ON HORSEMANSHIP By Xenophon Translation by H. G. Dakyns Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B. C. He was a pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land and property in Scillus, where he lived for many years before having to move once more, to settle in Corinth. He died in 354 B. C. On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some words on military equipment for a cavalryman. PREPARER'S NOTE This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon, " afour-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there isdoubt about some of these) is: Work Number of books The Anabasis 7 The Hellenica 7 The Cyropaedia 8 The Memorabilia 4 The Symposium 1 The Economist 1 On Horsemanship 1 The Sportsman 1 The Cavalry General 1 The Apology 1 On Revenues 1 The Hiero 1 The Agesilaus 1 The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The diacritical marks have been lost. ON HORSEMANSHIP I Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship (1)ourselves, as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is toexplain, for the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive to bethe most correct method of dealing with horses. (1) Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time 'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing with horses. " {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a {ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab. " III. Iii. 8-20), and, as is commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell. " III. Iv. 14) in Asia, 396, 395 B. C. There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, thesame who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens(2) with a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on thepedestal. (3) But we shall not on that account expunge from our treatiseany conclusions in which we happen to agree with that author; on thecontrary we shall hand them on with still greater pleasure to ourfriends, in the belief that we shall only gain in authority from thefact that so great an expert in horsemanship held similar views to ourown; whilst with regard to matters omitted in his treatise, we shallendeavour to supply them. (2) L. Dind. (in Athens). The Eleusinion. For the position of this sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. Of Athens, " i. P. 296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. V. Praef. To "de R. E. " p. 230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc. " p. Xx. ; Dr. Morris H. Morgan, "The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon, " p. 119 foll. A fragment of the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The MS. Is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist. "Knights, " 242. {andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon, o Panaiti, ouk elatepros to dexion keras}; bears the name. (3) Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own performances. " As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may bestavoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse. Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutinymust begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mountedcan but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselvestherefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will bethe feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful itsupper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they oughtto be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and inparticular a war-horse, (4) if unsound in his feet, however excellenthis other points; since he could not turn a single one of them to goodaccount. (5) (4) Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose. " For the simile see "Mem. " III. I. 7. (5) Cf. Hor. "Sat. " I. Ii. 86: regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos inspiciunt, ne, sifacies, ut saepe, decora molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem, quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix. and see Virg. "Georg. " iii. 72 foll. In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny portionof the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better than athin. Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are high bothbefore and behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof keeps the"frog, " (6) as it is called, well off the ground; whereas a low hooftreads equally with the stoutest and softest part of the foot alike, the gait resembling that of a bandy-legged man. (7) "You may tell a goodfoot clearly by the ring, " says Simon happily; (8) for the hollow hoofrings like a cymbal against the solid earth. (9) (6) Lit. "the swallow. " (7) Al. "a knock-kneed person. " See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed. 1892), pp. 3, 9. (8) Or, "and he is right. " (9) Cf. Virg. "Georg. " iii. 88; Hor. "Epod. " xvi. 12. And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this pointto the rest of the body. The bones (10) above the hoof and below thefetlock must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through notbeing properly elastic, (11) legs of this type will jar the rider, andare more liable to become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones mustnot be too low, or else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated whenthe horse is galloped over clods and stones. (10) i. E. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be 'sloping. '" (11) Or, "being too inflexible. " Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch like anvil to hammer. " The bones of the shanks (12) ought to be thick, being as they are thecolumns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, notpuffed out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground theywill inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions be setup, (13) the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes; andwith this loosening of the skin the back sinew (14) is very apt to startand render the horse lame. (12) i. E. "the metacarpals and metatarsals. " (13) Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell whilst the skin recedes from the bone. " (14) Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong, and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order. If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safelyconjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs, since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age. (15)Supple knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering asthey do the horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue thanthose of stiffer build. (15) Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances. " Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, (16) or arms, these ifthick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, justas in the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest isbetter alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry thelegs well asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with oneanother. Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward from thechest, like a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather, it shouldshoot upwards to the crest, and be slack (17) along the curvature;whilst the head should be bony and the jawbone small. In this way theneck will be well in front of the rider, and the eye will command whatlies before the horse's feet. A horse, moreover, of this build, howeverspirited, will be least capable of overmastering the rider, (18) sinceit is not by arching but by stretching out his neck and head that ahorse endeavours to assert his power. (19) (16) Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished from "the thighs below the tail. " They correspond respectively to our "arms" (i. E. Forearms) and "gaskins, " and anatomically speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia. (17) "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge). (18) Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting. " (19) Or, "to display violence or run away. " It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on oneor other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws (20) is liableto become hard-mouthed on one side. (20) Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive. " Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of alertness, and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision. And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than acontracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer aspect. Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against another, orwhen his spirit chafes in being ridden, (21) the nostrils at once becomedilated. (21) Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he distends his nostrils. " A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical andhorse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow therider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders and thebody. (22) (22) Or if with L. D. ({kai to somati}), transl. "adhesion to the horse's shoulders. " A "double spine, " (23) again, is at once softer to sit on than a single, and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side somewhatrounded towards the belly (24) will render the animal at once easier tosit and stronger, and as a general rule better able to digest his food. (25) (23) Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg. " iii. 87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina. " "In a horse that is in good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a full back, " as we say. (24) Or, "in proportion to. " See Courier ("Du Commandement de la Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. P. 83. (25) i. E. "and keep in good condition. " The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raisehis forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given thesepoints, moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a portionof the body which if large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends tomake the horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. (26) (26) Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait. " The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the sidesand chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they will beall the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse in everyway more fleet. To come to the thighs (and buttocks): (27) if the horse have theseseparated by a broad line of demarcation (28) he will be able to planthis hind-legs under him with a good gap between; (29) and in so doingwill assume a posture (30) and a gait in action at once prouder and morefirmly balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage. (27) Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail. " (28) Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. The perineum. Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. Cit. P. 14, {plateis te kai me diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards. " (29) Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind, " etc. (30) {ton upobasin}, tech. Of the crouching posture assumed by the horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op. Cit. P. 126). The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When aman wants to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so bybringing the legs apart and not by bringing them together. A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point tobe determined in the colt. And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, (31) or shanks andfetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said alreadyabout those of the fore-legs. (31) {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?) knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i. E. Anatomically speaking, the os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small. I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the probablesize of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at the momentof being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact being--and itholds of all the domestic quadrupeds (32)--that with advance of time thelegs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows uniformlyup to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry. (32) Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim. " iv. 10; "H. A. " ii. 1; Plin. "N. H. " xi. 108. Such is the type (33) of colt and such the tests to be applied, withevery prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animalfine of form and large of stature. If changes in some instances developduring growth, that need not prevent us from applying our tests inconfidence. It far more often happens that an ugly-looking colt willturn out serviceable, (34) than that a foal of the above descriptionwill turn out ugly or defective. (33) Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us the purchaser will get, " etc. (34) For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured, " i. E. "sleek and healthy, " L. & S. Would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol. Lac. " v. 8). L. Dind. Conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid. {eukhrestoi}, "serviceable. " II The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our hands. (1) As a matter of state organisation, (2) cavalry duties usuallydevolve upon those who are not stinted in means, and who have aconsiderable share in the government; (3) and it seems far better fora young man to give heed to his own health of body and to horsemanship, or, if he already knows how to ride with skill, to practising manouvres, than that he should set up as a trainer of horses. (4) The older man hashis town property and his friends, and the hundred-and-one concerns ofstate or of war, on which to employ his time and energies rather than onhorsebreaking. It is plain then that any one holding my views (5) onthe subject will put a young horse out to be broken. But in so doing heought to draw up articles, just as a father does when he apprentices hisson to some art or handicraft, stating what sort of knowledge theyoung creature is to be sent back possessed of. These will serve asindications (6) to the trainer what points he must pay special heed toif he is to earn his fee. At the same time pains should be taken onthe owner's part to see that the colt is gentle, tractable, andaffectionate, (7) when delivered to the professional trainer. That is acondition of things which for the most part may be brought about at homeand by the groom--if he knows how to let the animal connect (8) hungerand thirst and the annoyance of flies with solitude, whilst associatingfood and drink and escape from sources of irritation with the presenceof man. As the result of this treatment, necessarily the young horsewill acquire--not fondness merely, but an absolute craving for humanbeings. A good deal can be done by touching, stroking, patting thoseparts of the body which the creature likes to have so handled. Theseare the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything annoying him, thehorse can least of all apply relief himself. (1) Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us, may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service in these states are persons who, " etc. For reading see Courier, "Notes, " p. 84. (2) "Organisation in the several states. " (3) Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that are appointed to cavalry duties. " See "Hippparch, " i. 9. (4) Cf. "Econ. " iii. 10. (5) {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which he started. (6) Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs, " as it were, or "draft in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda. " (7) "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man. " (8) Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc. , should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink, etc. , come through help of man. " The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds, and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if thecolt shows sign of apprehension at them, (9) he must teach him--not bycruel, but by gentle handling--that they are not really formidable. (9) Or, "is disposed to shy. " On this topic, then, of training, (10) the rules here given will, Ithink, suffice for any private individual. (10) Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an amateur. " III To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fitfor riding, we will set down certain memoranda, (1) which, if appliedintelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated. (1) "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to be cheated. " First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horsehas lost his mark teeth, (2) not only will the purchaser's hopes beblighted, but he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry bargain. (3) (2) Or, "the milk teeth, " i. E. Is more than five years old. See Morgan, p. 126. (3) Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed of. " Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be nomistake about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouthand the headstall (4) over his ears? There need be little ambiguityon this score, if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and againremoved, under his eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horsestands being mounted. Many horses are extremely loath to admit theapproach of anything which, if once accepted, clearly means to themenforced exertion. (4) {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear. Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can beinduced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group ofhorses standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Somehorses again, as the result of bad training, will run away from theexercising-ground and make for the stable. A hard mouth may be detectedby the exercise called the {pede} or volte, (5) and still more so byvarying the direction of the volte to right or left. Many horses willnot attempt to run away except for the concurrence of a bad mouth alongwith an avenue of escape home. (6) (5) See Sturz, s. V. ; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe, " but the passage below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte. (6) Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home combines, as it were, with a bad mouth. " {e... Ekphora} = "the exit from the manege or riding school. " Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go atfull speed the horse can be pulled up (7) sharp and is willing to wheelround in obedience to the rein. (7) {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For {apostrephesthai} see ix. 6; tech. "caracole. " It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose topurchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every oneknows what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that willnot obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily playthe part of an arrant traitor. And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended forwar, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself canbring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls, scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces bygalloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along aslant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge theendurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body. I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to performall these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; sincemany a horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from wantof experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any horse willcome to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be sound andfree from vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of anervous temperament. An over-timorous animal will not only prevent therider from using the vantage-ground of its back to strike an enemy, butis as likely as not to bring him to earth himself and plunge him intothe worst of straits. We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards otherhorses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish; (8) suchdefects are apt to cause his owner trouble. (8) Or, "very ticklish. " As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted, dancing and twisting about and the rest, (9) you will get a more exactidea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will tryand repeat the precise operations which he went through before you beganyour ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness toundergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit andendurance. (9) Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and twirlings about. " To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed, gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above allthings (10) obedient--such an animal, we venture to predict, willgive the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in thecircumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out ofsluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxingand maneuvering, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his handsand a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken. (10) Al. "thoroughly. " IV We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he admires;(1) the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home--how is he tobe housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a quarterof the establishment where the master will see the horse as often aspossible. (2) It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged thatthere will be as little risk of the horse's food being stolen from themanger, as of the master's from his larder or store-closet. To neglecta detail of this kind is surely to neglect oneself; since in the hour ofdanger, it is certain, the owner has to consign himself, life and limb, to the safe keeping of his horse. (1) Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire and have brought him home. " (2) i. E. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the master's eye. " Cf. "Econ. " xii. 20. Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a securehorse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horsetakes to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and anyone who observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptomeither of too much blood, (3) which calls for veterinary aid, or ofover-fatigue, for which rest is the cure, or else that an attack ofindigestion (4) or some other malady is coming on. And just as withhuman beings, so with the horse, all diseases are more curable at theircommencement (5) than after they have become chronic, or been wronglytreated. (6) (3) "A plethoric condition of the blood. " (4) {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure. " See Aristot. "H. A. " viii. 24. 4. (5) i. E. "in the early acute stages. " (6) Al. "and the mischief has spread. " But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse's bodyare matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to payattention to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoilthe best hoof which nature can give. (7) To prevent the floor beingdamp, it should be sloped with channels; and to avoid smoothness, pavedwith cobble stones sunk side by side in the ground and similar in sizeto the horse's hoofs. (8) A stable floor of this sort is calculatedto strengthen the horse's feet by the mere pressure on the part instanding. In the next place it will be the groom's business to lead outthe horse somewhere to comb and curry him; and after his morning's feedto unhalter him from the manger, (9) so that he may come to his eveningmeal with greater relish. To secure the best type of stable-yard, andwith a view to strengthening the horse's feet, I would suggest to takeand throw down loosely (10) four or five waggon loads of pebbles, eachas large as can be grasped in the hand, and about a pound in weight; thewhole to be fenced round with a skirting of iron to prevent scattering. The mere standing on these will come to precisely the same thing as iffor a certain portion of the day the horse were, off and on, steppingalong a stony road; whilst being curried or when fidgeted by flies hewill be forced to use his hoofs just as much as if he were walking. Noris it the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn with stones will tend toharden the frog of the foot also. (7) Lit. "A damp and smooth floor may be the ruin of a naturally good hoof. " It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their horses. (8) See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself at Bari. (9) Cf. "Hipparch, " i. 16. (10) Or, "spread so as to form a surface. " But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should betaken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and applianceswhich will render a man's flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften andsupple a horse's mouth. (11) (11) Or, "may be used with like effect on a horse's mouth, " i. E. Bathing, friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201. V It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trainedthoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the firstplace, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the halter(1) at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse's head. Byconstantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does notsit quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly injuringhimself; (2) and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that he shouldshow peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down. (1) Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger"; "licol d'ecurie. " (2) Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head... And ten to one will make a sore. " It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dungand litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he willdischarge the duty with least trouble to himself, (3) and at the sametime be doing the horse a kindness. (3) Al. "get rid of the refuse in the easiest way. " The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the horse'smouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the rolling-ground. (4) In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he takes him anywherewithout the bit. The muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration, prevents biting; and when attached it serves to rob the horse ofopportunity for vice. (5) (4) Cf. "Econ. " xi. 18; Aristoph. "Clouds, " 32. (5) Or, "prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs. " Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter abovehis head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to rid himself ofanything that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by thisupward movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead ofsnapping it. In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with thehead and mane; as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleansethe lower; then, as regards the rest of the body, first brush up thehair, by help of all the ordinary implements for cleansing, and thenbeat out the dust, following the lie of the hair. The hair on thespine (and dorsal region) ought not to be touched with any instrumentwhatever; the hand alone should be used to rub and smooth it, and in thedirection of its natural growth, so as to preserve from injury that partof the horse's back on which the rider sits. The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if youtry to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be caused. So, too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs of whichit is composed, without hindering the animal's vision, serve to scareaway from the eyes anything that might trouble them. Providence, we mustsuppose, (6) bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of the largeears which are given to the ass and the mule as a protection to theeyes. (7) The tail, again, and mane should be washed, the object beingto help the hairs to grow--those in the tail so as to allow the creaturethe greatest reach possible in brushing away molesting objects, (8) andthose of the neck in order that the rider may have as free a grip aspossible. (6) Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave... " (7) Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks. " (8) Insects, etc. Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon thehorse for the sake of pride and ornament, (9) and here is the proof: abrood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not readilysuffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of mules takecare to clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. (10) (9) {aglaias eneka} (a poetic word). Cf. "Od. " xv. 78; xvii. 310. (10) For this belief Schneid. Cf Aristot. "H. A. " vi. 18; Plin. Viii. 42; Aelian, "H. A. " ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan aptly adds Soph. "Fr. " 587 (Tyro), a beautiful passage, {komes de penthos lagkhano polou diken, k. T. L. } (cf. Plut. "Mor. " 754 A). Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with--no good is donebut rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessivecleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself ismost annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, thethicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly. Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the horse isno sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as if he hadnot been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and similarly forthe legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite sufficient. VI We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed withleast danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the groomattempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as thehorse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal'sknee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the oppositedirection to the horse, and planting himself well out of the way of hisleg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub him down. Hewill then escape all mischief, and he will be able to clean the frog byfolding back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way. The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to thisand all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as littleas possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if the horseattempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and rear. But byapproaching from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horsewith the least risk of injury to himself. When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from infront, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs himselfof his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse freedom todo what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like exception to theplan of training the horse to go forward on a long rein (1) and leadthe way, and for this reason: it gives the horse the opportunity ofmischief, in whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and thepower also to turn right about and face his driver. How can a troopof horses be kept free of one another, if driven in this fashion frombehind?--whereas a horse accustomed to be led from the side will haveleast power of mischief to horse or man, and at the same time be in thebest position to be mounted by the rider at a moment's notice, were itnecessary. (1) See a passage from Strattis, "Chrys. " 2 (Pollux, x. 55), {prosage ton polon atrema, proslabon ton agogea brakhuteron. Oukh oras oti abolos estin}. In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the firstplace, approach on the near (2) side of the horse, and then throwingthe reins over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise theheadstall in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If thehorse will take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the strap ofthe headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must holdthe bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb (3)of his left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will open theirmouths to that operation. But if he still refuses, then the groom mustpress the lip against the tush (4); very few horses will refuse the bit, when that is done to them. (5) (2) Lit. "on the left-hand side. " (3) {ton megan daktulon}, Hdt. Iii. 8. (4) i. E. "canine tooth. " (5) Or, "it is a very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth under the circumstances. " The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * * ifany work is to be done: (6) in fact, so important is it that the horseshould readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse that willnot take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted not onlywhen he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to his food andwhen he is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel if helearnt to take the bit of his own accord, when first presented to him. (6) Reading with L. Dind. {khre de ton ippokomon kai ta oiade... Paroxunthai, ei ti dei ponein}, or if as Schneid. , Sauppe, etc. , {khre de ton ippon me kata toiade, k. T. L. }, transl. "the horse must not be irritated in such operations as these, " etc. ; but {toiade} = "as follows, " if correct, suggests a lacuna in either case at this point. It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in thePersian fashion, (7) so that in case of illness or infirmity of agethe master himself may have a man to help him on to horseback withouttrouble, or, if he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man tomount him. (8) (7) Cf. "Anab. " IV. Iv. 4; "Hipparch, " i. 17; "Cyrop. " VII. I. 38. (8) An {anaboleus}. Cf. Plut. "C. Gracch. " 7. The one best precept--the golden rule--in dealing with a horse is neverto approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that it willoften drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will regret. (9) Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to approach it, you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at, particularlyif he be a plucky animal; (10) or, failing that, touch the formidableobject yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The oppositeplan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies itsfear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such amoment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as itscause. (9) Cf. "Hell. " v. Iii. 7 for this maxim. (10) Al. "if possibly by help of another and plucky animal. " If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he knowshow to make him lower his back, (11) to facilitate mounting, we have nofault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should practise andbe able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; (12) sinceon another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider's lot, (13) nor can the same rider be always served by the same equerry. (14) (11) {upobibazesthai}. See above, i. 14; Pollux, i. 213; Morgan ad loc. "Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era began. " (12) Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part. " (13) As a member of the cavalry. (14) Reading {allo}. Al. Reading {allos} with L. D. , "and the same horse will at one time humour you in one way and again in another. " Cf. Viii. 13, x. 12, for {uperetein} of the horse. VII The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready tomount. (1) We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in theinterests not only of the horseman but of the animal which he bestrides. First, then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs from thechin-strap or nose-band, (2) conveniently in his left hand, held slackso as not to jerk the horse's mouth, whether he means to mount byhoisting himself up, catching hold of the mane behind the ears, orto vault on to horseback by help of his spear. With the right handhe should grip the reins along with a tuft of hair beside theshoulder-joint, (3) so that he may not in any way wrench the horse'smouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of taking the spring offthe ground for mounting, (4) he should hoist his body by help of theleft hand, and with the right at full stretch assist the upward movement(5) (a position in mounting which will present a graceful spectacle alsofrom behind); (6) at the same time with the leg well bent, and takingcare not to place his knee on the horse's back, he must pass his legclean over to the off side; and so having brought his foot well round, plant himself firmly on his seat. (7) (1) Reading {otan... Paradexetai... Os anabesomenos}. Or, reading {otan paradexetai ton ippea (sc. O. Ippos) ws