ON REVENUES By Xenophon Translation by H. G. Dakyns Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B. C. He was a pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land and property in Scillus, where he lived for many years before having to move once more, to settle in Corinth. He died in 354 B. C. Revenues describes Xenophon's ideas to solve the problem of poverty in Athens, and thus remove an excuse to mistreat the Athenian allies. PREPARER'S NOTE This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon, " a four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there is doubt about some of these) is: Work Number of books The Anabasis 7 The Hellenica 7 The Cyropaedia 8 The Memorabilia 4 The Symposium 1 The Economist 1 On Horsemanship 1 The Sportsman 1 The Cavalry General 1 The Apology 1 On Revenues 1 The Hiero 1 The Agesilaus 1 The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The diacritical marks have been lost. WAYS AND MEANS A Pamphlet On Revenues I For myself I hold to the opinion that the qualities of the leadingstatesmen in a state, whatever they be, are reproduced in the characterof the constitution itself. (1) (1) "Like minister, like government. " For the same idea more fully expressed, see "Cyrop. " VIII. I. 8; viii. 5. As, however, it has been maintained by certain leading statesmen inAthens that the recognised standard of right and wrong is as high atAthens as elsewhere, but that, owing to the pressure of poverty on themasses, a certain measure of injustice in their dealing with the alliedstates (2) could not be avoided; I set myself to discover whether byany manner of means it were possible for the citizens of Athens to besupported solely from the soil of Attica itself, which was obviouslythe most equitable solution. For if so, herein lay, as I believed, theantidote at once to their own poverty and to the feeling of suspicionwith which they are regarded by the rest of Hellas. (2) Lit. "the cities, " i. E. Of the alliance, {tas summakhidas}. I had no sooner begun my investigation than one fact presented itselfclearly to my mind, which is that the country itself is made by natureto provide the amplest resources. And with a view to establishing thetruth of this initial proposition I will describe the physical featuresof Attica. In the first place, the extraordinary mildness of the climate is provedby the actual products of the soil. Numerous plants which in many partsof the world appear as stunted leafless growths are here fruit-bearing. And as with the soil so with the sea indenting our coasts, the variedproductivity of which is exceptionally great. Again with regard to thosekindly fruits of earth (3) which Providence bestows on man season byseason, one and all they commence earlier and end later in this land. Nor is the supremacy of Attica shown only in those products which yearafter year flourish and grow old, but the land contains treasures ofa more perennial kind. Within its folds lies imbedded by nature anunstinted store of marble, out of which are chiselled (4) temples andaltars of rarest beauty and the glittering splendour of images sacredto the gods. This marble, moreover, is an object of desire to manyforeigners, Hellenes and barbarians alike. Then there is land which, although it yields no fruit to the sower, needs only to be quarriedin order to feed many times more mouths than it could as corn-land. Doubtless we owe it to a divine dispensation that our land is veinedwith silver; if we consider how many neighbouring states lie round usby land and sea and yet into none of them does a single thinnest vein ofsilver penetrate. (3) Lit. "those good things which the gods afford in their seasons. " (4) Or, "arise, " or "are fashioned. " Indeed it would be scarcely irrational to maintain that the city ofAthens lies at the navel, not of Hellas merely, but of the habitableworld. So true is it, that the farther we remove from Athens thegreater the extreme of heat or cold to be encountered; or to use anotherillustration, the traveller who desires to traverse the confines ofHellas from end to end will find that, whether he voyages by sea or byland, he is describing a circle, the centre of which is Athens. (5) (5) See "Geog. Of Brit. Isles. " J. R. And S. A. Green, ch. I. P. 7: "London, in fact, is placed at what is very nearly the geometrical centre of those masses of land which make up the earth surface of the globe, and is thus more than any city of the world the natural point of convergence for its different lines of navigation, " etc. The natural advantages of Boeotia are similarly set forth by Ephorus. Cf. Strab. Ix. 2, p. 400. Once more, this land though not literally sea-girt has all theadvantages of an island, being accessible to every wind that blows, andcan invite to its bosom or waft from its shore all products, since it ispeninsular; whilst by land it is the emporium of many markets, as beinga portion of the continent. Lastly, while the majority of states have barbarian neighbours, the source of many troubles, Athens has as her next-door neighbourscivilised states which are themselves far remote from the barbarians. II All these advantages, to repeat what I have said, may, I believe, betraced primarily to the soil and position of Attica itself. But thesenatural blessings may be added to: in the first place, by a carefulhandling of our resident alien (1) population. And, for my part, I canhardly conceive of a more splendid source of revenue than lies openin this direction. Here you have a self-supporting class of residentsconferring large benefits upon the state, and instead of receivingpayment (2) themselves, contributing on the contrary to the gain ofthe exchequer by the sojourners' tax. (3) Nor, under the term carefulhandling, do I demand more than the removal of obligations which, whilstthey confer no benefit on the state, have an air of inflicting variousdisabilities on the resident aliens. (4) And I would further relievethem from the obligation of serving as hoplites side by side with thecitizen proper; since, beside the personal risk, which is great, thetrouble of quitting trades and homesteads is no trifle. (5) Incidentallythe state itself would benefit by this exemption, if the citizens weremore in the habit of campaigning with one another, rather than (6)shoulder to shoulder with Lydians, Phrygians, Syrians, and barbariansfrom all quarters of the world, who form the staple of our residentalien class. Besides the advantage (of so weeding the ranks), (7) itwould add a positive lustre to our city, were it admitted that themen of