MYTHS OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA

Donald A. Mackenzie

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Preface IntroductionI. The Races and Early Civilization of BabyloniaII. The Land of Rivers and the God of the DeepIII. Rival Pantheons and Representative DeitiesIV. Demons, Fairies, and GhostsV. Myths of Tammuz and IshtarVI. Wars of the City States of Sumer and AkkadVII. Creation Legend: Merodach the Dragon SlayerVIII. Deified Heroes: Etana and GilgameshIX. Deluge Legend, the Island of the Blessed, and HadesX. Buildings and Laws and Customs of BabylonXI. The Golden Age of BabyloniaXII. Rise of the Hittites, Mitannians, Kassites, Hyksos, and AssyriansXIII. Astrology and AstronomyXIV. Ashur the National God of AssyriaXV. Conflicts for Trade and SupremacyXVI. Race Movements that Shattered EmpiresXVII. The Hebrews in Assyrian HistoryXVIII. The Age of SemiramisXIX. Assyria's Age of SplendourXX. The Last Days of Assyria and Babylonia

PREFACE

This volume deals with the myths and legends of Babylonia and Assyria, and as these reflect the civilization in which they developed, ahistorical narrative has been provided, beginning with the earlySumerian Age and concluding with the periods of the Persian andGrecian Empires. Over thirty centuries of human progress are thuspassed under review. 

During this vast interval of time the cultural influences emanatingfrom the Tigro-Euphrates valley reached far-distant shores along theintersecting avenues of trade, and in consequence of the periodic andwidespread migrations of peoples who had acquired directly orindirectly the leavening elements of Mesopotamian civilization. Evenat the present day traces survive in Europe of the early culturalimpress of the East; our "Signs of the Zodiac", for instance, as wellas the system of measuring time and space by using 60 as a basicnumeral for calculation, are inheritances from ancient Babylonia. 

As in the Nile Valley, however, it is impossible to trace inMesopotamia the initiatory stages of prehistoric culture based on theagricultural mode of life. What is generally called the "Dawn ofHistory" is really the beginning of a later age of progress; it isnecessary to account for the degree of civilization attained at theearliest period of which we have knowledge by postulating a remoterage of culture of much longer duration than that which separates the"Dawn" from the age in which we now live. Although Sumerian (earlyBabylonian) civilization presents distinctively local features whichjustify the application of the term "indigenous" in the broad sense, it is found, like that of Egypt, to be possessed of certain elementswhich suggest exceedingly remote influences and connections at presentobscure. Of special interest in this regard is Professor Budge'smature and well-deliberated conclusion that "both the Sumerians andearly Egyptians derived their primeval gods from some common butexceedingly ancient source". The prehistoric burial customs of theseseparate peoples are also remarkably similar and they resemble closelyin turn those of the Neolithic Europeans. The cumulative effect ofsuch evidence forces us to regard as not wholly satisfactory andconclusive the hypothesis of cultural influence. A remote racialconnection is possible, and is certainly worthy of consideration whenso high an authority as Professor Frazer, author of _The GoldenBough_, is found prepared to admit that the widespread "homogeneity ofbeliefs" may have been due to "homogeneity of race". It is shown(Chapter 1) that certain ethnologists have accumulated data whichestablish a racial kinship between the Neolithic Europeans, theproto-Egyptians, the Sumerians, the southern Persians, and theAryo-Indians. 

Throughout this volume comparative notes have been compiled in dealingwith Mesopotamian beliefs with purpose to assist the reader towardsthe study of linking myths and legends. Interesting parallels havebeen gleaned from various religious literatures in Europe, Egypt, India, and elsewhere. It will be found that certain relics ofBabylonian intellectual life, which have a distinctive geographicalsignificance, were shared by peoples in other cultural areas wherethey were similarly overlaid with local colour. Modes of thought werethe products of modes of life and were influenced in their developmentby human experiences. The influence of environment on the growth ofculture has long been recognized, but consideration must also be givento the choice of environment by peoples who had adopted distinctivehabits of life. Racial units migrated from cultural areas to districtssuitable for colonization and carried with them a heritage ofimmemorial beliefs and customs which were regarded as being quite asindispensable for their welfare as their implements and domesticatedanimals. 

When consideration is given in this connection to the conservativeelement in primitive religion, it is not surprising to find that thegrowth of religious myths was not so spontaneous in earlycivilizations of the highest order as has hitherto been assumed. Itseems clear that in each great local mythology we have to deal, in thefirst place, not with symbolized ideas so much as symbolized folkbeliefs of remote antiquity and, to a certain degree, of commoninheritance. It may not be found possible to arrive at a conclusivesolution of the most widespread, and therefore the most ancient folkmyths, such as, for instance, the Dragon Myth, or the myth of theculture hero. Nor, perhaps, is it necessary that we should concernourselves greatly regarding the origin of the idea of the dragon, which in one country symbolized fiery drought and in anotheroverwhelming river floods. 

The student will find footing on surer ground by following the processwhich exalts the dragon of the folk tale into the symbol of evil andprimordial chaos. The Babylonian Creation Myth, for instance, can beshown to be a localized and glorified legend in which the hero and histribe are displaced by the war god and his fellow deities whosewelfare depends on his prowess. Merodach kills the dragon, Tiamat, asthe heroes of Eur-Asian folk stories kill grisly hags, by casting hisweapon down her throat. 

 He severed her inward parts, he pierced her heart, He overcame her and cut off her life; He cast down her body and stood upon it . .. And with merciless club he smashed her skull. He cut through the channels of her blood, And he made the north wind to bear it away into secret places. 

Afterwards

 He divided the flesh of the _Ku-pu_ and devised a cunning plan. 

Mr. L. W. King, from whose scholarly _Seven Tablets of Creation_ theselines are quoted, notes that "Ku-pu" is a word of uncertain meaning. Jensen suggests "trunk, body". Apparently Merodach obtained specialknowledge after dividing, and perhaps eating, the "Ku-pu". His"cunning plan" is set forth in detail: he cut up the dragon's body:

 He split her up like a flat fish into two halves. 

He formed the heavens with one half and the earth with the other, andthen set the universe in order. His power and wisdom as the Demiurgewere derived from the fierce and powerful Great Mother, Tiamat. 

In other dragon stories the heroes devise their plans after eating thedragon's heart. According to Philostratus, [1] Apollonius of Tyana wasworthy of being remembered for two things--his bravery in travellingamong fierce robber tribes, not then subject to Rome, and his wisdomin learning the language of birds and other animals as the Arabs do. This accomplishment the Arabs acquired, Philostratus explains, byeating the hearts of dragons. The "animals" who utter magic words are, of course, the Fates. Siegfried of the _Nibelungenlied_, after slayingthe Regin dragon, makes himself invulnerable by bathing in its blood. He obtains wisdom by eating the heart: as soon as he tastes it he canunderstand the language of birds, and the birds reveal to him thatMimer is waiting to slay him. Sigurd similarly makes his plans aftereating the heart of the Fafner dragon. In Scottish legendFinn-mac-Coul obtains the power to divine secrets by partaking of asmall portion of the seventh salmon associated with the "well dragon", and Michael Scott and other folk heroes become great physicians aftertasting the juices of the middle part of the body of the white snake. The hero of an Egyptian folk tale slays a "deathless snake" by cuttingit in two parts and putting sand between the parts. He then obtainsfrom the box, of which it is the guardian, the book of spells; when hereads a page of the spells he knows what the birds of the sky, thefish of the deep, and the beasts of the hill say; the book gives himpower to enchant "the heaven and the earth, the abyss, the mountainsand the sea". [2]

Magic and religion were never separated in Babylonia; not only thepriests but also the gods performed magical ceremonies. Ea, Merodach'sfather, overcame Apsu, the husband of the dragon Tiamat, by means ofspells: he was "the great magician of the gods". Merodach's divisionof the "Ku-pu" was evidently an act of contagious magic; by eating orotherwise disposing of the vital part of the fierce and wise motherdragon, he became endowed with her attributes, and was able to proceedwith the work of creation. Primitive peoples in our own day, like theAbipones of Paraguay, eat the flesh of fierce and cunning animals sothat their strength, courage, and wisdom may be increased. 

The direct influence exercised by cultural contact, on the other hand, may be traced when myths with an alien geographical setting are foundamong peoples whose experiences could never have given them origin. InIndia, where the dragon symbolizes drought and the western riverdeities are female, the Manu fish and flood legend resembles closelythe Babylonian, and seems to throw light upon it. Indeed, the Manumyth appears to have been derived from the lost flood story in whichEa figured prominently in fish form as the Preserver. The BabylonianEa cult and the Indian Varuna cult had apparently much in common, asis shown. 

Throughout this volume special attention has been paid to the variouspeoples who were in immediate contact with, and were influenced by, Mesopotamian civilization. The histories are traced in outline of theKingdoms of Elam, Urartu (Ancient Armenia), Mitanni, and the Hittites, while the story of the rise and decline of the Hebrew civilization, asnarrated in the Bible and referred to in Mesopotamian inscriptions, isrelated from the earliest times until the captivity in theNeo-Babylonian period and the restoration during the age of thePersian Empire. The struggles waged between the great Powers for thecontrol of trade routes, and the periodic migrations of pastoralwarrior folks who determined the fate of empires, are also dealt with, so that light may be thrown on the various processes and influencesassociated with the developments of local religions and mythologies. Special chapters, with comparative notes, are devoted to theIshtar-Tammuz myths, the Semiramis legends, Ashur and his symbols, andthe origin and growth of astrology and astronomy. 