anabesomenon}, transl. "the horse has been brought round ready for mounting. " (2) So Courier, "la muserolle. " It might be merely a stitched leather strap or made of a chain in part, which rattled; as {khrusokhalinon patagon psalion} (Aristoph. "Peace, " 155) implies. "Curb" would be misleading. (3) "Near the withers. " (4) Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to mounting. " (5) "Give himself simultaneously a lift. " Reading {ekteinon}, or if {enteinon}, "keeping his right arm stiff. " (6) Or, "a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude behind. " (7) Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back. " To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading hishorse with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it wouldbe good, we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seatfrom the right side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn exceptto do with his right limbs what he has previously done with the left, and vice versa. And the reason we approve of this method of mountingis (8) that it enables the soldier at one and the same instant toget astride of his horse and to find himself prepared at all points, supposing he should have to enter the lists of battle on a sudden. (8) Lit. "One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the soldier finds himself fully prepared to engage the enemy on a sudden, if occasion need. " But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on asaddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, butrather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In thisway he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs;and this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strikea blow from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect. The leg and foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping theleg stiff, the rider is apt to have it broken in collision with someobstacle; whereas a flexible leg (9) will yield to the impact, and atthe same time not shift the thigh from its position. The rider shouldalso accustom the whole of his body above the hips to be as supple aspossible; for thus he will enlarge his scope of action, and in case ofa tug or shove be less liable to be unseated. Next, when the rider isseated, he must, in the first place, teach his horse to stand quiet, until he has drawn his skirts from under him, if need be, (10) and gotthe reins an equal length and grasped his spear in the handiest fashion;and, in the next place, he should keep his left arm close to his side. This position will give the rider absolute ease and freedom, (11) andhis hand the firmest hold. (9) i. E. "below the knee"; "shin and calf. " (10) Lit. "pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle). (11) {eustalestatos}, "the most business-like deportment. " As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without beingweak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which holdsthem can also grasp a spear. As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, (12) heshould begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his excitement. If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins should be heldpretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to carry his head high. This will set off the horse's bearing to the best advantage. Presently, as he falls into a natural trot, (13) he will gradually relax his limbswithout the slightest suffering, and so come more agreeably to thegallop. (14) Since, too, the preference is given to starting on the leftfoot, it will best conduce to that lead if, while the horse is stilltrotting, the signal to gallop should be given at the instant of makinga step with his right foot. (15) As he is on the point of liftinghis left foot he will start upon it, and while turning left willsimultaneously make the first bound of the gallop; (16) since, as amatter of instinct, a horse, on being turned to the right, leads offwith his right limbs, and to the left with his left. (12) "Forwards!" (13) Or, "the true trot. " (14) {epirrabdophorein}, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the whip. " (15) See Berenger, i. P. 249; also the "Cavalry Drill Book, " Part I. Equitation, S. 22, "The Canter. " (16) {tes episkeliseos}, "he will make the forward stride of the gallop in the act of turning to the left. " See Morgan ad loc. As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, (17) since ithabituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in theorder of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides ofthe mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the exercise. (18)But of the two we commend the oval form of the volte rather than thecircular; for the horse, being already sated with the straight course, will be all the more ready to turn, and will be practised at once inthe straight course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be heldup, (19) because it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the horse isat full speed to turn sharp, especially if the ground is broken (20) orslippery. (17) {pede}, figure of eight. (18) Or, "on first one and then the other half of the manege. " (19) {upolambanein}. See "Hipparch, " iii. 14; "Hunting, " iii. 10; vi. 22, of a dog. (20) {apokroton}, al. {epikroton}, "beaten, hard-trodden ground. " But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway thehorse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his ownbody; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch him andhis horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse has his eyesfixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urgehim to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and wheelingsare with a view to charging or retiring; consequently, to practisequickening the pace after wheeling is desirable. When the horse seemsto have had enough of the manege, it would be good to give him a slightpause, and then suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from hisfellows first, (21) and now towards them; and then again to quiet himdown in mid-career as short as possible; (22) and from halt once moreto turn him right-about and off again full charge. It is easy topredict that the day will come when there will be need of each of thesemanouvres. (21) {mentoi}, "of course. " (22) Or, "within the narrowest compass"; "as finely as possible. " When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so amongother horses, nor near a group of people, (23) nor outside theexercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of hiscompulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation. (24) (23) Or, "a knot of bystanders"; cf. Thuc. Ii. 21. (24) Or, as we say, "be caressed, and dismissed. " VIII As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to racedownhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he willneed to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a bank;(1) or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train himselfand his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two will have achance of saving each the other, and may be expected to increase theirusefulness. (1) {ekpedan} = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger); "to leap over ditches, and upon high places and down from them. " And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, onthe ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the sametopics, (2) we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former case, we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he concluded hisbargain to test whether the horse could do those particular things; (3)what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to teach his ownhorse, and we will explain how this teaching is to be done. (2) Or, "treating of a topic already handled. " (3) i. E. Possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase. With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take himby the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trenchyourself first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to inducehim to leap across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch shouldapply it smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear at abound, not the distance merely, but a far larger space than requisite;and for the future there will be no need for an actual blow, the meresight of some one coming up behind will suffice to make him leap. Assoon as he is accustomed to leap in this way you may mount him and puthim first at smaller and then at larger trenches. At the moment of thespring be ready to apply the spur; and so too, when training him to leapup and leap down, you should touch him with the spur at the criticalinstant. In the effort to perform any of these actions with the wholebody, the horse will certainly perform them with more safety to himselfand to his rider than he will, if his hind-quarters lag, in taking aditch or fence, or in making an upward spring or downward jump. (4) (4) Lit. "in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or down. " To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, andfinally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the downwardto