Athens, her sons, have reliance on themselves rather than onforeigners to fight her battles. And further, supposing we offered ourresident aliens a share in various other honourable duties, includingthe cavalry service, (8) I shall be surprised if we do not increasethe goodwill of the aliens themselves, whilst at the same time we adddistinctly to the strength and grandeur of our city. (1) Lit. "metics" or "metoecs. " (2) {misthos}, e. G. Of the assembly, the senate, and the dicasts. (3) The {metoikion}. See Plat. "Laws, " 850 B; according to Isaeus, ap. Harpocr. S. V. , it was 12 drachmae per annum for a male and 6 drachmae for a female. (4) Or, "the class in question. " According to Schneider (who cites the {atimetos metanastes} of Homer, "Il. " ix. 648), the reference is not to disabilities in the technical sense, but to humiliating duties, such as the {skaphephoria} imposed on the men, or the {udriaphoria} and {skiadephoria} imposed on their wives and daughters in attendance on the {kanephoroi} at the Panathenaic and other festival processions. See Arist. "Eccles. " 730 foll. ; Boeckh, "P. E. A. " IV. X. (Eng. Tr. G. Cornewall Lewis, p. 538). (5) Or, reading {megas men gar o agon, mega de kai to apo ton tekhnon kai ton oikeion apienai}, after Zurborg ("Xen. De Reditibus Libellus, " Berolini, MDCCCLXXVI. ), transl. "since it is severe enough to enter the arena of war, but all the worse when that implies the abandonment of your trade and your domestic concerns. " (6) Or, "instead of finding themselves brigaded as nowadays with a motley crew of Lydians, " etc. (7) Zurborg, after Cobet, omits the words so rendered. (8) See "Hipparch. " ix. 3, where Xenophon in almost identical words recommends that reform. In the next place, seeing that there are at present numerous buildingsites within the city walls as yet devoid of houses, supposing the statewere to make free grants of such land (9) to foreigners for buildingpurposes in cases where there could be no doubt as to the respectabilityof the applicant, if I am not mistaken, the result of such a measurewill be that a larger number of persons, and of a better class, will beattracted to Athens as a place of residence. (9) Or, "offer the fee simple of such property to. " Lastly, if we could bring ourselves to appoint, as a new governmentoffice, a board of guardians of foreign residents like our Guardians ofOrphans, (10) with special privileges assigned to those guardians whoshould show on their books the greatest number of resident aliens--sucha measure would tend to improve the goodwill of the class in question, and in all probability all people without a city of their own wouldaspire to the status of foreign residents in Athens, and so furtherincrease the revenues of the city. (11) (10) "The Archon was the legal protector of all orphans. It was his duty to appoint guardians, if none were named in the father's will. "--C. R. Kennedy, Note to "Select Speeches of Demosthenes. " The orphans of those who had fallen in the war (Thuc. Ii. 46) were specially cared for. (11) Or, "help to swell the state exchequer. " III At this point I propose to offer some remarks in proof of theattractions and advantages of Athens as a centre of commercialenterprise. In the first place, it will hardly be denied that we possessthe finest and safest harbourage for shipping, where vessels of allsorts can come to moorings and be laid up in absolute security (1) asfar as stress of weather is concerned. But further than that, in moststates the trader is under the necessity of lading his vessel with somemerchandise (2) or other in exchange for his cargo, since the currentcoin (3) has no circulation beyond the frontier. But at Athens he has achoice: he can either in return for his wares export a variety of goods, such as human beings seek after, or, if he does not desire to take goodsin exchange for goods, he has simply to export silver, and he cannothave a more excellent freight to export, since wherever he likes to sellit he may look to realise a large percentage on his capital. (4) (1) Reading {adeos} after Cobet, or if {edeos}, transl. "in perfect comfort. " (2) Or, "of exchanging cargo for cargo to the exclusion of specie. " (3) I. E. Of the particular locality. See "The Types of Greek Coins, " Percy Gardner, ch. Ii. "International Currencies among the Greeks. " (4) Or, "on the original outlay. " Or again, supposing prizes (5) were offered to the magistrates in chargeof the market (6) for equitable and speedy settlements of points indispute (7) to enable any one so wishing to proceed on his voyagewithout hindrance, the result would be that far more traders would tradewith us and with greater satisfaction. (5) Cf. "Hiero, " ix. 6, 7, 11; "Hipparch. " i. 26. (6) {to tou emporiou arkhe}. Probably he is referring to the {epimeletai emporiou} (overseers of the market). See Harpocr. S. V. ; Aristot. "Athenian Polity, " 51. (7) For the sort of case, see Demosth. (or Deinarch. ) "c. Theocr. " 1324; Zurborg ad loc. ; Boeckh, I. Ix. Xv. (pp. 48, 81, Eng. Tr. ) It would indeed be a good and noble institution to pay special marksof honour, such as the privilege of the front seat, to merchants andshipowners, and on occasion to invite to hospitable entertainment thosewho, through something notable in the quality of ship or merchandise, may claim to have done the state a service. The recipients of thesehonours will rush into our arms as friends, not only under the incentiveof gain, but of distinction also. Now the greater the number of people attracted to Athens either asvisitors or as residents, clearly the greater the development of importsand exports. More goods will be sent out of the country, (8) there willbe more buying and selling, with a consequent influx of money inthe shape of rents to individuals and dues and customs to the stateexchequer. And to secure this augmentation of the revenues, mind you, not the outlay of one single penny; nothing needed beyond one or twophilanthropic measures and certain details of supervision. (9) (8) See Zurborg, "Comm. " p. 24. (9) See Aristot. "Pol. " iv. 15, 3. With regard to the other sources of revenue which I contemplate, Iadmit, it is different. For these I recognise the necessity of a capital(10) to begin with. I am not, however, without good hope that thecitizens of this state will contribute heartily to such an object, whenI reflect on the large sums subscribed by the state on various lateoccasions, as, for instance, when reinforcements were sent to theArcadians under the command of Lysistratus, (11) and again at the dateof the