The ethnic disturbances which occurred at various well-defined periodsin the Tigro-Euphrates valley were not always favourable to theadvancement of knowledge and the growth of culture. The invaders whoabsorbed Sumerian civilization may have secured more settledconditions by welding together political units, but seem to haveexercised a retrogressive influence on the growth of local culture. "Babylonian religion", writes Dr. Langdon, "appears to have reachedits highest level in the Sumerian period, or at least not later than2000 B. C. From that period onward to the first century B. C. Popularreligion maintained with great difficulty the sacred standards of thepast. " Although it has been customary to characterize Mesopotamiancivilization as Semitic, modern research tends to show that theindigenous inhabitants, who were non-Semitic, were its originators. Like the proto-Egyptians, the early Cretans, and the Pelasgians insouthern Europe and Asia Minor, they invariably achieved theintellectual conquest of their conquerors, as in the earliest timesthey had won victories over the antagonistic forces of nature. If themodern view is accepted that these ancient agriculturists of thegoddess cult were of common racial origin, it is to the mostrepresentative communities of the widespread Mediterranean race thatthe credit belongs of laying the foundations of the brilliantcivilizations of the ancient world in southern Europe, and Egypt, andthe valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. 

INTRODUCTION

Ancient Babylonia has made stronger appeal to the imagination ofChristendom than even Ancient Egypt, because of its association withthe captivity of the Hebrews, whose sorrows are enshrined in thefamiliar psalm:

 By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down; Yea, we wept, when we remembered Zion. We hanged our harps upon the willows. .. . 

In sacred literature proud Babylon became the city of the anti-Christ, the symbol of wickedness and cruelty and human vanity. EarlyChristians who suffered persecution compared their worldly state tothat of the oppressed and disconsolate Hebrews, and, like them, theysighed for Jerusalem--the new Jerusalem. When St. John the Divine hadvisions of the ultimate triumph of Christianity, he referred to itsenemies--the unbelievers and persecutors--as the citizens of theearthly Babylon, the doom of which he pronounced in stately andmemorable phrases:

 Babylon the great is fallen, is fallen, And is become the habitation of devils, And the hold of every foul spirit, And a cage of every unclean and hateful bird. .. . 

 For her sins have reached unto heaven And God hath remembered her iniquities. .. . The merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her, For no man buyeth their merchandise any more. 

"At the noise of the taking of Babylon", cried Jeremiah, referring tothe original Babylon, "the earth is moved, and the cry is heard amongthe nations. .. . It shall be no more inhabited forever; neither shallit be dwelt in from generation to generation. " The Christian Saintrendered more profound the brooding silence of the desolated city ofhis vision by voicing memories of its beauty and gaiety and bustlingtrade:

 The voice of harpers, and musicians, and of pipers and trumpeters shall be heard no more at all in thee; And no craftsman, of whatsoever craft he be, shall be found any more in thee; And the light of a candle shall shine no more at all in thee; And the voice of the bridegroom and of the bride shall be heard no more at all in thee: For thy merchants were the great men of the earth; For by thy sorceries were all nations deceived. _And in her was found the blood of prophets, and of saints, _ _And of all that were slain upon the earth_. [3]

So for nearly two thousand years has the haunting memory of theonce-powerful city pervaded Christian literature, while its brokenwalls and ruined temples and palaces lay buried deep in desert sand. The history of the ancient land of which it was the capital survivedin but meagre and fragmentary form, mingled with accumulated myths andlegends. A slim volume contained all that could be derived fromreferences in the Old Testament and the compilations of classicalwriters. 

It is only within the past half-century that the wonderful story ofearly Eastern civilization has been gradually pieced together byexcavators and linguists, who have thrust open the door of the pastand probed the hidden secrets of long ages. We now know more about"the land of Babel" than did not only the Greeks and Romans, but eventhe Hebrew writers who foretold its destruction. Glimpses are beingafforded us of its life and manners and customs for some thirtycenturies before the captives of Judah uttered lamentations on thebanks of its reedy canals. The sites of some of the ancient cities ofBabylonia and Assyria were identified by European officials andtravellers in the East early in the nineteenth century, and a fewrelics found their way to Europe. But before Sir A. H. Layard set towork as an excavator in the "forties", "a case scarcely three feetsquare", as he himself wrote, "enclosed all that remained not only ofthe great city of Nineveh, but of Babylon itself". [4]

Layard, the distinguished pioneer Assyriologist, was an Englishman ofHuguenot descent, who was born in Paris. Through his mother heinherited a strain of Spanish blood. During his early boyhood heresided in Italy, and his education, which began there, was continuedin schools in France, Switzerland, and England. He was a man ofscholarly habits and fearless and independent character, a charmingwriter, and an accomplished fine-art critic; withal he was a greattraveller, a strenuous politician, and an able diplomatist. In 1845, while sojourning in the East, he undertook the exploration of ancientAssyrian cities. He first set to work at Kalkhi, the Biblical Calah. Three years previously M. P. C. Botta, the French consul at Mosul, hadbegun to investigate the Nineveh mounds; but these he abandoned for amound near Khorsabad which proved to be the site of the city erectedby "Sargon the Later", who is referred to by Isaiah. The relicsdiscovered by Botta and his successor, Victor Place, are preserved inthe Louvre. 

At Kalkhi and Nineveh Layard uncovered the palaces of some of the mostfamous Assyrian Emperors, including the Biblical Shalmaneser andEsarhaddon, and obtained the colossi, bas reliefs, and other treasuresof antiquity which formed the nucleus of the British Museum'sunrivalled Assyrian collection. He also conducted diggings at Babylonand Niffer (Nippur). His work was continued by his assistant, HormuzdRassam, a native Christian of Mosul, near Nineveh. Rassam studied fora time at Oxford. 

The discoveries made by Layard and Botta stimulated others to followtheir example. In the "fifties" Mr. W. K. Loftus engaged in excavationsat Larsa and Erech, where important discoveries were made of ancientbuildings, ornaments, tablets, sarcophagus graves, and pot burials, while Mr. J. E. Taylor operated at Ur, the seat of the moon cult andthe birthplace of Abraham, and at Eridu, which is generally regardedas the cradle of early Babylonian (Sumerian) civilization. 

In 1854 Sir Henry Rawlinson superintended diggings at Birs Nimrud(Borsippa, near Babylon), and excavated relics of the BiblicalNebuchadrezzar. This notable archaeologist began his career in theEast as an officer in the Bombay army. He distinguished himself as apolitical agent and diplomatist. While resident at Baghdad, he devotedhis leisure time to cuneiform studies. One of his remarkable feats wasthe copying of the famous trilingual rock inscription of Darius theGreat on a mountain cliff at Behistun, in Persian Kurdistan. This workwas carried out at great personal risk, for the cliff is 1700 feethigh and the sculptures and inscriptions are situated about 300 feetfrom the ground. 

Darius was the first monarch of his line to make use of the Persiancuneiform script, which in this case he utilized in conjunction withthe older and more complicated Assyro-Babylonian alphabetic andsyllabic characters to record a portion of the history of his reign. Rawlinson's translation of the famous inscription was an importantcontribution towards the decipherment of the cuneiform writings ofAssyria and Babylonia. 

Twelve years of brilliant Mesopotamian discovery concluded in 1854, and further excavations had to be suspended until the "seventies" onaccount of the unsettled political conditions of the ancient land andthe difficulties experienced in dealing with Turkish officials. Duringthe interval, however, archaeologists and philologists were kept fullyengaged studying the large amount of material which had beenaccumulated. Sir Henry Rawlinson began the issue of his monumentalwork _The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_ on behalf of theBritish Museum. 

Goodspeed refers to the early archaeological work as the "HeroicPeriod" of research, and says that the "Modern Scientific Period"began with Mr. George Smith's expedition to Nineveh in 1873. 

George Smith, like Henry Schliemann, the pioneer investigator ofpre-Hellenic culture, was a self-educated man of humble origin. He wasborn at Chelsea in 1840. At fourteen he was apprenticed to anengraver. He was a youth of studious habits and great originality, andinterested himself intensely in the discoveries which had been made byLayard and other explorers. At the British Museum, which he visitedregularly to pore over the Assyrian inscriptions, he attracted theattention of Sir Henry Rawlinson. So greatly impressed was Sir Henryby the young man's enthusiasm and remarkable intelligence that heallowed him the use of his private room and provided casts andsqueezes of inscriptions to assist him in his studies. Smith maderapid progress. His earliest discovery was the date of the payment oftribute by Jehu, King of Israel, to the Assyrian Emperor Shalmaneser. Sir Henry availed himself of the young investigator's assistance inproducing the third volume of _The Cuneiform Inscriptions_. 

In 1867 Smith received an appointment in the Assyriology Department ofthe British Museum, and a few years later became famous throughoutChristendom as the translator of fragments of the Babylonian DelugeLegend from tablets sent to London by Rassam. Sir Edwin Arnold, thepoet and Orientalist, was at the time editor of the _Daily Telegraph_, and performed a memorable service to modern scholarship by dispatchingSmith, on behalf of his paper, to Nineveh to search for otherfragments of the Ancient Babylonian epic. Rassam had obtained thetablets from the great library of the cultured Emperor Ashur-bani-pal, "the great and noble Asnapper" of the Bible, [5] who took delight, ashe himself recorded, in

 The wisdom of Ea, [6] the art of song, the treasures of science. 

This royal patron of learning included in his library collection, copies and translations of tablets from Babylonia. Some of these werethen over 2000 years old. The Babylonian literary relics were, indeed, of as great antiquity to Ashur-bani-pal as that monarch's relics areto us. 

The Emperor invoked Nebo, god of wisdom and learning, to bless his"books", praying:

 Forever, O Nebo, King of all heaven and earth, Look gladly upon this Library Of Ashur-bani-pal, his (thy) shepherd, reverencer of thy divinity. [7]

Mr. George Smith's expedition to Nineveh in 1873 was exceedinglyfruitful of results. More tablets were discovered and translated. Inthe following year he returned to the ancient Assyrian city on behalfof the British Museum, and added further by his scholarly achievementsto his own reputation and the world's knowledge of antiquity. His lastexpedition was made early in 1876; on his homeward journey he wasstricken down with fever, and on 19th August he died at Aleppo in histhirty-sixth year. So was a brilliant career brought to an untimelyend. 

Rassam was engaged to continue Smith's great work, and between 1877and 1882 made many notable discoveries in Assyria and Babylonia, including the bronze doors of a Shalmaneser temple, the sun temple atSippar; the palace of the Biblical Nebuchadrezzar, which was famousfor its "hanging gardens"; a cylinder of Nabonidus, King of Babylon;and about fifty thousand tablets. 

