ON PRAYER AND THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE

BY

S. THOMAS AQUINAS

BY THE

VERY REV. HUGH POPE, O. P. , S. T. M. 

AUTHOR OF "THE CATHOLIC STUDENT'S 'AIDS' TO THE BIBLE, " ETC. 

WITH A PREFACE BY

VERY REV. VINCENT McNABB, O. P. , S. T. L. 

R. & T. WASHBOURNE, LTD. PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDONAND AT MANCHESTER, BIRMINGHAM, AND GLASGOW

1914 _All rights reserved_

Nihil Obstat. J. P. ARENDZEN, D. D. , Censor Deputatus. 

Imprimatur. EDM. CAN. SURMONT, Vicarius Generalis. 

Westmonasterii, _Die 20 Septembris, 1913. _

 "Te Trina Deitas unaque poscimus Sic nos Tu visita, sicut Te colimus: Per Tuas semitas duc nos quo tendimus, Ad lucem, quam inhabitas!"

 S. Thomas's Hymn for Matins on the _Feast of Corpus Christi_. 

PREFACE

The present generation in the fervour of its repentance is like to castoff too much. So many false principles and hasty deductions have beenoffered to its parents and grandparents in the name of science that itis becoming unduly suspicious of the scientific method. 

A century ago men's minds were sick unto death from too much science andtoo little mysticism. To-day the danger is that even the drawing-roomsare scented with a mysticism that anathematizes science. 

At no time since the days of S. Thomas was the saint's scientific methodmore lacking. Everywhere there is need for a mystic doctrine, which initself is neither hypnotism nor hysteria, and in its expression isneither superlative nor apostrophic, lest the hungered minds of men dieof surfeit following on starvation. 

The message and method of S. Thomas are part of that strange rigidity ofthe thirteenth century which is one of the startling paradoxes of theages of faith. It is surely a consolation that these ages of a faithwhich moved mountains, or at least essayed to remove the Turk, wereminded to express their beliefs in the coat of mail of human reason! Thegiants of those days, who in the sphere of literature were rediscoveringverse and inventing rhyme, and who in every sphere of knowledge werebringing forth the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, were not soblinded by the white light of vision as to disown the Greeks. They madethe _Ethics_ of Aristotle the four-square walls of the city of God; theyexpressed the mysteries of the Undivided Three in terms of theSyllogism. Thus they refused to cut themselves off from the aristocracyof human genius. They laid hands--but not violent hands--on the heritageof the ages. No philosophers have ever equalled their bold andlowly-minded profession of faith in the solidarity of human reason. Forthis cause S. Thomas, who is their spokesman, has now become an absolutenecessity of thought. Unless the great Dumb Ox is given a hearing, ourmysticism will fill, not the churches, but the asylums and the littleself-authorized Bethels where every man is his own precursor andmessiah. 

That S. Thomas is to be accepted as a master of mysticism may be judgedfrom the following facts in the life of a mystic of the mystics, S. Johnof the Cross:

"It has been recorded that during his studies he particularly relishedpsychology; this is amply borne out by his writings. S. John was notwhat one could term a scholar. He was, however, intimately acquaintedwith the _Summa_ of S. Thomas Aquinas, as almost every page of his worksproves. .. . He does not seem to have ever applied himself to the study ofthe Fathers. .. . As has already been stated, the whole work (_The Ascentof Mount Carmel_) is based upon the view S. Thomas Aquinas takes of theessence and operations of the senses and of the faculties of the soul, and upon his treatise on the virtues. "[1]

S. Thomas hardly needs an imprimatur after six centuries of full trust. But in the hard matters of mysticism, which he has treated as a scholarshould, it is reassuring to know that he has the approval, not only ofthe scholars, but of the mystics. 

VINCENT McNABB, O. P. 

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

QUESTION LXXXIOF THE VIRTUE OF RELIGION

QUESTION LXXXIIOF DEVOTION

QUESTION LXXXIIIOF PRAYER

SUPPLEMENT--QUESTION LXXIIOF THE PRAYERS OF THE SAINTS WHO ARE IN HEAVEN

QUESTION CLXXIXOF THE DIVISION OF LIFE INTO THE ACTIVE AND THE CONTEMPLATIVE

QUESTION CLXXXOF THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE

QUESTION CLXXXIOF THE ACTIVE LIFE

QUESTION CLXXXIIOF THE COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ACTIVE AND THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE

QUESTION CLXXXVION THE RELIGIOUS STATE

INDEX

INDEX OF TEXTS QUOTED OR EXPLAINED

INTRODUCTION

The pages which follow call for little introduction. S. Thomas has leftus no formal treatise on Mystical Theology, though his teachings on thissubject have been collected from his various works and combined to formsuch a treatise. Especially noteworthy is the work of the SpanishDominican Valgornera. [2] No such synthesis has been attempted here. Wehave simply taken from the _Summa Theologica_ the treatises on_Religion_, on _Devotion_, _Prayer_, and the _Contemplative Life_, andpresented them in an English dress. When occasion offered we have addedto each portion appropriate passages from S. Augustine, S. Thomas'smaster, and more rarely from the _Commentary_ on the _Summa_ by theillustrious Cardinal Cajetan. 

And we have been led to do this for several reasons. The Mystical lifeis the life of union with God, and it is based essentially on Prayer andContemplation. But prayer and contemplation, though simple inthemselves, are yet fraught with difficulties and dangers unless we bewisely guided. And as Father Faber shrewdly says: when we ask forinstruction in these things, let us by all means make appeal to thosewhose names begin with S--let us, in other words, go to God's Saints. And the reason is simple: these Saints are no mere idle sign-posts whopoint the way but stand still themselves; they themselves have beenwhere they would have us go; they speak from no mere theoreticalknowledge; they themselves have tasted and seen that the Lord is sweet!

Further, it would have been easy to cull from S. Thomas's writings thesalient points of his teaching on these points, and to have presentedthem in an attractive form. But had we done so the teachings of theSaint would have lost much of their force, and readers might well havedoubted at times whether they really had before them the mind of S. Thomas or that of the translator. It is preferable to read the Biblethan what men have said about the Bible. Unfortunately, it is thefashion nowadays to consider S. Thomas's writings "out of date"! If theperusal of these pages shall have induced some few at least to go to theoriginal and study it for themselves they will have more than fulfilledthe translator's desires. 

Another reason which has weighed much with the translator and encouragedhim to undertake this task has been the suddenly awakened interest inMysticism and Mystical studies during the last decade. It has become thefashion to talk about Mysticism, even to pose as Mystics, and--need itbe said?--those who talk the most on such subjects are those who knowthe least. For those who have entered into the secret of the King areever the most reticent on such matters. At the same time we may welcomethis recent development, if only as a set-off against the Spiritualismand occultism which have played such havoc with souls during a space ofover fifty years. The human soul, "naturally Christian, " as Tertullianwould say, is also naturally Divine in the sense that, as S. Augustineso often insists, no rest is possible for it save in God. Now those whoare familiar with the _Summa Theologica_ are aware that _Union with God_is its keynote, or rather is the dominant note which rings out clearagain and again with its ever-repeated _Sursum Corda_! It is this thatgives such special value to the treatises here presented on Prayer andthe Contemplative Life. They flow from the pen of one who was literallysteeped in God and Divine things, and who is speaking to us of thingswhich he had himself tasted and seen. It is this that gives suchsimplicity and charm to the whole of his teaching. He is notexperimenting; he is not speaking of theories; he is portraying to uswhat was his everyday life. 

Perhaps one of the commonest errors regarding the Spiritual life is theconfusion between the ordinary and the extraordinary ways of God. Forhow many does not the Contemplative Life mean the life of ecstasy andvision with which we are familiar in the lives of the Saints? For S. Thomas, on the contrary, the Contemplative Life is but the natural lifeof a man who is serving God and who devotes a certain portion of histime to the study and contemplation of Divine things. Ecstasy and visionhe treats of in another place. They occupy a sphere apart. They belongto God's extraordinary dealings with favoured souls, and while theypresuppose prayer and contemplation on the part of those so visited theythemselves form no integral part of the Contemplative Life; indeed, theyare the exception. Hence in these pages we shall find nought touchingSupernatural manifestations, such as visions, ecstasies, andrevelations; but we shall find what is of far greater use to us--aCatechism on Devotion, Prayer, and Contemplation. 

 * * * * *

The main features of the Life of S. Thomas of Aquin are known to most ofthose who are likely to read this book. His life at first sight seems ofsuch an even tenor that there is but little to record. Yet when wepenetrate beneath the surface we realize that he lived in stirring days, and that his short span of fifty years was passed in the full light ofthe world of the thirteenth century. Thomas was born in the beginning ofthe year 1225 in the castle of Rocca-Secca, the ancestral home of theCounts of Aquino, in the kingdom of Sicily. His future glory wasforetold to his mother, the Countess Theodora, by a hermit of thatneighbourhood who also foretold that his parents would endeavour to makehim a monk in the Benedictine Abbey of Monte Cassino, but that God hadother designs for him, since he was to be a Friar Preacher, a member ofthe Order of the great S. Dominic who had just gone to his reward. Theprophecy was fulfilled to the letter. At the early age of five years hewas sent to the Abbey to be educated among the young nobles of the day, as was then the custom. Even thus early he showed a remarkable maturityof character, and his biographer, William of Tocco, dwells with delighton the calm reserve of his childish days and on that eager seeking afterGod which was to be his future glory. [3]

From Monte Cassino Thomas passed to Naples to complete his studies. Herehe became conscious of his vocation, and offered himself to theDominicans. The Prior of the convent at Naples at that time was FatherJohn of S. Julian, who later became Patriarch of Jerusalem[4]; he gavethe habit of the Order to Thomas, who was then but fourteen years ofage. His parents were indignant at this step, and did all in their powerto shake his determination. Fearing their recourse to the violentmethods then so common, the Dominicans sent Thomas to the convent ofSanta Sabina at Rome. But S. Thomas's brothers, at their mother'sbidding, seized upon the young man and carried him off in his religioushabit to his mother who kept him imprisoned for nearly two years. [5]During this time of anxiety nothing disturbed the Saint's equanimity, and he made good use of his time by studying the Bible, the _Book of theSentences_--the Theological Manual of those days--and also Aristotle'sphilosophical treatises. It was at this time that the diabolical attemptupon his virtue was made--an attempt which the Saint resistedeffectually; in reward for his constancy he was miraculously girded witha cincture by two Angels from Heaven. [6] Failing in their attempt toshake his determination, his brothers permitted him to escape, and hereturned to the convent at Naples in 1245. Thence he was sent by hissuperiors to Rome, and shortly afterwards to Paris and Cologne to studyunder Blessed Albert the Great. At Cologne he led the life of a simplestudent, a life of recollection, prayer, and study. But hisextraordinary talents could not long remain hid. The post of Bachelor inthe famous House of Studies at Paris was vacant, and at the suggestionof Cardinal Hugo à S. Caro, himself a Dominican, S. Thomas was appointedby the Master-General of the Order to the vacant post. This was a blowto the Saint's humility, but he accepted it under obedience. Theimpression made by his teaching was extraordinary, and the words ofWilliam of Tocco on this point are worth transcribing: "Erat enim novosin sua lectione movens articulos, novum modum et clarum determinandiinveniens, et novas reducens in determinationibus rationes: ut nemo quiipsum audisset nova docere, et novis rationibus dubia definiredubitaret, quod eum Deus novi luminis radiis illustrasset, qui statimtam certi c[oe]pisset esse judicii, ut non dubitaret novas opinionesdocere et scribere, quas Deus dignatus esset noviter inspirare. " Thisnovelty in method was evidently remarkable, but, while provoking theattacks of some, it attracted an immense crowd to his lectures, and thisnot simply by reason of the novelty which characterized them, but byreason of the supereminent sanctity of the teacher. "Dilectus Deo!"cries out his biographer. "Qui scientiam tribuit; et acceptus hominibus, quibus quasi novis radiis veritatis illuxit. "[7]

In 1253 or 1254 Thomas was, again much against his will, created Masterin Sacred Theology, and the remaining twenty years of his life werewholly devoted to teaching, studying, and preaching, whether at Paris orat Naples. Dignities and honours were frequently offered him, but hesucceeded in avoiding them all. He felt that his vocation was to studyand teach. And since his teaching was to be of things Divine, he feltthat he must needs be absorbed in such things, and that his life must bewholly spent with God. This feature of his life is insisted on by hisbiographers: "Men ever saw him of joyful mien, gentle and sweet, notoccupying himself with worldly affairs, but ever given to study, toreading, to writing, and to prayer for the enlightening of thefaithful. "[8] Thus we are told that when Brother Reginald, who had beenBlessed Thomas's companion, returned from Fossa Nuova to Naples afterthe Master's death to resume the lectures he had been giving there, heburst into tears as he stood before the Brethren, and said: "Brothers, Iwas forbidden by my Master to reveal during his life the marvels I hadseen. One of those marvels was that his knowledge, which so wondrouslysurpassed that of other men, was not due to any human skill, but to themerits of his prayers. For whenever he would study, or dispute, or read, or write, or dictate, he would first betake himself to prayer in secret, and there with many tears would implore light wherewith to searchrightly into the secret things of God. And by the merits of such prayerit came to pass that, whereas previous to his prayer he had been indoubt about the subject of his study, he always returned from itillumined. And when any doubtful point occurred to him before he had hadrecourse to prayer, he went to pray, and what had previously beenobscure was then Divinely made clear to him. "[9]

Truly characteristic of our Saint are those three petitions he was wontto make: that he might never learn to love things of earth; that hemight never change his state of life; that God would reveal to him thestate of his brother Reginald, who had been put to death, unjustly, asThomas thought, by the Emperor Frederic. All three petitions weregranted, two of them, as he himself told Brother Reginald on hisdeathbed, by the Blessed Virgin herself. "She appeared to him, " saysWilliam of Tocco, "and assured him regarding his life and his knowledge, promised him, too, that God would grant him whatsoever he should askthrough her intercession, and told him, moreover, that he would neverchange his state of life. "[10]

The following story is well known, but is too illustrative of theSaint's character to be omitted: A dispute had arisen in the Universityof Paris regarding the Accidents of the Holy Eucharist, and the Doctorsof the University decided to leave the decision with S. Thomas. Theresponsibility was great, but the Saint according to his custom betookhimself to prayer and then wrote his answer to the difficulty. "Butsince he would not dare, " says William of Tocco, "to expound his opinionin the Schools before the Masters of the University without firstconsulting Him of Whom he was treating and to Whom he had prayed that hemight teach correctly, he came to the altar and there spread out thepages he had written before Him; then, lifting up his hands to theCrucifix, he prayed and said: 'O Lord Jesus Christ, Who art most trulycontained in this wondrous Sacrament and Who as Supreme Artificer everwondrously workest, I seek to understand Thee in this Sacrament and toteach truly concerning Thee. Wherefore I humbly pray Thee that if what Ihave written spring from Thee, and be true concerning Thee, then Thouwouldest enable me to declare it and clearly expound it. But if I havewritten ought which is not in harmony with Thy Faith and which accordsnot with the Mysteries of this Sacrament, then I pray Thee that noughtmay proceed from my mouth which deviates from the Catholic Faith. ' Thenthose who watched saw on a sudden Christ standing before the Saint andon the paper he had written, and they heard Him say: 'Well hast thouwritten of Me in this Sacrament of My Body, and well and truly hast thouanswered the question put to thee, as far, that is, as it can beunderstood by man in this life, or expressed in human words. '"[11]

And it was ever the same throughout his life: in God he sought God. Hence his incessant meditation on the Holy Scriptures; hence hisdiligent study of the writings of the Fathers of the Church. "Master, "said a band of his students to him as they looked on Paris spread beforethem--"Master, see what a lovely city Paris is! Would you not like to beits owner?" And with a Saint's simplicity he replied: "Far rather wouldI have the Homilies of Chrysostom on S. Matthew! For if this city weremine then the task of governing it would take me away from thecontemplation of things Divine and deprive my soul of itsconsolations!"[12]

And his companion Reginald has told us how he studied to know the thingsof God. For he tells us that when the Saint was occupied with hisCommentary on Isaias and could not arrive at any satisfactoryexplanation of a certain passage he gave himself up to fasting andprayer. Then one night Reginald heard voices in the Saint's cell, andwhilst he wondered what this might mean at that hour, S. Thomas came tohim and said: "Reginald, get up, light a candle, and take the book inwhich you have been writing upon Isaias and make ready to write oncemore. " Then Reginald wrote whilst the Saint dictated as though he werereading out of a book, with such facility did he speak. And then, atReginald's insistent petition, he said to him: "My son, you have seenthe affliction under which I have been of late owing to this passage ofIsaias which I have just been expounding, and you know how I besoughtGod with tears that I might understand it. God, then, this very nighthad pity upon me, and sent His Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul whom Ihad prayed to intercede for me, and they have most fully explained itall!"[13] How gladly would one know what passage of Isaias it was whichwas thus Divinely interpreted!

And so this truly marvellous life went on till the end drew near. Day byday he ascended the steps of the altar, his face bathed in tears; day byday he returned to his work more and more illumined regarding the_Mysterium Fidei_, and with his soul still more closely knit to itsMaker. His ecstasies became more frequent, and in one of these he wastold that the close of his life was at hand. For it was at San Severino, not far from Salerno, that he fell into so prolonged an ecstasy that hissister who was present appealed to Reginald to know what had happened toher brother. Even Reginald was astonished. "He is frequently rapt inspirit, " he said, "but never before have I seen him thus abstracted!""Then, " says William of Tocco, "Master Reginald went to him, and, plucking him by the cloak, roused him from this deep sleep ofcontemplation. But he sighed and said: 'My son Reginald, I tell thee insecret, and I forbid thee to reveal it to anyone during my life, theclose of my writing has come; for such things have been revealed to methat all I have written and taught seems to me of small account. Hence Ihope in my God that as there is an end to my writing, so too willspeedily come the end of my life. '"[14]

And S. Thomas was ready for the end, for not long previously, when hewas in the convent at Naples and was praying in the Church, thereappeared to him Brother Romanus, whom he had left teaching at Paris. Brother Thomas said to him: "Welcome! Whence dost thou come?" ButRomanus said to him: "I have passed from this life, and I am allowed tocome to thee by reason of thy merits. " Then Brother Thomas, summoning uphis courage, for he had been much disturbed by the sudden apparition, said to him: "If it be pleasing to God, I adjure you by God to answer myquestions. First: How does it stand with me? and are my works pleasingto God?" And the other answered: "Thou art in a good state, and thyworks are pleasing to God. " Then the Master continued: "And what ofthyself?" And Romanus answered: "I am in Eternal Life, but I was inPurgatory sixteen days because of some negligence of which I was guiltyin the affair of a will which the Bishop of Paris entrusted to me forspeedy execution; but I, through mine own fault, was tardy in executingit. " Lastly S. Thomas asked: "What about that question we have so oftendiscussed together: Do the habits we have acquired here abide with uswhen we are in our Fatherland?" But the other replied: "Brother Thomas, I see God, and you must ask me nought further on that question. " ButThomas at once said: "Since you see God, tell me whether you see Himwith or without any intermediate image?" But Romanus replied: "_As wehave heard, so we have seen in the City of our God_, "[15] and forthwithdisappeared. But the Master remained astonished at that marvellous andunwonted apparition, and filled with joy at his favourable replies. "OBlessed Teacher!" ejaculates William of Tocco, who has left us thisaccount, "to whom Heaven's secrets were thus familiar, to whom Heaven'scitizens came with such sweet familiarity to lead him to those heavenlyshores!"[16]

Nor was this the only warning. For just as in earlier years at Paris hehad received Divine commendation for his writings, so now again atNaples. For Brother Dominic of Caserta tells us that at Naples hewatched S. Thomas praying at night. He saw him, he says, absorbed inprayer, and then lifted up into the air about the height of two cubitsfrom the ground. And whilst for a long space he marvelled at this, hesuddenly heard this voice from the Crucifix: "Thomas, well hast thouwritten of Me! What reward wilt thou have from Me for all thy labour?"But he replied: "Lord, none save Thyself!" At that time the Saint wasengaged upon the _Third Part_ of the _Summa_, and was treating of thePassion and Resurrection of Christ. But after arriving at that point hewrote but little more by reason of the marvels that God had wondrouslyrevealed to him. [17]

Since his soul, then, was thus united to God it is small wonder theBrethren saw him rapt in ecstasy and with his face bathed in tears as hestood in choir and sang the _Antiphon_ wont to be sung according to theDominican Office for Compline during Lent: "_Ne projicias nos in temporesenectutis: cum defecerit virtus nostra, ne derelinquas nosDomine_. "[18]

In the year 1274 the Saint was summoned by Pope Gregory X. To theCouncil about to be held at Lyons. He set out, taking with him his_Treatise against the Errors of the Greek Schismatics_, for the greatquestion which the Pope had at heart was the settlement of the Schismbetween the East and the West. But the Council was never to see Thomas, for he fell ill when traversing the Campagna, and though he was able toreach the Cistercian Abbey of Fossa Nuova he reached it only to die. "_This is my rest for ever and ever_, " he said as he entered the gates. "_Here will I dwell, for I have chosen it. _" And here, as he lay dying, he expounded to the monks who stood round that most sublime of all theBooks of the Bible, the _Canticle of Canticles_: "_Behold, my Belovedspeaketh to me: Arise, make haste, my love, my dove, my beautiful one, and come. .. . I sleep, and my heart watcheth; the voice of my Beloved Whois knocking!. .. My Beloved to me and I to Him Who feedeth among thelilies: till the Day break and the shadows retire!_"

As the time of his summons drew on he asked for the Holy Viaticum. And, in the words of William of Tocco, "when It was brought with devoutreverence by the Abbot and the monks, he prostrated himself on theground, weak indeed in body but mighty in spirit, and so came to meethis Lord with tears. "

And when the priest asked him--as it is the custom to ask all Christiansat death touching their faith in this mighty Sacrament--whether hebelieved that That Consecrated Host was the True Son of God, Who cameforth from the Virgin's womb, Who hung upon the tree of the Cross, Whodied for us and rose again on the third day:--with clear voice, withfull attention, and with tears, he replied: "If fuller knowledge thanthat of faith could be had in this life touching this Sacrament, in thatknowledge I reply that I believe it to be true, and that I know forcertain that This is True God and Man, the Son of God the Father and ofthe Virgin Mother: so I believe in my heart and so I confess in word. "After some other devout expressions he received the Sacred Host, andthen said: "I receive Thee, the Price of my soul's redemption, for loveof Whom I have studied, watched, and toiled; Thee have I preached andtaught; nought contrary to Thee have I ever said, neither do Iobstinately hold to any opinion of mine own. If, however, I have saidought wrongly concerning this Sacrament, I submit it all to thecorrection of the Holy Roman Church in Whose obedience I now pass fromthis life!" "O Blessed Teacher! who ran so swiftly in the race, whofought so manfully in the strife, who could so well say with theApostle: '_I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I havekept the faith; as for the rest there is laid up for me a crown ofjustice_'; and such indeed had he truly won by his study of inspireddoctrine. "[19]

 O Sancte Thoma! Scholarum Patrone, Fidem invictam, Charitatem fervidam, Vitam castissimam, Scientiam veram, A Deo nobis obtine. Per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. 

 * * * * *

No one who is at all familiar with the writings of S. Thomas can besurprised to find many extracts from S. Augustine in the followingpages. For Augustine and Thomas are one. Their respective styles aredifferent, but their thoughts and teachings are the same on the greatessential points of theological teaching. Cardinal Aguirre has wellsaid: "Owing to the clearness and acuteness of his angelic mind S. Thomas sheds a flood of light on many most obscure matters, and bringsout very clearly even the most profound teachings contained in the worksof the Fathers, especially in those of S. Augustine. I speak simply frommy own experience, but I am certain that many another has felt the same:in controverted matters, if we look merely at the text of S. Augustine, we are brought face to face with a flood of difficulties which seemwell-nigh insoluble; but the difficulty disappears and the solutionbecomes clear the moment we set to work to find out what was S. Thomas'steaching on the question; for he is the surest and the easiestinterpreter of S. Augustine. "[20]

And indeed Augustine is a deep well! "_Man shall come to a deep heart!_"he was fond of saying, and those words of the Psalmist might stand for amotto at the head of his works. Traditionary art represents him with hisheart in his hand, and the sentiment is true, for "great-hearted" is theepithet which best suits him, and those who use these pages formeditation or spiritual reading will find that whereas S. Thomas teacheshow we ought to pray, S. Augustine makes us pray; not in vain had hestudied and taught rhetoric for so many years!

This likeness between the two great Saints forms the theme of one of the_Responsories_ for the Office for S. Thomas in the Dominican Breviary. It is based on a famous vision. "There appeared to me as I watched inprayer, " said Brother Albert of Brescia in his deposition, "two reveredpersonages clothed in wondrous splendour. One of them wore a mitre onhis head, the other was clad in the habit of the Friars Preachers. Andthis latter bore on his head a golden crown; round his neck he wore tworings, one of silver, the other of gold; and on his breast he had animmense precious stone, which filled the church with light. His cloak, too, was sewn with precious stones, and his tunic and his hood were ofsnowy white. And the one who wore the mitre said to me: 'Brother Albert, why art thou thus filled with wonder? Thy prayers are heard;for--listen: I am Augustine, the Doctor of the Church, and I am sent tothee to tell thee of the doctrine and of the glory of Brother Thomas ofAquin who is here with me. For he is my son; he in all things hasfollowed my doctrine and that of the Apostles, and by his teaching hehas illumined the Church of God. This is signified by the preciousstones which you see, and especially by the one he carries on hisbreast, for it signifies the upright intention which he ever had in viewin his defence of the faith and which he showed in his words. Theseprecious stones, then, and especially that great one, signify the manybooks and works that he wrote, and they show that he is equal to me inglory save only that in the aureola of Virginity he surpasseth me. '"[21]

Cardinal Cajetan, from whose famous Commentary on the _Summa_ we haveoccasionally quoted, is unfortunately too little known. Born in 1469, and dying in 1534, he was the contemporary of Luther and the Reformers, and, as was to be expected, their most formidable opponent. A greatstudent, a man of prayer as well as a man of action, his was thestriking figure of the early portion of the sixteenth century. But hiswas a bold and independent mind, and he was not afraid to advance viewswhich, though now commonly accepted, brought his works into a certaindisfavour. This is especially to be regretted in the case of hisCommentaries on the Bible. A thorough Greek scholar, possessing no meanacquaintance with Hebrew, he deserves, by reason of the clearness andprecision of his thought, the title of "Prince of Commentators. " Here, however, we are concerned with the devotional rather than with thecritical aspect of his writings, and the reader will gain from some ofCajetan's terse and pithy comments a very great deal of instruction. 

In conclusion, a few words may be desirable regarding the method of S. Thomas. 

S. Thomas divides his _Summa Theologica_ into three main parts. The_First Part_ treats of _God, the Exemplar_. [22] The _Second_, of _manmade to the image of God_;[23] the _Third_, of _God Incarnate_, of His_Sacraments_ by which we attain to union with Him in this life, and of_Eternal Life_ to which we attain ultimately by our resurrection. Herewe are solely concerned with the _Second part_. [24] It is subdividedinto two portions, known as the _Prima Secundæ_ and the _SecundaSecundæ_ respectively, or as the _First_ and _Second_ portions of the_Second part_. In the _Prima Secundæ_ the Saint treats of the_principles of Morals_--namely, of man's ultimate end and of the habits, acts, and principles by which he attains it. In the _Secunda Secundæ_, after having laid in the _Prima Secundæ_ the foundations of MoralTheology, he proceeds to treat of the _individual virtues_, firstly ofthe Theological Virtues, Faith, Hope, and Charity; then of the CardinalVirtues, Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, and Temperance. Under each ofthese heads he treats of the _Gifts_ corresponding to each Virtue, ofthe _vices_ opposed to them, and of the _Precepts_ regarding them. [25]Apropos of the Cardinal Virtue of Justice, he treats of the Moral Virtueof _Religion_, which is comprised under Justice, since Religion may bedefined as the offering to God the worship which is His due, _Question_LXXXI. He then treats of _Devotion_, _Question_ LXXXII. , and then of_Prayer_, _Question_ LXXXIII. These three _Questions_ we here present inan English dress. 

After these Treatises on individual virtues, he passes to theconsideration of those virtues which concern, not men as a whole, butonly _certain classes of men_. [26] And first of all he treats of those_Gifts_ which are bestowed upon certain men not so much for their ownbenefit as for the good of others--viz. , of Prophecy, of Ecstasy, of theGift of Tongues, and of the Gift of Miracles. He then discusses the twokinds of _operations_ or "lives"--the _active_, namely, and the_contemplative_--which find a place in the Mystical Body of Christ, which is the Church. These treatises in reality constitute a commentaryon 1 Cor. Xii. 4-11. _Question_ CLXXIX. , _On the Division of Life intothe Active and the Contemplative_, is here given; as also _Question_CLXXX. , _On the Contemplative Life_; _Question_ CLXXXI. , _On the ActiveLife_; _Question_ CLXXXII. , _On the Comparison of the Active with theContemplative Life_. 

S. Thomas then proceeds to treat of _various states of life_--viz. , ofthe state of perfection, of the Episcopal and of the Religious state. Only one question raised in this connection concerns us here: _Whether_, namely, _Contemplative Religious Orders are superior to Active Orders?_(_Question_ CLXXXVIII. 6). 

Each _Question_ is, as will be seen from the _Table of Contents_, divided into _Articles_. 

The framework of what is termed an "article" of the _Summa_ is familiarto those who use that work, but it may not be amiss to explain S. Thomas's method in brief fashion. Each "article" is couched in the formof a question, thus: _Has contemplation its joys?_ And the Saint at oncesets forth in succession three, sometimes more, arguments which seem tomilitate against the view he himself holds. These are commonly known asthe _objections_. He then gives us a short paragraph opening with thewords: _Sed contra_, or _But on the contrary_; and in this paragraph hegives some authority, generally that of Holy Scripture or one of theFathers, for the view he is going to hold. This paragraph is generallyknown from its opening words as the _Sed contra_; there is no argumentin it save from authority. He then proceeds to discuss the question fromthe standpoint of pure reason. This portion is known as the _Corpusarticuli_, or _Body of the Article_, and in it the Saint presents hisreasoning in clear, precise fashion. It will be apparent, of course, that many questions cannot be answered with a categoric _yes_ or _no_, but the precise sense in which certain terms in the discussion are to beused has to be clearly ascertained; according to the diverse ways inwhich they may be understood the answer will be affirmative or negative. It is important for those not familiar with S. Thomas' works to graspthis point; they must not, for instance, presume that because theopening "objections" seem to uphold one point of view S. Thomas istherefore going to hold the precise opposite. A good example of thiswill be found in the Article: _Ought we to pray to God alone?_

In the Treatises here presented the argument, though clear and precise, is hardly what we should call subtle, and this for the simple reasonthat the subject-matter does not call for subtle treatment. But whatcannot fail to strike the most cursory reader is the tone of submissionto authority and to the teachings of the Fathers which characterizesevery page: "_Summe veneratus est sacros Doctores_, " says Cajetan, "_ideo intellectum omnium quodammodo sortitus est_. "[27] And the naturalcorollary of this is the complete self-effacement of the Saint. Thefirst person is conspicuous by its absence all through the _Summa_, though the reader of the following pages will find one exception to thisrule. 

And the more we study these Articles of S. Thomas the more we marvel;the thought is so concentrated and yet so limpid in its expression, thatas we read it it seems as though no one could ever have thoughtotherwise. But read it, and then try to reformulate the line of argumentwhich you have been following with such ease--and your mind halts, yourtongue stammers! It is one thing to understand the thought whenexpressed, quite another to think such thoughts and express them. Hencethe declaration made by Pope John XXII. When the question of the holyDoctor's canonization was brought forward: "Such teaching, " heexclaimed, "could only have been due to miracle!" And on the followingday in the Consistory: "He has brought greater light to the Church thanall other Doctors; by one year's study of his writings a man may makegreater profit than if he spend his whole life studying the writings ofothers!"[28]

The reader will sometimes feel inclined to smile at the quaintetymologies which occur now and again. But he must remember that theseare given by the Saint for what they are worth. It was not aphilological age, and S. Thomas made use of the _Book of Etymologies_drawn up in the seventh century by S. Isidore of Seville. 

Besides the writings of S. Augustine, two Patristic works are cited withconsiderable frequency by S. Thomas in these pages: the _OpusImperfectum_ of S. Chrysostom on S. Matthew's Gospel, and the works ofDenis the Areopagite. The former is almost certainly not the work of S. Chrysostom, but rather of an Arian writer towards the close of the sixthcentury. [29] The writer known as Denis the Areopagite, owing to hisbeing traditionally identified with S. Paul's convert at Athens, probably wrote about the close of the fifth century. Few works ofMystical Theology exercised a greater influence on the writers of theMiddle Ages. [30] A word must also be said about the _Gloss_ to which S. Thomas so often refers, and which he quotes as an authority. The term"Gloss" was applied to the brief running commentaries on the Bible whichwere in vogue in the Middle Ages. These brief paraphrases were alsoknown as _Postillæ_, and they were frequently written in between thelines of the text of the Bible, whence the name _Interlinear Gloss_; orin the margins, whence the name _Marginal Gloss_. The _GlossaOrdinaria_, as it is called, is the best known of these commentaries. Itis usually attributed to Walafrid Strabo, a monk of the Abbey of S. Gall, who died in 849; but it is probable that Strabo took down hisCommentary from the lips of Rabanus Maurus, a monk of the Abbey ofFulda, and afterwards its abbot. Rabanus was a most prolific writer, andhas left Commentaries on nearly all the Books of the Bible. Even whenAbbot he reserved to himself the Chair of Scripture;[31] he had had thegreat advantage of living for a time in Palestine. Another Biblicalscholar to whom the _Glossa Ordinaria_ of S. Thomas's time apparentlyowed much, was Hugo à S. Caro, the Dominican Provincial in France, andafterwards Cardinal-Priest of S. Sabina. It was under his direction thatthe first Concordance of the Bible was formed, in which task he is saidto have had the assistance of five hundred Friars. [32] He owes his titleof Glossator to his well-known _Postillæ_, or Brief Commentaries on thewhole Bible. The _Glossa Interlinearis_ is due to Anselm, a Canon ofLaudun, who died in 1117. Another famous Glossator was Nicolas de Lyra, a Franciscan who died in 1340--some sixty-six years, that is, subsequentto S. Thomas. Lastly, we should mention Peter the Lombard, commonlyknown as _The Master of the Sentences_, from his four books of_Sentences_, in which he presented the theological teaching of theFathers in Scholastic fashion. This treatise became the Scholasticmanual of the age. To him is due a Gloss on the Psalter and on Job, aswell as a series of brief notes on the Epistles of S. Paul taken fromthe writings of the chief Fathers, S. Ambrose, S. Jerome, S. Augustine, etc. And the authority accorded to these Glosses in general is due tothe fact that they constituted a running Commentary taken from thewritings of the Fathers and Doctors of the Church. 

 THE BREVIARY HYMN TO S. AUGUSTINE. 

 Magne Pater Augustine Preces nostras suscipe, Et per eas Conditori Nos placare satage, Atque rege gregem tuum Summum decus præsulum. 

 Amatorem paupertatis Te collaudant pauperes: Assertorem veritatis Amant veri judices: Frangis nobis favos mellis, De Scripturis disserens. 

 Quæ obscura prius erant Nobis plana faciens, Tu de verbis Salvatoris Dulcem panem conficis, Et propinas potum vitæ De Psalmorum nectare. 

 Tu de vita clericorum Sanctam scribis Regulam, Quam qui amant et sequuntur Viam tenent regiam, Atque tuo sancto ductu Redeunt ad Patriam. 

 Regi regum salus, vita, Decus et imperium: Trinitati laus et honor Sit per omne sæculum: Qui concives nos adscribat Supernorum civium. Amen. 

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _The Ascent of Mount Carmel by S. John of the Cross. _ PrefatoryEssay on the Development of Mysticism in the Carmelite Order, byBenedict Zimmerman, O. C. D. , pp. 13-17. (London: Thomas Baker, 1906. )

[2] Valgornera, O. P. , _Mystica Theologia D. Thomæ_, ed. Berthier. 2Vols. Turin, 1890-91. 

[3] "In ætate tam tenera et scibilium nescia, qui necdum se scirepoterat, miro modo Deum adhuc nesciens, divino ductus instinctu scirequærebat. De quo futurum erat, ut, dum sic anxius maturius Deum præaliis quæreret, clarius præ ceteris, quæ scire futurus erat, scriberet, quæ de Deo, ipso donante, studiosius et citius inveniret" (William ofTocco, _Vita B. Thomæ_ in the _Bollandists_, March 7, No. 5). ThisWilliam of Tocco had seen and heard S. Thomas, and in 1319 took aprominent part in the Saint's canonization (see _Bollandists_, p. 653). 

[4] Bernard Guidonis, _Boll. _, No. 7, p. 659, note. 

[5] _Boll. _, Nos. 12 and 76. 

[6] _Ibid. _, No. 11. 

[7] _Boll. _, p. 661. 

[8] _Ibid. _, p. 662. 

[9] _Boll. _, p. 668. 

[10] _Boll. _, pp. 668 and 710. 

[11] _Boll. _, No. 53. 

[12] _Ibid. _, p. 671. 

[13] _Boll. _, p. 668. 

[14] _Boll. _, p. 672. 

[15] Ps. Xlvii. 

[16] _Boll. _, p. 672. 

[17] _Boll. _, p. 669. 

[18] _Ibid. _, p. 667; _cp. _ Ps. Lxx, 20. 

[19] _Boll. _, p. 675. 

[20] Touron, _Vie de S. Thomas d'Aquin_, Paris, 1740, p. 353. 

[21] _Boll. _, p. 706; _cp. _ p. 665. 

[22] _Prol. _ to Ia. , IIdæ. 

[23] _Prol. _ to III. _Pars. _

[24] _Prol. _ to IIa. , IIdæ. 

[25] _Prol. _ to IIa. IIdæ. 

[26] _Prol. _ to _Qu. _ CLXXI. Of the IIda. , IIdæ. 

[27] _Comment. _ on IIa. , IIæ. , cxlviii. 4. 

[28] _Boll. _, p. 680. 

[29] See Bardenhewer, _Patrologie_, i. 319. 

[30] Smith and Wace, _Dict. Of Christian Biography_, i. 847. 

[31] Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Latina_, _s. V. _ Walafridus and Rabanus. 

[32] _Ibid. _, _s. V. _ Hugo à S. Caro. 

QUESTION LXXXI

OF THE VIRTUE OF RELIGION

 I. Does the Virtue of Religion Direct a Man To God Alone? S. Augustine, _sermon_, cccxxxiv. 3 " _on Psalm_ lxxvi. 32 _sermon_, cccxi. 14-15 II. Is Religion a Virtue? III. Is Religion One Virtue? IV. Is Religion a Special Virtue Distinct From Others? V. Is Religion One of the Theological Virtues? VI. Is Religion To Be Preferred To the Other Moral Virtues? VII. Has Religion, Or Latria, Any External Acts? S. Augustine, _of Care for the Dead_, V. VIII. Is Religion the Same As Sanctity? Cardinal Cajetan, on the Distinction Between Sanctity and Religion

I

Does the Virtue of Religion direct a Man to God Alone?

Cicero says[33]: "Religion offers internal and external reverence tothat Superior Nature which we term the Divine. "

S. Isidore says[34]: "A religious man is, as Cicero remarks, so calledfrom _religion_, for he is occupied with and, as it were, reads throughagain and again (_relegit_) the things that concern Divine worship. "Thus religion seems to be so called from reading again (_religendo_)things concerning Divine worship; for such things are to be repeatedlyrevolved in the mind, according to those words of Proverbs iii. 6: _Inall thy ways think on Him. _ At the same time _religion_ might be said tobe so called because "we ought to choose again (_re-eligere_) thosethings which through our negligence we have lost, " as S. Augustine hasnoted. [35] Or perhaps it is better derived from "binding again"(_religando_); thus S. Augustine says[36]: "Let religion bind us oncemore to the One Almighty God. "

But whether religion be so called from frequent _reading_, or from_fresh election_ of Him Whom we have negligently lost, or from_rebinding_, it properly implies a certain relation to God. For it is Heto Whom we ought to be especially _bound_ as our indefectible principle;to Him must we assiduously direct our _choice_ as our ultimate end; Heit is Whom we negligently lose by sin and Whom we must regain bybelieving in Him and by professing our faith in Him. 

But some deny that religion directs a man to God alone, thus:

1. S. James says[37]: _Religion clean and undefiled before God and theFather is this: to visit the fatherless and widows in their tribulation;and to keep oneself unspotted from this world. _ But _to visit thefatherless and widows_ indicates relation to our neighbour, and _to keeponeself unspotted from this world_ refers to ourselves. Hence religionis not confined to our relationship with God. 

 But religion has two sorts of acts. Some belong to it properly and immediately, those acts, namely, which it elicits and by which man is directed to God alone, as, for instance, to offer Him sacrifice, to adore Him, etc. 

 But there are other acts which religion produces through the medium of the virtues which it controls, directing them, that is, towards reverence to God; for that virtue which is concerned with the end directs those virtues which have to do with the means to the end. And in this sense _to visit the fatherless and widows in their tribulation_ is said to be an act of religion because commanded by it, though actually elicited by the virtue of mercy. Similarly _to keep oneself unspotted from this world_ is an act commanded by religion, though elicited by temperance or some other virtue. 

2. S. Augustine says[38]: "Since according to the genius of the Latinspeech--and that not merely of the unlearned, but even of the mostlearned--religion is said to be shown towards our human relatives andconnexions and intimates, this word 'religion' cannot be used withoutsome ambiguity when applied to the worship of God; hence we cannot saywith absolute confidence that religion is nought else but the worship ofGod. " Religion, then, is not limited to our relation to God, butembraces, our neighbour as well. 

 But it is only by an extension of the name "religion" that it is made to embrace our relations towards our human kin, it is not according to the proper signification of the word. Hence S. Augustine prefaced the words quoted from him above with the remark: "Religion, strictly speaking, seems to mean, not any kind of worship, but only that of God. "

3. Further, _latria_ seems to come under religion. But S. Augustinesays[39]: "_Latria_ is interpreted as service. " But we ought to servenot God only, but our neighbour as well: _By charity of the spirit serveone another. _[40] Religion, then, implies relation to our neighbour. 

 But since a slave implies a master, it follows that where there exists a peculiar and special title of dominion there also will be found a peculiar and special ratio of servitude. It is clear, however, that dominion belongs to God in a peculiar and special fashion, since He it is Who has made all things and Who holds the chief rule over all things. Consequently a special kind of service is due to Him. And this service is by the Greeks designated _latria_, which is, in consequence, properly comprised under "religion. "

4. Again, reverence comes under religion. But man has to reverence, notonly God, but his neighbour as well; as Cato says: "Reverence parents. "Hence religion establishes a relation between ourselves and ourneighbour as well as between ourselves and God. 

 But we are said to reverence those men whom we honour or remember, or to whose presence we resort. So, too, even things which are subject to us are said to be "cultivated" by us (_coli_); thus husbandmen (_agricolæ_) are so called because they "cultivate" the fields; the inhabitants of a place, too (_incolæ_), are so called because they "cultivate" the spots where they dwell. But since special honour is due to God as the First Principle of all, a special kind of "cultus"[41] or "reverence" is His due, and this the Greeks call _eusebia_ or _theosebia_, as S. Augustine says. [42]

5. Lastly, all who are in a state of salvation are subject to God. Butnot all who are in a state of salvation are called "religious, " butthose only who bind themselves by certain vows and observances and whoundertake to obey certain men. Hence religion does not seem to mean therelationship of subjection of man to God. 

 But although, generally speaking, all those who worship God can be termed "religious, " yet those are specially so called who dedicate their whole lives to the Divine worship and cut themselves off from worldly occupations. 

 Thus those are not termed "contemplatives" who merely contemplate, but they who devote their lives to contemplation. And such men do not subject themselves to men for man's sake, but for God's, as the Apostle says: _You received me as an Angel of God, even as Christ Jesus. _[43]

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine_: We are to abide in Christ! How then shall That not benow our possession Where we are then to abide and Whence we are to drawLife? Let Holy Scripture speak for us lest we should seem in mereconjecture to be saying things contrary to the teaching of the Word ofGod. Hear the words of one who knew: _If God be for us who is againstus?_[44] _The Lord_, he says, _is the portion of my inheritance. _[45] Hesaith not: Lord, what wilt Thou give me for mine inheritance? All thatThou canst give me is worthless! Be Thou mine inheritance! Thee do Ilove! Thee do I wholly love! With all my heart, with all my soul, withall my mind do I love Thee! What, then, shall be my lot? What wilt Thougive me save Thyself? This is to love God freely. This is to hope forGod from God. This is to hasten to be filled with God, to be sated withHim. For He is sufficient for thee; apart from Him nought can sufficethee! (_Sermon_, cccxxxiv. 3). 