generalship of Hegesileos. (12) I am well aware that ships ofwar are frequently despatched and that too (13) although it is uncertainwhether the venture will be for the better or for the worse, andthe only certainty is that the contributor will not recover the sumsubscribed nor have any further share in the object for which he gavehis contribution. (14) (10) "A starting-point. " (11) B. C. 366; cf. "Hell. " VII. Iv. 3. (12) B. C. 362; cf. "Hell. " VII. V. 15. See Grote, "H. G. " x. 459; Ephor. Ap. Diog. Laert. Ii. 54; Diod. Sic. Xv. 84; Boeckh, ap. L. Dindorf. Xenophon's son Gryllus served under him and was slain. (13) Reading {kai tauta toutout men adelou ontos}, after Zurborg. (14) Reading { (uper) on an eisenegkosi} with Zurborg. See his note, "Comm. " p. 25. But for a sound investment (15) I know of nothing comparable withthe initial outlay to form this fund. (16) Any one whose contributionamounts to ten minae (17) may look forward to a return as high as hewould get on bottomry, of nearly one-fifth, (18) as the recipient ofthree obols a day. The contributor of five minae (19) will on the sameprinciple get more than a third, (20) while the majority of Athenianswill get more than cent per cent on their contribution. That is to say, a subscription of one mina (21) will put the subscriber in possessionof nearly double that sum, (22) and that, moreover, without settingfoot outside Athens, which, as far as human affairs go, is as sound anddurable a security as possible. (15) "A good substantial property. " (16) Or, "on the other hand, I affirm that the outlay necessary to form the capital for my present project will be more remunerative than any other that can be named. " As to the scheme itself see Grote, "Plato, " III. Ch. Xxxix. ; Boeckh, op. Cit. (pp. 4, 37, 136, 600 seq. Eng. Tr. ) Cf. Demosth. "de Sym. " for another scheme, 354 B. C. , which shows the "sound administrative and practical judgment" of the youthful orator as compared with "the benevolent dreams and ample public largess in which Xenophon here indulges. " --Grote, op. Cit. P. 601. (17) L40:12:4 = 1000 drachmae. (18) I. E. Exactly 18 or nearly 20 per cent. The following table will make the arithmetic clear:-- 6 ob. = 1 drachma 10 minae = 6000 ob. 100 dr. = 1 mina = 1000 dr. 600 ob. = 1 mina 1000 dr. :180 dr. ::100:18 therefore nearly 1/5 3 ob. (a day) x 360 = 1080 ob. P. A. = nearly 20 per cent. = 180 dr. P. A. As to the 3 obols a day (= 180 dr. P. A. ) which as an Athenian citizen he is entitled to, see Grote, op. Cit. P. 597: "There will be a regular distribution among all citizens, per head and equally. Three oboli, or half a drachma, will be allotted daily to each, to poor and rich alike" (on the principle of the Theorikon). "For the poor citizens this will provide a comfortable subsistence, without any contribution on their part; the poverty now prevailing will thus be alleviated. The rich, like the poor, receive the daily triobolon as a free gift; but if they compute it as interest for their investments, they will find that the rate of interest is full and satisfactory, like the rate on bottomry. " Zurborg, "Comm. " p. 25; Boeckh, op. Cit. IV. Xxi. (p. 606, Eng. Tr. ); and Grote's note, op. Cit. P. 598. (19) = L20:6:3 = 500 drachmae. (20) = I. E. 36 per cent. (21) = L4:1:3 = 100 drachmae. (22) I. E. 180 per cent. Moreover, I am of opinion that if the names of contributors were to beinscribed as benefactors for all time, many foreigners would be inducedto contribute, and possibly not a few states, in their desire to obtainthe right of inscription; indeed I anticipate that some kings, (23)tyrants, (24) and satraps will display a keen desire to share in such afavour. (23) Zurborg suggests (p. 5) "Philip or Cersobleptes. " Cf. Isocr. "On the Peace, " S. 23. (24) I. E. Despotic monarchs. To come to the point. Were such a capital once furnished, it would be amagnificent plan to build lodging-houses for the benefit of shipmastersin the neighbourhood of the harbours, in addition to those whichexist; and again, on the same principle, suitable places of meeting formerchants, for the purposes (25) of buying and selling; and thirdly, public lodging-houses for persons visiting the city. Again, supposingdwelling-houses and stores for vending goods were fitted up for retaildealers in Piraeus and the city, they would at once be an ornament tothe state and a fertile source of revenue. Also it seems to me it wouldbe a good thing to try and see if, on the principle on which at presentthe state possesses public warships, it would not be possible to securepublic merchant vessels, to be let out on the security of guarantorsjust like any other public property. If the plan were found feasiblethis public merchant navy would be a large source of extra revenue. (25) Reading, with Zurborg, {epi one te}. IV I come to a new topic. I am persuaded that the establishment of thesilver mines on a proper footing (1) would be followed by a largeincrease in wealth apart from the other sources of revenue. And I wouldlike, for the benefit of those who may be ignorant, to point out whatthe capacity of these mines really is. You will then be in a positionto decide how to turn them to better account. It is clear, I presume, to every one that these mines have for a very long time been in activeoperation; at any rate no one will venture to fix the date at which theyfirst began to be worked. (2) Now in spite of the fact that the silverore has been dug and carried out for so long a time, I would ask you tonote that the mounds of rubbish so shovelled out are but a fractionalportion of the series of hillocks containing veins of silver, and asyet unquarried. Nor is the silver-bearing region gradually becomingcircumscribed. On the contrary it is evidently extending in wider areafrom year to year. That is to say, during the period in which thousandsof workers (3) have been employed within the mines no hand was everstopped for want of work to do. Rather, at any given moment, the work tobe done was more than enough for the hands employed. And so it isto-day with the owners of slaves working in the mines; no one dreamsof reducing the number of his hands. On the contrary, the object isperpetually to acquire as many additional hands as the owner possiblycan. The fact is that with few hands to dig and search, the find oftreasure will be small, but with an increase in labour the discovery ofthe ore itself is more than proportionally increased. So much so, thatof all operations with which I am acquainted, this is the only onein which no sort of jealousy is felt at a further