds of successive years. This latter fact can be discovered when the bud is opening. REVIEW LESSON The review lesson should consist of a review of the points taken up inthe lessons that were based on the horse-chestnut twig, supplemented bythe examination of the twigs of elm, apple, or lilac. LESSON ON BUDS ~Materials. ~--Twigs and buds of horse-chestnut, one for each pupil. Anopening bud. (A bud or a twig placed in water in a warm room willdevelop rapidly. ) ~Lesson. ~--Distribute specimens, and review the positions of the buds. Pupils examine the buds and tell all they can about them. They describethe colour, shape, and size of the buds, and also their gummy andscalelike covering. Of what use are the gum and scales? Of what use is the brown colour ofthe bud? They next find out what is inside the little brown house. They open thebuds and try to identify the contents. There will be some uncertainty asto the meaning of the contents. Leave this over till spring. _To the teacher. _--The brown colour of the bud makes it an absorbent ofsunlight, and also serves as a protection from observation by the sharpeyes of bud-eating birds. The gummy scales are waterproof, and thescales, by spreading open gradually, cause the waterproof property to beretained even after the bud has grown quite large. The inner part of thebud is composed of two, four, or six tiny leaves folded up and supportedon a short bit of stem. Some of the buds have, in addition to leaves, atiny young flower cluster. All of these things are densely covered withwhite down. The down is the fur coat to protect the tender parts fromthe cold. REVIEW LESSON Review the lesson on buds, but substitute buds of the lilac or apple forthe horse-chestnut buds of the original lesson. CORRELATIONS The observational study of the buds and twigs is a good preparation forbusy work in art and manual training, and the pupils may be assignedexercises, such as charcoal drawing of a horse-chestnut twig, papercutting of a lilac twig and buds, clay or plasticine modelling of twigsand buds. For oral and written language exercises, enlarge the vocabulary of thepupils by requiring sentences containing the words--scales, twigs, buds, protection, terminal, lateral, leaf stalk, blade, etc. LEAVES Leaves, because of their abundance and the ease with which they may beobtained, are valuable for Nature Study work. It is possible to arousethe interest of even young children in the study of leaves, but caremust be taken not to make the observation work too minute and thedescriptions too technical for the primary classes. FIELD EXERCISES An excursion to the school grounds or to some neighbouring park willsuffice to bring the pupils into direct contact with the followingplants: a maple tree, a Boston ivy (or other climbing vine), anasturtium, a geranium. Ask the pupils to find out where and how leaves are placed on each ofthese plants, that is, whether they are on the inner parts of thebranches of the tree or out at the ends of the branches. Do the leavesoverlap one another or does each make room for its neighbours? Are theleaves spread out flat or curled up? What holds the leaves out straightand flat? What do the leaves need to make them green and healthy? Are the leaves placed in the right way, and are they of the right formto get these things? _To the teacher. _--The leaves of the plants named are quite noticeablyso placed on the plants, have such relations to one another, and are ofsuch outline that they present the greatest possible surface to the_air_ and _sunshine_ and _rain_. The leaf stalk and midrib and veins arestiff and strong to keep the leaves spread out. Compare with the ribs ofan umbrella. The benefit of sunshine to leaves and plants can bedeveloped by discussing with the pupils the paleness and delicateness ofplants that have been kept in a dark place, such as in a dark cellar. They are also acquainted with the refreshing effect of rains uponleaves. The use of air to the leaves is not so easy to develop withpupils of this age, but the use of air for breathing just as boys andgirls need air for breathing may be told them. CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON LEAVES ~Introduction. ~--Tell me all the things that you know upon which leavesgrow. On trees, bushes, flowers, plants, vegetables, etc. Are leaves all of the same shape? To-day we are going to learn the names of some of the shapes of leaves. ~Observations. ~--Show the class the heart-shaped leaf of catalpa or lilac, and obtain from the pupils the name _heart-shape_. Use the followingtypes: Maple leaf as star-shape, Grass or wheat or corn as ribbon-shape, Nasturtium or water-lily as shield-shape, Ash or rowan, as feather-shape. ~Drill. ~--Pupils pick out the shape named. Pupils name the plant to whicheach belongs. Which shape do you think is the prettiest? GARDEN STUDIES If the pupils of this Form have planted and cared for garden plots oftheir own, they will have a greater love for the flowers or vegetablesthat grow in them than for any others in the garden, because they havewatched their development throughout. For them such continuousobservation cannot but result in a quickening of perception and adeepening of interest and appreciation. STUDIES IN THE PUPIL'S INDIVIDUAL PLOT What plant is the first to appear above ground? What plant is the lastto appear? Describe what each plant was like when it first appearedabove ground. What plants grow the fastest? What effect has coldweather, warm weather, dry weather, on the growth of the plants? What weeds grow in the plot? Why do these weeds obstruct the growth of the other plants? What kind of root has each weed? Find out what kind of seeds each weed produces? Why is each weed hard to keep out of fields? What garden plants produce flowers? How are the seeds protected? Compare the seeds with those that you planted. Select the seeds of the largest plants and finest flowers for nextyear's seeding. STUDIES FROM THE GARDEN AS A WHOLE What plants grow tallest? What plants are most suitable for borders? What plants are valuable for their flowers? What plants are valuable for their edible roots, for their edibleleaves, for their edible seeds? How are the edible parts stored for winter use? Compare the plants that are crowded, with others of the same kind thatare not crowded. Compare the rate of growth of the plants in a plot that is kept hoed andraked with the rate of growth of plants in a neglected plot. BULB PLANTING The planting of bulbs in pots for winter blooming should be commencedwith pupils in Form I and continued in the higher Forms. As a rule, thepotted bulbs will be stored and cared for in the home, as mostschool-rooms are not heated continuously during the winter. Paper-whitenarcissus and freesia are most suitable and should be planted about thefifteenth of October, so that the plants will be in bloom for Christmas. LESSON ON BULBS AND BULB PLANTING ~Materials. ~--The bulbs to be planted. As many four-inch flower-pots or tomato cans as are required. Soil, composed of garden loam, sand, and well-rotted manure in equalproportions. Stones for drainage. Sticks for labels (smooth pieces of shingle, one and a half inches wideand sharpened at one end, will answer). Pictures of the plants in bloom. ~Observations. ~--The attention of the pupils is directed to the bulbs, andthey are asked to describe the size, form, and colour of each kind ofbulb. A bulb is cut across to make possible the study of the parts, and thepupils observe the scales or rings which are the bases of the leaves ofthe plant from which the bulb grew. The use of the fleshy mass of thebulb as a store of food for the plant that will grow from it isdiscussed. The sprout in the centre of the scales with its yellowish-green tip isobserved, and its meaning inferred. The picture is shown to illustrate the possibilities within the bulb. PLANTING THE BULB The teacher directs, but the work is done by the pupils, and the reasonsfor the following operations are developed: What is the use of the one-inch layer of pebbles, or broken brick, orstone, that is placed in the bottom of the pot? Why are the bulbs planted near the top of the soil? Why is the soil packed firmly around the bulbs? Why must the soil be well wetted? Why is the pot set in a cool, dark place for a month or more? _To the teacher. _--The pebbles or broken bricks are for giving drainage. The bulbs are planted with their tips just showing above the surface ofthe soil and there is about half an inch of space between the top of thesoil and the upper edge of the pot in order to facilitate watering. Thepotted bulbs must be set in a cool, dark place until they are wellrooted. This is subjecting them to their natural winter conditions, andit will cause them to yield larger flowers, a great number of flowers, and flowers that are more lasting. Sand in the soil permits of the morefree passing of air through the soil. Basements and cellars are usuallysuited for storing bulbs until they have rooted, but they must not bewarm enough to promote rapid growth. The pots when stored should becovered with leaves, sawdust, or coarse sand to prevent drying out. Thesoil must be kept moist, but not wet. Paper-white narcissus, if broughtout of the dark after three or four weeks, will be in bloom at the endof another month if kept in the window of a warm room. Care must betaken not to expose the plants to bright light until they have becomegreen. The bulbs of the white narcissus are to be thrown away after theflowers have withered, as they will not bloom again, but freesia bulbsmay be kept and planted again the following year. CHAPTER IV FORM I WINTER LESSONS ON A PET ANIMAL: THE RABBIT I The lesson is introduced by a conversation with the pupils about theirvarious pets. Since we are to have a rabbit brought to the school we must learn how totake care of it, and the proper method of taking care of it is basedupon a knowledge of the habits of the wild rabbit. Where do wild rabbits live? What sort of home does a rabbit have? In what ways does this home protect the rabbit? Hence, what kind of home must we have ready for the rabbit? What does the rabbit eat? Are there any of these foods that are not good for its health? Give a list of foods that you can bring for the rabbit. Why will therabbit, when kept in a hutch, require less food than one that runsabout? Since the rabbit likes a soft bed, what can you bring for its bed? II ~Observations. ~--The teacher or a pupil brings a rabbit to theschool-room, where, during recreation periods, the pupils makeobservations on topics suggested by the teacher, such as: Its choice of food; its timidity; its movements--hopping, squatting, listening, scratching, and gnawing. These observations are discussed in the class and are corrected orverified. _To the teacher. _--Wild rabbits live in the woods or in shrubbery at theedges of fields. The home of the rabbit is either a burrow under groundor a sheltered place under a root or log closely concealed among thebushes. This home is dry and affords a shelter from enemies, and fromwind, rain, and snow. From this we know that we must provide a dry bedfor our rabbit in a strong box in which it will feel secure, and inwhich it will be protected from wind and rain. The food of the rabbitconsists of vegetables and soft young clover and grains. It also gnawsthe bark of trees, and in winter it feeds upon buds. We can, therefore, feed our rabbit on carrots, beets, apples, oats, bran, grass, and leavesof plants, and we must provide it with some twigs to gnaw, for gnawinghelps to keep its large chisel-shaped teeth in good condition. We mustbe careful not to give it too much exercise, and we must not give it anycabbage, because this is not good for the rabbit's health. A dish ofwater must be placed in the hutch, for the rabbit needs water to drink. III Details, if studied in isolation, are uninteresting to Form I pupils. Detailed study should be based upon the animal's habits, movements, andinstincts, and each detail should be studied as an answer to questionssuch as: How is the animal able to perform these movements? How is theanimal fitted for this habit of life, etc. ? Watch the rabbit moving. How does a rabbit move? Which legs are the more useful for hopping? How are the hind legs fittedfor making long hops? Why is the rabbit able to defend itself by kicking with its hind feet?Find out how the rabbit is fitted for burrowing. Listen carefully and find out whether the rabbit makes much noise whilemoving. Of what advantage is it to the rabbit to move silently? Find out, by examining the feet of the rabbit, what causes it to makevery little noise. How are rabbits prepared for living during cold weather? Test the ability of the rabbit to hear faint noises. Why is it necessaryfor the rabbit to be able to hear faint sounds? How is it fitted for hearing faint sounds? Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for gnawing. _To the teacher. _--The long, strong, hind legs of the rabbit are bent inthe form of levers and enable the animal to take long, quick hops. When the rabbit attacks, it frequently defends itself by vigorous kickswith its hind feet, which are armed with long, strong claws. ErnestThompson-Seton's story of Molly Cottontail and "Raggylug", in _WildAnimals I Have Known_, contains an interesting account of how Mollyrescued Raggy from a snake by this manner of fighting. The rabbit hasmany enemies, hence it has need of large, movable ears to aid its acutesense of hearing. The thick pads of hair on the soles of its feet enableit to move noiselessly. The thick, soft, inner hair keeps the animalwarm, while the longer, stiffer, outer hair sheds the rain. Impress upon the pupils the cruelty of rough handling of the rabbit andof neglecting to provide it with a place for exercise and with a clean, dry home. The following pet animals may be studied, using the same order andgeneral method of treatment: pigeon, cat, canary, guinea pig, whitemouse, raccoon, squirrel, parrot. In many cases these animals can be brought to school by the pupils. Encourage the keeping of pet animals by the pupils, for the best lessonsgrow out of the actual care of the pets. The study of a pet bird may beconducted along lines similar to the outline given below for the studyof the pigeon. CORRELATIONS With literature and reading: Ernest Thompson-Seton's "Raggylug". With art: Charcoal drawing representing the rabbit in various attitudes, as squatting, listening, hopping. With modelling in clay or plasticine. With paper cutting. With language: The vocabulary of the pupils is enlarged by theintroduction of new words whose meaning is made clear by means of theconcrete illustration furnished by direct observation of the rabbit. They use these new words in sentences which they form in describing therabbit; for example: hutch, gnaw, padded, cleft lip, timid. The rabbit has padded feet so that it can walk without noise. The rabbithas a soft bed in its hutch. THE DOMESTIC CAT The following facts are suggested as topics for a first lesson on thedomestic cat. The teacher can rely upon the pupil's knowledge of thecat to furnish these statements of fact during a conversation lesson: The cat goes about at night as readily as during the day. The cat can hear faint noises quite readily. The cat can walk noiselessly. The cat creeps along until it is close to its prey, then pounces uponit, and seizes it with its claws. The cat enjoys attention and purrs if it is stroked gently. The cat likes to sleep in a warm place. The cat can fight viciously with her claws. The cat keeps her fur smooth and clean and her whiskers well brushedwith her paws. The cat eats birds, mice, rats, meat, fish, milk, bread, and cake. DETAILED STUDY Base the study of the details upon the facts of habit, movements, instincts, etc. , which were developed in the preceding lesson. ~Observations. ~--Find out how the cat's feet are fitted for giving anoiseless tread. Find the claws. How are the claws fitted for seizing prey? How are the claws protected from being made dull by striking againstobjects when the cat is walking? THE PIGEON A pigeon is kept in a cage in the school-room and the pupils observe:its size as compared with that of other birds; outline of body, including shape of head; the feathers, noting quill feathers, andcovering or contour feathers; manner of feeding and drinking; movements, as walking, flying, tumbling. The owner or the teacher describes the dove-cot, the necessity ofkeeping it clean, the use of tobacco stems for killing vermin in thenest, the two white eggs, the habits of male and female in taking turnsin hatching, the parents' habit of half digesting the food in their owncrops and then pouring it into the crops of the young, the rapid growthof the young, the next pair of young hatched before the first pair isfull-fledged. Descriptions of the habits of one or more well-known varieties--pouters, fantails, homing pigeons, etc. Read stories of the training and flightsof homing pigeons, from Ernest Thompson-Seton's _Arnex_. MORE DETAILED STUDY FOR CLASS WORK Compare the uses of the quill and contour feathers. Find out how thesetwo kinds differ in texture; the differences fitting them for theirdifference in function. The names quill and contour may be replaced bysome simple names, as feathers for flying and feathers for covering thebody. Study the adaptations for flight, noting the smooth body surface, theoverlapping feathers of the wing for lifting the bird upward as the wingcomes down, the long wing bones, the strong breast, and the covering offeathers giving lightness and warmth. The warmth and lightness offeathers is illustrated by the feather boas worn by ladies. Examine the feet and find out why pigeons are able to perch on trees. Examine the beak, mouth, tongue, nostrils, eyes, ears. How is the billadapted for picking up grains and seeds? OBSERVATION AND CARE OF WINTER-BLOOMING PLANTS Children are most interested in things which they own and care forthemselves. If a child plants a bulb or a slip and succeeds in bringingit to maturity, it will be to him the most interesting and, at the sametime, will bring him more into sympathy with plants wherever he may findthem. The teacher should impress upon the pupil the desirability ofhaving beautiful flowers in the home in winter, when there are none tobe had out-of-doors. Every pupil should be encouraged to have one plant at least, and thebulbs planted in October and stored away in the dark in the home cellarwill require a good deal of care and afford an excellent opportunity forobserving plant growth and the development of flowers. If the pots havebeen stored in a cool cellar and have been kept slightly moist, thebulbs will have made sufficient root growth in a month and should bebrought up into a warmer room where they can get some sunshine everyday. The pupils will make a report each week as to what changes arenoticeable in the growing plant. They will note the appearance of palegreen shoots, which later develop into leaves and at least one flowerstalk. They should make a drawing once every week and show it to theteacher, and the teacher should make it a point to see a number of thepupils' plants by calling at their homes. In this way the pupils come toknow what plants need for their development in the way of soil, water, light, and heat. This interest will soon be extended, until, in a veryfew years, the children will add new and beautiful plants to the homecollection and assume the responsibility of caring for all of them. TREES PINES OF THE LOCALITY This study may be commenced in November after the deciduous trees havelost their leaves and have entered their quiescent winter period. Thisis the time when the evergreens stand out so prominently on thelandscape in such sharp contrast with the others that have been strippedof their broad leaves and now look bare and lifeless. If no pines are tobe found in the vicinity, balsam or spruce may be substituted. Thelessons should, as far as possible, be observational. The pupils shouldbe encouraged to make some observations for themselves out of school. Atleast one lesson should be conducted out-of-doors, a suitable pine treehaving been selected beforehand for the purpose. The following methodmight serve as a guide in the study of any species of tree. THE WHITE PINE FIELD EXERCISES Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from adistance, tracing the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of thistree with that of other evergreens and also with that of thebroad-leafed trees. Have them describe in what particulars the shapesdiffer in different trees. They will come to realize that the differencein shape results from difference in length, direction, and arrangementof branches. They may notice that other evergreen trees resemble thepine in that the stems are all straight and extend as a graduallytapering shaft from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or lessconical shape, and that the branches grow more or less straight outfrom the main stem, not slanting off as in the case of the maples andelms. Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. Byusing a string or tape-line, find its diameter and how big it is around. Tell them how big some evergreens are (the giant trees of the PacificCoast are sometimes over forty feet around). Have them notice where thetrunk is largest, and let them find out why a tree needs to be so strongat the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain on it just at this point. Illustrate by taking a long slat or lath, drive it into the groundfirmly, and then, catching it by the top, push it over. It will breakoff just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken up, thepupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous rootsthe pine has. Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour androughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlargingof the tree by the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper atthe bottom of the tree than at the top, the tree being younger and thebark thinner the nearer to the top we go. Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a littledistance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches areon the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this isso. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward theends of the branches as they get light there, while the centre of thetree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try tosolve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now seean additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upperones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out intothe sunlight. The reason for calling this tree an "evergreen" may now be considered. Why it retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advancedclasses; but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over thedifficulty by explaining to the class that the leaves are so small, andyet so hardy, that wind, frost, or snow does not injure them. Each pupilmay bring a small branch or twig back to the school-room for use in aclass-room lesson. CLASS-ROOM LESSON ~Materials. ~--Small branches--one for each pupil, cones, bark, pieces ofpine board. ~Introduction. ~--Review the general features of the pine that wereobserved in the field lesson. ~Observations. ~--The branches are distributed. Pupils test the strengthand suppleness of the branches and find the gummy nature of the surface. Of what value are these qualities to the tree during winter storms? Examine the texture, stiffness, and fineness of the needles. Note that the needles are in little bunches. How many are in each bunch? Are there any buds on the branches? If so, where are the buds? How are the buds protected from rain? The pupils examine the cones and describe their general shape. The pupils are asked to break open the tough scales and find the seeds. Allow the seeds to fall through the air, and thus the pupils willdiscover the use of the wings attached to the seeds. The wood is next examined, its colour and odour are noted, and itshardness is tested. Find articles in the school-room that are made of pine wood. ELM The following topics are suggested for aiding in the selection of matterfor a lesson on a typical broad-leafed tree: The height of the tree. The part of the height that is composed of tree tops. The umbrella shape or dome shape of the top. The gracefully drooping branches of the outer part of the top. Try to find other trees with tops like that of the elm. The diameter of the trunk. The diameter is almost uniform up to the branches. The branches all come off from one point, like the ribs of an umbrella. The thick bark, that of the old trees being marked by deep furrows. The birds that make their nests in the elm. In spring find and examine the flowers, fruits, seeds, and also theleaves. FIELD EXERCISE A good out-of-door exercise to follow the general lesson outlined above, is to require the pupils to find all the elm trees or a number of elmtrees growing in the locality and to describe their location and thekind of soil on which they grow. The maple, oak, horse-chestnut, and apple are also suitable trees uponwhich to base lessons for Form I. DOMESTIC ANIMALS Domestic animals not only furnish suitable subjects for observationwork, but also afford good opportunities for developing that sympatheticinterest in animal life which will cause the pupils to more nearlyappreciate the useful animals and to treat them more humanely. THE HORSE I ~Introduction. ~--By means of a conversation with the pupils, find out whatthey know about the horse and lead them to think about his propertreatment. ~Lesson. ~--The matter and method are suggested by the following: What are the different things for which horses are useful? What kinds of horses are most useful for hauling heavy loads? Why are they most useful? What kinds are the most useful for general farm work? Why are they themost useful? What kinds are the most useful for driving? Are there any other animals that would be as useful as the horse for allthese things? What causes some horses to be lean and weary while others are fat andbrisk? What kinds of stables should horses have as to warmth, dryness, andfresh air? Why is it cruel to put a frosty bit into a horse's mouth? When a horse is warm from driving on a cold day, how should he beprotected if hitched out-of-doors? Why, when he is warm from driving, should the blanket not be put onuntil he has been in the stable for a little while? Correlate with reading from _Black Beauty_. II ~Preparation. ~--I want you to find out some more things about the horse, but you will understand these things better if you remember that longago all horses were wild, just as some horses are wild on the prairiesto-day, and that the habits learned by wild horses remain in our tamehorses. The teacher should read to the class parts of "The Pacing Mustang" from Ernest Thompson-Seton's _Wild Animals I Have Known_, or "Kaweah's Run" from _Neighbours with Claws and Hoofs_. This will give the pupils a motive for making the required observations. ~Observations. ~--Compare the length of the legs of the horse with hisheight. Of what use were these long legs to the wild horses? What causes horses to "shy"? Of what use was this habit to wild horses? In how many directions can a horse move his ears? Of what use was thisto wild horses? When horses in a field are alarmed, do they rush together or keep apart, and where are the young foals found at this time? Of what use were thesehabits to wild horses? Are the eyes of the horse so placed that he cansee behind him and to either side as well as in front? Of what use wasthis to wild horses? _To the teacher. _--The horse is an animal which is strong, swift, graceful, gentle, obedient, docile. The pupils should learn that, inreturn for his good services, the horse should be treated with kindnessand consideration. The legs of the horse are long, straight, and strong, and the single toe(or hoof) means that the horse walks on the tip of one toe, and the hoofis in reality a large toe nail developed to protect the tip of the toe. To these features is due the great speed of the horse. Horses gathertogether in the field with the foals in the most protected part of thegroup, just as wild horses found it necessary to do for protection. Thewild horses "shied" at a fierce enemy concealed in the grass, and thetame horse shies at a strange object. CORRELATIONS With literature and reading: By interpretation of _The Bell of Atri_. With language: By exercise on new words, as graceful, etc. DOMESTIC BIRDS THE DUCK ~Home Observations. ~--Compare the duck and the drake as to size, colouring, calls, and other sounds. Observe the position of the birds when standing. Observe their mode ofwalking, of swimming, and of flying. Where do they prefer to make theirnests? Why is the duck more plain in dress than the drake? What is theshape, size, and build of the nest? Describe the eggs. When does theduck sleep? Why can it not sleep upon a perch as hens do? How do ducksfeed on land? Compare with the feeding of hens. Observe how ducks feedwhen in water. Observe the various sounds, as alarm notes, call notes, social sounds. Describe the preening of the feathers and explain the meaning of it. Compare the appearance of the young ducks with that of the older ones. Do the young ducks need to be taught to swim? CLASS-ROOM LESSON Provide, where convenient, a duck for class study. ~Observations. ~--Colour, size, general shape of the body, and the relationof the shape to ease of swimming; divisions of the body. Size of head, length of neck, and the relation of the length of the neckto the habit of feeding in water. The legs and web feet, and the relation of these to the bird's awkwardwalking and ease in swimming. The bill and its relation to the bird's habits of feeding by scoopingthings from the bottom of the water and then straining the water out. The sensitive tip of the bill by which the duck can feel the food. The feathers, their warmth, and compactness for shedding water. The oilspread over them during the preening is useful as a protection againstwater. The bill, feet, and feathers should be compared with those of the henand goose, and reasons for the similarities and differences should bediscussed. The uses that people make of ducks and their feathers and eggs; thegathering of eider-down. For desk work, make drawings of the duck when swimming, flying, andstanding. CHAPTER V FORM I SPRING GARDEN WORK The pupils in Form I cannot be expected to do heavy work, such asspading plots or making paths. In some cases the larger boys willundertake to line out the walks and do the spading or digging. Sometimesit may be best to engage a man to do the spading. In any case the boysand girls should do the measuring and marking out of the plots. Ifstable manure is used in fertilizing the plots, it must be well rottedand then carefully spaded into the plots. The rest of the work should bedone by the pupils themselves under the direction of the teacher. Thiswork will include the levelling of the plots with hoes and rakes, andthe trimming of the edges to the exact size of the plots, as determinedby a string drawn taut about the four corner pickets. If the pupils inthis Form have individual plots, each pupil will mark out his drills, put in the seeds, and cover them. The teacher may give demonstrations inconnection with the work but should not do the work for the pupils. The teacher must use his own judgment as to what seeds to allow thepupils to plant. One variety of vegetable and one of flowers issufficient for Form I pupils, and it is desirable that large seeds bechosen for them and such as are pretty sure to grow under ordinarycircumstances. Beans, beets, radishes, or lettuces are suitable asvegetables, and nasturtiums, balsams, or four-o'clocks as flowers. These seeds should be planted at least an inch apart in the drill andthe drills, twelve to fifteen inches apart. Large seeds may have an inchof soil over them and smaller seeds much less. Unless the soil is verydry, watering should not be allowed, and in any case it is better towater the plot thoroughly the day before planting the seed instead ofafter, as is commonly done. The pupils must not allow a crust to formover the plot either before the seeds come up or after. Claw-handweeders are convenient for loosening the soil close to the plants, andsmall-sized garden rakes can be used between the rows as soon as theseedlings appear. It is always better to cultivate before the weeds geta start, and thus prevent their growth. Usually the young plants will betoo thick in the row, so that thinning should be begun when the plantsare about two inches high. The edges of the plots should be keptstraight and the paths clean and level. Each plot should have a woodenlabel bearing the owner's name or number and Form. The teacher isreferred to _Circular 13_ of the Ontario Department of Education, _Elementary Agriculture and Horticulture_, for lists of seeds, tools, etc. GARDEN STUDIES The pupils should be in the garden every day as soon as gardeningcommences. In this way only will they be able to follow and appreciatethe whole life of the plant from seed to seed again. The teacher shouldgive a few minutes daily to receiving verbal reports from the pupils. All new developments that the pupils notice should be reported for thegood of all. The teacher should make a practice of visiting the gardenfor a few minutes daily before or after school, in order that he may bein a position to direct the pupils in their studies in the garden. Thepupils should watch for the first appearance of the young plants aboveground, noting how they get through the soil, and the size, shape, andcolour of the first leaves. They can readily determine whether all ofthe seeds grow. They will then watch for the opening of the second pairof leaves and compare them with the first pair. They should report theamount of growth made from day to day, and also what insect enemiesattack the plants, and what animals, such as toads and birds, are seenduring the season. They will also have occasion to note the effect ofrain and sun upon the soil and upon the plants. The first vegetables fitfor use and the first flowers in bloom will be reported. While they givespecial attention to the development of the plants in their own plots, they will of course observe what is going on in the garden generally. Correlate with the interpretation of "The Seed" in _Nature inVerse_. --Lovejoy. Silver, Burdett & Co. , 60 cents. WINDOW GARDEN The pupils should plant some seeds in sand or moist sawdust in boxes orpots in the school-room, so that they may be able to examine theprogress of germination. In this way they will come to realize thatevery good seed has in it a tiny plant asleep and that warmth andmoisture are needed to awaken it and help it to grow. It sends onedelicate shoot down into the soil and another up into the light. Anotherinteresting way to plant seeds is in egg-shells filled with fine, moistsoil, which are set in rows in a box of sand. One seed only should beput in a shell. The plants may be grown to quite a size and then set outin the garden plot, the shell having first been broken off and the ballof earth containing the roots carefully set down in a small hole, packedabout with garden soil, and watered. The pupils should draw diagrams ormaps of their plots and afterwards of the whole garden. (See Manual on_Geography_. ) They can mark the lines of plants, and those who can writecan give in short, simple sentences the main things noticed from day today. They should give the day and date when the seeds were planted, whenplants came up, when rain storms occurred, when work in weeding, thinning, and cultivating was done, when the plants were fit to use, andhow they were disposed of, etc. This will serve as profitable seat workin writing, drawing, and language. Simple problems based upon dimensionsof plots and the value of vegetables, etc. , afford excellentsupplementary exercises in arithmetic. WILD FLOWERS The admiration that even little children have for the wild flowers ofthe woods and their delight in finding and gathering them is sufficientjustification for including them in studies for Form I. The teacher mustbe careful, however, lest he go too far in the critical examination ofthe parts of the flowers, forgetting that little children are notinterested in stamens and petals, but in the fresh, fragrant, anddelicate blossoms that beautify the little banks and hollows of everywoodland and that brighten up the fields and roadsides in spring time. The teacher should aim to deepen that childish admiration and give tothe child a more intelligent appreciation of the beauties of the wildflowers and a desire to protect them from extermination. No attempt should be made to prohibit the picking of wild flowers, butthe pupils should be instructed not to pull up plants by the roots. Thepicking of flowers in moderation does not injure the plants, but rathertends to increase their vigour. Pupils should pick flowers with somepurpose in view, rather than to see how big a bunch each can gather. Theteacher should show them how to arrange a few flowers in a neat bouquetand emphasize the fact that a great mass of blossoms crushed closelytogether is far from being artistic or ornamental. Pupils should then beencouraged to make up pretty bouquets for the teacher's desk, for thehome dining-room, and for old or invalid people who loveflowers--especially those plucked by the hands of thoughtful children. RECOGNITION OF WILD FLOWERS The pupils should learn to recognize each year a few species of wildflowers by name as well as by sight. This may be accomplished in twoways, (1) by means of excursions to the woods a few times each yearduring the spring and summer months, and (2) by having occasionalobservation lessons in the school-room based upon the flowers gatheredfor the school-room bouquets. Both methods are to be recommended, but itmust be borne in mind that a wilted, lacerated flower has no interestfor a little child. LESSON IN OUTLINE BLOODROOT Plants are always most interesting when studied in their naturalenvironment, and this is one reason why the school excursion deservesthe highest commendation as a method of studying wild flowers. Whenstudying wild flowers out-of-doors, the pupils should notice what seemsto be the favourite or usual location for the particular species underconsideration. Have the pupils observe the following about the bloodroot: It seems to prefer fairly dry, rich soil, on or near a hillside. Itopens its beautiful white blossoms early in the spring, as if to enjoythe bright sunshine before the trees put out their thick coat of leavesto shade it. It, like many another early spring flower, comes into bloomso early in the spring because it got ready the summer before. Theteacher should carefully dig up a specimen--root and all--as youngpupils cannot be depended on to get up all of the underground part. Notethe large amount of plant food stored up in the underground stem, howthe flower was protected before it opened out, and what becomes of theprotection. Note the peculiar beauty of the snow-white blossoms withtheir yellow centres, and how beautiful they look as they nestle amongstthe handsome green leaves with their pinkish-tinted stems. Wound theroot, and notice the reddish, bloodlike juice whence the plant derivesits name. Indians sometimes use this juice for war-paint, and somemothers give it to their children on sugar as a cure for coughs andcolds. Other wild flowers suitable for Form I are buttercup, spring beauty, dog's-tooth violet, hepatica, and trillium. If there is a corner of the school ground that is partly shaded, and ifthe soil is fairly mellow and moist, some of these wild flowers shouldbe transplanted there where they will grow well and can be seen everyday during the blooming period. The leaves and flowers of the bloodroot and the above-mentioned wildflowers can be used for drawing. CORRELATIONS Oral and written descriptions of the flowers studied afford suitableexercises in language and composition. INSECT STUDY CECROPIA, OR EMPEROR-MOTH The larvæ of this, the largest of Canadian moths, may be found early inSeptember, as they wander about in search of a suitable branch uponwhich to fasten their cocoons. If the pupils are not successful infinding the larvæ, the cocoons can be found after the leaves havefallen, because their size makes them conspicuous. The only difficultyin finding them is due to their being of the same colour as the witheredleaves, so that they are easily mistaken for the latter. The pupils should be directed to look carefully at what appears at firstsight to be a withered leaf attached to a tree or shrub, and in this waymany cocoons of various moths will be found. ~Observe. ~--The large size--from three to four inches long; the greenishcolour; the stumpy legs; movements, as walking, feeling, clinging; therows of warts, and short, stiff spines on these; the feeding habits, biting or sucking; eggs of parasites, for frequently these are found onthe larvæ. Place the larva in a box covered with gauze, and observe the spinningand weaving of the cocoon. From what part of the body is the silk obtained? With what organs arethe threads placed in position? What part of the cocoon is made firstand what part is made last? What time is required for making the cocoon?How is the cocoon fastened to the tree? What provision is made in thecocoon for warmth, for protection from birds, for shelter from rain? Cut open a cocoon and examine the pupa, noting the mummy-like case onwhich can be seen the impressions of the wings developing within. If the cocoon is kept in the vivarium in a cool place, so that theconditions may be as nearly as possible like the natural conditions, theadult moth will emerge about the first of May. In April the cocoonshould be wetted occasionally, as it would be if exposed to rains; thisensures more perfect development of the insect. ~Observe. ~--At what part of the cocoon the moth makes an opening; the slowspreading and strengthening of the wings; the size and coloration of themoth; the feathery feelers; the position of the wings and sucking mouthparts when at rest. Require the pupils to make drawings of the cocoon, larva, and adult. The promothea moth, whose cocoons are common on lilac bushes, may bestudied in the same way as the emperor. Reference. --Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ DRAGON-FLY The larvæ of this insect may be obtained in May or June by scrapingleaves, weeds, and mud from the bottom of ponds and allowing the mud andwater to settle in a pail or tub. The larvæ may be distinguished fromother aquatic creatures by the long insect-like body, three pairs oflegs, and the "mask"--a flap with pincers at the end. This mask can beturned under the head and body when not in use, or it can be projectedin front of the larva for catching prey. At the rear end are threetubes, which fit together to form the breathing tube. The pupils should observe the above features, and also the movements, seizing of prey, breathing, moulting, semi-resting or pupa stage, at theclose of which the pupa climbs up a reed or stalk of grass and burststhe skin from which the adult emerges. The pupils should put into the aquarium various kinds of insects anddecide what foods are preferred by the larva and the adult. ~Observe. ~--The size, length of body, movements in flight, lace-likewings, and insect-killing habits of the dragon-fly. Should dragon-flies be protected? Give reasons. Are all dragon-flies ofthe same size, build, and colour? At what time of year are dragon-fliesmost numerous? ~Reference. ~--Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_. OTHER CONSPICUOUS INSECTS The potato-beetle, giant water-bug, eastern swallow-tail butterfly, andpromothea moth are insects suitable as types to be studied by the pupilsof Form I. The giant water-bug is the large, broad, grayish-brown insectthat is found on the sidewalks in May and June mornings. (Forinformation on the eastern swallow-tail and promothea see Metamorphosis, in Butterfly and Moth Collections. ) BIRDS Bird studies for Form I should be limited to observations made directlyupon a few common birds, such as the robin, house-sparrow (English), song-sparrow, flicker, house-wren, crow, bronzed grackle, andmeadow-lark. These are easily reached by the pupils of every rural andvillage school, and the purpose of the lessons should be to teach thepupils to recognize these birds, and by making use of child interest inliving active creatures, to develop their interest in birds. THE ROBIN FIELD EXERCISES I Observe the robins and find out the following things: 1. Are all robins of the same colour? If not of the same colour, whatdifference do you note? 2. Does the bird run or hop? Imitate its movements. 