_S. Augustine_: I cried to the Lord with my voice. [46] Many cry to theLord that they may win riches, that they may avoid losses; they cry thattheir family may be established, they ask for temporal happiness, forworldly dignities; and, lastly, they cry for bodily health, which is thepatrimony of the poor. For these and suchlike things many cry to theLord; hardly one cries for the Lord Himself! How easy it is for a man todesire all manner of things from the Lord and yet not desire the LordHimself! As though the gift could be sweeter than the Giver! (_on Ps. _lxxvi. ). 

_S. Augustine:_ Picture God as saying to you--He Who re-created you andadopted you: "My son, why is it that day by day you rise and pray, andgenuflect, and even strike the ground with your forehead, nay, sometimeseven shed tears, while you say to Me: 'My Father, my God! give mewealth!' If I were to give it to you, you would think yourself of someimportance, you would fancy you had gained something very great. Yetbecause you asked for it you have it. But take care to make good use ofit. Before you had it you were humble; now that you have begun to berich you despise the poor! What kind of a good is that which only makesyou worse? For worse you are, since you were bad already. And that itwould make you worse you knew not, hence you asked it of Me. I gave itto you and I proved you; you have found--and you are found out! You werehidden when you had nothing. Correct thyself! Vomit up this cupidity!Take a draught of charity!. .. Ask of Me better things than these, greater things than these. Ask of Me spiritual things. Ask of MeMyself!" (_Sermon_, cccxi. 14-15). 

II

Is Religion a Virtue?

A virtue is that which both renders its possessor, as also his work, good. Hence we must say that every good act comes under virtue. And itis clear that to render to another what is his due has the character ofa good act; for by the fact that a man renders to another his due thereis established a certain fitting proportion and order between them. Butorder comes under the ratio of good, just as do measure and species, asS. Augustine establishes. [47] Since, then, it belongs to religion torender to some one, namely, God, the honour which is His due, it isclear that religion is a virtue. 

Some, however, deny this, thus:

1. It belongs to religion to show reverence to God. But reverence is anact of fear, and fear is a gift. [48] Religion, then, is a gift, not avirtue. 

 To reverence God is indeed an act of the gift of fear. But to religion it belongs to do certain things by reason of our reverence for God. Hence it does not follow that religion is the same thing as the gift of fear, but it is related to it as to a higher principle. For the gifts are superior to the moral virtues. 

2. All virtue consists in the free-will, and hence virtue is called anelective or voluntary habit. But _latria_ belongs to religion, and_latria_ implies a certain servitude. Hence religion is not a virtue. 

 But even a servant can freely give to his master the service that is his due and thus "make a virtue of necessity"[49] by voluntarily paying his debt. And similarly the payment of due service to God can be an act of virtue according as a man does it voluntarily. 

3. Lastly, as is said in Aristotle's _Ethics_, [50] the aptitude for thevirtues is implanted in us by nature; hence those things which comeunder the virtues arise from the dictates of natural reason; but itbelongs to religion to offer external reverence to the Divine Nature. Ceremonial, however, or external reverence, is not due to the dictatesof natural reason. Hence religion is not a virtue. 

 But it is due to the dictates of natural reason that a man does certain things in order to show reverence to God. That he should do precisely this or that, however, does not come from the dictates of natural reason, but from Divine or human positive law. 

III

Is Religion One Virtue?

S. Paul says to the Ephesians[51]: _One God, one faith. _ But truereligion maintains faith in one God. Consequently religion is onevirtue. 

Habits are distinguished according to the divers objects with which theyare concerned. But it belongs to religion to show reverence for the OneGod for one particular reason, inasmuch, namely, as He is the FirstPrinciple, the Creator and Governor of all things; hence we read inMalachi[52]: _If I am a Father, where is my honour?_ for it is thefather that produces and governs. Hence it is clear that religion is butone virtue. 

But some maintain that religion is not one virtue, thus:

1. By religion we are ordained[53] to God. But in God there are ThreePersons, and, moreover, divers attributes which are at leastdistinguishable from one another by reason. But the diverse character ofthe objects on which they fall suffices to differentiate the virtues. Hence religion is not one virtue. 

 But the Three Divine Persons are but One Principle as concerns the creation and the government of things. And consequently They are to be served by one religion. And the divers attributes all concur in the First Principle, for God produces all and governs all by His Wisdom, His Will, and the power of His Goodness. Hence religion is but one virtue. 

2. One virtue can have but one act; for habits are differentiatedaccording to their acts. But religion has many acts, _e. G. _, to worship, to serve, to make vows, to pray, to make sacrifices, and many othersimilar things. Consequently religion is not one virtue. 

 But by one and the same act does man serve God and worship Him; for worship is referred to God's excellence, to which is due reverence: service regards man's subjection, for by reason of his condition he is bound to show reverence to God. And under these two heads are comprised all the acts which are attributed to religion; for by them all man makes protestation of the Divine excellence and of his subjection of himself to God, either by offering Him something, or, again, by taking upon himself something Divine. 

3. Further, adoration belongs to religion. But adoration is paid toimages for one reason and to God for another. But since diversity of"reason" serves to differentiate the virtues, it seems that religion isnot one virtue. 

 But religious worship is not paid to images considered in themselves as entities, but precisely as images bringing God Incarnate to our mind. Further, regarding an image precisely as an image of some one, we do not stop at it; it carries us on to that which it represents. Hence the fact that religious veneration is paid to images of Christ in no sense means that there are various kinds of _latria_, nor different virtues of religion. 

IV

Is Religion a Special Virtue Distinct From Others?

Religion is regarded as a part of Justice, and is distinct from theother parts of Justice. 

Since virtue is ordained to what is good, where there exists somespecial ratio of good there must be some special corresponding virtue. But the particular good towards which religion is ordained is theshowing due honour to God. Honour, however, is due by reason of someexcellency. And to God belongs pre-eminent excellence, since He in everypossible way infinitely transcends all things. Hence special honour isdue to Him; just as we note that in human concerns varying honours aredue to the varying excellencies of persons; one is the honour of afather, another that of a king, and so on. Hence it is manifest thatreligion is a special virtue. 

Some, however, maintain that religion is not a special virtue distinctfrom others, thus:

1. S. Augustine says[54]: "True sacrifice is every work undertaken inorder that we may be joined to God in holy fellowship. " But sacrificecomes under religion. Every work of virtue therefore comes underreligion. And consequently it is not a special virtue. 

 But every work of virtue is said to be a sacrifice in so far as it is directed to showing God reverence. It does not thence follow that religion is a general virtue, but that it commands all the other virtues. 

2. The Apostle says to the Corinthians[55]: _Do all to the glory ofGod. _ But it belongs to religion to do some things for the glory of God. Hence religion is not a special virtue. 

 But all kinds of acts, in so far as they are done for the glory of God, come under religion; not, however, as though it elicited them, but inasmuch as it controls them. Those acts, however, come under religion as eliciting them which, by their own specific character, pertain to the service of God. 

3. Lastly, the charity whereby we love God is not distinct from thecharity by which we love our neighbour. But in the _Ethics_[56] it issaid: "To be honoured is akin to being loved. " Hence religion by whichGod is honoured is not a specifically distinct virtue from thoseobservances, whether _dulia_ or piety, whereby we honour our neighbour. Hence it is not a special virtue. 

 But the object of love is a _good_ thing; whereas the object of honour or reverence is what is _excellent_. But it is God's Goodness that is communicated to His creatures, not the excellence of His Goodness. Hence while the charity wherewith we love God is not a distinct virtue from the charity wherewith we love our neighbour, yet the religion whereby we honour God is distinct from the virtues whereby we honour our neighbour. 

V

Is Religion One of the Theological Virtues?

Religion is considered a part of Justice, and this is a moral virtue. 

Religion is the virtue whereby we offer to God His due honour. Twothings have therefore to be considered in religion. First we have toconsider what religion offers God, namely, worship: this may be regardedas the material and the object with which religion is concerned. Secondly, we have to consider Him to Whom it is offered, namely, GodHimself. Now, when worship is offered to God it is not as though ourworshipful acts touched God, though this is the case when we believeGod, for by believing in God we touch Him (and we have therefore saidelsewhere[57] that God is the object of our faith not simply inasmuch aswe believe in God, but inasmuch as we believe God). Due worship, however, is offered to God in that certain acts whereby we worship Himare performed as homage to Him, the offering sacrifice, for instance, and so forth. From all which it is evident that God does not stand tothe virtue of religion as its object or as the material with which it isconcerned, but as its goal. And consequently religion is not atheological virtue, for the object of these latter is the ultimate end;but religion is a moral virtue, and the moral virtues are concerned withthe means to the end. 

But some regard religion as a theological virtue, thus:

1. S. Augustine says[58]: "God is worshipped by faith, hope, andcharity, " and these are theological virtues. But to offer worship to Godcomes under religion. Therefore religion is a theological virtue. 

 But it is always the case that a faculty or a virtue whose object is a certain end, controls--by commanding--those faculties or virtues which have to do with those things which are means to that end. But the theological virtues--_i. E. _, faith, hope, and charity--are directly concerned with God as their proper object. And hence they are the cause--by commanding it--of the act of the virtue of religion which does certain things having relation to God. It is in this sense that S. Augustine says that "God is worshipped by faith, hope, and charity. "

2. Those are called theological virtues which have God for their object. But religion has God for its object, for it directs us to God alone. Therefore it is a theological virtue. 

 But religion directs man to God, not indeed as towards its object, but as towards its goal. 

3. Lastly, every virtue is either theological or intellectual or moral. But religion is not an intellectual virtue, for its perfection does notconsist in the consideration of the truth. Neither is it a moral virtue, for the property of the moral virtues is to steer a middle coursebetwixt what is superfluous and what is below the requisite; whereas noone can worship God to excess, according to the words ofEcclesiasticus[59]: _For He is above all praise. _ Religion, then, canonly be a theological virtue. 

 But religion is neither an intellectual nor a theological virtue, but a moral virtue, for it is part of justice. And the _via media_ in religion lies, not between the passions, but in a certain harmony which it establishes in the acts which are directed towards God. I say "a certain, " not an absolute harmony, for we can never show to God all the worship that is His due; I mean, then, the harmony arising from the consideration of our human powers and of the Divine acceptance of what we offer. Moreover, there can be excess in those things which have to do with the Divine worship; not indeed as regards quantity, but in certain other circumstances, as, for example, when Divine worship is offered to whom it should not, or at times when it should not, or in other unfitting circumstances. 

VI

Is Religion to be preferred to the Other Moral Virtues?

In Exodus[60] the commandments which concern religion are put first, asthough they were of primary importance. But the order of thecommandments is proportioned to the order of the virtues; for thecommandments of the Law fall upon the acts of the virtues. Hencereligion is chief among the moral virtues. 

The means to an end derive their goodness from their relation to thatend; hence the more nigh they are to the end the better they are. Butthe moral virtues are concerned with those things which are ordained toGod as their goal. And religion approaches more nearly to God than dothe other moral virtues, inasmuch as it is occupied with those thingswhich are directly and immediately ordained to the Divine honour. Hencereligion is the chief of the moral virtues. 

Some, however, deny that religion is pre-eminent among the moralvirtues, thus:

1. The perfection of a moral virtue lies in this, that it keeps the duemedium. [61] But religion fails to attain the medium of justice, for itdoes not render to God anything absolutely equal to Him. Hence religionis not better than the other moral virtues. 

 But the praiseworthiness of a virtue lies in the will, not in the power. Hence to fall short of equality--which is the midpath of justice--for lack of power, does not make virtue less praiseworthy, provided the deficiency is not due to the will. 

2. Again, in our service of men a thing seems to be praiseworthy inproportion to the need of him whom we assist; hence it is said inIsaias:[62] _Deal thy bread to the hungry. _ But God needs nothing thatwe can offer Him, according to the Psalmist: _I have said: Thou art myGod, for Thou hast no need of my goods. _[63] Hence religion seems to beless praiseworthy than the other virtues, for by them man is succoured. 

 But in the service we render to another for his profit, that is the more praiseworthy which is rendered to the most needy, because it is of greater profit to him. But no service is rendered to God for His profit--for His glory, indeed, but for our profit. 

3. Lastly, the greater the necessity for doing a thing the less worthyit is of praise, according to the words: _For if I preach the Gospel, itis no glory to me, for a necessity lieth upon me. _[64] But the greaterthe debt the greater the necessity. Since, then, the service which manoffers to God is the greatest of debts, it would appear that religion isthe least praiseworthy of all human virtues. 

 Where necessity comes in the glory of supererogation is non-existent; but the merit of the virtue is not thereby excluded, provided the will be present. Consequently the argument does not follow. 

VII

Has Religion, That is _Latria_, [65] any External Acts?

In Ps. Lxxxiii. 3 it is said: _My heart and my flesh have rejoiced inthe living God. _ Now interior acts belong to the heart, and in the sameway exterior acts are referred to the members of the body. It appears, then, that God is to be worshipped by exterior as well as by interioracts. 

We do not show reverence and honour to God for His own sake--for He inHimself is filled with glory to which nought can be added by any createdthing--but for our own sakes. For by the fact that we reverence andhonour God our minds are subjected to Him, and in that their perfectionlies; for all things are perfected according as they are subjected tothat which is superior to them--the body, for instance, when vivified bythe soul, the air when illumined by the sun. Now the human mindneeds--if it would be united to God--the guidance of the things ofsense; for, as the Apostle says to the Romans[66]: _The invisible thingsof Him are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made_. Hence in the Divine worship it is necessary to make use of certaincorporal acts, so that by their means, as by certain signs, man's mindmay be stirred up to those spiritual acts whereby it is knit to God. Consequently religion has certain interior acts which are its chief onesand which essentially belong to it; but it has also external acts whichare secondary and which are subordinated to the interior acts. 

 * * * * *

Some deny, however, that exterior acts belong to religion or _latria_, thus:

1. In S. John iv. 24 we read: _For God is a Spirit, and they that adoreHim must adore Him in spirit and in truth. _ External acts belong, however, rather to the body than to the spirit. Consequently religion, which comprises adoration, has no exterior acts, but only interior. 

 But here the Lord speaks only of that which is chiefest and which is essentially intended in Divine worship. 

2. The end of religion is to show reverence and honour to God. But it isnot reverent to offer to a superexcellent person what properly belongsto inferiors. Since, then, what a man offers by bodily acts seems morein accordance with men's needs and with that respect which we owe toinferior created beings, it does not appear that it can fittingly bemade use of in order to show reverence to God. 

 But such external acts are not offered to God as though He needed them, as He says in the Psalm: _Shall I eat the flesh of bullocks? Or shall I drink the blood of goats?_[67] But such acts are offered to God as signs of those interior and spiritual works which God accepts for their own sakes. Hence S. Augustine says: "The visible sacrifice is the sacrament--that is, the visible sign--of the invisible sacrifice. "[68]

3. Lastly, S. Augustine praises Seneca[69] for his condemnation of thosemen who offered to their idols what they were wont to offer to men: onthe ground, namely, that what belongs to mortal men is not fittinglyoffered to the immortals. Still less, then, can such things be fittinglyoffered to the True God Who is _above all gods_. [70] Therefore toworship God by means of bodily acts seems to be reprehensible. Andconsequently religion does not include bodily acts. 

 But idolaters are so called because they offer to their idols things belonging to men, and this not as outward signs which may excite in them spiritual affections, but as being acceptable by those idols for their own sake. And especially because they offered them empty and vile things. 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ When men pray, they, as becomes suppliants, make use oftheir bodily members, for they bend the knee, they stretch forth theirhands, they even prostrate on the ground and perform other visible acts. Yet all the while their invisible will and their heart's intention areknown to God. He needs not these signs for the human soul to be laidbare before Him. But man by so doing stirs himself up to pray and groanwith greater humility and fervour. I know not how it is that whereassuch bodily movements can only be produced by reason of some precedingact on the part of the soul, yet when they are thus visibly performedthe interior invisible movement which gave them birth is thereby itselfincreased, and the heart's affections--which must have preceded, elsesuch acts would not have been performed--are thereby themselvesincreased. 

Yet none the less, if a man be in some sort hindered so that he is notat liberty to make use of such external acts, the interior man does nottherefore cease to pray; in the secret chamber of his heart, where liescompunction, he lies prostrate before the eyes of God (_Of Care for theDead_, v. ). 

VIII

Is Religion the Same as Sanctity?

In S. Luke's Gospel[71] we read: _Let us serve Him in holiness andjustice. _ But to serve God comes under religion. Hence religion is thesame as sanctity. 

The word "sanctity" seems to imply two things. First, it seems to imply_cleanness_; and this is in accordance with the Greek word for it, forin Greek it is _hagios_, [72] as though meaning "without earth. "Secondly, it implies _stability_, and thus among the ancients thosethings were termed _sancta_ which were so hedged about with laws thatthey were safe from violation; similarly a thing is said to be_sancitum_ because established by law. And even according to the Latinsthe word _sanctus_ may mean "cleanness, " as derived from _sanguinetinctus_, for of old those who were to be purified were sprinkled withthe blood of a victim, as says S. Isidore in his _Etymologies_. [73]

And both meanings allow us to attribute sanctity to things which areused in the Divine worship; so that not men only, but also temples andvessels and other similar things are said to be sanctified by reason oftheir use in Divine worship. _Cleanness_ indeed is necessary if a man'smind is to be applied to God. For the mind of man is stained by beingimmersed in inferior things, as indeed all things are cheapened byadmixture with things inferior to them--silver, for instance, when mixedwith lead. And for our minds to be knit to the Supreme Being they mustneeds be withdrawn from inferior things. Without cleanness, then, themind cannot be applied to God. Hence in the Epistle to the Hebrews[74]it is said: _Follow peace with all men, and holiness, without which noman shall see God. _

_Stability_ is also required if the mind is to be applied to God. Forthe mind is applied to Him as to the Ultimate End and First Principle, and consequently must be immovable. Hence the Apostle says: _For I amsure that neither death nor life shall separate me from the love ofGod. _[75]

Sanctity, then, is said to be that whereby man's mind and its acts areapplied to God. Hence sanctity does not differ from religionessentially, but in idea only. For by religion we mean that a man offersGod due service in those things which specially pertain to the Divineworship--sacrifices, for example, and oblations, etc. ; but by sanctitywe mean that a man not only offers these things, but also refers to Godthe works of the other virtues, and also that a man disposes himself bygood works for the Divine worship. 

 * * * * *

Some, however, deny the identity of religion and sanctity, thus:

1. Religion is a certain special virtue. But sanctity is called ageneral virtue, for according to Andronicus, [76] sanctity is that which"makes men faithful observers of what is justly due to God. " Hencesanctity is not the same as religion. 

 But sanctity is in its essence a special virtue, and as such is, in a sort, the same as religion. It has, however, a certain general aspect in that, by its commands, it directs all the acts of the virtues to the Divine Good. In the same way legal justice is termed a general virtue in that it directs the acts of all the virtues to the common good. 

2. Sanctity seems to imply cleanness, for S. Denis says[77]: "Sanctityis freedom from all impurity; it is perfect and stainless cleanness. "Cleanness, however, seems to come under temperance, for this it is whichprecludes bodily defilement. Since, then, religion comes under justice, sanctity cannot be identified with religion. 

 Temperance indeed worketh cleanness, but this has not the ratio of sanctity except it be referred to God. Hence S. Augustine says of virginity itself that "not because it is virginity is it held in honour, but because it is consecrated to God. "[78]

3. Lastly, things that are contradistinguished are not identical. But inall enumerations of the parts of justice sanctity is set againstreligion. 

 But sanctity is set against religion because of the difference aforesaid; they differ indeed in idea, not in substance. 

 * * * * *

_Cajetan:_ Religion is directly concerned with those things whichspecially pertain to the Divine worship--ceremonies, for example, sacrifices, oblations, etc. Whereas sanctity directly regards the mind, and through the mind the other virtuous works, including those ofreligion . .. For it makes use of them so as thereby to apply themind--and by consequence all acts that proceed from the human mind--toGod. Thus we see that many religious people are not saints, whereas allsaints are religious. For people who devote themselves to ceremonies, sacrifices, etc. , can be termed religious; but they can only be calledsaints in so far as by means of these things they give themselvesinteriorly to God (_on_ 2. 2. 81. 8). 

FOOTNOTES:

[33] _De invent. Rhetor. _, ii. 53. 

[34] _Etymolog. _, x. _sub litt. _ R. 

[35] _Of the City of God_, x. 3. 

[36] _Of the True Religion_, lv. 

[37] St. Jas. I. 27. 

[38] _Of the City of God_, x. 1. 

[39] _Of the City of God_, x. 1. 

[40] Gal. V. 13. 

[41] The objection and its solution turn upon the Latin words _cultus_and _colere_, which cannot be consistently rendered in English;"reverence" is perhaps the most appropriate translation here. 

[42] _Of the City of God_, x. 1. 

[43] Gal. Iv. 14. 

[44] Rom. Viii. 31. 

[45] Ps. Xv. 5. 

[46] Ps. Lxxvi. 1. 

[47] _Of the Nature of Good_, iii. 

[48] _Fear_ is one of the "Gifts" of the Holy Ghost. 

[49] S. Jerome, _Ep. _ LIV. , _alias_ X. , _ad Furiam_. 

[50] II. , vi. 15. 

[51] iv. 5-6. 

[52] i. 6. 

[53] The Latin word _ordinare_ means "to set in due order"; there is noprecise English equivalent which can be consistently employed. 

[54] _Of the City of God_, x. 6. 

[55] II. X. 31. 

[56] VIII. Viii. 1. 

[57] 2. 2. Qu. II. , Art. 2. 

[58] _Enchiridion_, iii. 

[59] xliii. 33. 

[60] xx. 1-17. 

[61] _Ethics_, II. Vi. 

[62] lviii. 7. 

[63] Ps. Xv. 2. 

[64] 1 Cor. Ix. 16. 

[65] See p. 30. 

[66] i. 20. 

[67] Ps. Xlix. 13. 

[68] _Of the City of God_, x. 5. 

[69] _Ibid. _, vi. 10. 

[70] Ps. Xciv. 3. 

[71] i. 74-75. 

[72] Thus Origen, _Hom. _ XI, i. _in Leviticum_, where, however, he isnot really giving an etymology. 

[73] X. , _sub litt. _ S. 

[74] xii. 14. 

[75] Rom. Viii. 38-39. 

[76] _De Affectibus_. 

[77] _Of the Divine Names_, xii. 

[78] _Of Virginity_, viii. 

QUESTION LXXXII

OF DEVOTION

 I. Is Devotion a Special Kind of Act? Cardinal Cajetan, On the Meaning of the Term "Devotion" S. Augustine, _Confessions_, XIII. Viii. 2 II. Is Devotion an Act of the Virtue of Religion?III. Is Contemplation, that is Meditation, the Cause of Devotion? Cardinal Cajetan, On the Causes of Devotion " " On the Devotion of Women IV. Is Joy an Effect of Devotion? Cardinal Cajetan, On Melancholy S. Augustine, _Confessions_, II. X. 

I

Is Devotion a Special Kind of Act?

It is by our acts that we merit. But devotion has a peculiarlymeritorious character. Consequently devotion is a special kind of act. 

Devotion is so termed from "devoting" oneself. Hence the "devout" are sonamed because they "devote" themselves to God and thus proclaim theircomplete subjection to Him. Thus, too, among the heathen of old thosewere termed "devout" who for the army's sake "devoted" themselves totheir idols unto death, as Livy[79] tells us was the case with the twoDecii. Hence devotion seems to mean nothing else than "the will to giveoneself promptly to those things which pertain to God's service"; thusit is said in Exodus[80]: _The multitude of the children of Israel . .. Offered first-fruits to the Lord with a most ready and devout mind. _ Itis clear, however, that a wish to do _readily_ what belongs to God'sservice is a special act. Hence devotion is a special act of the will. 

But some argue that devotion is not a special kind of act, thus:

1. That which serves to qualify other acts cannot be itself a specialact. But devotion appears to qualify certain other acts; thus it is saidthat _all the multitude offered victims, and praises, and holocaustswith a devout mind_. [81]

 But that which moves another gives a certain measure to the latter's movement. The will, however, moves the other faculties of the soul to their respective acts; and, moreover, the will, as aiming at an end in view, moves itself to the means towards that end. Consequently, since devotion is the act of a man who offers himself to serve Him Who is the Ultimate End, it follows that devotion gives a certain measure to human acts--whether they be the acts of the will itself with regard to the means to an end, or the acts of the other faculties as moved by the will. 

2. Again, no act which finds a place in different kinds of acts can beitself a special kind of act. But devotion is to be found in acts ofdifferent kinds, both in corporal acts, for example, and in spiritual;thus a man is said to meditate devoutly, for instance, or to genuflectdevoutly. 

 But devotion does not find a place in different kinds of acts as though it were a _species_ coming under different _genera_, but in the same sense as the motive power of a moving principle is virtually discoverable in the movements of the things it sets in motion. 

3. Lastly, all special kinds of acts belong either to the appetitive orto the cognoscitive faculties. But devotion comes under neither ofthese--as will be evident to anyone who will reflect upon the variousacts of these faculties respectively. 

 But devotion is an act of the appetitive powers of the soul, and is, as we have said above, a movement of the will. 

_Cajetan:_ With regard to the proper meaning of the term _devotion_, note that since _devotion_ is clearly derived from _devoting_, and since_to devote_--derived in its turn from _to vow_--means to promisesomething spontaneously to God: it follows that the principle in allsuch promises is the will; and further, not the will simply as such, butthe will so affected as to be prompt. Hence in Latin those are said tobe _devoted_ to some superior whose will is so affected towards him asto make them prompt in his regard. And this seems to refer especially toGod and to those who in a sense stand in His place, as, for instance, our rulers, our fatherland, and our principles of action. Hence in theChurch's usage the term _devotion_ is especially applied to those whoare so affected towards God as to be prompt in His regard and in allthat concerns Him. And so _devotion_ is here taken to signify the act ofa will so disposed, the act by which a man shows himself prompt in theDivine service. .. . Thus, then, _devotion_, the principal act of thevirtue of religion, implies first of all the prompt desire of the Divinehonour in our exercise of Divine worship; and hence comes the promptchoice of appropriate means to this end, and also the prompt carryingout of what we see to be suitable to that end. And the proof ofpossession of such _devotion_ is that truly devout souls, the momentthey perceive that some particular thing (or other) ought to be done forthe service of God, are so promptly moved towards it that they rejoicein having to do or in actually doing it (_on_ 2. 2. 82. 1). 

_S. Augustine:_ Give me, O Lord, Thyself; grant Thyself to me! For Theedo I love, and if my love be but weak, then would I love Thee more. ForI cannot measure it so as to know how much my love falls short of thatlove which shall make my life run to Thy embraces nor ever turn awayfrom Thee till I be hid in the hiding-place of Thy countenance. Thisonly do I know: that it fares ill with me when away from Thee; and thisnot merely externally, but within me; for all abundance which is not myGod is but penury for me! (_Confessions_, XIII. Viii. 2). 

II

Is Devotion an Act of the Virtue of Religion?

Devotion is derived from "devoting oneself" or making vows. But a vow isan act of the virtue of religion. Consequently devotion also is an actof the virtue of religion. 

It belongs to the same virtue to wish to do a thing and to have a promptwill to do it, for the object of each of these acts is the same. Forthis reason the Philosopher says[82]: "Justice is that by which men willand perform just deeds. " And it is clear that to perform those thingswhich pertain to the Divine worship or service comes under the virtue ofreligion. Consequently it belongs to the same virtue of religion to havea prompt will to carry out these things--in other words, to be devout. Whence it follows that devotion is an act of the virtue of religion. 

But some argue that devotion is not an act of the virtue of religion, thus:

1. Devotion means that a man gives himself to God. But this belongs tothe virtue of charity, for, as S. Denis says[83]: "Divine love causesecstasy since it permits not that those who love should belong any moreto themselves, but to those things which they love. " Whence devotionwould seem to be rather an act of charity than of the virtue ofreligion. 

 It is indeed through charity that a man gives himself to God, clinging to Him by a certain union of soul; but that a man should give himself to God and occupy himself with the Divine service, is due directly to the virtue of religion, though indirectly it is due to the virtue of charity, which is the principle of the virtue of religion. 

2. Again, charity precedes the virtue of religion. But devotion seems toprecede charity; for charity is signified in Scripture by fire, anddevotion by the fat of the sacrifices--the material on which the firefeeds. Consequently devotion is not an act of the virtue of religion. 

 But while the fat of the body is generated by the natural digestive heat, that natural heat finds its nourishment in that same fat. Similarly charity both causes devotion--since it is by love that a man becomes prompt to serve his friend--and at the same time charity is fed by devotion; just as all friendship is preserved and increased by the practice of friendly acts and by meditating upon them. 

3. Lastly, by the virtue of religion a man turns to God alone. Butdevotion extends to men as well; people, for instance, are said to bedevoted to certain Saints, and servants are said to be devoted to theirmasters, as S. Leo says of the Jews, [84] that being devoted to the Romanlaws, they said: _We have no king but Cæsar. _[85] Consequently devotionis not an act of the virtue of religion. 

 But the devotion which we have to the Saints of God, whether living or dead, does not stop at them, but passes on to God, since we venerate God in God's ministers. And the devotion which subjects have to their temporal masters is of a different kind altogether, just as the service of temporal masters differs from the service of the Divine Master. 

III

Is Contemplation, that is Meditation, the Cause of Devotion?

In Ps. Xxxviii. 4 it is said: _And in my meditation a fire shall flameout. _ But spiritual fire causes devotion. Therefore meditation causesdevotion. 

The extrinsic and principal cause of devotion is God Himself; thus S. Ambrose says[86]: "God calls those whom He deigns to call; and whom Hewills to make religious He makes religious; and had He willed it Hewould have made the Samaritans devout instead of indevout. "

But the intrinsic cause of devotion on our part is meditation orcontemplation. For, as we have said, devotion is a certain act of thewill by which a man gives himself promptly to the Divine service. Allacts of the will, however, proceed from consideration, since the will'sobject is good understood. Hence S. Augustine says[87]: "The will startsfrom the understanding. " Meditation must, then, be the cause of devotioninasmuch as it is from meditation that a man conceives the idea ofgiving himself up to God. 

And two considerations lead a man to do this: one is the considerationof the Divine Goodness and of His benefits, whence the words of thePsalmist: _But for me it is good to cling close to my God, to put myhope in the Lord God. _[88] And this consideration begets love, which isthe proximate cause of devotion. And the second is man's considerationof his own defects which compel him to lean upon God, according to thewords: _I have lifted up mine eyes to the mountains, from whence helpshall come to me; my help is from the Lord Who made Heaven andearth. _[89] This latter consideration excludes all presumption which, bymaking him lean upon himself, might prevent a man from submittinghimself to God. 

Some, however, argue that contemplation or meditation is not the causeof devotion, thus:

1. No cause hinders its own effect. But subtle intellectual meditationsoften hinder devotion. 

 But it is the consideration of those things which naturally tend to excite love of God which begets devotion; consideration of things which do not come under this head, but rather distract the mind from it, are a hindrance to devotion. 

2. Again, if contemplation were the real cause of devotion, it shouldfollow that the higher the matter of our contemplation the greater thedevotion it begot. But the opposite is the case. For it frequentlyhappens that greater devotion is aroused by the contemplation of thePassion of Christ and of the other mysteries of His Sacred Humanity thanby meditation upon the Divine excellences. 

 It is true that things which concern the Godhead are of themselves more calculated to excite in us love, and consequently devotion, since God is to be loved above all things; yet it is due to the weakness of the human mind that just as it needs to be led by the hand to the knowledge of Divine things, so also must it be lead to Divine love by means of the things of sense already known to it; and the chief of these things is the Humanity of Christ, as is said in the _Preface_ of the Mass: _So that knowing God visibly in the flesh, we may thereby be carried away to the love of things invisible. _ Consequently the things that have to do with Christ's Humanity lead us, as it were, by the hand and are thus especially suited to stir up devotion in us; though, none the less, devotion is principally concerned with the Divinity. 

3. Lastly, if contemplation were the real cause of devotion, it ought tofollow that those who are the more fitted for contemplation are also themore fitted for devotion; whereas the contrary is the case, for greaterdevotion is often found among simple folk and in the female sex, wherecontemplation is wanting. 

 But knowledge, as indeed anything which renders a person great, occasions a man to trust in Himself, and hence he does not wholly give himself to God. It is for this reason that knowledge and suchlike things are sometimes a hindrance to a man's devotion, whereas among women and simple folk devotion abounds by the suppression of all elation. But if a man will only perfectly subject to God his knowledge and any other perfection he may have, then his devotion will increase. 

 * * * * *

_Cajetan:_ Note these two intrinsic causes of devotion: one, namely, which arises from meditation upon God and His benefits, the other frommeditation on our own defects. Under the first head I must considerGod's goodness, mercy, and kindness towards mankind and towards myself;the benefits, for instance, of creation according to His own Likeness, of Redemption, of Baptism, of His inspirations, of His invitations--whether directly or through the medium of others; His patient waitingtill I do penance; His Holy Eucharist; His preserving me from so manyperils both of body and soul; His care of me by means of His Angels; andHis other individual benefits. Under the second head come all my faultsand the punishments due to me, whether in the past or now in thepresent; my proneness to sin; my misuse of my own powers by habituatingmy thoughts and desires--as well as the inclinations of my other variousfaculties--to evil; my sojourning in a region far away from HisFriendship and from His Divine conversation[90]; my perverted affectionswhich make me think far more of temporal than of spiritual advantages ordisadvantages; my utter lack of virtue; the wounds of my ignorance, ofmy malice, of my weakness, of my concupiscence; the shackles on my handsand feet, on my good works, that is; the shackles, too, on myaffections, so that I dwell amidst darkness and rottenness andbitterness, and shrink not from it! My deafness, too, to the inner voiceof my Shepherd; and, what is far worse, that I have chosen God for myenemy and my adversary as often as I have chosen mortal sin, and that Ihave thus offered Him the grievous insult of refusing to have Him for myGod, and choosing instead my belly, or money, or false delights--andcalled them my God!

Meditations such as these should be in daily use among spiritual andreligious people, and for their sake they should put aside the"much-speaking" of vocal prayer, however much it may appeal to them. Andit is of such meditations that devotion and, by consequence, othervirtues, are begotten. And they who do not give themselves to this formof prayer at least once in the day cannot be called religious men orwomen, nor even spiritual people. There can be no effect without acause, no end without means to it, no gaining the harbour on the islandsave by a voyage in a ship; and so there can be no real religion withoutrepeated acts regarding its causes, the means to it, and the vehiclethat is to bring us thither (_on_ 2. 2. 82. 3). 

_Cajetan:_ Just as he who removes an obstacle is the occasion of theresulting effect--a man, for instance, who pulls down a pillar is theoccasion of the resulting fall of what it supported, and a man whoremoves a water-dam is the occasion of the consequent flood--so in thesame way have women and simple folk a cause of devotion withinthemselves, for they have not that obstacle which consists inself-confidence. And because God bestows His grace on those who put noobstacle to it, the Church therefore calls the female sex "devout. "Hence we are not to find fault with the learned for their knowledge, norare we to praise women for womanly weakness; but that abuse of knowledgewhich consists in self-exaltation is blameworthy, just as the right useof women's weakness in not being uplifted is praiseworthy (_on_ 2. 2. 82. 3). 

IV

Is Joy an Effect of Devotion?

In the Church's _Collect_ for the Thursday after the Fourth Sunday ofLent we say: _May holy devotion fill with joy those whom the fast theyhave undertaken chastises. _

Of itself indeed, and primarily, devotion brings about a spiritual joyof the mind; but as an accidental result it causes sorrow. For, as wehave said above, devotion arises from two considerations. Primarily itarises from the consideration of the Divine Goodness, and from thisthought there necessarily follows gladness, in accordance with thewords: _I remembered God and was delighted. _[91] Yet, as it wereaccidentally, this consideration begets a certain sadness in those whodo not as yet fully enjoy God: _My soul hath thirsted after the strongliving God_, [92] and he immediately adds: _My tears have been my bread. _

Secondarily, however, devotion arises from the consideration of our owndefects, for we thus reflect upon that from which a man, by devout actsof the will, turns away, so as no longer to dwell in himself, but tosubject himself to God. 

And this consideration is the converse of the former: for of itself ittends to cause sadness since it makes us dwell upon our defects;accidentally, however, it causes joy, for it makes us think of the hopewe have of God's assistance. 

Hence joy of heart primarily and of itself follows from devotion; butsecondarily and accidentally there results a sadness which is unto God. 

Some, however, argue that joy is not an effect of devotion, thus:

1. Christ's Passion, as said before, is especially calculated to causedevotion. But from dwelling on it there follows a certain affliction ofsoul: _Remember my poverty . .. The wormwood and the gall_[93]--that is, the Sacred Passion; and then follows: _I will be mindful, and remember, and my soul shall languish within me. _

 In meditation on the Passion of Christ there is food for sadness--viz. , the thought of the sins of men, and to take these away Christ had need to suffer. But there is also food for joy--viz. , the thought of God's merciful kindness towards us in providing us such a deliverance. 

2. Again, devotion principally consists in the interior sacrifice of theheart: _A sacrifice to God is an afflicted spirit_;[94] consequentlyaffliction, rather than pleasure or joy, is the outcome of devotion. 

 But the soul which is on the one hand saddened because of its shortcomings in this present life, is on the other hand delighted at the thought of the goodness of God and of the hope of Divine assistance. 

3. Lastly, S. Gregory of Nyssa says[95]: "Just as laughter proceeds fromjoy, so are sorrow and groaning signs of sadness. " But out of devotionsome burst into tears. 

 Yet tears spring not from sadness alone, but also from a certain tenderness of feeling: and especially is this the case when we reflect on something that, while pleasant, has in it a certain admixture of sadness; thus men are wont to weep from loving affection when they recover their children or others dear to them whom they had thought lost. And it is in this sense that tears spring from devotion. 

 * * * * *

_Cajetan:_ Notice the proof here afforded that those are not devoutpersons who are habitually sad and gloomy, and who cannot mingle withothers without getting into difficulties or dissolving into tears. Fordevout folk are cheerful, and are full of joy in their souls; and thisnot solely by reason of the principal cause, as is stated in the text, but also by reason of a secondary cause--the thought, namely, of theirown failings. For the sadness of devout folk is _according to God_, andjoy accompanies it; whence S. Augustine's remark: "Let a man grieve, butlet him rejoice at his grief. "[96] Therefore it is that we read of theSaints that they were joyful and bright; and rightly so, for they hadbegun upon earth their "heavenly conversation"[97] (_on_ 2. 2. 82. 4). 

_S. Augustine:_ For Thee do I yearn, Justice and Innocence, Beautifuland Fair in Thy beauteous light that satisfies and yet never sates! Forwith Thee is repose exceedingly and life without disquiet! He thatenters into Thee enters into the joy of his Lord; he shall know no fear, and in the Best shall be best. But I have deserted Thee and havewandered away, O Lord, my God! Too far have I wandered from Thee, theSteadfast One, in my youth, and I have become to myself a very land ofwant! (_Confessions_, II. X. ). 

FOOTNOTES:

[79] VIII. 9 and X. 29. 

[80] xxxv. 20-21. 

[81] 2 Paral. Xxix. 31. 

[82] _Ethics_, V. I. 3. 

[83] _Of the Divine Names_, chap. Iv. , part i. , lect. 10. 

[84] _Sermon VIII. : On the Passion of Our Lord. _

[85] S. John xix. 15. 

[86] _Commentary on S. Luke_ ix. 55. 

[87] _De Trinitate_, ix. 12; xv. 23. 

[88] Ps. Lxxii. 28. 

[89] Ps. Cxx. 1, 2. 

[90] S. Luke xv. 13, 16. 

[91] Ps. Lxxvi. 4. 

[92] Ps. Xli. 3. 

[93] Lam. Iii. 19. 

[94] Ps. I. 19. 

[95] _De Homine_, xii. 

[96] _De Vera et Falsa Poenitentia_, xiii. 

[97] Phil. Iii. 20. 

QUESTION LXXXIII

OF PRAYER

 I. Is Prayer an Act of the Appetitive Powers? Cardinal Cajetan, On Prayer based on Friendship II. Is it Fitting to Pray? Cardinal Cajetan, On Prayer as a True Cause S. Augustine, _On the Sermon on the Mount_, II. Iii. 14 " _On the Gift of Perseverance_, vii. 15III. Is Prayer an Act of the Virtue of Religion? Cardinal Cajetan, On the Humility of Prayer S. Augustine, _On Psalm_ cii. 10 " _Of the Gift of Perseverance_, xvi. 39 IV. Ought We to Pray to God Alone? S. Augustine, _Sermon_, cxxvii. 2 V. Should We in our Prayers ask for anything Definite from God? S. Augustine, _De Catechizandis Rudibus_, xxv. 47 " _Confessions_, X. Xxix. " _Confessions_, XI. Ii. 2 VI. Ought We in our Prayers to ask for Temporal Things from God? S. Augustine, _On Psalm_ xxxvii. 10 " _Confessions_, I. Xx. 2 " _Confessions_, IX. Iv. 12 S. Thomas is miraculously relieved from Toothache S. Augustine, _Sermon_, lxxx. 7 " _Sermon_, cccliv. 8 VII. Ought We to Pray for Others?VIII. Ought We to Pray for our Enemies? S. Augustine, _Sermon_, xv. , on _Psalm_ xxv. 8 IX. On the Seven Petitions of the Lord's Prayer Cardinal Cajetan, On the Grouping of these Petitions S. Augustine, _Confessions_, VII. X. 2 " _Sermon_, lvii. , _on S. Matt. _ vi. 7 " _Sermon_, lvi. 9, _on S. Matt. _ vi. " _Sermon_, lvi. 8, _on S. Matt. _ vi. " _Of the City of God_, xix. 27 S. Thomas's Rhythm, _Adoro Te Devote_ X. Is Prayer Peculiar to Rational Creatures? XI. Do the Saints in Heaven Pray for Us? Cardinal Cajetan, On the Saints in Limbo XII. Should Prayer be Vocal? Cardinal Cajetan, On the Conditions of Vocal Prayer S. Augustine, _Confessions_, IX. Iv. 8 " _Confessions_, X. Xxxiii. 50 " _On Psalm_ cxviii. , _Sermon_ xxix. 1XIII. Must Prayer necessarily be Attentive? Cardinal Cajetan, On the Varieties of Attention at Prayer S. Augustine, _On Psalm_ lxxxv. 7 " _On Psalm_ cxlv. 1 S. Thomas, _On Distractions, Com. On 1 Cor. _ xiv. 14 XIV. Should our Prayers be Long? XV. Is Prayer Meritorious? S. Augustine, _On Psalm_ xxvi. " _Ep. _ cxxx. _ad Probam. _ XVI. Do Sinners gain Anything from God by their Prayers?XVII. Can We rightly term "Supplications, " "Prayers, " "Intercessions, " and "Thanksgivings, " parts of Prayer? Cardinal Cajetan, On the Prayer of the Consecration S. Augustine, _Of Divers Questions_, iv. 

I

Is Prayer an Act of the Appetitive Powers?

S. Isidore says[98]: "To pray is the same thing as to speak. " Speaking, however, belongs to the intellect. Hence prayer is not an act of theappetitive, but of the intellectual faculties. 

According to Cassiodorus, on those words of the Psalmist: _Hear myprayer, O Lord, and my supplication, give ear to my tears_, [99] prayermeans "the lips' reasoning. " Now there is this difference between thespeculative and the practical reason, that the speculative reason merelyapprehends things, while the practical reason not only apprehendsthings, but actually causes them. But one thing is the cause of anotherin two ways: in one way, perfectly--namely, as inducing a necessity--ashappens when the effect comes entirely under the power of a cause; inanother way, imperfectly--namely, by merely disposing to it--as happenswhen an effect is not entirely under the power of a cause. 

And so, too, reason is in two ways the cause of certain things: in oneway as imposing a necessity; and in this way it belongs to the reason tocommand not merely the lower faculties and the bodily members, but evenmen who are subject to us, and this is done by giving commands. Inanother way as inducing, and in some sort disposing to, an effect; andin this way the reason asks for something to be done by those who aresubject to it, whether they be equals or superiors. 