development of theindustry. (4) I may go a step farther; every proprietor of a farm willbe able to tell you exactly how many yoke of oxen are sufficient for theestate, and how many farm hands. To send into the field more than theexact number requisite every farmer would consider a dead loss. (5) Butin silver mining (operations) the universal complaint is the want ofhands. Indeed there is no analogy between this and other industries. With an increase in the number of bronze-workers articles of bronze maybecome so cheap that the bronze-worker has to retire from the field. Andso again with ironfounders. Or again, in a plethoric condition of thecorn and wine market these fruits of the soil will be so depreciated invalue that the particular husbandries cease to be remunerative, and manya farmer will give up his tillage of the soil and betake himself to thebusiness of a merchant, or of a shopkeeper, to banking or money-lending. But the converse is the case in the working of silver; there the largerthe quantity of ore discovered and the greater the amount of silverextracted, the greater the number of persons ready to engage in theoperation. One more illustration: take the case of movable property. Noone when he has got sufficient furniture for his house dreams of makingfurther purchases on this head, but of silver no one ever yet possessedso much that he was forced to cry "enough. " On the contrary, if everanybody does become possessed of an immoderate amount he finds as muchpleasure in digging a hole in the ground and hoarding it as in theactual employment of it. And from a wider point of view: when a state isprosperous there is nothing which people so much desire as silver. The men want money to expend on beautiful armour and fine horses, andhouses, and sumptuous paraphernalia (6) of all sorts. The women betakethemselves to expensive apparel and ornaments of gold. Or when statesare sick, (7) either through barrenness of corn and other fruits, orthrough war, the demand for current coin is even more imperative (whilstthe ground lies unproductive), to pay for necessaries or military aid. (1) Or, "on a sound basis. " (2) "Exploited. " (3) Or, "at the date when the maximum of hands was employed. " (4) Reading {epikataskeuazumenois}, or, if {episkeuazomenoi}, transl. "at the rehabilitation of old works. " (5) Cf. "Oecon. " xvii. 12. (6) "The thousand and one embellishments of civil life. " (7) "When a state is struck down with barrenness, " etc. See "Mem. " II. Vii. And if it be asserted that gold is after all just as useful as silver, without gainsaying the proposition I may note this fact (8) about gold, that, with a sudden influx of this metal, it is the gold itself whichis depreciated whilst causing at the same time a rise in the value ofsilver. (8) Lit. "I know, however. " The above facts are, I think, conclusive. They encourage us not only tointroduce as much human labour as possible into the mines, but to extendthe scale of operations within, by increase of plant, etc. , in fullassurance that there is no danger either of the ore itself beingexhausted or of silver becoming depreciated. And in advancing theseviews I am merely following a precedent set me by the state herself. Soit seems to me, since the state permits any foreigner who desires it toundertake mining operations on a footing of equality (9) with her owncitizens. (9) Or, "at an equal rent with that which she imposes on her own citizens. " See Boeckh, "P. E. A. " IV. X. (p. 540, Eng. Tr. ) But, to make my meaning clearer on the question of maintenance, I willat this point explain in detail how the silver mines may be furnishedand extended so as to render them much more useful to the state. Only Iwould premise that I claim no sort of admiration for anything which I amabout to say, as though I had hit upon some recondite discovery. Sincehalf of what I have to say is at the present moment still patent to theeyes of all of us, and as to what belongs to past history, if we are tobelieve the testimony of our fathers, (10) things were then much of apiece with what is going on now. No, what is really marvellous is thatthe state, with the fact of so many private persons growing wealthyat her expense, and under her very eyes, should have failed to imitatethem. It is an old story, trite enough to those of us who have cared toattend to it, how once on a time Nicias, the son of Niceratus, owneda thousand men in the silver mines, (11) whom he let out to Sosias, aThracian, on the following terms. Sosias was to pay him a net obol aday, without charge or deduction, for every slave of the thousand, and be (12) responsible for keeping up the number perpetually at thatfigure. So again Hipponicus (13) had six hundred slaves let out onthe same principle, which brought him in a net mina (14) a day withoutcharge or deduction. Then there was Philemonides, with three hundred, bringing him in half a mina, and others, I make no doubt there were, making profits in proportion to their respective resources and capital. (15) But there is no need to revert to ancient history. At the presentmoment there are hundreds of human beings in the mines let out onthe same principle. (16) And given that my proposal were carried intoeffect, the only novelty in it is that, just as the individual inacquiring the ownership of a gang of slaves finds himself at onceprovided with a permanent source of income, so the state, in likefashion, should possess herself of a body of public slaves, to thenumber, say, of three for every Athenian citizen. (17) As to thefeasibility of our proposals, I challenge any one whom it may concern totest the scheme point by point, and to give his verdict. (10) Reading {para ton pateron}, with Zurborg, after Wilamowitz- Mollendorf. (11) See "Mem. " II. V. 2; Plut. "Nicias, " 4; "Athen. " vi. 272. See an important criticism of Boeckh's view by Cornewall Lewis, translation of "P. E. A. " p. 675 foll. (12) Reading {parekhein}, or if {pareikhen}, transl. "whilst he himself kept up the number. " See H. Hagen in "Journ. Philol. " x. 19, pp. 34-36; also Zurborg, "Comm. " p. 28. (13) Son of Callias. (14) = L4:1:3 = 600 ob. (15) Or, "whose incomes would vary in proportion to their working capital. " (16) See Jebb, "Theophr. " xxvi. 21. (17) According to the ancient authorities the citizens of Athens numbered about 21, 000 at this date, which would give about 63, 000 as the number of state-slaves contemplated for the purposes of the scheme. See Zurborg, "Comm. " p. 29. "At a census taken in B. C. 309 the number of slaves was returned at 400, 000, and it does not