3. Listen to its song. Is it sweet or harsh? Is it loud or low? Is itcheerful or gloomy? 4. Watch the robin as it moves along the grass and learn how it findsout where the worms are. _To the teacher. _--The pupils should be given a few days in which tofind out answers to these questions, and at the end of that time theanswers should be discussed in the class. Male robins have more pronounced colours than female robins. The beak isyellower, the breast is brighter, the back and the top of the head aredarker. Robins both run and hop. The sense of sight of the robin is veryacute, but its sense of hearing is even more keen. The bird may beobserved turning its head to one side to listen for the sound of a wormwhich is still inside its burrow. II A second set of exercises may now be assigned which will demand a moredetailed study of the bird, namely, a study of the size, colour, form ofbody, manner of flight, and length of beak. III THE NEST, EGGS, AND YOUNG 1. Find out various places in which robins build their nests. In whatways are these places all alike? Examine the materials of the nest andfind out why the nests are built in the kind of places in which they arefound. 2. Describe the eggs. 3. What kinds of food do the parent birds bring to the young? Does thefather bird aid in bringing food to the young? _To the teacher. _--The nests are found in well-sheltered parts of appletrees and evergreens, in sheds, under ledges of roofs, and in othersheltered places. The nests, since they are composed largely of mud andgrass, would easily be washed away if exposed to rain storms. The foodbrought to the young consists of worms and insect larvæ, and the fatherbird is very industrious in helping to take care of his family. It isthe father bird that sings, and the mother bird devotes all her energiesto working and scolding. THE SONG-SPARROW FIELD EXERCISES In early March, when the streams are just beginning to break fromunderneath the ice and spots of ground peep here and there through thesnow, assign to the pupils an exercise such as the following: Watch for a small, gray-brown bird which perches near the top of a bush, or small tree, and sings the "Tea-kettle Song". Try to interpret the song in the words: "Maids! Maids! Maids! Put on the tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle-ettle. " Is the song bright and cheerful or dull and gloomy? Does the bird singthis song often? Approach close to the bird. Are there any stripes or spots on its breastor head? Describe the flight of the bird from its perch, when it is disturbed. _To the teacher. _--It is possible for the pupils to distinguish thesong-sparrow by means of the above exercises. It is one of the firstbirds to return in the spring, and, as it is a lusty singer, it willattract the attention of all who are looking for birds. The dark brownspot in the centre of the breast is a distinguishing mark, and the moreobservant will find the three ashy-gray stripes on its head and the darkline through the eye. When disturbed, it does not rise into the air, but flies downward anddisappears with a swish of its tail. The nest is usually built on theground or in a low bush or tree. It is composed of grass, fine roots, orweed stems, and lined with fine grass or hair. The eggs are usually fouror five, but sometimes there are as many as seven. They are white with agreenish-blue tint and are closely spotted with brown. CLASS-ROOM LESSON Discuss with the pupils the observations that they have made on thefield exercises. Generalize as to the similarity of the places in which the pupils haveseen the sparrow singing, and as to the times of day in which the birdsings. Teach the marks of identification which some have discovered, using forthis purpose pictures of the bird or black-board drawings; and encouragethose who have not yet seen the song-sparrow to try again and to securethe assistance of those who have succeeded. Compare the size and form of the song-sparrow with that of thehouse-sparrow (English). Tell the pupils the great value of the bird in killing cutworms, plant-lice, caterpillars, ground-beetles, grasshoppers, flies, and otherinsects. It also helps to prevent the spread of weeds by eatingthousands of seeds of noxious weeds. Assign the pupils some other things to discover, as for example: Throughhow many months of the summer does the bird sing? Find the nest. Why isit hard to find? Describe the eggs, as to size, colour, and number. Donot disturb the nest and do not visit it very often. _To the teacher. _--Base lessons in bird study upon the English sparrow, flicker, wren, and meadow-lark. THE SHEEP PROBLEMS FOR FIELD WORK How do sheep find one another when they have become separated? How old are the lambs before they can keep up with the old sheep whenrunning? What fits the lamb for running so well? Watch the lambs when they are playing, and find out whether they play: 1. I'm the king of the castle. 2. Follow the leader. Find out by watching a flock of sheep what is meant by "Men follow oneanother like a flock of sheep". Describe how sheep move when they are going very fast. Why should sheep be kept in a well-ventilated building that protectsthem from snow and rain but is not very warm? _To the teacher. _--Each movement, habit, and instinct implied in thisexercise is explained by the life of the wild sheep. Their natural homeis in the mountain, and their swift movement is that of bounding fromrock to rock as they follow the strongest and boldest (their leader) toa place of safety. The legs of the lamb grow rapidly, beyond allproportion to the rate of growth of the body, so that within two weeksafter birth the young lamb is almost as strong of limb and fleet of footas its mother. In their games the lambs are fitting themselves for theirplace in the flock, and these games very much resemble those named inthe exercise. CHAPTER VI FORM II AUTUMN BULB PLANTING OUT-OF-DOORS Tulips and daffodils (narcissus) are the most suitable bulbs forout-of-door planting. The best varieties for outdoor culture are usuallydesignated in catalogues. Bulbs should not be planted in individualplots, but in borders and ornamental beds. The latter should not beplaced in the centre of a lawn, as is frequently done. Bulbs should beplanted before the last of October. BEDS FOR GROWING BULBS To make a bulb bed, throw out the top soil to a depth of eight or nineinches, put about three inches of well-rotted stable manure in thebottom, and cover it with about three inches of the soil which wasthrown out. Rake the plot level and then place the bulbs about eightinches apart on the top of the soil, arranging them in any designchosen. Cover them with the rest of the soil and rake it level. Therewill be about five inches of soil over the bulbs. When a solid crust hasformed over the bed, put on a covering of leaves, straw, or branches ofevergreens, and some pieces of boards to hold them in place. Thiscovering does not protect the bulbs from freezing, but prevents toorapid thawing out in the spring. This covering should remain until thetips of the bulbs are showing above ground, when it should be removed. Ordinarily the bulbs may be left a second year before digging up. Theyshould then be re-set or replaced with new ones, and the bed made andfertilized as before. In clay soil the bulbs should not be set quite so deep as in sandy soil, and the bulbs have better drainage about their roots if a handful ofsand is placed under each bulb in planting. Crocus bulbs may be planted in clumps anywhere about the grounds orborders by simply making a small hole about five inches deep, droppingthe bulb in, and covering it. Lily of the valley grows best in partialshade in some unfrequented corner. PLANTING OF BULBS INDOORS Read again the instructions given under this heading in Form I work, regarding soil, planting, and care. The Chinese sacred lily and trumpetnarcissus may be chosen for the pupils of this Form. The narcissus, alsocalled daffodil, may be held back until early spring if kept in a cool, dark cellar, but the Chinese sacred lily, which is also a variety ofnarcissus, comes into bloom from four to six weeks after planting. It isusually grown in water in a bowl of suitable size. Place a few pieces ofcharcoal in the bottom of the bowl, set the bulb upon them, and packcoloured stones and shells around it as a support. Keep the bowl abouttwo thirds full of water and set it in a warm, sunny place. It does notneed to be set in the dark, as is the case with other bulbs. These mayalso be grown in soil in the same way as other varieties of narcissus. When blooming is over, the bulbs may be thrown away, as they cannot beused again. GARDEN WORK (See Autumn work for Form I. ) The pupils in Form II should be given more responsibility with referenceto the care and management of their garden plots. If they have had acouple of years in gardening while in Form I, they will have gainedsufficient knowledge as to the needs of plants and sufficient practicein garden craft to do a certain amount of work quite independently. Theboys of Form II are able, with suitable garden tools, to do all the workneeded in the management of their own plots and may even be allowed todo some of the harder work for the girls of their Form. SEED SELECTION Besides the usual work of weeding, cultivating, and harvesting of theircrops, the pupils should undertake some work in seed selection. Thiswork not only results in the improvement of the plants grown from yearto year, but also helps to train the pupils in painstaking observationand the discerning of minute points of excellence. The ambition toproduce, by careful selection and thorough cultivation, a grain orflower better than has been, is aroused, and, as the pupil's interestincreases, his love for the art increases and his efforts meet withgreater success. The teacher should aim from the first to use only the best availableseed even if the cost be greater. He should send for a number ofcatalogues and carefully choose those varieties of seeds that possessevident merit for the purpose intended. In the case of flowers, thepupils should be asked to decide what individual plants showed greatestexcellence, and these should be marked, and the seed from thempreserved for next season's planting. When the flower is in full bloom, a small string tag should be tied to the flower stem (string tags can begot from a local merchant). On this tag should be written in lead-pencilthe name of the species, the shade, and date of flowering. These flowersshould be left to ripen thoroughly, and then the seed picked and sealedup in small envelopes, which the pupils should make as part of theirmanual training work. The date on the tag should be transferred to theseed envelope. STORING SEEDS All the envelopes should be collected, placed in a mouse-proof box, andstored in a cool, dry place until time to plant in the spring. Smallbottles are excellent for holding seed and safer than envelopes. If suchselection is carried on systematically, it will result in an increase ofyield and of quality not to be equalled by even the best seed that themarkets have to offer. Thus the school garden may become the centre ofinterest for the community. Seeds of good varieties can be distributedto the ratepayers, and the standard of gardening and horticultureraised. Here, as elsewhere, much--almost everything--depends upon theteacher's interest and ability to lead as well as to instruct. HARVESTING AND STORING OF GARDEN CROPS As soon as the vegetables reach their best stage of development, theyshould be taken from the garden by the owner. All dead plants and refuseshould be removed and covered up in a compost heap. The boys of thisForm should also assist in doing part of the general work of the schoolgarden. They might take up from the garden border such tender plants asdahlias, gladioli, and Canna lilies. These should be dried off andstored in a cool, dry cellar. If the cellar be warm, it is necessary tocover the bulbs with garden soil to prevent their drying out too much. CLASS-ROOM LESSON The pupils are led, through conversation, to state their experiences andobservations. The teacher assists them in interpreting theirobservations and organizing their knowledge and stimulates them tothoughtful search for further information. Discuss with the pupils such questions as: What are people busy doing on their farms and in their gardens at thistime of year? Why do they harvest and store the wheat, oats, corn, potatoes, and apples, etc. ? Are there any countries in which people donot need to gather in the grains, vegetables, and fruits? The discussion of these questions will direct their thought to the needof storing sufficient food for animals and for man to last through thewinter, when these things do not grow. They must be gathered to protectthem from destruction by storms of wind and rain and the severe frostsof winter. People who live in very warm countries find foods growing allthe year round, and they do not need to prepare for winter, but thesepeople are always lazy and unprogressive. Discuss the means taken to protect the various crops, as follows: Why can grain be kept in barns or granaries or in stacks? Why canapples, turnips, and potatoes not be kept in the same way as grains?What are the conditions that are best suited for keeping the latterproducts? Name some kinds of crops that cannot be kept in any of theways already discussed. Why can they not be kept in these ways? These discussions will develop the idea of the necessity of keepingapples, potatoes, and turnips, in cellars, root-houses, and pits, wherethey cannot freeze, but where they are kept at uniformly lowtemperatures which are as close as possible to their freezing points. The air must not be too dry, as dryness causes them to shrivel up. Indry cellars they should be covered with fine soil. Very delicate fruits, such as cherries, grapes, peaches, plums, strawberries, etc. , can onlybe kept for a length of time by preserving or canning them. Correlate with lessons in Household Management on preserving andcanning. FALL CULTIVATION When the garden has been finally cleaned out, the plot should be spadedup and left without raking. Clay soil especially is much improved inphysical qualities by thus being exposed to the air and frost. Allgarden tools should receive a special cleaning up before storing forwinter. GARDEN STUDIES The observational studies suggested under this head for Form I will befollowed also in Form II. The pupils of Form II will be expected to makemore critical observations in connection not only with the plantsgrowing in their own individual plots, but also with those plants whichother pupils have been growing. They should give some attention also tothe plants in the perennial flower border. GARDEN RECORDS. In this Form the pupils should begin to make garden records on suchpoints as the following: 1. Description of the plant--size, habit of growth, kind of leaves andtheir arrangement, date of flowering, form, size and colouring of theflowers, points of merit or the reverse, description of the seed and howscattered, how disposed of, and the value. 2. The work done in the garden from day to day, with dates. 3. The effect of rain, drought, or other weather conditions on thegrowth of the plants. 4. What insects were seen visiting the flowers and what they weredoing--whether beneficial or harmful. 5. What birds or other animals were found frequenting the garden. (SeeAnimal Studies, pp. 30, 96, 217. ) 6. What plants suffered from earliest frosts; what from subsequentfrosts; what ones proved to be most hardy, etc. 7. What plants the pupils like most in the garden, and what ones seem tosuit the soil and weather conditions best. The pupils in this Form, by direct observation, should come toappreciate the development of the fruit and seed from the flower. Theirwork in seed selection, based upon the excellence of the flower, helpsto ensure this line of observation. CORRELATIONS Art: Drawing of leaves, flowers, and vegetables, in colour whenpossible. Arithmetic: Calculations as to dimensions, number of plants, number offlowers on a plant and seeds in a flower, value of products of flowersand vegetables. Cost of seeds, fertilizer, and labour, gross and netproceeds. Statement showing the above. Composition: General connected account or story of the work done and thethings learned during the season, as taken from the garden diary andfrom memory. Exercises in writing and spelling, as suitable seat work. Geography: Weather observations, as related to the garden work and toplant growth. Comparison of the soil of the garden with other samplesfrom the district, as to composition and origin. Direction, as relatedto the paths or walks in the garden. Map drawing: Plans of plots and of whole garden and grounds, representedon sand-table, paper, or black-board. Map drawing on a horizontalsurface is best for the first year or two. The products of the garden, as compared with home products, as foodsupplies for man and beast. Manual Training: Making of seed envelopes and boxes, modelling in clayof fruits and vegetables. CLIMBING PLANTS Observe particularly the sweet-pea and morning-glory. Consider the following points: 1. Advantages gained by climbing, such as securing of more light, production of many leaves and flowers, and not so much stem. 2. Method of climbing--sweet-pea by tendrils that wind around thesupport; morning-glory by twining its rough stem closely around itssupport. Do all morning-glory vines twine in the same direction? Findother vines that climb. Examine their modes of climbing. 3. Time of flowering and notes on how to plant. Make drawings of the leaves and blossoms. TREES (See type lesson on trees under Form I. ) In this Form it is better to follow closely the development of one ortwo selected trees in school or on the home grounds than to attempt toobserve many different species. Allow the pupils to choose their owntrees for study and, if possible, have them select one at home andanother near the school or on the way to school. The following pointsmight receive attention: The name of the species, whence obtained and bywhom planted if known; its approximate height, size, and age; itslocation, and the nature of the soil; its general shape, and whether ornot influenced at present or at some time in the past by proximity toother trees; description and arrangement of its branches, leaves, andbuds, its bark, flowers, and fruit; time of leafing out and blossoming;colouring and falling of leaves and ripening of seeds; the amount ofgrowth for the year compared with that of previous years as shown by theyounger branches; qualities of beauty and usefulness of the tree. Drawing exercises. At least two visits should be made to the woods during the autumnmonths, one when the leaves of the trees begin to colour and anotherwhen the leaves have fallen. Consider the preparation made for winter inthe woods and fields, the use of dead leaves in the woods as aprotection to forest vegetation and as soil-making material. Bring backsamples of leaves and of leaf mould or humus for class-room observation. Note the effect of frost in hastening the falling of leaves--frost doesnot give the brilliant hues to leaves, as many people think. Considerthe relationship of the forest trees to animal life. STORING OF TREE SEEDS Make a collection of nuts and other tree seeds, some of which should beput in the school collection and the rest planted in the garden orstored away for spring planting. The seeds of evergreens should be keptdry and cold, but other seeds, as a rule, are best packed in a box ofslightly moist sand set in a cold place or buried in the ground. A FLOWER TYPE: NASTURTIUM I Teacher and pupils visit the nasturtium bed, where the flowers stand upboldly, surrounded by the shield-shaped leaves. A search for the youngflower buds and for the very old flowers leads to the discovery thatthese are snugly sheltered under the shields. The greenish-yellow calyx, which is closely wrapped around the bud, isnext examined. Its name is given, and its use as a protector isdiscussed. The strong seed cases are opened and the seeds are discovered. Thepupils are instructed to watch the insects that visit the brightflowers. Name the insects. Describe their movements. Catch a few andfind the yellow powder on their furry little bodies and legs. II Each member of the class brings a flower to the school-room. Thevarieties of colours of the flowers are discussed. The cave-like form ofeach flower is noted. The velvety feeling of the corolla and thedelicate perfume are likewise sensed by the pupils. The pupils nip off the point of the cave and taste the nectar (honey), and thus learn why the insects visit the flowers. They next trace thecourse of the coloured lines on the corolla and find that they all pointinto the cave. Continuing their explorations of the mouth of the cave, the pupils willdiscover the little boxes containing the yellow powder that the flowerdusts upon the insects. The names _pollen_ and _pollen boxes_ are given. The fringe on the edges of the leaves of the corolla for the purpose ofpreventing the insects stealing into the cave without receiving theirbaptism of pollen, is discovered. The teacher should, at this point, give a brief explanation of thevaluable work done by the insects in carrying pollen to cause seeds togrow in the next flower that the insect visits. The position of the tinybrush (stigma, but do not give this name) held up by the seed case forrubbing the pollen off the insect, should also be observed. ~Summary. ~--Name and point out the parts of the flower (calyx, corolla, pollen boxes, seed cases). What useful work do insects do for the flower? What reward do they receive for their work? What advertisements do the flowers put out for attracting themselves?(Bright colours, sweet perfumes, and honey) Flowers suitable for lessons in Form II are nasturtium, larkspur, snap-dragon, morning-glory, and sweet-pea. NOTE. --Botanical names should be reduced to a minimum. SOIL STUDIES (See _Soils_ by Fletcher. ) Soil should have a place in a Nature Study Course because: 1. It is so closely related to life. 2. It lends itself so admirably to the experimental method. 3. It is so liable to be overlooked and considered as common andvalueless. KINDS OF SOIL _Gravel_ is composed of small, rounded stones of various colours, sizes, and shapes. Occurs in beds, generally mixed with sand. Get a sample andexamine the constituents. Lead the pupils to see that the pebbles arethe result of the breaking up of larger rocks. What has made the cornerssmooth and rounded? What use is made of gravel? Have the pupils findsome gravelly land. _Sand_ is composed of small angular pieces of hard rock. Have a fewsamples from different places brought to school, note fineness andcolours, examine with a lens and note resemblance to pieces of brokenstone. Draw a magnet through the sand and note black particles adhering, showing presence of iron in some form. Show the hardness by rubbingagainst the surface of a piece of glass. Sand is used for mortar, concrete, and glass. The chief sand-forming rocks are quartz andgranite. Show pupils how to recognize these. Examine a sample of sandunder a lens. _Clay. _ Note colour and odour of fresh sample. Dry and pulverize andnote extreme fineness of the particles by rubbing between the fingers(an ounce of clay contains about four and one half million particles). Clay is made from crushed rocks, chiefly feldspars. Mix clay with alittle water and note sticky character. Compare with sand in thisrespect. Which makes the best road in wet weather, gravel, sand, orclay? Note how hard the clay bakes after being moistened. Uses ofclay--pottery, bricks, tile. Pupils should visit a brick- or tile-yardand watch the process of manufacture. In many parts of the world thereare beds of clay of extreme fineness and whiteness, from which beautifulchina is made. _Humus_ is decayed vegetable matter. Pupils should gather soil from theforest, bog, or marsh. Note dark colour. Examine carefully and see whatyou can find in it that is not in sand or clay. Most of our farm land consists of these four soils mixed in variousproportions, and it gets its name from the one that preponderates. Thuswe have our sandy, gravelly, or clay _loams_. Humus is likely to bepresent in all fields, because vegetable matter grows, to some extent, everywhere; but freshly broken land, reclaimed swamps, and prairie landsare likely to be especially well supplied. The great value of humus inthe soil will appear in later studies. ANIMAL STUDIES BIRD MIGRATION (Consult _Bird Life_ by Frank M. Chapman, and _Bird Studies_ by G. A. Cornish. ) In the autumn, direct attention to the flight of wild ducks and geeseand to the gathering into flocks of robins, crows, bronze grackles, blue herons, sparrows, and other birds in preparation for migration. Discuss with the pupils the reasons for migration, namely, scarcity offood, the cold, the snow. In the spring, the return is stimulated by thenesting instinct. Note how the birds are guided--some, for example the ducks and geese, bytheir leaders, while others have no guides but their instincts. In winter, require the pupils to observe the kinds of birds that are tobe seen in the gardens, fields, orchards, and woods, having them notethe scarcity of birds and the absence of many forms that are with us inthe summer. CORRELATIONS Geography: By pointing out on the map the countries into which the birdsgo, namely, Central America, Brazil, etc. Reading and literature: By interpreting Where did you spend the dreary winter? In a green and sunny land, By the warm sea-breezes fanned, Where orange trees with fruit are bent, There the dreary time I've spent. COMMON WILD ANIMALS GENERAL METHOD FOR FIELD WORK The best method for studying wild animals is to assign to each pupilsome animal as his particular subject of study. Begin by finding out from the pupils the wild animals that each oneknows to be near his home, and assign to each pupil a number of problemson the animal which is most convenient for him to study. In some cases, only one pupil will be studying a particular kind ofanimal, while in other cases several pupils may be studying the samekind of animal. The latter method has the advantage of givingopportunity for comparison of results. Differences should serve asstimuli to more careful observation, in order to verify or disproveprevious conclusions. The observations and inferences, together with drawings illustrating theanimals, their homes, etc. , are recorded in the Nature Study note-books. These are discussed in the class, verified or corrected, andsupplemented by descriptions of lives and habits of the animals fromnature writers or naturalists, such as Charles G. D. Roberts, ErnestThompson-Seton, etc. When pupils become interested in this form of study, they become naturestudents in the true meaning of the term. The pupil is brought intocontact with the animal in its natural environment and, under theseconditions, the natural habits, interests, and activities of the wildcreatures are more likely to appeal to the sympathy of child nature thanunder any other method of study. The method has also the advantage ofbeing one of original discovery, and consequently it trains inself-reliance and independence of thought. Finally, since close and careful observation is necessary, the childlearns that it is unwise to alarm the animal, and thus a betterrelationship between child life and animal life is fostered. It may be objected that this method is slow and that little isaccomplished. This may be true from the view-point of matter learned, but from the view-point of child training more can be accomplished fromthe study of a single living animal than from the study of a score ofpictures or stuffed skins. A second method that is recommended is the study of tame animals. Byconversations with the boys of the school the teacher will find whattame squirrels, ground-hogs, raccoons, foxes, and other animals areavailable for class-room work. The possessors of these animals areusually quite willing to bring them to school for the class to study. The movements, habits, food, and other topics, may be studied by directobservations guided by the teacher's questions or problems. A third method and, unfortunately, the one which is in most general use, is the study of animals by means of stuffed specimens and pictures, supplemented by descriptions and stories by the teacher. These lessonsmay be called information lessons, but they are not worthy of the nameNature Study. Indeed, if conditions are such that it is the only methodavailable for animal study, it is advised that the time be spent onother branches of the subject; but if living animals are made the basisof study, stuffed specimens may be found useful for identification andfor confirming observations on minute structural features, colour, etc. THE WOOD-CHUCK The problems outlined below are intended to illustrate the plan of studysuggested in the first general method. They are assigned to a boy whohas discovered a ground-hog burrow, in order to direct him in hisobservations on the animal. What is the kind of soil dug out in making the burrow? Why is this soilsuitable for the burrow? What size of stones are dug out in burrowing?Are there more entrances than one? By slowly approaching the animal, find out how close it will permit youto come. At what times of day does the ground-hog come out? Give reasonsfor its coming out at these times rather than at mid-day. Upon what doesthe animal feed? Describe the colour of the animal and find out anyadvantages in this colour. Observe the following actions: running, hiding, keeping sentry, and scouting. Do more wood-chucks than one live in one burrow? When do the youngwood-chucks first come out of the burrow? Describe their size, colour, and habits. Are wood-chucks ever seen during the winter? Do they use thesame burrow year after year? Describe the sounds made by the animal. What injury does the animal cause to the fields? Describe the fur, teeth, and claws, and show their relation to theanimal's habits of life. Dig out a burrow and draw a plan of it. Make pictures showing thevarious attitudes of the animal. THE CHIPMUNK FIELD EXERCISES Describe the size, colour, shape, length of tail, and movements of thechipmunk. Compare with the red squirrel. Have all chipmunks the same number of stripes? Discover its home; method of carrying grain, nuts, or other foods;whether it is found most commonly on the ground, in trees, or among logsand stones. Try to tame it by placing food where it can reach it and, finally, try to have it feed from your hand. Find out why there is no loose soil around the entrance to its burrow, whether more families than one live in one burrow, whether the chipmunkcomes out during winter, or how early in the spring. Learn todistinguish the sounds of the animal, as expressing alarm, surprise, anger, playfulness. _To the teacher. _--Chipmunks carry grain, etc. , in their cheeks. Frequently these are so full that they must be emptied to permit them toenter their burrows. It is not uncommon for several to spend the winterin the same burrow, having a common storehouse connected by passages tothe main burrow. These little animals are easily tamed and soon learn totake food from the hand. They are not hibernating animals, for theystore food for winter, and though they are not asleep all winter, yetthey rarely come out of their burrows while there is snow on the ground. EASTERN SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY No butterfly is more suitable for study by the Junior Forms than theEastern Swallow-tail. It is one of the most beautiful and attractive ofour butterflies and lays its eggs so accommodatingly on every carrot orparsnip bed that it gives ample opportunity for observation. If possible, have the pupils observe the insect in the act of placingthe eggs, one here and one there, on the under surface of the leaves ofthe plants, noting the busy movements; discuss the advantage ofscattering the eggs, and also that of placing them on the under surfaceof the leaves. If the egg placing cannot be observed, there will be little difficultyin finding the large yellow and green larva with a head shaped likethat of a miniature sea-horse. If the larva itself is not easily found, the leaves stripped bare of green blade and the droppings on the groundwill reveal its presence. Why was it difficult to see such a large, and now that it is seen, conspicuous object? Lead the pupils to notice that the yellow and greenbands harmonize in colour with the green leaves and alternate streaks ofgolden sunlight. Does the larva feed by biting or by sucking? How many legs has thelarva? Cover the plant and larva with a paper bag, or inverted bottle, or a lamp chimney with a gauze top until the larva is full grown; orplace the larva in a vivarium, feed it on carrot leaves, and observe itsgrowth. When full grown, the larva builds for itself a snail-shaped, fairly firmcase, fastened by a slender girdle of silk to a piece of wood or othersupport. Keep this over winter, and in March, or early April, theblack-and-blue-and-gold insect emerges. Observe the movements of the wings in flight, the long tube with whichit sucks honey from flowers, the three pairs of legs, the position ofthe wings when at rest; compare the structure with that of the larva. Make drawings of the butterfly and paint its colours. CHAPTER VII FORM II WINTER CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME The care of flowering bulbs, which was begun in Form I, will becontinued in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will nowbe taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, pottedplants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come toappreciate the plants' needs and learn how to meet them in the supply ofgood soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed: 1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers ofsods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand untilthoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms anexcellent soil for most house plants. 2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little waterevery day. 3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to free themfrom dust. 4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be usedto destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for thispurpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean waterafter using a soap wash. 5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, althoughmost of the ferns grow without it. 6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be setout-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when theymay be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings may be made from themfor potting. 7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a localexhibition, adds to the interest. 