But both of these--namely, to command something, or to ask or beg forsomething to be done--imply a certain arrangement--as when a manarranges for something to be done by somebody else. And in this respectboth of these acts come under the reason whose office it is to arrange. Hence the Philosopher says[100]: "Reason asks for the best things. "

Here, then, we speak of prayer as implying a certain asking or petition, for, as S. Augustine says[101]: "Prayer is a certain kind of petition";so, too, S. John Damascene says[102]: "Prayer is the asking of fittingthings from God. "

Hence it is clear that the prayer of which we are here speaking is anact of the reason. 

Some, however, think that prayer is an act of the appetitive powers, thus:

1. The whole object of prayer is to be heard, and the Psalmist says thatit is our desires which are heard: _The Lord hath heard the desire ofthe poor. _[103] Prayer, then, is desire; but desire is an act of theappetitive powers. 

 But the Lord is said to hear the desires of the poor either because their desire is the reason why they ask--since our petitions are in a certain sense the outward expression of our desires; or this may be said in order to show the swiftness with which He hears them--even while things are only existing in the poor man's desire; God hears them even before they are expressed in prayer. And this accords with the words of Isaias: _And it shall come to pass that before they shall call I will hear, as they are yet speaking I will hear. _[104]

2. Again, Denis the Areopagite says: "But before all things it is goodto begin with prayer, as thereby giving ourselves up to and unitingourselves with God. "[105] But union with God comes through love, andlove belongs to the appetitive powers; therefore prayer, too, would seemto belong to the appetitive powers. 

 But the will moves the reason to its end or object. Hence there is nothing to prevent the reason, under the direction of the will, from tending to the goal of charity, which is union with God. Prayer, however, tends towards God--moved, that is, by the will, which itself is motived by charity--in two ways: in one way by reason of that which is asked for, since in prayer we have particularly to ask that we may be united with God, according to those words: _One thing I have asked of the Lord, this will I seek after, that I may dwell in the house of the Lord all the days of my life. _[106] And in another way prayer tends towards God--by reason, namely, of the petitioner himself; for such a one must approach him from whom he asks something, and this either bodily, as when he draws nigh to a man, or mentally, as when he draws nigh to God. 

 Hence the same Denis says: "When we invoke God in prayer we are before Him with our minds laid bare. " In the same sense S. John Damascene says: "Prayer is the ascent of the mind towards God. "

_Cajetan:_ Prayer demands of the petitioner a twofold union with God:the one is general--the union, that is, of friendship--and is producedby charity, so that further on[107] we shall find the friendship arisingfrom charity enumerated among the conditions for infallibly efficaciousprayer. The second kind of union may be termed substantial union; it isthe effect of prayer itself. It is that union of application by whichthe mind offers itself and all it has to God in service--viz. , by devoutaffections, by meditations, and by external acts. By such union as thisa man who prays is inseparable from God in his worship and service, justas when one man serves another he is inseparable from him in his service(_on_ 2. 2. 83. 1). 

 "And now, O Lord, Thou art our Father, and we are clay: and Thou art our Maker, and we are all the works of Thy hands. Be not very angry, O Lord, and remember no longer our iniquity: behold, see we are all Thy people. "[108]

II

Is It Fitting To Pray?

In S. Luke's Gospel we read: _We ought always to pray and not tofaint. _[109]

A threefold error regarding prayer existed amongst the ancients; forsome maintained that human affairs were not directed by DivineProvidence; whence it followed that it was altogether vain to pray or toworship God; of such we read: _You have said, he laboureth in vain thatserveth God_. [110] A second opinion was that all things, even humanaffairs, happened of necessity--whether from the immutability of DivineProvidence, or from a necessity imposed by the stars, or from theconnection of causes; and this opinion, of course, excluded all utilityfrom prayer. A third opinion was that human affairs were indeed directedby Divine Providence, and that human affairs did not happen ofnecessity, but that Divine Providence was changeable, and thatconsequently its dispositions were changed by our prayers and by otheracts of religious worship. These views, however, have elsewhere beenshown to be wrong. 

Consequently we have so to set forth the utility of prayer as neither tomake things happen of necessity because subject to Divine Providence, nor to suggest that the arrangements of Divine Providence are subject tochange. 

To bring this out clearly we must consider that Divine Providence notmerely arranges what effects shall take place, but also from what causesthey shall proceed, and in what order. 

But amongst other causes human acts are causes of certain effects. Hencemen must do certain things, not so that their acts may change the Divinearrangement, but that by their acts they may bring about certain effectsaccording to the order arranged by God; and it is the same with naturalcauses. It is the same, too, in the case of prayer. For we do not prayin order to change the Divine arrangements, but in order to win thatwhich God arranged should be fulfilled by means of prayers; or, in S. Gregory's words: "Men by petitioning may merit to receive what AlmightyGod arranged before the ages to give them. "[111]

Some, however, maintain that prayer is futile, thus:

1. Prayer seems to be necessary in order that we may bring our wants tothe notice of Him to Whom we make the petition. But our Lord says: _YourFather knoweth that ye have need of all these things. _[112]

 But it is not necessary for us to set forth our petitions before God in order to make known to Him our needs or desires, but rather that we ourselves may realize that in these things it is needful to have recourse to the Divine assistance. 

2. Again, by prayer the mind of him to whom it is made is prevailed uponto grant what is asked of him; but the mind of God is unchangeable andinflexible: _The Triumpher in Israel will not spare, and will not bemoved to repentance; for He is not a man that He should repent. _[113]Consequently it is unavailing to pray to God. 

 But our prayers do not aim at changing the Divine arrangements, but at obtaining by our prayers what God has arranged to give us. 

3. Lastly, it is more generous to give to one who does not ask than toone who asks, for, as Seneca remarks: "Nothing is bought at a dearerprice than what is bought with prayers. "[114] Whereas God is mostgenerous. 

 God, indeed, bestows on us many things out of His generosity, even things for which we do not ask; but He wishes to grant us some things on the supposition that we ask for them. And this is for our advantage, for it is intended to beget in us a certain confidence in having recourse to God, as well as to make us recognize that He is the Author of all good to us. Hence S. Chrysostom says: "Reflect what great happiness is bestowed upon you, what glory is given you, namely, to converse in your prayers with God, to join in colloquy with Christ, and to beg for what you wish or desire. "[115]

_Cajetan:_ Notice how foolish are some Christians who, when desirous ofreaching certain ends attainable by nature or art, are most careful toapply such means, and would rightly regard their hopes as vain unlessthey applied them; and yet at the same time they have quite falsenotions of the fruits to be derived from prayer: as though prayer wereno cause at all, or at least but a remote one! Whence it comes to passthat, having false ideas about the causes, they fail to reap any fruit(_on_ 2. 2. 83. 2). 

_S. Augustine:_ But some may say: It is not so much a question whetherwe are to pray by words or deeds as whether we are to pray at all if Godalready knows what is needful for us. Yet the very giving ourselves toprayer has the effect of soothing our minds and purifying them; it makesus more fit to receive the Divine gifts which are spiritually poured outupon us. For God does not hear us because of a display of prayer on ourpart; He is always ready, indeed, to give us His light, not, indeed, Hisvisible light, but the light of the intellect and the spirit. It is wewho are not always prepared to receive it, and this because we arepreoccupied with other things and swallowed up in the darkness resultingfrom desire of the things of earth. When we pray, then, our hearts mustturn to God, Who is ever ready to give if only we will take what Hegives. And in so turning to Him we must purify the eye of our mind byshutting out all thought for the things of time, that so--withsingle-minded gaze--we may be able to bear that simple light that shinesdivinely, and neither sets nor changes. And not merely to bear it, buteven to abide in it; and this not simply without strain, but with acertain unspeakable joy. In this joy the life of the Blessed is trulyand really perfected (_On the Sermon on the Mount_, II. Iii. 14). 

_S. Augustine:_ He could have bestowed these things on us even withoutour prayers; but He wished that by our prayers we should be taught fromWhom these benefits come. For from whom do we receive them if not fromHim from Whom we are bidden to ask them? Assuredly in this matter theChurch does not demand laborious disputations; but note Her dailyprayers: She prays that unbelievers may believe: God then brings them tothe Faith. She prays that the faithful may persevere: God gives themperseverance to the end. And God foreknew that He would do these things. For this is the predestination of the Saints whom _He chose in Christbefore the foundation of the world_[116] (_Of the Gift of Perseverance_, vii. 15). 

 "Thou hast taught me, O God, from my youth; and till now I will declare Thy wonderful works. And unto old age and grey hairs, O God, forsake me not, until I shew forth Thy arm to all the generation that is to come. "[117]

III

Is Prayer an Act of the Virtue of Religion?

In Ps. Cxl. 2 we read: _Let my prayer be directed as incense in Thysight_, and on these words the Gloss remarks: "According to this figure, in the Old Law incense was said to be offered as an odour of sweetnessto the Lord. " And this comes under the virtue of religion. Thereforeprayer is an act of religion. 

It properly belongs to the virtue of religion to give due reverence andhonour to God, and hence all those things by which such reverence isshown to God come under religion. By prayer, however, a man showsreverence to God inasmuch as he submits himself to Him and, by praying, acknowledges that he needs God as the Author of all his good. Whence itis clear that prayer is properly an act of religion. 

Some, however, maintain that prayer is not an act of the virtue ofreligion, thus:

1. Prayer is rather the exercise of the Gift of Understanding than ofthe virtue of religion. For the virtue of religion comes under Justice;it is therefore resident in the will. But prayer belongs to theintellectual faculties, as we have shown above. 

 But we must remember that the will moves the other faculties of the soul to their objects or ends, and that consequently the virtue of religion, which is in the will, directs the acts of the other faculties in the reverence they show towards God. Now amongst these other faculties of the soul the intellect is the noblest and the most nigh to the will; consequently, next to devotion, which belongs to the will itself, prayer, which belongs to the intellective part, is the chief act of religion, for by it religion moves a man's understanding towards God. 

2. Again, acts of worship fall under precept, whereas prayer seems tofall under no precept, but to proceed simply from the mere wish to pray;for prayer is merely asking for what we want; consequently prayer is notan act of the virtue of religion. 

 Yet not only to ask for what we desire, but to desire rightly, falls under precept; to desire, indeed, falls under the precept of charity, but to ask falls under the precept of religion--the precept which is laid down in the words: _Ask and ye shall receive_. [118]

3. Lastly, the virtue of religion embraces due worship and ceremonialoffered to the Divinity; prayer, however, offers God nothing, but onlyseeks to obtain things from Him. 

 In prayer a man offers to God his mind, which he subjects to Him in reverence, and which he, in some sort, lays bare before Him--as we have just seen in S. Denis's words. Hence, since the human mind is superior to all the other exterior or bodily members, and also to all exterior things which have place in the Divine worship, it follows that prayer, too, is pre-eminent among the acts of the virtue of religion. 

_Cajetan:_ In prayer or petition there are three things to beconsidered: the thing petitioned for, the actual petition, and thepetitioner. As far, then, as the thing petitioned for is concerned, wegive nothing to God when we pray; rather we ask Him to give ussomething. But if we consider the actual petition, then we do offersomething to God when we pray. For the very act of petitioning is an actof subjection; it is an acknowledgment of God's power. And the proof ofthis is that proud men would prefer to submit to want rather than humblethemselves by asking anything of others. Further, the petitioner, by thevery fact that he petitions, acknowledges that he whom he petitions hasthe power to assist him, and is merciful, or just, or provident; it isfor this reason that he hopes to be heard. Hence petition or prayer isregarded as an act of the virtue of religion, the object of which is togive honour to God. For we honour God by asking things of Him, and thisby so much the more as--whether from our manner of asking or from thenature of what we ask for--we acknowledge Him to be above all things, tobe our Creator, our Provider, our Redeemer, etc. And this is what S. Thomas points out in the body of the Article. But if we consider thepetitioner: then, since man petitions with his mind--for petition is anact of the mind--and since the mind is the noblest thing in man, itfollows that by petitioning we submit to God that which is noblest inus, since we use it to ask things of Him, and thereby do Him honour. Thus by prayer we offer our minds in sacrifice to God; so, too, bybending the knee to Him we offer to Him and sacrifice to Him our knees, by using them to His honour (_on_ 2. 2. 83. 3). 

_S. Augustine:_ I stand as a beggar at the gate, He sleepeth not on WhomI call! Oh, may He give me those three loaves! For you remember theGospel? Ah! see how good a thing it is to know God's word; those of youwho have read it are stirred within yourselves! For you remember how aneedy man came to his friend's house and asked for three loaves. And Hesays that he sleepily replied to him: "I am resting, and my children arewith me asleep. " But he persevered in his request, and wrung from him byhis importunity what his deserts could not get. But God wishes to give;yet only to those who ask--lest He should give to those who understandnot. He does not wish to be stirred up by your weariness! For when youpray you are not being troublesome to one who sleeps; _He slumbereth notnor sleeps that keepeth Israel. _[119] . .. He, then, sleeps not; see youthat your faith sleeps not! (_Enarr. In Ps. _ cii. 10). 

_S. Augustine:_ Some there are who either do not pray at all, or praybut tepidly; and this because, forsooth, they have learnt from the LordHimself[120] that God knows, even before we ask Him, what is necessaryfor us. But because of such folk are we to say that these words are nottrue and therefore to be blotted out of the Gospel? Nay, rather, sinceit is clear that God gives some things even to those who do not ask--as, for instance, the beginnings of faith--and has prepared other things forthose only who pray for them--as, for instance, final perseverance--itis evident that he who fancies he has this latter of himself does notpray to have it (_Of the Gift of Perseverance_, xvi. 39). 

 "I will sing to the Lord as long as I live; I will sing praise to my God while I have my being. Let my speech be acceptable to Him; but I will take delight in the Lord. "[121]

IV

Ought We To Pray To God Alone?

In Job v. 1 we read: _Call, now, if there be any that will answer thee, and turn to some of the Saints. _

Prayer is addressed to a person in two ways: in one way as a petition tobe granted by him; in another way as a petition to be forwarded by him. In the former way we only pray to God, for all our prayers ought to bedirected to the attaining of grace and glory, and these God alone gives:_The Lord will give grace and glory. _[122] But in the latter way we setforth our prayers both to the holy Angels and to men; and this, not thatthrough their intervention God may know our petitions, but rather thatby their prayers and merits our petitions may gain their end. Hence itis said in the Apocalypse: _And the smoke of the incense of the prayersof the Saints ascended up before God from the hand of the Angel. _[123]And this is clearly shown, too, from the style adopted by the Church inher prayers: for of the Holy Trinity we pray that mercy may be shown us;but of all the Saints, whomsoever they may be, we pray that they mayintercede for us. 

Some, however, maintain that we ought to pray to God alone, thus:

1. Prayer is an act of the virtue of religion. But only God is to beworshipped by the virtue of religion. Consequently it is to Him alonethat we should pray. 

 But in our prayers we only show religious worship to Him from Whom we hope to obtain what we ask, for by so doing we confess Him to be the Author of all our goods; but we do not show religious worship to those whom we seek to have as intercessors with us before God. 

2. Again, prayer to those who cannot know what we pray for is idle. ButGod alone can know our prayers, and this because prayer is frequently apurely interior act of which God alone is cognizant, as the Apostlesays: _I will pray with the spirit. I will pray also with theunderstanding_;[124] and also because, as S. Augustine says[125]: Thedead know not, not even the Saints, what the living--not even exceptingtheir own children--are doing. 

 It is true that the dead, if we consider only their natural condition, do not know what is done on earth, and especially do they not know the interior movements of the heart. But to the Blessed, as S. Gregory says, [126] manifestation is made in the Divine Word of those things which it is fitting that they should know as taking place in our regard, even the interior movements of the heart. And, indeed, it is most befitting their state of excellence that they should be cognizant of petitions addressed to them, whether vocally or mentally. Hence through God's revelation they are cognizant of the petitions which we address them. 

3. Lastly, some say: if we do address prayers to any of the Saints, thesole reason for doing so lies in the fact that they are closely unitedto God. But we do not address prayers to people who, while still livingin this world, are closely knit to God, nor to those who are inPurgatory and are united to Him. There seems, then, to be no reason whywe should address prayers to the Saints in Paradise. 

 But they who are still in the world or in Purgatory do not as yet enjoy the vision of the Divine Word so as to be able to know what we think or say, hence we do not implore their help when we pray; though when talking with living people we do ask them to help us. 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ It is no great thing to live long, nor even to live forever; but it is indeed a great thing to live well. Oh, let us loveeternal life! And we realize how earnestly we ought to strive for thateternal life when we note how men who love this present temporal life sowork for it--though it is to pass away--that, when the fear of deathcomes, they strive all they can, not, indeed, to do away with death, butto put death off! How men labour when death approaches! They flee fromit; they hide from it; they give all they have; they try to buythemselves off; they work and strive; they put up with tortures andinconveniences; they call in physicians; they do everything that lieswithin their power! Yet even if they spend all their toil and theirsubstance, they can only secure that they may live a little longer, notthat they may live for ever! If, then, men spend such toil, suchendeavour, so much money, so much anxiety, watchfulness, and care, inorder to live only a little longer, what ought we not to do that we maylive for ever? And if we call them prudent who take every possibleprecaution to stave off death, to live but a few days more, to save justa few days, then how foolish are they who so pass their days as to losethe Day of Eternity! (_Sermon_, cxxvii. 2). 

 "May God have mercy on us, and bless us: may He cause the light of His countenance to shine upon us, and may He have mercy on us. That we may know Thy way upon earth: Thy salvation in all nations. Let people confess to Thee, O God: let all people give praise to Thee. Let the nations be glad and rejoice: for Thou judgest the people with justice, and directest the nations upon earth. Let the people, O God, confess to Thee: let all the people give praise to Thee: the earth hath yielded her fruit. May God, our God bless us, may God bless us: and all the ends of the earth fear Him. "[127]

V

Should We in our Prayers ask for Anything Definite from God?

Our Lord taught the disciples to ask definitely for the things which arecontained in the petitions of the Lord's Prayer: _Thus shalt thoupray. _[128]

Maximus Valerius tells of Socrates[129] that he "maintained that nothingfurther should be asked of the immortal gods save that they should giveus good things; and this on the ground that they knew well what was bestfor each individual, whereas we often ask in our prayers for thingswhich it would be better not to have asked for. " And this opinion hassome truth in it as regards those things which can turn out ill, orwhich a man can use well or ill, as, for example, riches which, as thesame Socrates says, "have been to the destruction of many; or honourswhich have ruined many; or the possession of kingdoms, the issues ofwhich are so often ill-fated; or splendid matrimonial alliances, whichhave sometimes proved the ruin of families. " But there are certain goodthings of which a man cannot make a bad use--those, namely, which cannothave a bad issue. And these are the things by which we are renderedblessed and by which we merit beatitude; these are the things for whichthe Saints pray unconditionally: _Show us Thy Face and we shall besaved_;[130] and again: _Lead me along the path of Thycommandments_. [131]

Some, however, say that we ought not in our prayers to ask for definitethings from God, thus:

1. S. John Damascene defines prayer as "asking from God things that arefitting";[132] consequently prayer for things which are not expedient isof no efficacy, as S. James says: _You ask and receive not, because youask amiss_. [133] Moreover, S. Paul says: _We know not what we shouldpray for as we ought_. [134]

 But it is also true that though a man cannot of himself know what he ought to pray for, yet, as the Apostle says in the same place: _In this the Spirit helpeth our infirmity_--namely, in that, by inspiring us with holy desires, He makes us ask aright. Hence Our Lord says that the true adorers _must adore in spirit and in truth_. [135]

2. Further, he who asks from another some definite thing strives to bendthat other's will to do what the petitioner wants. But we ought not todirect our prayers towards making God will what we will, but rather weshould will what He wills--as the Gloss says on the words of Ps. Xxxii. 1: _Rejoice in the Lord, O ye just!_ It would seem, therefore, that weought not to ask for definite things from God when we pray. 

 Yet when in our prayers we ask for things which appertain to our salvation, we are conforming our will to the will of God, for of His will it is said: _He will have all men to be saved_. [136]

3. Lastly, evil things cannot be asked from God; and He Himself invitesus to receive good things. But it is idle for a person to ask for whathe is invited to receive. 

 God, it is true, invites us to receive good things; but He wishes us to come to them--not, indeed, by the footsteps of the body--but by pious desires and devout prayers. 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ Fly, then, by unwavering faith and holy habits, fly, brethren, from those torments where the torturers never desist, andwhere the tortured never die; whose death is unending, and where intheir anguish they cannot die. But burn with love for and desire of theeternal life of the Saints where there is no longer the life of toil noryet wearisome repose. For the praises of God will beget no disgust, neither will they ever cease. There will there be no weariness of thesoul, no bodily fatigue; there will there be no wants: neither wants ofyour own which will call for succour, nor wants of your neighbourdemanding your speedy help. God will be all your delight; there will yefind the abundance of that Holy City that from Him draws life andhappily and wisely lives in Him. For there, according to that promise ofHis for which we hope and wait, we shall be made equal to the Angels ofGod; and equally with them shall we then enjoy that vision of the HolyTrinity in which we now but walk by faith. For we now believe what we donot see, that so by the merits of that same faith we then may merit tosee what we believe, and may so hold fast to it that the Equality ofFather, Son, and Holy Ghost, and the Unity of the Trinity, may no longercome to us under the garb of faith, nor be the subject of contentioustalk, but may rather be what we may drink in in purest and deepestcontemplation amid the silence of Eternity (_De Catechizandis Rudibus_, xxv. 47). 

_S. Augustine:_ O Lord, my God, give me what Thou biddest and then bidwhat Thou wilt! Thou biddest us be continent. _And I knew_, as a certainone says, _that I could not otherwise be continent save God gave it, andthis also was a point of wisdom to know Whose gift it was_. Now bycontinence we are knit together and brought back into union with thatOne from Whom we have wandered away after many things. For he loves Theebut little who loves other things with Thee, and loves them not forThee! O Love that ever burnest and wilt never be extinguished! OCharity! O Lord, my God, set me on fire! Thou dost bid continence? Thengive me what Thou biddest and bid what Thou wilt! (_Confessions_, X. Xxix. ). 

_S. Augustine:_ O Lord, my God, listen to my prayer and mercifully hearmy desire! For my desire burns not for myself alone, but fraternalcharity bids it be of use. And Thou seest in my heart that it is so; forI would offer to Thee in sacrifice the service of my thoughts and of mytongue. Grant me then what I may offer to Thee. For I am needy and poor, and Thou art rich towards all that call upon Thee; for in peace andtranquillity hast Thou care for us. Circumcise, then, my lips, withinand without, from all rashness and all untruthfulness. May ThyScriptures be my chaste delight; may I never be deceived in them nordeceive others out of them. Attend, O Lord, and have mercy upon me, OLord, my God. Thou art the Light of the blind, the Strength of the weak, and so, too, art Thou the Light of them that see and the Strength ofthem that are strong. Look, then, on my soul, and hear me when I cryfrom out the depths! (_Confessions_, XI. Ii. 2). 

 "Look down from Heaven, and behold from Thy holy habitation and the place of Thy glory: where is Thy zeal, and Thy strength, the multitude of Thy bowels, and of Thy mercies? they have held back themselves from me. For Thou art our Father, and Abraham hath not known us, and Israel hath been ignorant of us: Thou, O Lord, art our Father, our Redeemer, from everlasting is Thy Name. "[137]

VI

Ought We in our Prayers to ask for Temporal Things from God?

We have the authority of the Book of Proverbs for answering in theaffirmative, for there we read[138]: _Give me only the necessaries oflife_. 

S. Augustine says to Proba[139]: "It is lawful to pray for what it islawful to desire. " But it is lawful to desire temporal things, notindeed as our principal aim or as something which we make our end, butrather as props and stays which may be of assistance to us in ourstriving for the possession of God; for by such things our bodily lifeis sustained, and such things, as the Philosopher says, co-operateorganically to the production of virtuous acts. [140] Consequently it islawful to pray for temporal things. And this is what S. Augustine meanswhen he says to Proba: "Not unfittingly does a person desire sufficiencyfor this life when he desires it and nothing more; for such sufficiencyis not sought for its own sake but for the body's health, and for a modeof life suitable to a man's position so that he may not be a source ofinconvenience to those with whom he lives. When, then, we have thesethings we must pray that we may retain them, and when we have not gotthem we must pray that we may have them. "[141]

Some, however, argue that we ought not to pray for temporal things, thus:

1. What we pray for we seek. But we are forbidden to seek for temporalthings, for it is said: _Seek ye therefore first the kingdom of God, andHis justice, and all these things shall be added unto you_, [142] thosetemporal things, namely, which He says are not to be sought but whichare to be added to the things which we seek. 

 But temporal things are to be sought secondarily not primarily. Hence S. Augustine[143]: "When He says the former is _to be sought first_ (namely the kingdom of God), He means that the latter (namely temporal good things) are to be sought afterwards; not _afterwards_ in point of time, but _afterwards_ in point of importance; the former as our good, the latter as our need. "

2. Again, we only ask for things about which we are solicitous. But weare not allowed to be solicitous about temporal concerns: _Be notsolicitous for your life, what ye shall eat_[144]. .. . 

 But not all solicitude about temporal affairs is forbidden, only such as is superfluous and out of due order. 

3. Further, we ought in prayer to uplift our minds to God. But by askingfor temporal things in prayer our mind descends to things beneath it, and this is contrary to the teaching of the Apostle: _While we look notat the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen. Forthe things which are seen are temporal: but the things which are notseen are eternal. _[145]

 When our mind is occupied with temporal affairs so as to set up its rest in them then it remains in them, and is depressed by them; but when the mind turns to them as a means of attaining to eternal life it is not depressed by them, but rather uplifted by them. 

4. Lastly, men ought not to pray except for things useful and good. Buttemporal possessions are at times hurtful, and this not merelyspiritually but even temporally; hence a man ought not to ask them ofGod. 

 But it is clear that since we do not seek temporal things primarily or for their own sake, but with reference to something else, we consequently only ask them of God according as they may be expedient for our salvation. 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine: Lord, all my desire is before Thee, and my groaning isnot hid from Thee!_[146] It is not before men who cannot see the heart, but _before Thee is all my desire_! And let your desires, too, be beforeHim, and your Father Who seeth in secret will repay thee. For your verydesire is a prayer, and if your desire is continual your prayer, too, iscontinual. Not without reason did the Apostle say: _Pray withoutceasing_. [147] Yet can we genuflect without ceasing? Can we prostratewithout ceasing? Can we lift up our hands without ceasing? How, then, does he say: _Pray without ceasing_? If by _prayer_ he meant such thingsas these then I think we could not pray without ceasing. But there isanother prayer, an interior prayer, which is without ceasing--_desire_. Whatever else you do, if only you desire that _rest_[148] you cease notto pray. If you wish to pray without ceasing then desire withoutceasing. Your continual desire is your continual voice; but you will besilent if you cease to love (_Enarr. In Ps. _ xxxvii. 10). 

_S. Augustine:_ But all these things are the gifts of my God; I did notgive them to myself; they are good, and all these things am I. He thenis good Who made me; nay, He Himself is my Good, and in Him do I rejoicefor all the good things which I had even as a boy! But in this did I sinthat, not in Him but in His creatures did I seek myself and otherpleasures, high thoughts and truths. Thus it was that I fell intosorrow, confusion, and error. Thanks be to Thee, my Sweetness, my Honourand my Trust, O my God! Thanks be to Thee for Thy gifts! But do Thoukeep them for me! For so doing Thou wilt be keeping me, and those thingswhich Thou hast given me will be increased and perfected, and I myselfshall be with Thee, for even that I should be at all is Thy gift to me!(_Confessions_, I. Xx. 2). 

_S. Augustine:_ But I forget not, neither will I keep silence regardingthe severity of Thy scourge and the wondrous swiftness of Thy mercy. Thou didst torture me with toothache; and when the pain had become sogreat that I could not even speak, it came into my mind to tell all myfriends who were there to pray to Thee for me, to Thee the God of allmanner of succour. And I wrote my request on a wax tablet and I gave itthem to read. And hardly had we bent the knee in humble prayer than thepain fled! But what a pain it was! And how did it disappear? I wasterrified, I confess it, O Lord my God! Never in all my life had I feltanything like it! (_Confessions_, IX. Iv. 12). 

It is narrated of S. Thomas that when at Paris it happened that havingto lecture at the University on a subject which he had commenced the daybefore, he rose at night to pray as was his wont, but discovered that atooth had suddenly pushed its way through his gums in such a way that hecould not speak. His companion suggested that since it was aninopportune time for procuring assistance a message should be sent tothe University stating what had happened and pointing out that thelecture could not be given till the tooth had been removed by a surgeon. But S. Thomas, reflecting upon the difficulty in which the Universitywould be placed, considering also the danger which might arise from theremoval of the tooth in the way suggested, said to his companion: I seeno remedy save to trust to God's Providence. He then betook himself tohis accustomed place of prayer, and for a long space besought God withtears to grant him this favour, leaving himself entirely in His hands. And when he had thus prayed he took the tooth between his fingers, andit came out at once without the slightest pain or wrench, and he foundhimself freed from the impediment to his speech which it had caused. This tooth he carried about with him for a long time as a reminder of anact of Divine loving-kindness such as he was anxious not to forget, forforgetfulness is the mother of ingratitude; he wished it, too, to movehim to still greater confidence in the power of prayer which had on thatoccasion been so quickly heard (see _Vita S. Thomæ_, Bollandists, March7, vol. I. , 1865, pp. 673, 704, 712). 

_S. Augustine:_ But temporal things are sometimes for our profit, sometimes for our hurt. For many poverty was good, wealth did them harm. For many a hidden life was best, high station did them harm. And on theother hand money was good for some, and dignities, too, were good forthem--good, that is, for those who used them well; but such things didharm when not taken away from those who used them ill. Consequently, brethren, let us ask for these temporal things with moderation, beingsure that if we do receive them, He gives them Who knoweth what is bestsuited to us. You have asked for something, then, and what you asked forhas not been given you? Believe in your Father Who would give it you ifit were expedient for you (_Sermon_, lxxx. 7). 

_S. Augustine:_ Sometimes God in His wrath grants what you ask; at othertimes in His mercy He refuses what you ask. When, then, you ask of Himthings which He praises, which He commands, things which He has promisedus in the next world, then ask in confidence and be instant in prayer asfar as in you lies, that so you may receive what you ask. For suchthings as these are granted by the God of mercy; they flow not from Hiswrath but from His compassion. But when you ask for temporal things, then ask with moderation, ask with fear; leave all to Him so that ifthey be for your profit He may give them you, if they be to your hurt Hemay refuse them. For what is for our good and what is to our hurt thePhysician knoweth, not the patient (_Sermon_, cccliv. 8). 

 "Cast thy care upon the Lord, and He shall sustain thee; He shall not suffer the just to waver for ever. "[149]

VII

Ought We To Pray for Others?

S. James, in his Epistle, says[150]: _Pray for one another that ye maybe saved_. 

As we said above, we ought in prayer to ask for those things which weought to desire. But we ought to desire good things not for ourselvesonly but also for others, for this belongs to that charity which weought to exercise towards our neighbour. Hence charity demands that wepray for others. In accordance with this S. Chrysostom says[151]:"Necessity compels us to pray for ourselves, fraternal charity urges usto pray for others. But that prayer is more pleasing before God whicharises not so much from our needs as from the demands of fraternalcharity. "

Some, however, urge that we ought not to pray for others, thus:

1. We are bound in our prayer to follow the norm which our Lorddelivered to us; but in the _Lord's Prayer_ we pray for ourselves andnot for others, for we say: _Give us this day our daily bread_, etc. 

 But S. Cyprian says:[152] "We do not say _my_ Father, but _our_ Father, neither do we say Give _me_, but give _us_; and this because the Teacher of Unity did not wish prayer to be made privately, viz. , that each should pray for himself alone; for He wished one to pray for all since He in His single Person had borne all. "

2. Again, we pray in order to be heard; but one of the conditions forour prayer to be heard is that a man should pray for himself. Thus onthe words: _If ye ask the Father anything in My Name He will give ityou_, [153] S. Augustine says:[154] "All are heard for themselves, butnot for all in general, hence He does not say simply: _He will give it_, but _He will give it you_. "

 But to pray for oneself is a condition attaching to prayer; not indeed a condition affecting its merit, but a condition which is necessary if we would ensure the attainment of what we ask. For it sometimes happens that prayer made for another does not avail even though it be devout and persevering and for things pertaining to a man's salvation; and this is because of the existence of some hindrance on the part of him for whom we pray, as we read in Jeremias[155]: _If Moses and Samuel shall stand before Me, My soul is not towards this people_. None the less, such prayer will be meritorious on the part of him who prays, for he prays out of charity; thus on the words, _And my prayer shall be turned into my bosom_, [156] the Interlinear Gloss has: "That is, and even though it avail not for them, yet shall I not be without my reward. "

3. Lastly, we are forbidden to pray for others if they are wicked, according to the words: _Do not thou pray for this people . .. And do notwithstand Me, for I will not hear thee_. [157] And, on the other hand, weought not to pray for them if they are good, for in that case they willbe heard when they pray for themselves. 

 But we have to pray even for sinners, that they may be converted, and for the good, that they may persevere and make progress. Our prayers for sinners, however, are not heard for all, but for some. For they are heard for those who are predestined, not for those who are foreknown as reprobate; just in the same way as when we correct our brethren, such corrections avail among the predestinate but not among the reprobate, according to the words: _No man can correct whom He hath despised. _[158] Wherefore also it is said: _He that knoweth his brother to sin a sin that is not unto death, let him ask, and life shall be given to him who sinneth not to death. _[159] But just as we can refuse to no one, as long as he liveth on this earth, the benefit of correction--for we cannot distinguish between the predestinate and the reprobate, as S. Augustine says[160]--so neither can we refuse to anyone the suffrage of our prayers. 

And for good men we have to pray, and this for a threefold reason:firstly, because the prayers of many are more easily heard; thus on thewords: _I beseech ye therefore, help me in your prayers for me_, [161]the Ordinary Gloss of S. Ambrose says: "Well does the Apostle ask hisinferiors to pray for him; for even the very least become great whenmany in number, and when gathered together with one mind; and it isimpossible that the prayers of many should not avail" to obtain, thatis, what is obtainable. And secondly, that thanks may be returned bymany for the benefits conferred by God upon the just, for these samebenefits tend to the profit of many--as is evident from the Apostle'swords to the Corinthians. [162] And thirdly, that those who are greatermay not therefore be proud, but may realize that they need the suffragesof their inferiors. 

 "Father, I will that where I am they also whom Thou hast given Me may be with Me; that they may see My glory, which Thou hast given Me: because Thou hast loved Me before the foundation of the world. "[163]

VIII

Ought We To Pray for Our Enemies?

_But I say to you . .. Pray for them that persecute and calumniateyou. _[164]

To pray for others is a work of charity, as we have said above. Hence weare bound to pray for our enemies in the same way as we are bound tolove them. We have already explained, in the _Treatise on Charity_, inwhat sense we are bound to love our enemies; namely, that we are boundto love their nature, not their fault; and that to love our enemies ingeneral is of precept; to love them, however, individually, is not ofprecept save in the sense of being prepared to do so; a man, forinstance, is bound to be ready to love an individual enemy and to helphim in case of necessity, or if he comes to seek his pardon. Butabsolutely to love our individual enemies, and to assist them, belongsto perfection. 

In the same way, then, it is necessary that in our general prayers forothers we should not exclude our enemies. But to make special prayer forthem belongs to perfection and is not necessary, save in some particularcases. 

Some, however, argue that we ought not to pray for our enemies, thus:

1. It is said in the Epistle to the Romans[165]: _What things soeverwere written were written for our learning_. But in Holy Scripture wefind many imprecations against enemies; thus, for instance[166]: _Letall my enemies be ashamed, let them be turned back and be ashamed veryspeedily_. From which it would rather seem that we ought to pray againstour enemies than for them. 

 But the imprecations which find place in Holy Scripture can be understood in four different ways: first of all according as the Prophets are wont "to predict the future under the figure of imprecations, " as S. Augustine says[167]; secondly, in that certain temporal evils are sometimes sent by God upon sinners for their amendment; thirdly, these denunciations may be understood, not as demanding the punishment of men themselves, but as directed against the kingdom of sin, in the sense that by men being corrected sin may be destroyed; fourthly, in that the Prophets conform their wills to the Divine Justice with regard to the damnation of sinners who persevere in their sin. 

2. Further, to be revenged upon our enemies means evil for our enemies. But the Saints seek to be avenged upon their enemies: _How long, O Lord, dost Thou not judge and revenge our blood on them that dwell on theearth?_[168] And in accordance with this we find them rejoicing in thevengeance taken upon sinners: _The just shall rejoice when he shall seethe revenge. _[169] It would seem, then, that we ought rather to prayagainst our enemies than for them. 

 But, on the contrary, as S. Augustine says:[170] "The vengeance of the martyrs is the overthrow of the empire of sin under whose dominion they suffered so much"; or, as he says elsewhere[171]: "They demand vengeance, not by word of mouth, but by very reason, just as the blood of Abel cried out from the earth. " Moreover, they rejoice in this vengeance, not for its own sake, but because of the Divine Justice. 

3. Lastly, a man's deeds and his prayers cannot be in opposition. Butmen sometimes quite lawfully attack their enemies, else all wars wouldbe illegal. Hence we ought not to pray for our enemies. 

 But it is lawful to assail our enemies that so they may be hindered from sin; and this is for their good and for that of others. In the same way, then, it is lawful to pray for temporal evils for our enemies to the end that they may be corrected. In this sense our deeds and our prayers are not in opposition. 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ If there were no wicked folk, then for whom could we besupposed to pray when we are told: _Pray for your enemies_? Perhaps youwould like to have good enemies. Yet how could that be? For unless youyourself are bad you will not have good people for enemies; and if, onthe contrary, you are good, then no one will be your enemy save thewicked folk (_Sermon_, xv. , _on Ps. _ xxv. 8). 

 "Have mercy upon us, O God of all, and behold us, and shew us the light of Thy mercies: And send Thy fear upon the nations, that have not sought after Thee: that they may know that there is no God beside Thee, and that they may shew forth Thy wonders. Lift up Thy hand over the strange nations, that they may see Thy power. "[172]

On the Seven Petitions of the _lord's Prayer_. 

The Lord's Prayer is the most perfect of all prayers, for, as S. Augustine says to Proba[173]: "If we pray rightly and fittingly we cansay nothing else but what is set down in the _Lord's Prayer_. " And sinceprayer is, in a sort, the interpreter of our desires before God, we canonly rightly ask in prayer for those things which we can rightly desire. But in the _Lord's Prayer_ not only do we have petitions for all thosethings which we can rightly desire, but they are set forth in the orderin which they are to be desired. Hence this prayer not only teaches ushow to pray, but serves as the norm of all our dispositions of mind. 

For it is clear that we desire first the end and then the means to theattainment of that end. But our end is God, towards Whom our desirestend in two ways: first, in that we desire God's glory; secondly, inthat we desire to enjoy that glory ourselves. The former of thesepertains to that love wherewith we love God in Himself, the latter tothat charity wherewith we love ourselves in God. Hence the firstpetition runs: _Hallowed be Thy Name_, wherein we pray for God's glory;and the second runs: _Thy kingdom come_, wherein we pray that we maycome to the glory of His kingdom. 

But to this said end things lead us in two ways: viz. , either_essentially_ or _accidentally_. Things which are useful for theattainment of that end _essentially_ lead us to it. But a thing may beuseful as regards that end which is the possession of God in two ways:namely, _directly and principally_, that is, according to the merits bywhich we merit the possession of God by obeying Him; and in accordancewith this runs the petition: _Thy Will be done on earth as it is inHeaven_; also _instrumentally_ as assisting us to merit, whence thepetition: _Give us this day our daily bread_. And this is true whetherwe understand by this "bread" that Sacramental Bread, the daily use ofWhich profits man, and in Which are comprised all the other Sacraments;or whether we understand it of material bread so that "bread" here meansall that is sufficient for the support of life--as S. Augustine explainsit to Proba. [174] For both the Holy Eucharist is the chief ofSacraments, and bread is the chief of foods, whence in the Gospel of S. Matthew we have the term "super-substantial" or "special" applied to it, as S. Jerome explains it. [175]

And we are lead, as it were, _accidentally_ to the possession of God bythe removal of impediments from our path. Now there are three thingswhich impede us in our efforts after the possession of God. The first ofthese is sin, which directly excludes us from the kingdom: _Neitherfornicators, nor idolaters, . .. Etc. , shall possess the kingdom ofGod_;[176] hence the petition: _Forgive us our trespasses_. .. . And thesecond impediment is temptation which hinders us from obeying the DivineWill; whence the petition: _And lead us not into temptation_; in whichpetition we do not pray that we may not be tempted, but that we may notbe overcome by temptation, for this is the meaning of being led intotemptation. And the third hindrance lies in our present penal statewhich prevents us from having "the sufficiency of life"; and for thisreason we say: _Deliver us from evil_. 

Some, however, argue that these seven petitions are not veryappropriate, thus:

1. It seems idle to pray that that may be hallowed which is alreadyhallowed or holy. But the Name of God is holy: _And holy is HisName_. [177] Similarly, His kingdom is everlasting: _Thy kingdom_, OLord, _is a kingdom of all ages_. [178] God's Will, too, is alwaysfulfilled: _And all My Will shall be done_. [179] Hence it is idle topray that God's Name may be hallowed, that His kingdom may come, andthat His Will may be done. 

 But, as S. Augustine says, [180] when we say, _Hallowed be Thy Name_, we do not make this petition as though God's Name were not holy, but that It may be held holy by men; in other words, that God's glory may be propagated amongst men. And when we say, _Thy kingdom come_, it is not as though we meant that God did not reign, but, as S. Augustine says to Proba[181]: "We stir up our desires for that kingdom, that it may come upon us and that we may reign in it. " Lastly, when we say, _Thy Will be done_, this is rightly understood to mean: May Thy precepts be obeyed _on earth as in Heaven_--that is, as by Angels, so by men. These three petitions, then, will receive their perfect fulfilment in the life to come; but the remaining four, as S. Augustine says, refer to the necessities of the present life. [182]

2. But further, to depart from evil must precede the pursuit of what isgood. Hence it hardly seems appropriate to place those petitions whichare concerned with the pursuit of what is good before those which referto the departing from evil. 

 Yet since prayer is the interpreter of our desires the order of these petitions does not correspond to the order of attainment but of desire or intention; in this order, however, the end precedes the means to the end, the pursuit of good comes before the departure from evil. 

3. But once more, we ask for something in order that it may be given us. But the chief gift of God is the Holy Spirit and those things which aregiven us through Him. Hence these petitions do not seem to be veryappropriate since they do not correspond to the Gifts of the HolySpirit. 

 S. Augustine[183], however, adapts these seven petitions to the Gifts of the Holy Spirit and to the Beatitudes; he says: "If we have the _fear of God_ by which the poor in spirit are blessed, we pray that God's Name may be hallowed among men by chaste fear. If we have _piety_, by which the meek are blessed, we pray that His kingdom may come, that we may be meek, and that we may not withstand It. If we have _knowledge_, by which they that mourn are blessed, we pray that His will may be done, and that so we may not mourn. If we have _fortitude_, by which they that hunger are blessed, we pray that our daily bread may be given us. If we have _counsel_, by which they that are merciful are blessed, let us forgive our debtors that we ourselves may be forgiven. If we have _understanding_, by which the clean of heart are blessed, let us pray that we may not have a double heart that pursues after temporal things whence temptations come to us. If we have _wisdom_, whence the peace-makers are blessed--for they shall be called the sons of God--let us pray that we may be delivered from evil, for that very deliverance will make us the free sons of God. "

4. Again, according to S. Luke, [184] there are only five petitions inthe Lord's Prayer. Hence it would seem superfluous to have seven in S. Matthew. 

 But, as S. Augustine says[185]: "S. Luke only includes five petitions and not seven in the Lord's Prayer, for he shows that the third petition is, in a sense, only a repetition of the two preceding ones; by omitting it he makes us see that God's will is more especially concerned with our knowledge of His sanctity and with our reigning with Him. But Luke has omitted Matthew's last petition, _Deliver us from evil_, in order to show us that we are delivered from evil just precisely as we are not led into temptation. "

5. And lastly, it seems idle to try to stir up the benevolence of onewho is beforehand with his benevolence. But God does forestall us withHis benevolence, for _He hath first loved us_. [186] Consequently itseems superfluous to preface our petitions with the words _Our FatherWho art in Heaven_, words which seem intended to stir up God'sbenevolence. 

 But we must remember that prayer is not directed to God in order to prevail upon Him, but in order to excite ourselves to confidence in our petitions. And this confidence is especially excited in us by consideration of His love towards us whereby He wishes us well, wherefore we say, _Our Father_; and of His pre-eminent power whereby He is able to assist us, whence we say, _Who art in Heaven_. 