M. De Sarzec, the French consul at Bassorah, began in 1877 excavationsat the ancient Sumerian city of Lagash (Shirpula), and continued themuntil 1900. He found thousands of tablets, many has reliefs, votivestatuettes, which worshippers apparently pinned on sacred shrines, thefamous silver vase of King Entemena, statues of King Gudea, andvarious other treasures which are now in the Louvre. 

The pioneer work achieved by British and French excavators stimulatedinterest all over the world. An expedition was sent out from theUnited States by the University of Pennsylvania, and began to operateat Nippur in 1888. The Germans, who have displayed great activity inthe domain of philological research, are at present represented by anexploring party which is conducting the systematic exploration of theruins of Babylon. Even the Turkish Government has encouraged researchwork, and its excavators have accumulated a fine collection ofantiquities at Constantinople. Among the archaeologists and linguistsof various nationalities who are devoting themselves to the study ofancient Assyrian and Babylonian records and literature, and graduallyunfolding the story of ancient Eastern civilization, those of our owncountry occupy a prominent position. One of the most interestingdiscoveries of recent years has been new fragments of the CreationLegend by L. W. King of the British Museum, whose scholarly work, _TheSeven Tablets of Creation_, is the standard work on the subject. 

The archaeological work conducted in Persia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Cyprus, Crete, the Aegean, and Egypt has thrown, and is throwing, muchlight on the relations between the various civilizations of antiquity. In addition to the Hittite discoveries, with which the name ofProfessor Sayce will ever be associated as a pioneer, we now hear muchof the hitherto unknown civilizations of Mitanni and Urartu (ancientArmenia), which contributed to the shaping of ancient history. TheBiblical narratives of the rise and decline of the Hebrew kingdomshave also been greatly elucidated. 

In this volume, which deals mainly with the intellectual life of theMesopotamian peoples, a historical narrative has been provided as anappropriate setting for the myths and legends. In this connection thereader must be reminded that the chronology of the early period isstill uncertain. The approximate dates which are given, however, arethose now generally adopted by most European and American authorities. Early Babylonian history of the Sumerian period begins some time priorto 3000 B. C; Sargon of Akkad flourished about 2650 B. C. , and Hammurabinot long before or after 2000 B. C. The inflated system of dating whichplaces Mena of Egypt as far back as 5500 B. C. And Sargon at about 3800B. C. Has been abandoned by the majority of prominent archaeologists, the exceptions including Professor Flinders Petrie. Recent discoveriesappear to support the new chronological system. "There is a growingconviction", writes Mr. Hawes, "that Cretan evidence, especially inthe eastern part of the island, favours the minimum (Berlin) system ofEgyptian chronology, according to which the Sixth (Egyptian) Dynastybegan at _c_. 2540 B. C. And the Twelfth at _c_. 2000 B. C. [8] Petriedates the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty at _c_. 3400 B. C. 

To students of comparative folklore and mythology the myths andlegends of Babylonia present many features of engrossing interest. They are of great antiquity, yet not a few seem curiously familiar. Wemust not conclude, however, that because a European legend may bearresemblances to one translated from a cuneiform tablet it isnecessarily of Babylonian origin. Certain beliefs, and the myths whichwere based upon them, are older than even the civilization of theTigro-Euphrates valley. They belong, it would appear, to a stock ofcommon inheritance from an uncertain cultural centre of immenseantiquity. The problem involved has been referred to by ProfessorFrazer in the _Golden Bough_. Commenting on the similarities presentedby certain ancient festivals in various countries, he suggests thatthey may be due to "a remarkable homogeneity of civilizationthroughout Southern Europe and Western Asia in prehistoric times. Howfar", he adds, "such homogeneity of civilization may be taken asevidence of homogeneity of race is a question for the ethnologist. "[9]

In Chapter I the reader is introduced to the ethnological problem, andit is shown that the results of modern research tend to establish aremote racial connection between the Sumerians of Babylonia, theprehistoric Egyptians, and the Neolithic (Late Stone Age) inhabitantsof Europe, as well as the southern Persians and the "Aryans" of India. 

Comparative notes are provided in dealing with the customs, religiousbeliefs, and myths and legends of the Mesopotamian peoples to assistthe student towards the elucidation and partial restoration of certainliterary fragments from the cuneiform tablets. Of special interest inthis connection are the resemblances between some of the Indian andBabylonian myths. The writer has drawn upon that "great storehouse" ofancient legends, the voluminous Indian epic, the _Mahabharata_, and itis shown that there are undoubted links between the Garuda eagle mythsand those of the Sumerian Zu bird and the Etana eagle, while similarstories remain attached to the memories of "Sargon of Akkad" and theIndian hero Karna, and of Semiramis (who was Queen Sammu-ramat ofAssyria) and Shakuntala. The Indian god Varuna and the Sumerian Ea arealso found to have much in common, and it seems undoubted that theManu fish and flood myth is a direct Babylonian inheritance, like theYuga (Ages of the Universe) doctrine and the system of calculationassociated with it. It is of interest to note, too, that a portion ofthe Gilgamesh epic survives in the _Ramayana_ story of the monkey godHanuman's search for the lost princess Sita; other relics of similarcharacter suggest that both the Gilgamesh and Hanuman narratives arederived in part from a very ancient myth. Gilgamesh also figures inIndian mythology as Yama, the first man, who explored the way to theParadise called "The Land of Ancestors", and over which hesubsequently presided as a god. Other Babylonian myths link with thosefound in Egypt, Greece, Scandinavia, Iceland, and the British Islesand Ireland. The Sargon myth, for instance, resembles closely the mythof Scyld (Sceaf), the patriarch, in the _Beowulf_ epic, and bothappear to be variations of the Tammuz-Adonis story. Tammuz alsoresembles in one of his phases the Celtic hero Diarmid, who was slainby the "green boar" of the Earth Mother, as was Adonis by the boarform of Ares, the Greek war god. 

In approaching the study of these linking myths it would be as rash toconclude that all resemblances are due to homogeneity of race as toassume that folklore and mythology are devoid of ethnologicalelements. Due consideration must be given to the widespread influenceexercised by cultural contact. We must recognize also that the humanmind has ever shown a tendency to arrive quite independently atsimilar conclusions, when confronted by similar problems, in variousparts of the world. 

But while many remarkable resemblances may be detected between thebeliefs and myths and customs of widely separated peoples, it cannotbe overlooked that pronounced and striking differences remain to beaccounted for. Human experiences varied in localities because allsections of humanity were not confronted in ancient times by the sameproblems in their everyday lives. Some peoples, for instance, experienced no great difficulties regarding the food supply, whichmight be provided for them by nature in lavish abundance; others werecompelled to wage a fierce and constant conflict against hostileforces in inhospitable environments with purpose to secure adequatesustenance and their meed of enjoyment. Various habits of life had tobe adopted in various parts of the world, and these produced varioushabits of thought. Consequently, we find that behind all systems ofprimitive religion lies the formative background of natural phenomena. A mythology reflects the geography, the fauna and flora, and theclimatic conditions of the area in which it took definite andpermanent shape. 

In Babylonia, as elsewhere, we expect, therefore, to find a mythologywhich has strictly local characteristics--one which mirrors river andvalley scenery, the habits of life of the people, and also the variousstages of progress in the civilization from its earliest beginnings. Traces of primitive thought--survivals from remotest antiquity--shouldalso remain in evidence. As a matter of fact Babylonian mythologyfulfils our expectations in this regard to the highest degree. 

Herodotus said that Egypt was the gift of the Nile: similarlyBabylonia may be regarded as the gift of the Tigris andEuphrates--those great shifting and flooding rivers which for longages had been carrying down from the Armenian Highlands vastquantities of mud to thrust back the waters of the Persian Gulf andform a country capable of being utilized for human habitation. Themost typical Babylonian deity was Ea, the god of the fertilizing andcreative waters. 

He was depicted clad in the skin of a fish, as gods in othergeographical areas were depicted wearing the skins of animals whichwere regarded as ancestors, or hostile demons that had to bepropitiated. Originally Ea appears to have been a fish--theincarnation of the spirit of, or life principle in, the EuphratesRiver. His centre of worship was at Eridu, an ancient seaport, whereapparently the prehistoric Babylonians (the Sumerians) first began toutilize the dried-up beds of shifting streams to irrigate the soil. One of the several creation myths is reminiscent of those earlyexperiences which produced early local beliefs:

 O thou River, who didst create all things, When the great gods dug thee out, They set prosperity upon thy banks, Within thee Ea, the king of the Deep, created his dwelling. [10]

The Sumerians observed that the land was brought into existence bymeans of the obstructing reeds, which caused mud to accumulate. Whentheir minds began to be exercised regarding the origin of life, theyconceived that the first human beings were created by a similarprocess:

 Marduk (son of Ea) laid a reed upon the face of the waters, He formed dust and poured it out beside the reed . .. He formed mankind. [11]

Ea acquired in time, as the divine artisan, various attributes whichreflected the gradual growth of civilization: he was reputed to havetaught the people how to form canals, control the rivers, cultivatethe fields, build their houses, and so on. 

But although Ea became a beneficent deity, as a result of the growthof civilization, he had also a demoniac form, and had to bepropitiated. The worshippers of the fish god retained ancient modes ofthought and perpetuated ancient superstitious practices. 

The earliest settlers in the Tigro-Euphrates valley wereagriculturists, like their congeners, the proto-Egyptians and theNeolithic Europeans. Before they broke away from the parent stock inits area of characterization they had acquired the elements ofculture, and adopted habits of thought which were based on theagricultural mode of life. Like other agricultural communities theywere worshippers of the "World Mother", the Creatrix, who was thegiver of all good things, the "Preserver" and also the"Destroyer"--the goddess whose moods were reflected by naturalphenomena, and whose lovers were the spirits of the seasons. 