8. The pupils should report to the teacher, from time to time, theprogress of their plants and make many drawings showing theirdevelopment. TREES In November or December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosingspruce, balsam, and cedar if available. The pupils should learn todistinguish the different species by an examination of the leaves, buds, arrangement of branches, bark, seeds, and cones. The age of young treescan be determined by noting the successive whorls of branches. In thisway also the age of the leaves may be determined. On some trees theleaves persist for seven or eight years. Evergreens are frequently usedas Christmas trees and their branches for house decorations. On whichspecies do the leaves persist longest? How do they compare with thepines? The leaves are always as old as the wood upon which they grow. Have the pupils notice how the small leaves and horizontal branchesresist the clinging of snow in winter. Each branch bends down enough tocause the snow to slide off on to the one next below, and so on, untilit reaches the ground. The conical shape of the tree also facilitatesthis action of dislodging the snow. They will also notice that thesetrees are well adapted to withstand wind, as the top part, which is mostexposed to the wind, is much smaller and more pliable than the part nextthe bottom. The gum, or resinous covering, of the buds protects themfrom injury by rain or snow. Some kinds of pine, such as the pitch pine, have a great abundance of gum and turpentine. Resin and pine tar aremade chiefly from this species. Heat a piece of pine wood--a knot orroot is best. The gum will be seen oozing out of the wood. Pine torcheswere much used in the early days of settlement in Canada. Examine thegum "blisters" in the bark of the balsam tree. From this source the"Canada Balsam" gum of commerce is taken. The gum and resin in the woodand bark help to preserve the wood from decay. COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for theschool collection. These specimens should be cut green and dried. Theyshould be uniform in length--not more than six inches--and should showthe bark at one side. The side showing the bark should be two incheswide at most, six inches long, and running in a V-shaped, radial sectiontoward the pith. A tangential section also shows well the annual layers. A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential. Alsovisit wood-working factories for specimens of rare or foreign woods. Insecuring these specimens, care should be taken not to mutilate trees. RELATED READING Winter is nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observationout-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place fora time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading andreflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season. During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of naturestories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as wellas animal life. Pupils should review their gardening experiences anddiscuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Letthem write letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similarwork has been carried on, giving some of their experiences in gardeningand plant and animal studies. A certain Friday afternoon might beappointed for hearing the letters read which have been received inreply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon theiroutdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures come inhere also as an aid in helping the children to appreciate writtendescriptions. The first-hand observations made by the pupils will form abasis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of theseliterature selections. THE DOG CLASS-ROOM LESSON Use the conversation method, since this is an animal that is well knownto all the pupils. By natural, easy conversation with the pupils, encourage them to tell what they know about the usefulness and the otherqualities of their canine friends. The pupils know that some dogs are useful for hunting wild animals, others for driving or herding cattle and sheep, others for guardingtheir master's property, others for hauling sleighs and wagons, whileothers are of use as pets or playfellows. Discuss with the pupils the qualities that make the dog so generallyuseful to us. In this discussion, guide the thoughts of the pupils tothe qualities of faithfulness, loyalty to his friends, and docility--fewanimals are so easily taught. Note his strength and swiftness--he cancontinue in a race until he catches almost any other animal. Note alsohis bravery--for he does not hesitate to attack an animal many timeslarger than himself. Short stories of the following type may be told, to illustrate the chiefqualities of the dog: A dog was trained to guard any article that his master placed under his charge, and not to permit any one to touch it until his master gave his consent. One day, when returning from the mill, the master placed a sack of flour inside the gate for a neighbour who had asked him to do so, and then continued on his way without noticing that his dog had taken charge of the sack. All through the afternoon of that day and through the long, cold night that followed, the faithful animal remained at his post. When the owner of the sack came next morning to get it, the dog, although numb with cold and famished with hunger, would not permit him to take the flour. Nor could the stout-hearted creature be persuaded either by threats or by coaxing, until his master was brought, when, at his first word of command, the dog bounded joyfully toward him. Conclude the lesson by a short discussion of the proper care andtreatment that should be given to dogs. The dog requires a fairly warmbut dry kennel, with a soft bed of straw or rugs. The food shouldconsist chiefly of porridge, milk, bread, biscuit, and a little meat. Only dogs that are running a great deal out of doors should be givenmuch meat. The dog should be given bones to pick; picking bones is asgood for a dog's teeth as a tooth-brush is for a boy's. OBSERVATION EXERCISES By making observations upon your dog at home, find answers to theseproblems: 1. How does a dog hold a bone while he is picking it, and how does heget the meat off the bone? 2. Examine the dog's feet and find out: (1) Why he does not slip while running. (2) What protects the soles of his feet from injury as he bounds overrough ground. 3. Which is the sharper, a dog's eye or his nose? Watch how he finds hismaster in a crowd or finds an object that you have hidden. CORRELATIONS Language: 1. Require oral or written reproduction of the stories used inillustration in the lesson on The Dog. 2. Require the pupils to relate incidents from dog life that have comewithin their own experiences. Art and Modelling: 1. A sleeping dog. 2. A dog waiting for his master. LESSONS INVOLVING COMPARISON It will be found helpful, both for increasing interest in theobservations and for fixing the facts in memory, to study an animal bycomparing its habits, qualities, and physical peculiarities with thoseof another animal which is somewhat similar. Where differences arediscovered, explanations of the differences should be developed in sucha way that a tendency may be cultivated for interpreting the adaptationof structure to use and of life habits to surrounding conditions. CAT AND DOG Compare the movement of a cat when approaching its prey with themovement of the dog when chasing a squirrel. Account for the difference. The natural habit of the cat is to hunt alone and rely upon stealth, while dogs hunt in packs and tire their prey by running and byterrifying noises. Other differences and their explanations, which the pupils should be ledto discover are: The dog is a more useful animal to man than is the cat. The cat's body is longer and more slender, and this gives it greatersuppleness in crawling and leaping. The cat's eye is larger and the pupil is especially large at night, toenable it to see. The cat's whiskers are longer; they help in guiding it at night. The cat's tongue is rougher; it uses it for cleaning bones. The pads on the cat's feet are softer, so that it can move more silentlyin stealing upon its prey. The cat's claws are sharper, because it uses them for seizing its prey, while the dog seizes its prey with its teeth. The dog is more faithful to its master because it is a more sociableanimal. In its natural state every dog is faithful to the pack and tothe leader; the cat is not a social animal, but is by nature solitaryand independent. The dog's sense of smell is keener than that of the cat, but its senseof hearing is less acute. Account for these differences from theanimals' habits of hunting. Why does the cat bring home living animalsto her kittens, while the dog buries dead animals? The cat trains thekittens to approach by stealth and then to pounce on the right spot. Wild animals related to the dog bury the "kill" which is too large to beeaten at one meal. EXPERIMENTS FOR ASSISTING IN THE STUDY OF THE CAT 1. Gently scratch with a pin at some distance from where a cat is lying. What do the movements of the cat indicate? 2. Put a fish in water and watch a cat trying to get it. 3. Sprinkle water on a cat's fur and find out why she dislikes beingwetted. 4. Attach a ball to a string and move it near a cat. Describe themovements, as stalking, springing, seizing, retreating. 5. Put some catnip in a room out of reach of the cat and observe themovements of the animal. Nearly all children make pets of the house cat, and although the cat isa domestic animal of thieving propensities and an enemy of birds, yet itwould be unwise to teach the younger children any enmity toward her. The establishment of sympathy with animal life, the humanizing effectupon child nature of having a kitty for a playfellow, will offset manytimes over the amount of depredation of which she may be guilty. COMPARISON OF THE HORSE AND COW Assign problems for the pupils to solve by observations made upon theanimals in the field or farmyard. 1. What features of build give to the horse greater speed than the cow? 2. Compare the movements of the heads of the horse and cow whilecropping grass. Account for the difference. 3. How has nature fitted the cow and the horse respectively, fordefence? 4. Which end of the body does the horse raise first when it is gettingup? Which end of its body does the cow raise first? Account for thedifference. _To the teacher. _--The horse is the swifter and more graceful runnerbecause the body is less bulky and the legs are longer and straighter. In cropping grass the cow pushes its nose forward and breaks the grassoff, a process which is made necessary because the cow has no upperfront teeth. The strong, sharp horns, short, powerful neck, and heavyshoulders are an efficient equipment for the cow's method of defence, while the long, strong legs and powerful hindquarters of the horseenable it to deal terrific blows with its hard hoofs. The horse risesupon its forelegs before raising the rear of its body, while the cowraises its hindquarters first. THE SQUIRREL FIELD EXERCISES ~Problems~: Is it true that squirrels have little roads along the ground? Does the squirrel come down a tree head foremost, or tail foremost? Are a squirrel's feet close together or wide apart when it is climbing? How many kinds of feeling can a squirrel express by its voice? How does a squirrel open a nut? Examine a squirrel's tracks in the snow; which foot-prints are in front? Try to gain the confidence of a squirrel by never chasing it and byplacing some favourite food for it. CLASS-ROOM LESSON A tame squirrel is very desirable for concrete study. Describe the shape, size, and colour. Find out how the legs and feet are fitted for climbing and leaping. Compare the length of the tail with that of the body. Of what use is thetail in cold weather? Of what use is the tail in leaping? Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for opening nuts;gnawing wood. _To the teacher. _--The legs of the squirrel are short so that it canpress its body close to the tree when climbing. The claws are strong andsharp and the hindquarters are very strong, and are, in consequence, well fitted for leaping. The tail of the squirrel is very long andbushy and serves as a fur for keeping the squirrel's nose warm inwinter. The tail is also used for balancing the body when the animal isleaping from bough to bough. The front teeth of the squirrel are very large and strong and are shapedlike chisels. WINTER BIRDS In the class lesson on winter birds, take up the birds that the pupilshave seen, such as chickadee, blue jay, quail, ruffed grouse, hairywoodpecker, downy woodpecker, great horned owl, house-sparrow, snowbunting (snow bird), pine grosbeak, snowy owl, and purple finch. Thefour latter are to be noted as winter visitors. Use pictures forillustrating these birds. The habits and winter food of the birds shouldalso be described from the view-point of how these adapt the birds forspending the winter in a cold climate. Direct the children to look forgrosbeaks in the pine and rowan trees, where they may be seen feeding onthe seeds. The ruffed grouse (commonly called partridge) feeds on thebuds of trees in winter; its legs and feet are thickly covered withfeathers in winter but are bare in summer. FIELD EXERCISES Arouse the interest of the pupils by a conversation of about threeminutes on birds that they have seen during the winter, and assign thefollowing exercise: Take a walk through the orchards and woods on a bright winter day. Whatbirds do you see? What are these birds doing? Are they found singly orin flocks? What bird sounds do you hear? CLASS-ROOM LESSON The method is conversational and based upon the observations made by thepupils during the field exercises. The discussion would involve the winter habits of some of the morecommon birds, as, for example, the ruffed grouse (commonly thoughincorrectly called the partridge). This bird takes shelter from thewinter storms in the centre of a dense evergreen or burrows deep into asnow bank. The close covering of feathers upon its feet serves not onlyto keep the feet warm, but also as snow-shoes. In the evenings thesebirds may frequently be seen in the tops of such trees as maple, birch, cherry, and poplar, the buds of which form the greater part of theirwinter food. The snow bird, or snow bunting, is another bird commonly seen in winter. Flocks of these hardy little winter visitors frequent the roads andfields during winter. Its summer home is in the far north. Another visitor from the sub-arctic regions is the pine grosbeak, whichis often mistaken for the robin, for these two birds are nearly equal insize. The carmine colour of the upper surface of the male grosbeakdistinguishes it from the grays and blacks of the upper part of therobin. The grosbeak frequents the rowan trees. The bird sounds which attract attention during the winter are thecheerful notes of the chickadee, the bold clarion call of the blue jay, and the sharp tap, tap, tap, of the downy woodpecker. The downy woodpecker and the chickadee have snug winter homes withinhollow trees, but, when the weather is favourable, they go aboutsearching industriously for the eggs and larvæ of insects that infestforest and orchard trees. CORRELATIONS Literature: Do you know the chickadee, In his brownish ashen coat, With a cap so black and jaunty, And a black patch on his throat? Language: Write a story about the winter experiences of a downywoodpecker. Geography: Describe the summer home of the snow bird. ANIMALS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS Pupils who have an opportunity to visit museums or zoological gardenswill observe more intelligently if the visit is preceded by such adiscussion in the class-room as will arouse their curiosity respectingthe habits, movements, and adaptive features of the animals about to bestudied. CLASS-ROOM LESSON Name the kinds of bears you have seen or have read about. What kind wasthe largest? Are all bears wholly flesh-eating animals? Find out what food thekeepers give these animals. What features give to the bear his great strength? Observe the length ofhis "arms", teeth, claws. Does the bear climb a pole in the same way that a boy does? Read: Rogers. Wild Animals Every Child Should Know. McClelland, Goodchild, &Stewart. 50 cents. Thompson-Seton. Wild Animals I Have Known. Briggs. $1. 50. Roberts. Children of the Wild. Macmillan. $1. 35. CHAPTER VIII FORM II SPRING GARDEN WORK The pupils have now arrived at an age when they are able to do most ofthe work of preparing and planting their own plots. The seeds have beenselected and placed in readiness for planting long before the ground isready. The plans for the garden and the varieties to be sown in thedifferent plots have likewise been arranged. Fertilizers, lines, tools, and labels are made ready for use. With such thorough preparation themaking and planting of the garden becomes a pleasure and a delight toboth teacher and pupils. The garden diary should begin as soon as thesnow disappears from the garden and be continued until all the work iscompleted in the autumn, and the garden again blanketed in snow. The main points to be safeguarded are: 1. Thorough cultivation and fertilization. 2. The best available seed carefully planted. Guard against thick sowingand deep covering. 3. Frequent cultivation and careful thinning while the plants are quitesmall. 4. Vigilance in detecting the appearance of cutworms or other injuriousinsects and promptness in combating them. 5. Protection of the garden against injury from dogs, pigs, poultry, andEnglish sparrows. 6. Failure of some plots, through the owner's absence from school forlong periods. COMBATING GARDEN PESTS CUTWORMS In gardens where the soil is light or sandy, cutworms are most likely tobe troublesome. Watch for them about the time that the plants are nicelyabove ground. They come up at night and cut the young plants off justabove the ground. They are about an inch long, gray and brown, fat andgreasy-looking. To protect the plants put one quarter of a pound ofparis-green with twenty-five pounds of slightly moistened bran, using alittle sugar in the water and stirring the paris-green into the branvery thoroughly. If too wet, add more dry bran. It should crumblethrough the fingers. Sprinkle a little of this mixture with the fingersalong the row close to the plants. The cutworms eat this poisoned branquite readily. Care must be exercised in using this poison lest poultryshould get at it. On the other hand, poultry should not be allowed toget into the garden. Wrapping a piece of paper around the stem whentransplanting young plants will help to save them from cutworms. ROOT MAGGOTS Root maggots of cabbage, radish, and onions are the larvæ of fliessimilar in appearance to house-flies but a little smaller. When theplants are young, the flies lay their white eggs on the stem close tothe ground. When the eggs hatch, the larvæ crawl down under the groundand cause the plants to decay. The wilting of the leaves is the firstsign of the trouble. Prevention is better than cure in this case. Dustsome dry white hellebore along the rows of onions or radishes and aroundthe cabbage plants; or, for radishes, make a decoction of insect powder(Pyrethrum), four ounces to one gallon of water, and pour around theroot, using half a teacupful to each plant. FLEA-BEETLES The turnip flea-beetle quickly destroys young plants of the cruciferæfamily by eating their leaves. Paris-green, one part to twenty parts ofpulverized gypsum (land plaster) dusted on the plants while damp, helpsto destroy these insects. _To the teacher. _--When pupils who are absent find it impossible to givethe necessary attention to their garden plots at school, they shouldturn them over to other pupils or to the teacher, who may at his owndiscretion use the produce for purposes of general garden revenue. SEED GERMINATION The seeds for the garden should be purchased quite early in the spring. As the planting of poor seed is often the cause of much disappointment, it is well to test the germinating power of the different varieties tobe planted. The pupils of this Form should test especially thosevarieties which they have chosen. To do this, place about twenty-fiveseeds in a germinating dish, which may be made as follows: Take a deepplate, such as a soup plate, fill it about half full of moist sand, andspread over this a piece of moist cloth. Put the seeds upon this clothand cover them with a second piece of damp cloth or moss. To preventdrying out invert over it another plate and set all in a warm dry place(about 70 to 80 degrees F. ). After a few days count the number of seedsthat have germinated. This will be a guide in planting as to how thickthe seed should be sown. The pupils should watch the development of germinating grains, such ascorn and beans, germinated in the same way as in the last exercise. Thefollowing points may be observed: 1. The first change noticed. (Swelling of the seed) 2. The appearance of a growing shoot and its direction. (Root) 3. The second shoot and its direction. (Stem) 4. The appearance of the first pair of leaves. 5. The appearance of root-hairs and rootlets. 6. What becomes of the main body of the seed. 7. How the second pair of leaves differs from the first pair. 8. Length of time required to produce the first pair of leaves. Pupils may be taught the conditions that are necessary for thegermination of seeds by means of a few simple experiments which can becarried on in the school-room. 1. In February, plant a few seeds of the pea, or oat, or wheat, in a boxof soil, and place the box outside the school window. 2. In April, plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a boxof perfectly dry soil, and set the box inside the school window. 3. Plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a jar containingsoil that is kept very wet, and set the jar in the school window. 4. Plant a few seeds, similar to those used in No. 1. In a boxcontaining soil that is moist but not wet, and set the box in the schoolwindow. 5. Plant seeds as in No. 4, except that the box is kept in a darkcupboard. Compare the results of the above with reference to: 1. The number of seeds that germinate. 2. The growth and condition of the plants. Form conclusions with reference to: 1. The conditions that are required for seed germination. 2. The benefits of well-drained soil. Pupils make drawings showing the boxes and plants. PLANTS FOR INDIVIDUAL PLOTS The pupils of this Form should not attempt to grow more than twovarieties of flowers and two of vegetables. Of flowers, mixed asters andShirley poppy are to be recommended, the poppy being an early bloomingflower and the aster late blooming. Carrots and radishes are desirablevegetables, as the carrot matures late and the radish early. Two orthree crops of radishes may be grown on the same ground in one season. Besides these, a few others should be chosen for special study, such asthe potato, onion, corn, and sunflower. STUDIES BASED ON OBSERVATIONS OF GROWING PLANTS Attention should be given to the growing habits of plants, the size andrate of development, the method of multiplying and propagation, and thepart used for food. The potato is a tuber which is nothing more thanthe swollen end of an underground stem; the onion a bulb composed of thebases of thickened leaves; the corn an example of a jointed stem orgrass having two kinds of flowers, the tassels being the staminateflowers and the cob with its silk the pistillate ones; the sunflower anexample of a compound flower made up of many little flowers each ofwhich produces a single seed. Observations should also be made upon the progress in germination of thenuts and other tree seeds collected in the fall. When the seeds fallfrom the elms and soft maples in the spring, some of them should becollected and planted in the forestry plot, or nursery. PLANTING AND CARE OF SWEET-PEAS 1. Sow as early as possible in spring. 2. Sow on well-drained land and never in the shade or near grass. Grassroots rob the sweet-pea roots of water. 3. Use a small amount of fertilizer--well-rotted manure spaded deeplyinto the soil. This is best done in the autumn. 4. Make the trench in the fall about five or six inches deep. 5. Plant in a trench in April from half an inch to an inch apart. 6. Cover from three inches to four inches deep. 7. Water thoroughly once or twice a week, and have the soil lower alongthe row than farther out, so as to hold the water. 8. Put a mulch of lawn clippings along the row on each side to preventdrying out. WILD FLOWERS Arrange an excursion to the woods when the spring flowers are in bloom. Keep a flower calendar, showing: 1. The date when a plant was first found in bloom 2. The name of the plant 3. Place where found 4. Name of the pupil who found it. When in the woods discuss the following points: 1. Why these wild flowers come into bloom so early in spring. They havea large supply of food stored up from the previous summer. 2. Dig down with a trowel or heavy knife and find this storehouse offood. It may be in the form of bulb, corm, or rhizome. 3. The blooming of the spring flowers in the woods before the leaves ofthe trees reach their full development, thus taking advantage of thesunlight. 4. Mark a few clumps or individual plants and visit them again after amonth. Look for the growing fruit with its seeds. 5. The leaves of the hepatica seen at the time when the blossoms appearare leaves which grew the previous season. Dig up a plant and notice thenew leaves starting. 6. The kind of soil each seems to grow best in and the amount of lightit receives. 7. Have the pupils examine the flowers and leave them growing. Theyshould gather a few for the school-room. 8. Have the pupils write a short account of their visit to the woods. Have them make drawings of the different flowers collected. Dig up a few specimens of wild flowers and transplant in a shady cornerin the grounds or school garden. The following varieties are suggestedfor special observation and study: hepatica, violet, anemone, columbine, Indian turnip, marsh marigold. Teach one or two lessons on wild flowers, similar to the lessonsillustrated for the nasturtium. WEEDS Pupils in this Form should learn to identify most of the weeds that arefound in the garden plots and a few of those commonly found in fieldsand along roadsides. The large bulletin _Farm Weeds_, published by theDominion Department of Agriculture, will be of great value in helping toidentify the weeds and also in gaining useful information regarding themand the best means of eradicating them. The following species are recommended for special study during theseason: mustard (such varieties as are found in the vicinity), Canadathistle, purslane, lamb's quarter, pink-rooted pigweed, and quack grass. The pupils should be familiar with the general appearance of the plant;its appearance when coming up in the spring; whether annual, biennial, or perennial; nature of the root, and whether hard to pull up; if hardto eradicate, why so; its rate of growth compared with the gardenplants; the number of seeds produced by a single plant; how the seedsare scattered. THE APPLE TREE (When the buds are beginning to open) FIELD EXERCISE The pupils, during an excursion that is conducted by the teacher orwhile making individual observations, obtain answers to problems of thefollowing type: What is the shape of the top of the apple tree? Are all apple trees of the same shape? What is the height of the trunk? Measure the girth of the trunk of the largest? Are the leaf buds and flower buds more numerous near the inside of thetree top or more numerous at the outer part of the top? _To the teacher. _--When discussing the answers to the above problems, develop the conception of the convenience of the low stature of the treefor gathering the apples, of the wide-spreading branches for bearing alarge crop, of the stoutness of the trunk for supporting the weight, andalso of the position of the buds as adapting them for securing sunshine. CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE APPLE TREE ~Materials. ~--Twigs bearing flower and leaf buds. These are gathered bythe pupils from the apple trees that were studied during the fieldexercises. Each pupil finds on his twig the objects and markings, etc. , as in thefollowing outline: Describe the shape of the twig. Where were the apples that grew last year attached? Describe the positions of the buds on the twigs. Which buds are the larger, those at the end or those on the side of thetwig? Describe the condition of the bud scales. Open the buds and find what they contain. Of what use are the bud scales? How many blossoms are in one bud? Of what use to the young leaves is the downy covering? FIELD EXERCISE FOLLOWING CLASS-ROOM LESSON (Just after the blossoms are fully open) What is the colour of the apple blossom? Find the little green cup on which the petals rest. Describe the cup. Find the other things that are on the rim of, or that are within, thecup. What are they? What insects visit the flowers? Does the cup fall off when the petals fall? Does the cup close up as soon as the petals fall? What does the green cup grow to be? _To the teacher. _--Apple trees have somewhat round or pyramid-shapedtops, varying in detail with the variety of apple tree. The twigs areshort and usually crooked. The fruit twigs are called spurs. The buds atthe ends of the twigs and spurs are the largest and contain both leavesand blossoms, and there are usually several blossoms in each bud. Thebud scales burst apart and drop off as the leaves and blossoms develop. The side buds produce leaves only. The petals and pollen boxes are borneon the rim of the green cup, and inside the cup are found the five tipsof the seed cases. When the petals drop off, the rim of the cup remainsspread out for a short time. This is the proper time for spraying, sothat the cup may hold a drop of poison to kill the tiny worms whichcause apples to be wormy. It is the green cup that grows and forms theflesh of the apple. Orchard trees suitable for lessons for Form II are apple, plum, pear, peach, and cherry. BIRD STUDY A valuable exercise in bird study, suitable for the pupils of Form II, is the study of a pair of birds and the history of their home throughthe entire season. A record, with dates, should be kept, and the following topics aresuggested for observation: Where the nest is located, protection of the nest, part of building doneby each bird; eggs, number, colour, size, time required for hatching;young birds, number, description, how fed and upon what foods, timerequired before ready to leave the nest; history for a time afterleaving the nest. Birds suitable for study by the pupils of Form II are the crow, flicker, downy woodpecker, blue-bird, chipping-sparrow, phoebe, wren. Correlate with art, by requiring drawings and models of the nest and itssurroundings, and with language, by having pupils write the history ofthe nest and family. THE TOAD FIELD EXERCISES Direct the pupils to watch for toads under the street lamps and on thelawns in the evenings, and to observe what they are doing. Find out, by turning over boards, logs of wood, stones, and old stumps, where toads spend the daytime. If there is a sandy beach near by, an interesting nature lesson is totrace a toad to its daytime retreat under a log or stone. Its wanderingsand adventures during the night can be traced from the record that itstrail makes in the sand. Are toads that live in light-coloured sand of the same colour as thosethat live in black clay? Of what value to the toad are these differencesin colour? The pupils are thus led to see that although the toad is not a handsomeanimal, yet its rough, dark skin is of great value to it for concealmentamong the lumps of soil with which it harmonizes. Can a dog be induced to seize a toad? Will he seize it as readily asecond time as he did the first? The secretion from the glands of thetoad have a biting, acid effect on the dog's mouth. This secretion willnot injure a person's hands unless the skin is broken, and even then itdoes not "cause warts". How many toads can you find on your lawn in one evening? How many in thevegetable garden? How many in the flower beds? Place a toad on loose soil among some weeds and observe how it proceedsto get out of sight. Is it true that a toad is attracted by music? Give reasons for youranswer. CLASS-ROOM LESSON Secure a few living toads and keep them in a box covered with a pane ofglass. Be sure to put moist soil and damp moss in the bottom of the boxin which toads, frogs, newts, or snakes are kept. This enables theseanimals to live in comfort, and they soon become sufficiently accustomedto their surroundings to act in a normal way. ~Observation. ~--By flicking in front of a toad a small feather or a bit ofmeat attached to a thread, the darting out of the tongue for catchingprey on its adhesive surface may be observed. The children, by bringing slugs, caterpillars, grubs, and variousinsects for the toads, may learn what composes the food of the animal. It is to be observed that the toad does not snap at an object until itmoves. DETAILED STUDY ~Observation. ~--General shape; division into head, trunk, and limbs; sizeof head and mouth; position and structure of eyes and ears; differencein the size of the fore and hind limbs, and explanation of thisdifference by references to the use of the limbs; the hind foot, uses ofthe web; the glands on the surface of the body and their uses forprotection. Why is a large mouth useful? How are the ears fitted for life in water? In conclusion, the teacher should make sure that the pupils appreciatethe usefulness of the toad and also the beauty represented in itsadaptations to its conditions of life. In these particulars the toad isa good illustration of the adage "Handsome is that handsome does". LIFE HISTORY OF THE TOAD In early spring look for the toads on the surface of the water in ponds. The music of the toads at this time of year has been described by onenaturalist as "one of the sweetest sounds of nature". The eggs may be found in these ponds at this time. They are attached tolong strings of jelly which entwine among grasses and other objects inthe ponds. (Frogs' eggs are in masses of jelly, not in strings. ) Placesome of the eggs in a jar of water and set the jar in the window of theschool-room. A great mass of eggs is too much to put in a jar, a fewdozen eggs in a pint of water will be more likely to develop. The waterin the jar should be changed twice a week. ~Observations. ~--The light and dark areas of the eggs, the dark areagradually increasing in size; the increase in the length of the egg; thegradual change of the dark area into the general shape of a tadpole withhead and tail, the first appearance of the gills, the separation fromthe jelly, the movement by means of the tail, the disappearance of thegills, the growth of the hind legs and, later, of the forelegs, and thedisappearance of the tail. ~Questions and Observations. ~--What is the use of the dark colour of thearea from which the tadpole is formed? Explain the uses of the strings of jelly. Describe how the tadpole swims. Upon what does the young tadpole feed? What is the advantage of external gills at this stage in the tadpole'slife? ~Later Observations. ~--The disappearance of the gills, the budding out ofthe hind legs and, later, the forelegs. While the legs are growing out, the tail gradually becomes smaller, at the same time the shape changesto that of the adult toad with a broad body and large mouth and eyes. ~Questions. ~--What movements has the toad which the tadpole did not have? What makes these movements possible? Why is the mouth of the toad better suited to its manner of life thanthe small mouth of the tadpole would be? Of what advantage to the tadpole was the smooth outline of its body, andwhy is the rougher outline of the toad's body better suited for the lifeof the latter? Why would gills be unsuitable for the life of the toad? _To the teacher. _--From the dark area of the egg the tadpole develops, the dark colour absorbs the sunlight, and this causes growth. The jellyholds the eggs up so that the sun can reach them and it also keeps themfrom being swept away by the water. The tadpole is very small, andexternal gills are needed to keep it in very close contact with thewater. The tail does not drop off, the substance in it is absorbed intothe body of the growing toad to serve as nutriment. Since all the changes in the development of the toad from egg to adultform take place in about one month, this comparatively rapid developmentmakes the life history of the toad particularly suitable for observationwork. The development of the eggs of the frog or newt may be studied frompreparations made in precisely the same way as those for the study ofthe development of the toad. If observations on the developments of two forms are carried on at onetime, interesting comparisons can be made on such points as, shape andsize of the eggs, time required for development, shapes and colours ofthe tadpoles, activity of the tadpoles, etc. THE EARTHWORM ~Time. ~--May or June, in connection with gardening, when the working ofthe worms in the moist soil of the garden is quite noticeable. Outdoor studies may be assigned, as: Observe the loose soil at the entrance to the burrows. Insert a straw inthe burrow and, following it, dig downward with a garden trowel andlearn the nature of the earthworm's home. Are earthworms ever found out of their burrows during the day? If so, onwhat kind of days? Why do earthworms burrow deep in dry weather? Earthworms can breathe only when the surfaces of their bodies are inmoist conditions. Go out at night with a lantern to where earthworms are known to haveburrows, observe the worms stretched out with the rear ends of theirbodies attached to the burrows, and note how quickly they draw back whenthey are touched. Do they draw back if the ground is jarred near them?Do they draw back when the light falls upon them? State the facts which are taught by the observations which were made onthe above topics. CLASS-ROOM LESSON Put two or three earthworms into a jar of rich, damp soil, on top ofwhich there is a layer of sand a quarter of an inch thick. Put bits ofcabbage, onion, grass, and other plants on the surface and cover the jarwith a glass slip or cardboard. After a few days, examine the jar, noting the number of burrows, thefoods selected, the castings, the food dragged into the burrows. Pourwater into the jar and observe the actions of the worms. Can anearthworm live in water? Place an earthworm on a moist plate or board and direct the pupils tostudy it, as follows: Distinguish the head from the rear end, the upper from the lowersurface. Observe the means of living. To assist in the latterobservation, stroke the worm from rear to head and find the four doublerows of bristles. Why is it difficult to pull an earthworm out of itsburrow? Find the mouth. Has the earthworm any eyes, ears, or nose? Place a pinin the path of a moving worm and try to explain why it turns asidebefore touching the obstacle. Test the sensitiveness to feeling. Why isit cruel to put an earthworm on a fishhook? From the soil castings found in the jar, infer the value of earthwormsfor enriching and pulverizing soil. (See "Soil Studies", p. 269. ) REFERENCES Bailey and Coleman: _First Course in Biology. _ Macmillan Co. $1. 25. Crawford: _Guide to Nature Study. _ The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents. Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology. _ Holt & Co. $1. 