 * * * * *

_Cajetan:_ The first three petitions of the _Lord's Prayer_ can also bereferred to that which we principally desire, so that all three regardmainly that love wherewith we love God in Himself, and secondarily thatlove wherewith we love ourselves in God. And the proof of this is thatin each of the first three we have the pronoun _Thine_, but in the lastfour the pronoun _our_. Thus the first petition asks for the effectiveand enduring praise of God's Name; the second, that He--and not thedevil, nor the world, nor the flesh, nor sin--may reign effectively; thethird, that His Will may be effectively fulfilled. For these things arenot now absolutely so with God, and this by reason of the multitude ofsins, and also because the mode of their present fulfilment is hidden. And the word _effectively_ is introduced into each clause by reason ofthe subjoined qualification _on earth as it is in Heaven_, for thisqualifies each of the foregoing clauses. Hence rightly do our desiresfirst of all aim at, wish for, and pray that--even as something good forGod Himself--He may be sanctified in His Name; that He may bepermanently uplifted above all things--on earth as in Heaven; thatHe--not sin--may reign--on earth as in Heaven; that His Will--noneother--may be done--on earth as in Heaven (_on_ 2. 2. 83. 9). 

_S. Augustine:_ O Eternal Truth, True Love and lovable Eternity! Thouart my God; for Thee do I sigh night and day! And when I first knew TheeThou didst snatch me up so that I saw that That really was Which I saw, and that I who saw was really not--as yet. And Thou didst beat back myweak gaze, pouring out Thy light upon me in its intensity; and Itrembled with love and with horror. For I found myself to be far awayfrom Thee in a land that was unlike Thee; it was as though I heard ThyVoice from on high, saying: "I am the Food of grown men, grow, and thoushalt eat Me, but thou shalt not be changed into Me" (_Confessions_, VII. X. 2). 

_S. Augustine:_ And the faithful are well aware of that Spiritual FoodWhich you, too, will soon know and Which you are to receive from God'saltar. It will be your food, nay, your daily food, needful for thislife. For are we not about to receive the Eucharist wherein we come toChrist Himself, and begin to reign with Him for ever? The Eucharist isour daily Bread. But let us so receive it as to be thereby refreshed, not in body merely but in mind. For the power which we know to betherein is the power of Unity whereby we are brought into union with HisBody and become His members. Let us be What we receive; for then It willbe truly our daily bread. 

Again, what I set before you is your daily bread; and what you hear readday by day in the church is your daily bread; and the hymns you hear andwhich you sing--they are your daily bread. For these things we need forour pilgrimage. But when we get There are we going to hear a book read?Nay, we are going to hear the Word Himself; we are going to see the WordHimself; we are going to eat Him, to drink Him, even as the Angels doalready. Do the Angels need books, or disputations, or readers? Nay, notso. But by seeing they read, for they see the Truth Itself and are satedfrom that Fount whence we receive but the sprinkling of the dew(_Sermon_, lvii. , _on S. Matt. _ vi. 7). 

_S. Augustine:_ When ye say _Give us this day our daily bread_, yeprofess yourselves God's beggars. Yet blush not at it! The richest manon earth is God's beggar. The beggar stands at the rich man's door. Butthe rich man in his turn stands at the door of one richer than he. He isbegged from, and he, too, has to beg. If he were not in need he wouldnot beseech God in prayer. But what can the rich man need? I dare to sayit: he needs even his daily bread! For how is it that he abounds withall things, save that God gave them to him? And what will they have ifGod but withdraw His hand? (_Sermon_, lvi. 9, _on S. Matt. _ vi. ). 

_S. Augustine:_ Think not that you have no need to say _Forgive us ourtrespasses as we forgive them that trespass against us_. .. . He who lookswith pleasure at what he should not--sins. Yet who can control theglance of the eye? Indeed, some say that the eye is so called from itsswiftness (_oculus a velocitate_). Who can control his eyes or his ears?You can close your eyes when you like, but how quickly they open again!You can shut your ears with an effort; put up your hand, and you cantouch them. But if someone holds your hands your ears remain open, andyou cannot then shut out cursing words, impure words, flattering anddeceitful words. When you hear something which you should not--do younot sin with your ears? What when you hear some evil thing withpleasure? And the death-dealing tongue! How many sins it commits!(_Sermon_, lvi. 8). 

_S. Augustine:_ Indeed, our whole righteousness--true righteousnessthough it be, by reason of the True Good to Whom it is referred, consists rather, as long as we are in this life, in the remission of oursins than in the perfection of our virtues. And the proof of this is thePrayer of the whole City of God which is in pilgrimage on this earth. For by all Its members It cries to God: _Forgive us our trespasses as weforgive them the trespass against us_! And this Prayer is of no availfor those whose faith is without works--dead; but only for those whosefaith worketh through charity. For though our reason is indeed subjectto God, yet in this our mortal condition, in this corruptible body whichweigheth down the soul, our reason does not perfectly control our vices, and hence such prayer as this is needful for the righteous (_Of the Cityof God_, xix. 27). 

 "Father, the hour is come; glorify Thy Son, that Thy Son may glorify Thee. As Thou hast given Him power over all flesh, that He may give life everlasting to all whom Thou hast given Him. And this is life everlasting, that they may know Thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, Whom Thou hast sent. "[187]

Rhythm in Honour of the Blessed Sacrament, said to have been composed byS. Thomas on his Death-Bed. [188]

 Adoro Te devote, latens Deitas, Quæ sub his figuris vere latitas; Tibi se cor meum totum subjicit, Quia Te contemplans totum deficit. 

 Visus, tactus gustus, in Te fallitur, Sed auditu solo tuto creditur; Credo quidquid dixit Dei Filius, Nil hoc verbo veritatis verius. 

 In cruce latebat sola Deitas, At hic latet simul et humanitas; Ambo tamen credens atque confitens, Peto quod petivit latro poenitens. 

 Plagas, sicut Thomas, non intueor, Deum tamen meum Te confiteor; Fac me Tibi semper magis credere, In Te spem habere, Te diligere. 

 O memoriale mortis Domini, Panis vivus, vitam præstans homini, Præsta meæ menti de Te vivero, Et Te illi semper dulce sapere. 

 Pie Pellicane Jesu Domine, Me immundum munda Tuo Sanguine, Cujus una stilla salvum facere Totum mundum quit ab omni scelere. 

 Jesu Quem velatum nunc aspicio, Oro fiat illud quod tam sitio, Ut Te revelata cernens facie, Visu sim beatus Tuæ gloriæ!

(An Indulgence of 100 days for the recitation of this rhythm. _S. Congr. Of Indulgences_, December 20, 1884. )

X

Is Prayer Peculiar to Rational Creatures?

Prayer is an act of the reason, as we have shown above. And rationalcreatures are so termed because of the possession of reason. Consequently prayer is peculiar to them. 

As we have said above, prayer is an act of the reason by which a personpleads with his superior, just in the same way as a command is an act ofthe reason by which an inferior is directed to do something. Prayer, then, properly pertains to one who has the use of reason and who alsohas a superior with whom he can plead. The Persons of the Trinity haveno superior; the brute animals have no reason. Hence prayer belongsneither to the Divine Persons nor to the brute creation, but is peculiarto rational creatures. 

Some, however, argue that prayer cannot be peculiar to rationalcreatures, thus:

1. To ask and to receive belong to the same person. But the DivinePersons receive: the Son, namely, and the Holy Spirit. Consequently Theycan also pray; indeed it is the Son Himself Who says, _I will ask theFather_, [189] and the Apostle says of the Holy Spirit, _The SpiritHimself asketh for us_. [190]

 But it belongs to the Divine Persons to receive by Their nature, whereas to pray belongs to one who receives through grace. The Son is said to ask or pray according to the nature He took upon Himself--that is according to His Human, and not according to His Divine, Nature; the Holy Spirit, too, is said to petition because He makes us petition. 

2. But further, the Angels are superior to the rational creation sincethey are intellectual substances; but it belongs to the Angels to pray, for it is said in the Psalm[191]: _Adore Him, all ye His Angels_. 

 But the intellect and the reason are not different faculties in us, though they do differ in the sense that one is more perfect than the other. Consequently the intellectual creation, such as are the Angels, is sometimes distinguished from the rational creation, but at other times both are embraced under the one term "rational. " And it is in this latter sense of the term "rational" that prayer is said to be peculiar to the rational creation. 

3. Lastly, he prays who calls upon God; for it is chiefly by prayer thatwe call upon God. But the brute animals also call upon God, for thePsalmist says: _Who giveth to beasts their food, and to the young ravensthat call upon Him. _[192]

 But the young ravens are said to call upon God by reason of those natural desires by which all things, each in their own fashion, desire to obtain the Divine goodness. In the same way brute animals are said to obey God by reason of the natural instinct by which they are moved by God. 

 "Reward them that patiently wait for Thee, that Thy Prophets may be found faithful: and hear the prayers of Thy servants. According to the blessing of Aaron over Thy people, and direct us into the way of justice, and let all know that dwell upon the earth, that Thou art God the beholder of all ages. "[193]

XI

Do the Saints in Heaven Pray for Us?

_This is he who prayeth much for the people and for all the holy city, Jeremias the Prophet of God. _[194]

As S. Jerome says, [195] Vigilantius's error lay in maintaining that"while we live we can mutually pray for one another; but after we aredead no one's prayer for another is heard, and this is especially clearin the case of the Martyrs who were unable to obtain by their prayersvengeance for their blood. "

But this is altogether false; for since prayer for others springs fromcharity, the more perfect the charity of those who are in Heaven themore they pray for those wayfarers on earth who can be helped by theirprayers. And the more knit they are to God the more efficacious aretheir prayers; for the Divine harmony demands that the superabundance ofthose who are in the higher position should redound upon those who arelower, just as the brightness of the sun renders the atmosphere itselfluminous. Whence Christ Himself is said to be _Approaching of Himself toGod to intercede for us_. [196] Whence, too, S. Jerome's reply toVigilantius: "If the Apostles and Martyrs, when they were still in thebody, and had still to be solicitous on their own account, prayed forothers, how much more when they have won the crown, when they havegained the victory and the triumph?"

Yet some maintain that the Blessed in Heaven do not pray for us, thus:

1. A man's acts are more meritorious for himself than for another. Butthe Saints who are in Heaven neither merit for themselves nor pray forthemselves, for they have already attained the goal of their desires. Hence neither do they pray for us. 

 But the Saints who are in our Fatherland lack no Blessedness--since they are Blessed--save the glory of the body, and for this they pray. But they pray for us who still lack the ultimate perfection of Blessedness; and their prayers are efficacious by reason of their previous merits and of the Divine acceptation of their prayers. 

2. But once more: the Saints are perfectly conformed to the Will of God, and consequently will nothing but what He wills. But what God wills isalways fulfilled. Hence it is idle for the Saints to pray for us. 

 But the Saints obtain that which God wills should come about through the medium of their prayers; and they ask for what they think is, by God's Will, to be fulfilled through their prayers. 

3. And yet again: just as the Saints in Heaven are superior to us soalso are they who are in Purgatory--for they cannot sin. Those, however, who are in Purgatory do not pray for us, but rather we for them. Itfollows, then, that neither can the Saints in Heaven pray for us. 

 But though those who are in Purgatory are superior to us in that they cannot sin, yet are they our inferiors as regards the penalties they suffer; hence they are not in a state to pray for us, but rather we for them. 

4. Once more: if the Saints in Heaven could pray for us it would followthat the prayers of the holiest Saints would be the most efficacious, and that consequently we ought not to ask the inferior Saints to prayfor us, but only the greatest ones. 

 But God desires inferior things to be helped by all that are superior, and consequently we have to implore the aid of not only the chief Saints but also of the lesser; else it would follow that we ought to implore mercy from God alone. And it may sometimes happen that the petition made to a lesser Saint is more efficacious, either because we ask him more devoutly, or because God wishes thus to show forth his sanctity. 

5. Lastly, Peter's soul is not Peter. Consequently if the souls of theSaints could pray for us, we ought--as long as their souls are separatedfrom their bodies--to appeal, not to Peter to help us, but to Peter'ssoul; whereas the Church does the contrary. From which it would seemthat the Saints, at all events previous to the Resurrection, do not prayfor us. 

 But since the Saints merited when alive that they should pray for us, we therefore call upon them by the names they bore when here below, and by which they are best known to us; and we do this, too, in order to show our faith in the Resurrection, in accordance with the words _I am the God of Abraham_. [197]

 * * * * *

_Cajetan:_ The question arises: how could Jeremias, who in the days ofthe Maccabees was not yet in our Fatherland but still in the Limbo ofthe Fathers, pray for Jerusalem?

But if we carefully consider what it is at root which makes the prayersof the Saints in the Fatherland avail for us, we shall find that thesame reason holds for the Saints who were in Limbo as for those whoenjoy the Beatific Vision. For it is their charity in their state ofabsolute superiority to us which is the reason for their praying for us. Hence, in the reply to the third difficulty, those who are in Purgatoryare excluded from the number of those who pray for us because they arenot altogether our superiors, but by reason of their sufferings areinferior to us, and need our prayers. 

But the Fathers in Limbo were, it is clear, confirmed in charity andwere incapable of sin, neither were they liable to any peculiar or freshsuffering. For while the pain of loss was common to them and to thesojourners on earth, the former were free from all pain of sense, hencethey could pray for us. There is, however, this difference to be notedbetween them and the Saints in the Fatherland--viz. , that whereas theformer had it in common with the latter to pray for those sojourning onearth, it is given only to the Saints in the Fatherland to see theprayers of us sojourners addressed to them. Hence Jeremias is here saidto pray, he is not said to have heard their prayers or supplications(_on_ 2. 2. 83. 11). 

XII

Should Prayer be Vocal?

_I cried to the Lord with my voice, with my voice I made supplication tothe Lord. _[198]

Prayer is of two kinds: public and private. _Public_ or common prayer isthat which is offered to God by the Church's ministers in the person ofthe whole body of the faithful. And it is necessary that such prayershould be known to the body of the faithful for whom it is offered;this, however, could not be unless it were vocal; consequently it isreasonably enacted that the Church's ministers should pronounce suchprayers in a loud voice so as to reach the ears of all. 

_Private_ prayer, on the contrary, is that which is offered by privateindividuals, whether for themselves or for others; and its nature doesnot demand that it should be vocal. At the same time, we can use ourvoices in this kind of prayer, and this for three reasons: Firstly, inorder to excite interior devotion whereby our minds may, when we pray, be lifted up to God; for men's minds are moved by externalsigns--whether words or acts--to understand, and, by consequence, alsoto feel. Wherefore S. Augustine says to Proba[199]: "By words and othersigns we vehemently stir ourselves up so as to increase our holydesires. " Hence in private prayer we must make such use of words andother signs as shall avail to rouse our minds interiorly. But if, on theother hand, such things only serve to distract the mind, or prove in anyway a hindrance, then we must cease from them; this is especially thecase with those whose minds are sufficiently prepared for devotionwithout such incentives. Thus the Psalmist says: _My heart hath said toThee, My face hath sought Thee[200];_ and of Anna we are told that _shespoke within her heart_. [201]

And secondly, we make use of vocal prayer in payment, as it were, of ajust debt--in order, that is, to serve God with the entirety of what wehave received from Him; consequently not with our mind alone but withour body as well; and this, as the Prophet Osee says, is especiallysuitable to prayer considered as a satisfaction for our sins: _Take awayall iniquity and receive the good, and we will render the calves of ourlips_. [202]

And thirdly, we sometimes make use of vocal prayer because the souloverflows, as it were, on to the body by reason of the vehemence of ourfeelings, as it is written: _My heart hath been glad, and my tongue hathrejoiced_. [203]

But it seems to some that prayer should not be vocal, thus:

1. Prayer is, as we have said, principally directed to God, and Godknows the heart's speech. Consequently to add vocal prayer is idle. 

 But vocal prayer is not employed in order to manifest to God something which He did not know, but to stir up the mind of him who prays, and of others, too, towards God. 

2. Again, man's mind is meant to rise by prayer towards God; but words, and other things pertaining to the senses, keep back a man from theascent of contemplation. 

 Words appertaining to other things than God do indeed distract the mind and hinder the devotion of him who prays; but devotional words stir up the mind, especially if it be less devout. 

3. Lastly, prayer ought to be offered to God in secret, according to thewords: _But thou when thou shalt pray, enter into thy chamber, andhaving shut the door, pray to thy Father in secret_;[204] whereas topray vocally means to publish it abroad. 

 But, as S. Chrysostom says[205]: "The Lord forbade us to pray in public with a view to being seen by the public. Consequently, when we pray we should do nothing novel to attract men's attention, whether by uttering cries which may be heard by them, or by openly beating our breasts, or by spreading out our hands, for the crowd to see us. " While, on the other hand, as S. Augustine remarks[206]: "To be seen by men is not wrong, but to do things to be seen by men. "

 * * * * *

_Cajetan:_ Note carefully, ye who murmur at the Church's services, thesethree points: the different kinds of vocal prayer, its necessity, andthe conditions attaching to it. For vocal prayer is divided into thatwhich is in common and that which is private or individual. 

The general necessity of vocal prayer arises from the fact that it isoffered in the person of the Church. For since the Church is composed ofcreated beings dependent on the senses, prayer made through the mediumof the senses--_i. E. _, vocal prayer--must needs be offered by itsministers; else we should not know whether the worship of prayer wasbeing offered by God's ministers, nor should we be conscious of the giftto God which was being offered by them in prayer; for the Church onlyjudges from the things that appear externally. 

Our individual need of vocal prayer arises from the necessity ofstirring up our own devotion, and preserving it. 

The conditions of prayer in common are twofold: it must be vocal, and itmust be out loud. Hence those who say private Masses in such a lowtone--and that consciously--as to be unintelligible to their hearers, appear to act unreasonably and are inexcusable, unless it should happenby accident that no one is present; in this case it is sufficient ifthey can be heard by the server who is close at hand. This will alsoshow us what use we are to make of chant, or of recitation withoutchant, in prayer in common: it must be governed by our common devotion. And in whatever fashion such prayer may be made this rule must always beobserved: it must be said so intelligibly that the meaning of the wordsmay be distinctly perceived both by the reciters and by others, that sothe Church's devotion may be aroused. 

And reason tells us what conditions attach to our private prayer: viz. , our own private devotion. This shews, too, the error of those who, inorder to complete the tale of a large number of private vocal prayerseach day, lay aside meditation and mental prayer. They neglect the endfor the means (_on_ 2. 2. 83. 12). 

_S. Augustine:_ Oh! How I lifted up my voice to Thee, O Lord, when Isang the Psalms of David, those songs full of faith, those strains fullof piety which soothed my swelling spirit! And I was then butuninstructed in Thy true love; a catechumen spending my leisure withAlypius, another catechumen. And my mother stayed with us: clad indeedin woman's garb, but with a man's faith, with a matron's calm, with amother's love, with a Christian's piety. Oh! How I lifted up my voice inthose Psalms! How they inflamed my heart! How I yearned to recite them, if I could, to the whole world--as an answer to the pride of the humanrace! Though, indeed, they are sung throughout the world, and none canhide himself from Thy heat! (_Confess. _, IX. Iv. 8). 

_S. Augustine:_ Sometimes, indeed, through immoderate fear of thismistake I err by excessive severity; nay, sometimes, though it is butrarely, I could almost wish to shut out from my ears and even from theChurch itself all those sweet-sounding melodies used in theaccompaniment of David's Psalms. Sometimes it seems to me as though itwould be safer to do as I have often heard that Athanasius, the Bishopof Alexandria, did, for he made the reader of the Psalms so modulate hisvoice that he came to be rather speaking than singing. Yet, on the otherhand, when I remember the tears which I shed when I heard the Church'schant in the early days of my regaining the faith, and when I noticethat even now I am stirred--not so much by the chant as by the thingsthat are chanted--when, that is, they are chanted with clear intonationand suitable modulation, then once more I recognize the great value ofthis appointed fashion (_Confess. _, X. Xxxiii. 50). 

_S. Augustine: I have cried with my whole heart, hear me, O Lord!_[207]Who can question but that when men pray their cry to the Lord is vain ifit be nought but the sound of the corporeal voice and their heart be notintent upon God? But if their prayer come from the heart, then, eventhough the voice of the body be silent, it may be hidden from all men, yet not from God. Whether, then, we pray to God with our voice--at timeswhen such prayer is necessary--or whether we pray in silence, it is ourheart that must send forth the cry. But the heart's cry is the earnestapplication of our minds. And when this accompanies our prayer itexpresses the deep affections of him who yearns and asks and so despairsnot of his request. And further, a man cries _with his whole heart_ whenhe has no other thought. Such prayers with many are rare; with few arethey frequent; I know not whether anyone's prayers are always so(_Enarr. In Ps. _ cxviii. , _Sermon_, xxix. 1). 

 "Incline Thy ear, O Lord, and hear me; for I am needy and poor. Preserve my soul, for I am holy: save Thy servant, O my God, that trusteth in Thee. Have mercy on me, O Lord, for I have cried to Thee all the day. Give joy to the soul of Thy servant, for to Thee, O Lord, I have lifted up my soul. For Thou, O Lord, art sweet and mild; and plenteous in mercy to all that call upon Thee. "[208]

XIII

Must Prayer necessarily be Attentive?

That even holy men sometimes suffer distraction of mind when at prayeris clear from the words: _My heart hath forsaken me!_[209]

This question particularly concerns vocal prayer. And for its solutionwe must know that a thing is said to be necessary in two senses:firstly, in the sense that by it a certain end is _more readily_attained, and in this sense attention is absolutely requisite in prayer. But a thing is said to be necessary also because without it a certainthing cannot attain its object _at all_. Now the effect or object ofprayer is threefold. Its first effect--an effect, indeed, which iscommon to all acts springing from charity--is _merit_; but to securethis effect it is not necessarily required that attention should be keptup throughout the prayer, but the initial intention with which a mancomes to prayer renders the whole prayer meritorious, as, indeed, is thecase in all other meritorious acts. 

The second effect of prayer is peculiar to it, and that is to _obtainfavours_; and for this, too, the primary intention suffices, and to itGod principally looks. But if the primary intention is wanting, prayeris not meritorious, neither can it win favours; for, as S. Gregory says, God hears not the prayer of a man who when he prays does not give heedto God. [210]

The third effect of prayer is that which it immediately and actuallybrings about, namely, the _spiritual refreshment of the soul_; and toattain this end attention is necessarily required in prayer. Whence itis said, _If I pray in a tongue my understanding is without fruit_. [211]

At the same time, we must remember that there is a threefold species ofattention which may find place in our vocal prayer: one by which a manattends to the words he recites, and is careful to make no mistake inthem; another by which he attends to the meaning of the words; and athird by which he attends to the end of all prayer--namely, GodHimself--and to the object for which he is praying. And this species ofattention is the most necessary of all, and one which even uninstructedfolk can have; sometimes, indeed, the intensity with which the mind isborne towards God is, as says Hugh of S. Victor, so overwhelming thatthe mind is oblivious of all else. [212]

Some, however, argue that prayer must of necessity be attentive, thus:

1. It is said in S. John's Gospel[213]: _God is a spirit, and they thatadore Him must adore Him in spirit and truth_. But inattentive prayer isnot _in spirit_. 

 But he prays _in spirit and in truth_ who comes to pray moved by the impulse of the Spirit, even though, owing to human infirmity, his mind afterwards wanders. 

2. But again, prayer is "the ascent of the mind towards God. " But whenprayer is inattentive the mind does not ascend towards God. 

 But the human mind cannot, owing to Nature's weakness, long remain on high, for the soul is dragged down to lower things by the weight of human infirmity; and hence it happens that when the mind of one who prays ascends towards God in contemplation it suddenly wanders away from Him owing to his infirmity. 

3. Lastly, prayer must needs be without sin. But not without sin does aman suffer distraction of mind when he prays, for he seems to mock God, just as if one were to speak with his fellow-man and not attend to whathe said. Consequently S. Basil says[214]: "The Divine assistance is tobe implored, not remissly, nor with a mind that wanders here and there;for such a one not only will not obtain what he asks, but will rather bemocking God. "

 Of course, if a man purposely allowed his mind to wander in prayer, he would commit a sin and hinder the fruit of his prayer. Against such S. Augustine says in his _Rule_[215]: "When you pray to God in Psalms and hymns, entertain your heart with what your lips are reciting. " But that distraction of mind which is unintentional does not destroy the fruit of prayer. 

 Hence S. Basil also says: "But if through the weakness of sinful nature you cannot pray with attention, restrain your imagination as far as you can, and God will pardon you, inasmuch as it is not from negligence but from weakness that you are unable to occupy yourself with Him as you should. "

 * * * * *

_Cajetan:_ Does a man satisfy the precept of the Church if, being boundto the recitation of the Divine Office, he sets out with the intentionof meditating upon the Divine Goodness or upon the Passion of Christ, and thus keeping his mind firmly fixed upon God? Clearly a man whostrives to keep his mind occupied during the whole of the Divine Officewith contemplation of and devout affections towards God and Divinethings fully satisfies his obligation. So, too, a man who aims atmeditation on the Passion of Christ and devout affections on it duringthe whole Office, undoubtedly satisfies his obligation, for he is makinguse of a better means for keeping in touch with the Divinity than if hemerely dwelt upon the meaning of the words. At the same time, he must beready to lay this aside if in the course of the Office he finds himselfuplifted to Divine things, for at this he must primarily aim. One who soprays, then, must make the Passion of Christ a means and not an end; hemust, that is, be prepared to ascend thereby, if God grants it, toDivine things. In short, we may make use of any one of the species ofattention enumerated above provided we do not exclude the higher forms. Thus, for example, if a man feels that it is more suited to his smallcapacity to aim simply at making no mistakes, and habitually makes useof this form of attention, he must still use it as a means only; hemust, that is, be at God's disposition, for God may have mercy upon himand grant him, by reason of his dispositions, some better form ofattention. 

Again, when a person prays for things needful for his support in life hemust not be so occupied with the thought of these things as to appear tosubordinate Divine things to human, as though prayer was but a means andhis daily living the end. We must bear in mind the doctrine laid downabove[216]--viz. , that _all our prayers should tend to the attainment ofgrace and glory_. We must occupy ourselves with the thought of eternalglory, or of the glory of the adoption of sons during this life, or withthe virtues as means to arriving at our eternal home, and as theadornment of the inhabitants of heaven, and the commencement here ofheavenly "conversation"; such things as these must be counted as thehighest forms of attention (_on_ 2. 2. 83. 13). 

_S. Augustine: Give joy to the soul of Thy servant, for to Thee, O Lord, I have lifted up my soul. For Thou, O Lord, art sweet and mild. _[217] Itseems to me that he calls God "mild" because He endures all ourvagaries, and only awaits our prayers that He may perfect us. And whenwe offer Him our prayers He accepts them gratefully and hears them. Neither does He reflect on the careless way in which we pour them out, He even accepts prayers of which we are hardly conscious! For, Brethren, what man is there who would put up with it if a friend of his began aconversation with him, and yet, just when he was ready to reply to whathis friend said, should discover that he was paying no attention to himbut was saying something to someone else? Or supposing you were toappeal to a judge and were to appoint a place for him to hear yourappeal, and then suddenly, while you were talking with him, were to puthim aside and begin to gossip with a friend! How long would he put upwith you? And yet God puts up with the hearts of so many who pray to Himand who yet are thinking of other things, even evil things, even wickedthings, things hateful to God; for even to think of unnecessary thingsis an insult to Him with Whom you have begun to talk. For your prayer isa conversation with God. When you read, God speaks to you; when youpray, you speak to God. .. . And you may picture God saying to you: "Youforget how often you have stood before Me and have thought of such idleand superfluous things and have so rarely poured out to Me an attentiveand definite prayer!" But _Thou, O Lord, art sweet and mild_! Thou artsweet, bearing with me! It is from weakness that I slip away! Heal meand I shall stand; strengthen me and I shall be firm! But until Thoudost so, bear with me, for _Thou, O Lord, art sweet and mild_ (_Enarr. In Ps. _ lxxxv. 7). 

_S. Augustine: Praise the Lord, O my soul!_[218] What mean these words, Brethren? Do we not praise the Lord? Do we not sing hymns day by day? Donot our mouths, each according to their measure, sound forth day by daythe praises of God? And what is it we praise? It is a great Thing thatwe praise, but that wherewith we praise is weak as yet. When does thesinger fill up the praises of Him Whom he sings? A man stands and singsbefore God, often for a long space; but oftentimes, whilst his lips moveto frame the words of his song, his thoughts fly away to I know not whatdesires! And so, too, our mind has sometimes been fixed on praising Godin a definite manner, but our soul has flitted away, led hither andthither by divers desires and anxious cares. And then our mind, asthough from up above, has looked down upon the soul as it flitted to andfro, and has seemed to turn to it and address its uneasywanderings--saying to it: _Praise the Lord, O my soul!_ Why art thouanxious about other things than Him? Why busy thyself with the mortalthings of earth? And then our soul, as though weighed down and unable tostand firm as it should, replies to our mind: _I will praise the Lord inmy life!_ Why does it say _in my life_? Why? Because now I am in mydeath!

Rouse yourself, then, and say: _Praise the Lord, O my soul!_ And yoursoul will reply to you: "I praise Him as much as I can, though it is butweakly, in small measure, and with little strength. " But why so? Because_while we are in the body we are absent from the Lord_. [219] And why doyou thus praise the Lord so imperfectly and with so little fixity ofattention? Ask Holy Scripture: _The corruptible body weigheth down thesoul, and the earthly_ _habitation presseth down the mind that musethupon many things. _[220] O take away, then, my body which weigheth downthe soul, and then will I praise the Lord! Take away my earthlyhabitation which presseth down the mind that museth upon many things, sothat, instead of many things I may be occupied with One Thing alone, andmay praise the Lord! But as long as I am as I am, I cannot, for I amweighed down! What then? Wilt thou be silent? Wilt thou never perfectlypraise the Lord? _I will praise the Lord in my life!_ (_Enarr in Ps. _cxlv. 1). 

 "My spirit is in anguish within me; my heart within me is troubled. I remembered the days of old, I meditated on all Thy works; I meditated upon the works of Thy hands. I stretched forth my hands to Thee; my soul is as earth without water unto Thee. Hear me speedily, O Lord: my spirit hath fainted away. "[221]

_S. Thomas:_ The fruits of prayer are twofold. For first there is themerit which thereby accrues to a man; and, secondly, there is thespiritual consolation and devotion which is begotten of prayer. And hewho does not attend to, or does not understand his prayer, loses thatfruit which is spiritual consolation; but we cannot say that he losesthat fruit which is merit, for then we should have to say that very manyprayers were without merit since a man can hardly say the _Lord'sPrayer_ without some distraction of mind. Hence we must rather say thatwhen a person is praying and is sometimes distracted from what he issaying, or--more generally--when a person is occupied with somemeritorious work and does not continuously and at every moment reflectthat he is doing it for God, his work does not cease to be meritorious. And the reason is that in meritorious acts directed to a right end it isnot requisite that our intention should be referred to that end at everymoment, but the influence of the intention with which we begun persiststhroughout even though we now and again be distracted in some particularpoint; and the influence of this initial intention renders the wholebody of what we do meritorious unless it be broken off by reason of somecontrary affection intruding itself and diverting us from the end we hadfirst in view to some other end contrary to it. 

And it must be remembered that there are three kinds of attention. Thefirst is attention to the words we are actually saying; and sometimesthis is harmful, for it may hinder devotion. The second is attention tothe meaning of the words, and this, too, may be harmful, though notgravely so. The third is attention to the goal of our prayer, and thisbetter and almost necessary (_Commentary on 1 Cor. _ xiv. 14). 

XIV

Should our Prayers be Long?

It would seem that we ought to pray continuously, for our Lord said: _Weought always to pray and not to faint[222];_ so also S. Paul: _Praywithout ceasing_. [223]

But we must notice that when we speak of prayer we can mean eitherprayer _considered in itself_ or the _cause of prayer_. Now the _causeof prayer_ is the desire of the love of God; and all prayer ought tospring from this desire which is, indeed, continuous in us, whetheractually or virtually, since this desire virtually remains in everythingwhich we do from charity. But we ought to do all things for the glory ofGod: _whether you eat or whether you drink, or whatsoever else you do, do all to the glory of God_. [224] In this sense, then, prayer ought tobe continual. Hence S. Augustine says to Proba: "Therefore by our faith, by our hope, and by our charity, we are always praying, for our desireis continued. "

But _prayer considered in itself_ cannot be so continuous; for we mustneeds be occupied with other things. Hence S. Augustine says in the sameplace: "At certain intervals, at divers hours and times, we pray to Godin words so that by these outward signs of things we may admonishourselves, and may learn what progress we have made in this same desire, and may stir ourselves up to increase it. "

But the quantity of a thing has to be determined by its purpose, just asa draught has to be proportioned to the health of the man who takes it. Consequently it is fitting that prayer should only last so long as itavails to stir up in us this fervour of interior desire. And when itexceeds this measure, and its prolongation only results in weariness, itmust not be prolonged further. Hence S. Augustine also says to Proba:"The Brethren in Egypt are said to have had frequent prayers; but theywere exceedingly brief, hardly more than eager ejaculations; and theyadopted this method lest, if they prolonged their prayer, that vigilantattention which is requisite for prayer should lose its keen edge andbecome dulled. And thus they clearly show that this same attention, justas it is not to be forced if it fails to last, so neither is it to bequickly broken off if it does last. "

And just as we have to pay attention to this in our private prayers, andhave to be guided by our powers of attention, so must we observe thesame principles in public prayer where we have to be governed by thepeople's devotion. 

Some, however, argue that our prayers ought not to be continual, thus:

1. Our Lord said[225]: _And when you are praying speak not much_. But itis not easy to see how a man can pray long without "speaking much"; moreespecially if it is a question of vocal prayer. 

 But S. Augustine says to Proba: "To prolong our prayer does not involve 'much-speaking. ' 'Much-speaking' is one thing; the unceasing desire of the heart is another. Indeed we are told of the Lord Himself that _He passed the whole night in the prayer of God_[226]; and, again, that _being in an agony He prayed the longer_, [227] and this that He might afford us an example. " And Augustine adds a little later: "Much speaking in prayer is to be avoided, but not much petition, if fervent attention lasts. For 'much-speaking' in prayer means the use of superfluous words when we pray for something necessary; but much petition means that with unceasing and devout stirrings of the heart we knock at His door to Whom we pray; and this is often a matter rather of groans than of words, of weeping than of speaking. "

2. Further, prayer is but the unfolding of our desires. But our desiresare holy in proportion as they are confined to one thing, in accordancewith those words of the Psalmist[228]: _One thing I have asked of theLord, this will I seek after. _ Whence it would seem to follow that ourprayers are acceptable to God just in proportion to their brevity. 

 But to prolong our prayer does not mean that we ask for many things, but that our hearts are continuously set upon one object for which we yearn. 

3. Once more, it is unlawful for a man to transgress the limits whichGod Himself has fixed, especially in matters which touch the Divineworship, according to the words: _Charge the people lest they shouldhave a mind to pass the limits to see the Lord, and a very greatmultitude of them should perish_. [229] But God Himself has assignedlimits to our prayer by instituting the _Lord's Prayer_, as is evidentfrom the words: _Thus shalt thou pray_. [230] Hence we ought not toextend our prayer beyond these limits. 

 But our Lord did not institute this prayer with a view to tying us down exclusively to these words when we pray, but to show us that the scope of our prayer should be limited to asking only for the things contained in it, whatever form of words we may use or whatever may be our thoughts. 

4. And lastly, with regard to the words of our Lord _that we oughtalways to pray and not to faint_, [231] and those of S. Paul, _Praywithout ceasing_, [232] we must remark that a man prays without ceasing, either because of the unceasing nature of his desire, as we have aboveexplained; or because he does not fail to pray at the appointed times;or because of the effect which his prayer has, whether uponhimself--since even when he has finished praying he still remainsdevout--or upon others, as, for instance, when a man by some kind actioninduces another to pray for him whereas he himself desists from hisprayer. 

 "Our soul waiteth for the Lord; for He is our helper and protector. For in Him our hearts shall rejoice; and in His Holy Name we have trusted. Let Thy mercy, O Lord, be upon us, as we have hoped in Thee. "[233]

XV

Is Prayer Meritorious?

On the words of the Psalmist, _My prayer shall be turned into mybosom_, [234] the interlinear Gloss has: "And if it is of no profit tothem (for whom it is offered), at least I myself shall not lose myreward. " A reward, however, can only be due to merit. Prayer, then, ismeritorious. 

 * * * * *

As we have said above, prayer has, besides the effect of spiritualconsolation which it brings with it, a twofold power regarding thefuture: the power, namely, of meriting, and that of winning favours. Butprayer, as indeed every other virtuous act, derives its power ofmeriting from that root which is charity, and the true and proper objectof charity is that Eternal Good, the enjoyment of Which we merit. Nowprayer proceeds from charity by means of the virtue of religion whoseproper act is prayer; there accompany it, however, certain other virtueswhich are requisite for a good prayer--namely, faith and humility. Forit belongs to the virtue of religion to offer our prayers to God; whileto charity belongs the desire of that the attainment of which we seek inprayer. And faith is necessary as regards God to Whom we pray; for wemust, of course, believe that from Him we can obtain what we ask. Humility, too, is called for on the part of the petitioner, for he mustacknowledge his own needs. And devotion also is necessary; though thiscomes under religion of which it is the first act, it conditions allsubsequent effects. 

And its power of obtaining favours prayer owes to the grace of God toWhom we pray, and Who, indeed, induces us to pray. Hence S. Augustinesays[235]: "He would not urge us to ask unless He were ready to give";and S. Chrysostom says: "He never refuses His mercies to them who pray, since it is He Who in His loving-kindness stirs them up so that theyweary not in prayer. "

 * * * * *

But some say that prayer cannot be meritorious, thus:

1. Merit proceeds from grace, but prayer precedes grace, since it isprecisely by prayer that we win grace: _Your Father from Heaven willgive the Good Spirit to them that ask Him_. [236]

 But prayer, like any other virtuous act, cannot be meritorious without that grace which makes us pleasing to God. Yet even that prayer which wins for us the grace which renders us pleasing to God must proceed from some grace--that is, from some gratuitous gift; for, as S. Augustine says, to pray at all is a gift of God. [237]

2. Again, prayer cannot be meritorious, for if it were so it would seemnatural that prayer should especially merit that for which we actuallypray. Yet this is not always the case, for even the prayers of theSaints are often not heard; S. Paul, for example, was not heard when heprayed that the sting of the flesh might be taken away from him. [238]

 But we must notice that the merit of our prayers sometimes lies in something quite different from what we beg for. For whereas merit is to be especially referred to the possession of God, our petitions in our prayers at times refer directly to other things, as we have pointed out above. Consequently, if what a man asks for will not tend to his ultimate attainment of God, he does not merit it by his prayer; sometimes, indeed, by asking and desiring such a thing he may lose all merit, as, for example, if a man were to ask of God something which was sinful and which he could not reverently ask for. Sometimes, however, what he asks for is not necessary for his salvation, nor yet is it clearly opposed to his salvation; and when a man so prays he may by his prayer merit eternal life, but he does not merit to obtain what he actually asks for. Hence S. Augustine says[239]: "He who asks of God in faith things needful for this life is sometimes mercifully heard and sometimes mercifully not heard. For the physician knows better than the patient what will avail for the sick man. " It was for this reason that Paul was not heard when he asked that the sting of the flesh might be taken away--it was not expedient. But if what a man asks for will help him to the attainment of God, as being something conducive to his salvation, he will merit it, and that not only by praying for it but also by doing other good works; hence, too, he undoubtedly will obtain what he asks for, but when it is fitting that he should obtain it: "for some things are not refused to us but are deferred, to be given at a fitting time, " as S. Augustine says. [240] Yet even here hindrance may arise if a man does not persevere in asking; hence S. Basil says[241]: "When then you ask and do not receive, this is either because you asked for what you ought not, or because you asked without lively faith, or carelessly, or for what would not profit you, or because you ceased to ask. " And since a man cannot, absolutely speaking, merit eternal life for another, nor, in consequence, those things which belong to eternal life, it follows that a man is not always heard when he prays for another. For a man, then, always to obtain what he asks, four conditions must concur: he must ask for himself, for things necessary for salvation; he must ask piously and perseveringly. 

3. Lastly, prayer essentially reposes upon faith, as S. James says: _Butlet him ask in faith, nothing wavering_. [242] But faith is notsufficient for merit, as is evident in the case of those who have faithwithout charity. Therefore prayer is not meritorious. 

 But while it is true that prayer rests principally upon faith, this is not for its power of meriting--for as regards this it rests principally on charity--but for its power of winning favours; for through faith man knows of the Divine Omnipotence and Mercy whence prayer obtains what it asks. 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ Men, then, love different things, and when each oneseemeth to have what he loves, he is called happy. But a man is trulyhappy, not if he has what he loves, but if he loves what ought to beloved. For many become more wretched through having what they love thanthey were when they lacked it. Miserable enough through loving harmfulthings, more miserable through having them. And our Merciful God, whenwe love amiss, denies us what we love; but sometimes in His anger Hegrants a man what he loves amiss!. .. But when we love what God wishes usto love, then, doubtless, He will give it us. This is That One ThingWhich ought to be loved: that we may dwell in the House of the Lord allthe days of our life! (_Enarr. In Ps. _ xxvi. ). 

_S. Augustine:_ In those tribulations, then, which can both profit usand harm us, we know not what we should pray for as we ought. Yet nonethe less since they are hard, since they are vexatious, since, too, theyare opposed to our sense of our own weakness, mankind with one consentprays that they may be removed from us. But we owe this much devotion tothe Lord our God that, if He refuses to remove them, we should nottherefore fancy that we are neglected by Him, but, while bearing thesewoes with devout patience, we should hope for some greater good, forthus is power perfected in infirmity. Yet to some in their impatiencethe Lord God grants in anger what they ask, just as in His mercy Herefused it to the Apostle (_Ep. _ cxxx. _ad Probam_). 

 "Hear my prayer, O Lord, and my supplication; give ear to my tears. Be not silent: for I am a stranger with Thee, and a sojourner as all my fathers were. O forgive me, that I may be refreshed; before I go hence, and be no more. "[243]

XVI

Do Sinners gain Anything From God by their Prayers?

S. Augustine says[244]: "If God did not hear sinners, in vain would thepublican have said, _God be merciful to me a sinner_"; and S. Chrysostomsays[245]: "_Every one that asketh receiveth_--that is, whether he bejust man or sinner. " Hence the prayers of sinners do win something fromGod. 

In a sinner we have to consider two things: his nature, which God loves;his fault, which God hates. If, then, a sinner asks something of Godformally as a sinner--that is, according to his sinful desires--God, outof His mercy, does not hear him, though sometimes He does hear him inHis vengeance, as when He permits a sinner to fall still farther intosin. For God "in mercy refuses some things which in anger He concedes, "as S. Augustine says. [246] But that prayer of a sinner which proceedsfrom the good desire of his nature God hears, not, indeed, as bound injustice to do so, for that the sinner cannot merit, but out of His puremercy, and on condition, too, that the four above-mentioned conditionsare observed--namely, that he prays for himself, for things needful forhis salvation, that he prays devoutly and perseveringly. 

Some, however, maintain that sinners do not by their prayers winanything from God, thus:

1. It is said in the Gospel, [247] _Now we know that God doth not hearsinners_; and this accords with those words of _Proverbs[248]; He thatturneth away his ears from hearing the law, his prayer shall be anabomination_. But a prayer which is "an abomination" cannot win anythingfrom God. 

 But, as S. Augustine remarks, [249] the words first quoted are due to the blind man as yet unanointed--viz. , not yet perfectly illumined--and hence they are not valid; though they might be true if understood of a sinner precisely as such, and in this sense, too, his prayer is said to be "an abomination. "

2. Again, just men obtain from God what they merit, as we have saidabove. Sinners, however, can merit nothing, since they are withoutgrace, and even without charity which, according to the Gloss[250] onthe words, _Having an appearance of piety, but denying the powerthereof_, is "the _power_ of piety. " And hence they cannot pray piously, which, as we have said above, is requisite if prayer is to gain what itasks for. 

 But though a sinner cannot pray piously in the sense that his prayer springs from the habit of virtue, yet his prayer can be pious in the sense that he asks for something conducive to piety, just as a man who has not got the habit of justice can yet wish for some just thing, as we have pointed out above. And though such a man's prayer is not meritorious, it may yet have the power of winning favours; for while merit reposes upon justice, the power of winning favours reposes upon grace. 