seem likely that there were fewer at any time during the classical period. "--"A Companion to School Classics" (James Gow), p. 101, xiii. "Population of Attica. " With regard to the price then of the men themselves, it is obvious thatthe public treasury is in a better position to provide funds than anyprivate individuals. What can be easier than for the Council (18) toinvite by public proclamation all whom it may concern to bring theirslaves, and to buy up those produced? Assuming the purchase to beeffected, is it credible that people will hesitate to hire from thestate rather than from the private owner, and actually on the sameterms? People have at all events no hesitation at present in hiringconsecrated grounds, sacred victims, (19) houses, etc. , or in purchasingthe right of farming taxes from the state. To ensure the preservationof the purchased property, the treasury can take the same securitiesprecisely from the lessee as it does from those who purchase the rightof farming its taxes. Indeed, fraudulent dealing is easier on the partof the man who has purchased such a right than of the man who hiresslaves. Since it is not easy to see how the exportation (20) of publicmoney is to be detected, when it differs in no way from private money. Whereas it will take a clever thief to make off with these slaves, marked as they will be with the public stamp, and in face of a heavypenalty attached at once to the sale and exportation of them. Up tothis point then it would appear feasible enough for the state to acquireproperty in men and to keep a safe watch over them. (21) (18) Or, "senate. " See Aristot. "Athen. Pol. " for the functions of the Boule. (19) So Zurborg. See Demosth. "in Mid. " 570; Boeckh, "P. E. A. " II. Xii. (p. 212, Eng. Tr. ) See Arnold's note to "Thuc. " iii. 50, 7. (20) Or, "diversation, " "defalcation. " (21) Or, "as far as that goes, then, there is nothing apparently to prevent the state from acquiring property in slaves, and safeguarding the property so acquired. " But with reference to an opposite objection which may present itselfto the mind of some one: what guarantee is there that, along with theincrease in the supply of labourers, there will be a corresponding demandfor their services on the part of contractors? (22) It may be reassuringto note, first of all, that many of those who have already embarkedon mining operations (23) will be anxious to increase their staff oflabourers by hiring some of these public slaves (remember, they have alarge capital at stake; (24) and again, many of the actual labourers nowengaged are growing old); and secondly, there are many others, Atheniansand foreigners alike, who, though unwilling and indeed incapableof working physically in the mines, will be glad enough to earn alivelihood by their wits as superintendents. (25) (22) Or, "with this influx (multiplying) of labourers there will be a corresponding increase in the demand for labour on the part of the lessees. " (23) Or, "got their mining establishments started. " (24) Or, "of course they will, considering the amount of fixed capital at stake, " or, "since they have large resources at their back. " I have adopted Zurborg's stopping of this sentence. (25) See "Mem. " II. Viii. 1, for an illustrative case. Let it be granted, however, that at first a nucleus of twelve hundredslaves is formed. It is hardly too sanguine a supposition that out ofthe profits alone, (26) within five or six years this number may beincreased to at least six thousand. Again, out of that number of sixthousand--supposing each slave to being in an obol a day clear of allexpenses--we get a revenue of sixty talents a year. And supposing twentytalents out of this sum laid out on the purchase of more slaves, therewill be forty talents left for the state to apply to any other purposeit may find advisable. By the time the round number (27) of ten thousandis reached the yearly income will amount to a hundred talents. (26) "Out of the income so derived. " (27) Or, "full complement. " As a matter of fact, the state will receive much more than these figuresrepresent, (28) as any one here will bear me witness who can rememberwhat the dues (29) derived from slaves realised before the troubles atDecelea. (30) Testimony to the same effect is borne by the fact, thatin spite of the countless number of human beings employed in the silvermines within the whole period, (31) the mines present exactly thesame appearance to-day as they did within the recollection of ourforefathers. (32) And once more everything that is taking place to-daytends to prove that, whatever the number of slaves employed, you willnever have more than the works can easily absorb. The miners find nolimit of depth in sinking shafts or laterally in piercing galleries. Toopen cuttings in new directions to-day is just as possible as it was informer times. In fact no one can take on himself to say whether there ismore ore in the regions already cut into, or in those where the pick hasnot yet struck. (33) Well then, it may be asked, why is it that thereis not the same rush to make new cuttings now as in former times?The answer is, because the people concerned with the mines are poorernowadays. The attempt to restart operations, renew plant, etc. , isof recent date, and any one who ventures to open up a new area runs aconsiderable risk. Supposing he hits upon a productive field, he becomesa rich man, but supposing he draws a blank, he loses the whole of hisoutlay; and that is a danger which people of the present time are shy offacing. (28) Or, "a very much larger sum than we have calculated on. " Lit. "many times over that sum. " (29) Or, "tax. " See below, S. 49; for the whole matter see Thuc. Vii. 27, vi. 91; Xen. "Mem. " III. Vi. 12, in reference to B. C. 413, when Decelea had been fortified. As to the wholesale desertion of slaves, "more than twenty thousand slaves had deserted, many of them artisans, " according to Thucydides. (30) Or, "the days of Decelea. " Lit. "the incidents of Decelea. " (31) I. E. "of their working since mining began. " (32) Lit. "are just the same to-day as our forefathers recollected them to be in their time. " (33) Or, "whether the tracts already explored or those not yet opened are the more prolific. " It is a difficulty, but it is one on which, I believe, I can offer somepractical advice. I have a plan to suggest which will reduce the risk ofopening up new cuttings to a minimum. (34) (34) Or, "I have a plan to make the opening of new cuttings as safe as possible. " The citizens of Athens are divided, as we all know, into ten