35. THE AQUARIUM A large glass aquarium may be purchased from any School Supply Companyat a cost of a few dollars, but a small globe-shaped aquarium such as isused for gold-fishes will be found suitable for school purposes. If itis not possible to secure either of these, a large glass jar, such as abattery jar or large fruit jar, will be found to answer quite well. To set up the aquarium, put into the jar about two inches of clean shoresand (sand from a sand pit, washed until the water comes away clear, will do). Secure from a pond some water-plants, place these in the jarwith their roots covered with sand and secured in position by smallstones. Pour in water until the jar is nearly full, taking care not towash the roots out of place, and then put in a freshwater clam and a fewwater snails. These are scavengers, for the clam feeds upon organismsthat float in the water, while the snails eat the green scum that growson the glass. The other aquarium specimens may now be put in. One fish about threeinches long to a gallon of water is about the right proportion. Whenthere is a sufficient quantity of plant life to keep the water properlyoxygenated and enough animal life to supply the carbon dioxide necessaryto keep the plants growing well, the aquarium is said to be _balanced_. The balanced aquarium does not require that the water be changed moreoften than once in two months. Too much direct sunlight causes too rapid growth of green slime, hencethe aquarium should not be set in a window. Close to a window throughwhich the sun shines upon it for an hour or longer each day is the bestposition. Do not supply more food to the animals in the aquarium than they can eatup clean. Crayfish, perch, trout, and other freshwater fishes are destructive ofinsect larvæ and other aquarium specimens, hence care must be taken inselecting the specimens that are put together into an aquarium. Suitable animals for the aquarium: mosquito larvæ, dragon-fly larvæ, caddice-fly larvæ, crayfish, clam, water snails, tadpoles, fish, frog, turtle. AQUARIUM SPECIMENS MOSQUITO Time. --May or June. ~Questions and Observations. ~--At what time of the year are mosquitoesmost plentiful? In what localities are they most plentiful? Why arethey most plentiful in these places? Are mosquitoes ever seen duringfall or winter? How do you account for their rapid increase in numberearly in summer? How do mosquitoes find their victims? Observe the humming noise and tryto discover how it is made. Watch a mosquito as it draws blood from your hand. Does the point of thebeak pierce the skin? Capture a number of mosquitoes and place them in a jar containing somewater and a few straws or sticks standing upright out of the water. Cover the mouth of the jar with a glass plate or fine gauze. Watch forthe rafts of mosquitoes' eggs on the surface of the water. The eggs may also be found on the surface of ponds or open rain barrels, and may be transferred to water in a jar in the laboratory. STUDY OF THE ADULT FORM Note the shape, colour, sucking tube, wings, and legs. Compare with thehouse-fly. Distinguish the male insect from the female; the former has featheryfeelers, and has mouth parts unsuited for biting. How many kinds of mosquitoes have you seen? Direct attention to the kindwhich causes the spread of malaria. It is recognized by its habit ofstanding with its body pointing at right angles to the surface on whichits feet are placed or, in other words, it appears to stand on its head. THE DEVELOPMENT Describe the egg raft. Observe the wigglers (hatched in about a day); the divisions of thebody of the wigglers; position of the wigglers when at rest. Observethat the tail end is upward. Lead the pupils to perceive that this isthe means of getting air. Observe the rapid movement toward the bottom when disturbed; the meansof causing this movement; the change into the large-headed pupæ--achange which takes place about ten days after hatching; the almostmotionless character of the pupæ; the change from the pupæ forms intothe adult--a change which takes place at about the fourth day of pupælife. Put some mosquito larvæ (wigglers) into the fish aquarium. Aremosquitoes of any use? The wigglers are the food on which some youngfishes live. Young bass and trout feed upon them. Put some kerosene on the surface of a jar in which there are mosquitolarvæ. Describe a method of destroying mosquitoes. The teacher tells about the mosquito as the cause of the spread ofmalaria. From the fact that the eggs hatch on stagnant water, deduce abenefit arising from the draining of land. REFERENCES Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ Hodge: _Nature Study and Life_ CADDICE-FLY Time: May. The caddice-flies are very interesting insects, owing to the habits ofthe larvæ of building little cases of wood, stones, or shells, in whichthey pass their development stages under water. These larvæ are easily found during the month of May in little streamsof water everywhere throughout the Province. Look for what at firstsight appears to be a bit of twig or a cylinder of stone about an inchlong moving along the bottom as though carried by currents. Closerobservation will result in the discovery that this is a little casecomposed of grains, of bits of stick, or of sand and tiny shells, andthe head of the occupant may be seen projecting from one end. Collect some of these larvæ in a jar of water and transfer them to theaquarium. Direct the pupils to look for others in the streams, so thatthey may observe their appearances and movements in their naturalenvironment. If kept in jars, the water must be changed every day, andthe top should be covered to prevent the escape of the adults. ~Observe. ~--The shape of the various kinds of cases; the materials, andhow fastened together (chiefly by silk); the part of the larva thatprotrudes from the case; the movement, and how caused; the fitness ofthe case as a protection. Note hardness, colour, and shape as protectivefeatures. The pupils will be fortunate if they observe the sudden rise of thelarva to the surface of the water and the almost instantaneous changeinto the four-winged fly. INSECTS SUITABLE FOR LESSONS IN FORM II Walking-stick insect, katydid, cricket, mole-cricket, clothes-moth, giant water-bug, potato beetle, click-beetle, luna moth, andswallow-tail butterfly. CHAPTER IX FORM III AUTUMN GARDEN WORK The pupils in this Form should be able to do all of the work required ofthem in the garden without assistance. They should aim at intensive andthorough cultivation and, in the autumn, when the plants of theirgardens ripen, these should be removed and the soil carefully spaded. They should continue the work of selecting the seed from the bestflowers, as indicated in the work for Form II, and should grow some seedfrom vegetables and perennials seen to be particularly good. Boys in this Form may also wish to do some gardening for profit. In somecases where there is plenty of space, this may be carried on in a partof the school garden set aside for that purpose. Usually, however, itwill be found most convenient to carry it on in the home garden. Bestvarieties for local markets should then be grown and attention given tothe proper time and manner of marketing or storing for a later market. Cool, well-ventilated cellars are best for most fruits and vegetables. TREATMENT OF FUNGI During the summer and early autumn months attention should be given tothe spraying of plants for blight and for injurious insects. The potatois commonly affected by a fungous disease which causes the stalks toblacken and die before the tubers have matured. This disease may beprevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as Bordeauxmixture. This may be prepared as follows: Take one pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol); make it fine bypounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water, using awooden pail. It dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack, which is suspended near the top of the pail by putting a stick acrossthe pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it. Dilute thissolution to five gallons. Take also a pound of unslaked or quick-limeand add a cupful of water to it. When it begins to swell up and get hot, add more water slowly, and, when the action ceases, dilute to fivegallons. Mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel, and churnthem up, or stir them together vigorously. They give a deeprobin's-egg-blue mixture, which is slightly alkaline and should be usedat once. The solutions can be kept separate as stock solutionsthroughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed. Careshould be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has beendiluted to the strength, one pound to five gallons. A piece of bluelitmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline. If alkaline, as it should be, the paper remains blue when dipped in it. If the mixture turns the litmus paper red, it must have more lime-wateradded to make it alkaline. The potato tops should be thoroughly sprayedwith this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every twoweeks, until they have been treated three or four times. This is toprevent blight and not to kill bugs. If the potato-beetle is troublingthe potatoes, add paris-green to the Bordeaux mixture--a teaspoonful toevery two gallons. To prove the value of this treatment have a trialplot of potatoes which receive all attention save spraying with Bordeauxmixture. If a heavy rain should follow the spraying, it should berepeated. Potato-scab may be prevented to a large degree by soaking the tubersbefore cutting for planting in a solution of formalin (a 40-per cent. Solution of formaldehyde) one-half pint to fifteen gallons of water. Seed grain is frequently treated this way before sowing, to destroy smutspores. A pound of formalin is put in forty gallons of water in a largebarrel. A bag full of the grain to be treated is set in the barrel offormalin mixture for about two hours and then taken and dried on a floorthat has been previously washed with water containing formalin. Asolution of copper sulphate (bluestone), one pound in twenty gallons ofwater is sometimes used. The grain is left in this solution for twelvehours and then dried for sowing. All bags and utensils should also bedisinfected with this formalin solution. TREATMENT OF INSECTS In order to poison insects successfully, it is necessary to determinehow the insect feeds. If it is a biting insect, that is one that eatsthe leaf, such as the potato beetle, paris-green should be used. Paris-green sometimes burns the tender leaves. This may be prevented byadding a tablespoonful of lime to each pail of water used. It may alsobe used dry with flour or dust. If the insect feeds by sucking the juices from the leaf, as is the casewith plant-lice, then a solution that kills by contact must be used, such as whale-oil soap, one ounce to a quart of water. Tobacco-water issometimes mixed with the soap solution as follows: Four pounds of tobacco-waste is steeped in nine gallons of hot water forfive hours; this is then strained, and to the tobacco-water one pound ofwhale-oil soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water is added and mixedthoroughly. Kerosene emulsion, which is made as follows, is very destructive toplant-lice and scale insects: Dissolve a quarter of a pound of common laundry soap in half a gallon ofrain-water and, while hot, mix with one gallon of coal-oil and churnvigorously for five minutes to get a smooth, creamy mixture. On cooling, it thickens and is diluted before using by adding nine quarts of warmwater to one quart of the emulsion. Use smaller quantities in correctproportions when only a few plants are to be treated. CABBAGE-WORM The larvæ of the cabbage-butterfly sometimes do a great deal of harm byeating the cabbage leaves. It will not do to use paris-green on cabbage, as the leaves are for eating. Instead, use pyrethrum or insect powder, which may be diluted by mixing with cheap flour--one ounce of insectpowder to five of flour. Mix thoroughly and leave in a closed tin overnight. Dust the mixture on the leaves from a cheese-cloth bag by tappingwith a small stick or from a dusting-pan. If used while the dew is onthe leaves, it sticks better. Insect powder is not poisonous to man asis paris-green, and so may be used freely on cabbage or other similarplants. PLANTS ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS CLASS-ROOM LESSON By means of questions based upon the pupils' knowledge of a few commonannuals, such as the oat, sweet-pea, and garden aster, develop thefollowing points: 1. These plants are always grown from seeds. 2. These plants produce flowers and ripe seeds during one season'sgrowth. 3. These plants wither and die in the autumn. Plants having these characteristics are called _annuals_. The teacherexplains the meaning of the word and requires the pupils to name a fewother annuals. In a similar way, discuss a few common types of _biennials_, such asturnip, cabbage, hollyhock, and develop the following points: 1. These plants produce no flowers and seeds during the first year oftheir life. 2. These plants, during the first year, lay up a store of food in roots, leaves, or stems. 3. The food is used in the second year of the plant's life to nourishthe flowers and seeds. A biennial should be grown for two years in the school garden to furnishmaterial for concrete study. In a similar way discuss a few common types of _perennials_, such asrhubarb, dahlia, apple tree, and develop the following points: 1. These plants may or may not produce seeds during the first year'sgrowth. 2. Some of these plants are herbs, but most of them are trees andshrubs. 3. Food is stored in roots or stems to provide for early spring growth. 4. These plants live on from year to year. GARDEN STUDIES ANNUALS ~Observations. ~--Some plants, such as poppy and candy-tuft, are earlyblooming, while others, such as aster and cosmos, bloom in late summer, hence a selection should be made that will yield a succession of bloomthroughout the season. Some are hardy annuals which can be grown from open planting, even whenthe weather is cold. These often seed themselves; for example, sweet-pea, morning-glory, phlox, poppy, sweet-alyssum. Some are half-hardy annuals, such as asters, balsams, stocks, andnasturtiums. These must be started indoors or in hotbeds, or if inplots, not until the soil is quite warm. The heights of annuals vary, and consequently they must be arranged inthe bed in such a way that tall plants will not shade the short ones. BIENNIALS ~Observations. ~--During the first year food is stored in the root of theturnip, carrot, parsnip, and beet, in the leaves of the cabbage, and inthe stem of the hollyhock. Flowers and seeds are produced during the second year, and thestorehouse becomes empty, dry, and woody. Preparation for winter istherefore, in the case of biennials, preparation for a renewal of growththe following spring. PERENNIALS ~Observations. ~--The highest forms of plant life are found in this class;namely, the strong, large, hardy trees and shrubs. The herbaceous perennials are equipped with underground parts that actas storehouses of food to ensure the growth of the plant throughsuccessive seasons. Examples: the roots of dahlia, rhubarb, dandelion, and chicory; the underground stems of potato, onion, tulip, scutch-grass, Canada thistle, etc. Many of the wild flowers that bloom in early spring belong to thisclass, and their rapid growth then is made possible by the store of foodin the underground parts. Examples: trillium, bloodroot, squirrel-corn, Indian turnip, Solomon's seal, etc. SPECIAL STUDY OF GARDEN PLANTS A few plants should be selected for special study, and the following arerecommended: annuals--sweet-pea, pumpkin, and corn; biennials--cabbage, parsnip, and carrot; perennials--dahlia, rhubarb, and couch-grass. It is desirable that the observations be made upon the plants in thegarden, but they may be conducted in the class-room upon specimensbrought into the room by the pupils. SWEET-PEA Examine the stem of the sweet-pea and describe its form, its uniformslender structure, and the fact that it climbs. Find out just how itclimbs. The pupils will observe the tendrils, which are extensions ofthe midribs of the leaves. Describe the leaves, noting what is meant by calling them _compound_. Observe the position of the flower, its colours, odour, size, and form. What insect does it resemble in shape? What different features of theflower enable it to attract attention? The names and uses of the floral organs may be taught to this class. Forexample: Pupils find the green blanket that protects the bud. This is the_calyx_. The beautiful, attractive part is the _corolla_. The parts that produce the pollen are called _stamens_. The case that holds the seeds is the _pistil_. Examine flowers of different ages and trace the change from the minutepistil to the pod. Study, comparatively, the flowers of the field-pea, bean, or wild vetch. Select a few of the finest blossoms of the sweet-pea and put tags onthem while they are still in bloom. When they ripen, collect the seedsand preserve them for spring planting. Conduct observation lessons on the pumpkin and corn, in which the pupilswill discover such facts as those given below. PUMPKIN Notice the method of growth--the stem no stronger than that of thesweet-pea, but lying flat on the ground. Notice the little roots sentout here and there where the stem touches the ground. This gives extranourishment. The leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direction, but are very large--entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem. Notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of them set fruit. Examine the flowers. Some of them have stamens for producing pollen, butno pistil. These never produce fruit, for pumpkins are simply enlargedand ripened pistils. Look for insects and examine them to find outwhether they are carrying pollen. Notice younger pumpkins and evenblossoms toward the end of the vine. Pick all the blossoms and smallpumpkins off a vine, leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins. Seewhether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine havingyoung pumpkins developing on it. Notice the arrangement of the seedsinside a ripe pumpkin. Collect some seeds, wash clean, and dry forspring planting. It is desirable to plant pumpkins late in May, so thatthey will have flowers on their vines as late as September. Study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of thepumpkin. CORN This plant is native to America, was greatly prized by the aborigines, and even worshipped by some of them. Note the upright character of theplant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints, ornodes. Count these joints and also the leaves, and note the relationshipof leaves and joints in the stalk, and how the leaves come off indifferent directions so as not to shade each other. Note the strong, stringy threads in the leaf, which give strength to the leaf as well ascirculation of sap. They are strong and elastic, allowing of movement. The same strengthening fibres are seen in the stalk when it is brokenacross. In the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form, asthis gives greatest strength, the centre being soft and weak. The stalksare largest near the base, where the greatest stiffness is required. Thenodes are also closer together here for strength. The stem is made muchstronger by the bases of the leaves being wrapped so firmly around for adistance above the point of attachment at the node. Notice theclose-fitting sheath or rain-guard, where the blade of the leaf leavesthe stalk. This prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath, butlets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed. As theplant gets older and taller, new roots come out from the node next abovethe root and sometimes from the second node above. These prop-roots areneeded for support as the stalk lengthens, and they also reinforce thefeeding capacity. Note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves. As soonas the silk appears, take a cob off and open it carefully. The littlecob, which corresponds to the pistil in other plants, is covered withsmall and undeveloped kernels, and to each kernel one of the strands ofso-called silk is attached. Whilst this little cob is forming, a bunch, or tassel, of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant. Open oneof these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside. Thispollen, when shed, falls upon the silk, and each grain sends a tiny tubedown inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob, fertilizing themand starting them to develop. The silk then withers. The wind carriesthis pollen. Find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen. What is theneed for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces? Strip off the husks and compare the tough, hard husks that are found onthe outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob. Showhow each kind is fitted for its particular work. Pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find: 1. Whether the corn grows faster: (1) When the soil is kept mellow or when the soil is hard; (2) When the days are warm or when they are cool; (3) When the nights are cool or when they are warm. 2. The effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or inadjoining plots. Account for the result. CORRELATIONS Art: Clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant, and alsoupon the ear. Literature: Interpretation and reading of "Blessing the Corn-fields", from _Hiawatha_. History: The name Indian corn originated in the early colonial days ofthe Eastern and Central States, when the pioneers obtained corn from theIndians. The Indians showed the settlers how to kill the trees bygirdling and how to plant the corn among the standing trunks, and thushave corn ready for roasting by August, and for grinding into meal orfor boiling to make hominy by September. SEED DISPERSAL The lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in Form I should becontinued in this Form. I. LESSON Select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers ofseeds, such as wild mustard, white cockle, false-flax, etc. Distributethe seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimatethe number of seeds produced by each plant. By references to observations made in the garden, help the pupils torecall the bad results, both to parent plants and to young seedlings, ofimproper scattering of seeds, namely: 1. The excessive crowding and shading, which causes the plants to becomeweak. 2. Insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants, whichcauses the plants to be small and worthless. Discuss how the crowding of cultivated plants is prevented and, in ageneral way, how nature provides for the scattering of seeds. The great work of the plant is the production and dispersal of itsseeds. Ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in whichprovision is made for the dispersal of the seeds, and to bring theseplants to the class for the next lesson. DETAILED STUDY OF SEED DISPERSAL II. CLASS-ROOM LESSON Make use of the specimens gathered by the pupils and by the teacher forobserving and classifying as follows: 1. Seeds that steal rides. Examples--burdock, blue burr, pitch-forkweed, barley, stick-tight, hound's tongue. 2. Seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractivecolours, tastes, etc. Examples--apple, grape, cherry, rowan, hawthorn. 3. Seeds that are carried by the wind. Examples--dandelion, thistle, milkweed, maple, pine, elm. 4. Seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods. Examples--violet, jewel-weed (touch-me-not), sweet-pea, witch-hazel. 5. Seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by thewind. Examples--Russian thistle, tumble-mustard, tumble-grass. 6. Seeds that float. Very many seeds float, although not speciallyfitted for floating, and some, such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily, areespecially adapted for dispersal by water. _To the teacher. _--Require the pupils to observe the special structurethat facilitates the dispersal of the seed. As an illustration, ask thepupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr isreally like. They find that the burr is a little basket filled withseeds. The basket has many little hooks which catch on the hair ofanimals and, since these hooks turn inwards, they serve to hold thebasket in such a position that all the seeds are not likely to drop outat one time. The pupils should also observe that these baskets are quitefirmly attached to the parent plant until the seeds are ripe; after thatthe baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull. SEED COLLECTIONS During late summer and in the autumn the seeds of the weeds that havebeen identified by the pupils should be collected. Instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods between the hands untilthe seeds are thrashed out, at the same time blowing away the chaff. Theseeds are now placed in small phials or in small envelopes and these arecarefully labelled. If possible, fill each phial so that there may besufficient seed for use by all the members of the class in the lessonson seed description and identification which are to be taken during thewinter months, when Nature Study material is less plentiful than it isin the summer and autumn. The phials or envelopes may be stored in ashallow box, or the phials may be mounted on a stout card. They may beattached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card andpassing around the phial, or by brass cleats, which may be obtained withthe phials from dealers in Nature Study supplies. MAN AS A DISPERSER OF SEEDS Man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic fordiscussion. Obtain, through the pupils, samples of seed-grain, clover seed, timothyseed, turnip seed, etc. Ask the pupils to examine these and count thenumber of weed seeds found in each. The results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxiousweeds are introduced. Describe the introduction from Europe to the wheat-fields of the PrairieProvinces of such weeds as Russian thistle, false-flax, French-weed. Theseeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain, fodder for animals, andalso in the hay and straw used by the immigrants as packing for theirhousehold goods. Careful farmers will not allow thrashing-machines, seed drills, fanning-mills, etc. , to come from farms infested with noxious weeds todo work upon their farms, nor will they buy manure, straw, or hay thatwas produced on dirty farms. THE SUGAR MAPLE FIELD EXERCISES Select a convenient sugar maple as a type. Ask the pupils to observe andto describe the height of the tree, the height of the trunk below thebranches, the shape and size of the crown, the diameter of the trunk, the colour of the bark, the markings on the bark, the number anddirection of the branches, and the density of the foliage. Compare thedensity of the foliage with that of other kinds of trees. Require thepupils to make a crayon drawing of the tree. Examine the crop of grain produced near a shade tree. Compare the cropon the north side of the tree with that on the south side. Account forthe difference. Is the crop around the tree inferior to that in the rest of the field? Find out how long the various sugar maple shade trees in the localityhave been planted. Is it a tree of rapid or slow growth? Are these sugarmaples infested with insects or attacked by fungi? Do these trees yield sap that is suitable for making maple syrup? Examine trees that have been tapped and find whether the old woundsbecome overgrown or cause decay. Find out all you can about the uses that are made of maple wood. _To the teacher. _--The sugar maple is the most highly prized of ournative trees for ornament and shade. It grows fairly rapidly andbecomes a goodly-sized tree within twenty years after it is planted. Thesymmetrical dome-shaped crown and the dense foliage of restful darkgreen give to it a fine appearance. It is hardy and has few insectpests, and its value is enhanced by the abundant yield of rich sap. As a commercial tree it has few superiors; the wood is hard and durableand takes a high polish. It is used for flooring, furniture, boatbuilding, for the wooden parts of machinery and tools, and for makingshoe-pegs and shoe lasts. As fuel maple wood is surpassed only byhickory. MAPLE LEAVES CLASS-ROOM LESSON The pupils bring to the class leaves of the sugar maple. Each pupil isprovided with a leaf and makes direct observations under the guidance ofthe teacher. ~Observations. ~--Colour, dark green on the upper surface, lighter green onthe lower surface. Surface smooth and shiny. Shape: star-shaped, broader than long. Lobes: usually five, often three; each lobe has usually two large teeth. Base has a heart-shaped notch; petiole long and slender, usually red. Veins are stiff and run out to the points of the teeth. Distribute leaves of the _red_ maple and ask the pupils to note thegeneral resemblance. Next ask them to compare the leaves as to shape, texture, and teeth on the margin. Ask the pupils to find red maple trees and also to find maples withleaves that are different from those of the red maple and those of thesugar maple. Make a collection of maple leaves when they are in autumn colours. (SeeCollections, page 33, in General Method. ) _To the teacher. _--The leaves of the red maple are longer than broad, and are not so smooth and shiny as the leaves of the sugar maple. Thereare numerous "saw teeth" on the margins of the lobes. The silver maple, with leaves having silver-white under surfaces, is another commonspecies. A lesson similar to that on leaf studies may be based on the fruits(keys) of the maples. The oak, ash, elm, beech, or birch may be taken up in lessons similar tothose outlined for the study of the maple. CORRELATIONS With literature and reading: By interpreting "The Maple", _The OntarioReaders, Third Book_, page 179; With art: By sketching the tree and reproducing the autumn leaves incolour work. WEED STUDIES In every locality there are about a dozen weeds that are particularlytroublesome, and the pupils of Form III should be taught to identifythese and to understand the characteristics which make each weedpersistent. To produce these results it will be necessary to have exercises such asthe following: 1. The teacher exhibits a weed to the pupils and directs their attentionto a few of the outstanding features of the plant. 2. The pupils are required, as a field exercise, to observe where theweed is abundant; and whether in hay field, pasture, hoe crop, or ingrain. The pupils will bring specimens to the class. 3. Detailed study in the class of specimens of the weed brought by thepupils to find offensive odours and prickles, also the character of theleaves, flowers, seed pods, and seeds, including the means of dispersal;the underground parts, whether underground stem, tap-root, or fibrousroot, and the value of the underground parts as a means of persistence. 4. The pupils make a collection of the weeds that have been studied. (See Plant Collection, page 39, in General Method. ) 5. The pupils make collections of the seeds of the weeds that have beenstudied. OBSERVATION LESSON ON WEED SEEDS The seed of a weed should always be exhibited and studied in associationwith a fresh or a mounted specimen of the weed. Each pupil should use a hand lens in examining the seed. The pupils examine the seed of each species and describe it according tothe following scheme: NAME OF SEED _Colour:_ _Size:_ (in fractions of an inch) _Shape:_ _Details:_ _Occurrence:_ The results of the pupils' study of the ox-eye daisy would then appearin the following form: SEED OF OX-EYE DAISY _Colour:_ Black and greenish-white in stripes, _Size:_ One sixteenth of an inch, _Shape:_ Club-shaped, _Details_: Grooved lengthwise, yellow peg in large end, _Occurrence:_ A common impurity in grass seed. GRASSHOPPER (Consult the Manual on _Suggestions for Teachers of Science_: Zoology, First year. ) The ease with which this insect may be obtained in August or September, together with its fairly large size, makes it a suitable specimen forinsect study. It is also a typical insect, so that a careful studyserves as a basis for a knowledge of the class _insecta_. FIELD EXERCISES Problems to be assigned for outdoor observation: Locomotion by flying, leaping, walking; protective coloration and habit of "lying low"; itsbehaviour when caught; in what kinds of fields it is most plentiful; inwhat kinds of weather it is most active; its position on the grass orgrain when feeding; the nature and extent of the damage done by it. Use a class period for discussion of the above. Confirm, correct, orincite to more careful observation. CLASS-ROOM LESSON (Studied as a typical insect) ~Observations. ~--The three divisions of the body--head, thorax, abdomen;the segmental division of the two latter parts; the hard, protectingcovering; the movements of the abdomen; the two large compound eyes andthree small eyes; the feelers; the two pairs of mouth feelers; thecutting mandibles; the three pairs of legs (one pair for leaping) andtwo pairs of wings on the thorax; the breathing pores, the ears, ovipositors of the female. The young grasshoppers may be found in spring or early summer, and a feweven in late summer, among the grass of old meadows and pastures. Theyare easily recognized because of their general resemblance to the adultand are in the stage of development called the _nymph_ phase. Note thehairy body and the absence of wings. _To the teacher. _--The moulting of the nymph is a very interestingprocess to observe and so is the laying of the eggs by the female in aburrow that she prepares in the soil. If females secured in July arekept in a jar having two inches of soil in the bottom, they will laytheir eggs in the soil; the nests and eggs may then be taken up andexamined. In order that we may not destroy our friends and helpers, it isexpedient to know what creatures help to hold pests in check. The enemies of grasshoppers are birds and insect parasites. Under thewings of grasshoppers may frequently be found little red mites; thesekill the grasshoppers to which they are attached. The blister-beetleslay their eggs in the grasshoppers' nests, and the larvæ of the beetlesfeed upon and destroy the eggs. The birds that are especially useful in destroying grasshoppers are themeadow-lark, crow, bobolink, quail, grasshopper sparrow. The curious hairlike worms known to the school boys as "hair snakes"because of the belief that they are parts of horse hairs turned intosnakes, are worms that pass the early part of their life within thebodies of grasshoppers and, when the insects die, the worms escape andare washed by rains into troughs and ponds where their movements attractattention. Study the cricket and house-fly and compare the cricket with thegrasshopper. APHIDES In September obtain leaves of sweet-pea, apple, rose bush, maple, oak, turnip, etc. , on which the insects are feeding; also provide specimensof woolly aphides on the bark of apple trees or stems of goldenrod oralder. Observe the nature of the injury to the leaves and plants on which theseinsects feed. Do the insects bite the leaves or suck the juices? Give evidence insupport of your answer. Sprinkle paris-green on the leaves; does this kill the insects? Why doesit not? Spray the insects with a little oil, such as kerosene, or withwater in which the stub of a cigar has been soaked; what is the effect? Insects that suck juices from inside the leaf escape the poisoning fromsolutions in the leaf surfaces; such insects are killed by oils whichenter the breathing pores and cause poisoning. Search in the garden, orchard, and forest for plants attacked byaphides. Carefully observe the lady-birds that are frequently foundwhere there are aphides. Lady-birds (also called lady-bugs), are small, spotted beetles, broad oval in form, of bright colours, red and black, or yellow and black, or black and white. They are of great service to the farmer and gardener because their foodsconsists largely of plant-lice (aphides). Watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides. The ants maybe observed stroking the aphides with their feelers, causing the aphidesto excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds. Aphides are sometimescalled ant-cows. Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the maleand female aphides; the males have wings, but the females are wingless. TOMATO WORM THE ADULT The adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are inbloom, as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey. It is frequently mistaken for the humming-bird when thus engaged. It mayalso be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on theleaves of tomato vines. Observe the worms that hatch from these eggs and note their rapidgrowth. Keep the larvæ in a box in the school-room and feed them ontomato leaves. Note their size and colour, the oblique stripes on thesides, the horn which is used for terrifying assailants, the habit ofremaining rigid for hours--hence the name sphinx moth. The larvæ burrow into the ground in September to form the chrysalides, hence there should be soil in the vivarium in which they are kept. THE CHRYSALIS ~Observations. ~--The shape, colour, nature of the covering, the longhandle, the wing impressions, the segmental part, the emergence of theadult in May or early June. What organ of the insect was contained in the "handle" of the chrysalis? The adult is one of the handsomest of moths, because of its graceful, clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress. Lookon poplar, cotton-wood, plum, and pine trees, and on tobacco plants forrelatives of the tomato worm, the large green larvæ whose chrysalis andadult forms resemble those of the tomato worm. THE CROW Crows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in makingobservations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer. (As the crow is a bird that is easily tamed, it may be possible to havea tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details ofstructure. ) ~Observations. ~--Describe its attitude when perched, movements of thewings in flight, speed of flight. Why does the crow perch high up intrees? What gives to the crow its swift flight? Study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm, threat, summons, and expression of fear. Find the nest and note its position, size, build, materials, eggs, andyoung. How is the nest concealed? What makes it strong? Are crows often seen on the ground? Do they walk or hop? Observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding. It eats corn, potatoes, oats, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, andoccasionally birds' eggs or young birds. Why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow? Are scarecrows effective inkeeping crows off the grain fields? Note the sentinels that are on the watch to warn other crows of danger. Give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird. Give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtfulcharacter. Give reasons why crows should be protected. NOTE. --Crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered withcoal-tar before it is planted. In addition to the animals already named, the musk-rat, raccoon, fox, flying-squirrel, robin, wren, and king-bird will be found convenient forstudy in many localities. The swimming of the musk-rat, and how its shape, fur, feet, and tail fitit for a life in water are topics suitable for observational exercises, as are also its food, its winter home, and the burrows leading from thewater into the banks. In the case of the winter home, the location, thestructure, the submerged entrance, the living-room, and the surroundingmoat, are topics of interest. CORRELATIONS With literature: By reading animal stories, such as, _The Kindred of theWild_ and "Red Fox, " by Charles G. D. Roberts; and _Wild Animals I HaveKnown_, by Ernest Thompson-Seton. With language: By oral and written descriptions of the animals that havebeen observed. CHAPTER X FORM III WINTER CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME The care of flowering bulbs which was begun in Form I will be continuedin Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be takenup. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plantsmay be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate theplant's needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed: 1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers ofsods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand untilthoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms anexcellent soil for most house plants. 2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little waterevery day. 3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to cleanse themfrom dust. 4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be usedto destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for thispurpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean waterafter using a soap wash. 5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, althoughmost of the ferns grow without it. 6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be setout-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when theymay be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings made from them forpotting. 7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a localexhibition, adds to the interest. 8. The pupils should report to the teacher from time to time theprogress of their plants and make many drawings showing theirdevelopment. PLANT CUTTINGS The pupils will be interested to know that it is possible to produce newplants without waiting for them to grow up from the seed. It will indeedbe quite a surprise to them to see a new plant complete in all its partsgrow up from a small piece of stem, root, or even leaf. With a littlecare even children may propagate plants in this way. SELECTION OF CUTTINGS Begin with some of the common herbaceous bedding-plants, such asgeranium, coleus, or fuschia. These are such common bedding-plants thatthey are easily obtained in the autumn. Only well-matured stems of theseason's growth, such as will break with a slight snap when bent, shouldbe used. Let the pupils provide themselves with sharp knives for the lesson, withsmall boxes or pots, and with some moist, clean sand--not potting soil. A few holes should be bored in the bottom of the box, then a layer offine gravel put in to provide for good drainage, and over it layers ofmoist sand. Take a slip or growing end of a stem about three inches inlength, always cutting it at or just below a node, or joint, andleaving only a couple of small leaves on the top of the slip. Insert itto about half its depth in the box of moist sand. These cuttings may beplaced a few inches apart in the box, which should then be placed in awarm, light room for a few weeks until the roots develop. The cuttingsshould be partly shaded by papers from the strong sunlight, and the sandkept slightly moist but not wet. Bottom heat and a moist, warmatmosphere hasten their development. Another very convenient and very successful method of starting cuttingsis to take a six-inch flower-pot, put two inches of fine gravel in thebottom, set a four-inch unglazed flower-pot in the centre, and fill upthe space around it with sand and garden-loam, mixed. Put a cork in thehole in the bottom of the small flower-pot, and then fill it with water. Put the cuttings around in the space between the two pots and set in afairly warm room in moderate light. POTTING OF ROOTED CUTTINGS When the cuttings are well rooted, which requires from three to sixweeks according to the variety and growth conditions furnished, theyshould be carefully lifted with a trowel and each set in a small pot orcan. First put in the bottom a few small stones to secure drainage, andthen a little good potting soil. Set the plant in place and fill inaround with more soil and pack this firmly around the roots. Keep roomin the top of the pot for water. When the new plant has made somegrowth, it may be shifted to a larger pot. Geraniums and coleus (foliageplants) should not be kept more than two seasons. Take cuttings off theold plants and then throw the latter away. EVERGREENS In December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce, balsam, and cedar, if available, or substitute hemlock for any one ofthese. Compare the general features of these trees, such as shape, direction ofbranches, colour, persistence of leaves through the winter. Have the pupils notice how nature fits these trees to endure the snowsand storms of winter by: 1. The tapering cone which causes the snow to slide off the tree. 2. The fine, needle-shaped leaves to which only very sticky snow willadhere. 