3. Lastly, S. Chrysostom says[251]: "The Father does not readily hearprayers not dictated by the Son. " But in the prayer which Christdictated it is said: _Forgive us our debts as we also forgive ourdebtors_, which sinners do not. Hence sinners either lie when they saythis prayer, and so do not deserve to be heard, or, if they do not sayit, then they are not heard because they do not make use of the form ofprayer instituted by Christ. 

 But, as we have explained above, the _Lord's Prayer_ is spoken in the name of the whole Church. Consequently, if a man--while unwilling to forgive his neighbour his debts--yet says this prayer, he does not lie; for while what he says is not true as regards himself, it yet remains true as regards the Person of the Church outside of which he deservedly is, and he loses, in consequence, the fruit of his prayer. Sometimes, however, sinners are ready to forgive their debtors, and consequently their prayers are heard, in accordance with those words of Ecclesiasticus[252]: _Forgive thy neighbour if he hath hurt thee, and then shall thy sins be forgiven to thee when thou prayest. _

 "With the Lord shall the steps of a man be directed, and he shall like well his way. When he shall fall, he shall not be bruised, for the Lord putteth His hand under him. I have been young, and now am old; and I have not seen the just forsaken, nor his seed seeking bread. "[253]

XVII

Can We rightly term Supplications, " "Prayers, " "Intercessions, " and"Thanksgivings, " parts of Prayer?

The Apostle says to Timothy[254]: _I desire therefore first of all thatsupplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made by allmen. _

For prayer three things are required: first of all, that he who prayscome nigh to God; and this is signified by the name _prayer_, for prayeris "the uplifting of the mind towards God. " Secondly, petition isrequired, and is signified by the word _postulation_; now a petition maybe set forth in definite terms--and this some term _postulation_, properly so called; or it may be set forth in no express terms, as whena man asks for God's help, and this some call _supplication_; or, again, the fact in question may be simply narrated, as in S. John[255]: _Hewhom Thou lovest is sick_, and this some call _insinuation_. Andthirdly, there is required a reason for asking for what we pray for, andthis reason may be either on the part of God or on the part of thepetitioner. The reason for asking on the part of God is His holiness, byreason of which we ask to be heard: _Incline Thine ear and hear . .. ForThine own sake, O my God_;[256] to this belongs _obsecration_--namely, an appeal to sacred things, as when we say: _By Thy Nativity, deliverus, O Lord_! But the reason for asking on the part of the petitioner isthankfulness, for by giving thanks for benefits already received wemerit to receive still greater ones, as is set forth in the Church's_Collect_. [257] Hence the Gloss[258] says that in the Mass"_Obsecrations_ are the prayers which precede the Consecration, " for inthem we commemorate certain sacred things; "in the Consecration itselfwe have _prayers_, " for then the mind is especially uplifted towardsGod; "but in the subsequent petitions we have _postulations_, and at theclose _thanksgivings_. " These four parts of prayer may be noticed inmany of the Church's _Collects_: thus in the _Collect_ for TrinitySunday, the words _Almighty and Everlasting God_ signify the upliftingof the soul in prayer to God; the words: _Who hast granted to Thyservants to acknowledge in their profession of the true faith the gloryof the Eternal Trinity, and in the Power of Its Majesty to adore ItsUnity_, signify giving of thanks; the words: _Grant, we beseech Thee, that by perseverance in this same faith we may be ever defended from alladversities_, signify postulation; while the closing words: _Through ourLord Jesus Christ_, etc. , signify obsecration. 

In the _Conferences of the Fathers_, however, [259] we read:"_Obsecration_ is imploring pardon for sin; _prayer_ is when we makevows to God; _postulation_ is when we make petition for others; _givingof thanks_, those ineffable outpourings by which the mind renders thanksto God. " But the former explanation is preferable. 

Some, however, object to these divisions of prayer, thus:

1. _Obsecration_ is apparently _to swear by someone_, whereas Origenremarks[260]: "A man who desires to live in accordance with the Gospelmust not swear by anyone, for if it is not allowed to swear, neither isit allowed to swear by anyone. "

 But it is sufficient to remark that _obsecration_ is not a swearing by, or adjuring of God, as though to compel Him, for this is forbidden, but to implore His mercy. 

2. Again, S. John Damascene says[261] that prayer is "the asking God forthings that are fitting. " Hence it is not exact to distinguish _prayers_from _postulations_. 

 But prayer, generally considered, embraces all the above-mentioned parts; when, however, we distinguish one part against another, _prayer_, properly speaking, means the uplifting of the mind to God. 

3. Lastly, giving of thanks refers to the past, whereas the other partsof prayer refer to the future. Hence giving of thanks should not beplaced after the rest. 

 But whereas in things which are different from one another the past precedes the future, in one and the same thing the future precedes the past. Hence giving of thanks for benefits already received precedes petition; yet those same benefits were first asked for, and then, when they had been received, thanks were offered for them. Prayer, however, precedes petition, for by it we draw nigh to God to Whom we make petition. And _obsecration_ precedes _prayer_, for it is from dwelling upon the Divine Goodness that we venture to approach to Him. 

 * * * * *

_Cajetan:_ We might be asked how the mind can be especially elevated toGod at the moment of consecration. For in the consecration the priesthas to express distinctly the words of consecration, and consequentlycannot have his mind uplifted towards God at that moment. Indeed, themore his mind is uplifted to God, the less he thinks of inferior things, words, and so forth. 

But in the consecration of the Holy Eucharist--in which the priest in asense brings God down upon earth--the very greatness of our uplifting ofmind towards the Divine Goodness Which has thus deigned to come amongstus is the very reason for our attention to the words in the act ofconsecration, and makes the priest pronounce them distinctly andreverently. Some scrupulous folk, however, concentrate their wholeattention on being intent and attentive; but this is really adistraction, and not attention, for its object is precisely the beingattentive. The uplifting, then, of our minds to God in the consecrationhas indeed to be the very greatest, not, indeed, intensively and byabstraction from the things of sense, but objectively andconcentrated--though always within the limits compatible withattention--on the endeavour to say the words as they should be said(_on_ 2. 2. 83. 17. )

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine: And David went in and sat before the Lord[262]; andElias, casting himself down upon the earth, put his face between hisknees. _[263] By examples such as these we are taught that there is noprescribed position of the body in prayer provided the soul states itsintention in the presence of God. For we pray standing, as it iswritten: _The Publican standing afar off_. We pray, too, on our knees, as we read in the Acts of the Apostles;[264] and we pray sitting, as inthe case of David and Elias. And unless it were lawful to pray lyingdown, it would not be said in the Psalms[265]: _Every night I will washmy bed, I will water my couch with my tears_. When, then, a man desiresto pray, he settles himself in any position that serves at the time forthe stirring up of his soul. When, on the other hand, we have nodefinite intention of praying, but the wish to pray suddenly occurs tous--when, that is, there comes of a sudden into our mind something whichrouses the desire to pray "with unspeakable groanings"--then, inwhatsoever position such a feeling may find us, we are not to put offour prayer; we are not to look about for some place whither we canwithdraw, for some place in which to stand or in which to makeprostration. For the very intention of the mind begets a solitude, andwe often forget to which quarter of the heavens we were looking, or inwhat bodily position the occasion found us (_Of Divers Questions_, iv. ). 

 "Hear, O God, my prayer, and despise not my supplication; be attentive to me and hear me. I am grieved in my exercise; and am troubled at the voice of the enemy, and at the tribulation of the sinner. For they have cast iniquities upon me, and in wrath they were troublesome to me. My heart is troubled within me, and the fear of death is fallen upon me. Fear and trembling are come upon me, and darkness hath covered me. And I said: Who will give me wings like a dove, and I will fly and be at rest?"[266]

FOOTNOTES:

[98] _Etymologies_, x. , _sub litt. _ O. 

[99] Ps. Xxxviii. 13. 

[100] _Ethics_, I. Xiii. 15. 

[101] Rabanus Maurus, _De Universis_, vi. 14. 

[102] _On the Orthodox Faith_, iii. 24. 

[103] Ps. X. 17. 

[104] Isa. Lxv. 24. 

[105] _Of the Divine Names_, vi. 1. 

[106] Ps. Xxvi. 4. 

[107] Art. XV. 

[108] Isa. Lxiv. 8, 9. 

[109] xviii. 1. 

[110] Mal. Iii. 14. 

[111] _Dialogue_, i. 8. 

[112] S. Matt. Vi. 32. 

[113] 1 Kings xv. 29. 

[114] _Of Good Deeds_, ii. 1. 

[115] _Hom. _ II. , _On Prayer_; also _Hom. _ XXX. , _On Genesis_. 

[116] Eph. I. 4. 

[117] Ps. Lxx. 17, 18. 

[118] S. Matt. Vii. 7. 

[119] Ps. Cxx. 4. 

[120] S. Matt. Vi. 8. 

[121] Ps. Ciii. 33, 34. 

[122] Ps. Lxxxiii. 12. 

[123] viii. 4. 

[124] 1 Cor. Xiv. 15. 

[125] _On Care for the Dead_, chaps, xiii. , xv. , xvi. 

[126] _Moralia in Job_, xii. 14. 

[127] Ps. Lxvi. 

[128] S. Matt. Vi. 9-13; S. Luke xi. 2-4. 

[129] _Of Socrates the Philosopher_, vii. 21. 

[130] Ps. Lxxix. 4. 

[131] Ps. Cxviii. 35. 

[132] _On the Orthodox Faith_, iii. 24. 

[133] iv. 3. 

[134] Rom. Viii. 26. 

[135] S. John iv. 24. 

[136] 1 Tim. Ii. 4. 

[137] Isa. Lxiii. 15, 16. 

[138] xxx. 8. 

[139] _Ep. _, CXXX. , chap. Xii. 

[140] _Ethics_, I. Vii. 15. 

[141] _Ep. _, CXXX. , chap. Vi. 

[142] S. Matt. Vi. 33. 

[143] _On the Sermon on the Mount_, II. X. 1. 

[144] S. Matt. Vi. 25. 

[145] 2 Cor. Iv. 18. 

[146] Ps. Xxxvii. 10. 

[147] 1 Thess. V. 17. 

[148] Heb. Iv. 3. 

[149] Ps. Liv. 23. 

[150] v. 16. 

[151] _Opus Imperf. In Matthæum, Hom. _ XIV. 

[152] _On the Lord's Prayer. _

[153] S. John xvi. 23. 

[154] _Tractatus in Joannem_, 102. 

[155] xv. 1. 

[156] Ps. Xxxiv. 13. 

[157] Jer. Vii. 16. 

[158] Eccles. Vii. 14. 

[159] 1 John v. 16. 

[160] _De Correptionibus et Gratia_, cap. Xv. 

[161] Rom. Xv. 30. 

[162] 1 Cor. I. 11. 

[163] S. John xxii. 24. 

[164] S. Matt. V. 44. 

[165] xv. 4. 

[166] Ps. Vi. 11. 

[167] _On the Sermon on the Mount_, i. 21. 

[168] Apoc. Vi. 10. 

[169] Ps. Lvii. 11. 

[170] _On the Sermon on the Mount_, i. 22, and _Questions on theGospels_, II. , xlv. 

[171] _Questions on the Old and New Testament, Qu. _ lxviii. 

[172] Ecclus. Xxxvi. 1-3. 

[173] _Ep. _ cxxx. 12. 

[174] _Ep. _ cxxx. 11. 

[175] _Comment. On S. Matthew_, vi. 

[176] 1 Cor. Vi. 9, 10. 

[177] S. Luke i. 49. 

[178] Ps. Cxliv. 13. 

[179] Isa. Xlvi. 10. 

[180] _On the Sermon on the Mount_, ii. 5. 

[181] _Ep. _ cxxx. 11. 

[182] _Enchiridion_, 115. 

[183] _On the Sermon on the Mount_, ii. 11. 

[184] xi. 2-4. 

[185] _Enchiridion_, 116. 

[186] 1 John iv. 19. 

[187] S. John xvii. 1-3. 

[188] See Touron, O. P. , _Vie de S. Thomas d'Aquin_, p. 254; Paris, 1740. 

[189] S. John xiv. 16. 

[190] Rom. Viii. 26. 

[191] xcvi. 7. 

[192] Ps. Cxlvi. 9. 

[193] Ecclus. Xxxvi. 18, 19. 

[194] 2 Macc. Xv. 14. 

[195] _Contra Vigilantium_, vi. 

[196] _Heb. _ vii. 25. S. Thomas is quoting from memory. 

[197] Exod. Iii. 6. 

[198] Ps. Cxli. 1. 

[199] _Ep. _ cxxx. 9. 

[200] Ps. Xxvi. 8. 

[201] 1 Kings i. 13. 

[202] Osee xiv. 3. 

[203] Ps. Xv. 9. 

[204] S. Matt. Vi. 6. 

[205] _Opus Imperf. Hom. XIII. In Matt. _

[206] _On the Sermon on the Mount_, ii. 3. 

[207] Ps. Cxviii. 145. 

[208] Ps. Lxxxv. 1-5. 

[209] Ps. Xxxix. 13. 

[210] Implicitly, _Moralia in Job_, xxii. 13; but see Hugh of S. Victor, _Exposition of the Rule of S. Augustine_, iii. 

[211] 1 Cor. Xiv. 14. 

[212] _Of the Manner of Prayer_, ii. 

[213] iv. 24. 

[214] _On the Monastic Constitutions_, chap. I. 

[215] _Ep. _ cxxi. 

[216] Art. IV. 

[217] Ps. Lxxv. 4, 5. 

[218] Ps. Cxlv. 1. 

[219] 2 Cor. V. 6. 

[220] Wisd. Ix. 15. 

[221] Ps. Cxlii. 4-7. 

[222] S. Luke xviii. 1. 

[223] 1 Thess. V. 17. 

[224] 1 Cor. X. 31. 

[225] S. Matt. Vi. 7. 

[226] S. Luke vi. 12. 

[227] S. Luke xxii. 43. 

[228] Ps. Xxvi. 4. 

[229] Exod. Xix. 21. 

[230] S. Matt. Vi. 9. 

[231] S. Luke xviii. 1. 

[232] 1 Thess. V. 17. 

[233] Ps. Xxxii. 20-22. 

[234] Ps. Xxxiv. 13. 

[235] _On the Sermon on the Mount_, Sermon CV. I. 

[236] St. Luke vi. 13. 

[237] _On Perseverance_, chap. Xxiii. 

[238] 2 Cor. Xii. 7-9. 

[239] S. Prosper, _The Book of Sentences gleaned from S. Augustine_, Sent. 212. 

[240] _Tractatus in Joannem_, 102. 

[241] _Monastic Constitutions_, chap, i. 

[242] i. 6. 

[243] Ps. Xxxviii. 13, 14. 

[244] _Tractatus in Joannem_, 44. 

[245] _Opus Imperf. In Matt. , Hom. _ XVIII. 

[246] _Tractatus in Joannem_, 73; and _De Verbis Domini_, Sermon cccliv. 7. 

[247] S. John ix. 31. 

[248] xxviii. 8. 

[249] _Tractatus in Joannem_, 44. 

[250] Implicitly in the old interlinear Gloss on 2 Tim. Iii. 5. 

[251] _Opus Imperf. In Matt. , Hom. _ XIV. 

[252] xxviii. 2. 

[253] Ps. Xxxvi. 23-25. 

[254] 1 Tim. Ii. 1. 

[255] xi. 3. 

[256] Dan. Ix. 18, 19. 

[257] Friday in the September Ember days. 

[258] The Ordinary Gloss on the words _obsecrations_, _prayers_, etc. , in 1 Tim. Ii. 1. 

[259] _Collat. _, IX. , chaps. Xi-xiii. 

[260] _Tractatus_ xxxv. _in Matt. _

[261] _De Orthodoxa Fide_, iii. 24. 

[262] 2 Kings vii. 18. 

[263] 3 Kings xviii. 42. 

[264] vii. 59; xx. 36. 

[265] vi. 7. 

[266] Ps. Liv. 1-7. 

FROM THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE SUMMA--QUESTION LXXII

OF THE PRAYERS OF THE SAINTS WHO ARE IN HEAVEN

 I. Are the Saints cognizant of our Prayers? II. Ought we to appeal to the Saints to intercede for us?III. Are the Saints' Prayers to God for us always heard?

I

Are the Saints cognizant of our Prayers?

On those words of Job, [267] _Whether his children come to honour ordishonour, he shall not understand_, S. Gregory says: "This is not to beunderstood of the souls of the Saints, for they see from within theglory of Almighty God, it is in nowise credible that there should beanything without of which they are ignorant. "[268]

And he says also: "To the soul that sees its Creator all created thingsare but trifling; for, however little of the Creator's light he sees, all that is created becomes of small import to him. "[269] Yet thegreatest difficulty in saying that the souls of the Saints know ourprayers and other things which concern us, is their distance from us. But since, according to the authority just quoted, this distance doesnot preclude such knowledge, it appears that the souls of the Saints doknow our prayers and other things which concern us. 

Further, if they did not know what concerned us, neither would they prayfor us, since they would not know our deficiencies. But this was theerror of Vigilantius, as S. Jerome says in his Epistle against him. [270]The Saints, then, know what concerns us. 

 * * * * *

The Divine Essence, then, is a sufficient medium for knowing all things, as, indeed, is evident from the fact that God in seeing His own essencesees all things. Yet it does not follow that whoever sees the Essence ofGod therefore sees all things, but those only who _comprehend_ theEssence of God; just in the same way as it does not follow that becausewe know a principle we therefore know all that that principle contains, for that would only be the case if we _comprehended_ the whole power ofthe principle. Since, then, the souls of the Saints do not comprehendthe Divine Essence, it does not follow that they know everything whichcould be known through the medium of that Divine Essence. Hence theinferior Angels are taught certain things by the higher Angels, thoughall see the Divine Essence. But each person in possession of theBeatific Vision only sees in the Divine Essence as much of other thingsas is necessitated by the degree of perfection of his beatitude; and forthe perfection of beatitude it is required that a man "should havewhatever he wants, and should desire nothing in an inordinatefashion. "[271] Each one, however, rightly desires to know those thingswhich concern himself. Hence, since no rectitude is lacking to theSaints, they wish to know those things which concern themselves, andconsequently they must know them in the Word. But it belongs to theirglory that they should be able to help on the salvation of those whoneed it, for it is thus that they are made co-workers with God--"thanwhich there is nought more Divine, " as Denis says. [272] It is clear, then, that the Saints have a knowledge of those things which arerequisite for this end. And so, too, it is manifest that they know inthe Word the desires, the devout acts and the prayers, of men who fly tothem for help. 

Some, however, maintain that the Saints do not know our prayers, thus:

1. On the words of Isaias, [273] _Thou art our Father, and Abraham hathnot known us, and Israel hath been ignorant of us_, the InterlinearGloss has: "For the Saints who are dead know not what the living do, even their own children. " This is taken from S. Augustine's treatise _OnCare for the Dead_, xiii. , where he quotes these words, and adds: "Ifthese great Patriarchs were ignorant of what concerned those whom theyhad begotten, how can the dead be concerned with knowing and assistingthe affairs and the deeds of the living?" Hence it would seem that theSaints are not cognizant of our prayers. 

 But these words of S. Augustine are to be understood of the natural knowledge of the souls separated (from this world); and this knowledge is not obscured in holy men as it is in sinners. Moreover, S. Augustine is not talking of that knowledge which is in the Word, a knowledge which it is clear that Abraham had not at the time that Isaias said these things; for anterior to Christ's Passion no one had attained to the Vision of God. 

2. In 4 Kings xxii. 20, it is said to Josias the king:_Therefore_--because, that is, thou didst weep before Me--_I will gatherthee to thy fathers . .. That thy eyes may not see all the evils which Iwill bring upon this place_. But the death of Josias would have been norelief to him if he was to know after death what was going to happen tohis nation. The Saints, then, who are dead, do not know our acts, andconsequently cannot understand our prayers. 

 But although after this life the Saints know the things which are done here below, we are not therefore to suppose that they are filled with grief at the knowledge of the afflictions of those whom they loved in the world. For they are so filled with the joy of their beatitude that sorrow finds no place in them. Hence, if they know after death the evil plight of those dear to them, it is none the less a relief to their sorrow if they are withdrawn from this world before those woes come on. 

 At the same time it is possible that souls not yet in glory would feel a certain grief if they were made aware of the sorrows of those dear to them. And since the soul of Josias was not immediately glorified on its quitting the body, S. Augustine endeavours to argue that the souls of the dead have no knowledge of the deeds of the living. [274]

3. Again, the more a person is perfected in charity the more ready he isto succour his neighbour in peril. But the Saints while still in theflesh had a care for their neighbours, and especially for theirrelatives, when in peril. Since, then, they are after death far moreperfected in charity, if they were cognizant of our deeds, they wouldhave now a much greater care for those dear to them or related to them, and would help them much more in their necessities; but this does notseem to be the case. Whence it would seem that they are not cognizant ofour actions nor of our prayers. 

 But the souls of the Saints have their will perfectly conformed to the Will of God, even in what they would will. Consequently, while retaining their feelings of charity towards their neighbour, they afford them no other assistance than that which they see is arranged for them in accordance with Divine Justice. Yet at the same time we must believe that they help their neighbours very much indeed by interceding for them with God. 

4. Further, just as the Saints after death see the Word, so also do theAngels, for of them it is said: _Their Angels in Heaven always see theface of My Father Who is in Heaven_. [275] But the Angels, though seeingthe Word, do not therefore know all things, for the inferior Angels arepurified of their ignorance by the superior Angels, as is evident fromDenis. [276] Consequently, neither do the Saints, although they see theWord, know in It our prayers and other things which concern us. 

 But although it is not necessary that those who see the Word should see all things in the Word, they none the less see those things which belong to the perfection of their beatitude, as we have said above. 

5. Lastly, God alone is the Searcher of hearts. But prayer isessentially an affair of the heart. Consequently God alone knows ourprayers. 

 But God alone knows of Himself the thoughts of the heart; others know them according as they are revealed to them either in their vision of the Word or in any other way. 

II

Ought we to appeal to the Saints to intercede for us?

In the Book of Job, [277] it is said: _Call now, if there be any thatwill answer thee; and turn to some of the Saints_. And on this S. Gregory says: "It is our business to call, and to beseech God in humbleprayer. "[278] When, then, we desire to pray to God, we ought to turn tothe Saints that they may pray for us. 

Further, the Saints who are in the Fatherland are more acceptable in thesight of God than they were when upon earth. But we ought to ask theSaints even when on earth to be our intercessors with God, as theApostle shows us by his example when he says: _I beseech you, therefore, brethren, through our Lord Jesus Christ, and by the charity of the HolyGhost, that you help me in your prayers for me to God_. [279] Much more, then, should we ask the Saints who are in our Fatherland to help us bytheir prayers to God. 

Moreover, the common custom of the Church confirms this, since in herLitanies she asks the prayers of the Saints. 

 * * * * *

In the words of Denis, [280] "there is this Divinely established harmonyin things--that they which hold the lowest place should be brought toGod through them that come between them and God. " Since, then, theSaints who are in our Fatherland are most nigh to God, the harmony ofthe Divine Government demands that we who, abiding in the body, are"absent from the Lord, " should be led to Him by the Saints who standmidway; and this is secured when through their means the Divine Goodnesspours out Its effects upon us. And since our return to God ought tocorrespond to the orderly way in which His goodnesses flow upon us--forHis benefits flow out upon us through the intervention of the Saints'suffrages for us--so also ought we to be brought back to God through theintervention of the Saints, and thus once more receive His benefits. Whence it is that we make them our intercessors for us with God--and, asit were, mediators--by begging them to pray for us. 

 * * * * *

But some say that we should not ask the Saints to pray for us, thus:

1. No one asks a man's friends to intercede for him except in so far ashe thinks that he can obtain a favour more easily through them. But Godis infinitely more merciful than any Saint, and consequently His Will ismore readily inclined to hear us than is the will of any Saint. Whenceit would seem superfluous to make the Saints mediators between ourselvesand God, and so ask them to intercede for us. 

 But just as it is not by reason of any deficiency on the part of the Divine Power that It works through the mediumship of secondary causes, whereas it rather tends to the fulfilment of the harmony of the universe that His Goodness should be more copiously diffused upon things, so that things not only receive from Him their own peculiar goodness, but themselves become a source of goodness to other things as well; so in the same way it is not by reason of any lack of mercy on His part that appeal to His mercy by means of the prayers of the Saints is fitting; but this is done in order that the aforesaid harmony may be preserved. 

2. If we ought to ask the Saints to pray for us, it can only be becausewe know that their prayers are acceptable to God. But the more saintlyis a Saint, the more acceptable is his prayer to God. Consequently weought always to make the greater Saints our intercessors with God, andnever the lesser ones. 

 Yet although the greater Saints are more acceptable to God than are the lesser ones, it is still useful to pray sometimes to the lesser Saints. And this for five reasons: Firstly, because a man sometimes has a greater devotion to some lesser Saint than to one who is greater; and the efficacy of our prayers depends very much on our devotion. Secondly, in order to avoid weariness; for unremitting application to one thing begets distaste; but when we pray to various Saints fresh devotional fervour is stirred up in practically each case. Thirdly, because certain Saints are appointed the patrons of certain particular cases, so S. Antony for the avoidance of hell-fire. Fourthly, that so we may show due honour to them all. Fifthly, because sometimes a favour may be gained at the prayer of many which would not be gained at the prayer of one alone. 

3. Christ, even as man, is termed _the Saint of Saints_;[281] and itbelongs to Him, as man, to pray. Yet we never ask Christ to pray for us. Hence it is superfluous to make the Saints our intercessors with God. 

 But prayer is an act. And acts belong to individual beings. Consequently, if we were to say, _Christ, pray for us_, we should appear, unless we added something, to be referring this to Christ's Person, and thus we might seem to fall into the error of Nestorius who regarded the Person of the Son of Man as distinct in Christ from the Person of the Son of God; or perhaps, too, into the error of Arius who regarded the Person of the Son as less than the Father. In order, then, to avoid these errors, the Church does not say, _Christ, pray for us_, but _Christ, hear us_, or _Christ, have mercy on us_. 

4. Once more, when one is asked to intercede for another, he presentsthe latter's prayers to him with whom he has to intercede. But it issuperfluous to present anything to Him to Whom all things are present. Hence it is superfluous to make the Saints our intercessors with God. 

 But the Saints are not said to present our prayers to God as though they were manifesting to Him something which He did not know, but in the sense that they ask that these prayers may be heard by God, or that they consult the Divine Truth concerning them, so as to know what, according to His providence, ought to be done. 

5. Lastly, that must be held superfluous which is done for the sake ofsomething which, whether the former were done or not, would yet takeplace--or not take place--all the same. But similarly, the Saints wouldpray for us or not pray for us whether we asked them to do so or not. For if we deserve that they should pray for us, they would pray for us, even though we did not ask them to do so; if, on the other hand, we arenot deserving that they should pray for us, then they do not pray forus--even though we ask them to do so. Hence to ask them to pray for usseems altogether superfluous. 

 But a man becomes deserving that some Saint should pray for him from the very fact that with pure-hearted devotion he has recourse to him in his needs. Hence it is not superfluous to pray to the Saints. 

III

Are the Saints' Prayers to God for us always heard?

In 2 Maccabees xv. 14 it is said: _This is he that prayeth much for thepeople, and for all the Holy City, Jeremias the prophet of God_; andthat his prayer was heard is evident from what follows, for _Jeremiasstretched forth his right hand and gave to Judas a sword of gold, saying: Take this holy sword, a gift from God_, etc. 

Further, S. Jerome says[282]: "You say in your book that while we livewe can pray for one another, but that after we are dead no one's prayerfor others will be heard"; and S. Jerome condemns this statement thus:"If the Apostles and Martyrs while still in the body could pray forothers while as yet solicitous for themselves, how much more when theyhave won their crown, completed the victory, and gained their triumph?"

Moreover, the Church's custom confirms this, for she frequently asks tobe helped by the prayers of the Saints. 

 * * * * *

The Saints are said to pray for us in two ways: firstly, by expressprayer, when they by their ardent desires appeal to the ears of theDivine Mercy for us; secondly, by interpretative prayer--namely, bytheir merits which, standing as the Saints do in the sight of God, notonly tend to their own glory but are, as it were, suffrages--and evenprayers--for us; just as the Blood of Christ, shed for us, is said toask pardon for us. And in both ways the prayers of the Saints are, asfar as in them lies, efficacious in obtaining what they ask for. Butthat we do not obtain the fruit of their prayers may be due to defectson our part, according, that is, as they are said to pray for us in thesense that their merits avail for us. But according as they actually dopray for us--that is, ask something for us by their desires--they arealways heard. For the Saints only wish what God wishes, and they onlyask for what they wish should be done; what God, however, wishes isalways done--unless, indeed, we are speaking of the _antecedent_ will ofGod, according to which _He wills all men to be saved_: this will is notalways fulfilled. Hence it is not to be wondered at if what the Saintsalso will according to this kind of will is not always fulfilled. 

But some maintain that the Saints' prayers for us are not always heard, thus:

1. If the Saints' prayers were always heard, they would be especiallyheard when they pray for those things which affect themselves. Yet theyare not always heard as regards these things, for to the Martyrs whoprayed for vengeance upon the inhabitants of the earth it was said _thatthey should rest for a little time till_ the number of _their brethrenshould be filled up_. [283] Much less, then, are their prayers heard forthings that do not concern them. 

 But this prayer of the Martyrs is nothing more than their desire to obtain the garment of the body and the society of the Saints who are to be saved; it expresses their agreement with the Divine Justice which punishes the wicked. Hence on those words of the Apocalypse, [284] _How long, O Lord_, the Ordinary Gloss says: "They yearn for a greater joy, and for the companionship of the Saints, and they agree with the justice of God. "

2. It is said in Jeremias[285]: _If Moses and Samuel shall stand beforeMe, My soul is not towards this people_. The Saints, then, are notalways heard when they pray for us to God. 

 But God here speaks of Moses and Samuel according as they were in this life, for they are said to have prayed for the people and thus withstood the wrath of God. Yet none the less, had they lived in Jeremias' time they would not have been able to appease by their prayers God's wrath upon the people, so great was the latter's wickedness. This is the meaning of that passage. 

3. The Saints in our Fatherland are said to be the equals of theAngels. [286] But the Angels are not always heard in their prayers toGod, as is evident from Daniel[287]: _I am come for thy words. But thePrince of the kingdom of the Persians resisted me one and twenty days. _But the Angel who spoke had not come to Daniel's assistance withoutasking his freedom from God; yet none the less the fulfilment of hisprayer was hindered. In the same way, then, neither are the prayers ofother Saints to God for us always heard. 

 But this contest of the good Angels is not to be understood in the sense that they put forth contrary prayers before God, but that they set before the Divine scrutiny conflicting merits on either hand, and awaited the Divine decision. Thus S. Gregory, expounding the above words of Daniel, says: "These sublime Spirits who rule over the nations in no sense strive for those who do evil, but they scrutinize their deeds and judge justly; hence, when the faults or the merits of any nation are submitted to the Council of the Supreme Court, he who is set over that particular nation is described as either losing or failing in the contest. But the sole victory for all of them is the supreme will of his Creator above him; and since they ever look towards that Will, they never desire what they cannot obtain, "[288] and hence never ask for it. Whence it is clear that their prayers are always heard. 

4. Whoever obtains something by prayer in a certain sense merits it. Butthe Saints who are in our Fatherland are no longer capable of meriting. Therefore they cannot obtain anything for us from God by their prayers. 

 But although the Saints when once they are in our Fatherland are not capable of meriting for themselves, they are still capable of meriting for others, or rather of helping others by reason of their own previous merits. For when alive they merited from God that their prayers should be heard after death. Or we might say that in prayer merit and the power to obtain what we ask do not rest on the same basis. For merit consists in a certain correspondence between an act and the end towards which it is directed and which is given to it as its reward; but the impetratory power of prayer rests upon the generosity of him from whom we ask something. Consequently prayer sometimes wins from the generosity of him to whom it is made what perhaps was not merited either by him who asked nor by him for whom he asked. And thus, though the Saints are no longer capable of meriting, it does not follow that they are incapable of winning things from God. 

5. Again, the Saints conform their will in all things to the DivineWill. Therefore they can only will what they know God wills. But no oneprays save for what he wishes. Consequently they only pray for what theyknow God wills. But what God wills would take place whether they prayedor not. Consequently their prayers have no power to obtain things. 

 But, as is evident from the passage of S. Gregory quoted above in reply to the third difficulty, neither the Saints nor the Angels will anything save what they see in the Divine Will. And consequently they ask for nothing else save this. But it does not follow that their prayers are without fruit, for, as S. Augustine says in his treatise, _On the Predestination of the Saints_, [289] and S. Gregory in his _Dialogues_, [290] the prayers of the Saints avail for the predestinate, because perhaps it was pre-ordained that they should be saved by the prayers of those who interceded for them. And so, too, God wills that by the prayers of the Saints should be fulfilled what the Saints see that He wills. 

6. Lastly, the prayers of the entire Court of Heaven should, if they cangain anything at all, be far more efficacious than all the suffrages ofthe Church on earth. But if all the suffrages of the Church on earthwere to be accumulated upon one soul in Purgatory, it would be entirelyfreed from punishment. Since, then, the Saints who are in our Fatherlandhave the same reason for praying for the souls in Purgatory as they havefor praying for us, they would by their prayers, if they could obtainanything for us, wholly deliver from suffering those who are inPurgatory. But this is false, for if it were true, then the suffrages ofthe Church for the dead would be superfluous. 

 But the suffrages of the Church for the dead are, as it were, satisfactions offered by the living in place of the dead, and thus they free the dead from that debt of punishment which they have not paid. But the Saints who are in our Fatherland are not capable of making satisfaction. And thus there is no parity between their prayers and the Church's suffrages. 

FOOTNOTES:

[267] xiv. 21. 

[268] _Moralia in Job_, xii. 14. 

[269] _Dialogue_, li. 35. 

[270] _Contra Vigilant. _, vi. 

[271] S. Augustine: _Of the Trinity_, xiii. 5. 

[272] _Of the Heavenly Hierarchy_, iii. 

[273] lxiii. 16. 

[274] _De Cura Mortuorum_, 13, 14, 15. 

[275] S. Matt, xviii. 10. 

[276] _Of the Heavenly Hierarchy_, vii. ; and _Of the EcclesiasticalHierarchy_, vi. 

[277] v. 1. 

[278] _Moralia in Job_, v. 30. 

[279] Rom. Xv. 30. 

[280] _Of the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy_, v. 

[281] Dan. Ix. 14. 

[282] _Ep. Contra Vigilantium_, vi. 

[283] Apoc. Vi. 11. 

[284] vi. 10. 

[285] xv. 1. 

[286] S. Matt. Xxii. 30. 

[287] x. 12-13. 

[288] _Moralia on Job_, xvii. 12. 

[289] _De Dono Perseverantiæ_, xxii. 

[290] i. 8. 

QUESTION CLXXIX

OF THE DIVISION OF LIFE INTO THE ACTIVE AND THE CONTEMPLATIVE

 I. May Life be fittingly divided into the Active and the Contemplative? S. Augustine, _De Consensu Evangelistarum_, I. , iv. 8 " _Tractatus, cxxiv. 5, in Joannem_II. Is this division of Life into the Active and the Contemplative a sufficient one? S. Augustine, _Of the Trinity_, I. , viii. 17

I

May Life be fittingly divided into the Active and the Contemplative?

S. Gregory the Great says[291]: "There are two kinds of lives in whichAlmighty God instructs us by His Sacred Word--namely, the active and thecontemplative. "

Those things are properly said to live which move or work from withinthemselves. But what especially accords with the innermost nature of athing is that which is proper to it and towards which it is especiallyinclined; consequently every living thing shows that it is living bythose very acts which are especially befitting it and towards which itis especially inclined. Thus the life of plants is said to consist intheir growing and in their producing seed; the life of animals in theirfeeling and moving; while that of man consists in his understanding andin his acting according to reason. 

Hence among men themselves each man's life appears to be that in whichhe takes special pleasure, that with which he is particularly occupied, that, in fine, in which each one wishes to live with a friend, as issaid in the _Ethics of Aristotle_. [292]

Since, then, some men are especially occupied with the contemplation ofthe truth while others are especially-occupied with external things, man's life may be conveniently divided into the active and thecontemplative. 

 * * * * *

Some, however, repudiate this division, thus:

1. The soul is by its essence the principle of life; thus thePhilosopher says[293]: "For living things, to live is to be. " But thesame soul with its faculties is the principle both of action and ofcontemplation. Hence it would seem that life cannot be suitably dividedinto the active and the contemplative. 

 But the peculiar nature of every individual thing--that which makes it actually be--is the principle of its own proper action; consequently _to live_ is said to be the very _being_ of living things, and this because living things--by the very fact that they exist through such a nature--act in such a way. 

2. Again, when one thing precedes another it is unfitting to divide theformer by differences which find place in the latter. But action andcontemplation, like speculation and practice, are distinctions in theintellect, as is laid down by the Philosopher. [294] But we live beforewe understand; for life is primarily in living things by theirvegetative soul, as also the Philosopher says. [295] Therefore life isnot fittingly divided according to contemplation and action. 

 But we do not say that life universally considered is divided into the active and the contemplative, but that man's life is so divided. For man derives his species from his intellect, hence the same divisions hold good for human life as hold good for the intellect. 

3. Lastly, the word "life" implies motion, as is clear from Denis theAreopagite. [296] But contemplation more especially consists in repose, according to the words: _When I go into my house I shall repose myselfwith her (Wisdom)_. [297]

 But while contemplation implies a certain repose from external occupations, it is still a certain motion of the intellect in the sense that every operation is a motion; in this sense the Philosopher says that to feel and to understand are certain motions in the sense that motion is said to be the act of a perfect thing. [298] It is in this sense, too, that Denis[299] assigns three movements to the soul in contemplation: the direct, the circular, and the oblique. [300]

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ Two virtues are set before the human soul, the oneactive, the other contemplative; the former shows the path, the lattershows the goal; in the one we toil that so the heart may be purified forthe Vision of God, in the other we repose and we see God; the one isspent in the practice of the precepts of this temporal life, the otheris occupied with the teachings of the life that is eternal. Hence it isthat the one is a life of toil and the other a life of rest; for theformer is engaged in purging away its sins, the latter already stands inthe light of the purified. Hence, too, during this mortal life theformer is occupied with the works of a good life, whereas the latterrather stands in faith, and, in the case of some few, sees _through amirror in a dark manner_, and enjoys _in part_ a certain glimpse of theUnchangeable Truth (_De Consensu Evangelistarum_, I. , iv. 8). 

 "The Lord is the portion of my inheritance and of my cup; it is Thou that wilt restore my inheritance to me. The lines are fallen unto me in goodly places; for my inheritance is goodly to me. "[301]

_S. Augustine:_ There is another life, the life of immortality, and init there are no ills; there we shall see face to face what we now see_through a glass and in a dark manner_ even when we have made greatadvance in our study of the Truth. The Church, then, knows of two kindsof life Divinely set before Her and commended to Her; in the one we walkby faith, in the other by sight; the one is the pilgrimage of time, theother is the mansion of eternity; the one is a life of toil, the otherof repose; in the one we are on the way, in the other in Our Father'sHome; the one is spent in the toil of action, the other in the reward ofcontemplation; the one _turneth away from evil and doth good_, the otherhath no evil from which to turn away, but rather a Great Good Which itenjoys; the one is in conflict with the foe, the other reigns--consciousthat there is no foe; the one is strong in adversity, the other knows ofno adversity; the one bridles the lusts of the flesh, the other is givenup to the joys of the Spirit; the one is anxious to overcome, the otheris tranquil in the peace of victory; the one is helped in temptations, the other, without temptation, rejoices in its Helper; the one succoursthe needy, the other dwells where none are needy; the one condones thesins of others that thereby its own sins may be condoned, the othersuffers naught that it can pardon nor does ought that calls for pardon;the one is afflicted in sufferings lest it should be uplifted in goodthings, the other is steeped in such fulness of grace as to be free fromall evil that so, without temptation to pride, it may cling to theSupreme Good; the one distinguishes between good and evil, the othersees naught save what is good; the one therefore is good--yet still inmiseries, the other is better--and in Blessedness (_Tractatus_, cxxiv. 5, _in Joannem_). 

 "Jesu nostra Redemptio Amor et Desiderium! Deus Creator omnium, Homo in fine temporum!"

II

Is this division of Life into the Active and the Contemplative asufficient one?

These two kinds of life are signified by the two wives of Jacob--namely, the active life by Lia, the contemplative by Rachel. They are alsosignified by those two women who afforded hospitality to the Lord: thecontemplative, namely, by Mary, the active by Martha, as S. Gregorysays. [302] But if there were more than two kinds of life, thesesignifications would not be fitting. 

As we have said above, the division in question concerns human liferegarded as intellectual. And the intellect itself is divided into thecontemplative and the active, for the aim of intellectual knowledge iseither the actual knowledge of the truth--and this belongs to thecontemplative intellect, or it is some external action--and thisconcerns the practical or active intellect. Hence life is quitesufficiently divided into the active and the contemplative. 

But some argue that this division is not a sufficient one, thus:

1. The Philosopher[303] says that there are three specially excellentkinds of life: the pleasurable, the civil--which seems to be identifiedwith the active--and the contemplative. 

 But the pleasurable life makes its end consist in the pleasures of that body which we have in common with the brute creation. Hence, as the Philosopher says in the same place, this is a bestial life. Consequently it is not comprised in our division of life into the active and the contemplative. 

2. Again, S. Augustine[304] speaks of three different kinds of life: thelife of leisure, which is referred to the contemplative; the busy life, which is referred to the active life; and he adds a third composed ofthese two. 

 But things which hold a middle course are compounded of the extremes, and hence are virtually contained in them, as the tepid in the hot and the cold, the pallid in the white and the black. And similarly, under the active and the contemplative lives is comprised that kind of life which is compounded of them both. But just as in every mixture one of the simple elements predominates, so in this mixed kind of life now the contemplative, now the active predominates. 

3. Lastly, men's lives are diversified according to their variousoccupations. But there are more than two classes of human occupations. 

 But all classes of human occupations are, if they are concerned with the necessities of this present life, and in accordance with right reason, comprised under the active life which, by properly regulated acts, takes heed for the needs of the present life. But if these actions minister to our concupiscences, then they fall under the voluptuous life which is not comprised in the active life. But human occupations which are directed to the consideration of the truth are comprised under the contemplative life. 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine: Your life is hid with Christ in God. When Christ shallappear, Who is your life, then you also shall appear with Him inglory_;[305] but until that shall come to pass _we see now through aglass in a dark manner_--that is, in images as it were--_but then faceto face_. [306] This, indeed, is the contemplation that is promised tous, the goal of all our actions, the eternal perfection of all our joys. For _we are the sons of God, and it hath not yet appeared what we shallbe; we know that when He shall appear we shall be like Him, for we shallsee Him as He is_. [307] And as He said to His servant Moses: _I am Whoam . .. Thus shalt thou say to the children of Israel: He Who is hathsent me to you_, [308] even that shall we contemplate when we live ineternity. Thus, too, He says: _This is eternal life, that they may knowThee, the only True God, and Jesus Christ Whom Thou hast sent_. [309] Andthis shall be when the Lord shall come and _bring to light the hiddenthings of darkness_, [310] when the gloom of our mortal corruption shallhave passed away. Then will be our "morning, " that "morning" of whichthe Psalmist says: _In the morning I will stand before Thee and I willsee_. [311] . .. Then, too, will come to pass that which is written: _Thoushall fill me with joy with Thy countenance_. [312] Beyond that joy weshall seek for nothing, for there is naught further to be sought. TheFather will be shown to us, and that will suffice for us. Well didPhilip understand this when he said to the Lord: _Show us the Father, and it is enough for us!_[313] . .. Such contemplation, indeed, is thereward of faith, and for this reward's sake are our hearts purified byfaith, as it is written: _Purifying their hearts by faith_[314] (_DeTrinitate_, I. , viii. 17). 

 "Remember, O Lord, Thy bowels of compassion; and Thy mercies that are from the beginning of the world. The sins of my youth and my ignorances do not remember. According to Thy mercy remember Thou me; for Thy goodness' sake, O Lord. The Lord is sweet and righteous; therefore He will give a law to sinners in the way. He will guide the mild in judgment; He will teach the meek His ways. All the ways of the Lord are mercy and truth to them that seek after His covenant and His testimonies. For Thy Name's sake, O Lord, Thou wilt pardon my sin; for it is great. "[315]

FOOTNOTES:

[291] Hom. XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[292] IX. , xii. 21. 

[293] _De Anima_, II. , iv. 4. 

[294] _De Anima_, III. , x. 2. 

[295] _Ibid. _, II. , iv. 2. 

[296] _Of the Divine Names_, vi. 