tribes. Let the state then assign to each of these ten tribes an equal number ofslaves, and let the tribes agree to associate their fortunes and proceedto open new cuttings. What will happen? Any single tribe hitting upon aproductive lode will be the means of discovering what is advantageous toall. Or, supposing two or three, or possibly the half of them, hit upona lode, clearly these several operations will proportionally be moreremunerative still. That the whole ten will fail is not at all inaccordance with what we should expect from the history of the past. Itis possible, of course, for private persons to combine in the same way, (35) and share their fortunes and minimise their risks. Nor need youapprehend, sirs, that a state mining company, established on thisprinciple, will prove a thorn in the side (36) of the private owner, orthe private owner prove injurious to the state. But rather like allieswho render each other stronger the more they combine, (37) so in thesesilver mines, the greater number of companies at work (38) the largerthe riches they will discover and disinter. (39) (35) "To form similar joint-stock companies. " (36) See "Cyneg. " v. 5. (37) Or, "deriving strength from combination. " (38) Co-operators. (39) Reading {ekphoresousi}, after Cobet. This then is a statement, as far as I can make it clear, of the methodby which, with the proper state organisation, every Athenian may besupplied with ample maintenance at the public expense. Possibly some ofyou may be calculating that the capital (40) requisite will be enormous. They may doubt if a sufficient sum will ever be subscribed to meet allthe needs. All I can say is, even so, do not despond. It is not as if itwere necessary that every feature of the scheme should be carried out atonce, or else there is to be no advantage in it at all. On the contrary, whatever number of houses are erected, or ships are built, or slavespurchased, etc. , these portions will begin to pay at once. In fact, the bit-by-bit method of proceeding will be more advantageous than asimultaneous carrying into effect of the whole plan, to this extent:if we set about erecting buildings wholesale (41) we shall make a moreexpensive and worse job of it than if we finish them off gradually. Again, if we set about bidding for hundreds of slaves at once we shallbe forced to purchase an inferior type at a higher cost. Whereas, if weproceed tentatively, as we find ourselves able, (42) we can complete anywell-devised attempt at our leisure, (43) and, in case of any obviousfailure, take warning and not repeat it. Again, if everything were to becarried out at once, it is we, sirs, who must make the whole provisionat our expense. (44) Whereas, if part were proceeded with and partstood over, the portion of revenue in hand will help to furnish what isnecessary to go on with. But to come now to what every one probably willregard as a really grave danger, lest the state may become possessed ofan over large number of slaves, with the result that the works will beoverstocked. That again is an apprehension which we may escape if we arecareful not to put into the works more hands from year to year thanthe works themselves demand. Thus (45) I am persuaded that the easiestmethod of carrying out this scheme, as a whole, is also the best. If, however, you are persuaded that, owing to the extraordinary propertytaxes (46) to which you have been subjected during the present war, youwill not be equal to any further contributions at present, (47) what youshould do is this: (48) during the current year resolve to carry onthe financial administration of the state within the limits of a sumequivalent to that which your dues (49) realised before the peace. That done, you are at liberty to take any surplus sum, whether directlytraceable to the peace itself, or to the more courteous treatment ofour resident aliens and traders, or to the growth of the imports andexports, coincident with the collecting together of larger masses ofhuman beings, or to an augmentation of harbour (50) and market dues:this surplus, I say, however derived, you should take and invest (51) soas to bring in the greatest revenue. (52) (40) Or, "sinking fund. " (41) {athrooi}--"in a body. " It is a military phrase, I think. In close order, as it were, not in detachments. (42) "According to our ability, " a favourite Socratic phrase. (43) {authis}. See for this corrupt passage Zurborg, "Comm. " p. 31. He would insert, "and a little delay will not be prejudicial to our interests, but rather the contrary, " or to that effect, thus: {kai authis an (anutoimen ou gar toiaute te anabole blaben genesthai an) emin oiometha} "vel simile aliquid. " (44) Or, "it is we who must bear the whole burthen of the outlay. " (45) {outos}, "so far, unless I am mistaken, the easiest method is the best. " (46) Or, "heavy contributions, subscriptions incidental to, " but the word {eisphoras} is technical. For the exhaustion of the treasury see Dem. "Lept. " 464; Grote, "H. G. "xi. 326. (47) Or, "you will not be able to subscribe a single penny more. " (48) {umeis de}, you are masters of the situation. It lies with you to carry on, etc. ; {dioikeite} is of course imperative. (49) Or, "taxes. " (50) Reading, after Zurborg, {dia ta ellimenia}. Or, if the vulg. {dia en limeni}, transl. "an augmentation of market dues at Piraeus. " (51) I. E. As fixed capital, or, "you should expend on plant. " (52) Or, adopting Zurborg's emend, {os an pleista eggignetai}, transl. "for the purposes of the present scheme as far as it may be available. " Again, if there is an apprehension on the part of any that the wholescheme (53) will crumble into nothing on the first outbreak of war, I would only beg these alarmists to note that, under the condition ofthings which we propose to bring about, war will have more terrors forthe attacking party than for this state. Since what possession I shouldlike to know can be more serviceable for war than that of men? Think ofthe many ships which they will be capable of manning on public service. Think of the number who will serve on land as infantry (in thepublic service) and will bear hard upon the enemy. Only wemust treat them with courtesy. (54) For myself, my calculation is, thateven in the event of war we shall be quite able to keep a firm hold ofthe silver mines. I may take it, we have in the neighbourhood of themines certain fortresses--one on the southern slope in Anaphlystus;(55) and we have another on the northern side in Thoricus, the two beingabout seven and a half miles (56) apart. Suppose then a third