In the alluvial valley which they rendered fit for habitation theSumerians came into contact with peoples of different habits of lifeand different habits of thought. These were the nomadic pastoralistsfrom the northern steppe lands, who had developed in isolationtheories regarding the origin of the Universe which reflected theirparticular experiences and the natural phenomena of their area ofcharacterization. The most representative people of this class werethe "Hatti" of Asia Minor, who were of Alpine or Armenoid stock. Inearly times the nomads were broken up into small tribal units, likeAbraham and his followers, and depended for their food supply on theprowess of the males. Their chief deity was the sky and mountain god, who was the "World Father", the creator, and the wielder of thethunder hammer, who waged war against the demons of storm or drought, and ensured the food supply of his worshippers. 

The fusion in Babylonia of the peoples of the god and goddess cultswas in progress before the dawn of history, as was the case in Egyptand also in southern Europe. In consequence independent Pantheons cameinto existence in the various city States in the Tigro-Euphratesvalley. These were mainly a reflection of city politics: the deitiesof each influential section had to receive recognition. But among thegreat masses of the people ancient customs associated with agriculturecontinued in practice, and, as Babylonia depended for its prosperityon its harvests, the force of public opinion tended, it would appear, to perpetuate the religious beliefs of the earliest settlers, despitethe efforts made by conquerors to exalt the deities they introduced. 

Babylonian religion was of twofold character. It embraced templeworship and private worship. The religion of the temple was thereligion of the ruling class, and especially of the king, who was theguardian of the people. Domestic religion was conducted in homes, inreed huts, or in public places, and conserved the crudestsuperstitions surviving from the earliest times. The great "burnings"and the human sacrifices in Babylonia, referred to in the Bible, were, no doubt, connected with agricultural religion of the private order, as was also the ceremony of baking and offering cakes to the Queen ofHeaven, condemned by Jeremiah, which obtained in the streets ofJerusalem and other cities. Domestic religion required no temples. There were no temples in Crete: the world was the "house" of thedeity, who had seasonal haunts on hilltops, in groves, in caves, &c. In Egypt Herodotus witnessed festivals and processions which are notreferred to in official inscriptions, although they were evidentlypractised from the earliest times. 

Agricultural religion in Egypt was concentrated in the cult of Osirisand Isis, and influenced all local theologies. In Babylonia thesedeities were represented by Tammuz and Ishtar. Ishtar, like Isis, absorbed many other local goddesses. 

According to the beliefs of the ancient agriculturists the goddess waseternal and undecaying. She was the Great Mother of the Universe andthe source of the food supply. Her son, the corn god, became, as theEgyptians put it, "Husband of his Mother". Each year he was born anewand rapidly attained to manhood; then he was slain by a fierce rivalwho symbolized the season of pestilence-bringing and parching sunheat, or the rainy season, or wild beasts of prey. Or it might be thathe was slain by his son, as Cronos was by Zeus and Dyaus by Indra. Thenew year slew the old year. 

The social customs of the people, which had a religious basis, wereformed in accordance with the doings of the deities; they sorrowed ormade glad in sympathy with the spirits of nature. Worshippers alsosuggested by their ceremonies how the deities should act at variousseasons, and thus exercised, as they believed, a magical control overthem. 

In Babylonia the agricultural myth regarding the Mother goddess andthe young god had many variations. In one form Tammuz, like Adonis, was loved by two goddesses--the twin phases of nature--the Queen ofHeaven and the Queen of Hades. It was decreed that Tammuz should spendpart of the year with one goddess and part of the year with the other. Tammuz was also a Patriarch, who reigned for a long period over theland and had human offspring. After death his spirit appeared atcertain times and seasons as a planet, star, or constellation. He wasthe ghost of the elder god, and he was also the younger god who wasborn each year. 

In the Gilgamesh epic we appear to have a form of the patriarchlegend--the story of the "culture hero" and teacher who discovered thepath which led to the land of ancestral spirits. The heroic Patriarchin Egypt was Apuatu, "the opener of the ways", the earliest form ofOsiris; in India he was Yama, the first man, "who searched and foundout the path for many". 

The King as Patriarch was regarded during life as an incarnation ofthe culture god: after death he merged in the god. "Sargon of Akkad"posed as an incarnation of the ancient agricultural Patriarch: heprofessed to be a man of miraculous birth who was loved by the goddessIshtar, and was supposed to have inaugurated a New Age of theUniverse. 

The myth regarding the father who was superseded by his son mayaccount for the existence in Babylonian city pantheons of elder andyounger gods who symbolized the passive and active forces of nature. 

Considering the persistent and cumulative influence exercised byagricultural religion it is not surprising to find, as has beenindicated, that most of the Babylonian gods had Tammuz traits, as mostof the Egyptian gods had Osirian traits. Although local or importeddeities were developed and conventionalized in rival Babyloniancities, they still retained traces of primitive conceptions. Theyexisted in all their forms--as the younger god who displaced the eldergod and became the elder god, and as the elder god who conciliated theyounger god and made him his active agent; and as the god who wasidentified at various seasons with different heavenly bodies andnatural phenomena. Merodach, the god of Babylon, who was exalted aschief of the National pantheon in the Hammurabi Age, was, like Tammuz, a son, and therefore a form of Ea, a demon slayer, a war god, a god offertility, a corn spirit, a Patriarch, and world ruler and guardian, and, like Tammuz, he had solar, lunar, astral, and atmosphericattributes. The complex characters of Merodach and Tammuz were not duesolely to the monotheistic tendency: the oldest deities were ofmystical character, they represented the "Self Power" of Naturalism aswell as the spirit groups of Animism. 

The theorizing priests, who speculated regarding the mysteries of lifeand death and the origin of all things, had to address the peoplethrough the medium of popular beliefs. They utilized floating mythsfor this purpose. As there were in early times various centres ofculture which had rival pantheons, the adapted myths varied greatly. In the different forms in which they survive to us they reflect, notonly aspects of local beliefs, but also grades of culture at differentperiods. We must not expect, however, to find that the latest form ofa myth was the highest and most profound. The history of Babylonianreligion is divided into periods of growth and periods of decadence. The influence of domestic religion was invariably opposed to the newand high doctrines which emanated from the priesthood, and in times ofpolitical upheaval tended to submerge them in the debris of immemorialbeliefs and customs. The retrogressive tendencies of the masses wereinvariably reinforced by the periodic invasions of aliens who had norespect for official deities and temple creeds. 

We must avoid insisting too strongly on the application of theevolution theory to the religious phenomena of a country likeBabylonia. 

The epochs in the intellectual life of an ancient people are notcomparable to geological epochs, for instance, because the forces atwork were directed by human wills, whether in the interests ofprogress or otherwise. The battle of creeds has ever been a battle ofminds. It should be recognized, therefore, that the human elementbulks as prominently in the drama of Babylon's religious history asdoes the prince of Denmark in the play of _Hamlet_. We are notconcerned with the plot alone. The characters must also receiveattention. Their aspirations and triumphs, their prejudices andblunders, were the billowy forces which shaped the shoreland of thestory and made history. 

Various aspects of Babylonian life and culture are dealt withthroughout this volume, and it is shown that the growth of science andart was stimulated by unwholesome and crude superstitions. Many rankweeds flourished beside the brightest blossoms of the human intellectthat wooed the sun in that fertile valley of rivers. As in Egypt, civilization made progress when wealth was accumulated in sufficientabundance to permit of a leisured class devoting time to study andresearch. The endowed priests, who performed temple ceremonies, werethe teachers of the people and the patrons of culture. We may thinklittle of their religious beliefs, regarding which after all we haveonly a superficial knowledge, for we have yet discovered little morethan the fragments of the shell which held the pearl, the faded petalsthat were once a rose, but we must recognize that they providedinspiration for the artists and sculptors whose achievements compelour wonder and admiration, moved statesmen to inaugurate andadminister humanitarian laws, and exalted Right above Might. 

These civilizations of the old world, among which the Mesopotamian andthe Nilotic were the earliest, were built on no unsound foundations. They made possible "the glory that was Greece and the grandeur thatwas Rome", and it is only within recent years that we have begun torealize how incalculable is the debt which the modern world owes tothem. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE RACES AND EARLY CIVILIZATION OF BABYLONIA

 Prehistoric Babylonia--The Confederacies of Sumer and Akkad--Sumerian Racial Affinities--Theories of Mongolian and Ural-Altaic Origins--Evidence of Russian Turkestan--Beginnings of Agriculture--Remarkable Proofs from Prehistoric Egyptian Graves--Sumerians and the Mediterranean Race--Present-day Types in Western Asia--The Evidence of Crania--Origin of the Akkadians--The Semitic Blend--Races in Ancient Palestine--Southward Drift of Armenoid Peoples--The Rephaims of the Bible--Akkadians attain Political Supremacy in Northern Babylonia--Influence of Sumerian Culture--Beginnings of Civilization--Progress in the Neolithic Age--Position of Women in Early Communities--Their Legal Status in Ancient Babylonia--Influence in Social and Religious Life--The "Woman's Language"--Goddess who inspired Poets. 

Before the dawn of the historical period Ancient Babylonia wasdivided into a number of independent city states similar to thosewhich existed in pre-Dynastic Egypt. Ultimately these were groupedinto loose confederacies. The northern cities were embraced in theterritory known as Akkad, and the southern in the land of Sumer, orShumer. This division had a racial as well as a geographicalsignificance. The Akkadians were "late comers" who had achievedpolitical ascendency in the north when the area they occupied wascalled Uri, or Kiuri, and Sumer was known as Kengi. They were a peopleof Semitic speech with pronounced Semitic affinities. From theearliest times the sculptors depicted them with abundant locks, longfull beards, and the prominent distinctive noses and full lips, whichwe usually associate with the characteristic Jewish type, and alsoattired in long, flounced robes, suspended from their left shoulders, and reaching down to their ankles. In contrast, the Sumerians hadclean-shaven faces and scalps, and noses of Egyptian and Grecianrather than Semitic type, while they wore short, pleated kilts, andwent about with the upper part of their bodies quite bare like theEgyptian noblemen of the Old Kingdom period. They spoke a non-Semiticlanguage, and were the oldest inhabitants of Babylonia of whom we haveany knowledge. Sumerian civilization was rooted in the agriculturalmode of life, and appears to have been well developed before theSemites became numerous and influential in the land. Cities had beenbuilt chiefly of sun-dried and fire-baked bricks; distinctive potterywas manufactured with much skill; the people were governed byhumanitarian laws, which formed the nucleus of the Hammurabi code, andhad in use a system of cuneiform writing which was still in process ofdevelopment from earlier pictorial characters. The distinctive featureof their agricultural methods was the engineering skill which wasdisplayed in extending the cultivatable area by the construction ofirrigating canals and ditches. There are also indications that theypossessed some knowledge of navigation and traded on the Persian Gulf. According to one of their own traditions Eridu, originally a seaport, was their racial cradle. The Semitic Akkadians adopted the distinctiveculture of these Sumerians after settlement, and exercised aninfluence on its subsequent growth. 