the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the apprehension, whichsome people entertain, that a horse may dislocate the shoulder ingalloping down an incline, it should encourage them to learn that thePersians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes; (5) andtheir horses are every bit as sound as our own. (6) (5) Cf. "Anab. " IV. Viii. 28; and so the Georgians to this day (Chardin ap. Courier, op. Cit. P. 70, n. 1). (6) Lit. "as are those of the Hellenes. " Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accommodate himselfto these several movements. (7) Thus, when the horse breaks off into agallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be lesslikely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again inpulling him up short (8) the rider should lean back; and thus escape ashock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no badplan to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animalmay not feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground. In going down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right backand hold in the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurledheadforemost down the slope himself if not his horse. (7) Or, "to each set of occurrences. " (8) Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan); and see Hermann ap. Schneid. , {analambanein} = retinere equum, anhalten, pariren. I. E. "rein in" of the "Parade. " It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be gonethrough sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and shouldsometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The horse willtake much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to one place andone routine. Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep hisseat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at thesame time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothingcould be better, where the country suits and there are wild animals, than to practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But whenthese resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combinedefforts of two horsemen. (9) One of them will play the part of fugitive, retreating helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with lance reversedand plying the butt end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelinsand his lance similarly handled. (10) Whenever he comes within javelinrange he lets fly at the retreating foeman with his blunted missiles; orwhenever within spear thrust he deals the overtaken combatant a blow. In coming to close quarters, it is a good plan first to drag the foemantowards oneself, and then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is adevice to bring him to the ground. (11) The correct plan for the man sodragged is to press his horse forward: by which action the man who isbeing dragged is more likely to unhorse his assailant than to be broughtto the ground himself. (9) {ippota}. A poetic word; "cavaliers. " (10) Or, "manipulated. " (11) Or, "that may be spoken off as the 'purl trick'"; "it will unhorse him if anything. " If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, and cavalryskirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemyright up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat), under these circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as theskirmisher is close to his own party, (12) valour and discretion alikedictate to wheel and charge in the vanguard might and main; but when hefinds himself in close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse wellin hand. This, in all probability, will enable him to do the greatestmischief to the enemy, and to receive least damage at his hands. (12) See "Hipparch, " viii. 23. The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his dutyby means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious, is notopen to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have a horselearn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he doesas you wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he isdisobedient to chastise him. This principle, though capable of beingstated in a few words, is one which holds good throughout the whole ofhorsemanship. As, for instance, a horse will more readily take the bit, if each time he accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he willleap ditches and spring up embankments and perform all the other featsincumbent on him, if he be led to associate obedience to the word ofcommand with relaxation. (13) (13) Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to expect some relaxation. " IX The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce thechance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse;secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring yourpurchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out ahorse possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier forthe purposes of war. The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the ridershould be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited oragain unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is, that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger ina man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper byavoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid enraging aspirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first instant, in theact of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise the annoyance;and once on his back you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinarytime, and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible; next, beginning at the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quickerstep, but so gradually that he will find himself at full speed withoutnoticing it. (1) Any sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, justas a man is bewildered by any sudden sight or sound or other experience. (I say one should be aware that any unexpected shock will producedisturbance in a horse. ) (2) (1) Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop. " (2) L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious. So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into aquicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, butquietly and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him ratherthan compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course ratherthan the frequent turn which tends to calm a horse. (3) A quiet pacesustained for a long time has a caressing, (4) soothing effect, thereverse of exciting. If any one proposes by a series of fast andoft-repeated gallops to produce a sense of weariness in the horse, andso to tame him, his expectation will not be justified by the result; forunder such circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry theday by main force, (5) and with a show of temper, like a passionate man, may contrive to bring on himself and his rider irreparable mischief. (3) Or, "long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter turns, " {apostrophai}. (4) Reading {katapsosi} with L. Dind. (5) {agein bia}, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz; al. "go his own gait by sheer force. " A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash offat full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely abstainfrom setting him to race against another; as a general rule, yourfiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention. (6) (6) Reading {skhedon gar kai phil oi thum}, or if {... Oi thil kai th. } transl. "the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more mettlesome he will tend to become. " Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bitbe inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much aspossible by lightness of hand. It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep aquiet seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also totouch him as little as possible with anything except that part of thebody necessary to secure a firm seat. Again, it should be known that the conventional "chirrup" (7) to quietand "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the trainingschool; and supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate softsoothing actions with the "cluck" sound, and harsh rousing actionswith the "chirrup, " the horse could be taught to rouse himself at the"chirrup" and to calm himself at the "cluck" sound. On this principle, at the sound of the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider shouldavoid coming up to his charger in a state of excitement, or, indeed, bringing any disturbing influence to bear on the animal. As faras possible, at such a crisis he should halt and rest him; and, ifcircumstances permit, give him his morning or his evening meal. But thebest advice of all is not to get an over-spirited horse for the purposesof war. (7) Al. "whistling, " and see Berenger, ii. 68. {poppusmos}, a sound from the lips; {klogmos}, from the cheek. As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do everythingthe opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing with an animalof high spirit. X But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. Youwant to find him him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeurof bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with thebit, or applying the spur and whip--methods commonly adopted by peoplewith a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they therebyachieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to say, by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of aliveto what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping theydistract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger. (1) Feats indeed!