[297] Wisd. Viii. 16. 

[298] _De Anima_, III. , vii. 1. 

[299] _Of the Divine Names_, IV. , i. 7. 

[300] For a commentary on this passage of S. Denis, see Qu. CLXXX. , Art. 6, pp. 203-210. 

[301] Ps. Xv. 5-6. 

[302] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 18; and _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[303] _Ethics_, I. , v. 21. 

[304] _Of the City of God_, xix. 2 and 19. 

[305] Col. Iii. 3-4. 

[306] 1 Cor. Xiii. 12. 

[307] 1 John iii. 2. 

[308] Exod. Iii. 14. 

[309] S. John xvii. 3. 

[310] 1 Cor. Iv. 5. 

[311] Ps. V. 5. 

[312] Ps. Xv. 11. 

[313] S. John xiv. 8. 

[314] Acts xv. 9. 

[315] Ps. Xxiv. 6-11. 

QUESTION CLXXX

OF THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE

 I. Is the Contemplative Life wholly confined to the Intellect, or does the Will enter into it? S. Thomas, _On the Beatific Vision_, I. , xii. 7 _ad 3m_ II. Do the Moral Virtues pertain to the Contemplative Life? S. Augustine, _Of the City of God_, xix. 19 III. Does the Contemplative Life comprise many Acts? S. Augustine, _Of the Perfection of Human Righteousness_, viii. 18 " _Ep. _, cxxx. _ad probam_ IV. Does the Contemplative Life consist solely in the Contemplation of God, or in the Consideration of other Truths as well? S. Augustine, _Sermon_, CLXIX. , xiv. 17 " _Ep. _, cxxx. _ad probam_ V. Can the Contemplative Life attain, according to the State of this Present Life, to the Contemplation of the Divine Essence? S. Augustine, _Of the Sermon on the Mount_, II. , ix. 35 VI. Is the Act of Contemplation rightly distinguished according to the three kinds of Motion--Circular, Direct, and Oblique? VII. Has Contemplation its Joys?VIII. Is the Contemplative Life lasting? S. Augustine, _Sermon_, cclix. , _On Low Sunday_

I

Is the Contemplative Life wholly confined to the Intellect, or does theWill enter into it?

S. Gregory the Great says[316]: "The contemplative life means keeping ofcharity towards God and our neighbour, and fixing all our desires on ourCreator. " But desire and love belong to the affective or appetitivepowers; consequently the contemplative life is not confined to theintellect. 

 * * * * *

When men's thoughts are principally directed towards the contemplationof the truth, their life is said to be "contemplative. " But to "intend"or direct is an act of the will, since "intention" or direction isconcerned with the end in view, and the end is the proper object of thewill. Hence contemplation, having regard to the actual essence of it, isan act of the intellect; but if we consider that which moves us to theexercise of such an act, then contemplation is an act of the will; forit is the will which moves all the other faculties, including theintellect, to the exercise of their appropriate acts. 

But the appetitive faculty--the will, that is--moves us to consider somepoint either sensibly or intellectually, that is, sometimes out of lovefor the thing itself--for _Where thy treasure is there is thy heartalso_, --and sometimes out of love of that very knowledge which followsfrom its consideration. For this reason S. Gregory[317] makes thecontemplative life consist in the love of God, since from love of God aman yearns to look upon His beauty. And since we are delighted when weobtain what we love, the contemplative life consequently results indelight, and this resides in the affective powers, from which, too, lovetook its rise. 

 * * * * *

Some, however, urge that the contemplative life lies wholly in theintellect, thus:

1. The Philosopher says[318]: "The end of contemplation is truth. " Buttruth belongs wholly to the intellect. 

 But from the very fact that truth is the goal of contemplation it derives its character of a desirable and lovable and pleasing good, and in this sense it comes under the appetitive powers. 

2. Again, S. Gregory says[319]: "Rachel, whose name is interpreted 'theBeginning seen, ' signifies the contemplative life. " But the vision of aprinciple, or beginning, belongs to the intellect. 

 But it is love of God which excites in us desire of the vision of the First Principle of all--viz. , God Himself--and hence S. Gregory says[320]: "The contemplative life, trampling underfoot all cares, ardently yearns to look upon the face of the Creator. "

3. S. Gregory says[321]: "It belongs to the contemplative life to restfrom all exterior action. " But the affective or appetitive powers tendtowards external action. Hence it would seem that the contemplative lifedoes not come under them. 

 But the appetitive powers not only move the bodily members to the performance of external acts, but the intellect, too, is moved by them to the exercise of contemplation. 

 "Hear, you that are far off, what I have done, and you that are near, know My strength. The sinners in Sion are afraid, trembling hath seized upon the hypocrites. Which of you can dwell with devouring fire? which of you shall dwell with everlasting burnings? He that walketh in justices, and speaketh truth, that casteth away avarice by oppression, and shaketh his hands from all bribes, that stoppeth his ears lest he hear blood, and shutteth his eyes that he may see no evil. He shall dwell on high, the fortifications of rocks shall be his highness: bread is given him, his waters are sure. His eyes shall see the King in His beauty, they shall see the land far off. "[322]

 * * * * *

_S. Thomas:_ We do not enjoy all the things that we have; and this iseither because they do not afford us delight, or because they are notthe ultimate goal of our desires, and so are incapable of satisfying ouryearnings or affording us repose. But these three things the Blessedhave in God: for they see Him, and seeing Him they hold Him ever presentto them, for they have it in their power always to see Him; and holdingHim, they enjoy Him, satisfying their yearnings with That Which is TheUltimate End (_Summa Theologica_, I. , xii. 7, _ad 3m_). 

 "As the hart panteth after the fountains of water: so my soul panteth after Thee, O God. My soul hath thirsted after the strong living God; when shall I come and appear before the face of God? My tears have been my bread day and night, whilst it is said to me daily: Where is thy God? These things I remembered, and poured out my soul in me; for I shall go over into the place of the wonderful tabernacle, even to the house of God. With the voice of joy and praise; the noise of one feasting. Why art thou sad, O my soul? and why dost thou trouble me? Hope in God, for I will still give praise to Him: the salvation of my countenance, and my God. "[323]

II

Do the Moral Virtues pertain to the Contemplative Life?

The moral virtues are directed towards external actions, and S. Gregorysays[324]: "It belongs to the contemplative life to abstain from allexternal action. " Hence the moral virtues do not pertain to thecontemplative life. 

A thing may pertain to the contemplative life either essentially or byway of disposition towards it. Essentially, then, the moral virtues donot pertain to the contemplative life; for the goal of the contemplativelife is the consideration of truth. "Knowledge, " says the Philosopher, "which pertains to the consideration of truth, has little to do with themoral virtues. "[325] Hence he also says[326] that moral virtues pertainto active, not to contemplative happiness. 

But dispositively the moral virtues do belong to the contemplative life. For actual contemplation, in which the contemplative life essentiallyconsists, is impeded both by the vehemence of the passions whichdistract the soul from occupation with the things of the intellect, anddivert it to the things of sense, and also by external disturbances. Themoral virtues, however, keep down the vehemence of the passions, andcheck the disturbance that might arise from external occupations. 

Consequently the moral virtues do pertain to the contemplative life, butby way of disposition thereto. 

 * * * * *

But some maintain that the moral virtues do pertain to the contemplativelife, thus:

1. S. Gregory says[327]: "The contemplative life means keeping charitytowards God and our neighbour with our whole soul. " But all the moralvirtues--acts of which fall under precept--are reduced to love of Godand of our neighbour; for _Love is the fulfilling of the Law_. [328]Consequently it would seem that the moral virtues do pertain to thecontemplative life. 

 But, as we have already said, the contemplative life is motived by the affective faculties, and consequently love of God and of our neighbour are required for the contemplative life. Impelling causes, however, do not enter into the essence of a thing, but prepare for it and perfect it. Hence it does not follow that the moral virtues essentially pertain to the contemplative life. 

2. Again; the contemplative life is especially directed towards thecontemplation of God, as S. Gregory says: "The soul, trampling all caresunderfoot, ardently yearns to see its Creator's face. " But no one canattain to this without that cleanness of heart which the moral virtuesprocure: _Blessed are the clean of heart, for they shall see God_, [329]and again: _Follow peace with all men with holiness, without which noman shall see God_. [330]

 But holiness--that is, cleanness of heart--is produced by those virtues which have to do with those passions which hinder the purity of the reason. And peace is produced by justice--the moral virtue which is concerned with our works: _The work of justice shall be peace_[331] inasmuch, that is, as a man, by refraining from injuring others, removes occasions of strife and disturbance. 

3. Lastly, S. Gregory says[332]: "The contemplative life is somethingbeautiful in the soul, " and it is for this reason that it is said to betypified by Rachel, for _She was well-favoured and of a beautifulcountenance_. [333] But the beauty of the soul, as S. Ambrose remarks, depends upon the moral virtues and especially on that oftemperance. [334]

 But beauty consists in a certain splendour combined with a becoming harmony. Both of these points are radically to be referred to the reason, for to it belongs both the light which manifests beauty, and the establishment of due proportion in others. Consequently in the contemplative life--which consists in the act of the reason--beauty is necessarily and essentially to be found; thus of the contemplation of Wisdom it is said: _And I became a lover of her beauty_. [335] But in the moral virtues beauty is only found by a certain participation--in proportion, namely, as they share in the harmony of reason; and this is especially the case with the virtue of temperance whose function it is to repress those desires which particularly obscure the light of reason. Hence it is, too, that the virtue of chastity especially renders a man fit for contemplation, for venereal pleasures are precisely those which, as S. Augustine points out, most drag down the mind to the things of sense. [336]

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ While it is true that any one of these three kinds oflife--the leisurely, the busy, and the life commingled of them both--maybe embraced by anybody without prejudice to his faith, and may be themeans of leading him to his eternal reward, it is yet important that aman should take note of what it is that he holds to through love of thetruth, and should reflect on the nature of the work to which he devoteshimself at the demand of charity. For no man should be so addicted toleisure as for its sake to neglect his neighbour's profit; neithershould any man be so devoted to the active life as to forget the thoughtof God. For in our leisured life we are not to find delight in mere idlerepose, but the seeking and finding of the truth must be our aim; eachmust strive to advance in that, to hold fast what he finds, and yet notto grudge it to his neighbour. Similarly, in the life of action: we mustnot love honour in this life, nor power; for _all things are vain underthe sun_. But we must love the toil itself which comes to us togetherwith such honour or power if it be rightly and profitably used--astending, that is, to the salvation under God of those under us. .. . Loveof truth, then, seeks for a holy leisure; the calls of charity compel usto undertake the labours of justice. If no one lays on us this burden, then must we devote our leisure to the search after and the study of thetruth; but if such burden be imposed upon us, we must shoulder it at thecall of charity; yet withal we must not wholly abandon the delights ofthe truth, lest while the latter's sweetness is withdrawn from us, theburden we have taken up overwhelm us (_Of the City of God_, xix. 19). 

 "O expectation of Israel, the Saviour thereof in time of trouble: why wilt Thou be as a stranger in the land, and as a wayfaring man turning in to lodge? Why wilt Thou be as a wandering man, as a mighty man that cannot save? but Thou, O Lord, art among us, and Thy Name is called upon us, forsake us not. "[337]

III

Does the Contemplative Life comprise many Acts?

By "life" is here meant any work to which a man principally devoteshimself. Hence if there were many acts or works in the contemplativelife, it would not be one life, but several. 

It must be understood that we are speaking of the contemplative life asit concerns man. And between men and Angels there is, as S. Denissays, [338] this difference--that whereas an Angel knows the truth by onesimple act of intelligence, man, on the contrary, only arrives at aknowledge of the simple truth by arguing from many premises. Hence thecontemplative life has only a single act in which it finds its finalperfection--namely, the contemplation of the truth--and from this oneact it derives its oneness. But at the same time it has many acts bymeans of which it arrives at this final act. Of these various acts, someare concerned with the establishment of principles from which the mindproceeds to the contemplation of truth; others, again, are concernedwith deducing from these principles that truth the knowledge of which issought. But the ultimate act, the complement of the foregoing, is thecontemplation of truth. 

Some, however, maintain that many acts pertain to the contemplativelife, thus:

1. Richard of S. Victor[339] distinguishes between contemplation, meditation, and thought. But these all seem to belong to thecontemplative life. 

 But _thought_, according to Richard of S. Victor, seems to signify the consideration of many things from which a man intends to gather some single truth. Consequently, under the term _thought_ may be comprised perceptions by the senses, whereby we know certain effects--imaginations, too, as well as investigation of different phenomena by the reason; in a word, all those things which conduce to a knowledge of the truth we are in search of. At the same time, according to S. Augustine, [340] every operation of the intellect may be termed _thought_. _Meditation_, again, seems to refer to the process of reasoning from principles which have to do with the truth we desire to contemplate. And _contemplation_, according to S. Bernard, [341] means the same thing, although, according to the Philosopher, [342] every operation of the intellect may be termed "consideration. " But _contemplation_ is concerned with the simple dwelling upon the truth itself. Hence Richard of S. Victor says[343]: "_Contemplation_ is the soul's clear, free, and attentive dwelling upon the truth to be perceived; _meditation_ is the outlook of the soul occupied in searching for the truth; _thought _ is the soul's glance, ever prone to distraction. "

2. Further, the Apostle says: _But we all, beholding the glory of theLord with open face, are transformed into the same image from glory toglory. _[344] But this refers to the contemplative life; therefore, besides the three things already mentioned--namely, contemplation, meditation and thought, --_speculation_, too, enters into thecontemplative life. 

 But _speculation_, as S. Augustine's Gloss has it, [345] "is derived from _speculum_, a 'mirror, ' not from _specula_, a 'watch-tower. '" To see a thing in a mirror, however, is to see a cause by an effect in which its likeness is shown; thus _speculation_ seems reducible to _meditation_. 

3. Again, S. Bernard says[346]: "The first and chiefest contemplation isthe marvelling at God's Majesty. " But to "marvel" is, according to S. John Damascene, [347] a species of fear. Consequently it seems that manyacts belong to contemplation. 

 But wonderment is a species of fear arising from our learning something which it is beyond our powers to understand. Hence wonderment is an act subsequent to the contemplation of sublime truth, whereas contemplation reaches its goal in the affective powers. 

4. Lastly, prayer, reading, and meditation seem to belong to thecontemplative life. Devout hearing, too, belongs to it, for it is saidof Mary, who is the type of the contemplative life, that _sitting at theLord's feet, she heard His word_. [348]

 Man, however, arrives at the knowledge of truth in two ways: first of all, by receiving things from others; as regards, then, the things a man receives from God: prayer is necessary, according to the words: _I called upon God, and the spirit of Wisdom came upon me_. [349] And as for the things he receives from men: hearing is necessary if he receive them from one who speaks, reading is necessary if it be question of what is handed down in Holy Scripture. And secondly, a man arrives at the knowledge of truth by his own personal study, and for this is required meditation. 

 "Uni trinoque Domino Sit sempiterna gloria! Qui vitam sine termino Nobis donet in Patria!"

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ As long, then, as _we are absent from the Lord, we walkby faith and not by sight_, [350] whence it is said: _The just man shalllive in his faith. _[351] And this is our justice as long as we are onour pilgrimage--namely, that here now by the uprightness and perfectionwith which we walk we strive after that perfection and fulness ofjustice where, in all the glory of its beauty, will be full and perfectcharity. Here we chastise our body and bring it into subjection; here wegive alms by conferring benefits and forgiving offences againstourselves; and we do this with joy and from the heart, and are everinstant in prayer; and all this we do in the light of that sounddoctrine by which is built up right faith, solid hope, and pure charity. This, then, is our present justice whereby we run hungering andthirsting after the perfection and fulness of justice, so that hereafterwe may be filled therewith (_De Perfectione justitiæ Hominis_, viii. 18). 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ You know, then, I think, not only how you ought to pray, but what you ought to pray for; and this not because I teach you, butbecause He teaches you Who has deigned to teach us all. The Life ofBeatitude is what we have to seek; this we have to ask for from the LordGod. And what Beatitude means is, with many, a source of much dispute. But why should we appeal to the many and their many opinions? Forpithily and truly it is said in God's Scripture: _Happy is that peoplewhose God is the Lord!_[352] Oh, that we may be counted amongst _thatpeople_! Oh, that we may be enabled to contemplate Him, and may come oneday to live with Him unendingly! _The end of the commandment is charityfrom a pure heart and a good conscience, and an unfeigned faith. _[353]And among these three, hope stands for _a good conscience_. Faith, therefore, with hope and charity, leads to God the man who prays--thatis, the man who believes, who hopes, and who desires, and who in the_Lord's Prayer_ meditates what he should ask from the Lord (_Ep. _ cxxx. _ad probam_). 

 "For my heart hath been inflamed, and my reins have been changed: and I am brought to nothing, and I knew not. I am become as a beast before Thee; and I am always with Thee. Thou hast held me by my right hand; and by Thy will Thou hast conducted me; and with glory Thou hast received me. For what have I in Heaven? and besides Thee what do I desire upon earth? For Thee my flesh and my heart hath fainted away; Thou art the God of my heart; and the God that is my portion for ever. For behold they that go far from Thee shall perish; Thou hast destroyed all them that are disloyal to Thee. But it is good for me to adhere to my God, to put my hope in the Lord God: that I may declare all Thy praises, in the gates of the daughter of Sion. "[354]

IV

Does the Contemplative Life consist solely in the Contemplation of God, or in the Consideration of other Truths as well?

S. Gregory says[355]: "In contemplation it is the Principle--namely, God--which is sought. "

A thing may come under the contemplative life in two ways: eitherprimarily, or secondarily--that is, dispositively. Now primarily thecontemplation of Divine Truth belongs to the contemplative life, sincesuch contemplation is the goal of all human life. Hence S. Augustinesays[356]: "The contemplation of God is promised to us as the goal ofall our acts and the eternal consummation of all our joys. " And thiswill be perfect in the future life when we shall see God face toface--when, consequently, it will render us perfectly blessed. But inour present state the contemplation of Divine Truth belongs to us onlyimperfectly--namely, _through a glass and in a dark manner_; it causesin us now a certain commencement of beatitude, which begins here, to becontinued in the future. Hence even the Philosopher[357] makes theultimate happiness of man consist in the contemplation of the highestintelligible truths. 

But since we are led to a contemplation of God by the consideration ofHis Divine works--_The invisible things of God . .. Are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made_[358]--it follows also thatthe contemplation of the Divine works belongs in a secondary sense tothe contemplative life--according, namely, as by it we are led to theknowledge of God. For this reason S. Augustine says[359]: "In the studyof created things we must not exercise a mere idle and passingcuriosity, but must make them a stepping-stone to things that areimmortal and that abide for ever. "

Thus from what we have said it is clear that four things belong, andthat in a certain sequence, to the contemplative life: firstly, themoral virtues; secondly, other acts apart from that of contemplation;thirdly, the contemplation of the Divine works; and fourthly--and thisis the crown of them all--the actual contemplation of the Divine Truth. 

Some, however, say that the contemplative life is not merely confined tothe contemplation of God but is extended to the consideration of anytruth whatsoever, thus:

1. In Ps. Cxxxviii. 14 we read: _Wonderful are Thy works! My soulknoweth right well!_ But the knowledge of the works of God is derivedfrom a certain contemplation of the truth. Whence it would seem that itbelongs to the contemplative life to contemplate not only the DivineTruth, but also any other truth we please. 

 But David sought the knowledge of God's works that he might thereby be led to God Himself, as he says elsewhere: _I meditated on all Thy works, I mused upon the works of Thy hands; I stretched forth my hands to Thee. _[360]

2. Again, S. Bernard says[361]: "The first point in contemplation is tomarvel at God's majesty; the second, at His judgments; the third, at Hisbenefits; the fourth, at His promises. " But of these only the firstcomes under the Divine Truth--the rest are effects of it. 

 But from the consideration of the Divine judgments a man is led to the contemplation of the Divine justice; and from a consideration of the Divine benefits and promises a man is led to a knowledge of the Divine mercy and goodness, as it were by effects either already shown or to be shown. 

3. Once more, Richard of S. Victor[362] distinguishes six kinds ofcontemplation; the first is according to the imagination simply, when, namely, we consider corporeal things; the second is in the imaginationdirected by the reason, as when we consider the harmony and arrangementof the things of the senses; the third is in the reason, but based onthe imagination, as when by the consideration of visible things we areuplifted to the invisible; the fourth is in the reason working on thethings of the reason, as when the soul occupies itself with invisiblethings unknown to the imagination; the fifth is above the reason, butnot beyond its grasp, when, for instance, we know by Divine Revelationthings which cannot be comprehended by the human reason; and the sixthis above the reason and beyond its grasp, as when by Divine illuminationwe know things which are apparently repugnant to human reason--forexample, the things we are told concerning the mystery of the HolyTrinity. 

And only the last named of these seems to come under Divine Truth;consequently contemplation of the truth is not limited to Divine Truth, but extends also to those truths which we consider in created things. 

 But by these six are signified the steps by which we ascend through created things to the contemplation of God. For in the first we have the perception of the things of sense; in the second, the progress from the things of sense to the things of the intellect; in the third judgment upon the things of sense according to intellectual principles; in the fourth, the simple consideration of intellectual truths at which we have arrived by means of the things of sense; in the fifth, the contemplation of intellectual truths to which we could not attain by the things of sense, but which can be grasped by reason; in the sixth, the contemplation of intellectual truths such as the reason can neither find nor grasp--truths, namely, which belong to the sublime contemplation of the Divine Truth, in which contemplation is finally perfected. 

4. Lastly, in the contemplative life the contemplation of truth issought as being man's perfection. But any truth whatsoever is aperfection of the human intellect. Consequently the contemplative lifeconsists in the contemplation of any kind of truth whatsoever. 

 But the ultimate perfection of the human intellect is the Divine Truth; other truths perfect the intellect by way of preparation for the Divine Truth. 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ Martha, Martha, thou hast chosen a good part, but Maryhath chosen the better. Yours is good--for it is good to busy oneselfwith waiting on the Saints--but hers is better. What you have chosenwill pass away at length. You minister to the hungry, you minister tothe thirsty, you make the beds for them that would sleep, you findhouse-room for them that need it--but all these things will pass away!For there will come a time when none will hunger, when none will thirst, when none will sleep. And then thy care will be taken from thee. ButMary hath chosen the better part, which shall never be taken from her!It shall not be taken away, for she chose to live the life ofcontemplation, she chose to live by the Word. What kind of life willthat be that flows from the Word without spoken word? Here on earth shedrew life from the Word, but through the medium of the spoken word. Thenwill be life, from the Word indeed, but with no spoken word. For theWord Himself is life. _We shall be like Him, for we shall see Him as Heis_[363] (_Sermon_, CLXIX. , xiv. 17). 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine: One thing I have asked of the Lord, this will I seekafter: that I may dwell in the house of the Lord all the days of mylife!_[364]

Whosoever asks for This One Thing and seeks after It prays with sure andcertain confidence; nor need he fear lest, when he shall have obtainedIt, he shall find It disagreeable to him, for without It naught that heprays for as he ought, and obtains, is of any avail. For this is theone, true, and only Blessed Life--to contemplate the delights of theLord for eternity, in immortality and incorruptibility of body as wellas soul. For the sake of This One Thing are all other things to besought after, and only thus our petitions for them are rendered notunbecoming. Whosoever hath this One Thing will have all that he wishesfor, nor indeed will he be able to wish there for anything which isunfitting. For there is the Fountain of Life, for which we must nowthirst in prayer as long as we live by hope--as long, too, as we see notWhat we hope for. For we dwell 'neath the shadow of His wings beforeWhom is all our desire, that so we _may be inebriated with the plentyof_ His _house, and may drink of the torrent of_ His _pleasure: forwith_ Him _is the Fountain of Life, and in_ His _light we shall seelight. _[365] Then shall our desire be sated with all good things, thenwill there be naught for us to seek for with groanings, but only What weshall cling to with joy. Yet none the less, since this is _the peacethat surpasseth all understanding_, even when praying for it _we knownot what we should pray for as we ought_[366] (_Ep. _ cxxx. _ad probam_). 

 "He shall cast death down headlong for ever: and the Lord God shall wipe away tears from every face, and the reproach of His people He shall take away from off the whole earth: for the Lord hath spoken it. And they shall say in that day: Lo, this is our God, we have waited for Him, and He will save us: this is the Lord, we have patiently waited for Him, we shall rejoice and be joyful in His salvation. "[367]

V

Can the Contemplative Life attain, according to the State of thisPresent Life, to the Contemplation of the Divine Essence?

S. Gregory says[368]: "As long as we live in this mortal flesh none ofus can make such progress in the virtue of contemplation as to fix hismind's gaze on that Infinite Light. "

S. Augustine also says[369]: "No one who looks on God lives with thatlife with which we mortals live in the bodily senses; but unless he bein some sort dead to this life, whether as having wholly departed fromthe body, or as rapt away from the bodily senses, he is not uplifted tothat vision. "

A man, then, can be "in this life" in two ways: he can be in itactually--that is, as actually using his bodily senses--and when he isthus "in the body" no contemplation such as belongs to this present lifecan attain to the vision of the Essence of God; or a man may be "in thislife" potentially, and not actually; that is, his soul may be joined tohis body as its informing principle, but in such fashion that it neithermakes use of the bodily senses nor even of the imagination, and this iswhat takes place when a man is rapt in ecstasy: in this sensecontemplation such as belongs to this life can attain to the vision ofthe Divine Essence. 

Consequently the highest degree of contemplation which is compatiblewith the present life is that which S. Paul had when he was rapt inecstasy and stood midway between the state of this present life and thenext. 

Some, however, say that the contemplative life can, even according toour present state of life, attain to the vision of the Divine Essence, thus:

1. Jacob said: _I have seen God face to face, and my soul hath beensaved. _[370] But the vision of the face of God is the vision of theDivine Essence. Whence it would seem that a man may by contemplationactually reach, even during this present life, to the vision of theEssence of God. 

 But S. Denis says[371]: "If anyone saw God and understood what he saw, then it was not God he saw, but something belonging to Him. " And similarly S. Gregory says[372]: "Almighty God is never seen in His Glory, but the soul gazes at something derived from It, and thus refreshed, makes advance, and so ultimately arrives at the glory of vision. " Hence when Jacob said, _I saw God face to face_, we are not to understand that he saw the Essence of God, but that he saw some appearance--that is, some imaginary appearance--in which God spoke to him; or, as the Gloss of S. Gregory[373] has it, "Since we know people by the face, Jacob called knowledge of God His face. "

2. Further, S. Gregory says[374]: "Contemplative men turn back withinupon themselves in that they search into spiritual things, and do notcarry with them the shadows of things corporeal; or if perchance theytouch them, they drive them away with discreet hands. But when theywould look upon the Infinite Light, they put aside all images whichlimit It, and in striving to arrive at a height superior to themselves, they become conquerors of their nature. " But a man is only withheld fromthe vision of the Divine Essence, which is Infinite Light, by thenecessity he is under of turning to corporeal images. From this it wouldseem that contemplation can, even in this present life, arrive at thesight of the Infinite Essential Light. 

 But human contemplation according to this present state cannot exist without recourse to the imagination, for it is in accordance with man's nature that he should see intelligible forms through the medium of pictures in the imagination, as also the Philosopher teaches. [375] Yet intellectual knowledge does not consist in such images, rather does the intellect contemplate in them the purity of intelligible truth; and this is not merely the case in natural knowledge, but also in those things which we know by revelation. For S. Denis says: "The Divine Light manifests to us the Angelic hierarchies by means of symbolical figures by force of which we are restored to the simple ray, " that is, to the simple knowledge of intelligible truth. It is thus that we ought to understand S. Gregory's words when he says: "In contemplation men do not carry with them the shadows of things corporeal, " for their contemplation does not abide in these things but rather in the consideration of intelligible truth. 

3. Lastly, S. Gregory says[376]: "To the soul that looks upon itsCreator all created things are but narrow. Consequently the man ofGod--namely, the Blessed Benedict--who saw in a tower a fiery globe andthe Angels mounting up to Heaven, was doubtless only able to see thesethings by the light of God. " But the Blessed Benedict was then still inthis life. Consequently contemplation, even in this present life, canattain to the vision of the Essence of God. 

 But we are not to understand from S. Gregory's words that the Blessed Benedict saw the Essence of God in that vision; S. Gregory wishes to show that since "to him who looks upon his Creator all created things are but as nothing, " it follows that certain things can easily be seen by the illumination afforded by the Divine Light. Hence he adds: "For, however little of the Creator's Light he sees, all created things become of small account. "

 Veni Sancte Spiritus Et emitte coelitus Lucis Tuæ radium!

 O Lux Beatissima Reple cordis intima Tuorum fidelium!

_S. Augustine:_ And thus, the remaining burden of this mortal life beinglaid aside at death, man's happiness will, in God's own time, beperfected from every point of view--that happiness which is begun inthis life, and to the attainment and securing of which at some futuretime our every effort must now tend (_Of the Sermon on the Mount_, II. , ix. 35). 

 "The old error is passed away; Thou wilt keep peace: peace, because we have hoped in Thee. You have hoped in the Lord for evermore, in the Lord God mighty for ever. And in the way of Thy judgments, O Lord, we have patiently waited for Thee: Thy Name, and Thy remembrance are the desire of the soul. My soul hath desired Thee in the night: yea, and with my spirit within me in the morning early I will watch to Thee. "[377]

VI

Is the Act of Contemplation Rightly Distinguished According to the ThreeKinds of Motion--Circular, Direct, and Oblique?

S. Denis the Areopagite[378] does so distinguish the acts ofcontemplation. 

The operation of the intellect in which contemplation essentiallyconsists is termed "motion" in the sense that motion is the act of aperfect thing, according to the Philosopher. [379] And since we arrive ata knowledge of intelligible things through the medium of the things ofsense, and the operations of the senses do not take place withoutmotion, it follows that the operations also of the intellect arecorrectly described as a species of motion, and are differentiatedaccording to the analogy of divers motions. But the more perfect and thechiefest of bodily motions are local motions, as is proved by thePhilosopher. [380] Consequently the chief intellectual motions aredescribed according to the analogy of these latter. 

Now, there are three species of local motion: one is circular, accordingas a thing is moved uniformly about the same centre; another is direct, according as a thing proceeds from one point to another; and a third isoblique, compounded as it were from the two foregoing. 

Hence in intelligible operations, that which simply has uniformity isattributed to circular motion; that intellectual motion by which a manproceeds from one thing to another is attributed to direct motion; whilethat intellectual operation which has a certain uniformity combined withprogress towards different points, is attributed to oblique motion. 

All, however, do not agree with this division, thus:

1. Contemplation means a state of repose, as is said in _Wisdom_[381]:_When I go into my house I shall repose myself with Her. _ And motion isopposed to repose. Consequently the operations of the contemplative lifecannot be designated according to these different species of motion. 

 But whereas external bodily movements are opposed to that repose of contemplation which is understood to be rest from external occupations, the motion of intellectual operations belongs precisely to the repose of contemplation. 

2. Again, the action of the contemplative life pertains to the intellectwherein man is at one with the Angels. But S. Denis does not apply thesemotions to the Angels in the same way as he does to the soul; for hesays that the _circular_ motion of the Angels "corresponds to theillumination of the beautiful and the good. " But of the _circular_motion of the soul he gives several definitions, of which the first is"the return of the soul upon itself as opposed to external things"; thesecond is "a certain wrapping together of the powers of the soul wherebyit is freed from error and from external occupation"; and the third is"the union of the soul with things superior to it. " Similarly, he speaksin different terms of the _direct_ motion of the soul as compared withthat of the Angels. For he says that the _direct_ motion of an Angel is"according as he proceeds to the care of the things subject to him";while the _direct_ motion of the soul is made to consist in two things:first of all "that it proceeds to those things which are around it";secondly, that "from external things it is uplifted to simplecontemplation. " And lastly, he explains the _oblique_ motion differentlyin each case. For he makes the _oblique_ motion of the Angels consist inthis that, "while providing for those that have less than themselves, they remain in the same attitude towards God"; but the _oblique_ motionof the soul he explains as meaning that "the soul is illumined by Divineknowledge rationally and diffusely. "

Consequently it does not appear that the operations of contemplation arefittingly distinguished according to the aforesaid species of motion. 

 But while man's intellect is generally the same with that of the Angels, the intellectual powers of the latter are far higher than in man. It was therefore necessary to assign the aforesaid motions to human souls and to the Angels in different fashion in proportion as their intellectual powers are not uniform. For the Angelic intellect has uniform knowledge in two respects: firstly, because the Angels do not acquire intelligible truth from the variety of compound things; and secondly, because they do not understand intelligible truth discursively, but by simple intuition. Whereas the intellect of the human soul, on the contrary, acquires intelligible truth from the things of sense, and understands it by the discursive action of the reason. 

 Hence S. Denis assigns to the Angels circular motion in that they uniformly and unceasingly, without beginning or end, gaze upon God; just as circular motion, which has neither beginning nor end, is uniformly maintained round the same central point. But in the case of the human soul, its twofold lack of uniformity must be removed before it can attain to the above-mentioned uniformity. For there must first be removed that lack of uniformity which arises from the diversity of external things: that is, the soul must quit external things. And this S. Denis expresses first of all in his definition of the circular motion of the soul when he speaks of "the return of the soul upon itself as opposed to external things. " And there must be removed in the second place that second lack of uniformity which arises from the discursive action of the reason. And this takes place when all the operations of the soul are reduced to the simple contemplation of intelligible truth. This forms the second part of S. Denis's definition of this circular motion--namely, when he speaks of the necessity of "a certain wrapping together of the powers of the soul, " with the result that, when discursive action thus ceases, the soul's gaze is fixed on the contemplation of the one simple truth. And in this operation of the soul there is no room for error, just as there is no room for error in our understanding of first principles which we know by simple intuition. 

 Then, when these first two steps have been taken, S. Denis puts in the third place that uniformity, like to that of the Angels, by which the soul, laying aside all else, persists in the simple contemplation of God. And this he expresses when he says: "Then, as now made uniform, it, as a whole"--that is, as conformed (to God)--"is, with all its powers unified, led by the hand to the Beautiful and the Good. "

 But the _direct_ motion in the Angels cannot be understood in the sense that, by considering, they proceed from one point to another; but solely according to the order of their providential care for others--according, namely, as the superior Angels illumine the inferior through those who stand between. And this is what S. Denis means when he says that the _direct_ motion of an Angel is "according as he proceeds to the care of the things subject to him, taking in his course all things that are direct" following--that is, those things which are disposed in direct order. But to the human soul S. Denis assigns _direct_ motion in the sense that it proceeds from the exterior things of sense to the knowledge of intelligible things. 

 And he assigns _oblique_ motion to the Angels--a motion, that is, compounded of the _direct_ and the _circular_--inasmuch as an Angel, according to his contemplation of God, provides for those inferior to him. To the human soul, on the contrary, he assigns this same _oblique_ motion, similarly compounded of the _direct_ and the _circular_ motions, inasmuch as in its reasonings it makes use of the Divine illuminations. 

3. Lastly, Richard of S. Victor[382] gives many other and differentkinds of motion. For, following the analogy of the birds of the air, hesays of these latter that "some at one time ascend on high, at anotherswoop down to earth, and they do this again and again; others turn nowto the right, now to the left, and this repeatedly; others go inadvance, others fall behind; some sail round and round in circles, nownarrower and now wider; while others again remain almost immovablysuspended in one place. " From all which it would seem that there are notmerely three movements in contemplation. 

 But all these diversities of motion which are expressed by, up and down, to right and left, backwards and forwards, and in varying circles, are reducible either to _direct_ or to _oblique_ motion, for they all signify the discursive action of the reason. For if this discursive action be from the genus to the species or from the whole to the part, it will be, as Richard of S. Victor himself explains, motion upwards and downwards. If, again, it means argumentation from one thing to its opposite, it will come under motion to right and left. Or if it be deduction from cause to effect, then it will be motion backwards and forwards. And finally, if it mean arguing from the accidents which surround a thing, whether nearly or remotely, it will be circuitous motion. But the discursive action of the reason arguing from the things of sense to intelligible things according to the orderly progress of the natural reason, belongs to _direct_ motion. When, however, it arises from Divine illuminations, it comes under _oblique_ motion, as we have already said (in the reply to the second argument). Lastly, only the immobility which he mentions will come under _circular_ motion. 

 Whence it appears that S. Denis has quite sufficiently, and with exceeding subtlety, described the movements of contemplation. 

 "For behold my witness is in Heaven, and He that knoweth my conscience is on high. For behold short years pass away, and I am walking in a path by which I shall not return. "[383]

VII

Has Contemplation its Joys?

In Wisdom viii. 16 we read: _Her conversation hath no bitterness, norHer company any tediousness, but joy and gladness. _ And S. Gregorysays[384]: "The contemplative life means a truly lovable sweetness. "

There are two sources of pleasure in contemplation; for, firstly, thereis the very act of contemplating, and everyone finds a certain pleasurein the performance of acts which are appropriate to his nature or to hishabits. And the contemplation of truth is natural to man as a rationalanimal; hence it is that "all men naturally desire to know, " andconsequently find a pleasure in the knowledge of truth. And thispleasure is enhanced according as a man has habits of wisdom andknowledge which enable him to indulge in contemplation withoutdifficulty. 

Secondly, contemplation is pleasurable owing to the object which wecontemplate, as when a man looks at something which he loves. And thisholds good of even bodily vision, for not only is the mere exercise ofthe visual faculties pleasurable, but the seeing people whom we love ispleasurable. 

Since, then, the contemplative life especially consists in thecontemplation of God, to which contemplation we are moved by charity, itfollows that the contemplative life is not merely pleasurable by reasonof the simple act of contemplating, but also by reason of Divine LoveItself. And in both these respects the delights of contemplation exceedall other human delights. For on the one hand spiritual delights aresuperior to carnal delights; and on the other hand, the love of Divinecharity wherewith we love God exceeds all other love; whence it is saidin the Psalm: _Taste and see that the Lord is sweet. _[385]

Some maintain, however, that contemplation is not pleasurable, thus:

1. Pleasure belongs to the appetitive powers, whereas contemplation ismainly in the intellect. 

 But while the contemplative life mainly consists in the intellect, it derives its principle from the affective powers, since a man is moved to contemplation by love of God. And since the end corresponds to the principle, it follows that the goal and term of the contemplative life is in the affective powers, in the sense, namely, that a man finds a pleasure in the sight of a thing which he loves, and this very pleasure stirs up in him a yet greater love. Hence S. Gregory says[386]: "When a man sees one whom he loves his love is yet more enkindled. " And in this lies the full perfection of the contemplative life: that the Divine Truth should not only be seen but loved. 

2. Again, strife and contention hinder delight. But in contemplationthere is strife and contention, for S. Gregory says[387]: "The soul, when it strives after the contemplation of God, finds itself engaged ina species of combat; at one time it seems to prevail, for byunderstanding and by feeling it tastes somewhat of the Infinite Light;at other times it is overwhelmed, for when it has tasted it faints. "

 It is true indeed that contest and strife arising from the opposition presented by external things prevent us from finding pleasure in those same things. For no man finds a pleasure in the things against which he fights. But he does find a pleasure, other things being equal, in the actual attainment of a thing for which he has striven; thus S. Augustine says[388]: "The greater the danger in the battle, the greater the joy in the triumph. " And in contemplation the strife and the combat do not arise from any opposition on the part of the truth which we contemplate, but from our deficient understanding and from the corruptible nature of our bodies which ever draw us down to things beneath us: _The corruptible body is a load upon the soul, and the earthly habitation presseth down the mind that museth upon many things. _[389] Hence it is that when a man attains to the contemplation of truth he loves it still more ardently; but at the same time he more than ever hates his own defects and the sluggishness of his corruptible body, so that with the Apostle he cries out: _Unhappy man that I am! Who shall deliver me from the body of this death?_[390] Hence, too, S. Gregory says: "When God is known by our desires and our understanding, He causes all pleasures of the flesh to wither up within us. "[391]

3. But again, delight follows upon a perfect work. [392] Butcontemplation on this earth is imperfect, according to the words of theApostle: _We see now through a glass in a dark manner. _[393] Hence itwould seem that the contemplative life does not afford delight. 

 It is indeed true that the contemplation of God during this life is imperfect compared with our contemplation of Him in our eternal home; and in the same way it is true that the delights of contemplation here on earth are imperfect compared with the delights of contemplation in that home, of which latter joys the Psalmist says: _Thou shalt make them drink of the torrent of Thy pleasure. _[394] Yet, none the less, the contemplation of Divine things here on earth is, although imperfect, far more perfect than any other subject of contemplation howsoever perfect it may be, and this by reason of the excellence of what we contemplate. Whence the Philosopher says[395]: "It may indeed be the case that with regard to such noble existences and Divine substances we have to be content with insignificant theories, yet even though we but barely touch upon them, none the less so ennobling is such knowledge that it affords us greater delight than any other which is accessible to us. " Hence, too, S. Gregory says: "The contemplative life has its most desirable sweetness which uplifts the soul above itself, opens the way to heavenly things, and makes spiritual things plain to the eyes of the soul. "

4. Lastly, bodily injuries are a hindrance to delight. But contemplationis productive of bodily injuries, for we read in Genesis[396] thatJacob, after saying _I have seen God face to face, . .. Halted on hisfoot . .. Because He touched the sinew of his thigh and it shrank_. Whence it would seem that the contemplative life is not pleasurable. 

 But after that contemplation Jacob halted on one foot because, as S. Gregory says, "it must needs be that as the love of this world grows weaker, so a man grows stronger in his love of God, " and consequently, "when once we have known the sweetness of God, one of our feet remains sound while the other halts; for a man who halts with one foot leans only on the one that is sound. "[397]

 "Tu esto nostrum gaudium Qui es futurus Præmium. Sit nostra in Te gloria Per cuncta semper sæcula!"

 * * * * *

_S. Gregory:_ Between the delights of the body and those of the heartthere is ever this difference that the delights of the body are wont, when we have them not, to beget a keen yearning for them; but when wehave them and eat our fill, they straightway beget disgust for them, forwe are sated therewith. Spiritual joys, on the contrary, when we havethem not are a weariness, but when we have them we desire them stillmore, and the more we feed upon them the more we hunger after them. Inthe case of the former, the yearning for them was a pleasure, trial ofthem brought disgust. In the case of the latter, in desire we held themcheap, trial of them proved a source of pleasure. For spiritual joysincrease the soul's desire of them even while they sate us, for the moretheir savour is perceived, the more we know what it is we ought eagerlyto love. Whence it comes to pass that when we have them not we cannotlove them, for their savour is unknown to us. For how can a man lovewhat he is ignorant of? Wherefore the Psalmist admonishes us, saying: _Otaste and see that the Lord is sweet!_[398] As though he would say to usin plain terms: You know not His sweetness if ye have never tasted it;touch, then, the Food of Life with the palate of your soul that so, making proof of Its sweetness, ye may be able to love It. 

These joys man lost when he sinned in Paradise; he went out when heclosed his mouth to the Food of Eternal Sweetness. Whence we too, whoare born amidst the toils of this pilgrimage, come without relish tothis Food; we know not what we ought to desire, and the sickness of ourdisgust grows the more the further our souls keep away from feeding uponthat Sweetness; and less and less does our soul desire those interiorjoys the longer it has grown accustomed to do without them. We sicken, then, by reason of our very disgust, and we are wearied by thelong-drawn sickness of our hunger (_Hom. _ XXXVI. , _On the Gospels_). 

VIII

Is the Contemplative Life lasting?

The Lord said _Mary hath chosen the best part which shall not be takenaway from her_[399] because, as S. Gregory says: "Contemplation beginshere below that it may be perfected in our heavenly home. "

A thing may be termed "lasting" in two ways: from its very nature, or asfar as we are concerned. As far as its nature is concerned, thecontemplative life is lasting in two ways: for first of all it isconcerned with incorruptible and unchangeable things, and in the secondplace there is nothing which is its contrary: for, as Aristotlesays[400]: "To the pleasure which is derived from thought there is nocontrary. "

And also as far as we are concerned the contemplative life is lasting;and this both because it comes under the action of the incorruptibleportion of our soul--namely, our intellect--and so can last after thislife; and also because in the work of the contemplative life there is nobodily toil, and we can consequently apply ourselves more continuouslyto such work, as also the Philosopher remarks. [401]

Some, however, argue that the contemplative life is not lasting, thus:

1. The contemplative life essentially concerns the intellect. But allthe intellectual perfections of this life will be _made void_, as weread: _Whether prophecies shall be made void, or tongues shall cease, orknowledge shall be destroyed. _[402]

 But the fashion of contemplation here and in our Father's home is not the same; and the contemplative life is said "to last" by reason of charity, which is both its principle and its end; wherefore S. Gregory says: "The contemplative life begins here below that it may be perfected in our heavenly home, for the fire of love which begins to burn here below, when it sees Him Whom it loves, burns yet more strongly with love of Him. "

2. Again, men but taste the sweetness of contemplation here, snatchingat it, as it were, and in passing: whence S. Augustine says: "Thouintroducest me to a most unwonted affection within me, to an unspeakablesweetness; yet I fall back again as though dragged down by a grievousweight!"[403] And S. Gregory, expounding those words of Job, _When aspirit passed before me_, says: "The mind does not long remainsteadfastly occupied with the sweetness of intimate contemplation, forit is recalled to itself, stricken back by the immensity of that Light. "The contemplative life, then, is not lasting. 