Much controversy has been waged regarding the original home of theSumerians and the particular racial type which they represented. Onetheory connects them with the lank-haired and beardless Mongolians, and it is asserted on the evidence afforded by early sculpturalreliefs that they were similarly oblique-eyed. As they also spoke anagglutinative language, it is suggested that they were descended fromthe same parent stock as the Chinese in an ancient Parthian homeland. If, however, the oblique eye was not the result of faulty andprimitive art, it is evident that the Mongolian type, which isinvariably found to be remarkably persistent in racial blends, did notsurvive in the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, for in the finer and moreexact sculpture work of the later Sumerian period the eyes of theruling classes are found to be similar to those of the AncientEgyptians and southern Europeans. Other facial characteristics suggestthat a Mongolian racial connection is highly improbable; the prominentSumerian nose, for instance, is quite unlike the Chinese, which isdiminutive. Nor can far-reaching conclusions be drawn from the scantylinguistic evidence at our disposal. Although the languages of theSumerians and long-headed Chinese are of the agglutinative variety, soare those also which are spoken by the broad-headed Turks and Magyarsof Hungary, the broad-headed and long-headed, dark and fair Finns, andthe brunet and short-statured Basques with pear-shaped faces, who areregarded as a variation of the Mediterranean race with distinctivecharacteristics developed in isolation. Languages afford no sureindication of racial origins or affinities. 

Another theory connects the Sumerians with the broad-headed peoples ofthe Western Asian plains and plateaus, who are vaguely grouped asUral-Altaic stock and are represented by the present-day Turks and thedark variety of Finns. It is assumed that they migrated southward inremote times in consequence of tribal pressure caused by changingclimatic conditions, and abandoned a purely pastoral for anagricultural life. The late Sumerian sculpture work again presentsdifficulties in this connection, for the faces and bulging occiputssuggest rather a long-headed than a broad-headed type, and the theoryno longer obtains that new habits of life alter skull forms which areusually associated with other distinctive traits in the structure ofskeletons. These broad-headed nomadic peoples of the Steppes areallied to Tatar stock, and distinguished from the pure Mongols bytheir abundance of wavy hair and beard. The fact that the Sumeriansshaved their scalps and faces is highly suggestive in this connection. From the earliest times it has been the habit of most peoples toemphasize their racial characteristics so as to be able, one maysuggest, to distinguish readily a friend from a foeman. At any ratethis fact is generally recognized by ethnologists. The Basques, forinstance, shave their pointed chins and sometimes grow short sidewhiskers to increase the distinctive pear-shape which is given totheir faces by their prominent temples. In contrast, their neighbours, the Andalusians, grow chin whiskers to broaden their already roundedchins, and to distinguish them markedly from the Basques. [12] Anotherexample of similar character is afforded in Asia Minor, where theskulls of the children of long-headed Kurds are narrowed, and those ofthe children of broad-headed Armenians made flatter behind as a resultof systematic pressure applied by using cradle boards. In this waythese rival peoples accentuate their contrasting head forms, which attimes may, no doubt, show a tendency towards variation as a result ofthe crossment of types. When it is found, therefore, that theSumerians, like the Ancient Egyptians, were in the habit of shaving, their ethnic affinities should be looked for among a naturallyglabrous rather than a heavily-bearded people. 

A Central Asiatic source for Sumerian culture has also been urged oflate with much circumstantial detail. It breaks quite fresh andinteresting ground. Recent scientific expeditions in Russian andChinese Turkestan have accumulated important archaeological data whichclearly establish that vast areas of desert country were at a remoteperiod most verdurous and fruitful, and thickly populated by organizedand apparently progressive communities. From these ancient centres ofcivilization wholesale migrations must have been impelled from time totime in consequence of the gradual encroachment of wind-distributedsand and the increasing shortage of water. At Anau in RussianTurkestan, where excavations were conducted by the Pumpellyexpedition, abundant traces were found of an archaic and forgottencivilization reaching back to the Late Stone Age. The pottery isdecorated with geometric designs, and resembles somewhat otherNeolithic specimens found as far apart as Susa, the capital of ancientElam, on the borders of Babylonia, Boghaz Köi in Asia Minor, the seatof Hittite administration, round the Black Sea to the north, and atpoints in the southern regions of the Balkan Peninsula. It issuggested that these various finds are scattered evidences of earlyracial drifts from the Central Asian areas which were gradually beingrendered uninhabitable. Among the Copper Age artifacts at Anau areclay votive statuettes resembling those which were used in Sumeria forreligious purposes. These, however, cannot be held to prove a racialconnection, but they are important in so far as they afford evidenceof early trade relations in a hitherto unsuspected direction, and thelong distances over which cultural influence extended before the dawnof history. Further we cannot go. No inscriptions have yet beendiscovered to render articulate this mysterious Central Asiancivilization, or to suggest the original source of early Sumerianpicture writing. Nor is it possible to confirm Mr. Pumpelly's viewthat from the Anau district the Sumerians and Egyptians first obtainedbarley and wheat, and some of their domesticated animals. If, asProfessor Elliot Smith believes, copper was first used by the AncientEgyptians, it may be, on the other hand, that a knowledge of thismetal reached Anau through Sumeria, and that the elements of theearlier culture were derived from the same quarter by an indirectroute. The evidence obtainable in Egypt is of interest in thisconnection. Large quantities of food have been taken from the stomachsand intestines of sun-dried bodies which have lain in theirpre-Dynastic graves for over sixty centuries. This material has beencarefully examined, and has yielded, among other things, husks ofbarley and millet, and fragments of mammalian bones, including those, no doubt, of the domesticated sheep and goats and cattle painted onthe pottery. [13] It is therefore apparent that at an extremely remoteperiod a knowledge of agriculture extended throughout Egypt, and wehave no reason for supposing that it was not shared by thecontemporary inhabitants of Sumer. 

The various theories which have been propounded regarding the outsidesource of Sumerian culture are based on the assumption that itcommenced abruptly and full grown. Its rude beginnings cannot betraced on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, but although nospecimens of the earliest form of picture writing have been recoveredfrom the ruins of Sumerian and Akkadian cities, neither have any beenfound elsewhere. The possibility remains, therefore, that earlyBabylonian culture was indigenous. "A great deal of ingenuity has beendisplayed by many scholars", says Professor Elliot Smith, "with theobject of bringing these Sumerians from somewhere else as immigrantsinto Sumer; but no reasons have been advanced to show that they hadnot been settled at the head of the Persian Gulf for long generationsbefore they first appeared on the stage of history. The argument thatno early remains have been found is futile, not only because such acountry as Sumer is no more favourable to the preservation of suchevidence than is the Delta of the Nile, but also upon the more generalgrounds that negative statements of this sort cannot be assigned apositive evidence for an immigration. "[14] This distinguishedethnologist is frankly of opinion that the Sumerians were thecongeners of the pre-Dynastic Egyptians of the Mediterranean or Brownrace, the eastern branch of which reaches to India and the western tothe British Isles and Ireland. In the same ancient family are includedthe Arabs, whose physical characteristics distinguish them from theSemites of Jewish type. 

Some light may be thrown on the Sumerian problem by givingconsideration to the present-day racial complexion of Western Asia. The importance of evidence of this character has been emphasizedelsewhere. In Egypt, for instance, Dr. C. S. Myers has ascertained thatthe modern peasants have skull forms which are identical with those oftheir pre-Dynastic ancestors. Mr. Hawes has also demonstrated that theancient inhabitants of Crete are still represented on that famousisland. But even more remarkable is the fact that the distinctiveracial type which occupied the Palaeolithic caves of the Dordognevalley in France continues to survive in their vicinity after aninterval of over twenty thousand years. [15] It is noteworthy, therefore, to find that in south-western Asia at the present day oneparticular racial type predominates over all others. Professor Ripley, who summarizes a considerable mass of data in this connection, refersto it as the "Iranian", and says: "It includes the Persians and Kurds, possibly the Ossetes in the Caucasus, and farther to the east a largenumber of Asiatic tribes, from the Afghans to the Hindus. Thesepeoples are all primarily long-headed and dark brunets. They inclineto slenderness of habit, although varying in stature according tocircumstances. In them we recognize at once undoubted congeners of ourMediterranean race in Europe. The area of their extension runs offinto Africa, through the Egyptians, who are clearly of the same race. Not only the modern peoples, but the Ancient Egyptians and thePhoenicians also have been traced to the same source. By far thelargest portion of this part of Western Asia is inhabited by thiseastern branch of the Mediterranean race. " The broad-headed type"occurs sporadically among a few ethnic remnants in Syria andMesopotamia". [16] The exhaustive study of thousands of ancient craniain London and Cambridge collections has shown that Mediterraneanpeoples, having alien traits, the result of early admixture, weredistributed between Egypt and the Punjab. [17] Where blending tookplace, the early type, apparently, continued to predominate; and itappears to be reasserting itself in our own time in Western Asia, aselsewhere. It seems doubtful, therefore, that the ancient Sumeriansdiffered racially from the pre-Dynastic inhabitants of Egypt and thePelasgians and Iberians of Europe. Indeed, the statuettes from Tello, the site of the Sumerian city of Lagash, display distinctivelyMediterranean skull forms and faces. Some of the plump figures of thelater period suggest, however, "the particular alien strain" which inEgypt and elsewhere "is always associated with a tendency to thedevelopment of fat", in contrast to "the lean and sinewy appearance ofmost representatives of the Brown race". [18] This change may beaccounted for by the presence of the Semites in northern Babylonia. 