3. The very tough, flexible, and elastic branches, which bend in thewind and under the weight of snow, but spring back to their oldpositions. 4. The resin in leaves, stems, and buds, which enables the trees toresist frost and rain. Teach the pupils to distinguish these trees by their differences incolour and form and also by the differences in their leaves and cones. CLASS-ROOM LESSON Distribute small twigs of balsam and require the pupils to observe anddescribe the length, shape, and colour of the leaves. Next distribute small twigs of spruce and require the pupils to comparethe spruce leaves with those of the balsam in length, shape, and colour. Next distribute twigs of cedar and proceed similarly. The cones may be dealt with in a similar manner. Require the pupils tomake a census of the evergreens of the locality, recording the class ofevergreen, the size, and the use of each kind for shade, ornament, orfor commercial purposes. _To the teacher. _--The balsam, spruce, and hemlock are difficult for thebeginner to distinguish, but this may be done by noting the followingpoints of difference in their leaves: The leaf of the hemlock is the only one that has a distinct leaf-stalk. Look for this tiny stalk. The leaf of the hemlock, like that of the balsam, is flat, but thehemlock leaf is much the shorter. The leaf of the spruce is not flat, but is three-sided or nearly so. Itscolour is uniform, while the under surface of the hemlock leaf, and alsoof the balsam leaf, is of a decidedly lighter colour than the uppersurface. Note that the spruce _type_ is studied; no attempt is made at this stageto differentiate the several species of spruce. COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for theschool collection. These specimens should be cut when green, and driedafterwards. They should be uniform in length--not more than sixinches--and should show the bark on one side. The side showing the barkshould be two inches wide at most, six inches long, and running in aV-shaped, radial section toward the pith. A tangential section alsoshows well the rounded layers. A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off around stick is tangential. Care should be taken not to mutilate trees intaking these specimens. Specimens of rare or foreign woods may beobtained at wood-working factories. RELATED READING Winter is Nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation inthe out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives placefor a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for readingand reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season. During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of naturestories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as wellas with animal life. Pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans ofimprovement for the approaching spring and summer. Let them writeletters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar work hasbeen carried on, and give some of their experiences in gardening andother plant studies, and also in animal studies. A certain Fridayafternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which werereceived in reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing uponthe outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures alsocome in here as an aid in helping the pupils to appreciate writtendescriptions. The first-hand observations made by them will form a basisfor the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literatureselections. For Observation Lesson on Weed Seeds, see page 171. HOW ANIMALS PREPARE FOR WINTER ~Introduction. ~--Discuss the preparations that people make for winter, such as the storing of food and the providing of warmer clothes andhomes. ~Method. ~--The teacher questions the pupils and encourages them to tellwhat they have learned through their own observation of animals. Theknowledge of the pupils is supplemented by information given by theteacher, but the pupils are left to find out more facts by furtherobservations. Thus: Do you ever see ground-hogs out during winter? What do they feed upon during the winter? What is the condition of ground-hogs in late summer and in autumn? What is the use of the great store of fat that they have in theirbodies? Examine the snow near the burrows of ground-hogs and find whether theyever come out in mid-winter. _To the teacher. _--The hibernating animals prepare a home or nest andlay up a store of food in the form of fat within their bodies. Tohibernate does not mean the same as to sleep. The hibernating animalshave much less active organs than the sleeping animals. The heart-beatand the respiratory movements are very slow and feeble, consequently avery little nourishment suffices to sustain life. SUMMARY OF LESSONS (Two lessons of twenty minutes) 1. Some animals migrate: Examples--many birds, butterflies, and some bats; the cariboo, and buffalo. 2. Some animals hibernate: Examples--bear, ground-hog, raccoon, frogs, toads, snakes, and some bats. NOTE. --Flies, mosquitoes, and some other insects crawl into crevices and remain at rest during winter, but their bodies are not stored with food. 3. Some animals build houses and store foods: Examples--beaver, squirrel, chipmunk, honey-bee, deer-mouse. 4. Some animals build homes convenient to food: Examples--musk-rat, field-mouse. 5. Some animals put on warmer clothing: Examples--fox, mink, otter, rabbit, horse, cow, partridge, chickadee. The rabbit and weasel turn white, a colour protection. 6. Many insect larvæ form cocoons or pupæ cases: Examples--emperor-moth, codling moth, tomato worm. CORRELATIONS With literature, reading, and language. With geography: By a lesson on "The influence of climate upon animal andplant life. " CHICKENS (Consult _Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture_ by Robinson. Ginn & Co. , $2. 00. ) CONVERSATION LESSON How many of you keep chickens at your homes? Why do many kinds of people keep chickens? What breeds of chickens do you keep? How many other breeds do you know? Describe the appearance of a few of the commoner breeds. Why are there so many different breeds? Name those that are good laying breeds. Name breeds that are not usually considered good laying breeds. _To the teacher. _--Chickens are kept by all classes of people. Many keepthem for the profit in eggs and meat, others keep them as a fad, andothers to gratify a craving for animal companionship. There are onehundred and seventy-five recognized breeds, varying in size from that ofthe Japanese bantam weighing ten ounces to that of the huge Brahma whichweighs fourteen pounds. The shapes and colours present as great avariation as the sizes. The breeds that are usually regarded as goodlayers are White Leghorn, Barred Bock, and Rhode Island Red, while theGame breeds are usually regarded as poor layers. Careful tests prove, however, that there are good laying and poor laying strains in everybreed, and care must be taken to select from good strains, since thebreed is not a sufficient guide. At the close of the first lesson, assign to the pupils the task ofmaking a chicken census of the district as follows: 1. Request each pupil to count the number of hens under two years old athis home and also to count the hens that are more than two years old. 2. Request each pupil to find out, if possible, the number of eggsobtained at his home during the whole year. ARITHMETIC LESSON BASED ON THE CHICKEN CENSUS 1. Using the data collected by the pupils, calculate the total number ofchickens under two years old in the district. Calculate the number over two years old. (The latter are classed asunprofitable. ) 2. Using the data obtained by the pupils (provided sufficient data wasobtained to make it reasonably reliable), calculate the average numberof eggs laid a year by each hen. 3. If the data collected by the pupils as to the number of eggs isthought to be unreliable, make use of the following: The average number of eggs laid each year by each hen in Ontario isseven dozen. Use this average number, and: (1) Calculate the value of the eggs produced in this district in a year, the average price of eggs being twenty cents a dozen. (2) If the average production of eggs were increased to ten dozen (anumber that is easily possible under improved management), find thevalue of the eggs that would be produced in a year, and find the gainthat would result from this better management. 4. If it costs ninety cents a year to feed a hen, find the net annualprofit to this district from the egg production. CARE OF CHICKENS The method of developing conceptions of how to take proper care ofchickens is based partly upon the pupils' experiences and partly upon aknowledge of the history of the original wild hens. Information can be gathered from the pupils as to the date of hatchingof the earliest chickens and the date at which the pullets begin to lay. Chickens that are hatched in April begin to lay in November or Decemberand lay throughout the winter when eggs bring the highest price. The original wild hens lived in the dry, grassy, and shrubby jungles ofIndia. They were free to move about in the open air, and at night theyperched in the trees, which sheltered them from rain. Hence may beinferred what kind of quarters should be provided for chickens. CARE AND FOOD OF CHICKENS Points developed Chickens must have plenty of fresh air without draughts. Heat is not necessary. Their quarters must be dry, clean, and well lighted. They require exercise. Their food must have in it the materials that are needed to make thesubstance of the egg. Breakfast: Wheat or corn scattered among straw--the scratching affordsexercise. Dinner: Meat scraps, slaughter-house refuse, vegetables, sour milk, androlled oats. Supper: As at breakfast. PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY The teacher is advised to read carefully the instructions and GeneralMethod of Experimental Science, Chapter I, before beginning the lessonsin Physical Science. SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES Arrange a collection of objects of various shapes, sizes, colours, andweights, as cork, glass, lead, iron, copper, stone, coal, chalk. Showthat these are alike in one respect, namely, that they have a shape noteasily changed, that is, they are _solids_. Compare these solids withsuch substances as water, alcohol, oil, molasses, mercury, milk, tar, honey, glycerine, gasolene. These latter will pour, and depend for theirshape on the containing vessel. They are _liquids_. Compare air withsolids and liquids. Such a material as air is called a _gas_. Otherexamples of illuminating gas, and dentists' "gas"; others will bestudied in future lessons. Pupils may think all gases are invisible. Toshow that some are not, put a few pieces of copper in a test-tube ortumbler and add a little nitric acid. Watch the brown gas fall throughthe air; note how it spreads in all directions. Some gases fall becausethey are heavier than air; others rise because lighter. All gases spreadout as soon as liberated and try to fill all the available space. Spilla little ammonia and note how soon the odour of the gas is smelled inall parts of the room. CHANGE OF STATE Heat some lead or solder in a spoon till liquid. Let it cool. Do thesame with wax. Heat some water in a flask till it becomes steam. Steam is a gas. Coolthe steam and form water again. (See distillation. ) Refer to lava(melted rock), moulding iron, melting ice and snow, softening of butter. All solids may be changed to liquids and even to gases if sufficientlyheated. Likewise all gases may be changed into liquids and then tosolids. EXPANSION OF SOLIDS In winter pupils may find that the ink is frozen. The teacher directsattention to this and inquires why it has occurred. It may be that in alesson on rocks the teacher will ask the pupils to account for all thelittle stones. The following _experiments_ will aim at solving theforegoing problems: 1. A brass ball and ring are shown. Pupils handle these and note thatboth are cold and that the ball just passes through the ring. They areasked to compare the size of the ball with that of the ring. 2. The spirit-lamp is lighted and examined. Pupils hold their hands overthe flame to note the heat. 3. The ball is heated in the flame for a short time by one of thepupils, and felt cautiously. An attempt is made to pass it through thering. How has the ball changed in feeling? In size? How does one know itis larger? What has caused these changes? 4. Cool the ball. Feel it. Try to pass it through the ring now. How hasit changed in feeling? In size? What caused these changes? How does heataffect the ball? How does cold affect it? The teacher may now give the words _expand_ and _contract_, writing themon the black-board and explaining their use. Pupils may then state theirconclusions: _A brass ball expands when heated and contracts whencooled. _ A blacksmith can make the following very serviceable apparatus: A scrapof iron about eleven inches long, one inch wide, and one-eighth inchthick, has one inch bent up at each end. A rod one-eighth inch indiameter is made just long enough to pass between the upturned ends ofthe first piece when both are cold. The rod is heated and the experimentconducted as in the case of the ball. Two additional facts are learned:(1) Iron expands as well as brass; (2) solids expand in length as wellas in volume. The pupils may now be told that other solids have beentried and expansion has invariably followed heating. The conclusion maythen be made general. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 1. When your ink-bottle was placed on the stove, which end becamewarmer? Which expanded the more. Why then did it crack? 2. What other examples like this have you noticed? (Lamp chimneys, fruitjars, stove plates) 3. The earth was once very hot and is now cooling. How is the size ofthe earth changing? Does it ever crack? What causes earthquakes? 4. Find out by observation how a blacksmith sets tires. 5. Invent a way to loosen a glass stopper stuck in the neck of a bottle. 6. What does your mother do if the metal rim refuses to come off thefruit jar? 7. Next time you cross a railway, notice whether the ends of the railstouch. Explain. 8. What allowance is made for contraction in a wire fence? A railwaybridge? Why? 9. Why do the stove-pipes crack when the fire is first started? 10. Why does the house go "thump" on a very cold night? 11. Draw the ball, ring, and spirit-lamp in position. 12. Describe in writing the experiments we have made. QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION You have seen that iron and brass both expand. Do they expand equally?Let pupils have a few days to invent a way of answering the question. The experiment may then be tried with the compound bar. See _The OntarioHigh School Physics_, pages 217-218, also _First Course in Physics_, Milliken and Gale, page 144. If the equipment of the school is limited, it may be necessary todispense with the ball and ring and generalize from one experiment. Another easily made apparatus consists of two iron rings with handles. One ring will just pass through the other when both are cold. The stovemay take the place of the spirit-lamp. A still simpler plan consists in driving two nails into a block at sucha distance apart that an iron rod (six-inch nail, poker, bolt, etc. )will just pass between. On heating the rod the increase in lengthbecomes evident. EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS Fill a common bottle with coloured water; insert a rubber stopperthrough which passes a glass tube about sixteen inches long. Set thebottle in a pan of water and gradually warm the water. The rise of theliquid in the tube will indicate expansion. On setting the bottle incold water the fall of the column of coloured water shows contraction. See _The Ontario High School Physics_, page 218, also _Science of CommonLife_, page 48. Macmillan Co. , 60 cents. Set the flask or bottle in a mixture of ice and salt and note that theextreme cold causes contraction for a while, then expansion. Note thatwhen expansion begins, the water has not begun to freeze, but that itdoes so soon after. The night before this experiment the children should set out in the coldair, tightly corked bottles of water. In the morning they will be foundburst by the expansion. APPLICATIONS 1. Why did some of the ink-bottles burst in the cold room? 2. Find large stones split up into two or more fragments. Explain. 3. Why is fall-ploughed land so mellow in spring? 4. Why does ice float? Think what would happen if it did not. 5. Explain the heaving of oats, clover, wheat. 6. Do all liquids expand on freezing? Try melted paraffin. THE THERMOMETER Besides the ordinary thermometer the school should possess a chemicalthermometer graduated from 0° Fahrenheit to 212°. 1. Our sensations vary so much under different circumstances and indifferent individuals that they cannot be depended on. Find examples ofthis and show the need of a measuring instrument. 2. The pupils can learn, by examination of the common wall instrument, the parts of the thermometer--tube, bulb, liquid (alcohol or mercury), and scale. 3. Repeat the experiment for expansion of liquids, showing wherein theapparatus resembles the thermometer, warm the thermometer bulb and watchthe column rise; cool it and note the fall. 4. Set the bulb of the chemical thermometer in boiling water. Themercury comes to rest near 212°. Bury the bulb in melting snow andnotice that the column falls to 32°. Give names for these points. Explain that a degree is one of the 180 equal parts which lie betweenboiling point and freezing-point. Show that 32° below freezing must be0°, or zero. 5. The uses of thermometers for indoors and outdoors; for dairy, sickroom, incubator, and soils; maximum and minimum. Dairy thermometersregistering 212° Fahrenheit may be obtained; they are cheaper thanchemical thermometers. EXPANSION OF AIR Half fill a flask with water and invert it uncorked over water in aplate. Apply a cloth soaked in boiling water to the part that containsair. Why does the water leave the flask? Apply cold water. Why does thewater return? Any ordinary bottle may be used in place of the flask, butit is more liable to crack. Make an air thermometer. See _The Ontario High School Physics_, page223, also _Science of Common Life_, page 41. Try to graduate it from themercurial thermometer. Have the boys make a stand for it. _Inferences. _--Heated gases rise because they expand. Hot-air balloons, winds, and heating with hot-air furnaces, all depend on this principle. SOURCES OF HEAT AND LIGHT NOTES FOR A SERIES OF LESSONS 1. THE SUN. --Our dependence on it. Valuable results of its heat. Simplenotions as to its size, distance, and nature. Our earth catches a verysmall fraction of the sun's heat; our sun is but one of millions--thefixed stars. Show the burning effect of a lens. 2. FUELS. --Wood, oil, coal, alcohol, gas, peat, straw: where obtained;special uses of each under varying conditions; need of economy. (This isclosely related to geography. ) 3. ELECTRICITY. --In urban schools use the electric light or some heatingdevice for illustration. In rural schools a battery of two or threecells (see "Apparatus") will melt a fine strand drawn from a picturewire. Applications: ironing, toasting, cooking; advantages or disadvantagescompared with gas or wood. 4. FRICTION. --Pupils rub hands together; rub a button on a cloth; saw astring across the edge of a board or across the hand; bore a holethrough a hardwood plank, then feel the auger-bit. Applications: restoring circulation; "hot-boxes" in machinery;lubricants and their uses; lighting matches. 5. POUNDING. --Hammer a nail flat on an anvil or stone; feel it. Bulletsfired against an iron or stone surface may be picked up very hot. Notesparks that can be struck from a stone; percussion caps, flint-lockmuskets. 6. PRESSURE. --After using a bicycle pump for some time, feel the bottom, also the top. If possible, examine an air-compressor and find out themeans used for cooling the air. 7. SOURCES OF LIGHT. --Sun, moon, oil, tallow, gas, electricity, wax, acetylene; advantages of each; relative cost. PRIMITIVE METHODS OF OBTAINING FIRE: Most savages obtain fire byfriction; rubbing two pieces of wood together till hot enough to setfire to some dry, light material. The natives of Australia placed a flatpiece of wood on the ground and pressed against this the end of a roundpiece, which they twirled rapidly with their hands till fire wasproduced. The North American Indians did the twirling with their bowstrings; the Eskimo's plan is somewhat similar. It is impossible to saywhen flint and steel were first used, but we know they continued to bethe chief means of producing fire till about 1834, when matches wereinvented. Let pupils try to produce fire by these means. The earliest lamps consisted of shells, skulls of animals, andcup-shaped stones filled with fat or fish oils which burned on a wick ofcloth or the pith of rushes. The Tibetans burn butter, the Eskimoswhale- or seal-oil, the Arabians palm- or olive-oil. For outdoorlighting, torches carried in the hand were used till gas came intogeneral use about 1792. CONDUCTION Give to four boys strips of copper, aluminium, wood, and glass, respectively. They hold these by one end and heat the other end till oneor more are forced to drop the piece on account of the heat. The boyswith the metals will soon find them hot throughout, but the other twowill be able to hold on indefinitely. The teacher gives the terms "goodconductor" and "poor conductor". PROBLEMS 1. Are metals generally good conductors? Try with strips of zinc, lead, iron, a silver spoon. 2. Are all good conductors equally good? Devise a means of ascertaining. See _Science of Common Life_, Chapter VI; also _The Ontario High SchoolPhysics_, page 274. 3. Is water a good conductor? Lists of good and poor conductors may then be made, the teacher addingto the list. Good: metals; poor: wood, horn, bone, cloth, leather, air, water, hair, asbestos, ashes, rock, earth. PROBLEMS 1. If the interior of the earth is very hot, why do we not feel it? 2. How can the cold snow keep the earth warm? 3. Why does your hand freeze to metals but not to wood? 4. Let the children try to find other instances: wools or furs forclothing, fur coats on northern animals, feathers on birds, down quilts, tea cosies, sawdust for packing ice, double windows, wooden handles forhot irons, asbestos coating for steam pipes. THE MINERS' SAFETY-LAMP: This is a most important application ofconduction. Get from the tinsmith a piece of brass gauze six inchessquare. Raise the wick of the spirit-lamp causing it to give a highflame and bring the gauze down upon the flame till it touches the wick. Note that the flame does not rise above the gauze. Hold a piece of paperabove the gauze near the flame and note that it does not take fire. Notealso that the gauze soon becomes hot. The brass wires conduct the heatof the flame rapidly away so that there is not heat enough above thegauze to cause combustion. Now roll the gauze into a hollow cylinder, pin the edges together, insert a cork at each end, and have a shortcandle fastened to the lower one. Try to light the candle with the lampthrough the gauze. It is not easily done. The miner carries a lamp made like this, so that if he should be in thepresence of the explosive gas, "fire damp", it would not explode becauseof the wire gauze shield. CONVECTION Water is not a conductor, how then is it heated? Drop a few pieces of solid colouring matter, (analine blue, blueing, orpotassium permanganate) into a beaker of cold water. Place the beakerover a heater and observe the coloured portion rise. Wet sawdust will make a good substitute for the colouring matter. Asealing jar or even a tin cup will do instead of the beaker. The stoveor a dish of hot water will take the place of the lamp. PROBLEMS 1. Using a thermometer, see whether the water at the bottom is warmerthan that at the top while the beaker is being heated. 2. Heat some oil and pour it over the surface of some cold water. Lowera thermometer into this. Does the water at the bottom soon become warm? 3. If your kitchen is provided with a hot-water tank, find out what partof the tank first becomes warm after the fire is lighted. 4. In bathing, where do you find the coldest water of a pond or stillriver? See _Science of Common Life_, Chapter VI; also _The Ontario HighSchool Physics_, page 280. CONVECTION IN GASES A good apparatus may be made by cutting two holes one inch in diameterin one side of a chalk box, replace the lid with a piece of glass, placea lamp chimney over each hole and a lighted candle under one of thechimneys. Hold a piece of smoking touch-paper at each chimney in turnand note direction of air current. APPLICATIONS 1. Winds are caused by the rising of air over heated areas, allowingcooler currents to take its place. (Geography) 2. Rooms are ventilated by heating some of the air more than the rest, thus producing a current. (Hygiene) Winds are nature's means ofventilating the earth. RADIATION OF HEAT This should be taken up as an introduction to dew, frost, winds, climate, etc. 1. Make an iron ball hot (the end of a poker will answer). Hold the handa few inches below the iron. Does the heat reach the hand by convection?By conduction? By means of suitable questions, lead the pupil to seethat it is not by convection, for the hand is below the hot object whileheated air rises; it is not by conduction, for air is one of the verypoorest conductors; moreover, the heat is felt instantly from the poker, but it takes an appreciable time for it to come by conduction andconvection. We say this heat is _radiated_ from the iron. The velocityof radiated heat is about 186, 000 miles a second. 2. The above experiment may be varied by bringing the hot iron graduallytoward the bulb of the air thermometer and noting the greatest distanceat which it will affect the thermometer. It is by radiation that the sun's heat and light reach us. We get muchof the heat of stoves, fire-places, and radiators by the same means. Why does the earth cool off at night? Why does dew form? Why can no dewform on a cloudy night? Why is a mountain top or a desert so cold, especially at night? 3. Take two tin cans (baking powder boxes will answer) and make holes inthe lids large enough to admit a thermometer. Blacken one box in theflame of an oil lamp. Fill both with boiling water and put in a coolplace. Test with a thermometer from time to time. Which cools mostrapidly? 4. Fill the tin cans with cold water, find the temperature, and thenplace them near a hot stove. Which warms faster? Usually dark or roughsurfaces radiate heat and absorb heat faster than bright or smooth ones. An excellent way of testing this is to lay a black cloth and a white oneside by side on the snow where the sun is shining brightly. The snowwill melt more rapidly under the black cloth. Painted shingles may besubstituted for the cloths. Try different colours. The day chosen shouldnot be extremely cold. PROBLEMS 1. Why should we have the outside of a tea-kettle, teapot, or hot-airshaft of a bright colour? Why should we have stoves and stove-pipes dullblack? 2. Why does a coat of snow keep the earth warm? 3. Which is the warmest colour to wear in winter? Does this account forthe colour of Arctic animals? 4. Which is the coolest colour to wear in the hot sun? 5. Gardeners sometimes strew the ground with coal-dust to help ripentheir melons. Show the value of this. 6. Suggest a method of protecting a wall from the heat of a stove. CHAPTER XI FORM III SPRING WINDOW BOXES Many garden plants should be started in a box of earth in a warm, sunnywindow. In some schools this can be done with a little care in heatingon cold nights. Small boxes or grape baskets full of rich sandy loamwith an inch of gravel in the bottom for drainage may be used. Sow theseeds in rows or broadcast. To prevent the soil from drying out tooquickly, cover the box with a pane of glass. When the plants are up, give them plenty of light and not too much warmth. On very mild days setthem in a warm, sheltered place out-of-doors and bring them in againearly in the evening. This tends to make them hardy. When about threeinches high, pick the young plants out and set them in other boxes a fewinches apart. This moving causes the formation of numerous fibrous rootsand makes stronger plants. WINDOW GARDENS Window boxes may be used for a whole season on the inside of thebuilding in cold weather, and on the outside in warm weather. There isalmost no limit to the kinds of plants that can be grown in them, butthey are most suitable for flowers. Good boxes may be made of dressed lumber so as to fit on thewindow-sill. They should be six inches deep, ten inches wide, and therequired length. They should have a few small holes in the bottom toallow excess water to drain off and should be painted dark green or somequiet colour. There should be an inch of gravel in the bottom, somerotted sods covering this, and then the box filled with rich sandy loam. SUITABLE PLANTS Some flowers suitable for growing in window boxes outside in summer arethose of drooping habit: lobelia, Kenilworth ivy, verbena, tropeolum, petunia, and sweet-alyssum toward the front, and behind, more erectplants, such as geranium, heliotrope, begonia, phlox, and nasturtium. The box must not be too much crowded. For inside and in shady situations the following are suitable:tradescantia, parlour ivy, moneywort, vinca smilax, climbing fern, asparagus fern, dracæna, coleus, centaurea, sword fern, and Boston fern. For indoor boxes in winter, the following may be used: abutilon, calceolaria, cyclamen, violets, primroses, petunias, geraniums, freesia, and such foliage plants as dracæna, cannas, dusty miller, and coleus. The following climbing plants may be trained up the window cases:asparagus plumosus fern, cobea scandens, smilax, maurandia, and Englishivy. If drooping or trailing plants are desired, the following may beused: oxalis, sweet-alyssum, lobelia, ivy, geranium, Kenilworth ivy, andWandering Jew. FERTILIZER As the amount of soil is limited and the number of plants that it has tosupport is great, the soil should be made quite rich and should befurther fertilized from time to time with a little liquid manure. Thiscan be best obtained by taking a strong barrel or large keg and fillingit about half full of water. Then fill an ordinary coarse potato sackwith cow-stable manure and set the sack in the barrel for a few days. Atap in the bottom of the barrel is most convenient for drawing off theliquid manure. A little of this will also be found valuable for wateringdahlias, roses, and other garden plants during the summer. SOIL STUDIES The classes of soil should be reviewed. Pupils should gather examplesfrom many places. The samples may be kept in bottles of uniform size andshould include not only the four types but varieties of each, alsovarious kinds of loam. EXERCISES AND EXPERIMENTS SOIL CONSTITUENTS 1. With a sharp spade, cut a piece about twelve inches deep from (1) theforest floor, (2) an old pasture field. Note character and order of thelayers of soil in (1) leaves, humus, loam, sand, or clay; in (2) grass, dead grass, humus, loam, sand, or clay. Observe soils shown in railwaycuttings, freshly dug wells, post holes. 2. Note the effect produced on the soil of a field by (1) leaving it afew years in pasture, (2) ploughing in heavy crops, (3) applyingbarn-yard manure. In all these cases vegetable matter is mixed with thesoil. 3. Dry some good leaf-mould. Throw a handful on the surface of somewater. The mineral matter sinks, while the vegetable portion remainssuspended for some time. Try this experiment with gravel, sand, andclay. Note that the gravel sinks rapidly, the sand less rapidly, andthat the clay takes a long time to settle. If the water be kept in rapidmotion, the finer soils will all remain suspended till motion becomesslower. Apply this in geography. The bed of a stream will consist ofstones if it be swift, of sand if less swift, and of clay if very slow. How are alluvial plains formed? 4. Place half an ounce of dry humus on an iron plate or fire-shovel andheat strongly in a stove. Note that it begins to smoke and a large partsmoulders away to ashes; the mineral portion remains. Weigh the partleft and find what fraction of the humus consisted of vegetablematerial. Try to find the proportion of vegetable matter in each of the following:loams from various sources, sand, clay, gravel. The last three will showscarcely any change. This experiment will give rise to some goodarithmetical problems in fractions. WATER IN SOILS 5. Compare a handful of fresh garden soil with the same soil dried. Notethe glistening of the fresh soil, also its weight and darker colour. Thefresh soil admits of packing though no water can be squeezed from it. Inits best condition, the water of the soil adheres as a film of moistureabout every particle. Free water is to be avoided since it excludes theair from the soil. 6. Equal weights of soils of different kinds and degrees of fineness areplaced in funnels or in inverted bottles with bottoms removed. Water isthen slowly added to each until it begins to drop from the lower end. From this is seen (1) the great value of humus as a water holder, (2)the advantage of fine soil over coarse. For retention of water byabsorption, consult _Nature Study and Life_, Hodge, page 382. 7. Take two wooden boxes (chalk boxes will do), fill one box with moistsand and the other with moist leaf-mould. Weigh the boxes separately andleave them for three or four days in a warm room. Weigh again and notedecrease from evaporation. The sand dries out much faster than thehumus. Test with clay, gravel, and loam, also with mixtures of these andleaf-mould. 8. Take three paint cans; punch holes in the bottoms. Fill each withgood soil well shaken down. Stand the cans in water till the tops aremoist, then place them in a warm, dry place. Loosen the soil on the topof No. 1 to a depth of one inch; on No. 2 to a depth of two inches;leave No. 3 untouched. Find out after a few days which is drying outfastest. How may soil be treated so as to lessen evaporation of water? DRAINAGE 9. Gravel and sand allow water to run away rapidly, but where the soilis fine or closely packed as in clay soils, under-drains are necessary(1) to carry off the surplus water, (2) to allow air to enter the soil, (3) to warm the soil (wet soil is colder than dry). Take two equal-sized tin cans, make several holes in the bottom of one, place therein a layer of broken pottery or stones, and fill with goodsoil. Fill the other with similar soil but make no holes for drainage. Plant in each can a healthy plant of the same size and kind. Water bothtill the soil is saturated and continue watering every two or threedays for six weeks. Note (1) the progress of the plants, (2) thetemperature of the soils, (3) which plant has the largest and deepestroots. (See _Bulletin 174_, Ontario Department of Agriculture. ) 10. Take five equal-sized boxes, provide for drainage, and fill No. 1with wood, earth, or humus, No. 2 with clay, No. 3 with sand, No. 4 witha mixture of clay and humus, No. 5 with a mixture of sand and humus. Plant corn in each box, set in a warm room, and keep watered for two orthree weeks. Note in which case growth is most rapid. Set boxes in a dryplace and cease watering. Which suffers most from the drought? Whichbakes hardest in the sun? Test the temperature of each after wateringand standing in the sun for an hour. Sand is warmer than clay, also thepresence of humus raises the temperature. This item is important, sincemost seeds decay instead of sprouting if the temperature is below 45°Fahrenheit. 11. Enumerate the services rendered to the soil by humus. 