breastworkwere to be placed between these, on the highest point of Besa, that would enable the operatives to collect into one out of all thefortresses, and at the first perception of a hostile movement it wouldonly be a short distance for each to retire into safety. (57) In theevent of an enemy advancing in large numbers they might certainly makeoff with whatever corn or wine or cattle they found outside. But even ifthey did get hold of the silver ore, it would be little better to themthan a heap of stones. (58) But how is an enemy ever to march upon themines in force? The nearest state, Megara, is distant, I take it, a gooddeal over sixty miles; (59) and the next closest, Thebes, a good dealnearer seventy. (60) Supposing then an enemy to advance from some suchpoint to attack the mines, he cannot avoid passing Athens; and presuminghis force to be small, we may expect him to be annihilated by ourcavalry and frontier police. (61) I say, presuming his force to besmall, since to march with anything like a large force, and therebyleave his own territory denuded of troops, would be a startlingachievement. Why, the fortified city of Athens will be much closer thestates of the attacking parties than they themselves will be by thetime they have got to the mines. But, for the sake of argument, let ussuppose an enemy to have arrived in the neighbourhood of Laurium; howis he going to stop there without provisions? To go out in search ofsupplies with a detachment of his force would imply risk, both for theforaging party and for those who have to do the fighting; (62) whilst, if they are driven to do so in force each time, they may call themselvesbesiegers, but they will be practically in a state of siege themselves. (53) Or, "the proposed organisation. " (54) See ch. Ii. Above. (55) Or, reading {en te pros mesembrian thalatte}, "on the southern Sea. " For Anaphlystus see "Hell. " I. Ii. 1; "Mem. " III. V. 25. It was Eubulus's deme, the leading statesman at this date. (56) Lit. "60 stades. " (57) The passage {sunekoi t an erga}, etc. , is probably corrupt. {Ta erga} seems to mean "the operatives;" cf. Latin "operae. " Others take it of "the works themselves. " Possibly it may refer to military works connecting the three fortresses named. "There might be a system of converging (works or) lines drawn to a single point from all the fortresses, and at the first sign of any thing hostile, " etc. (58) I. E. "they might as well try to carry off so many tons of stone. " (59) Lit. "500 stades. " (60) Lit. "more than 600 stades. " (61) The {peripoloi}, or horse patrol to guard the frontier. See Thuc. Iv. 57, viii. 92; Arist. "Birds, "ii. 76. Young Athenians between eighteen and twenty were eligible for the service. (62) Or, "for the very object of the contest. " The construction is in any case unusual. {peri on agonizontai} = {peri touton oi}. Zurborg suggests {peri ton agonizomenon}. But it is not the income (63) derived from the slaves alone to whichwe look to help the state towards the effective maintenance of hercitizens, but with the growth and concentration of a thick population inthe mining district various sources of revenue will accrue, whether fromthe market at Sunium, or from the various state buildings in connectionwith the silver mines, from furnaces and all the rest. Since we mustexpect a thickly populated city to spring up here, if organised in theway proposed, and plots of land will become as valuable to owners outthere as they are to those who possess them in the neighbourhood of thecapital. (63) I adopt Zurborg's correction, {prosphora} for {eisphora}, as obviously right. See above, iv. 23. If, at this point, I may assume my proposals to have been carried intoeffect, I think I can promise, not only that our city shall be relievedfrom a financial strain, but that she shall make a great stride inorderliness and in tactical organisation, she shall grow in martialspirit and readiness for war. I anticipate that those who are underorders to go through gymnastic training will devote themselves witha new zeal to the details of the training school, now that they willreceive a larger maintenance whilst (64) under the orders of the trainerin the torch race. So again those on garrison duty in the variousfortresses, those enrolled as peltasts, or again as frontier police toprotect the rural districts, one and all will carry out their respectiveduties more ardently when the maintenance (64) appropriate to theseseveral functions is duly forthcoming. (64) I follow Zurborg in omitting {e}. If {e} is to stand, transl. "than they get whilst supplied by the gymnasiarch in the torch race, " or "whilst exercising the office of gymnasiarchs themselves. " See "Pol. Ath. " i. 13. (65) "State aid. " V But now, if it is evident that, in order to get the full benefit of allthese sources of revenue, (1) peace is an indispensable condition--ifthat is plain, I say, the question suggests itself, would it not beworth while to appoint a board to act as guardians of peace? Since nodoubt the election of such a magistracy would enhance the charm of thiscity in the eyes of the whole world, and add largely to the numberof our visitors. But if any one is disposed to take the view, that byadopting a persistent peace policy, (2) this city will be shorn ofher power, that her glory will dwindle and her good name be forgottenthroughout the length and breadth of Hellas, the view so taken by ourfriends here (3) is in my poor judgment somewhat unreasonable. Forthey are surely the happy states, they, in popular language, are mostfortune-favoured, which endure in peace the longest season. And of allstates Athens is pre-eminently adapted by nature to flourish and waxstrong in peace. The while she abides in peace she cannot fail toexercise an attractive force on all. From the mariner and the merchantupwards, all seek her, flocking they come; the wealthy dealers in cornand wine (4) and oil, the owner of many cattle. And not these only, butthe man who depends upon his wits, whose skill it is to do business andmake gain out of money (5) and its employment. And here another crowd, artificers of all sorts, artists and artisans, professors of wisdom, (6) philosophers, and poets, with those who exhibit and popularise theirworks. (7) And next a new train of pleasure-seekers, eager to feast oneverything sacred or secular, (8) which may captivate and charm eye andear. Or once again, where are all those who seek to effect a rapid saleor purchase of a thousand commodities, to find what they want, if not atAthens? (1) Or, "to set these several sources of