Whence, then, came these invading Semitic Akkadians of Jewish type? Itis generally agreed that they were closely associated with one of theearly outpourings of nomadic peoples from Arabia, a country which isfavourable for the production of a larger population than it is ableto maintain permanently, especially when its natural resources arerestricted by a succession of abnormally dry years. In tracing theAkkadians from Arabia, however, we are confronted at the outset withthe difficulty that its prehistoric, and many of its present-day, inhabitants are not of the characteristic Semitic type. On the AncientEgyptian pottery and monuments the Arabs are depicted as men whoclosely resembled the representatives of the Mediterranean race in theNile valley and elsewhere. They shaved neither scalps nor faces as didthe historic Sumerians and Egyptians, but grew the slight moustacheand chin-tuft beard like the Libyans on the north and the majority ofthe men whose bodies have been preserved in pre-Dynastic graves in theNile valley. "If", writes Professor Elliot Smith, "the generallyaccepted view is true, that Arabia was the original home of theSemites, the Arab must have undergone a profound change in hisphysical characters after he left his homeland and before he reachedBabylonia. " This authority is of opinion that the Arabians firstmigrated into Palestine and northern Syria, where they mingled withthe southward-migrating Armenoid peoples from Asia Minor. "This blendof Arabs, kinsmen of the proto-Egyptians and Armenoids, would thenform the big-nosed, long-bearded Semites, so familiar not only on theancient Babylonian and Egyptian monuments, but also in the modernJews. "[19] Such a view is in accord with Dr. Hugo Winckler'scontention that the flow of Arabian migrations was northwards towardsSyria ere it swept through Mesopotamia. It can scarcely be supposedthat these invasions of settled districts did not result in the fusionand crossment of racial types and the production of a sub-variety withmedium skull form and marked facial characteristics. 

Of special interest in this connection is the evidence afforded byPalestine and Egypt. The former country has ever been subject toperiodic ethnic disturbances and changes. Its racial history has aremote beginning in the Pleistocene Age. Palaeolithic flints ofChellean and other primitive types have been found in large numbers, and a valuable collection of these is being preserved in a Frenchmuseum at Jerusalem. In a northern cave fragments of rude pottery, belonging to an early period in the Late Stone Age, have beendiscovered in association with the bones of the woolly rhinoceros. Toa later period belong the series of Gezer cave dwellings, which, according to Professor Macalister, the well-known Palestinianauthority, "were occupied by a non-Semitic people of low stature, withthick skulls and showing evidence of the great muscular strength thatis essential to savage life". [20] These people are generally supposedto be representatives of the Mediterranean race, which Sergi has foundto have been widely distributed throughout Syria and a part of AsiaMinor. [21] An interesting problem, however, is raised by the factthat, in one of the caves, there are evidences that the dead werecremated. This was not a Mediterranean custom, nor does it appear tohave prevailed outside the Gezer area. If, however, it does notindicate that the kinsmen of the Ancient Egyptians came into contactwith the remnants of an earlier people, it may be that the dead of alater people were burned there. The possibility that unidentifiedtypes may have contributed to the Semitic blend, however, remains. TheMediterraneans mingled in Northern Syria and Asia Minor with thebroad-headed Armenoid peoples who are represented in Europe by theAlpine race. With them they ultimately formed the great Hittiteconfederacy. These Armenoids were moving southwards at the very dawnof Egyptian history, and nothing is known of their conquests andsettlements. Their pioneers, who were probably traders, appear to havebegun to enter the Delta region before the close of the Late StoneAge. [22] The earliest outpourings of migrating Arabians may have beenin progress about the same time. This early southward drift ofArmenoids might account for the presence in southern Palestine, earlyin the Copper Age, of the tall race referred to in the Bible as theRephaim or Anakim, "whose power was broken only by the Hebrewinvaders". [23] Joshua drove them out of Hebron, [24] in theneighbourhood of which Abraham had purchased a burial cave fromEphron, the Hittite. [25] Apparently a system of land laws prevailed inPalestine at this early period. It is of special interest for us tonote that in Abraham's day and afterwards, the landed proprietors inthe country of the Rephaim were identified with the aliens from AsiaMinor--the tall variety in the Hittite confederacy. 

Little doubt need remain that the Arabians during their sojourn inPalestine and Syria met with distinctive types, and if not with pureArmenoids, at any rate with peoples having Armenoid traits. Theconsequent multiplication of tribes, and the gradual pressureexercised by the constant stream of immigrants from Arabia and AsiaMinor, must have kept this part of Western Asia in a constant state ofunrest. Fresh migrations of the surplus stock were evidently propelledtowards Egypt in one direction, and the valleys of the Tigris andEuphrates in another. The Semites of Akkad were probably theconquerors of the more highly civilized Sumerians, who must havepreviously occupied that area. It is possible that they owed theirsuccess to the possession of superior weapons. Professor Elliot Smithsuggests in this connection that the Arabians had become familiar withthe use of copper as a result of contact with the Egyptians in Sinai. There is no evidence, however, that the Sumerians were attacked beforethey had begun to make metal weapons. It is more probable that theinvading nomads had superior military organization and considerableexperience in waging war against detached tribal units. They may havealso found some of the northern Sumerian city states at war with oneanother and taken advantage of their unpreparedness to resist a commonenemy. The rough Dorians who overran Greece and the fierce Goths whoshattered the power of Rome were similarly in a lower state ofcivilization than the peoples whom they subdued. 

The Sumerians, however, ultimately achieved an intellectual conquestof their conquerors. Although the leaders of invasion may have formedmilitary aristocracies in the cities which they occupied, it wasnecessary for the great majority of the nomads to engage theiractivities in new directions after settlement. The Semitic Akkadians, therefore, adopted Sumerian habits of life which were best suited forthe needs of the country, and they consequently came under the spellof Sumerian modes of thought. This is shown by the fact that thenative speech of ancient Sumer continued long after the dawn ofhistory to be the language of Babylonian religion and culture, likeLatin in Europe during the Middle Ages. For centuries the minglingpeoples must have been bilingual, as are many of the inhabitants ofIreland, Wales, and the Scottish Highlands in the present age, butultimately the language of the Semites became the prevailing speech inSumer and Akkad. This change was the direct result of the conquestsand the political supremacy achieved by the northern people. Aconsiderable period elapsed, however, ere this consummation wasreached and Ancient Babylonia became completely Semitized. No doubtits brilliant historical civilization owed much of its vigour andstability to the organizing genius of the Semites, but the basis onwhich it was established had been laid by the ingenious andimaginative Sumerians who first made the desert to blossom like therose. 

The culture of Sumer was a product of the Late Stone Age, which shouldnot be regarded as necessarily an age of barbarism. During its vastperiods there were great discoveries and great inventions in variousparts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. The Neoliths made pottery andbricks; we know that they invented the art of spinning, forspindle-whorls are found even in the Gezer caves to which we havereferred, while in Egypt the pre-Dynastic dead were sometimes wrappedin finely woven linen: their deftly chipped flint implements areeloquent of artistic and mechanical skill, and undoubted mathematicalability must be credited to the makers of smoothly polished stonehammers which are so perfectly balanced that they revolve on a centreof gravity. In Egypt and Babylonia the soil was tilled and itsfertility increased by irrigation. Wherever man waged a struggle withNature he made rapid progress, and consequently we find that theearliest great civilizations were rooted in the little fields of theNeolithic farmers. Their mode of life necessitated a knowledge ofNature's laws; they had to take note of the seasons and measure time. So Egypt gave us the Calendar, and Babylonia the system of dividingthe week into seven days, and the day into twelve double hours. 

The agricultural life permitted large communities to live in rivervalleys, and these had to be governed by codes of laws; settledcommunities required peace and order for their progress andprosperity. All great civilizations have evolved from the habits andexperiences of settled communities. Law and religion were closelyassociated, and the evidence afforded by the remains of stone circlesand temples suggests that in the organization and division of labourthe influence of religious teachers was pre-eminent. Early rulers, indeed, were priest-kings--incarnations of the deity who owned theland and measured out the span of human life. 

We need not assume that Neolithic man led an idyllic existence; histriumphs were achieved by slow and gradual steps; his legal codeswere, no doubt, written in blood and his institutions welded in thefires of adversity. But, disciplined by laws, which fosteredhumanitarian ideals, Neolithic man, especially of the Mediterraneanrace, had reached a comparatively high state of civilization long agesbefore the earliest traces of his activities can be obtained. Whenthis type of mankind is portrayed in Ancient Sumeria, Ancient Egypt, and Ancient Crete we find that the faces are refined and intellectualand often quite modern in aspect. The skulls show that in the LateStone Age the human brain was fully developed and that the racialtypes were fixed. In every country in Europe we still find the directdescendants of the ancient Mediterranean race, as well as thedescendants of the less highly cultured conquerors who swept westwardout of Asia at the dawn of the Bronze Age; and everywhere there areevidences of crossment of types in varying degrees. Even the influenceof Neolithic intellectual life still remains. The comparative study ofmythology and folk beliefs reveals that we have inherited certainmodes of thought from our remote ancestors, who were the congeners ofthe Ancient Sumerians and the Ancient Egyptians. In this connection itis of interest, therefore, to refer to the social ideals of the earlypeoples who met and mingled on the southern plains of the Tigris andEuphrates, and especially the position occupied by women, which isengaging so much attention at the present day. 

It would appear that among the Semites and other nomadic peoples womanwas regarded as the helpmate rather than the companion and equal ofman. The birth of a son was hailed with joy; it was "miserable to havea daughter", as a Hindu sage reflected; in various countries it wasthe custom to expose female children after birth and leave them todie. A wife had no rights other than those accorded to her by herhusband, who exercised over her the power of life and death. Sonsinherited family possessions; the daughters had no share allotted tothem, and could be sold by fathers and brothers. Among the peoples whoobserved "male right", social life was reflected in the conception ofcontrolling male deities, accompanied by shadowy goddesses who wereoften little else than figures of speech. 