12. In Experiment 10, let the corn grow for some time and determinewhether the very rich humus is the best in the end. Sand and clay arealmost altogether mineral; leaf-mould almost entirely organic; neitheralone is good, but a mixture gives the best results. GARDEN WORK The boys of this Form should attend to the fertilizing and spading ofthe plots belonging to the girls of their Form. The girls themselves cando all the rest of the work, and they should try to keep the plotslevel, uniform in size, and in a straight line. If the corner posts arekept in line and the plots made up the exact size, the appearance ofthe garden will be greatly improved. The pupils are now old enough to make their own choice of flowers andvegetables. Very tall growing plants, such as corn and sunflowers, arenot desirable in individual plots as they shade other plants near them. Corn is best grown in a large plot about twenty feet square. The samemay be said of vines, such as cucumbers, melons, squash, etc. If theplots are small, it is better to plant but a single variety, but inlarge plots from two to four varieties may be arranged to advantage. Usually rows of vegetables, such as carrots and beets, may be placed afoot apart, cabbage about twice that distance, and tomatoes a littlefarther apart than cabbage. Generally speaking, plants should be placed so that when full grown theywill just touch, cover the ground completely, and thus prevent thegrowth of weeds. As soon as the young plants appear above the ground, light cultivationwith rakes and claw-hand weeders should be started, so as to keep weedsfrom growing and at the same time to provide a loose surface or earthmulch for conserving the moisture and aerating the soil. Thinning shouldalso be begun when the plants are quite small, but it should not all bedone at once. As the plants increase in size, the best ones should beleft and the poor ones taken out. In some cases plants thus removed maybe re-set to fill vacant places. TREE SEEDS Tree seeds that have been stored over winter should now be planted inrows in a small plot. The rows should be a foot apart and the seedsquite close together in the row. A cheese-cloth or slat shade should beused on this plot, as the hot sun is too strong for tree seedlings whenthey first come up. They should have cultivation every week and wateringin dry weather. Always water in the evening after school, or even laterwhen possible. TRANSPLANTING Pupils in this Form should have practice in transplanting, as well as insowing seed. For this purpose seeds should be started about the first ofApril in hotbeds or window boxes, seedlings transplanted into coldframes when two or three inches high, and then set out in the garden inthe latter part of May when danger of frost is past. TRANSPLANTING FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES Choose, if possible, a cool cloudy day. Water the plants thoroughly inthe hotbed or cold frame a few hours before lifting them. Lift them witha trowel or small spade, and keep as much earth on their roots aspossible. With a transplanting trowel, make holes deep enough so thatthe plant will be a little deeper in the soil than before transplanting. Unless the soil is moist, a little water put in the hole with the plantis beneficial. The evening is considered best for transplanting if theweather is clear. If the sun is very hot, the plants should be shadedfor a few days until the roots become established and begin their work. Shingles slanting over the plants from the south side and driven intothe ground to hold them in position are best. Papers held by means oftwo stones also give good results. The practice of covering them withinverted cans is not a good one, as the light is almost completely cutoff. A few holes in the can would help considerably. Care must be takento pack the earth firmly about the roots. Watering again twenty-fourhours after transplanting is often necessary. If the plant has a leafytop, it is best to take off some of the leaves, as they tend to give offwater more rapidly than the roots can at first take it in. TRANSPLANTING TREE SEEDLINGS Nuts and other tree seeds collected the previous autumn should now beplanted in the forestry plots in rows a foot apart. As the seeds may notall grow, they may be planted close together in the row and thinned outthe following spring if necessary. They need some shelter from the sunthe first summer. In large plots this is provided by means of a slatcovering, but in a small plot cheese-cloth tacked on strips and fastenedon corner posts is satisfactory. When a shower comes, this cheese-clothscreen should be removed so that the rain may moisten the plot evenly. Seedlings may be transplanted from the woods or from the forestry rowsbefore the leaves open out. BUDDING In budding, a slit like the letter T is made in the side of the youngseedling close to the ground. The bark is raised a little at the pointwhere the vertical slit meets the horizontal one, and a bud of desiredvariety with a shield-shaped bit of bark (and perhaps a little wood)attached to it is shoved in and the sides of the slit bound down uponit. After the bud, or scion, has started to grow, the stock is cut offan inch above the point where the bud was inserted. The bud then makesrapid growth, and in two years the resulting tree is large enough to setin its permanent place in the orchard. CUTTINGS Pupils in this Form should try to grow such woody plants as roses andgrapes from cuttings. Roses are frequently propagated by budding, as inthe case of apples and peaches. They may also be grown upon their ownroots or from stem cuttings. Such cuttings should be from well-maturedwood of the present year taken in the autumn and packed in moist sandover the winter. Make the cuttings about three inches in length. The topend should be cut off immediately above a bud and the bottom end justbelow a bud, as roots seem to start more readily from a node, or bud. Such a cutting may have three or four buds of which only the upper twoneed be left. If both of these grow, the poorer one may afterwards beremoved. These rose cuttings should then be inserted in a box of clean, moistsand to a depth of two inches, kept in a warm room, and shaded with asheet of newspaper when the sun is very bright. Keep the sand moist butnot wet, and when possible have gentle bottom heat. When roots have madesome growth, transplant carefully into small flower-pots, using fairlyrich, clay loam. In a few weeks they will be ready to plant out in thegarden. Grape cuttings should be taken late in the fall when the vines are wellmatured. Such a cutting includes only two joints, the upper one beingthe growing end and the lower the rooting end. They must be stored overwinter in cold, moist sand, but should not be permitted to freeze. Assoon as the ground can be prepared in the spring, set them out. Theyshould be placed on a slant of about forty-five degrees and covered allbut the top bud. LEAF CUTTINGS Some plants with large and vigorous leaves, such as many of thebegonias, may be propagated by means of leaf cuttings. Buds readilydevelop from cuts made in the large veins. Take a full-grown healthyleaf and remove the stem all but about half an inch. Make a few cutsacross the larger veins on the under side of the leaves at points wheremain veins branch. Press the leaf firmly down on the top of a box ofmoist sand with the under side next the sand. Keep the leaf in thisposition, using small stones or little pegs pushed through the leaf intothe sand. Put the box in a warm room and do not let the sand become dry. When roots strike into the sand and buds develop from the points wherethe veins were wounded, take a sharp knife and cut out the new plantfrom the old leaf and transplant it into a small flower-pot in goodsoil. Sink the pot in a box of moist sand to prevent its drying out. ROOT CUTTINGS Such plants as "sprout from the roots" may be propagated by rootcuttings. Sections of underground stems may also come under thisheading, as in the case of horseradish cuttings. But real roots may beused for cuttings, as in the case of the blackberry and raspberry. Theroots should be cut in pieces three or four inches long, planted in ahorizontal position, and entirely covered with two or three inches ofsoil. LAYERING Bush fruits, such as currants and gooseberries, are frequentlypropagated by stem cuttings, as in the case of roses. Another method, which is known as layering, consists in bending one or more of thelowest branches down against the ground, fastening it there by means ofa forked stick, and then covering it with two or three inches of earth. The part in contact with the moist earth will send out roots, while oneor more shoots will come up. When roots and shoots have developed, thebranch is severed from the parent bush and the new plant set in itspermanent place. Strawberries exhibit a sort of natural layering. PLANTING AND CARE OF HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS Perennials grown from seed the previous summer should now be set inclumps two or three feet apart in the perennial border or here and therebeside the fences or walks. The soil should be made fine and fertilizedwith well-rotted manure from the compost heap before setting out theyoung perennials. Dahlias and gladioli which were taken in in the autumnshould now be set out. The dahlias should be divided and only the bestroots used. Other perennials that have grown into large clumps should bedug up, divided, and re-set in well-fertilized soil. GARDEN STUDIES Pupils in this Form have now had enough experience in the growing ofvegetables and flowers to allow them to make intelligent variety tests. They should grow some of the less familiar varieties and report on themerits of each variety tested. This, however, should not be carried onto the exclusion of the well-known standard varieties. Let the pupilsconsult the best seed catalogues available and choose for themselvessome varieties not already known to them. They should keep a systematicrecord of all varieties grown and the methods used in cultivating, fertilizing, etc. The knowledge thus gained will be of value in afteryears, and the homes will also benefit by it. BIENNIALS The pupils should observe the second year's growth of biennials. Aspecial plot in the school garden should be set apart for this purpose. Have them plant in it a turnip, a carrot, a beet, a cabbage, or anyother garden biennial saved over winter for the purpose. If desired, thepupils might grow their own seed of these varieties. Notice (1) whatpart of the plant has become enlarged with stored up food and how big itis when planted, (2) how this part changes in size and texture as theflowers and seeds develop, (3) in what way this extra food seems to havebeen used. WILD FLOWERS STUDY OF THE TRILLIUM The pupils bring the plants for the lesson. There should be a few purpletrilliums among the white, and some of the plants should have theunderground parts intact. Discuss with the collectors their observations on where the trilliumsgrow, the kind of soil, the depth of the root-stocks below the surface, the uses of the root-stocks, insect visitors. CLASS-ROOM LESSON The pupils are directed to examine the plant and flowers and find outall the means for attracting insects. Find out why the purple trillium attracts flies and beetles, while thewhite trillium attracts bees and butterflies. Look into the top of the flower; what figure do the tips of the sixflower leaves form? Using the names calyx and corolla, describe the circle of flower leavesas to number, colour, and relative position. Find the stamens and describe as to number and position; find out howthe stamens are fitted to ensure that the pollen will get upon thevisiting insects. Find the pistil and describe its shape. How is the stigma fitted forreceiving the pollen that is carried by the insect visitors. _To the teacher. _--The trilliums attract insects by their large whiteand purple flowers, which are held up by their long stalks high abovethe three broad leaves. The strong carrion-like odour of the purpletrillium is attractive to flies and beetles, while bees and butterfliesfind the fragrance of the white trillium more to their liking. The root-stock serves as a buried store of food to tide the plant overthe drought of late summer and the severe cold of winter. Thewell-stocked cellar also explains the flourishing condition of the plantin early spring. The six stamens stand on close guard around the pistil, and insects forcing their way to the nectaries are well peppered withpollen. Continue the observation work by means of field exercises such as thefollowing: What change takes place in the colour of the white trillium as it growsold? Find the ripened seed pods of the trillium, open them, count the numberof chambers, and examine the seeds. Do trilliums grow from the same root-stock year after year? As correlations, represent the trillium in colour and design anembroidery pattern based on it. Lessons similar to that on the trillium may be based on adder's tongue, Indian turnip, Dutchman's breeches, violet, and clover. ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS It is not considered necessary to go outside the list of ordinaryanimals to find sufficient illustrations of adaptations, and it isrecommended that attention be given to these during the study of animalsprescribed for the regular Course. This may be supplemented by anoccasional review of adaptive features for the purpose of emphasizingthe general fitness of animals for their varied habits and surroundings. Care must be taken lest the attempt to explain structures by adaptationbe carried to an extreme, for it is impossible to account for all thevariations in animal forms. The following list contains a few of the many examples of adaptations tobe met with in the Course prescribed for Forms II and III. The horse walks and runs on the tips of its toes; this gives greaterspeed. Wild animals of the cow and deer kind can swallow their food hastily sothat they may retire to a safe retreat; there they regurgitate the foodand chew it. The domesticated animal retains this habit, though there isno longer a need for it. The wood-hare's fur is brown in summer, hence its enemies cannot see itagainst the brown grass and moss; in winter its colour is white, which, against the snow, is a protective colour. The porcupine is very slow, but its colour and shape make it almostimpossible to distinguish from a knot on a log. Its quills form aneffective protection when it is discovered. The feet of the squirrel are adapted for climbing and its teeth forgnawing wood and for opening nuts. The tail serves as a balancing polefor leaping from tree to tree and in winter it acts as a protection fromcold. The earthworm's shape and movements are suited to its habits ofburrowing through the soil. Its habits of swallowing the soil fit it forburrowing and for obtaining its food at the same time. Many insect larvæ, as the tomato worm and the cabbage-worm, are of thesame colour as the plants on which they feed, and this enables them toescape detection by birds. The larvæ of dragon-flies and May-flies breathe in water by means ofgills very much as fishes do, but the adult forms are suited forbreathing in air. Female birds are usually dull gray or mottled, so that their coloursblend with their surroundings while they are nesting, and hence they donot attract the notice of their enemies. Birds that swim have webbed feet, which act as oars for pushing themthrough the water. Their feathers are compact and soft for warmth, andthese properties, together with oil on their surfaces, make themwaterproof. The tongue of the woodpecker is long, spear-shaped, and sticky; hence itis adapted for catching insects in the holes pecked into the wood. The tongue of the toad is fastened at the front end, so that a flap canbe shot out for more than an inch in front of the animal, thus enablingit to catch insects on its sticky surface. The toes of the frog are webbed to make them more serviceable inswimming. The tail of the musk-rat is strong and broad like the blade of an oarand serves the same purpose as an oar. The tail of the fish is more serviceable for swimming than legs wouldbe. BIRD TYPES WOODPECKERS Woodpeckers are easily distinguished from other birds by their habit ofperching in a vertical position on the trunks of trees with the tips oftheir tails pressed against the bark. While in this position, they tapupon the tree with their sharp, pointed beaks. THE DOWNY WOODPECKER Learn to recognize the smallest of our woodpeckers, the Downy. Winter orsummer it may be found among the apple trees and shade trees, a tinyblack and white bird little bigger than a wren. OBSERVATIONS I Why is "checkerboard" a good name for this bird? Are there any distinct lines of white? Are there any patches of red? Do its movements reveal energy or listlessness? How does it move up a tree trunk? How does it move down a tree trunk? Find out how it can hold so firmly to the trunk. Does it use its sharp beak as a drill or as a pick? _To the teacher. _--The downy is spotted black and white, with barredwings and a white line down the centre of the back. A bright scarletcrown is the colour distinction of the male. This little bird is theembodiment of energy and perseverance. It hops nimbly up the trunk, tapping here and there with its beak, and then listening for themovements of the disturbed wood-borers. If it wishes to descend, itwastes no time in turning around, but hops backward down the trunk, orjumps off and flies down. II Examine an apple tree upon which a downy has been at work and find outwhat it was doing there. Do you find the birds in pairs during winter? During summer? Distinguishthe male from the female. Tie a beef bone with scraps of meat adhering to it to a tree. What birdscome to it? Find the nest of the downy and describe the nest and the eggs. Do the holes made by the downy injure the trees? Why should the downy be welcomed in our orchards? Describe the sounds made by the birds. _To the teacher. _--Discuss the pupils' answers to the above problems inthe class lesson, using a picture of a woodpecker to illustrate thefeatures of the bird that adapt it for its habits. Examples: thestraight, sharp beak suited for drilling; the two backward, projectingtoes for perching; the spines on the tips of the tail feathers to act asa prop. The downy woodpecker is very useful in the orchard, because it destroysgreat numbers of larvæ of the tussock-moth and other insects. The holesmade in the bark have never been found to injure the trees. The nest ismade in a hollow tree, the entrance to it being almost perfectly roundand about one and one-quarter inches in diameter. The downy woodpecker has a very unmusical voice, but fortunately he isaware of this deficiency, and his only attempt at music is drumming withhis beak upon a hollow limb or tree. The hairy woodpecker, redheaded woodpecker, flicker, and yellow-belliedwoodpecker (sapsucker) are other varieties which visit the orchards andare suitable for lessons similar to these on the downy woodpecker. Theyare all beneficial birds. FLYCATCHERS Members common to this class are: king-bird; house-phoebe, wood-phoebe, or pewee; whip-poor-will; least fly-catcher; giant fly-catcher. Direct the observations of the pupils to the following type features: Brownish or grayish colours; fringe of long bristles around the mouth(explain their use); whistling notes, varying with the different membersof the family; habit of jumping from the perch, catching an insect whileon the wing, and returning to the spot from which the flight began;nests, chiefly of mud built in a protected place, as under a bridge, ledge of rock, or projecting log. WRENS The house wren may be studied as a type. Observe its brownish colour, faintly mottled; its small size and energetic movements, its tailturned nearly vertically upward. Observe and report on other wrens, noting any differences. CABBAGE-BUTTERFLY Have a plant of wild mustard or a cabbage growing in a pot. In June, have the pupils, by means of the insect net, catch a number of the whitebutterflies, the adults of the cabbage-worm. Place the butterflies in jars or bottles and observe them. Make drawingsof them. Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the wingsof the male and those of the female. The former has only one dark spoton the front wing, while the female has two spots on this wing. Release the males and put the females in a vivarium with the pottedplant. (A pasteboard box, with a large piece cut out and the openingcovered with gauze, makes a good substitute for a vivarium in thiscase. ) Observe the laying of the eggs. How many are placed at one spot? How arethe eggs protected? The eggs may be gathered from the cabbage plants inthe garden. Observe and record the hatching of the tiny worm, its feeding, growth, forming of chrysalis, development into adult. Frequently little yellow silken cocoons are found in vivaria wherecabbage-worms are kept; these are cocoons of a parasite (braconid) thatinfests the worm. Because of the ease with which the cabbage-butterfly may be obtained andthe rapidity of its development in the various stages, it is verysuitable as a type for the study of metamorphosis. The sulphur, or puddler (called by the latter name because of its habitof settling in groups around the edges of the water holes), is also asuitable type. The larvæ in this case must be fed on clover. THE TUSSOCK-MOTH Begin the study of this insect in June and July by observing the larvæfeeding on the foliage of the horse-chestnut and other shade trees, anddirect attention to their destructiveness. In observing the larvæ, note the size, movements, legs, colour, coralred head, tufts of hair on the back, and the three long plumes. Watch the birds among the trees to discover whether they eat the larvæ. Of what use are the tufts of hair? Do the larvæ feed by biting or bysucking? Describe the damage done by the larvæ. Collect a number of these larvæ and place them in the vivarium with sometwigs of horse-chestnut. Observe the spinning of the cocoon and, abouttwo weeks later, look for the emergence of the adult moths. Observe the two kinds of insects. Describe each. Are there anydifferences in the cocoons from which they emerge? Which form of insect places the egg mass and is therefore the female?Note the number and shape of the eggs and how they are protected. The female moths have no wings and do not move far from the cocoons fromwhich they emerge, while the males have the power of flight. As outdoor work, look for the egg masses on trees and fences and devisemeans of combating the tussock-moth. Gathering and destroying the egg masses during the winter is found to befairly effective in checking these insects. Since the cocoonsfrequently contain parasites that prey upon the larvæ, it is advisablethat only the cocoons that have egg masses attached to them should bedestroyed; the others are harmless and may contain the useful parasites. The egg masses may be kept over winter in a box in a cool place, and thehatching of the tiny larvæ and their subsequent rapid growth observed. POTATO BEETLE The eggs of this beetle may be found in early summer in clusters on theunder surfaces of the leaves of potato plants. EGG. --Observe the size, colour, shape, position, and number in acluster; appearance of head from outer end after a week. LARVA. --Observe the colour, shape, head, legs, voracious appetite, movements, rapid growth, destructiveness. PUPA. --Observe the larvæ disappear from the plants; a search undergroundreveals the resting stage, or pupæ. After ten days, the adult beetlesemerge. ADULT. --Observe the colour, the hard shell covering the head; the hardouter wings and membraneous inner wings; the hard shell on the undersurface of the body; the feelers, and legs. Why will spraying with a poison, such as paris-green, kill theseinsects? REFERENCES Dearness: _How to Teach the Nature Study Course Stories in Agriculture, Bulletin No. 124. _ FISH The Nature Study lessons must be based upon observations of the livingfish, preferably in May or June, September or October. The best placefor this is on the bank of a clear stream from which it is possible toobserve the fish in their natural environment. Here their lifeactivities, their struggles, their conquests, and silent tragedies areenacted before the eyes of the observer. Many observations may be madein this way which will create a life-long interest in these reticent, yet active creatures. Since this method of study is practicable in butfew cases, the study of the living fish in the aquarium is the bestavailable substitute. The teacher or the boys of the class can catch a few fish of three orfour inches in length and carry them in a jar of water to the aquarium. Minnows, chub, perch, catfish, or other common forms will do. OBSERVATIONS I The general shape, and the suitability of the shape for swimming. The surface of the body and the protection it affords. Note the scalesand the slime, the latter a protection against the growth of fungi, etc. The gills--two openings behind the flaps at the rear of the head. Thecolours, and their value in concealing the fish. The dark upper surfacemakes it inconspicuous from above; the light under surface blends withthe shadow and dims it. The divisions of the body--head, trunk, and tail. Movements of the fish and the part that the various fins play in thesemovements. Note that the broad tail fin is the most useful fin for locomotion, theothers act as balancers or as brakes, or for causing currents of waternear the gills. Observe the movements of the pair of fins nearest thegills, the movements of the mouth, and the currents of water enteringthe mouth and passing through the gill slits. When a fish is kept in avery small quantity of water, observe the effect produced on themovements of the mouth and gill flaps. What are the uses of thesemovements? The pupils will thus discover the nature of the respirationof the fish. Why do fish die if many are kept in a jar of water? II By supplying various foods learn what kinds are preferred. Find in theactions or habits of the living fish evidences of a sense of smell, ofsight, of hearing, and of taste. Nearly all the following points of detailed study can be observed fromthe living fish: shape; size; tongue; teeth; gill slits leading from themouth to the gills; nostrils, number and position; eyes, absence ofeyelids; fins, size, build; the arrangement of the scales. PROBLEMS Why does the fish require a large mouth? How are the eyes protected? Compare the shape of the eye with the shapeof the eye of a land animal. Why are there no openings from the surface directly into the ears? Showthe suitability of the fins as organs of locomotion in water. REFERENCES Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ Nash: _Fishes of Ontario_ (from Department of Education, free) Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology_ CHAPTER XII FORM IV AUTUMN GARDEN WORK The regular work of cultivation of garden and experimental plots shouldbe carefully attended to. Pupils in this Form should be able to do allkinds of garden work with a good deal of proficiency. The work ofselecting the best flowers for seed production should be continued. These should be used for planting in the school garden and in homegardens as well. This part of the work might be left to the girls. Theboys should be encouraged to take up the systematic selection of seedgrain. To get good seed to start with, two methods may be used: 1. Decide upon the kind of grain to be selected and choose from one ofthe best fields a hundred of the best heads--those that are vigorous, clean, free from rust or smut, and standing up straight. When the headsare dried a little, shell the grain off them and preserve it in a jar ina cold, dry place until spring. 2. Take a quart of oats and pick it carefully, keeping only the largestand most plump kernels. Keep this for spring planting. At the same time, a sample of the poorer grains should be kept for comparison. A regularsystem of selection should be followed from year to year, taking enoughof the largest, brightest, and most compact heads from the plot eachautumn to sow a plot of equal size the next spring. After the selectionof heads has been made, the remainder of the crop may be harvested, andthe grain from this known as general crop from hand-selected seed of thefirst, second, third year, etc. If the value per acre is required, theplots should be made of a certain size easy to compute, such as one rodsquare or one rod by two rods. (10-1/2 ft. By 21 ft. Is about 1/200acre. ) Samples of each crop should be kept in uniform bottles andlabelled; for example--"From selected heads of 1911". The yield per acrein the plot from which the selected heads came should also be noted. These will be interesting for purposes of comparison and for testingduration of vitality later. If the same amount of grain is used inplanting a plot each time, the change in bushels per acre may beascertained and also in pounds per bushel. Some of the boys in this Formmay wish to continue this work of improvement by selection and, if so, they should communicate with the Secretary of the Canadian Seed Growers'Association, Canadian Building, Ottawa, and receive full instructions toenable them to carry on their work practically as well asscientifically. HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS FROM SEED The teacher should encourage the growing of herbaceous perennials forthe purpose of beautifying the school grounds. Many plants may bestarted from seed at the school and given to the pupils for homeplanting. These plants require but little attention and provideexcellent bloom in gardens and home grounds from early in spring beforeannuals are in bloom, on into the autumn. A list of the best varietieswill be found in Circular 13, on _Elementary Agriculture andHorticulture_, a copy of which should be in every school. The seed plotshould be fertilized and prepared in the usual way, and the seedsplanted before the first of September. They may be started in June also, in which case they make more growth before winter. The plot should bewell fertilized with thoroughly rotted manure and, if the soil is verydry, the plot should be well watered the day before the seeds areplanted. The seeds are usually quite small and should be covered verylightly. The plot should be protected from the hot sun by means ofcheese-cloth tacked on a frame. The plants should be watered twice aweek in dry weather. In the late autumn, when the ground freezes, theplot should be covered with leaves or straw and some boards, whichshould be removed when the frost comes out in the spring. DECIDUOUS TREES Before the pupils of this Form leave school they should be able torecognize, by name as well as by sight, all of the species of treesfound in their vicinity. To this end the teacher should help them toprepare an inventory of species of trees, shrubs, and vines of thevicinity. They should learn to distinguish the different species ofmaples, elms, birches, etc. A named collection of leaves helpsmaterially in doing this. The influence of environment upon the growthand shape of trees and how trees adapt themselves to the conditions inwhich they live is a most interesting and profitable study, demandingcareful observation, reflection, and judgment. REFERENCES Muldrew: _Sylvan Ontario. _ Briggs. Keeler: _Our Native Trees. _ Scribners' Sons. $2. 00. TREES IN RELATION TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT Consider the influences at work and their effect under the followingheads: 1. CHARACTER OF THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL. --It may be gravelly, pure sand, sandy loam, clay or clay loam, muck or humus, shallow or rocky, and thesubsoil may be sand, clay or hard clay with stones (hard-pan). Noticewhat species are most common in each kind of soil. 2. WATER SUPPLY. --What species are found naturally in moist ravines oralong the margins of rivers and lakes, in bogs or swamps, on dry, sandyplains, or rocky hillsides. Consider also the rainfall. 3. EXPOSURE TO SUNLIGHT. --Account for the lack of symmetry in the shapesof trees. Branches grow only where their leaves can get the light. Account for the pith in many tree stems not being in the geometriccentre. Account for the rapid growth in height made by young trees inthe woods. Their light supply is chiefly from above, and they stretch uptoward it as rapidly as possible. Dim light causes rapid growth at theexpense, however, of strength of tissue, but as these young trees areprotected in the woods from the strain of wind storms, their slimnessand lack of toughness is a benefit rather than a hindrance to them. Also, the limbs near the ground die off while the trees are still youngand small, giving us the clear timber tree, free from large knots, talland straight. Make further application of this principle of light inrelation to the planting of trees for shade and for wood or lumber. Account for the large size of the leaves of young trees in the dimlylighted woods as compared with the leaves of older trees. The principleof rapid growth in dim light is seen here also. It will be noticed thatthe large leaves of the young trees are more thin, soft, and flexible. 4. WIND. --Observe the tops of tall trees that have always been exposedto a strong prevailing wind as, for instance, those growing on the topsof hills or the eastern shore of a lake which has a prevailing westwind. The tops lean in the direction in which the prevailing wind blows. Does strong wind help or hinder the growth of a tree? Examples ofstunted trees on wind swept hills or shores readily show this. It willbe seen also that the higher branches are poorest on the side mostexposed to the wind. 5. SUITABILITY OF THE SPECIES TO THE CLIMATE. --Observe that some treesretain their leaves much later in the autumn than do others. The beech, hickory, red oak, and chestnut are good examples. These are on thenorthern extreme of their territory of growth. The tree best suited to arigorous climate is the one that finishes its work early in the autumnand has all its tissues well matured before cold weather sets in. Examples: maple, elm, birch, and willow. FRUITS EXCURSION TO A WELL-KEPT ORCHARD If the teacher can arrange to take the pupils to see a well-kept orchardabout the time of the apple harvest, it will help to arouse interest inthe study of fruits. The trees, as well as the fruit, frequently showdistinguishing marks whereby they may be identified. Have the pupilsnotice the following points: general shape of tree, colour of bark, shape of leaf, method of cultivation, fertilizing, pruning and grafting, spraying and its need, orchard pests, method of picking and packingapples in barrels and boxes for market. SMALL FRUITS Study the method of propagating strawberries and such bush fruits ascurrants, gooseberries, raspberries, and blackberries. Reports issuedfrom the Fruit Division of the Experimental Farm at Ottawa giveinformation regarding the best varieties suitable for different parts ofOntario and Quebec. Have the pupils try propagating strawberries bytaking the stolons or runners; currants and gooseberries, by means oflayers or stem cuttings; and raspberries or blackberries, by rootcuttings or the detaching of root shoots or suckers. Stem and rootcuttings, when taken in the autumn, may be planted at once or may bestored in damp moss or sand in a cold cellar over winter. Stem cuttingsshould be about the size and length of a lead-pencil and root cuttingsabout half that size. AUTUMN WILD FLOWERS Observations made with garden flowers should be supplemented byobservation lessons on a few selected wild flowers of the woods, fields, and roadsides. Although the spring months afford a much greater varietyof wild flowers than do the autumn months, they do not afford quite asgood an opportunity for finding and studying them. The woods and fieldsare drier and more easily reached in the autumn and the fall flowerslast much longer. Some of the species seen blooming in spring and earlysummer are now in fruit and scattering their seed, so that the pupilshave a chance to follow out the whole life history of a few chosenspecies. The pupils in this Form might select for special study themilkweed, worm-seed mustard, wild aster, and goldenrod. These should beobserved out-of-doors, preferably, but suitable class-room lessons maybe taught by using similar matter. MILKWEED Taking the milkweed as a type, the following points are to beconsidered: The kind of soil, where found, and whether in sun or shade. Try to pull up a small-sized plant. Dig one up and notice theunderground part. Note the size of the largest plant seen, also the size of the leaves, and how they are arranged to prevent overshadowing. Break off a leaf and note the white sticky juice, whence the name"milkweed". Discuss this milk as a protection to the plant. Note time of first and last flowering of the plant and the colour andodour of the flowers. Watch insects gathering honey on a bright day. Note the little sacks of pollen that cling to their feet. They sometimesget their feet caught in little slits in the flower and perish. After the flowers disappear, note the forming of the little boat-shapedpods in pairs. Select one that is ripe and notice that it bursts alongone side which is most protected. Open a pod carefully and notice howbeautifully the flat, brown seeds are arranged in overlapping rows andhow each seed has a large tuft of silky down that serves to carry it faraway in the wind. This silk-like down is sometimes used to stuffcushions, and because of it the plant is sometimes called silk weed. One species of butterfly in particular feeds upon this plant--themonarch, or milkweed, butterfly. This is one of the few butterflies thatbirds do not eat. It is protected by a distasteful fluid. Look on theunder side of the leaves of several plants until you find a pretty, palegreen cocoon with golden dots, hanging by a thread-like attachment. Early in the season the larvæ may be found feeding on the leaves. This plant is troublesome in some fields and gardens and so is classedas a weed. When the stems come up in the spring, they are soft andtender and are sometimes used as pot herbs. CORRELATIONS Draw a leaf, a flower, a pair of pods, and a seed with its tuft. Write an account of a visit to the woods to study wild flowers. TREES A study of the pines of the locality may be commenced in November, afterthe deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered theirquiescent winter period. This is the time when the evergreens stand outprominently on the landscape, in sharp contrast with the other treesthat have been stripped of their broad leaves and now look bare andlifeless. If no pines are to be found in the vicinity, cedar or hemlockmay be substituted. The lessons should, as far as possible, beobservational. The pupils should be encouraged to make observations forthemselves out of school. At least one lesson should be conductedout-of-doors, a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand forthe purpose. The following method will serve as a guide in the outdoorstudy of any species of tree: THE WHITE PINE Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a distanceand trace the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this treewith others near by of the same species and then with members of otherspecies. Have the pupils describe in what particulars the shapes differin different trees. They will come to realize that the difference inshape results from differences in length, direction, and arrangement ofbranches. They may notice that other evergreens resemble the pine inthat the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaftfrom the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less conical shape, and that the branches grow straight out from the main stem and notslanting off as in the case of the maples and elms. Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. Byusing a string or tape-line, they may find out how big it is around andthe length of the diameter. Tell them how big some evergreens are (thegiant trees of the Pacific Coast are sometimes over forty feet around). Have them notice where the trunk is largest, and let them find out why atree needs to be so strong at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strainon it just at this point. Illustrate by driving a long slat or lath intothe ground firmly: then catching it by the top, push it over, and itwill break off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be takenup, the pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrousroots the pine has. Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour androughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlargingof the tree through the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeperat the bottom of the tree than at the top--the tree being younger andthe bark thinner, the nearer to the top we go. How old is the very top, down to the first whorl of branches? How old is the stem between thefirst and second whorls? Between the third and fourth? Let the pupilsfind out in this way the age of a little pine that is regular andunbroken. The whorls of branches near the ground are usually small anddead in young trees and in old trees have completely disappeared. Relatethe size of the trunk to its age, and also relate the size and length ofthe branches to their age. Where are the youngest branches and how oldare they? What branches are oldest? Notice how the branch is noticeablylarger just where it joins the trunk, as this is the point of greateststrain. Are the branches the same length on all sides of the trunk? Ifnot, find one where branches are shorter on one side than on the otherand try to discover the cause. Usually, if other trees are near enoughto shade a certain tree, the branches are shorter and smaller on theshaded side. Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a littledistance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches areon the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this isso. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward theends of the branches. The leaves get light there while the centre of thetree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try tosolve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now seean additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upperones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out intothe sunlight. Why this tree is called an evergreen may now be considered. Why itretains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes, but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the difficulty byexplaining to the class that the leaves are so small and yet so hardythat wind and frost and snow do not injure them. The pupils may each bring a small branch of twig back to theschool-room, if the white pine is growing commonly about, otherwise theteacher may provide himself with a branch upon which to base anotherobservation lesson in the class-room. If the tree has cones on it, an effort should be made to get a few, asthey will also be considered in a subsequent class-room lesson. If thecones have not yet opened when they are picked, so much the better, asthey will soon open in a warm room, and the pupils will be able toexamine the seeds and notice how they whirl through the air in falling. If possible, let the pupils have an opportunity of seeing pine treesgrowing in the woods as well as in the open. OUTLINE OF A CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE WHITE PINE ~Inferences. ~--If possible, each pupil is supplied with a small branch ofthe white pine and the teacher with a larger branch which can easily beseen by all the pupils. Before proceeding to examine the specimens, givethe pupils a chance to tell what they now know about the white pine, andthus review the lesson taken out-of-doors. Then ask a few questionsbearing upon their own observations, such as: What was the soil likewhere you found the pine tree growing? (They are found most commonly onlight, sandy soil. ) Did you notice any difference between the shapes ofthe pines in the deep woods and the pines in the open fields? Did younotice any dead limbs on those in the woods? Why did they die? Thepupils may conclude that branches whose leaves cannot get the sunlightmust die. Show that this causes knots in the lumber and exhibit samples. This explains also why the trees of the forest have such tall stemswithout branches for a long distance up from the ground. They get thelight only from above and seem to strive with the surrounding trees toreach it. If we want trees to grow tall, how should we plant them?(Close together) What would such trees be good for? (Making timber orlumber) If we want trees to grow low and have thick and bushy tops, howshould we plant them? (Far apart) What would such trees be good for?