--the feats of horses with a strong dislike to beingridden--up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the contrary, let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, and to holdhis head high and arch his neck, and you will practically be making himperform the very acts which he himself delights or rather exults in; andthe best proof of the pleasure which he takes is, that when he is letloose with other horses, and more particularly with mares, you willsee him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck withnervous vigour, (2) pawing the air with pliant legs (3) and waving histail on high. By training him to adopt the very airs and graces which henaturally assumes when showing off to best advantage, you have got whatyou are aiming at--a horse that delights in being ridden, a splendid andshowy animal, the joy of all beholders. (1) Al. "the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are thrown into disorder. " (2) {gorgoumenos}, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of "fierceness and rage, " as of Job's war-horse. (3) "Mollia crura reponit, " Virg. "Georg. " iii. 76; Hom. "Hymn. Ad Merc. " How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we willnow endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to haveat least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a goodsize; the other should have heavy and flat discs (4) studded with sharpspikes, so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness hewill drop it; then when the smooth is given him instead, he is delightedwith its smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before upon the rough, he will perform with greater relish on the smooth. He may certainly, outof contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchaseon it, and that is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, theeffect of which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouthpiece. It is possible to make the rough bit of every degree of roughness bykeeping it slack or taut. (4) See Morgan, op. Cit. P. 144 foll. But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible. If it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it upbodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point aman takes hold of a bar of iron, (5) he lifts it as a whole. The otherflexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single pointat which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and whileperpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets themouthpiece go from his bars. (6) For this reason the rings are hung inthe middle from the two axles, (7) so that while feeling for them withhis tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his jaws. (5) Or, "poker, " as we might say; lit. "spit. " (6) Schneid. Cf. Eur. "Hippol. " 1223. (7) See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes: "We have a small chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a 'Player, ' with which the horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it about, keeps his mouth moist and fresh; and, as Xenophon hints, it may serve likewise to fix his attention and prevent him from writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 'faire ses forces. '" To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, wewill describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles havetheir points of junction broad and smooth, (8) so as to bend easily; andwhere the several parts fitting round the axles, being large of apertureand not too closely packed, have greater flexibility; whereas, if theseveral parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into eachother, that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the kind of bit maybe, the rider must carry out precisely the same rules in using it, asfollows, if he wishes to turn out a horse with the qualities described. The horse's mouth is not to be pulled back too harshly so as to makehim toss his head aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel thepressure. But the instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, givehim the bit at once; and so throughout, as we never cease repeating, atevery response to your wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performshis service well, (9) reward and humour him. Thus, when the riderperceives that the horse takes a pleasure in the high arching andsupple play of his neck, let him seize the instant not to impose severeexertion on him, like a taskmaster, but rather to caress and coaxhim, as if anxious to give him a rest. In this way the horse will beencouraged and fall into a rapid pace. (8) i. E. "the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work into each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the join. " (9) "Behaves compliantly. " That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shownconclusively. As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at atrot or gallop, never at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive apleasure does this action afford him, if he is not forced to performit to excess; since it is true of horse and man alike that nothing ispleasant if carried to excess. (10) (10) L. Dind. Cf. Eur. "Med. " 128, {ta de' uperballont oudena kairon}. But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden--we haveaccustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall intoa canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson wellby heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while simultaneouslygiving him one of the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the onehand by the bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience to thesignal "off, " will throw forward his chest and raise his legs aloft withfiery spirit; though not indeed with suppleness, for the supple playof the limbs ceases as soon as the horse feels annoyance. But now, supposing when his fire is thus enkindled (11) you give him the rein, the effect is instantaneous. Under the pleasurable sense of freedom, thanks to the relaxation of the bit, with stately bearing and legspliantly moving he dashes forward in his pride, in every respectimitating the airs and graces of a horse approaching other horses. Listen to the epithets with which spectators will describe the type ofhorse: the noble animal! and what willingness to work, what paces, (12)what a spirit and what mettle; how proudly he bears himself (13)--a joyat once, and yet a terror to behold. (11) Cf. "Hell. " V. Iv. 46, "kindled into new life. " (12) {ipposten}, "a true soldier's horse. " (13) {sobaron}, "what a push and swagger"; {kai ama edun te kai gorgon idein}, "a la fois doux et terrible a voir, " see Victor Cherbuliez, "Un Cheval de Phidias, " p. 148. Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a specialneed. XI If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and stateprocessions, a high stepper and a showy (1) animal, these are qualitiesnot to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animalmust have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, ahorse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. Whatwe want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but short andstrong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the belly theregion between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who will beable to plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while he is soplanting his hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers hishind-legs on his hocks (2) and raises the forepart of his body, so thatany one in front of him will see the whole length of his belly to thesheath. (3) At the moment the horse does this, the rider should givehim the rein, so that he may display the noblest feats which a horse canperform of his own free will, to the satisfaction of the spectators. (1) {lampros}. Cf. Isae. Xi. 41 ("On the estate of Hagnias"), Lys. Xix. 63 ("de Bon. Arist. "). (2) See Berenger, ii. 68. (3) Lit. "testicles. " There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. (4) Some do soby touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ anattendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under thegaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, (5)as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he doesin obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed by some rest andrelaxation. (4) Lit. "People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in various ways--some by... Others by bidding... " (5) Reading {didaskalion}, al. {didaskalion}, "systems. " Schneid. Cf. Herod. V. 58. To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he doesblindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that ofa ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse orman so treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather thanof grace and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his ownaccord exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. (6) Supposing, when he is in the riding-field, (7) you push him to a gallop until he isbathed in sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his airs to fineeffect, you promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely uponit he will of his own accord another time break into the sameprancing action. Such are the horses on which gods and heroes ride, as represented by the artist. The majesty of men themselves is bestdiscovered in the graceful handling of such animals. (8) A horse soprancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a wonder and a marvel; rivetingthe gaze of all who see him, young alike and graybeards. They will neverturn their backs, I venture to predict, or weary of their gazing so longas he continues to display his splendid action. (6) Or, "by aids and signs, " as we say. (7) Or, "exercising-ground. " (8) Or, "and the man who knows how to manage such a creature gracefully himself at once appears magnificent. " If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance inthe position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he mustnot confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour, but should study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendidspectacle. Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed uponthe type of animal) (9) the leader is mounted on a horse which withhis high airs and frequent prancing makes but the slightest movementforward--obviously the rest of the troop must follow at a walkingpace, and one may fairly ask where is the element of splendour in thespectacle? But now suppose that you, sir, being at the head of theprocession, rouse your horse and take the lead at a pace neither toofast nor yet too slow, but in a way to bring out the best qualities inall the animals, their spirit, fire, grace of mien and bearing ripefor action--I say, if you take the lead of them in this style, thecollective thud, the general neighing and the snorting of the horseswill combine to render not only you at the head, but your whole company(10) down to the last man a thrilling spectacle. (9) Reading as vulg. {os malista epainousi tous toioutous ippous, os}. L. Dind. Omits the words as a gloss. (10) Reading {oi} (for {osoi}) {sumparepomenoi}. See Hartmann, "An. Xen. Nov. " xiv. P. 343. One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing hishorses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals, supposingfurther he can handle them in the right way, not only in the trainingfor war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in thestress of actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from makingevery horse he owns of far more value in the end than when he boughtit, with the further outlook that, unless some power higher than humaninterpose, (11) he will become the owner of a celebrated stable, andhimself as celebrated for his skill in horsemanship. (11) Or, "there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man. " For the phrase see "Mem. " I. Iii. 5; cf. "Cyrop. " I. Vi. 18; and for the advice, "Econ. " iii. 9, 10. XII We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run therisks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place, then, we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person;since, if it fits well, its weight will be distributed over the wholebody; whereas, if too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight tobear, while, if too tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm, but a "strait jacket. " (1) Again, the neck, as being a vital part, (2)ought to have, as we maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet andclose-fitting. This will serve as an ornament, and if made as it oughtto be, will conceal the rider's face--if so he chooses--up to the nose. (1) Cf. "Mem. " III. X. (2) L. Dind. Cf. Hom. "Il. " viii. 326: {... Othi kleis apoergei aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairionestin. } "Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is themost deadly spot" (W. Leaf). As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the Boeotianpattern, (3) on the principle again, that it covers all the partsexposed above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another point:the corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent itswearer sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the genitalsand parts surrounding (4) flaps should be attached in texture and inthickness sufficient to protect (5) that region. (3) Schneider cf. Aelian, "V. H. " iii. 24; Pollux, i. 149. (4) Schneider cf. "Anab. " IV. Vii. 15, and for {kai ta kuklo}, conj. {kuklo}, "the abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt. " (5) Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to protect the limbs. " Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we wouldrecommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the gauntlet, whichprotects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand engaged in holdingthe reins, being so constructed as to extend and contract; in additionto which it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. Thecase is different with the right hand, which the horseman must needsraise to discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, accordingly, anypart of the corselet which would hinder action out to be removed; inplace of which the corselet ought to have some extra flaps (6) at thejoints, which as the outstretched arm is raised unfold, and as the armdescends close tight again. The arm itself, (7) it seems to us, willbetter be protected by a piece like a greave stretched over it thanbound up with the corselet. Again, the part exposed when the right handis raised should be covered close to the corselet either with calfskinor with metal; or else there will be a want of protection just at themost vital point. (6) {prosthetai}, "moveable, " "false. " For {gigglumois} L. & S. Cf. Hipp. 411. 12; Aristot. "de An. " iii. 10. 9 = "ball-and-socket joints. " (7) i. E. "forearm. " Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider inextreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour--frontlet, breastplate, and thigh-pieces; (8) which latter may at the same timeserve as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse'sbelly, being the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected. It is possible to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itselfshould be of such sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat, and yet not gall the horse's back. (8) Cf. "Cyrop. " VI. Iv. 1; VII. I. 2. As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked uponas fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet, whichof course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be armedby the addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for makingsandals. And thus you will have at once defensive armour for the shinsand stockings for the feet. The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour ofdefence. To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre ratherthan the straight sword, (9) since from the vantage-ground of thehorse's position the curved blade will descend with greater force thanthe ordinary weapon. (9) The {makhaira} (or {kopis}), Persian fashion, rather than the {xephos}. "Cyrop. " I. Ii. 13. Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak andawkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood; (10)the one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the onereserved in all directions, forwards, backwards, (11) and obliquely; addto that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger than the spear butfar more manageable. (10) For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences perhaps, cf. "Hell. " III. Iv. 14; "Anab. " I. Viii. 3; "Cyrop. " I. Ii. 9. (11) Reading {eis toupisthen} after Leoncl. As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of thelongest possible, as giving more time to rally (12) and transfer thesecond javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly themost effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should throwforward his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising bodilyfrom the thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightlyupwards. The dart so discharged will carry with the greatest force andto the farthest distance; we may add, too, with the truest aim, if atthe moment of discharge the lance be directed steadily on the objectaimed at. (13) (12) Al. "to turn right-about. " (13) "If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of discharge. " This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons andexercises suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion; thetheory and practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander will befound developed in the companion treatise. (14) (14) In reference to "The Cavalry General", or "Hipparch. "