The Ancient Sumerians, on the other hand, like the Mediterraneanpeoples of Egypt and Crete, reverenced and exalted motherhood insocial and religious life. Women were accorded a legal status andmarriage laws were promulgated by the State. Wives could possessprivate property in their own right, as did the Babylonian Sarah, wifeof Abraham, who owned the Egyptian slave Hagar. [26] A woman receivedfrom her parents a marriage dowry, and in the event of separation fromher husband she could claim its full value. Some spinsters, or wives, were accustomed to enter into business partnerships with men ormembers of their own sex, and could sue and be sued in courts of law. Brothers and sisters were joint heirs of the family estate. Daughtersmight possess property over which their fathers exercised no control:they could also enter into legal agreements with their parents inbusiness matters, when they had attained to years of discretion. Youngwomen who took vows of celibacy and lived in religious institutionscould yet make business investments, as surviving records show. Thereis only one instance of a Sumerian woman ascending the throne, likeQueen Hatshepsut of Egypt. Women, therefore, were not rigidly excludedfrom official life. Dungi II, an early Sumerian king, appointed two ofhis daughters as rulers of conquered cities in Syria and Elam. Similarly Shishak, the Egyptian Pharaoh, handed over the city ofGezer, which he had subdued, to his daughter, Solomon's wife. [27] Inthe religious life of ancient Sumeria the female population exercisedan undoubted influence, and in certain temples there were priestesses. The oldest hymns give indication of the respect shown to women bymaking reference to mixed assemblies as "females and males", just aspresent-day orators address themselves to "ladies and gentlemen". Inthe later Semitic adaptations of these productions, it is significantto note, this conventional reference was altered to "male and female". If influences, however, were at work to restrict the position of womenthey did not meet with much success, because when Hammurabi codifiedexisting laws, the ancient rights of women received markedrecognition. 

There were two dialects in ancient Sumeria, and the invocatory hymnswere composed in what was known as "the women's language". It must notbe inferred, however, that the ladies of Sumeria had established aspeech which differed from that used by men. The reference wouldappear to be to a softer and homelier dialect, perhaps the oldest ofthe two, in which poetic emotion found fullest and most beautifulexpression. In these ancient days, as in our own, the ideal ofwomanhood was the poet's chief source of inspiration, and among thehymns the highest reach of poetic art was attained in the invocationof Ishtar, the Babylonian Venus. The following hymn is addressed tothat deity in her Valkyrie-like character as a goddess of war, but hermore feminine traits are not obscured:--

 HYMN TO ISHTAR

 To thee I cry, O lady of the gods, Lady of ladies, goddess without peer, Ishtar who shapes the lives of all mankind, Thou stately world queen, sovran of the sky, And lady ruler of the host of heaven-- Illustrious is thy name. .. O light divine, Gleaming in lofty splendour o'er the earth-- Heroic daughter of the moon, oh! hear; Thou dost control our weapons and award In battles fierce the victory at will-- crown'd majestic Fate. Ishtar most high, Who art exalted over all the gods, Thou bringest lamentation; thou dost urge With hostile hearts our brethren to the fray; The gift of strength is thine for thou art strong; Thy will is urgent, brooking no delay; Thy hand is violent, thou queen of war Girded with battle and enrobed with fear. .. Thou sovran wielder of the wand of Doom, The heavens and earth are under thy control. 

 Adored art thou in every sacred place, In temples, holy dwellings, and in shrines, Where is thy name not lauded? where thy will Unheeded, and thine images not made? Where are thy temples not upreared? O, where Art thou not mighty, peerless, and supreme?

 Anu and Bel and Ea have thee raised To rank supreme, in majesty and pow'r, They have established thee above the gods And all the host of heaven. .. O stately queen, At thought of thee the world is filled with fear, The gods in heaven quake, and on the earth All spirits pause, and all mankind bow down With reverence for thy name. .. O Lady Judge, Thy ways are just and holy; thou dost gaze On sinners with compassion, and each morn Leadest the wayward to the rightful path. 

 Now linger not, but come! O goddess fair, O shepherdess of all, thou drawest nigh With feet unwearied. .. Thou dost break the bonds Of these thy handmaids. .. When thou stoopest o'er The dying with compassion, lo! they live; And when the sick behold thee they are healed. 

 Hear me, thy servant! hearken to my pray'r, For I am full of sorrow and I sigh In sore distress; weeping, on thee I wait. Be merciful, my lady, pity take And answer, "'Tis enough and be appeased ". 

 How long must my heart sorrow and make moan And restless be? How long must my dark home Be filled with mourning and my soul with grief? O lioness of heaven, bring me peace And rest and comfort. Hearken to my pray'r! Is anger pity? May thine eyes look down With tenderness and blessings, and behold Thy servant. Oh! have mercy; hear my cry And unbewitch me from the evil spells, That I may see thy glory. .. Oh! how long Shall these my foes pursue me, working ill, And robbing me of joy?. .. Oh! how long Shall demons compass me about and cause Affliction without end?. .. I thee adore-- The gift of strength is thine and thou art strong-- The weakly are made strong, yet I am weak. .. O hear me! I am glutted with my grief-- This flood of grief by evil winds distressed; My heart hath fled me like a bird on wings, And like the dove I moan. Tears from mine eyes Are falling as the rain from heaven falls, And I am destitute and full of woe. 

 * * * * *

 What have I done that thou hast turned from me? Have I neglected homage to my god And thee my goddess? O deliver me And all my sins forgive, that I may share Thy love and be watched over in thy fold; And may thy fold be wide, thy pen secure. 

 * * * * *

 How long wilt thou be angry? Hear my cry, And turn again to prosper all my ways-- O may thy wrath be crumbled and withdrawn As by a crumbling stream. Then smite my foes, And take away their power to work me ill, That I may crush them. Hearken to my pray'r! And bless me so that all who me behold May laud thee and may magnify thy name, While I exalt thy power over all-- Ishtar is highest! Ishtar is the queen! Ishtar the peerless daughter of the moon!

CHAPTER II. 

THE LAND OF RIVERS AND THE GOD OF THE DEEP

 Fertility of Ancient Babylonia--Rivers, Canals, Seasons, and Climate--Early Trade and Foreign Influences--Local Religious Cults--Ea, God of the Deep, identical with Oannes of Berosus--Origin as a Sacred Fish--Compared with Brahma and Vishnu--Flood Legends in Babylonia and India--Fish Deities in Babylonia and Egypt--Fish God as a Corn God--The River as Creator--Ea an Artisan God, and links with Egypt and India--Ea as the Hebrew Jah--Ea and Varuna are Water and Sky Gods--The Babylonian Dagan and Dagon of the Philistines--Deities of Water and Harvest in Phoenicia, Greece, Rome, Scotland, Scandinavia, Ireland, and Egypt--Ea's Spouse Damkina--Demons of Ocean in Babylonia and India--Anu, God of the Sky--Enlil, Storm and War God of Nippur, like Adad, Odin, &c. --Early Gods of Babylonia and Egypt of common origin--Ea's City as Cradle of Sumerian Civilization. 

Ancient Babylonia was for over four thousand years the garden ofWestern Asia. In the days of Hezekiah and Isaiah, when it had comeunder the sway of the younger civilization of Assyria on the north, itwas "a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land ofoil olive and of honey[28]". Herodotus found it still flourishing andextremely fertile. "This territory", he wrote, "is of all that we knowthe best by far for producing grain; it is so good that it returns asmuch as two hundredfold for the average, and, when it bears at itsbest, it produces three hundredfold. The blades of the wheat andbarley there grow to be full four fingers broad; and from millet andsesame seed, how large a tree grows, I know myself, but shall notrecord, being well aware that even what has already been said relatingto the crops produced has been enough to cause disbelief in those whohave not visited Babylonia[29]. " To-day great tracts of undulatingmoorland, which aforetime yielded two and three crops a year, are insummer partly barren wastes and partly jungle and reedy swamp. Bedouins camp beside sandy heaps which were once populous and thrivingcities, and here and there the shrunken remnants of a people oncegreat and influential eke out precarious livings under the oppressionof Turkish tax-gatherers who are scarcely less considerate than theplundering nomads of the desert. 

This historic country is bounded on the east by Persia and on the westby the Arabian desert. In shape somewhat resembling a fish, it liesbetween the two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, 100 mileswide at its broadest part, and narrowing to 35 miles towards the"tail" in the latitude of Baghdad; the "head" converges to a pointabove Basra, where the rivers meet and form the Shatt-el-Arab, whichpours into the Persian Gulf after meeting the Karun and drawing awaythe main volume of that double-mouthed river. The distance fromBaghdad to Basra is about 300 miles, and the area traversed by theShatt-el-Arab is slowly extending at the rate of a mile every thirtyyears or so, as a result of the steady accumulation of silt and mudcarried down by the Tigris and Euphrates. When Sumeria was beginningto flourish, these two rivers had separate outlets, and Eridu, theseat of the cult of the sea god Ea, which now lies 125 miles inland, was a seaport at the head of the Persian Gulf. A day's journeyseparated the river mouths when Alexander the Great broke the power ofthe Persian Empire. 