(Their shade and their beauty) Good shade trees should be thirty toforty feet apart. Ask the pupils if they have ever been near a pine tree when a gentlebreeze was blowing, and have them tell the cause of the sound that theyheard. They may decide that the shape and size of the leaves caused thesound when the wind was blowing through the tree top. Have them examinethe branches in order to discover the following points: LEAVES. --These are in bunches of five, two to three inches long, three-cornered, and with little teeth pointing toward the tip, lightgreen near the tip of the bough (young leaves) and darker further down(older leaves); age of a leaf the same as the age of the wood it growson, therefore some leaves are one year, some two, and a few three yearsold. No leaves on four-year-old wood, therefore the leaves fall off thewhite pine the third year. Ask pupils to try to find out by observationwhen the leaves fall off the pines. Note the fragrance of the leaves, and that they are sometimes put into "pine" cushions, also, how slipperythey are to walk on. BUDS. --These are found at the tips of the branches, one large one in thecentre and several smaller ones grouped around it. Note theirreddish-brown colour and that they are made up of scales overlapping andcovered with gum which keeps out the rain, thus protecting the littlegrowing tip inside. When buds grow, they become little twigs with leaveson. Find where the buds were a year ago. Notice the light colour of thetwigs that grow during the present season and the darker colour of thetwigs of the previous year. Where were the buds two years ago? What didthe centre bud become? (A continuation of the stem) What did the otherbuds, called lateral buds, become? (New branches) Compare the growthmade in different years. Notice also how white the wood of the twigs is--the probable reason forcalling it "white pine". CONES. --Note the length and shape of the cones and how the seeds areplaced in them inside the large scales. Get some of the seeds and notethe wing-like attachment. Take the wing off a seed and drop it from aheight at the same instant with one that has its wing attached. Note thewhirling motion and infer what purpose the wing serves in scatteringseed. Taste the kernel of a pine seed and discover why squirrels arefond of them. Burn a pine cone. Find out what birds like to live in this tree. What has been noticedabout them and their nests? Have the pupils keep the seeds until the following spring by puttingthem in a box of dry sand and setting them in a cold place. They shouldthen plant them in a corner where they can be partly shaded when the sunis bright. Plant them about half an inch deep and keep them watered ifthe weather is dry during the first summer. NOTE. --The cones drop their seeds from high up in the tree so that thewind can carry the seeds long distances. The cones usually stay on thetrees for a couple of years after they lose their seeds. CORRELATIONS Draw a pine tree, a bunch of pine needles, a pine cone, and a pineseed. Write a description of a pine tree seen in the woods; also of one foundin the open. Write a list of things for which the white pine is useful. _To the teacher. _--The winter months, besides affording an opportunityfor seeing trees and plants in their dormant or quiescent condition, also afford an opportunity for reading and reflection, for recallingobservations and experiences of the past season, and for making plansfor work and study in the school garden, woods, and fields when springreturns. The knowledge gained by the pupils through first-handobservation of trees, flowers, and gardens can be greatly extended bypictures and stories descriptive of these, which the teacher may fromtime to time bring to the school-room. Their personal experiences willbe the basis for interpretation of many new things which will come up inthe reading lessons, in selections which the teacher reads from week toweek, and in books and papers which they themselves read in their homes. Thus the interest that is aroused by the first-hand studies of plants ingarden, orchard, or woodland will be carried over from autumn to spring, and the pupils, with the awakening of spring, will take up anew thestudy of plant life with a keener interest because of the time given toreading and reflection during the winter. Illustrated magazines dealingwith gardening and with the study of trees and plants, and suchmagazines as have a children's department, will prove of greatassistance to the teacher who makes any serious attempt to interestpupils in plant studies. Stories of life in the woods and of plantstudies suitable to young pupils should be used. REFERENCES Margaret Morley: _Flowers and their Friends. _ Ginn & Co. 50 cents. Margaret Morley: _Seed Babies. _ Ginn & Co. 25 cents. Margaret Morley: _Little Wanderers. _ Ginn & Co. 30 cents. Alice Lounsberry: _The Garden Book for Young People. _ Stokes. $1. 50. Gertrude Stone: _Trees in Prose and Poetry. _ Ginn & Co. 45 cents. COMPARATIVE LESSON ON VARIETIES OF WINTER APPLES KING, BALDWIN, NORTHERN SPY Discuss the names, keeping and cooking qualities of the apples, andbearing qualities of the trees. Provide each member of the class with a typical representative of eachof the above varieties of apples. Compare the three apples as to size, form, colour--including marks;hardness, length, and thickness of stem; depth of cavity at the stemend; depth and shape of the cavity at the calyx end. Split each apple from stem to calyx and compare as to the thickness andtoughness of the skin, the colour of the flesh, the size of the core, taste and juiciness of the flesh. _To the teacher. _--All three are apples of fair size, the Baldwin beingon the average the smallest of the three. All three are roundish, butthe King is somewhat oval-round, and the Spy, conical-round. The Baldwinhas a yellowish skin with crimson and red splashes dotted with russetspots. The King is reddish, shading to dark crimson. The Spy has ayellowish-green skin sprinkled with pink and striped with red. The beautiful colours make all these apples very popular in the marketsof American cities and in those of the British Isles; but the soft andeasily damaged skin of the Spy makes it the least desirable as an applefor export. All keep well and in cool cellars remain in good condition until April. They may be kept much longer in cold storage chambers, where thetemperature is uniformly near the freezing point of the apple. The Baldwin apple tree is reasonably hardy within the ordinary range forapple trees, and its yield is a satisfactory average. The King appletree is not a hardy tree, nor is it a satisfactory bearer except in thebest apple districts. The Spy is a fairly hardy tree and thrives andyields well throughout a wide range; but it does not begin to bear untilit is about fifteen years old. A comparative lesson may also be based on selected varieties of autumnapples, such as Fameuse, McIntosh Red, Wealthy, Gravenstein, and St. Lawrence. CODLING MOTH Begin the study of the codling moth in August by examining wormy apples. Find out, by asking the pupils, which orchards of the locality had beensprayed in the spring. Ask the pupils to count out at random one hundred apples and to selectfrom these the number that are wormy. What percentage of the apples arewormy? Compare the percentage of wormy apples in unsprayed, with that insprayed, orchards. The results will afford evidence of the benefit ofspraying. Find out, if possible, the dates on which, and the conditions underwhich, the spraying of the orchards with the least number of wormyapples was done. Ask the pupils to bring to the school-room a number of wormy apples. Have the pupils cut these open and note the nature and position of thehole, or burrow, and the amount of damage done to the apples. Have the pupils observe the larva and note the size, colour, shape, andnumber of legs. _To the teacher. _--The apple maggot is a less common insect larva andmay be distinguished from the larva of the codling moth by the fact thatthe former has no legs and has the habit of burrowing in all directionsthrough the pulp of the apple, while the larva of the codling moth worksalmost entirely in the core. The cocoon and pupa phase of this insect may be obtained by keeping thewormy apples in a box containing loose paper on which the cocoons willbe placed, or by searching under the bark scales of apple trees inOctober. Describe the cocoons. Open some of them and describe the contents. Keepthe remaining cocoons in a box or vivarium in a cool place during thewinter. What birds are seen tapping at the bark scales of the apple trees duringwinter? Examine the bark scales when a downy woodpecker has been at workand note that the cocoons have been destroyed. Should we encourage the visits of woodpeckers to the orchards? By hanging up a beef bone in the orchard, various birds, includingwoodpeckers, will be induced to visit and perhaps to make their homes inthe orchard. REFERENCES _Common Insects Affecting Fruit Trees, Bulletin No. 158_, Department ofAgriculture, Parliament Buildings, Toronto. _Bulletins Nos. 158 and 171_, Ontario Department of Agriculture, dealwith many insect pests and their remedies. In May look for the adult moths as they emerge from the cocoons. Observethe colour, size, shape, and the bright copper-coloured horse-shoe onthe front wing--the "brand" of the codling moth. Examine the little apples when the blossoms are falling. Note the tiny, flat, oval-shaped egg at various places on the surfaces of the applesand a few days later the tiny worm which emerges from the egg. This sooneats its way into the apple, entering usually at the calyx end. Ifspraying is done after the petals have fallen and just before the calyxend closes up, a drop of poison is inclosed, and when the larva entersit and begins eating its way into the apple, it gets the poison. SOME COMMON ANIMAL FORMS Brief lessons should be given on some of the lower members of the animalkingdom, for the purpose of broadening the interests of the pupils. Thefollowing are suggested as types: snail, spider, freshwater mussel(clam), crayfish (crab), centiped, milliped, salamander, and wood-louse. These are common animal forms, most of which are frequently seen by thepupils, but seldom are their interesting life habits or their places inthe animal kingdom recognized. The salamander is to many pupils a lizardof the most poisonous kind; centipeds and millipeds are worms, and theydo not recognize that the clam is an animal with sensibilities andinstincts. REFERENCES Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology_ Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ CENTIPEDS AND MILLIPEDS Under stones and sticks in moist soil are to be found two worm-likeforms, both having many legs. One of these animals is flat, about an inch long, brown in colour, andprovided with a pair of long feelers. On each division of the body is asingle pair of legs. This is the _centiped_. The other animal is morecylindrical in shape and has two pairs of legs on each division of thebody. Its colour is a darker brown than that of the centiped, and it hasa habit of coiling into a spiral shape, when disturbed, so that the softunder surface is concealed. This is the _milliped_. Both of theseanimals are quite harmless and feed on decaying vegetable matter. Theystand midway between worms and insects in forms and habits. A brief observation lesson on each animal, involving their movements andthe structural features named above, will enable the pupils to identifythem and to appreciate their position in the animal kingdom. SALAMANDERS, OR NEWTS Some forms of these are found in water, as in streams, ponds, andditches, while other forms are found on land, where they hide understones and sticks. They are commonly mistaken for lizards, which theyclosely resemble in shape; but the two animals may be distinguished bythe fact that the surface of the body of a salamander is smooth, whilethat of a lizard is covered with scales. The small red or copper-coloured newts are the most common in Ontarioand are frequently found on roads after heavy rains. The tigersalamanders are larger than the red newts and are marked with orange andblack spots, hence the name "tiger". Many people believe this speciesto be especially venomous, while in reality it is quite harmless and, like the other salamanders, is useful for destroying insects and smallsnails, which form the greater part of its food. _To the teacher. _--The superstition of the salamander's power toextinguish a fire into which it is thrown still exists. The early lifeof the salamander is spent in water, the young form being very much likea tadpole. The salamanders are close relatives of the frogs and toadsand may be kept in a jar or vivarium in wet moss or grass. The pupilsshould learn to recognize the animals and should be instructed as totheir habits. SPIDERS ~Problems in observation. ~--In how many places can you find spiders' webs?How many forms of spiders' webs can you find? Are the many webs that arefound on the meadow grass in the dewy mornings the homes of spiders? Ifso, describe where the spiders live. (At the bottom of tunnels that runinto the ground. ) What uses do spiders make of their webs? (Trapping prey, supporting eggcases, protection, and means of moving, as in the case of cobwebspiders. ) Drop a fly upon a spider's web and observe the action of the spider. Search under the webs of spiders in attics and sheds and learn, from theskeletons found there, what the spider feeds upon. It will be found thatflies, beetles, and other spiders are killed by this monster. Watch a spider spinning its web and find out what parts of the body areused in this work. It will be seen that the threads are produced fromlittle tubes at the rear end of the animal and are placed and fastenedby means of the feet. Examine, by the aid of a hand lens, the feet and head of the spider. Note the "brushes and combs" on the former. Note, on the latter, thefour, six, or eight eyes (the number and arrangement vary), and theshort poison claws at the front of the head. How are the poison clawsadapted for seizing and piercing? Note the sharp hooks at the lowerends. BIRD STUDIES Continue the lessons in bird identification and in bird types, using themethods outlined for these studies in Form III. (See pp. 217-24. ) CHAPTER XIII FORM IV WINTER FOREST TREES EVERGREENS Several species of evergreens have already been studied. These should bereviewed, and representatives of other species examined. Mid-winter ismost suitable for the study of evergreens. The following points shouldbe considered: 1. Description leading to identification 2. Nature of soil and water conditions 3. Common uses of each species of evergreen 4. Collection of wood specimens and cones. WOOD SPECIMENS Specimens should be uniform in size and should show bark on one side andheart wood as well as the outside, or sap wood. They should be about sixinches long, two inches wide on the side having the bark, and shouldgradually come to an edge toward the pith, or centre. When seasoned, oneside and one edge should be polished and then oiled or varnished. Specimens of the wood of the deciduous trees may also be prepared duringthe winter. FRUITS During the winter months, some time should be devoted to reading anddiscussing articles on general farming and fruit growing. Such articlesmay be taken from books, magazines, or newspapers, and may be suppliedpartly by the teacher and partly by the pupils. These articles will beappreciated by the pupils all the more because of their studies of fruittrees during the season. Such topics as the following may be discussed: 1. Best kind of apples, plums, bush fruits, and strawberries. Reportsfrom the Dominion and Provincial Departments of Agriculture. 2. Method of raising fruit trees--from seed, grafting, and budding. 3. Demonstrations in pruning. This may be done in early spring by takinga class to a neighbouring orchard. 4. Methods of planting and cultivation. 5. Packing and storing. 6. Spraying. Much information is to be found in Horticultural Journalsand papers, and in Bulletins to be obtained from the Secretary ofAgriculture for Ontario. Illustrated articles on gardening and fruit growing should be collectedfor school use. Views of fine gardens, parks, and home grounds will beof interest to the pupils. Simple artistic methods of ornamentalplanting with trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous perennials can now beintroduced, and some scheme for improving the school grounds outlined. Catalogues should be obtained soon after New Year's and, after examiningtheir merits, the best varieties of seed and fruit for the districtshould be selected. Horticultural societies, as well as Dominion andProvincial Departments of Agriculture, commonly give selected lists withdescriptions of the different varieties. WEEDS AND WEED SEEDS The training in the observation and identification of weeds and weedseeds, which was begun in Form III, should be continued in Form IV. Formethod see Form III. PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHASE OF NATURE STUDY WATER PRESSURE 1. Grasp an empty tin can by the top and push it down into a pail ofwater. Note the tendency of the can to rise. The water presses upward. Its downward pressure is evident. 2. Tie a large stone to a string, hold it at arm's length, shut theeyes, and lower the stone into water. _Note_ the decrease in weight. This is also due to upward pressure, which we call buoyancy. The actualdecrease may be found by means of a spring balance. 3. Try Experiment 2, using a piece of iron the same weight as the stone. Is the decrease in weight as evident? Ships made wholly of iron willsink. Explain. 4. Put an egg into water; it slowly sinks. Add salt to the water; theegg floats. EXERCISES 1. Will the human body sink in water? In which is there less danger ofdrowning, lake or sea water? 2. When in bathing, immerse nearly the whole body, then take a fullinspiration. Note the rise of the body. 3. Why does ice float? (See expansion of water by freezing. ) 4. Balloons are bags filled with some light gas, generally hydrogen orhot air. They are pushed up by the buoyancy of the air. The rise ofheated air or water (see Convection) is really due to the same force. Clouds, feathers, and thistledown are kept in the air more by the actionof winds and small air currents than by buoyancy. STUDY OF AIR (Consult _Science of Common Life_, Chaps. VIII, IX, X. ) 1. Air takes up space. Put a cork with one hole into the neck of a flaskor bottle. Insert the stem of a funnel and try to pour in water. Trywith two holes in the cork. When we call a bottle "empty" what is in it? 2. Air is all around us. Feel it; wave the hands through it; run throughit; note that the wind is air; inhale the air and watch the chest. 3. Air has weight. This is not easy to demonstrate without an air-pumpand a fairly delicate balance. Fit a large glass flask with a tightly fitting rubber stopper having ashort glass tube passing through it. To the glass tube attach a shortrubber one and on this put a clamp. Open the clamp and suck out all theair possible. Close the clamp and weigh the flask. When perfectlybalanced, open the clamp and let the air enter again. Note the increasein weight. If an air-pump is available, procure a glass globe provided with astop-cock (see Apparatus). Pump some of the air from the globe, thenweigh and, while it is on the balance, admit the air again and noteincrease in weight. Tie a piece of thin sheet rubber over the large end of a thistle tube;suck the air out of the tube and note how the rubber is pushed in. Thisis due to the weight or pressure of the air. Turn the tube in variouspositions to show that the pressure comes from all directions. To showthat "suction" is not a force, let a pupil try to suck water out of aflask when there is only one opening through the stopper. If two holesare made, the water may be sucked up, that is, _pushed_ up by the weightof the air. Fill a pickle jar with water. Place a piece of writing paper on the topand then, holding the paper with the palm of the hand, invert the jar. The pressure of the air keeps the water in. A cubic foot of air weighs nearly 1-1/4 oz. Find the weight of the airin your school-room. The atmosphere exerts about fifteen pounds pressure on every square inchof the surface it rests against. Find the weight supported by the top ofa desk 18 inches by 24 inches. If the surface of the body is eightsquare feet, what weight does it have to sustain? Why does this weightnot crush us? THE BAROMETER The experiments immediately preceding will have paved the way for astudy of the barometer. 1. Fill a jar with water and invert it, keeping its mouth below thesurface of the water in another vessel. If the pupils can be led to seethat the water is sustained in the jar by the air pressing on the waterin the vessel, they can understand the barometer. 2. Fill a tube about 30 inches long, and 1/4 inch inside diameter withwater, and invert it over water, as with the jar in the previousexperiment. 3. Use the same tube or one similar to that in 2 above, but fill withmercury and allow the pupils to notice the great weight of the mercury. Holding the mercury in with your finger, invert the tube over mercury. This time the fluid falls some distance in the tube as soon as thefinger is removed. A tube of this size requires 1 lb. Of mercury. Lead the pupils to see that the mercury remaining in the tube issustained by the air pressure, and that any increase or decrease of theatmospheric pressure will result in the rise or fall of the mercurycolumn. Leave the barometer (made as in 3 above) in the room for a fewdays and note whether its weight changes. The use of the instrument inpredicting weather changes should be emphasized. Compare your barometerwith the records in the daily papers. The average height of the barometric column is 30 inches at sea-level. Explain how you could estimate heights of mountains and balloons with abarometer. THE COMMON PUMP This is a valuable application of air pressure. A glass model will proveuseful, but a model made by pupils will be much more so. (See_Laboratory Exercises in Physics_ by Newman. ) The water rises in the pump because the sucker lifts the air from thewater inside, allowing the air outside to push the water up. A commonpump will not lift water more than about 30 feet. Why is this? Comparethe pump to a barometer. (See _The Ontario High School Physics_. ) EXPANSIVE FORCE OF AIR Air and all other gases manifest a pressure in all directions not due totheir weight. The power of air to keep tires and footballs inflated andthat of steam in driving an engine are examples. It is this force thatprevents the pressure of air from crushing in, since there are many airspaces distributed throughout the body. COMPOSITION OF AIR This subject and the three immediately following it have a specialbearing on hygiene. 1. Invert a sealing-jar over a lighted candle. Has the candle used up_all_ the air when it goes out? 2. Place a very short candle on a thin piece of cork afloat on water ina plate; light the candle, and again invert the jar over it. Note thatthe candle goes out and the water rises only a short distance in thejar; therefore _all_ the air has not been used up. 3. Slip the glass top of the jar under the open end and set the jarmouth upward on the table without allowing any water to escape. Nowplunge a lighted splinter into the jar. The flame is extinguished. Air, therefore, contains an active part that helps the candle to burnand an inactive part that extinguishes flame. The names _oxygen_ and_nitrogen_ may be given. These gases occur in air in the proportion ofabout 1:4. (This method is not above criticism. Its advantage for youngpupils lies in its simplicity. ) OXYGEN Make two or three jars of oxygen, using potassium chlorate and manganesedioxide. (See any Chemistry text-book. ) Let the pupils examine thechemicals, learn their names, and know where to obtain them. Perform thefollowing experiments: 1. A glowing splinter relights and burns very brightly if plunged intooxygen. 2. A piece of picture wire tipped with sulphur burns with greatbrightness. 3. Burn phosphorus or match heads in a spoon. A spoon may be made byattaching to a wire a bit of crayon having a hollow scooped on its uppersurface. A clay pipe bowl attached to a wire will answer. From these experiments pupils will learn the value of nitrogen as adiluent of the oxygen. Pure oxygen entering the lungs would be just asdestructive as it would be entering the furnace. CARBON DIOXIDE 1. Make a jar of this gas. Washing soda and vinegar will answer ifhydrochloric acid and marble are not obtainable. (Consult the _Scienceof Common Life_, Chap. XIII, and any Chemistry text-book. ) 2. Lower a lighted candle first into a jar of air then into the jar ofcarbon dioxide. 3. Make some lime-water by stirring slaked lime with water and allowingthe mixture to settle. Shake up some clear lime-water with a jar of thegas. Pupils will be made to understand that the milky colour will infuture be considered the test for carbon dioxide. 4. Have one of the pupils cause his breath to bubble through some clearlime-water for a minute. Using a bicycle pump, cause some fresh air tobubble through lime-water. 5. Hold a clear jar inverted over the candle flame for a few seconds, then test with lime-water. 6. Invert a large jar over a leafy plant for a day. Keep in the dark andtest the jar with lime-water. Is this gas likely to be in the air? Set a plate of lime-water in theschool-room for a day or two, and then examine it. Try to pour the gasfrom jar to jar and use a candle as a test. Is the gas heavier than air? On account of its weight, the gas often collects in the bottoms of oldwells, mines, and tunnels. It is dangerous there since it will notsupport life. USES: 1. Add a little water to some baking powder and cause the gas that formsto pass through lime-water. What causes the biscuits to "rise"? 2. Mix flour and water in a jar, add a bit of yeast cake and a littlesugar, and let stand in a warm place. Test the gas that forms, forcarbon dioxide. What causes bread to rise? 3. Uncork a bottle of ginger ale, shake the bottle, and lead the gasthat comes off through lime-water. 4. Most portable fire extinguishers depend on the generation of carbondioxide. Show the similarity between our bodies and the candle. The candle needsoxygen; it produces heat, and yields water and carbon dioxide. Much ofour food is somewhat similar in composition to the wax of a candle; webreathe oxygen, our bodies are warmed by a real burning within, and weexhale water and carbon dioxide. After exercise why do we feel more hungry? Why do we breathe faster? Whydo we feel warmer? Why does the fire burn better when the damper isopened? IMPURITIES OF AIR All air contains carbon dioxide. If the amount exceeds 6 parts in10, 000, it becomes an impurity, not so much on its own account asbecause it indicates a poisoned state of the air in a room, sinceorganic poisons always accompany it when it is emitted from the lungs. Other impurities of the air, dependent on the locality and the season, are smoke, dust, disease germs, sewer gas, coal-gas, pollen dust. SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS (Consult the _Science of Common Life_, Chap. VII. ) Have the pupils weigh out equal quantities of sugar, salt, soda, alum, blue-vitriol. Shake up with equal quantities of water to comparesolubilities. Repeat, using hot water. Is it possible to recover thesubstance dissolved? Set out solutions on the table to evaporate, orevaporate them rapidly over a stove or spirit-lamp. Try to dissolvesand, sulphur, charcoal, in water. Obtain crystals of iodine and showhow much better, in some cases, alcohol is as a solvent than is water. APPLICATIONS: 1. Most of our "essences", "tinctures", and "spirits" are alcoholicsolutions. 2. Digestion is the effort of the body to dissolve food. 3. The food in the soil enters the plant only after solution. 4. The solvent power of water makes it so valuable for washing. 5. Maple sap is water containing sugar in solution. 6. In the salt region along Lake Huron, holes are drilled to the saltbeds, water is poured in, then pumped out and evaporated. Explain. 7. Meat broth is a solution of certain materials in the meat. 8. How could you manufacture salt from sea water? SOLUTION OF LIQUIDS Try to mix oil and water, benzine and water, oil and benzine. Only inthe third case do we find a permanent mixture, or solution. Try todissolve vinegar, glycerine, alcohol, mercury, with water. APPLICATIONS: 1. Paint is mixed with oil so that the rain will not wash it off soeasily. 2. Water will not wash grease stains. Benzine is necessary. 3. Why is it necessary to "shake" the bottle before taking medicine? SOLUTION OF GASES Study air dissolved in water, by gently heating water in a test-tube andobserving the bubbles of air that gather on the inner surface of thetest-tube. Aquatic animals, such as fish, clams, crayfish, crabs, subsist on this dissolved air. LIMESTONE Pieces of this rock may be found in all localities. Teach pupils torecognize it by its gray colour, its effervescence with acid, and thefossils and strata that show in most cases. If exposed limestone rocksare near, visit them with the pupils and note the layers, fossils, andevidences of sea action. Compare lime with limestone as to touch, colour, and action on water and litmus. Try to make lime by putting alump of limestone in the coals for some time; add water to this. Otherforms of limestone are marble, chalk, egg-shells, clam-shells, scales intea-kettles. Geographically, the study of limestone is of great importance. Grindsome limestone very fine, add a very little of this to water, andbubble carbon dioxide through for some time; note the disappearance ofthe limestone. This explains how limestone rocks are being slowly wornaway and why the water of rivers, springs, and wells is so often "hard". Catch some rain-water in the open and test it for hardness. It will befound "soft". Place a few limestone pebbles in a tumbler with this softwater and after a day or two test again. The water will be "hard". Compare, as to hardness, the water from a concrete cistern with thatfrom a wooden one. CARBON Procure specimens of hard and soft coal, coke, charcoal, graphite, peat, and petroleum. Note the distinctive characteristics of each. Discuss theuses. Try to set each on fire. Note which burns with a flame when laidon the coals or placed over the spirit-lamp. Put a bit of soft coal intoa small test-tube; heat and light the gas that is produced. This gas, when purified, is one kind of illuminating gas. Note the _coke_ left inthe test-tube. Fill the bowl of a clay pipe with soft coal and seal it up with plasterof paris. After this has hardened, place the bowl in hot coals or in theflame of a spirit-lamp and light the coal-gas at the end of the stem. After all the gas has been driven off, look for the coke inside. Heat a bit of wood in a small test-tube and light the gas that isevolved. Note the charcoal left. Cover a piece of wood with sand or earth; heat, and note that charcoalis formed. This illustrates the old method of charcoal-burning. Thissubject is closely related to industrial geography. HYDROGEN A convenient way to prepare hydrogen is to use zinc and hydrochloricacid with a test-tube for a generator. (Consult any Chemistrytext-book. ) Make the gas and burn it at the end of a tube, holding adry, cold tumbler inverted over the flame. Note that water is formed. Conclude what water consists of, namely, oxygen and hydrogen. Water maybe decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen, hence a use of hydrogen may beshown by attaching a clay pipe to the generator and filling soap bubbleswith the gas. When freed these rise quickly. MAGNETS If bar magnets cannot be obtained, use a child's horse-shoe magnet. Procure small pieces of cork, wood, iron, brass, glass, lead, etc. , andlet pupils discover which the magnet attracts. Have pupils interpose paper, wood, slate, glass, iron, lead, etc. , insheets between the magnet and the iron and note the effect on the forceexerted. Note that when one end of a magnet touches or comes near the end of anail, the nail becomes a magnet, but not a permanent one. Magnetize a needle by drawing one of the poles of the magnet from end toend of the needle, always in the same direction, about twenty times. Suspend the needle horizontally with a piece of silk thread and note itsposition when at rest. Get a small compass and show how it is related to the foregoingexperiments. Emphasize its use to mariners. If possible, get a piece oflodestone and show its magnetic properties. ELECTRICITY Half fill a tumbler with water and add about a teaspoonful of sulphuricacid. Set in this a piece of copper and a piece of zinc, but do not letthem touch. Make a coil by winding insulated wire around a block of woodabout ten times. Remove the wood and place a compass in the centre ofthe coil. Join the ends of the wire to the two metals in the tumbler. The sudden movement of the needle will be taken as the indication of acurrent. Let pupils try experiments with many pairs of solids, such as lead andsilver, carbon and glass, wood and iron, tin and zinc, and liquids suchas vinegar and brine. Show pupils how to make a simple battery. See home-made apparatus, page50, and consult _Laboratory Exercises_ by Newman. Two or three dry cellswill be found sufficient for any experiments, but the home-made batteryis to be preferred. Show pupils how to make a magnet by winding a piece of insulated wirearound a nail and joining the ends of the wire to the battery. Make ahorse-shoe magnet by bending the nail and winding the wire about bothends in opposite directions. As an application of the electro-magnet, show pupils how to make atelegraph sounder. (See Manual on _Manual Training_. ) If possible, examine the construction of an electric bell. The motor and electriclight are other common applications of the current. Take up the uses ofthe motor in factories, and for running street-cars and automobiles. Show the necessity for a water-wheel or engine to produce the current, and for wires to connect. Explain that batteries are not used to producelarge currents, but that machines called dynamos, similar to motors, when driven by steam or water-power, will yield electric currents asbatteries do. STEAM The power of steam may be shown by loosely corking a flask and boilingthe water in it until the cork is driven out, or by stopping the spoutof a boiling tea-kettle, or by letting a stream of steam impinge on atoy paper wheel. Encourage pupils to learn all they can about steam andgasolene engines and their uses. FARM TOOLS This topic should be dealt with only in so far as it can be made asubject for actual observation by the pupils. Children should learn tobe thoughtful and observant and to do all kinds of work, manual as wellas mental, intelligently. MACHINES (Consult _The Ontario High School Physics_, Chap. IX. ) LEVER. --When a _lever_ is used to lift a log, one end is placed underthe log, a block called a _fulcrum_ is placed under the lever as closeas possible to the log, and then the workman pulls down on the outer endof the lever. For example, if the fulcrum is one foot from the log andten feet from the man, the latter can raise ten pounds with a pull ofone pound, but he has to move his end of the lever ten times as far asthe log rises. Try it. See other examples in plough handles, see-saw, balance, scissors, wheel-barrow, pump-handle, handspike, crowbar, canthook, nut-crackers. ROPE AND PULLEY. --In the _rope_ and _pulley_ note that when the pulleyis a fixed one, the only advantage is a changed direction of the rope. When the pulley is _movable_, the horse pulling will have only half theweight to draw if the pulley is single, one quarter if double, one sixthif triple, etc. Thus in the case of a common hay-fork the horse drawsonly half the weight of the hay, but he walks twice as far as the haymoves. COGS. --If one wheel has eighty _cogs_ and the other ten, the latter willturn eight times to the former's once. BELT. --When a _belt_ runs over two wheels, one having, say, one fifth ofthe diameter of the other, the smaller will revolve five times for onerevolution of the other. CRANK. --With a _crank_ two feet long, one may turn a wheel twice aseasily as with one one foot long, but the hand will move twice as far. If a wedge is two inches thick at the large end and ten inches long, aman may lift 1000 pounds by striking the wedge a 200-lb. Blow. INCLINED PLANE. --If a plank twelve inches long has one end on the groundand the other on a cart four inches high, one man can roll up the plankthe same weight that would require three men to lift, but he has to movethe object three times as far. PROBLEMS 1. Why is a long-handled spade easier to dig with than a short-handledone? 2. Which is easier, to dig when the spade is thrust full length or halflength into the earth? 3. Can a small boy "teeter" on a board against a big boy? How? 4. In helping to move a wagon, why grasp the wheel near its rim? 5. In making a balance, why should the arms be equal? In a balance withunequal arms, compare the weights used with the article weighed. 6. In using shears, is it better to place the object you wish to cutnear the handles or near the points? 7. Where is the best place to put the load on a wheel-barrow? 8. Notice how three horses are hitched to a plough or binder. 9. Where would you grasp the pump-handle when you wish to pump (1)easily, (2) quickly? 10. Stretch out your arm and see whether you can hold as heavy a weighton your hand as on your elbow. 11. Count the pulleys used in a hay-fork and determine the use of each. 12. If a ton of hay is unloaded at five equal forkfuls, what weight hasthe horse to draw at each load? 13. Count the cogs on the wheels of a fanning-mill, washing-machine, apple-parer, or egg-beater, and determine how the direction or rate ofthe motion is changed thereby. 14. Measure the diameter of the large fly-wheel of a thrashing-machineengine, and of that which turns the cylinder in the separator. Decidehow many times the cylinder revolves for one turn of the fly-wheel. 15. Think of all the uses of a wedge. Draw one. Compare the axe, knife, and chisel with the wedge. 16. How are heavy logs loaded on a sleigh or truck? How are barrels ofsalt and sugar loaded and unloaded? 17. There are two hills of the same height. One has a gradual slope, theother a steep one. Which is easier to climb? In what case is it farthestto the top? 18. Why does a cow or horse take a zigzag path when climbing a steephill? CHAPTER XIV FORM IV SPRING METHODS OF IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS The study of plants should lead to an intelligent appreciation of theirbeauties and a desire to have them growing about. Many of our nativetrees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants are quite as beautiful assome that are procured at considerable expense from nurserymen. A greatwork remains to be done in cultivating and popularizing our best nativespecies. Up to this point the pupils have been getting acquainted withthem in their own natural habitat; the next step should be to use themin covering up harsh and offensive views about the school and homegrounds, in softening and giving restful relief to barren yards and barewalls, to ugly fences and uninteresting walks and driveways. Begin to plan some simple improvements for the spring. These may berepairing of fences and gates in order to protect the grounds from strayanimals, the cleaning up of the yards, the gathering of stones which maybe used in making a rockery, the planting of trees along the sides andfront of the grounds--a double row of evergreens to overcome a coldnorthern exposure or to exclude from view disagreeable features, thelaying out of a walk or drive with borders, flower beds, or shrubs inlittle clumps. Plans of grounds well laid out should be examined and discussed in theschool-room. Many illustrated magazines give useful suggestions. Planscan be worked out on the black-board with the pupils. It will take yearsto complete such a plan, but the pupils should have a part in making theplan as well as in carrying it out. The aim should be to encourage theuse of simple and inexpensive things obtained in the vicinity, wherewithto produce harmony and pleasing natural effects. Comfort and utility must be considered as well as beauty and naturaldesign. In the school grounds the outdoor games must also be providedfor and sufficient room allowed. Such efforts on the part of the teacher and pupils, if wisely directed, are sure to meet with the approval of the parents and must call forththe hearty co-operation of the trustees. It is not well to attempt too much in one year. It is better to do asmall amount well than to leave much work in a half-done condition. MAKING AND CARE OF A LAWN The soil must be drained and not too much shaded by trees. At first itshould be summer fallowed or cultivated every few weeks throughout thesummer, to kill the weeds and make it fine and level. A thick seeding oflawn grass-seed should be sown early the next spring and raked lightlyin. All levelling and preparation must have been done the previousseason. Coarse grasses, such as timothy, should not be used on a lawn. Red topand Kentucky blue-grass in equal parts are best and, if white clover isdesired, add about half as much white Dutch clover seed as red top. Ifthe soil has been prepared as above, there is no need to use a fostercrop of oats or barley, as is done in seeding down meadows. Roll thelawn after seeding and also after heavy rains as soon as the surfacedries. Shortly after the grass appears, begin to run the lawn-mower overit, so as to cut weeds or native grasses that may be gaining a foothold. Watering is dangerous, unless carefully and regularly done during thesummer, the evening being the best time. Merely wetting the surface bysprinkling encourages shallow rooting and therefore rapid drying out. Regular mowing and rolling are more important. REFERENCES Parsons: _How to Plan the Home Grounds. _ Doubleday. $1. 