revenue flowing in full stream. " (2) Cf. "a policy of peace at any price, " or, "by persisting for any length of time in the enjoyment of peace. " (3) {kai outoi ge}. The speaker waves his hand to the quarter of the house where the anti-peace party is seated. (4) After Zurborg, I omit {oukh oi eduoinoi}. (5) Reading {kai ap arguriou}, with Zurborg. (6) Lit. "Sophists. " See Grote, "H. G. " viii. Lxvii. Note, p. 497. (7) E. G. Chorus-trainers, musicians, grammarians, rhapsodists, and actors. (8) Or, "sacred and profane. " But if there is no desire to gainsay these views--only that certainpeople, in their wish to recover that headship (9) which was once thepride of our city, are persuaded that the accomplishment of their hopesis to be found, not in peace but in war, I beg them to reflect on somematters of history, and to begin at the beginning, (10) the Median war. Was it by high-handed violence, or as benefactors of the Hellenes, thatwe obtained the headship of the naval forces, and the trusteeship of thetreasury of Hellas? (11) Again, when through the too cruel exercise ofher presidency, as men thought, Athens was deprived of her empire, is itnot the case that even in those days, (12) as soon as we held aloof frominjustice we were once more reinstated by the islanders, of their ownfree will, as presidents of the naval force? Nay, did not the veryThebans, in return for certain benefits, grant to us Atheniansto exercise leadership over them? (13) And at another date theLacedaemonans suffered us Athenians to arrange the terms of hegemony(14) at our discretion, not as driven to such submission, but inrequital of kindly treatment. And to-day, owing to the chaos (15) whichreigns in Hellas, if I mistake not, an opportunity has fallen to thiscity of winning back our fellow-Hellenes without pain or peril orexpense of any sort. It is given to us to try and harmonise stateswhich are at war with one another: it is given to us to reconcile thedifferences of rival factions within those states themselves, whereverexisting. (9) Lit. "her hegemony for the city, " B. C. 476. (10) "And first of all. " (11) See Thuc. I. 96. (12) B. C. 378. Second confederacy of Delos. See Grote, "H. G. " x. 152. (13) B. C. 375. Cf. "Hell. " V. Iv. 62; Grote, "H. G. " x. 139; Isocr. "Or. " xiv. 20; Diod. Sic. Xv. 29. (14) B. C. 369 (al. B. C. 368). Cf. "Hell. " VII. I. 14. (15) See "Hell. "VII. V. 27. Make it but evident that we are minded to preserve the independence (16)of the Delphic shrine in its primitive integrity, not by joining inany war but by the moral force of embassies throughout the length andbreadth of Hellas--and I for one shall not be astonished if you find ourbrother Hellenes of one sentiment and eager under seal of solemn oaths(17) to proceed against those, whoever they may be, who shall seek (18)to step into the place vacated by the Phocians and to occupy the sacredshrine. Make it but evident that you intend to establish a generalpeace by land and sea, and, if I mistake not, your efforts will finda response in the hearts of all. There is no man but will pray for thesalvation of Athens next to that of his own fatherland. (16) "Autonomy. " (17) See Thuc. V. 18, clause 2 of the Treaty of Peace, B. C. 422-421. (18) Reading, with Zurborg, {peironto}. Or, if the vulgate {epeironto}, transl. "against those who sought to step. " Again, is any one persuaded that, looking solely to riches andmoney-making, the state may find war more profitable than peace? If so, I cannot conceive a better method to decide that question than to allowthe mind to revert (19) to the past history of the state and to notewell the sequence of events. He will discover that in times long gone byduring a period of peace vast wealth was stored up in the acropolis, thewhole of which was lavishly expended during a subsequent period of war. He will perceive, if he examines closely, that even at the present timewe are suffering from its ill effects. Countless sources of revenue havefailed, or if they have still flowed in, been lavishly expended on amultiplicity of things. Whereas, (20) now that peace is established bysea, our revenues have expanded and the citizens of Athens have it intheir power to turn these to account as they like best. (19) Reading {epanoskopoin}. (20) Or, "But the moment peace has been restored. " But if you turn on me with the question, "Do you really mean that evenin the event of unjust attacks upon our city on the part of any, weare still resolutely to observe peace towards that offender?" I answerdistinctly, No! But, on the contrary, I maintain that we shall all themore promptly retaliate on such aggression in proportion as we have doneno wrong to any one ourselves. Since that will be to rob the aggressorof his allies. (21) (21) Reading, after Cobet, {ei medena uparkhoimen adikountes}. Or, if the vulgate {ei medena parakhoimen adikounta}, transl. "if we can show complete innocence on our own side. " VI But now, if none of these proposals be impracticable or even difficultof execution; if rather by giving them effect we may conciliate furtherthe friendship of Hellas, whilst we strengthen our own administrationand increase our fame; if by the same means the people shall beprovided with the necessaries of life, and our rich men be relieved ofexpenditure on war; if with the large surplus to be counted on, we arein a position to conduct our festivals on an even grander scale thanheretofore, to restore our temples, to rebuild our forts and docks, andto reinstate in their ancient privileges our priests, our senators, ourmagistrates, and our knights--surely it were but reasonable to enterupon this project speedily, so that we too, even in our own day, maywitness the unclouded dawn of prosperity in store for our city. But if you are agreed to carry out this plan, there is one furthercounsel which I would urge upon you. Send to Dodona and to Delphi, Iwould beg you, and consult the will of Heaven whether such a provisionand such a policy on our part be truly to the interest of Athens bothfor the present and for the time to come. If the consent of Heaven bethus obtained, we ought then, I say, to put a further question: whosespecial favour among the gods shall we seek to secure with a view to thehappier execution of these measures? And in accordance with that answer, let us offer a sacrifice of happyomen to the deities so named, and commence the work; since if thesetransactions be so carried out with the will of God, have we not theright to prognosticate some further advance in the path of politicalprogress for this whole state?