 It is true indeed that no action can remain long at the pitch of its intensity. And the goal of contemplation is to attain to the uniformity of Divine contemplation, as Denis the Areopagite says. [404] Hence, although in this sense contemplation cannot last long, yet it can last long as regards its other acts. 

3. Lastly, what is not natural to a man cannot be lasting. "But thecontemplative life, " as the Philosopher says, "is beyond man. "[405]

 But the Philosopher says that the contemplative life is "beyond man" in the sense that it belongs to us according to what is Divine in us--namely, our intellect; for our intellect is incorruptible and impassible in itself, and consequently its action can be more lasting. 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ This day sets before us the great mystery of our eternalbeatitude. For that life which this day signifies will not pass away asto-day is to pass away. Wherefore, brethren, we exhort and beseech youby the Name of our Lord Jesus Christ by Whom our sins are forgiven, byHim Who willed that His Blood should be our ransom, by Him Who hasdeigned that we who are not deserving to be called His slaves should yetbe called His brethren--we beseech you that your entire aim, that whichgives you your very name of "Christian, " and by reason of which you bearHis Name upon your foreheads and in your hearts, may be directed solelyto that life which we are to share with the Angels; that life where isto be unending repose, everlasting joy, unfailing happiness, restwithout disturbance, joy without sadness, no death. What that life isnone can know save those who have made trial of it; and none can maketrial of it save those who have faith (_Sermon_, CCLIX. , _On LowSunday_). 

 "And thou shalt say in that day: I will give thanks to Thee, O Lord, for Thou wast angry with me: Thy wrath is turned away, and Thou hast comforted me. Behold, God is my Saviour. I will deal confidently, and will not fear: because the Lord is my strength, and my praise, and He is become my salvation. You shall draw waters with joy out of the Saviour's fountains: And you shall say in that day: Praise ye the Lord, and call upon His Name: make His works known among the people: remember that His Name is high. Sing ye to the Lord, for He hath done great things: shew this forth in all the earth. Rejoice, and praise, O thou habitation of Sion: for great is He that is in the midst of thee, the holy One of Israel. "[406]

FOOTNOTES:

[316] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 18. 

[317] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[318] _Metaphysics_, ii. 3. 

[319] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 18; and _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[320] _On Ezechiel, loc. Cit. _

[321] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[322] Isa. Xxxiii. 13-17. 

[323] Ps. Xli. 1-6. 

[324] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 18. 

[325] _Ethics_, II. , iv. 3. 

[326] _Ibid. _, X. , viii. 1. 

[327] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[328] Rom. Xiii. 10. 

[329] S. Matt. V. 8. 

[330] Heb. Xii. 14. 

[331] Isa. Xxxii. 17. 

[332] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[333] Gen. Xxix. 17. 

[334] _De Officiis_, i. 43, 45, 46. 

[335] Wisd. Viii. 2. 

[336] _Soliloquies_, i. 10. 

[337] Jer. Xiv. 8, 9. 

[338] _Of the Divine Names_, vii. 2. 

[339] _On Contemplation_, i. 3 and 4. 

[340] _De Trinitate_, xiv. 7. 

[341] _De Consideratione_, ii. 2. 

[342] _De Anima_, II. , i. 2. 

[343] _Loc. Cit. _, i. 4. 

[344] 2 Cor. Iii. 18. 

[345] _De Trinitate_, xv. 8. 

[346] _De Consideratione_, v. 14. 

[347] _De Fide Orthodoxa_, ii. 15. 

[348] S. Luke x. 39. 

[349] Wisd. Vii. 7. 

[350] 2 Cor. V. 6-7. 

[351] Hab. Ii. 4. 

[352] Ps. Cxliii. 15. 

[353] 1 Tim. I. 5. 

[354] Ps. Lxxii. 21-28. 

[355] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 28. 

[356] _On the Trinity_, i. 8. 

[357] _Ethics_, X. , vii. 2. 

[358] Rom. I. 20. 

[359] _De Vera Religione_, xxix. 

[360] Ps. Cxlii. 5, 6. 

[361] _De Consideratione_, v. 14. 

[362] _Of Contemplation_, i. 6. 

[363] 1 John iii. 2. 

[364] Ps. Xxvi. 4. 

[365] Ps. Xxxv. 9, 10. 

[366] Phil. Iv. 7; Rom. Viii. 26. 

[367] Isa. Xxv. 8, 9. 

[368] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[369] _De Genesi ad Litt. _, xii. 27. 

[370] Gen. Xxxii. 30. 

[371] _Epistola I. , to Caius the Monk. _

[372] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[373] The _Glossa Ordinaria_, taken from S. Gregory's _Moralia in Job_, xxiv. 5. 

[374] _Moralia_, vi. 27. 

[375] _De Anima_, III. , vii. 3. 

[376] _Dialogues_, ii. 35. 

[377] Isa. Xxvi. 3, 4, 8, 9. 

[378] _Of the Divine Names_, IV. , i. 7. 

[379] _De Anima_, III. , vii. 1 and 2. 

[380] _Physica_, VIII. , vii. 2. 

[381] viii. 16. 

[382] _Of Contemplation_, i. 5. 

[383] Job xvi. 20, 23. 

[384] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[385] Ps. Xxxiii. 9. 

[386] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[387] _Ibid. _

[388] _Conf. _, viii. 3. 

[389] Wisd. Ix. 15. 

[390] Rom. Vii. 24. 

[391] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[392] _Ethics_, X. , iv. 6. 

[393] 1 Cor. Xiii, 12. 

[394] Ps. Xxxv. 9. 

[395] _De Partibus Animalium_, i. 5. 

[396] xxxii. 30-32. 

[397] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[398] Ps. Xxxiii. 9. 

[399] S. Luke x. 42. 

[400] _Topics_, I. , xiii. 5. 

[401] _Ethics_, X. , vii. 2. 

[402] 1 Cor. Xiii. 8. 

[403] _Conf. _, x. 40. 

[404] _Of the Divine Names_, IV. , i. 7; and _Of the Heavenly Hierarchy_, iii. 

[405] _Ethics_, X. , vii. 8. 

[406] Isa. Xii. 1-6. 

QUESTION CLXXXI

OF THE ACTIVE LIFE

 I. Do all Acts of the Moral Virtues come under the Active Life? II. Does Prudence pertain to the Active Life?III. Does Teaching belong to the Active or to the Contemplative Life? IV. Does the Active Life continue after this Life?

I

Do all Acts of the Moral Virtues come under the Active Life?

S. Isidore says[407]: "In the active life all the vices are first of allto be removed by the practice of good works, so that in thecontemplative life a man may, with now purified mental gaze, pass to thecontemplation of the Divine Light. " But all the vices can only beremoved by the acts of the moral virtues. Consequently the acts of themoral virtues belong to the active life. 

As we have said already, [408] the active and the contemplative lives aredistinguished by the different occupations of men who are aiming atdifferent ends, one being the consideration of Truth--the goal of thecontemplative life; the other external works with which the active lifeis occupied. But it is clear that the moral virtues are not especiallyconcerned with the contemplation of truth but with action; thus thePhilosopher says[409]: "For virtue, knowledge is of little or no avail. "It is therefore manifest that the moral virtues essentially belong tothe active life; and in accordance with this the Philosopher[410] refersthe moral virtues to active happiness. 

Some, however, maintain that all the acts of the moral virtues do notbelong to the active life, thus:

1. The active life seems to consist solely in those things which have todo with our neighbour; for S. Gregory says[411]: "The active life meansbreaking bread to the hungry;" and at the close, after enumerating manythings which have to do with our neighbour, he adds: "And to provide foreach according as they have need. " But not by all the acts of the moralvirtues are we brought into contact with others, but only by justice andits divisions. Consequently all the acts of the moral virtues do notbelong to the active life. 

 But the chief of the moral virtues is justice, and by it a man is brought into contact with his neighbour, as the Philosopher proves. [412] We describe, then, the active life by those things by means of which we are brought into contact with our neighbour; yet we do not thereby mean that the active life consists solely in these things, but chiefly in them. 

2. Again, S. Gregory says[413]: "By Lia, who was blear-eyed butfruitful, is signified the active life which sees less clearly, sinceoccupied with works; but when, now by word, now by example, it arousesits neighbour to imitation, it brings forth many children in goodworks. " But all this seems rather to come under charity, by which welove our neighbour, than under the moral virtues. Consequently the actsof the moral virtues seem not to belong to the active life. 

 But a man can, by acts of all the moral virtues, lead his neighbour to good works by his example; and this S. Gregory here attributes to the active life. 

3. Lastly, the moral virtues dispose us to the contemplative life. Butdisposition to a thing and the perfect attainment of that thing comeunder the same head. Consequently the moral virtues do not belong to theactive life. 

 But just as a virtue which is directed towards the end of another virtue passes over, in some sort, into the species of that latter virtue, so also when a man uses those things which belong to the active life precisely as disposing him to contemplation, then those things which he so uses are comprised under the contemplative life. But for those who devote themselves to the works of the moral virtues as being good in themselves and not as dispositive towards the contemplative life, the moral virtues belong to the active life. Although at the same time it might be said that the active life is a disposition to the contemplative life. 

 "O death, how bitter is the remembrance of thee to a man that hath peace in his possessions, to a man that is at rest, and whose ways are prosperous in all things, and that is yet able to take meat! O death, thy sentence is welcome to the man that is in need, and to him whose strength faileth, who is in a decrepit age, and that is in care about all things, and to the distrustful that loseth patience! Fear not the sentence of death. Remember what things have been before thee, and what shall come after thee: this sentence is from the Lord upon all flesh. And what shall come upon thee by the good pleasure of the Most High whether ten, or a hundred, or a thousand years. "[414]

II

Does Prudence pertain to the Active Life?

The Philosopher says[415] that prudence pertains to active happiness, and to this pertain the moral virtues. 

As we have said above, when one thing is directed towards the attainmentof another thing as its end, it--and this especially holds good inmorals--is, so to speak, drawn into the species of that towards which itis thus directed, thus: "He who commits adultery in order to steal" saysthe Philosopher, [416] "is rather a thief than an adulterer. " Now it isclear that that knowledge which is prudence is directed to the acts ofthe moral virtues as its end, for prudence is "the right mode ofprocedure in our actions;"[417] hence, too, the ends of the moralvirtues are the principles of prudence, as the Philosopher also says inthe same work. [418] In the same way, then, as we said above that in thecase of a man who directs them to the repose of contemplation, the moralvirtues pertain to the contemplative life, so also the knowledge whichis prudence, and which is by its very nature directed to the operationsof the moral virtues, directly pertains to the active life--that is, ofcourse, on the supposition that prudence is understood in the strictsense in which the Philosopher speaks of it. 

If, however, prudence be understood in a broad sense--namely, asembracing all kinds of human knowledge--then prudence pertains, at leastin certain of its aspects, to the contemplative life; thus Cicerosays[419]: "The man who can see a truth the most clearly and quickly, and explain the reason of it, is rightly regarded as most prudent andmost wise. "

But some maintain that prudence does not pertain to the active life, thus:

1. Just as the contemplative life pertains to the cognoscitive powers, so does the active life pertain to the appetitive powers. But prudencedoes not pertain to the appetitive powers but rather to thecognoscitive. Consequently it does not pertain to the active life. 

 But moral acts derive their character from the end towards which they are directed; consequently to the contemplative life belongs that kind of knowledge which makes its end consist in the very knowledge of truth. But the knowledge which is prudence, and which is rather directed to the acts of the appetitive powers, pertains to the active life. 

2. Again, S. Gregory says[420] "The active life, occupied as it is withworks, sees less clearly, " and hence is typified by Lia, who wasblear-eyed. But prudence demands clear vision, so that a man may judgewhat is to be done. Whence it would seem that prudence does not pertainto the active life. 

 But occupation with external things only makes a man see less clearly those intelligible truths which are not connected with the things of sense; the external occupations of the active life, however, make a man see more clearly in his judgment on a course of action--and this is a question of prudence--for he has experience, and his mind is attentive: "When you are attentive, " says Sallust, [421] "then mental acumen avails. "

3. Lastly, prudence comes midway betwixt the moral and the intellectualvirtues. But just as the moral virtues pertain to the active life, so dothe intellectual virtues pertain to the contemplative. Hence it wouldseem that prudence belongs neither to the active nor to thecontemplative life, but, as S. Augustine says, to a kind of life whichis betwixt and between. [422]

 But prudence is said to come betwixt the intellectual and the moral virtues in the sense that, whereas it has the same subject as the intellectual virtues, it yet coincides as regards its object with the moral virtues. And that third species of life comes betwixt and between the active and the contemplative life as regards the things with which it is concerned, for at one time it is occupied with the contemplation of truth, at another time with external matters. 

 "For what shall I do when God shall rise to judge? and when He shall examine, what shall I answer Him? For I have always feared God as waves swelling over me, and His weight I was not able to bear. "[423]

III

Does Teaching Belong to the Active or to the Contemplative Life?

S. Gregory says[424]: "The active life means breaking bread to thehungry; teaching words of wisdom to them that know them not. "

The act of teaching has a twofold object: for teaching is by speaking, and speaking is the audible sign of an interior mental concept. Oneobject, therefore, of our teaching is the matter to be taught, theobject, that is, of our interior concepts; and in this sense teachingsometimes belongs to the active, sometimes to the contemplative life. Itbelongs to the active life if a man forms interiorly some concept of atruth with a view to thus directing his external acts; but it belongs tothe contemplative life if a man interiorly conceives some intelligibletruth and delights in the thought of it and the love of it. Whence S. Augustine says[425]: "Let them choose for themselves the betterpart--that, namely, of the contemplative life; let them devotethemselves to the Word of God; let them yearn for the sweetness ofteaching; let them occupy themselves with the knowledge that leads tosalvation"--where he clearly says that teaching belongs to thecontemplative life. 

The second object of teaching arises from the fact that teaching isgiven through the medium of audible speech and thus the hearer himselfis the object of the teaching; and from this point of view all teachingbelongs to the active life to which pertain all external actions. 

Some, however, regard teaching as rather belonging to the contemplativethan to the active life, thus:

1. S. Gregory says[426]: "Perfect men declare to their brethren thosegood things of Heaven which they themselves have been able tocontemplate at least 'through a glass, ' and they thus kindle in theirhearts the love of that hidden beauty. " Yet what is this but teaching?To teach, therefore, is an act of the contemplative life. 

 But S. Gregory expressly speaks here of teaching from the point of view of the matter that is presented--that is, of teaching as it is concerned with the consideration of and love of the truth. 

2. Again, acts and habits seem to belong to the same kind of life. Butto teach is an act of wisdom, for the Philosopher says: "The proof thata man knows is that he is able to teach. "[427] Since, then, wisdom--thatis, knowledge--pertains to the contemplative life, it would seem thatteaching also must pertain to the contemplative life. 

 But habits and acts agree in their object, and consequently the argument just given is based upon the material of the interior concept. For the capacity for teaching is possessed by a wise or learned man just in proportion as he can express in outward words the concepts of his mind and so be able to bring home a truth to someone else. 

3. Lastly, prayer is an act of the contemplative life just in the sameway as is contemplation itself. But prayer, even when one man prays foranother, belongs to the contemplative life. Hence it would seem thatwhen one man brings to the knowledge of another some truth upon which hehas meditated, such an act pertains to the contemplative life. 

 But he who prays for another in no way acts upon him for whom he prays; his acts are directed towards God alone, the Intelligible Truth. But he who teaches another does act upon him by some external action. Hence there is no parallel between the two cases. 

IV

Does the Active Life continue after this Life?

S. Gregory says[428]: "The active life passes away with this presentworld; the contemplative life begins here so as to be perfected in ourheavenly home. "

As already said, the active life makes its end consist in externalactions, and these, if they are directed towards the repose ofcontemplation, already belong to the contemplative life. But in thefuture life of the blessed all occupation with external things willcease; or if there are any external acts they will be directed towardsthat end which is contemplation. Hence S. Augustine says, at the closeof his _Of the City of God_: "There we shall be at rest from toil, weshall gaze, we shall love, we shall praise. " And he had just previouslysaid: "There will God be seen unendingly, be loved without wearying, bepraised without fatigue; this duty, this disposition of soul, this act, will be the lot of all. "[429]

Some, however, maintain that the active life will be continued afterthis life, thus:

1. To the active life belong the acts of the moral virtues. But themoral virtues remain after death, as S. Augustine says. [430]

 But the acts of the moral virtues which are concerned with the means to the end will not remain after death, but only those which have to do with the end itself. Yet it is precisely these latter which go to form the repose of contemplation to which S. Augustine alludes in the above-quoted passage where he speaks of being "at rest from toil"; and this "rest" is not to be understood of freedom from merely external disturbances, but also from the internal conflict of the passions. 

2. Again, to teach others pertains to the active life. But in the nextlife--where we shall be as the Angels--there can be teaching; for we seeit in the case of the Angels of whom one illumines, clarifies, andperfects another, all of which refer to their reception of knowledge, asis clear from Denis the Areopagite. [431] Hence it seems that the activelife is to be continued after this life. 

 But the contemplative life especially consists in the contemplation of God; and as regards this no Angel teaches another, for it is said of the Angels of _the little ones_[432]--Angels who are of an inferior choir--that _they always see the face of the Father_. And similarly in the future life: there no man will teach another about God, for we shall all _see Him as He is_. [433] And this agrees with the words of Jeremias[434]: _And they shall teach no more every man his neighbour . .. Saying: Know the Lord; for all shall know Me from the least of them even to the greatest. _

 But when it is question of dispensing the mysteries of God, then one Angel can teach another by clarifying, illumining, and perfecting. And in this sense the Angels do in some sort share in the active life as long as this world lasts, for they are occupied with ministering to the inferior creation. This is what was signified by Jacob's vision of the Angels ascending the ladder--whereby was meant the contemplative life--and descending the ladder--whereby was meant the active life. At the same time, as S. Gregory says[435]: "Not that they so went out from the Divine Vision as to be deprived of the joys of contemplation. " And thus in their case the active life is not distinguished from the contemplative as it is in us who find the works of the active life an impediment to the contemplative life. Moreover, we are not promised a likeness to the Angels in their work of administering to the inferior creation, for this does not belong to us according to our nature, as is the case with the Angels, but according to our vision of God. 

3. Lastly, the more durable a thing is the more capable it seems oflasting after this life. But the active life is more durable than thecontemplative, for S. Gregory says[436]: "We can remain steadfast in theactive life, but in nowise can we maintain the mind's fixed gaze in thecontemplative life. " Consequently the active life is much more capableof continuing after death than is the contemplative life. 

 But in our present state the durability of the active life as compared with the contemplative life does not arise from any feature of either of these kinds of life considered in themselves, but from a defect on our part; for we are dragged down from the heights of contemplation by the body's burden. And thus S. Gregory goes on to say that, "thrust back by its very weakness from those vast heights, the soul relapses into itself. "

 "O bless our God, ye Gentiles: and make the voice of His praise to be heard. Who hath set my soul to live: and hath not suffered my feet to be moved. For Thou, O God, hast proved us; Thou hast tried us by fire, as silver is tried. Thou hast brought us into a net, Thou hast laid afflictions on our back; Thou hast set men over our heads. We have passed through fire and water, and Thou hast brought us out into a refreshment. "[437]

FOOTNOTES:

[407] _Of the Supreme Good_, III. , xv. 

[408] _Qu. _ CLXXIX. 1. 

[409] _Ethics_, II. , iv. 3. 

[410] _Ibid. _, X. , viii. 1. 

[411] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[412] _Ethics_, V. , i. 15. 

[413] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[414] Ecclus. Xli. 1-6. 

[415] _Ethics. _, X. , viii. 2. 

[416] _Ibid. _, V. , ii. 4. 

[417] _Ethics_, VI. , v. 4. 

[418] _Ibid. _, X. , viii. 2. 

[419] _De Officiis_, I. , v. 

[420] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[421] _Conjuratio Catilinæ_, li. 

[422] _Of the City of God_, xix. 2, 3, and 19. 

[423] Job xxxi. 14, 23. 

[424] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[425] _On the Words of the Lord, Sermon_ civ. , _alias_ xxvii. 1. 

[426] _Hom. _ V. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[427] _Metaphysics_, I. , i. 9. 

[428] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[429] xxii. 30. 

[430] _On the Trinity_, xiv. 9. 

[431] _Of the Heavenly Hierarchy_, vii. 

[432] S. Matt. Xviii. 10. 

[433] 1 John iii. 2. 

[434] xxxi. 34. 

[435] _Moralia in Job_, ii. 2. 

[436] _Hom. _ V. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[437] Ps. Lxv. 8-12. 

QUESTION CLXXXII

OF THE COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ACTIVE AND THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE

 I. Is the Active Life preferable to the Contemplative? Cardinal Cajetan, On Preparation for the Contemplative Life S. Augustine, _Confessions_, X. , xliii. 70 " _On Psalm_ xxvi. II. Is the Active Life more Meritorious than the Contemplative?III. Is the Active Life a Hindrance to the Contemplative Life? Cardinal Cajetan, On the True Interior Life S. Augustine, _Sermon_, CCLVI. , v. 6 IV. Does the Active Life precede the Contemplative?

I

Is the Active Life preferable to the Contemplative?

The Lord said: _Mary hath chosen the best part, which shall not be takenaway from her. _[438] And by Mary is signified the contemplative life, which is consequently to be preferred to the active. 

There is no reason why one thing should not be in itself more excellentthan another while yet this latter is, for certain reasons, preferableto it. Absolutely speaking, then, the contemplative life is better thanthe active. And the Philosopher[439] alleges eight proofs of this. Firstly, that the contemplative life pertains to that which is best in aman, namely his intellect and its proper objects, _i. E. _ intelligibletruths, whereas the active life is concerned with external things. HenceRachel, who typifies the contemplative life, is interpreted as meaning"the Beginning seen"; while Lia, who was blear-eyed, typifies, accordingto S. Gregory, the active life. [440]

Secondly, because the contemplative life can be more continuous, eventhough we cannot maintain our contemplation at its highest pitch; thusMary, who is typical of the contemplative life, is depicted as sittingever at the Lord's feet. 

Thirdly, because the delights of the contemplative life surpass those ofthe active life; whence S. Augustine says[441]: "Martha was troubled, but Mary feasted. "

Fourthly, because in the contemplative life a man is more independent, since for this kind of life he needs less; whence we read: _Martha, Martha, thou art careful, and art troubled about many things. _[442]

Fifthly, because the contemplative life is loved rather for its ownsake, whereas the active life is directed towards an end other thanitself; whence it is said in Ps. Xxvi. 4: _One thing I have asked of theLord, this will I seek after, that I may dwell in the house of the Lordall the days of my life. _

Sixthly, because the contemplative life consists in a certain stillnessand repose, as is said in Ps. Xlv. 11: _Be still, and see that I amGod. _

Seventhly, because the contemplative life is occupied with Divine thingswhereas the active life is occupied with human things; whence S. Augustine says[443]: "In the beginning was the Word: see What Maryheard! The Word was made Flesh; see to What Martha ministered!"

Eighthly, because the contemplative life pertains to that which is morepeculiar to man--namely, his intellect--whereas in the works of theactive life our inferior powers--those, namely, which we share with thebrute creation--have a part; whence, in Ps. Xxxv. 7, after saying:_Beasts and men Thou wilt preserve, O Lord_, the Psalmist adds whatbelongs to men alone: _In Thy light we shall see light. _

And the Lord Himself gives a ninth reason when He says: _Mary hathchosen the best part which shall not be taken away from her_, [444] wordswhich S. Augustine thus expounds: "Not that thou, Martha, hast chosenbadly, but that Mary hath chosen better; and see in what sense she hathchosen better: because it _shall not be taken away from her_; for fromthee shall one day be taken away the burden of necessity; but eternal isthe sweetness of truth. "[445]

But in a certain sense, and in certain cases, the active life is to bechosen in preference to the contemplative, and this by reason of theneeds of this present life; as also the Philosopher says: "To practisephilosophy is better than to become rich; but to become rich is betterfor one who suffers need. "[446]

Some, however, think that the active life is preferable to thecontemplative, thus:

1. "The lot which falls to the better people seems to be the morehonourable and better, " as the Philosopher says. [447] But the activelife is the lot of those who are in the higher position--of prelates, for instance, who are placed in honourable and powerful positions; thusS. Augustine says[448]: "In the life of action we must not love thehonour which belongs to this life, nor its power. " Whence it would seemthat the active life is preferable to the contemplative. 

 But it is not the active life only which belongs to prelates, they must needs excel in the contemplative life; whence S. Gregory says in his _Pastoral Rule_[449]: "Let the superior be foremost in action, but before all let him be uplifted in contemplation. "

2. Again, in all acts and habits the control belongs to the moreimportant: the soldier, for instance--as being higher placed--directsthe saddle-maker. But it is the active life which directs and controlsthe contemplative, as is clear from the words addressed to Moses: _Godown and charge the people, lest they should have a mind to pass thelimits to see the Lord. _[450] The active life is therefore moreimportant than the contemplative. 

 But the contemplative life consists in a certain liberty of spirit; for S. Gregory says[451]: "The contemplative life means passing over to a certain liberty of spirit since in it a man thinks not of temporal but of eternal things. " Similarly Boëthius says[452]: "The human soul must needs be free when occupied with the thought of the Divine Mind; not so when distracted with the things of the body. " From all this it is clear that the active life does not directly guide the contemplative, but by preparing the way for it it does direct certain works pertaining to the contemplative life, and in this sense the active life is rather the servant than the master of the contemplative. And this S. Gregory expresses when he says: "The active life is termed a service, the contemplative life freedom. "[453]

3. Lastly, no one should be withdrawn from what is greater in order toapply himself to what is less; thus the Apostle says: _Be zealous forthe better gifts. _[454] But some are withdrawn from the contemplativestate of life and are made to busy themselves with the affairs of theactive life; this is the case, for instance, with those who are placedin positions of authority. Whence it seems that the active life is ofmore importance than the contemplative. 

 But though a man may happen to be called away from contemplation to the works of the active life owing to the needs of the present life, yet he is not thereby compelled completely to relinquish his contemplation. Hence S. Augustine says:[455] "The love of truth asks for a holy leisure; the demands of charity undertake honest toil--that, namely, of the active life. And if no one imposes this latter burden on us, then we must devote ourselves to the study and contemplation of the truth; if, however, such a burden is imposed upon us, then must we undertake it because of the demands of charity. Yet not even then are we altogether to resign the joys flowing from the contemplation of truth, lest the sweetness of such contemplation be withdrawn from us and the burden we have assumed crush us. "

 Whence it appears that when a man is called from the contemplative to the active life it is not so much that something is withdrawn from him, but that an additional burden is imposed upon him. 

 "As we have heard, so have we seen, in the city of the Lord of Hosts, in the city of our God: God hath founded it for ever. We have received Thy mercy, O God, in the midst of Thy temple. For this is God, our God unto eternity, and for ever and ever: He shall rule us for evermore. "[456]

_Cajetan:_ Those whose duty it is to instruct others in spiritualprogress should note that they are bound to take great pains to exercisethem in the active life before they urge them to ascend the heights ofcontemplation. For they must learn to subdue their passions by acquiringhabits of meekness, patience, generosity, humility, and tranquillity ofsoul, before they ascend to the contemplative life. Through lack ofthis, many, not so much walking in the way of God as leaping along it, find themselves--after they have spent the greater portion of their lifein contemplation--devoid of virtue, impatient, irascible, and proud, ifone but so much as touch them on this point! Such people have neitherthe active nor the contemplative life, nor even a mixture of the two;they have built upon sand! And would that such cases were rare! (_on_ 2. 182. 1 2. ). 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine:_ Terrified by my sins and my weight of misery I wasdisturbed within my soul and meditated flight into solitude. But Thoudidst forbid it and didst strengthen me and say: _Christ died for all, that they also who live may not now live to themselves, but unto Him Whodied for them and rose again. _[457] Behold, O Lord, I cast my care uponThee so that I may live, and I will meditate on the wondrous things ofThy law. Thou knowest my lack of skill and my weakness; teach me andheal me! He--Thine Only-Begotten Son--in Whom lie hid all the treasuresof wisdom and knowledge, He redeemed me with His blood. _Let not theproud calumniate me!_ When I think of my Ransom then I eat and I drink, and I pray, and in my poverty I yearn to be filled with Him, to be amongthose who _eat and are filled_ and they _praise the Lord who seek Him_(_Conf. _, X. , xliii. 70). 

 * * * * *

_S. Augustine: He hath hid me in His tabernacle in the day ofevils. _[458]

Wherefore without any arrogance have I sought for That One Thing, neither doth my soul reproach me, saying: Why do you seek after It? Fromwhom do you seek It? Do you, a sinner, wickedly dare to ask something ofGod? Do you, weak man, of unclean heart, dare to hope that you will oneday attain to the contemplation of God? I dare! Not indeed of myself, but because of His pleasure in me; not out of presumptuous trust inmyself, but from confidence in His promise. For will He Who gave such apledge to the pilgrim desert him when he comes to Him? _For He hath hidme in His tabernacle in the day of evils_ (_Enarr. In Ps. _ xxvi. ). 

II

Is the Active Life more Meritorious than the Contemplative?

S. Gregory says[459]: "Great are the merits of the active life, but theyare surpassed by those of the contemplative life. "

The source of merit is charity. Charity, however, consists in the loveof God and of our neighbour; and to love God is, in itself, moremeritorious than to love our neighbour. Consequently that which moredirectly pertains to the love of God is more meritorious in its naturethan something that directly pertains to the love of our neighbour forGod's sake. The contemplative life, however, directly and immediatelypertains to the love of God, as S. Augustine says[460]: "The love oftruth asks for a holy leisure; that is the contemplative life, " and thistruth is the Divine Truth on Which the contemplative life is centred. The active life, on the other hand, is more immediately concerned withthe love of our neighbour, it is _busy about much serving_. [461] Henceof its very nature the contemplative life is more meritorious than theactive, as is well expressed by S. Gregory[462] when he says: "Thecontemplative life is more meritorious than the active, for the lattertoils in the wear and tear of present work by which it must needs helpits neighbour; whereas the former, by a certain inward savour, alreadyhas a foretaste of the repose to come"--that is, in the contemplation ofGod. 

It may, however, chance that one man derives greater merit from theworks of the active life than another does from his contemplative life;as, for example, when, from the superabundance of the Divine love, inorder to fulfil God's will, and for His greater glory, a man is contentto be separated for a space from the sweetness of Divine contemplation, as the Apostle says: _I wished myself to be an anathema from Christ formy brethren. _[463] On these words S. Chrysostom[464] comments thus: "Thelove of Christ had so completely taken possession of his heart that hecould even despise that which he desired beyond all things--namely, tobe with Christ--and that because it was pleasing to Christ. "

Yet some maintain that the active life is more meritorious than thecontemplative, thus:

1. A thing is said to be meritorious because of the reward. But rewardis due to work, as S. Paul says: _And every man shall receive his ownreward according to his own labour. _[465] Labour, however, belongs tothe active life, repose to the contemplative, as S. Gregory says[466]:"Everyone who is converted to God must needs first labour in toil; hemust take Lia--that is, that so he may arrive at 'the vision of theBeginning'--that is, the embraces of Rachel. " Whence it seems as thoughthe active life was more meritorious than the contemplative. 

 But while external toil makes for an increase of accidental reward, the increase of merit as regards essential reward consists mainly in charity, one proof of which is external toil undertaken for Christ's sake; but a much greater proof of this is given when a man puts aside all that pertains to this life and delights in giving himself up solely to Divine contemplation. 

2. Again, contemplative life is in some sort the commencement of futurebliss; and consequently the words of S. John: _So will I have him toremain till I come_, S. Augustine comments as follows: "This might bemore fully expressed thus: May perfect actions, modelled on the exampleof My Passion, follow Me; but may contemplation begun here on earthremain till I come, to be perfected when I come"[467]; and similarly S. Gregory says[468]: "The contemplative life begins here below to beperfected in our heavenly home. " But in that future life we shall notmerit, but shall receive the reward of our merits. Consequently thecontemplative life seems to have less of the ratio of merit than has theactive life; but it has more of the ratio of reward. 

 But in the state of future bliss a man has arrived at his perfection and consequently there is no room left for merit; but if there were room left his merits would be more efficacious owing to the pre-eminence of his charity. The contemplation of this present life, however, has some accompanying imperfection, and consequently there is room for improvement; hence such contemplation does not destroy the idea of meriting but makes increase of merit in proportion as Divine charity is more and more exercised. 

3. Lastly, S. Gregory says[469]: "No sacrifice is more acceptable to Godthan zeal for souls. " But zeal for souls means that a man gives himselfup to the works of the active life. Whence it seems that thecontemplative life is not more meritorious than the active. 

 But a sacrifice is spiritually offered to God when anything is presented to Him; and of all man's good things God specially accepts that of the human soul when offered to Him in sacrifice. But a man ought to offer to God first of all his own soul, according to the words of Ecclesiasticus[470]: _Have pity on thine own soul, pleasing God_; secondly, the souls of others, according to the words: _And he that heareth let him say: Come. _[471] But the more closely a man knits his own soul, or his neighbour's soul, to God, the more acceptable to God is his sacrifice; consequently it is more pleasing to God that a man should give his soul, and the souls of others, to contemplation than to action. When, then, S. Gregory says: "No sacrifice is more acceptable to God than zeal for souls, " he does not mean that the merit of the active life is greater than that of the contemplative, but that it is more meritorious that a man should offer to God his own soul and the soul of others than that he should offer any other external gift whatsoever. 

 "But thou, our God, art gracious and true, patient, and ordering all things in mercy. For if we sin, we are Thine, knowing Thy greatness: and if we sin not, we know that we are counted with Thee. For to know Thee is perfect justice: and to know Thy justice, and Thy power, is the root of immortality. "[472]

III

Is the Active Life a Hindrance to the Contemplative Life?

S. Gregory says[473]: "They who would hold the citadel of contemplationmust first needs exercise themselves on the battle-field of toil. "

We may consider the active life from two points of view. For we mayfirst of all consider the actual occupation with, and practice of, external works; and from this point of view it is clear that the activelife is a hindrance to the contemplative, for it is impossible for a manto be simultaneously occupied with external works, and yet at leisurefor Divine contemplation. 

But we may also consider the active life from the standpoint of theharmony and order which it introduces into the interior passions of thesoul; and from this point of view the active life is an assistance tocontemplation since this latter is hindered by the disturbance arisingfrom the passions. Thus S. Gregory says[474]: "They who would hold thecitadel of contemplation must first needs exercise themselves on thebattle-field of toil; they must learn, forsooth, whether they still doharm to their neighbours, whether they bear with equanimity the harmtheir neighbours may do them; whether, when temporal good things are setbefore them, their minds are overwhelmed with joy; whether when suchthings are withdrawn they are over much grieved. And lastly, they mustask themselves whether, when they withdraw within upon themselves andsearch into the things of the spirit, they do not carry with them theshadows of things corporeal, or whether, if perchance they have touchedupon them, they discreetly repel them. "

Thus, then, the exercises of the active life are conducive tocontemplation, for they still those interior passions whence arise thoseimaginations which serve as a hindrance to contemplation. 

Some, however, maintain that the active life is a hindrance to thecontemplative, thus:

1. A certain stillness of mind is needful for contemplation, as thePsalmist says: _Be still and see that I am God. _[475] But the activelife implies anxiety: _Martha, Martha, thou art careful, and arttroubled about many things. _[476]

2. Again, a certain clearness of vision is called for in thecontemplative life. But the active life hinders this clearness ofvision, for S. Gregory says[477]: "Lia was blear-eyed and fruitful, forthe active life, since occupied with toil, sees less clearly. "

3. And lastly, things that are contrary hinder one another. But theactive and the contemplative life are contrary to one another; for theactive life is occupied with many things, whereas the contemplative lifedwells upon one object of contemplation; they are, then, in oppositecamps. 

 But all these arguments insist upon the occupation with external affairs which is but one feature in the active life, not upon its other feature--namely, its power to repress the passions. 

 * * * * *

_Cajetan: But the five foolish virgins, having taken their lamps, didnot take oil with them. But the wise took oil in their vessels with thelamps. _[478]

By this oil is signified testimony to a man's goodness or love of God. For there is this difference between people who perform good works, thatthe only testimony which some men have to their goodness iswithout--namely, in the works themselves; within, however, they do notfeel that they love God with their whole heart, that they repent oftheir sins because they are hateful to God, or that they love theirneighbour for God's sake. But there are others who so perform good worksthat both their works that shine before men bear witness without to thegood soul within, and also within their own conscience the Holy SpiritHimself testifies to their spirit that they are the sons of God; forsuch men feel that they love God with their whole heart, that theyrepent of their sins for God's sake, and that they love their neighbourand themselves for God's sake: in brief, they feel that God is the solereason why they love, why they hope, fear, rejoice, or are sad: in aword, why they work both within and without: this is to have oil inone's own vessels (_On S. Matt. _ xxv. 3, 4). 

_S. Augustine:_ See the life that Mary chose! Yet was she but a type ofthat life, she as yet possessed it not. For there are two kinds of life:one means delight; the other means a burden. And the burdensome one istoilsome, while the delightsome one is pleasurable. But enter thouwithin; seek not that delight without, lest ye swell with it and findyourself unable to enter by the narrow gate! See how Mary saw the Lordin the Flesh and heard the Lord by the voice of the Flesh--as ye haveheard when the Epistle to the Hebrews has been read--as it were througha veil. (_A new and living way which He hath dedicated to us through theveil, that is to say, His Flesh_. [479]) But when we shall see Him faceto Face there will be no "veil. " Mary, then, sat--that is, she restedfrom toil--and she listened and she praised; but Martha was anxiousabout much serving. And the Lord said to her: _Martha, Martha, thou artcareful and art troubled about many things; but one thing isnecessary[480]_ (_Sermon_, CCLVI. , v. 6). 

 "Bless the Lord, O my soul: and let all that is within me bless His holy Name. Bless the Lord, O my soul, and never forget all He hath done for thee. Who forgiveth all thy iniquities: Who healeth all thy diseases. Who redeemeth thy life from destruction: Who crowneth thee with mercy and compassion. Who satisfieth thy desire with good things: thy youth shall be renewed like the eagle's. The Lord doth mercies, and judgment for all that suffer wrong. He hath made His ways known to Moses: His wills to the children of Israel. The Lord is compassionate and merciful: long suffering and plenteous in mercy. He will not always be angry: nor will He threaten for ever. He hath not dealt with us according to our sins: nor rewarded us according to our iniquities. For according to the height of the Heaven above the earth: He hath strengthened His mercy towards them that fear Him. As far as the east is from the west, so far hath He removed our iniquities from us. As a father hath compassion on his children, so hath the Lord compassion on them that fear Him: for He knoweth our frame. He remembereth that we are dust: man's days are as grass, as the flower of the field so shall he flourish. "[481]

IV

Does the Active Life precede the Contemplative?

S. Gregory says[482]: "The active life precedes the contemplative in theorder of time, for from good works a man passes to contemplation. "

One thing may precede another in two ways: firstly by its very nature;and in this sense the contemplative life precedes the active in that itis occupied with chiefer and better things, and hence it both moves anddirects the active life. For, as S. Augustine says, [483] the higherreason, which is destined for contemplation, is compared to the lowerreason, which is destined for action, as man is compared to woman--sheis to be governed by him. 

But secondly, one thing may be prior to another as far as we areconcerned, it may, that is, precede it in the way of generation. And inthis sense the active life precedes the contemplative, for it conducesto it, as we have already said. In the order of generation dispositionto a nature precedes that nature, though that nature is, simply speakingand considered in itself, prior to the disposition to it. 

But some maintain that the active life does not precede thecontemplative, thus:

1. The contemplative life is directly concerned with the love of God, the active life with the love of our neighbour. But love of God precedeslove of our neighbour, for we have to love our neighbour for God's sake. 

 But the contemplative life is not concerned with merely any kind of love of God, but with the perfect love of Him; the active life, on the contrary, is necessary for any kind of love of our neighbour, for S. Gregory says[484]: "Without the contemplative life men can gain admittance to their heavenly home if they have not neglected the good works they could have done; but they cannot enter without the active life, if they neglect the good works they could do. " Whence it appears that the active life precedes the contemplative in the sense that that which is common to everybody precedes in the order of generation that which is peculiar to the perfect. 

2. Again, S. Gregory says[485]: "You must know that just as the rightprocedure is for a man to pass from the active to the contemplativelife; so, too, it is often profitable to the soul to return to theactive life. " Consequently the active life is not absolutely speakingprior to the contemplative. 

 But while we proceed from the active life to the contemplative by way of generation, we return from the contemplative to the active by way of direction, in order, that is, that our active life may be directed by the contemplative; just in the same way as habits are generated by acts and then, as is said in the _Ethics_, when the habit is formed we act still more perfectly. [486]

3. Lastly, things which accord with different characters do not seem tobe necessarily related. But the active and contemplative life are suitedto different characters; thus S. Gregory says[487]: "It often happensthat men who could have given themselves to peaceful contemplation ofGod have been burdened with external occupations and so have madeshipwreck; while, on the contrary, men who could have lived well hadthey been occupied with human concerns, have been slain by the sword oftheir life of repose. " Consequently the active life does not seem toprecede the contemplative. 

 But those who are subject to the influx of their passions because of their natural eagerness in action, are for that very reason more suited for the active life, and this because of the restlessness of their temperament. Hence S. Gregory says[488]: "Some are so restless that if they desist from work they suffer grievously, for the more free they are to think the worse interior tumults they have to endure. " Some, on the contrary, have a natural purity of soul and a reposefulness which renders them fit for the contemplative life; if such men were to be applied wholly to the active life they would incur great loss. Hence S. Gregory says[489]: "Some men are of so slothful a disposition that if they undertake any work they succumb at the very outset. " But he adds: "Yet often love stirs up even slothful souls to work, and fear exercises a restraining influence on souls which suffer a disturbing influence in their contemplation. " Hence even those who are more suited for the active life, may, by the exercise of it, be prepared for the contemplative; and, on the contrary, those who are more suited for the contemplative life may profitably undertake the labours proper to the active life, that so they may be rendered still more fit for contemplation. 

 "I have cried to Thee, for Thou, O God, hast heard me: O incline Thy ear unto me, and hear my words. Show forth Thy wonderful mercies; Thou Who savest them that trust in Thee. From them that resist Thy right hand keep me, as the apple of Thy eye. Protect me under the shadow of Thy wings. "[490]

FOOTNOTES:

[438] S. Luke x. 42. 

[439] _Ethics_, x. 7 and 8. 

[440] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 18. 

[441] _Of the Words of the Lord, Sermon_ ciii. , _alias_ xxvi. 2. 

[442] S. Luke x. 41. 

[443] _Of the Words of the Lord, Sermon_ civ. , _alias_ xxvii. 2. 

[444] S. Luke x. 42. 

[445] _Sermon_ ciii. , _alias_ xxvi. 4. 

[446] _Topica_, III. , ii. 21. 

[447] _Ibid. _, III. , i. 12. 

[448] _Of the City of God_, xix. 19. 

[449] ii. 1. 

[450] Exod. Xix. 21. 

[451] _Hom. _ III. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[452] _Of Consolation_, v. 2. 

[453] _Hom. _ III. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[454] 1 Cor. Xii. 31. 

[455] _Of the City of God_, xix. 19. 

[456] Ps. Xlvii. 9, 10, 15. 

[457] 2 Cor. V. 15. 

[458] Ps. Xxvi. 5. 

[459] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 18. 

[460] _Of the City of God_, xix. 19. 

[461] S. Luke x. 40. 

[462] _Hom. _ III. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[463] Rom. Ix. 3. 

[464] _Of Compunction_, i. 7. 

[465] 1 Cor. Iii. 8. 

[466] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[467] _Tractat. _, 124, _On St. John_, xxi. 22. 

[468] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[469] _Hom. _ XII. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[470] xxx. 24. 

[471] Apoc. Xxii. 17. 

[472] Wisd. Xv. 1-3. 

[473] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 17. 