00 Waugh: _The Landscape Beautiful. _ Judd. $2. 00 Department of Education: _Improvement of School Grounds. _ SOIL STUDIES WEIGHT Using a balance, compare weights of equal-sized boxes of differentsoils, dried and powdered fine. Note the comparative lightness of humus. Weigh a box of earth taken fresh from the field, from this compute (1)the weight of a cubic foot of such soil, (2) the weight of the soil tothe depth of a foot in a ten-acre field. Repeat the experiment, making it an exercise in percentage. Fill two glass tubes (lamp chimneys will do), one with finely powderedclay, the other with sand. Set the tubes in a pan containing water. Notethe rise of the water due to capillarity. Through which soil does itrise faster? Farther? Try with other soils. Try with fine soil and alsowith the same soil in a lumpy condition. From this give a reason (1)for tilling soil, (2) for rolling after seeding. SUBSOILS Procure samples of soil from different depths, four inches, eightinches, twelve inches, sixteen inches, etc. Note how the soil changes incolour and texture. In which do plants succeed best? In most fields therichest part of the soil is contained in the upper nine inches; theportion below this is called subsoil. This extends to the underlyingrock and is usually distinguished from the upper portion by its lightercolour, poorer texture, and smaller supply of available plant food. Thedifference is due largely to the absence of humus. The character of thesubsoil has an important bearing on the condition of the upper soil. Alayer of sand or gravel a few feet below the surface provides naturaldrainage, but if it be too deep, it may allow the water to run awayrapidly, carrying the plant food down below the roots of the plants. Ahard clay subsoil will render the top too wet in rainy weather and toodry in droughts, because of the small amount of water absorbed. Such asoil is benefited by under-draining. A deep and absorptive subsoilreturns water to the surface, by capillary action, as it is needed. Thesubsoil finally contains a large amount of plant food, which becomesgradually changed into a form in which plants can make use of it. Pupilsshould find out the character of the subsoil in their various fields athome and its effect on the fertility of the field. FERTILIZERS Along with water, the roots take up from the soil various substancesthat are essential to their healthy growth. Potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, and iron are needed by plants, but the first three are particularly important. If land is to yield goodcrops year after year, it must be fertilized, that is, there must beadded chemicals containing the above-mentioned plant foods. Land becomespoor from two causes: the plant food in the soil becomes exhausted, andpoisonous excretions from the roots of one year's crops act injuriouslyon those of the next season. Rotating crops will improve both conditionsfor a while, but eventually the soil will require treatment. Humus contains plant food and is also an excellent absorbent of thepoisonous excretions. It is added as barn-yard manure, leaves, or as agreen crop ploughed in. The chemicals commonly used comprise nitrate of soda, bone meal, sulphate of potash, chloride of potash, lime, ashes, cotton-seed meal, dried blood, super-phosphate, rock phosphate, and basic clay. EXPERIMENTS: 1. Sow wheat on the same plot year after year and note the result whenno fertilizer is used. Sow wheat on another plot, but use good manure. 2. Try the various commercial fertilizers on the school plots, leavingsome without treatment. 3. Examine the roots of clover, peas, or beans, and look for nodules. These show the presence of bacteria, which convert the atmosphericnitrogen into a form in which the plants can use it. Scientific farmershave learned the value of inoculating their soil with these germs. Acrop of peas or clover may produce the same result. 4. Observe Nature's method of supplying soil with humus. SOIL-FORMING AGENTS There was once a time when the surface of the earth was bare rock. Muchof this rock still exists and in many places lies on the surface, but itis usually hidden by a layer of soil. Soil is said to be "rock ground tomeal by Nature's millstones". The process is very slow, but it isconstantly going on. The pupils should be directed to find evidences ofthis "grinding". 1. RUNNING WATER. --Brooks, creeks, rain, and the tiny streamlets on thehills all tell us how soil is carried from place to place. Get somemuddy water from the river after a heavy rain. Let it settle in a talljar and observe the fine layer formed. Wash some pebbles clean, place them in a glass jar with some clearwater, and roll or shake the jar about for a few minutes. Note that thewater becomes turbid with fine material worn from the stones. A processsimilar to this is constantly going on in rivers, lakes, and seas. Account for the presence of gravel beds now situated far away from anywater. 2. ICE GLACIERS. --How do these act on rocks? Show evidences in Ontarioas far as these can be illustrated from the surroundings, such aspolished rocks, boulders, beds of clay, sand, or gravel, small lakes, grooved stones, etc. 3. FROST AND HEAT. --See "Expansion of Solids", pages 189, 190. Look forsplintered or cracked stones. Why do farmers plough in the fall? 4. WIND. --In sections near the lakes the action of the wind in movingthe sand may be seen and appreciated. There are other places where thiswork is going on on a smaller scale. 5. PLANTS. --Our study of humus shows the value of vegetable matter insoil. Besides contributing to the soil, plants break up rocks with theirroots and dissolve them with acid excretions. It is interesting to studyhow a bare rock becomes covered with soil. First come the lichens whichneed no soil; on the remains of these the mosses grow. The roots ofmosses and lichens help to disintegrate the rock with their excretions, so that, with frost, heat, air, and rain to assist, there is a layer ofsoil gradually formed on which larger plants can live. A forestdevelops. The trees supply shade from the sun and shelter from the wind, thus retarding evaporation. The roots of the trees hold the soil frombeing washed away. The dead leaves and fallen stems provide humus, and, on account of the water-holding capacity of humus, the forest floor actslike a sponge, preventing floods in wet seasons and droughts in drytimes. 6. ANIMALS. --Pupils should make a list of all burrowing animals and lookfor examples. The work of the earthworms is especially interesting. Byeating the soil, they improve its texture and expose it to the air. Their holes admit air and water to the soil. The worms also drag leaves, sticks, and grass into their holes and thus add to the humus. Darwin estimated that the earthworms in England passed over ten tons ofsoil an acre through their bodies annually. This is left on the surfaceand makes a rich top-dressing. TILLING THE SOIL 1. It makes the soil finer, thus increasing the surface for holding filmwater and enabling it to conduct more water by capillarity. 2. It saves water from evaporation. (See Experiments 7 and 8, Form III. ) 3. It aerates the soil, enabling roots to thrive better. 4. It drains (hence warms) the soil, assuring more rapid growth. 5. It kills weeds. A large part of the work with soils may be done in connection with thegarden studies, though most of the above mentioned experiments may betried in the school-room. In ungraded schools any of the experiments maybe made instructive to all the Forms. Pupils should be asked to acquaint themselves with the common implementsused on the farm. They should ascertain the special service rendered byeach. See _Circular 156_, Dominion Department of Agriculture. GARDEN WORK The work in gardening for Form IV should be connected with some definiteline of experimental work. The garden should be so planned that a partof it can be used exclusively for experimental work. Co-operation withthe Farmer's Experimental Union of the Ontario Agricultural College atGuelph is advisable at this point. The following list of experiments issuggested as suitable for boys especially, but no pupil should attemptmore than one experiment each year. EXPERIMENTS IN PLOTS OUT-OF-DOORS Experimental plots may be of different sizes, according to the spaceavailable, from a yard square to a rod square or larger. A plot 10 ft. 5in. By 20 ft. 10 in. Is almost 1/200 of an acre, so that the actualyield on such a plot when multiplied by 200 is an approximation of theyield an acre. 1. Testing of varieties of grains, vegetables, or root seeds, includingpotatoes new to the district. 2. Testing different varieties of clovers and fodder grasses. Theseplots should be so situated that they can remain for three years. 3. Thick and thin sowing of grain: Use plots not less than four feetsquare. They may be tried most easily with wheat, oats, or barley, although any species of grain may be used. Use four plots of the samesize, equal in fertility and other soil conditions. In No. 1 put grainsof wheat or oats, as the case may be, two inches apart each way. In No. 2 put the grains two inches apart in the row and the rows four inchesapart. In No. 3 put the grains four inches apart in the row and the rowsfour inches apart. In No. 4 put the grains four inches apart in the rowand the rows eight inches apart. If possible, weigh the straw and grain when cut and the grain alone whendry and shelled out of the heads. 4. Deep and shallow growing of grain: Use four plots similar to those inexperiment No. 3. Put the same amount of seed in the different plots. InNo. 1, one inch deep; in No. 2. Two inches deep; in No. 3, four inchesdeep, and in No. 4, six inches deep. Note which is up first, and whichgives the best yield and best quality. 5. Early and late sowing: Three plots are required. Plant the sameamount of seed in each and cover to the same depth. Plant No. 1 as earlyas the soil can be made ready; No. 2, two weeks later; and No. 3, twoweeks later than No. 2. Compare the quality and the yield. 6. Effect of sowing clover with grain the first year: Only two plots arerequired. Sow the same amount of wheat or oats on each plot. On oneplot put a moderate supply of red clover and none on the other. Weigh(or estimate), as in Experiment 3 above, the straw and the grainproduced on each. 7. Effect of a clover crop on the grain crop succeeding it the followingyear: The same two plots must be used as in No. 6. When the grain wascut the previous autumn, the plots should have been left standingwithout cultivation until spring. When the clover has made some growth, spade it down and prepare the other plot in the same way. Rake themlevel and sow the same amount of grain in each again. Weigh the cropsproduced on each. 8. Test quality, yield, and time of maturity of several varieties of thesame species. Samples of such varieties of wheat as Red Fife, WhiteFife, Preston, Turkey Red, Dawson's Golden Chaff, White Russian, etc. , may be obtained from the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa, if notavailable in the district. 9. Effect of different fertilizers (1) on the same crop, (2) ondifferent crops: This can be done either out-of-doors in small plots orindoors, using pots or boxes. (1) Effect on the same crop: For example, oats on plots four feetsquare. The following standard fertilizers may be used: stable manure, nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and bone meal. On plot No. 1, a dressing of stable manure, On plot No. 2, four oz. Nitrate of soda, On plot No. 3, four oz. Muriate of potash, On plot No. 4, eight oz. Bone meal, On plot No. 5, two oz. Nitrate of soda, two oz. Muriate of potash, andfour oz. Bone meal. On plot No. 6, use no fertilizer. Record results. (2) Effect on different crops: Try a series of experiments similar tothe above, using (a) peas instead of oats, (b) using corn, (c)using cabbage, (d) using potatoes. FUNCTION OF PARTS OF PLANTS This may be introduced in Form III and continued in the next Form. Already the attention of the pupils has been directed to the essentialorgans of the flower, namely, stamens and pistil. They have noticed thetwo kinds of flowers on pumpkins, corn, and many trees. They have seenthat only the pistillate flowers produce fruit and seeds, and that whenthe staminate flowers have shed their pollen, they die. They have seenthe yellow dust that the stamens contain and have seen bees laden withit as they emerge from the heart of the flower. Have them watch the beeas it enters the flower and notice how it invariably rubs some part ofits pollen-covered body against the pistil. When on the moist, stickytop of the pistil, these little pollen-grains soon begin to grow, sending a delicate tube down to the bottom of the pistil to the ovary. Inside the ovary are little bodies called the ovules that are moistenedby a fluid that comes from this delicate pollen tube, and at once theybegin to enlarge and eventually become the seeds. The coveringssurrounding them complete the true fruit. The use of the root in supporting the plant in its normal position isapparent to every pupil. To demonstrate the firm hold it has upon thesoil, have the pupils try to pull up some large plants by the roots. They will then notice the branching roots of some plants and the longconical roots of others. Compare the colour and other surface featuresof the root and stem. To prove its feeding power, try two plants ofequal size, taking the root off one and leaving it uninjured in theother. Set them side by side in moist earth and notice which withers. Take all the leaves off a plant and keep them off for a few weeks. Theplant dies if its leaves are not allowed to grow. Keep it in the darkfor a long time, and it finally dies even when water and soil aresupplied. The leaves, therefore, are essential and require sunlight indoing their work. Their complete work will be considered later. HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD FROM THE SOIL When seeds germinate, the lower end of the caulicle, which becomes theroot, bears large numbers of root-hairs. Inside the root-hairs isprotoplasm and cell sap. These root-hairs grow among the soil particleswhich lie covered over with a thin film of moisture. It is this moisturethat is taken up by these root-hairs, and in it is a small amount ofmineral matter in solution which helps to sustain the plant. Thetransmission of soil water through the delicate cell walls of theseroot-hairs is known as _osmosis_. GERMINATION OF SOME OF THE COMMON GRAINS Make a special study of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Take three platesand put moist sand in each to a depth of about half an inch. Spread overthis a piece of damp cloth. Put in No. 1, one hundred grains of corn; inNo. 2, the same number of grains of wheat; and in No. 3, the same numberof grains of buckwheat, peas, or beans. Cover each plate with anotherpiece of damp cloth and invert another plate over each to prevent dryingout. Keep in a warm room and do not allow the cloths to become dry. Ifone of the cloths be left hanging six or eight inches over the side ofthe plate and dipping into a dish of water, the whole cloth will be keptmoist by capillarity. Note the following points: 1. Changes in the size of the seeds during the first twenty-four hours. 2. In which variety germination seems most rapid. 3. The percentage vitality, that is, the number of seeds which germinateout of one hundred. 4. The nature of the coverings and their use. (Protection to the partsinside) 5. The parts of the seed inside. (Buckwheat, pea, or bean divides intotwo parts, which become greenish and are called seed leaves. Wheat andcorn do not divide thus. ) 6. The first signs of growth. A little shoot or tiny plant begins todevelop at one end of the seed. Note which end bears this tiny plant. 7. Note the development of this embryo plant and the formation of stemand root. 8. Of what use is the bulky part of the seed? To answer this, let thepupils separate the white part of a kernel of corn, which is attached tothe embryo plant, from the pulpy mass surrounding it. Set five suchplants in moist sand and also five germinating seeds not so dissected. Pupils will discover that the mass surrounding the embryo is for thenourishing of the embryo plant. It is a little store of food prepared bythe mother plant for the little ones that grow from the seeds. Note thatit disappears as the plant grows. To further show the great value of this stored plant food, put alarge-sized pea in a pot of moist moss or sawdust for a few days. Whenit has germinated and its root is a couple of inches long, place the peain a thistle tube or small funnel, with the root projecting down thetube into a glass of water in which the funnel tube rests. Place all ina sunny window and note how much growth the plant is able to makewithout any food except that which the seed contained. 9. Note the development of the root and root-hairs. It is by means ofthese root-hairs that the plant absorbs moisture. The branching form ofthe root gives greater support to the plant and increased area forabsorption of water by means of root-hairs. To show the direction taken by the root and also by the shoot, take aglass jar with straight sides like a battery jar (a large fruit jar willdo); line it inside with a layer of blotting-paper and then fill it withmoist sawdust. Drop seeds of sunflower or squash down between the paperand the glass. The moisture from the blotting-paper will cause them tosprout, the shoot or stem always taking an upward direction and the rootturning downward quite regardless of the position in which the seedswere placed. 10. Apply this study to seed planting: Plant seeds of wheat in four potsof soil, No. 1, half an inch deep; No. 2, two inches; No. 3, fourinches; No. 4, six inches. Repeat this experiment, using buckwheat. Whatseeds are up first? What seeds last? Which are best after a week? Afterthree or four weeks? From this experiment could you recommend a certaindepth for the planting of wheat and buckwheat? 11. Does the kind of soil make any difference? To answer this havedifferent pupils choose different soils, such as (1) coarse sand, (2)fine sand, (3) wet clay, (4) humus or leaf mould, (5) mixed soil orloam; and let each put in grains of wheat, two inches deep. Allow five other pupils to plant seeds of buckwheat, under similarconditions. Treat all pots alike as to time of watering and quantity ofwater used on each and give them all equal light and heat. Note whichcome up first. Which are highest in one week, in two weeks, in fourweeks? 12. This study may be continued in the garden by planting one plot eachof corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Plots ten feet by twenty feet are largeenough. Observe the rate of development in the plots. Which seems tomature most quickly? Which blossoms first? In what respect are theleaves of these plants alike or unlike? How do the stems differ? Examine the blossoming and seed formation. When the grains are ripe, collect a hundred of the best looking and most compact heads of eachgrain and also a hundred of the smallest heads of each. Dry, shell, andstore the two samples of each grain in separate bottles. These samplesare for planting the following spring. 13. To show the need of moisture in germination: Fill two flower-pots orcans with dry sand; put seeds of sunflower in each, covering them aninch deep. Put water in one pot and none in the other. Examine both potsafter two or three days. 14. To show that heat is needed for germination of seeds: Plantsunflower seeds in two pots as above; place one in a warm room and theother in a cold room or refrigerator; water both and observe result inthree days. 15. To show that air is necessary for germination: Fill a pint sealerwith hydrogen (the gas collected over water in the usual way, as shownin any Chemistry text-book). Put a few sunflower seeds in a small spongeor wrap them loosely in a piece of soft cloth. Keeping the mouth of thejar which has been inverted over water and filled with hydrogen, underthe surface of the water, introduce the sponge containing the seeds, byputting it under the water and pushing it up into the jar. Seal the jarwithout letting the gas get out. Put some seeds in another jar in a wetsponge and leave the jar uncovered. Compare results after several days. Here is a second experiment to prove this. Boil some water in a beakerin order to drive out all the air, put a few grains of rice in thewater, and then add enough oil to make a thin covering on the water. This covering will prevent air from mixing with the water again. Putsome rice in a second beaker without boiling or adding the oil. Leavethe beakers side by side in a warm room for a week. The seeds will notgerminate in the boiled water. It is not always easy to get rice thatwill germinate, but when it has been procured, the experiment is easyand very interesting. Any other seeds, such as those of pond lily andeel-grass, that germinate readily under water, will do as well as rice. WEEDS Pupils in this Form should learn to identify a large number of weeds andweed seeds. The collecting and mounting of weeds and weed seeds theprevious summer and autumn will have helped to prepare them for thiswork. In the spring, when flower and vegetable seeds are coming up inthe garden, it is often difficult for pupils to distinguish the weedsfrom the useful plants. To help in this work of distinguishing the goodfrom the bad, the teacher should arrange for a plot having, say, tenrows, one row for each variety of weed selected. Each row should bedesignated by a number instead of a name. The identification of thesegrowing weeds by name may be given as a problem to the pupils. Thisplot should remain until the pupils have observed the manner of growthof each variety, the blossoming and seed formation, and then the rootgrowth, as they are being uprooted previous to the ripening of the seed. Each pupil should prepare a brief description of each of the tenvarieties studied, and make drawings of the plant and its parts, especially the leaf, flower, seed, and root. They should learn the bestmethods of eradication and add these in their notes. _Farm Weeds_ willbe of great value in such weed studies. VINES Suitable garden vines for study are climbing nasturtium, scarlet runnerbean, and Japanese hop. Their growth and method of climbing should becompared with that of the sweet-pea and morning-glory already studied. Observe particularly the kind of leaves and their arrangement, also theflowers and fruit. Observe also the gourd family--melon, cucumber, andsquash--their tendency to climb, and the nature of their flowers andfruit. WILD FLOWERS In schools where the studies with garden plants, such as have beenindicated, can be carried on, there will not be as much time for thestudy of wild flowers as in those schools where no garden plants areavailable. A definite list of wild flowers for study should be arrangedby the teacher early in spring. The following are common in most parts of Ontario: squirrel-corn, Dutchman's breeches, blue cohosh, dog's-tooth violet, water-parsnip, catnip, and mallow. In each study observe the following points: 1. Description of leaves and flowers for identification. 2. Storing of food in underground parts. 3. Time of flowering. (Pupils of this Form should keep a flowercalendar. ) 4. Description of fruit and seeds and how these are scattered. 5. Their location, and the character of the soil where found. Encourage the pupils to transplant a specimen of each from the woods tothe school or home garden. Moist humus soil and partial shade are thebest conditions for the growth of these wild wood flowers. Review thetype lessons given already for Primary classes and apply the informationthus gained to the observational study of the varieties of flowers namedabove. PLANTING OF TREES, SHRUBS, AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS IN HOME AND SCHOOLGROUNDS This work should be the outcome of the plans made in the winter. If eachpupil does a little toward the carrying out of the scheme of planting, the grounds will soon be wonderfully improved. The teacher should guardagainst over-planting and arrange for the care of the shrubs and flowersduring the summer holidays. New varieties of herbaceous perennials, grown from seed planted theprevious summer or procured from homes in the vicinity, should beintroduced. As most herbaceous perennials become too thick after a fewyears, it is necessary to keep digging some out year by year, dividingand resetting them, and fertilizing the ground. Native trees and shrubs should be placed so as to obscure undesirableviews, such as closets and outbuildings, rough fences, or bare walls. This principle in planting should be observed in the case of trees. Evergreen trees are particularly desirable as screens and shelters fromcold winds. No planting should be done, on the other hand, that wouldshut out a good view of the school or obscure a beautiful landscape. Toofrequently unused corners of the school ground are covered with weeds. Prevent this by putting trees there and also shrubs. Keep all centresopen, and let the trees, shrubs, and flowering perennials be massedabout the corners and along the sides. The informal method of plantingis to be preferred to formal planting of designs. The Public SchoolInspector will provide a copy of a departmental circular on the_Improvement of School Grounds_, which should be carefully studied byevery teacher. SHADE TREES Consider suitable varieties to plant for shade and for ornamentaleffects. White elm, hard and soft maple, white birch, pines, and sprucesare among the best. Elms and maples are excellent trees for roadside orstreet planting, and should be about forty feet apart. Spruces and pinesmay be planted five or six feet apart along the north and west, to actas a wind break. Otherwise, evergreens are best when planted intriangular clumps. White birch is particularly ornamental against a darkbackground of evergreens. Specimen trees of horse-chestnut, beech, ash, and hickory are also desirable. TRANSPLANTING The best time for transplanting trees is in the autumn after the leaveshave fallen, or in the spring before the buds have opened. In planting a tree, the following points should be observed: 1. Preserve as much of the root system as possible, and trim off allbroken or bruised portions. 2. Do not expose the roots to sun or wind while out of the ground. Thisis especially important in transplanting evergreens. 3. Reduce the top of the tree sufficiently to balance with the reducedroot system. 4. Set the tree a few inches deeper than it was before transplanting. 5. Pack the best top soil closely about the roots, so as to exclude allair spaces, since these tend to dry the delicate roots. 6. If the ground is very dry, water should be used in planting;otherwise it is of no advantage. Water the trees thoroughly once a weekin dry weather during the first season. 7. After planting, put a mulch or covering of fine straw, grass, orchips for two or three feet around the tree; or establish a soil mulchand keep down the grass by frequent cultivation. Grass roots dry out thesoil. 8. In the case of deciduous trees, have the lowest limbs at least sevenfeet from the ground. Evergreens, however, should never be trimmed, butshould have their branches right from the ground up--this uninterruptedpyramid form is one of their chief beauties. ANIMAL STUDIES SCALE INSECTS SAN JOSÉ SCALE Certain districts in Ontario and especially those bordering on Lake Eriehave suffered from the ravages of this scale on apple, peach, pear, andother orchard trees. A hand lens should be used in studying theseinsects, observations being carried on from May to September. Carefully examine the fruits and twigs of orchard trees for evidences ofthe presence of the scale, and learn to identify it and to recognize thedamages resulting from its attacks. Observe the almost circular flat scale of a grayish colour and having aminute point projecting upward at its centre. The young insects whichemerge from underneath these scales in the spring crawl around for atime, then become stationary, and each one secretes a scale under whichit matures. The mature males have two wings but the mature females arewingless. Note the withering of fruit and twigs due to the insects'attacks and the minute openings in the skin of the twig, made by theinsertion of the sucking mouth parts. Describe to the pupils how the insect was transported from Japan toAmerica and how it is now spread on nursery stock. Give a brief accountof its destructiveness in the orchards of Essex and Kent. (Consult _Bulletin No. 153, Common Insects Affecting Fruit Trees and Fungus Diseases Affecting Fruit Trees_. Bethune & Jarvis, Department of Agriculture, Toronto, free. ) OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE This is very common throughout the Province on apple and pear trees. Observe the unhealthy appearance of the leaves of the infested trees, the inferior quality of the fruit, and the gray scales shaped like tinyoyster-shells. The means of destroying these pests should be discussed. The Bulletinsnamed above give detailed information in reference to spraying andfumigation. CUTWORMS (Consult _Bulletin 52_, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. ) Cutworms are the larvæ of medium-sized brown moths that fly at night. There are many species of cutworms, all of which are destructive to someforms of plants or grasses, grains, and vegetables. The larvæ are rather thick, naked, worm-like forms. They burrow into theground, but emerge at night to feed by cutting through the stems oftender plants or by feeding upon the leaves. For the most effectivemethod of dealing with these refer to what is said on "Combating GardenPests", Form II. When a field is known to be infested with cutworms, it is a good plan tospread poisoned clover or cabbage leaves over the ground before the seedis planted. WHITE GRUBS White grubs are large, fat, white larvæ of June beetles. These beetlesare the well-known large, brown, clumsy beetles that blunder into thehouse at night in May or June and drop with a thud upon the floor. Three years are spent in the larval form, the grubs living undergroundand feeding on the roots of plants, especially the roots of grains andgrasses. Since they are found chiefly in fields recently ploughed from grass, they may be held in check by rotation of crops and by fall ploughing, which exposes the larvæ to the winter frosts. In May or June, when the adults are feeding on the foliage of fruit andshade trees, spraying the trees with London purple is quite effectivefor destroying the beetles before they have laid their eggs among theroots of the grass. Hogs destroy many larvæ by rooting in the soil to find them for food. CRAYFISH Search for the crayfish in streams and ponds. Why is the crayfish hardto find? Hard to capture? Obtain a living crayfish from a pond or stream and place it in a jar ofwater or in an aquarium. The crayfish should not be placed in an aquarium containing insects andsmall fish which are to be kept, as it is fierce and voracious. The pupils should study the living animal, noting its habit of lurkingunder stones; the sweeping of the water with the feelers; the backwardmovement in swimming, produced by bending the tail sharply underneaththe body; the walking by means of four pairs of legs, the great clawsbeing used to turn the animal; the use of the great claws in seizingprey and holding food near the mouth; the movements of the smallappendages under the front part of the animal and the water currentscaused by these; the movements of the small appendages under the abdomenof the animal. FRESHWATER MUSSEL The freshwater mussel--"clam" as it is usually called byschool-boys--may be found in almost any stream. Place a mussel in the aquarium, and note the opening and closing of thevalves of the shell; the hinge connecting the valves; the footprotruding from the shell; the movements by means of the foot; themantle lobes lining the shell and visible at the open margins; the twosiphons at the rear of the animal--water currents may be observedentering the upper and emerging from the lower of these. Infer uses forthese currents. Touch the edge of the upper siphon and observe howquickly the shell is closed. Compare the mussel with the snail as to movements and shell. Compare also with the oyster and sea clam. Examine empty shells and notice the pearly layer of the shell, theaction of the hinge, and the marks on the shell to which the muscles forclosing the shell were attached. State all the means of protection that you have discovered the animal topossess. BIRD STUDY (Consult _Bulletin 218. Birds of Ontario in Relation to Agriculture_, Nash. Department of Agriculture, free. ) If the lessons in bird study which are prescribed for Forms I, II, andIII have been successful, the pupils of Form IV should have a fairacquaintance with the habits of the common birds. A very interesting exercise is to hold a trial upon those birds whichare viewed with suspicion or which are openly condemned as objectionableneighbours. A pupil is appointed to act as judge and other pupils giveevidence. The evidence must be based upon the pupil's personalobservations on the habits of the bird. The following birds are named, and brief descriptions of their habitsare given as suggestions for materials for bird trials: ROBIN. --He steals small fruits, such as cherries, currants, etc. He is acheerful, jolly neighbour, who sings sweetly. He eats great numbers ofcutworms and white grubs. CROW. --He robs the nests of other birds, and steals chickens, corn, andpotatoes. He helps the farmer by killing cutworms, white grubs, grasshoppers, and other insects. WOODPECKER. --The members of this family are grievously persecutedbecause they are believed to injure orchard and shade trees by peckingholes in the bark from which to suck the sap. Careful observations tendto show that the trees are benefited rather than injured by thistreatment. Woodpeckers are undoubtedly beneficial as destroyers ofwood-borers and other obnoxious insects. CROW-BLACKBIRD (bronzed grackle). --His habits are similar to those ofthe crow. OWLS. --All the owls are held in ill repute because of the crimes of afew members of the family. Very seldom does an owl steal a chicken;their food consists chiefly of mice, rats, squirrels, grasshoppers, andother field pests. HAWKS. --The hawks are unjustly persecuted for crimes of which they areseldom guilty. As a class they are beneficial, not injurious birds. DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF NATURE STUDY There is a knowledge of Nature which contributes to the earning of aliving. This is the _utilitarian_ aspect. There is a knowledge of Nature which may be obtained in such a way as todevelop the observing and reasoning powers and give a training inscientific method. This is the _disciplinary_ aspect. There is a knowledge which leads the pupil to perceive the beautiful inNature, to enjoy it and so add to his happiness. This is the _æsthetic_aspect. There is a knowledge of Nature which, through the life history of plantand animal, throws light on the pupil's own life, gives him an insightinto all life in its unity, and leads him to look up reverently to theauthor of all life--through Nature up to Nature's God. This is the_spiritual_ aspect. Each of these aspects supplements, interprets, or enforces the others. He who omits or neglects any of these perceives but a part of a completewhole. Nature Study develops in the pupil a sympathetic attitude towardNature for the purpose of increasing the joy of living. It leads him tosee Nature through the eyes of the poet and the moralist as well asthrough those of the scientist. Nature Study is concerned with plants, birds, insects, stones, clouds, brooks, etc. , but it is not botany, ornithology, entomology, geology, meteorology, or geography. In this study, it is the spirit of inquirydeveloped rather than the number of facts ascertained that is important. Gradually it becomes more systematic as it advances until, in the highschool, it passes over into the science group of studies. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THESE ASPECTS The simple observational lessons on The Robin, pages 96-7, form thebases for further study in more advanced classes. This bird as adestroyer of worms, beetles, etc. , is a valuable assistant to the farmeras, indeed, are practically all birds in this Province. Birds such asthe duck, goose, partridge, etc. , are valuable as food, and laws aremade to protect them during certain seasons. The training in inference which a pupil receives in studying the partsof a plant or an animal and the adaptation of these parts to function isvaluable. He studies the plant and the animal as living organisms withwork to do in the world, and learns how what they do and their manner ofdoing it affect their form and structure. The short, curved, and slightly hooked bill of the hen and her method ofbreaking open a pea pod or splitting an object too large to swallowshows the bill to be a mallet, a wedge, or a pick as the case may be. Astudy of the bills of the duck, woodpecker, and hawk will reveal themethod by which each gets his food and how the organ is adapted to itspurpose. Similar studies of the feet and legs of birds will make theidea of adaptation increasingly clear. Literature is rich with tributes to the songs of the birds. The thoughtsand feelings aroused or suggested by these songs are the topics of muchof the world's enduring poetry. Longfellow, in his "Birds ofKilling-worth" (_Tales of a Wayside Inn_) sings exquisitely of the useand beauty and worth of birds. Shelley, in his "Skylark", describes inglowing verse "the unbodied joy" that "singing still dost soar andsoaring ever singest". Wordsworth hears the blithe new comer, theCuckoo, and rejoices Though babbling only to the vale Of sunshine and of flowers Thou bringest unto me a tale Of visionary hours. The life story of a bird throws light on our own lives, puts us insympathy with the lives of others, teaches kindness, teaches the dutiesand responsibilities of the higher to the lower, teaches respect for alllife. Observe the helpless bird in its nest, helpless as a baby. See the caregiven by the mother and father to keep it warm till its down andfeathers grow, to feed it till it is able to leave the nest. Watch theparents teaching it to fly by repeated short flights. Olive Thorn Millerin her _Bird Ways_ gives a delightful sketch of the father robinteaching a young robin where to look for worms and how to dig them up. When that task was accomplished, his father began to give him "musiclessons", that is, practice in imitating the Robin's song. Thus, theyoung bird was equipped to make a living and to enjoy life. The sociallife of birds, as they sing their matins, as they choose their mates, asthey gather in flocks preparatory to migration, furnish manyopportunities for indirect teaching on many of life's problems. The Ontario Readers contain many poems that may be used in connectionwith the Nature Study lessons. To supplement the observational studiesof birds, read from the Third Reader, "The Robin's Song", "TheRed-winged Blackbird", "The Sandpiper", "To the Cuckoo", "Bob White", "The Lark and the Rook", "The Poet's Song". In the Third Reader, the lessons on "The Fountain", "The Brook", "TheTide River", and "A Song of the Sea" form a group that can be used inconnection with lessons in geography. "A Song for April", "An AppleOrchard in the Spring", "The Gladness of Nature", "The Orchard", "AMidsummer Song", "Corn-fields", "The Corn Song", "The Death of theFlowers", "The Frost", "The Snow-storm", make another group to accompanya study of the seasons. A similar group may be selected from the FourthReader. The pupil who has made a study of a "brook" as a lesson in geography anddefined it as "a small natural stream of water flowing from a spring orfountain" will, if he studies the following lines from Tennyson's "TheBrook" and perceives by careful observation the descriptive accuracy andaptness of the words in italics, realize that the poet sees much thatthe geographer has not included in his definition. I _chatter_ over stony ways, In little sharps and trebles, I _bubble_ into eddying bays, I _babble_ on the pebbles. * * * I _slip_, I _slide_, I _gloom_, I _glance_. Among my skimming swallows; * * * I _murmur_ under moon and stars. * * * I _linger_ by my shingly bars. I _loiter_ round my cresses. Correlations such as these add greatly to the pupil's interest in thissubject. Given a teacher with a love of out-of-door life, with observant eyes andears, and the spirit that sympathizes with children's curiosity andstimulates inquiry, Nature Study will be a joy and an inspiration topupils.