[474] _Ibid. _

[475] Ps. Xlv. 11. 

[476] S. Luke x. 41. 

[477] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[478] S. Matt. Xxv. 3, 4. 

[479] Heb. X. 20. 

[480] S. Luke x. 41, 42. 

[481] Ps. Cii. 1-15. 

[482] _Hom. _ III. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[483] _On the Trinity_, xii. 12. 

[484] _Hom. _ III. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[485] _Hom. _ XIV. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[486] ii. 1, 2. 

[487] _Moralia in Job_, vi. 17. 

[488] _Moralia_, vi. 17. 

[489] _Ibid. _, vi. 37. 

[490] Ps. Xvi. 6-9. 

QUESTION CLXXXVI

ON THE RELIGIOUS STATE

 Are Contemplative Orders superior to Active Orders?

Are Contemplative Orders superior to Active Orders?

The Lord declared that Mary's was _the best part_, and she is the typeof the contemplative life. [491]

Religious Orders differ from one another primarily according to the endsthey have in view, but secondarily according to the works they practise. And since one thing cannot be said to be superior to another save byreason of the differences between them, it will follow that thesuperiority of one Religious Order to another must depend primarily upontheir respective ends, secondarily upon the works they practise. 

And these two grounds of comparison are not of equal value; for thecomparison between them from the point of view of their respective endsis an absolute one, since an end is sought for its own sake; whereas thecomparison arising from their respective works is a relative one, sinceworks are not done for their own sake but for the sake of the end to begained. 

Consequently one Religious Order is superior to another if its end isabsolutely a superior one, either as being in itself a greater good, oras being of wider scope. On the supposition, however, that the ends ofany two Orders are the same, then the superiority of one to the othercan be gauged, not by the quantity of works they undertake, but by theproportion these bear to the end in view. Thus it is that we findintroduced into the _Conferences of the Fathers_[492] the opinion of S. Antony, who preferred that discretion by which a man moderates allthings to fasts and watchings and similar observances. 

The works, then, of the active life are twofold. There is one whichsprings from the fulness of contemplation: teaching, for example, andpreaching. Whence S. Gregory says[493]: "It is said of perfect men thaton their return from contemplation: _They shall pour forth the memory ofThy sweetness. _" And this is preferable to simple contemplation. Forjust as it is a greater thing to shed light than to be full of light, sois it a greater thing to spread abroad the fruits of our contemplationthan merely to contemplate. And the second work of the active life isthat which wholly consists in external occupation, such as giving alms, receiving guests, etc. And such works are inferior to the works ofcontemplation, except it be in some case of necessity. 

Consequently, then, those Religious Orders are in the highest rank whichare devoted to teaching and preaching. And these, too, approach mostnearly to the perfection of the Episcopate; just as in other things, too, the ends of those in the first place are, as S. Denis says, closeknit to the principles of those in the second place. [494] The secondrank is occupied by those Orders which are devoted to contemplation. Andthe third with those devoted to external works. 

And in each of these grades there is a certain superiority according asone Order aims at acts of a higher order than does another, though ofthe same class. Thus in the works of the active life it is a greaterthing to redeem captives than to receive guests; in the contemplativelife, too, it is a greater thing to pray than to study. There may alsobe a certain superiority in this that one is occupied with more of suchworks than another; or again, that the rules of one are better adaptedto the attainment of their end than are those of another. 

Some, however, maintain that the contemplative Orders are not superiorto the active Orders, thus:

1. In the Canon Law[495] it is said: "Since the greater good is to bepreferred to the less, so, too, the common gain is to be preferred toprivate gain; and in this sense teaching is rightly preferred tosilence, anxious care for others to contemplation, and toil to repose. "But that Religious Order is the better which is directed to theattainment of the greater good. Hence it seems that Orders which aredevoted to an active life are superior to those which aim solely atcontemplation. 

 But this Decretal speaks of the active life as concerned with the salvation of souls. 

2. All Religious Orders aim at the perfection of charity. But on thosewords in the Epistle to the Hebrews, [496] _Ye have not yet resisted untoblood_, the Gloss has: "There is no more perfect charity in this lifethan that to which the holy Martyrs attained, for they strove againstsin even _unto blood_. " But to strive _unto blood_ belongs to theMilitary Religious Orders, and they lead an active life. It would seem, then, that these latter are the highest form of Religious Order. 

 But these Military Orders are more concerned with shedding the blood of their enemies than with shedding their own, which is the feature of the Martyrs. At the same time, there is nothing to preclude these Religious from at times winning the crown of martyrdom and thus attaining to a greater height than other Religious; just as in some cases active works are to be preferred to contemplation. 

3. Lastly, the stricter an Order the more perfect it seems to be. Butthere is nothing to preclude active Orders from being stricter in theirobservance than some contemplative Orders. 

But strictness of observance is not that which is especially commendablein Religious life, as S. Antony has already told us, and as is also saidin Isaias[497]: _Is this such a fast as I have chosen, for a man toafflict his soul for a day?_ Strictness of observance is, however, madeuse of in Religious Orders for the subjection of the flesh; but if suchstrictness is carried out without discretion there is danger lest itshould come to naught, as S. Antony says. Hence one Religious Order isnot superior to another because its observances are stricter, butbecause its observances are directed to the end of that Order withgreater discretion. Thus, for example, abstinence from food and drink, which means hunger and thirst, are more efficacious means for preservingchastity than wearing less clothing, which means cold and nakedness;more efficacious, too, than bodily labour. 

FOOTNOTES:

[491] S. Luke x. 42. 

[492] _Conf. _, ii. 2. 

[493] _Hom. _ V. , _On Ezechiel_. 

[494] _Of the Divine Names_, vii. 

[495] _Extrav. Of Regulars and of those who pass to the ReligiousOrders_, cap. _Licet_. 

[496] xii. 4. 

[497] lviii. 5. 

INDEX

Abiding in Christ, 32

Abraham in Limbo, 155

Accidents of the Holy Eucharist, 9

Active Life, the: its meaning, 170, 174, 176, 221, 229; typified in Jacob's Vision, 231; typified by Lia, 174, 222, 225, 234, 242, 246; two features of the Active Life, 221, 241, 247; in what sense it is distinct from the Contemplative Life, 220; how less meritorious than the Contemplative Life, 240-244; not preferable to the Contemplative Life, 233-240; it involves less sacrifice than the Contemplative Life, 244; in what sense it precedes the Contemplative Life, 223, 237, 245, 249-252; how far it is necessary, 186, 221, 239, 245, 250; contrasted with the Contemplative Life, 172, 173; how far it is more stable than the Contemplative Life, 232; its dangers, 136, 147, 186; it is a burden super-imposed upon the Contemplative Life, 238; all are not meant for it, 186, 251, 252; it will not persist after this life, 229-232; the Active Life of the Angels, 231; how far the Active Life is inferior to the Contemplative, 233-240; occasions when it must be embraced, 186, 235, 239; the part which the Moral Virtues play in it, 191, 220-223; it is a preparation for the Contemplative Life, 176, 177, 220, 237, 245; prudence is requisite for it, 186, 223-226; how far the teaching life pertains to the Active Life, 226-229, 230; it will pass away, 177, 191, 229-232; it is the Purgative way, 220; Prelates and the Active Life, 236

Active Religious Orders, they are inferior to the Contemplative, 253-257

Adjure God, in what sense we are said to do so in our prayers, 148

Adoration of the Cross, 37

_Adoro Te Devote_, the rhythm of St. Thomas in honour of the Holy Eucharist, 112

Albert of Brescia, O. P. , 18

Albert the Great, Blessed, 6

Alypius, St. Augustine's friend, 123

Ambrose, St. : on God as the cause of devotion, 57; that the beauty of the soul depends on the Moral Virtues, 184

Andronicus on the meaning of sanctity, 49

Angels, the: how they are differentiated from men, 113, 114, 187, 206; the knowledge of the Angels, 157, 187, 205, 208, 230; the Beatific Vision of the Angels, 231; the intelligence of the Angels, 187, 230; the intercession of the Angels, 165; their conformity to the will of God, 165, 167; the Angelic Hierarchies, 201, 230; the teaching of the Angels 230, 231; the Active Life of the Angels, 231; we shall be like to the Angels, how, 230, 231; Angels gird St. Thomas, 6

Anselm of Laudun, 25

Antony, St. : a patron against Hell-fire, 160; on discretion, 154, 157

Areopagite. _Cf. S. V. _ Denis the Areopagite

Aristotle: on the aptitude for virtue, 35; on honour, 39; that the perfection of the moral virtues lies in their mean, 43; on Justice, 55, 221; that "reason asks for the best things, " 69; on the need of temporal things, 89; that "each man's life is that which he would wish to share with his friend, " 170; that "to live is to be, " 170; on action and contemplation as distinctions in the intellectual life, 171; that life is primarily in the vegetative soul, 171; on three kinds of lives, 175; that knowledge has little to do with the moral virtues, 182, 221; that every act of the intellect may be termed "consideration, " 188; that the ultimate happiness of man consists in the contemplation of the highest truth, 193; of man's dependence on the imagination, 201; that motion is the act of a perfect thing, 203; on local motion as the chief of bodily motions, 204; that delight follows upon a perfect work, 213; on the nobility of science, 214; that there is no pleasure contrary to that derived from thought, 217; on application to the Contemplative Life, 217; that the Contemplative Life is "beyond man, " 218; that prudence pertains to active happiness, 223; that he who commits adultery to steal is more a thief than an adulterer, 223; that prudence is the right mode of procedure in our actions, 224; that the ends of the moral virtues are the principles of prudence, 224; that the proof of the possession of wisdom is the power to teach, 228; eight proofs that the Contemplative Life is superior to the Active, 234, 235; on the better lot, 236; that habits produce perfect acts, 251

Arius, his error regarding the Person of Christ, 161

Athanasius, St. , on the chanting of the Psalms, 123

Attention: mental, 225; in prayer, 125-133; three kinds of, 128, 129, 133

Attitudes in prayer, 150, 151

Augustine, St. : St. Thomas's kinship with him in doctrine, 17-19; they are seen in a vision together, 18; the Breviary Hymn to, 26; definition of religion, 28, 29, 30; on _Latvia_, 30; on _Eusebeia_, 31; on abiding in Christ, 32; on the desire of God, 32; on prayer for wealth, 33; on sacrifice, 32, 46; of true worship, 40; of idolatry, 46; on the value of external acts in prayer, 46; of virginity, 50; on "God alone, " 54, 92, 108, 142, 197, 189, 203, 219; on the will and the understanding, 57; on true grief, 65; prayer defined, 69; why we should pray, 75; on the prayers of the Church, 76; when we pray we are God's beggars, 79, 110; of those who say "He knows already; why then pray?" 80; of the knowledge the dead have of our affairs, 82; on shrinking from death, 83; on avoidance of Hell, 86; of the Beatific Vision, 87, 229; a prayer for continence, 87; and for the knowledge of Holy Scripture, 88; it is lawful to pray for what it is lawful to desire, 89; on prayer for "sufficiency of life, " 89; on "seeking first the Kingdom of God, " 90; on prayer "without ceasing, " 91; of the prayer of desire, 92, 134; his prayer for deliverance from toothache, 92; why temporal favours are sometimes not granted, 94, 95; on prayer for others, 96; that we cannot here distinguish between the predestinate and the reprobate, 97; on the imprecations in Holy Scripture, 100, 101; on prayer for the wicked, 101; on the Lord's Prayer, that it is the most perfect form of prayer, 102; on "our Daily Bread, " 103, 109; "hallowed be Thy Name, " 104; "Thy kingdom come, " 105; "Thy will be done, " 105; "forgive us our trespasses, " 110, 111; of the Lord's Prayer and the gifts of the Holy Spirit, 106; of the two versions of the Lord's Prayer in St. Matthew and St. Luke, 107; on true righteousness, 111; on exterior religion, 119; on the chanting of the Psalter, 123; on the prayer of the heart, 124; on distractions, 129-131; on prayer at definite times, 134; on the brief prayers of the hermits of old, 134; on "much speaking" in prayer, 135; that God urges us to pray, 138, 139; that prayer is a gift of God, 139; on unheard prayers, 140, 142; on prayers heard in anger, 142, 143; in what sense the prayers of sinners are heard, 143, 144; on the attitudes to be adopted in and of the time and place for prayer, 127, 150, 151; of the knowledge of the Saints in Limbo, 154-156; why the prayers of the Saints are heard, 167; the Contemplative contrasted with the Active Life, 172-174, 186; the three "lives, " 175, 185; the "mixed" life, 226; of the final possession and vision of God, 176, 177, 191, 203; on the use of leisure, 186; the claims of the two lives, the Active and the Contemplative, 186, 248; of the Active Life, 236; of the Active Life as opposed to the Contemplative, 238; that every operation of the intellect may be termed "thought, " 188; of the derivation of the term "speculation, " 189; of our present perfection, 190, 191; on the pleasures of sense, 185; that the contemplation of God is the goal of all our acts, 193; that we must use created things as stepping-stones to the things that abide for ever, 193; on Mary's "better part, " 196, 197; on Martha and Mary, 234, 235, 248; that in contemplation we do not see God Himself, 199; the greater the danger in the battle, the greater the joy in the triumph, 212; on the transitory nature of our present contemplation, 218; on the beauty of the teaching life, 227; how the moral virtues remain after death, 230; of the repose of Contemplation, 230, 241; of his desire for solitude, yet he feels that he must work for others, 239; he dare hope for the Contemplative Life, 240; of the higher reason, 249

Basil, St. : on distractions, 127, 128; on unheard prayers, 141

Beatific Vision, the, 87, 153, 172, 176, 177, 180, 181, 193, 198-203, 217

Beatitude, in what it consists, 172, 176, 177, 181, 191, 198, 218, 219, 229

Beatitude, a prayer for, 192

Beauty, definition of, 185

Benedict, St. , the vision of, 202

Bernard, St. : on the meaning of contemplation, 188, 189; of the steps in contemplation, 194

Bestial Life, the, 175

Birds, the movements of, 209

Blood of Christ, the, 163

Boëthius, on the liberty needful for contemplation, 237

Cajetan, O. P. , Cardinal, 19, 20; on the meaning of Religion, 50; on the meaning of devotion, 53, 54; on its causes, 60; on devotion as opposed to gloom, 64; of the "devout female sex, " 62; of the need of meditation, 61; of prayer as the cause of union with God, 71; of prayer as a real cause, 74; on three points to be considered in prayer, 78; on prayer as a sacrifice, 79; of the divisions of the Lord's Prayer, 107, 108; how those in Limbo can hear prayers, 118; on vocal prayer, 121, 123; on the tone to be employed in saying Mass, 122; the function of ecclesiastical chant, 122, 124; on attention in recitation of Divine Office, 128; on attention to the words of Consecration, 149, 150; of the need of the moral virtues in the Contemplative Life, 239; the Parable of the Ten Virgins, 247; on the real object of prayer, 129

Canticle of Canticles, the, 14

Cassian, the Conferences of: on St. Antony and discretion, 254, 257; on different kinds of prayer, 148

Cassiodorus on Ps. Xxxviii. 13, 68

Cato on respect for parents, 30

Ceremonial, the value of, 35

Chant of the Church, the Public, 122, 123

Charity as the principle of religion, 56. _Cf. S. V. _ Theological virtues

"Christ, pray for us, " why we do not say, 160, 161

Christ, the Name of, on the foreheads of Christians, 219

Chrysostom, St. : the _Opus Imperfectum in Matthæum_ falsely attributed to him, 24; on prayer as a conversation with God, 74; on prayer for others, 95; in public, 121; on prayer for sinners, 143; on prayer through Jesus Christ, 145; on the zeal of S. Paul, 242

Church customs, 158, 163

Church, the prayers of the, 81

Cicero, on religion, 27; on prudence and intellectual quickness, 224

Circular movement of the soul, 172, 203-210

Cleanness, 47, 184

_Colere_, 31

Collect for Friday in September Ember Week, 147; for Trinity Sunday, 147, 148

Compline, St. Thomas's devotion at, 14

Communion of Saints, 158, 164

Conformity to the will of God, 86

Consecration, the Prayer of the, 147, 149, 150

Contemplation and the Contemplative Life: the meaning of _contemplation_, 188, 189, 196, 201, 202, 211, 230, 234, 235, 237; it is something beautiful in the soul, 184; not purely an affair of the intellect, 179-182, 189; its relation to the affective powers, 211; the place which reason occupies in contemplation, 195, 210, 211, 225, 226, 249; the place occupied by the imagination, 195; in what sense contemplation involves many acts, 187-192; how far contemplation may be described according to the three species of motion--circular, direct, and oblique, 172, 203-210; contemplation is natural to man, 210; it is pleasurable, 211; it is primarily concerned with God, 180, 241, 250; it does not, in this present life, fall on the Divine Essence as such, 199-203; its ultimate goal, 180, 184, 187, 193, 194, 196, 198, 203, 229; its ultimate goal in this life, 212, 220; how it is distinguished from meditation and thought, 188; and from speculation, 189; four integral parts of contemplation, 193, 194; four phases in it, 194; six steps in it, 195, 196; the contemplation of this present life, 193, 213, 214; not on earth as in Heaven, 176, 177, 217, 243; it is "beyond man, " 218; a busy life does not exclude it, 238; it is lawful to desire it, 240; contemplation and ecstasy, 200; four subjects of contemplation, 194; the repose of contemplation, in what it consists, 204, 205, 234, 235, 246

_The Contemplative Life_: its meaning, 184, 186, 237, 250; how it is distinguished from the Active Life, 169, 173, 220, 234, 235; it is superior to the Active Life, 233-240; it is more meritorious than it, 240-244; its great merit, 242; it is prepared for in the Active Life, 239, 245-249; the Active Life precedes it, 249-252; the Contemplative Life directs the Active, 251; the relation of the Contemplative Life to the Theological virtues, 192; and to the Moral virtues, 182-186, 221, 222, 239; it demands temperance, 184, 185; and chastity, which it in turn fosters, 184, 185; it calls for the subjection of the passions, 184, 185; it results in the subjugation of the passions, 213; it involves a certain liberty of spirit, 234, 237; it is often distasteful, 215, 216; it means the sacrifice of our own soul, 244; its joys, 177, 197, 210-216, 234, 248; its combats, 212, 213; it is imperfect here on earth, 243; it is not incompatible with Prelacy, 236; its relation to the office of teaching, 236-239; it is not meant for all, 235, 236, 239, 241, 251, 252; reading is sometimes necessary for it, 190; how far it refrains from all external actions, 182; it is typified by Rachel, 174, 180, 184, 234, 242; also by Mary of Bethany, 174, 190, 197, 234, 235, 248; it is foreshown in Jacob's Vision, 231

Contemplative Religious Orders: in what sense they are the best, 253-257

Contemplatives, 32

Continence, a prayer for, 87

Conversation, sins of, 110

Correction, fraternal, 97

Created things must serve as stepping-stones, 193

Cross, Adoration of the, 37

_Cultus_, 31

Cyprian, St. , on _Our_ Father, not _My_ Father, 96

Damascene, St. John: on Wonderment, 189; definitions of prayer, 69, 71, 85, 142, 148

Dead, Prayers for the, 167, 168

Death, fear of, 83

Decii, the, 52

Defects, the thought of our, causes devotion, 63, 64

Delights, earthly, as opposed to heavenly, 215, 216

Denis the Areopagite, 24; on sanctity, 49; on ecstasy, 55; on beginning all with prayer, 70; on being co-workers with God, 154; of the knowledge of the Angels, 157; of the harmony in Divine things, 158; that life implies motion, 171; on the three movements of the soul, 172, 203-210; of the difference between the Angelic and the human intellect, 186; that the goal of contemplation is to attain to the uniformity of the Divine contemplation, 218; that in contemplation here on earth we do not see the Divine Essence, 200; on the illumination of the Angels, 230; of the Divine harmony, 255

Desires, their function and necessity, 77, 91, 105

Devotion: defined, 51, 53, 55, 57, 64; is a special act, 51; is due to an act of the will, 53, 57; is an act of the virtue of Religion, 57; is the principal act of the virtue of Religion, 54; involves sacrifice of the heart, 64; it gives a certain measure to human acts, 52; it means promptitude, 53, 55, 56, 57; two causes of it, 57, 62, 63; caused by meditation, 57; especially by meditation on the Sacred Passion, 59, 63; on the goodness of God, 58, 60; on our own defects, 58, 60; obstacles to it, 62; how far it may be hindered by learning, 60; it is productive of sorrow, 62-64; but is not therefore to be confounded with gloominess, 64, 65; it produces joy, 62, 63; devotion to the Saints, 57; the devotion of women, 59, 62; the "devout female sex, " 62

Direct movement of the soul, the, 172, 210-213

Discretion, St. Antony on, 254, 257

Distractions, 127. _Cf. S. V. _ Prayer, distractions in

Divine Office, attention in the recitation of, 128

_Dulia_, 39

Ecstasy, 4; Denis the Areopagite on, 55; that of St. Paul, 199, 200

Ejaculatory prayers, 134, 135

Enemies, prayer for, 99; love of our, 99

Eternity: the "repose" of, 86, 87, 92; the "silence" of, 87

Etymologies, those of St. Thomas and St. Isidore, 24

Eucharist, the Holy: the Accidents of, 9; St. Thomas's reception of It as Viaticum, 15; the "Chief" of the Sacraments, 103; our "Daily Bread, " 103, 109; the rhythm, _Adoro Te Devote_, 112

_Eusebeia_, 31

Example, the force of, 222

Exterior religion, 45

External actions, 182, 183

Extraordinary ways of God, the, 3

Faber, Father, 2

Faith, 191, 192

Faith and Vision, 87

Fasting, 63

Fear, 189; the gift of fear, 34; fear of death, 23; of Hell, 36

Female sex, the "devout, " 62

"Forgive us our trespasses, " 110, 111

Fossa Nuova, 14

Frederic, the Emperor, 8

Friendship, 56

Gifts of God, 92; of the Holy Spirit, 105, 106

Gloom, not a characteristic of the Saints, 64, 65

Gloss, the, on Holy Scripture, 24, 25

God: God alone, 92, 247; in what sense we "adjure" Him in our prayers, 148; by prayer we become His beggars, 79, 110; He is not changed by our prayers, 86, 107; does not need our external acts of religion, 43, 46; His foreknowledge involves no compulsion, 72; His goodness is a reason for prayer, 107, 149; His Holiness is a reason for prayer, 147; the harmony of Divine things, 158, 159; He knows beforehand what we seek, 80, 161; He knows the heart, 157; the majesty of God, 189; the Patience of God, 130; we do not pray to Him alone, 80-84; He does not always hear our prayers, 142, 143; why He wishes us to pray, 74, 86, 107, 138; He does not profit by our service, 43; on seeking after God, 54, 134, 179, 180, 183, 192; He is the First Principle, 180; the Ultimate End, 182; ultimate union with Him, 109, 191; union with Him, 69, 208; we can hope for it, 240; hindrances to it, 103, 104; the Vision of God, 153, 155, 163, 172, 177, 180, 181. _Cf. S. V. _ Beatific Vision; the Antecedent Will of God, 163

_Greeks, On the Errors of the_, St. Thomas's treatise on, 14

Gregory the Great, St. : on Lia as the type of the Active Life, 222, 225, 234, 242, 246; of Martha and Mary as types of the Active and the Contemplative Life respectively, 174; on attention at prayer, 126; on the intercession of the Angels, 165; on the conformity of the Angels to God's Will, 167; how the prayers of the Saints avail, 167; that the Contemplative Life is occupied with God alone, 180, 184, 192; that contemplation in this life does not attain to the Divine Essence, 199, 200; that contemplation excludes all images, 201; of St. Benedict's vision, 202; on the true sweetness of contemplation, 210; contemplation springs from and leads to love of God, 212; on the combats of the Contemplative Life, 212; that knowledge of God brings about the death of all carnal desires, 213; of the joys of the spiritual life, 215, 216; on disgust for spiritual things 215, 216; of the Active Life, 221, 225; on teaching as falling under the Active Life, 226; as due to contemplation, 227; that the Active Life passes away, not so the Contemplative Life, 229; of the Contemplation of the Angels, 231; on the instability of our present contemplation, 232, 243; of the merits of the Contemplative Life, 240, 241; that those who are Superiors can still practise the Contemplative Life, 236; that the Active Life precedes the Contemplative, 224, 245, 249; of zeal for souls, 243, 244; of the necessity of the Active Life, 250; _contemplata aliis tradere_, 254; that the Blessed in Heaven know our needs, 82; not all are called to the Contemplative Life, 251, 252

Gregory of Nyssa, St. , of joys and sorrows, 64

Gregory X. , Pope, 14

Guidonis, Bernard, 6

Habits, 35, 251

Harmony of Divine things, 158, 159

Harmony of reason, the, 183

Heaven: there will be no books in, 111; it is our "Fatherland, " 166-168, 173

Holiness, 184

Hope, 191, 192

Hugo à St. Caro, 6, 25

Hugh of St. Victor's: on attention at prayer, 126; on intensity, 126

Idolatry, 46

Images, veneration of, 37

Imagination, its function, 195, 201

Imprecations in Holy Scripture, 100

Indulgences, 168

Ingratitude, 94

"Insinuation" in prayer, 141

Intelligence, quickness of, 224

Intellect, the noblest part of man, 79, 80

Intention, 133

"Intercession" as a part of prayer, 146

Intercession of the Saints, 161

Interior Spirit, the true, 247

Interpretive prayer, 163

Isaias, St. Thomas's Commentary on, 10

Isidore of Seville, St. : his etymologies, 24; on religion, 27; on the word _sanctus_, 48; on prayer, 68

Jacob's Vision, 231

Jeremias prays for the people, though he is in Limbo, 115, 118, 162

Jerome, St. : on the error of Vigilantius, who said the prayers of the Martyrs were not heard, 115, 162; on making "a virtue of necessity, " 35; on the term "super-substantial" Bread, 103

John of St. Julian, O. P. , 5

John XXII. , Pope, 23

Josias, King of Juda, in Limbo, 155

Joy as an effect of devotion, 62

Joys of Contemplation, the, 210-216

Justice, the chief of the Moral Virtues, 37, 55, 221

Knowledge, its relation to the Moral Virtues, 182

_Latria_, 30, 34, 44

Leo the Great, St. , on the Jews, 56

Lia, the type of the Active Life, 222, 225, 234, 242, 246

Liberty of Spirit, 237

Life: definitions of, 169, 170, 171, 187; considered as intellectual, life may be divided into the Active and the Contemplative, 171, 174; _cf. S. V. _ Contemplative Life and Active Life; the Active and Contemplative Life compared, 233-257; the two Lives distinguished, 169-177; their relative order, 249-252; the "mixed" life, 175, 185; the Life of Beatitude, 191; the bestial life, 175; the busy life, 175; the civil life, 175; the leisurely life, 175, 185; the pleasurable life, 175; the life of repose, 172, 173; the life of toil, 172, 173; the voluptuous life, 176

Limbo, 118, 154-156

Litany of the Saints, 158

Living for Eternity, on, 83

Livy on the Decii, 51

Lombard, Peter, 25

Lord's Prayer, the: the seven petitions of, 105-111; the most perfect form of prayer, 105; distractions in saying it, 132; why we say _Our_ Father, and not _My_ Father, 96; this prayer is recited in the name of the whole Church, 145; in what sense we are tied to this restricted form of prayer, 136, 137; the Lord's Prayer as a subject of meditation, 192

Lyons, the Council of, St. Thomas summoned to it, 14

Lyra, Nicolas de, his Gloss, 25

Martyrs: the prayers of the, 162-164; merits of the Martyrs, 256

Marvel, what it is to, 189

Mass, the: to be said distinctly, 122; the Prayers of, 147; the Prayer of the Consecration in the Mass, 149, 150

Maximus Valerius, _On Socrates_, 84

Meditation, 188, 190; causes devotion, 57; produces sadness as well as joy, 62-65; the need of it, 61; not to be neglected for vocal prayer, 123; fruitful subjects for, 60; meditation on the Sacred Passion, 59; on choosing subtle subjects for meditation, 58, 60, 61

Melancholy, no fruit of devotion, 64, 65

Merit: definition of, 166; source of, 240; merits and rewards, 242; none in Heaven, 166, 243; of the Active and Contemplative Life, 240-244; the merit of prayer, 141; those of the Saints, 163; how we can merit for others, 141

Military Religious Orders, 256

Monica, St. , 123

Monte Cassino, 4

Moral Acts, their nature, 225

Moral Virtues, the: Justice is the chief of the moral virtues, 221; requisites for the moral virtues, 41; their place in the Contemplative Life 182-186; their function, 41, 43, 183-185; their part in the Active Life, 220-226; how far they remain after death, 230

Movements of the soul, the three, 172, 203-210

Mysticism, 1-3

Necessity, to make a virtue of, 35, 44

Nestorius's error concerning the Person of Christ, 161

Novelty of St. Thomas's teaching, 6, 7

"Obsecration" as a part of prayer, 147-149

Observance, strictness of, 257

Occultism, 3

Office, attention at the Divine, 128

Origen on sanctity, 47; on not swearing, 148

Passion, Meditation on the Sacred, 59, 63, 128

Perfection, 44

Peter Lombard, 25

Philosophy is better than riches, 236

_Postillæ_, 24

Prayer to St. Thomas before study, A, 16

Prayer: _defined_, 68, 69, 76, 78, 85, 102, 1O5, 127, 136, 148; it is an act, 161; not an act of the appetitive powers, 68, 71, 77; it is an act of the virtue of religion, 76-80, 161; after devotion, prayer is the highest act of the virtue of religion, 77; it is a conversation with God, 74; by it we become God's beggars, 110; it is peculiar to the rational creation, 112-114; in what sense the brute creatures pray, 114; prayer is a gift from God, 139; three requisites for prayer, 146; four requisites for prayer, 138; the real meaning of "petition, " 78, 79; the prayer of desire, 92, 105; in what sense desire is not prayer, 77, 78; prayer is a real cause, 72, 74, 166 _Why we should pray:_ prayer is reasonable, 71-76, 107, 120, 147; the merit of prayer, 125, 137-143; the effects of prayer, 71, 120, 125, 132, 138; prayer causes union with God, 70, 71 _Errors concerning prayer:_ in general, 72; it is not an adjuring of God, 148; it never wearies God, 79, 80; "much speaking" in prayer, 135; it cannot change God's decrees, 72, 73, 86, 107, 161; it does not "bend" His will, 86; God knows beforehand what we would pray for, 73, 75, 80, 86, 120 _Of prayers heard and unheard:_ the condition necessary if our prayers are to be heard, 89, 96, 141, 144; of prayers heard in anger, 142, 143; in what sense the prayers of sinners are heard, 143-146; the prayers of the poor are speedily heard, 69; how the prayers of the Saints are heard, 162, 168; the prayers of the Martyrs and Apostles, 162, 163; why prayers are not heard, 142; of unheard prayers, 140; why our prayers for others are sometimes not heard, 96; in what sense the prayers of sinners are heard, 143-146 _How we should pray:_ at regular intervals, 134; our attitude in prayer, 150, 151; beginning occupations with prayer, 70; prayer "without ceasing, " 91, 137; attention at prayer, 125; three kinds of attention, 120, 133; distractions, 121, 127-133; the length of our prayers, 133-137; hindrances to prayer, 75; the recitation of Psalms, 123; prayer "in spirit and in truth, " 126; weariness in prayer, 134 _What we should pray for:_ the impetratory value of prayer, 138, 141; what we should pray for in general, 129, 142; for Beatitude, 85-87; prayer for definite things, 84-88; for "sufficiency of life, " 89; against death, 83; for continence, 87; for knowledge of Holy Scripture, 88; for deliverance from toothache, 92, 94; for others, 95, 97, 98, 229; for the wicked, 97; for the good, 98; for our inferiors, 98; for temporal blessings, 89-95; for the predestinate, 167; for our enemies, 99-102; the Saints in Heaven pray for the resurrection of their bodies, 116 _To whom we should pray:_ not to God alone, 80-84; to the Angels, 81; to the Saints, 157-161; to the lesser Saints, 117 _Who pray for us, and how:_ the Angels pray for us, how, 114; in what sense the Son and the Holy Spirit are said to pray, 113, 115; how the Holy Spirit helps our prayers, 85; the Saints pray for us, 115-118; how, 156, 163, 166, 167; how we merit the prayers of the Saints, 162; how our prayers are known to the Saints, 152-157; those in Limbo prayed for those on earth, 118; those in Purgatory cannot pray for us, 117 _Divers forms of prayer:_ vocal prayer, 119-125; ejaculatory prayer, 134, 135; prayer in secret, 121; prayer of the heart, 124; thanksgiving as a part of prayer, 149; postulations as a part of prayer, 146-148 _The Lord's Prayer:_ we say not "my Father, " but "our Father, " 96; the seven petitions of the Lord's Prayer, 102-111; the Lord's Prayer not said without distractions, 132; in what sense we are tied to the Lord's Prayer as a formula, 136, 137 _The Church's prayers:_ in general, 76, 147, 158; public and private prayers, 119, 121, 122, 135; how the prayer "of many" avails, 98; the prayer of the Consecration at Mass, 149, 150

Prelates and Contemplative Life, 236

Prosper, St. , the _Book of Sentences Gleaned from St. Augustine_, 140

Prudence: its relation to the other Moral Virtues, 224; it is requisite for the Active Life, 223-226

Purity of soul, 252

Purgatory: why the suffrages of the Church do not empty it at once, 167, 168; the souls in Purgatory do not know our needs, 83; neither do they pray for us, 83, 116, 118; Brother Romanus passed sixteen days in Purgatory, 12

Rabanus Maurus: his Gloss, 25; on Prayer, 69

Rachel, a type of the Contemplative Life, 163, 174, 180, 184, 234, 242

Reading necessary for prayer, 190

Reason: its function, 206; the higher and the lower, 249; the speculative and the practical, 68

Religion: the virtue of, 27-50; that it is a virtue, 34; definition of, 27-31, 39, 49; its principle is charity, 56; it is one virtue, 35; and a Moral Virtue, 40; and a special virtue, 37-39; not a Theological Virtue, 39; the _via media_ in, 41; the harmony of, 42; is superior to the other Moral Virtues, 42; is not for God's profit, but for ours, 43; demands external acts, 44; how far it is identified with sanctity, 47-50

Religious Orders, the Active and Contemplative compared, 253-257

Religious people, 31, 50, 61; they are not always Saints, 50

Reposeful characters, 252

Romanus, Brother, appears to St. Thomas, 12

Sacrifice, the real nature of, 38, 46, 244

Saints, the: what it is to be a Saint, 50; they are not gloomy, 64, 65; their knowledge of our needs, 82, 152-157; their prayers for us, 115-118; they feel no grief for us on earth, 155; their wills are perfectly conformed to that of God, 116, 156, 163, 165, 167; the Communion of Saints, 158, 164; we ought to pray to them, 157-161; of devotion to the Saints, 57; to the lesser Saints, 117, 160; they are co-workers with God, 154; in what sense their prayers are always heard, 158, 162-168; their merits, 163, 166; how they pray for us, 163, 167

"Saint of Saints, The, " 160

Scripture, prayer for knowledge of Holy, 88

Seneca: on petitions, 74; on idolatry, 46

Sentences, the Book of, 6, 25

Sinners, prayer for: 97; the prayers of sinners, 143-146

Sins of conversation, 110

Socrates on prayer, 84

Solicitude, how far it is forbidden, 90

Sorrow, as an effect of devotion, 62, 64

Speculation, 189

Spirit, the Holy, how He helps us to pray, 85

"Spirit and truth, " prayer in, 126, 127

Spiritualism, 3

Stability implied in the notion of sanctity, 49

Strabo, Walafrid, his Gloss, 24

Strictness of life not an end in itself, 257

"Sufficiency of life, " prayer for, 89

Suffrages for the Dead, 167, 168

_Summa Theologica_: the broad divisions of, 19, 20; the method employed in, 21, 22; the _Tertia Pars_, 13

Superiors and Contemplation, 238

Supererogation, works of, 44

Superstition, 42

Supersubstantial Bread, 103

Supplications as a part of prayer, 146

Swearing, Origen on, 148

Teaching: in what it consists, 227, 228; due to Contemplation, 227; how far it belongs to the Active Life, 226-229; the beauty of the teaching life, 227; how the Angels teach, 231

Temperance: a necessity for the Contemplative Life, 184, 185; how far it is identical with sanctity, 50

Temporal things: the part they play in our life, 89; they are "stepping-stones" to Heaven, 91; how far they may be asked for, 89-95

Thanksgivings as part of prayer, 147

Theological Virtues, the, 39-41, 191, 192

_Theosebeia_, 31

Thomas Aquinas, St. : born at Rocca Secca, 4; his early occupation with Divine things, 5; goes to Monte Cassino, 4; to Naples University, 5; receives the habit of the Friars Preachers, 5; is sent to Santa Sabina, 5; is imprisoned, and studies the Bible, the _Sentences_, and the Philosophy of Aristotle, 6; is created Bachelor in Theology, 6; the novelty of his teaching, 7, 8; created Master in Theology, 7; says he would prefer to possess St. Chrysostom's Commentaries on the Gospel according to St. Matthew to the possession of the city of Paris, 10; hears from Our Lord's lips, _Bene scripsisti de Me, Thoma_, 10; his three petitions, 8; his prayer before study, 8-11; is visited by St. Peter and St. Paul, who explain to him a passage of Isaias, 11; Brother Romanus appears to him, 12; his approaching end is revealed to him, 12, 13; the Crucifix speaks to him, 13; he ceases to write, 14; his emotion on hearing the words, _Ne projicias nos_, sung, 14; is summoned to the Council of Lyons, 14; his faith in the Holy Eucharist, 9, 15; his dying words, 15; his rhythm, _Adoro Te Devote_, 112; the method of his teaching, 19; his teaching is regarded as miraculous, 23; his use of the works of the Fathers, 16, 18, 23; his teaching and that of St. Augustine, 16-18; his self-effacement, 23

Tocco, William of, biographer of St. Thomas, 5 _note_, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15

Toothache: St. Thomas's deliverance from it, 93; St. Augustine's deliverance from it, 93

Trinity, the Holy: how to pray to, 81; the _Collect_ for Trinity Sunday, 147

Union with God, 3, 197, 198. _Cf. S. V. _ God

Valgornera, _Theologia Mystica_, 1

_Via media_ in religion, 41

Vigilantius's errors regarding prayer, 117, 162

Virginity, 50

Virgins, the five wise and the five foolish, 247

Virtue: definition of, 34; its praiseworthy character, 43; it lies in the will, 43

Walafrid Strabo, his Gloss, 24

Will: the object of the, 57; its functions, 52, 70; the part it plays in the Contemplative Life, 179-181

Women, the natural devotion of, 59

Worship: in what it consists, 41

Zeal for souls, 243, 244

INDEX OF TEXTS QUOTED OR EXPLAINED

Genesis. Xxix. 17; 184xxxii. 30-32; 200, 214

Exodus. Iii. 6; 117iii. 14; 176xiii. 6; 117xix. 21; 136, 237xx. 1-17; 42xxxv. 20, 21; 52

1 Kings. I. 18; 120xv. 19; 73

2 Kings. Vii. 18; 150

3 Kings. Xviii. 42; 150

4 Kings. Xxii. 50; 155

2 Paralipomenon. Xxix. 31; 52

Job. V. 1; 80, 157xiv. 21; 152xvi. 20-23; 210xxxi. 14; 226xxxi. 23; 236

Psalms. V. 5; 177vi. 7; 151vi. 11; 99x. 17; 69xv. 2; 43xv. 5; 32xv. 5, 6; 172xv. 9; 120xv. 11; 177xvi. 6-9; 252xxiv. 6-11; 177xxvi. 4; 70, 136, 197xxvi. 5; 240xxvi. 8; 120xxxii. 20, 21; 137xxxiii. 9; 211, 216xxxiv. 13; 97, 137xxxv. 7; 235xxxvi. 23-25; 146xxxvii. 10; 91xxxviii. 4; 57xxxviii. 13; 68, 143xxxix. 13; 120xli. 3; 63xli. 1-6; 182xlv. 11; 235, 246xlvii. 9; 13xlvii. 9, 10, 15; 238xlix. 13; 46l. 19; 64liv. 1-7; 150liv. 23; 95lvii. 11; 100lviii. 7; 43lxv. 8-12; 232lxvi. ; 84lxx. 17, 18; 76lxx. 20; 14lxxii. 21-28; 192lxxii. 28; 58lxxv. 4, 5; 129lxxvi. 1; 32lxxvi. 4; 62lxxix. 4; 85lxxxiii. 3; 44lxxxiii. 12; 81lxxxv. 1-5; 125xciv. 3; 46xcvi. 7; 113cii. 1-15; 249ciii. 33, 34; 80cxviii. 35; 85cxviii. 145; 124cxx. 1, 2; 58cxx. 4; 80cxxxviii. 14; 194cxl. 2; 76cxli. 1; 119cxlii. 4-7; 132cxlii. 5, 6; 194cxliii. 15; 191cxliv. 13; 104cxlv. 1; 130cxlvi. 9; 114

Proverbs. Xxviii. 8; 144xxx. 8; 89

Ecclesiastes. Vii. 14; 97

Wisdom. Vii. 7; 190viii. 2; 185viii. 16; 171, 204, 210ix. 15; 132, 213xv. 1-3; 244

Ecclesiasticus. Xxviii. 2; 146xxx. 24; 244xxxvi. 1-3; 102xxxvi. 16-19; 114xli. 1-6; 223xliii. 33; 41

Isaias. Xii. 1-6; 219xxv. 8, 9; 198xxvi. 3, 4, 8, 9; 201xxxii. 17; 184xxxiii. 13-17; 181xlvi. 10; 104lviii. 5; 256lxiii. 15, 16; 88, 154lxiv. 8, 9; 71lxv. 24; 70

Jeremias. Vii. 16; 97xiv. 8, 9; 186xv. 1; 96, 164xxxi. 34; 231

Lamentations. Iii. 19; 63

Daniel. Ix. 14; 160ix. 18, 19; 147x. 12, 13; 165

Osee. Xiv. 3; 120

Habacuc. Ii. 4; 190

Malachi. I. 6; 36iii. 14; 72

2 Maccabeesxv. 14; 115, 162

St. Matthew. V. 8; 184v. 44; 99vi. 6; 121vi. 7; 135vi. 8; 80vi. 9; 136vi. 9-13; 84vi. 25; 90vi. 32; 73vi. 33; 90vii. 7; 78xviii. 10; 157, 231xxii. 30; 165xxv. 3, 4; 247

St. Luke. I. 49; 104i. 74, 75; 47vi. 12; 135vi. 13; 139ix. 55; 57x. 39; 190x. 40; 241x. 41; 234, 248x. 42; 216, 233, 248, 253x. 43; 235xi. 2-4; 84, 106xv. 13-16; 61xviii. 1; 71, 133, 137xxii. 43; 135

St. John. Iv. 24; 45, 85, 126v. 16; 95ix. 31; 144xi. 3; 146xiv. 8; 177xiv. 16; 113xvi. 23; 96xvii. 1-5; 111, 177xvii. 24; 98xix. 1-5; 56xxi. 22; 243

Acts. Vii. 59; 151xv. 9; 177xx. 36; 151

Romans. I. 20; 45, 193vii. 24; 213viii. 26; 85, 113, 198viii. 31; 32viii. 38, 39; 48ix. 3; 241xiii. 10; 183xv. 4; 99xv. 30; 98, 158

1 Corinthians. I. 11; 98iii. 8; 242iv. 5; 177vi. 9, 10; 104ix. 16; 44x. 31; 134xii. 31; 237xiii. 8; 217xiii. 12; 176, 213xiv. 14; 126xiv. 15; 82

2 Corinthians. Iii. 18; 189iv. 18; 90v. 6; 131v. 6, 7; 190v. 15; 239x. 31; 38xii. 7-9; 139

Galatians. Iv. 14; 32v. 13; 30

Ephesians. I. 4; 76iv. 5, 6; 35

Philippians. Iii. 20; 65iv. 7; 198

Colossians. Iii. 3, 4; 176

1 Thessalonians. V. 17; 91, 133, 137

1 Timothy. I. 5; 191ii. 1; 146, 147ii. 4; 86

2 Timothy. Iii. 5; 144

Hebrews. Iii. , iv. , v. ; 92vii. 25; 115x. 20; 248xii. 4; 256xii. 14; 48, 184

St. James. I. 6; 141i. 27; 28iv. 3; 85v. 16; 95

1 St. John. Iii. 2; 176, 197, 231iv. 19; 107v. 16; 97

Apocalypse. Vi. 10; 100, 164vi. 11; 164viii. 4; 81xv. 1; 164xxii. 17; 244

THE END

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