In the days of Babylonia's prosperity the Euphrates was hailed as "thesoul of the land" and the Tigris as "the bestower of blessings". Skilful engineers had solved the problem of water distribution byirrigating sun-parched areas and preventing the excessive flooding ofthose districts which are now rendered impassable swamps when therivers overflow. A network of canals was constructed throughout thecountry, which restricted the destructive tendencies of the Tigris andEuphrates and developed to a high degree their potentialities asfertilizing agencies. The greatest of these canals appear to have beenanciently river beds. One, which is called Shatt en Nil to the north, and Shatt el Kar to the south, curved eastward from Babylon, andsweeping past Nippur, flowed like the letter S towards Larsa and thenrejoined the river. It is believed to mark the course followed in theearly Sumerian period by the Euphrates river, which has moved steadilywestward many miles beyond the sites of ancient cities that wereerected on its banks. Another important canal, the Shatt el Hai, crossed the plain from the Tigris to its sister river, which lieslower at this point, and does not run so fast. Where the artificialcanals were constructed on higher levels than the streams which fedthem, the water was raised by contrivances known as "shaddufs"; thebuckets or skin bags were roped to a weighted beam, with the aid ofwhich they were swung up by workmen and emptied into the canals. It ispossible that this toilsome mode of irrigation was substituted infavourable parts by the primitive water wheels which are used in ourown day by the inhabitants of the country who cultivate strips of landalong the river banks. 

In Babylonia there are two seasons--the rainy and the dry. Rain fallsfrom November till March, and the plain is carpeted in spring bypatches of vivid green verdure and brilliant wild flowers. Then theperiod of drought ensues; the sun rapidly burns up all vegetation, andeverywhere the eye is wearied by long stretches of brown and yellowdesert. Occasional sandstorms darken the heavens, sweeping oversterile wastes and piling up the shapeless mounds which mark the sitesof ancient cities. Meanwhile the rivers are increasing in volume, being fed by the melting snows at their mountain sources far to thenorth. The swift Tigris, which is 1146 miles long, begins to riseearly in March and reaches its highest level in May; before the end ofJune it again subsides. More sluggish in movement, the Euphrates, which is 1780 miles long, shows signs of rising a fortnight later thanthe Tigris, and is in flood for a more extended period; it does notshrink to its lowest level until early in September. By controllingthe flow of these mighty rivers, preventing disastrous floods, andstoring and distributing surplus water, the ancient Babyloniansdeveloped to the full the natural resources of their country, and madeit--what it may once again become--one of the fairest and mosthabitable areas in the world. Nature conferred upon them bountifulrewards for their labour; trade and industries flourished, and thecities increased in splendour and strength. Then as now the heat wasgreat during the long summer, but remarkably dry and unvarying, whilethe air was ever wonderfully transparent under cloudless skies ofvivid blue. The nights were cool and of great beauty, whether inbrilliant moonlight or when ponds and canals were jewelled by thelustrous displays of clear and numerous stars which glorified thathomeland of the earliest astronomers. 

Babylonia is a treeless country, and timber had to be imported fromthe earliest times. The date palm was probably introduced by man, aswere certainly the vine and the fig tree, which were widelycultivated, especially in the north. Stone, suitable for building, wasvery scarce, and limestone, alabaster, marble, and basalt had to betaken from northern Mesopotamia, where the mountains also yield copperand lead and iron. Except Eridu, where ancient workers quarriedsandstone from its sea-shaped ridge, all the cities were built ofbrick, an excellent clay being found in abundance. When brick wallswere cemented with bitumen they were given great stability. Thisresinous substance is found in the north and south. It bubbles upthrough crevices of rocks on river banks and forms small ponds. Twofamous springs at modern Hit, on the Euphrates, have been drawn uponfrom time immemorial. "From one", writes a traveller, "flows hot waterblack with bitumen, while the other discharges intermittently bitumen, or, after a rainstorm, bitumen and cold water. .. . Where rocks crop outin the plain above Hit, they are full of seams of bitumen. "[30]Present-day Arabs call it "kiyara", and export it for coating boatsand roofs; they also use it as an antiseptic, and apply it to cure theskin diseases from which camels suffer. 

Sumeria had many surplus products, including corn and figs, pottery, fine wool and woven garments, to offer in exchange for what it mostrequired from other countries. It must, therefore, have had a briskand flourishing foreign trade at an exceedingly remote period. Nodoubt numerous alien merchants were attracted to its cities, and itmay be that they induced or encouraged Semitic and other raiders tooverthrow governments and form military aristocracies, so that theythemselves might obtain necessary concessions and achieve a degree ofpolitical ascendancy. It does not follow, however, that the peasantclass was greatly affected by periodic revolutions of this kind, whichbrought little more to them than a change of rulers. The needs of thecountry necessitated the continuance of agricultural methods and therigid observance of existing land laws; indeed, these constituted thebasis of Sumerian prosperity. Conquerors have ever sought reward notmerely in spoil, but also the services of the conquered. In northernBabylonia the invaders apparently found it necessary to conciliate andsecure the continued allegiance of the tillers of the soil. Law andreligion being closely associated, they had to adapt their gods tosuit the requirements of existing social and political organizations. A deity of pastoral nomads had to receive attributes which would givehim an agricultural significance; one of rural character had to bechanged to respond to the various calls of city life. Besides, localgods could not be ignored on account of their popularity. As a result, imported beliefs and religious customs must have been fused andabsorbed according to their bearing on modes of life in variouslocalities. It is probable that the complex character of certaindeities was due to the process of adjustment to which they weresubjected in new environments. 

The petty kingdoms of Sumeria appear to have been tribal in origin. Each city was presided over by a deity who was the nominal owner ofthe surrounding arable land, farms were rented or purchased from thepriesthood, and pasture was held in common. As in Egypt, where wefind, for instance, the artisan god Ptah supreme at Memphis, the sungod Ra at Heliopolis, and the cat goddess Bast at Bubastis, thevarious local Sumerian and Akkadian deities had distinctivecharacteristics, and similarly showed a tendency to absorb theattributes of their rivals. The chief deity of a state was the centralfigure in a pantheon, which had its political aspect and influencedthe growth of local theology. Cities, however, did not, as a rule, bear the names of deities, which suggests that several were foundedwhen Sumerian religion was in its early animistic stages, and gods andgoddesses were not sharply defined from the various spirit groups. 

A distinctive and characteristic Sumerian god was Ea, who was supremeat the ancient sea-deserted port of Eridu. He is identified with theOannes of Berosus, [31] who referred to the deity as "a creatureendowed with reason, with a body like that of a fish, with feet belowlike those of a man, with a fish's tail". This description recalls thefamiliar figures of Egyptian gods and priests attired in the skins ofthe sacred animals from whom their powers were derived, and the fairylore about swan maids and men, and the seals and other animals whocould divest themselves of their "skin coverings" and appear in humanshape. Originally Ea may have been a sacred fish. The Indian creativegods Brahma and Vishnu had fish forms. In Sanskrit literature Manu, the eponymous "first man", is instructed by the fish to build a shipin which to save himself when the world would be purged by the risingwaters. Ea befriended in similar manner the Babylonian Noah, calledPir-napishtim, advising him to build a vessel so as to be prepared forthe approaching Deluge. Indeed the Indian legend appears to throwlight on the original Sumerian conception of Ea. It relates that whenthe fish was small and in danger of being swallowed by other fish in astream it appealed to Manu for protection. The sage at once lifted upthe fish and placed it in a jar of water. It gradually increased inbulk, and he transferred it next to a tank and then to the riverGanges. In time the fish complained to Manu that the river was toosmall for it, so he carried it to the sea. For these services the godin fish form instructed Manu regarding the approaching flood, andafterwards piloted his ship through the weltering waters until itrested on a mountain top. [32]

If this Indian myth is of Babylonian origin, as appears probable, itmay be that the spirit of the river Euphrates, "the soul of the land", was identified with a migrating fish. The growth of the fish suggeststhe growth of the river rising in flood. In Celtic folk tales hightides and valley floods are accounted for by the presence of a "greatbeast" in sea, loch, or river. In a class of legends, "speciallyconnected with the worship of Atargatis", wrote Professor RobertsonSmith, "the divine life of the waters resides in the sacred fish thatinhabit them. Atargatis and her son, according to a legend common toHierapolis and Ascalon, plunged into the waters--in the first case theEuphrates, in the second the sacred pool at the temple near thetown--and were changed into fishes". The idea is that "where a goddies, that is, ceases to exist in human form, his life passes into thewaters where he is buried; and this again is merely a theory to bringthe divine water or the divine fish into harmony with anthropomorphicideas. The same thing was sometimes effected in another way by sayingthat the anthropomorphic deity was born from the water, as Aphroditesprang from sea foam, or as Atargatis, in another form of theEuphrates legend, . .. Was born of an egg which the sacred fishes foundin the Euphrates and pushed ashore. "[33]

As "Shar Apsi", Ea was the "King of the Watery Deep". The reference, however, according to Jastrow, "is not to the salt ocean, but thesweet waters flowing under the earth which feed the streams, andthrough streams and canals irrigate the fields". [34] As Babylonia wasfertilized by its rivers, Ea, the fish god, was a fertilizing deity. In Egypt the "Mother of Mendes" is depicted carrying a fish upon herhead; she links with Isis and Hathor; her husband is Ba-neb-Tettu, aform of Ptah, Osiris, and Ra, and as a god of fertility he issymbolized by the ram. Another Egyptian fish deity was the god Rem, whose name signifies "to weep"; he wept fertilizing tears, and cornwas sown and reaped amidst lamentations. He may be identical withRemi, who was a phase of Sebek, the crocodile god, a developedattribute of Nu, the vague primitive Egyptian deity who symbolized theprimordial deep. The connection between a fish god and a corn god isnot necessarily remote when we consider that in Babylonia and Egyptthe harvest was the gift of the rivers. 

The Euphrates, indeed, was hailed as a creator of all that grew on itsbanks. 

 O thou River who didst create all things, When the great gods dug thee out, They set prosperity upon thy banks, Within thee Ea, the King of the Deep, created his dwelling. .. Thou judgest the cause of mankind! O River, thou art mighty! O River, thou art supreme! O River, thou art righteous![35]

In serving Ea, the embodiment or the water spirit, by leading him, asthe Indian Manu led the Creator and "Preserver" in fish form, fromriver to water pot, water pot to pond or canal, and then again toriver and ocean, the Babylonians became expert engineers andexperienced agriculturists, the makers of bricks, the builders ofcities, the framers of laws. Indeed, their civilization was a growthof Ea worship. Ea was their instructor. Berosus states that, asOannes, he lived in the Persian Gulf, and every day came ashore toinstruct the inhabitants of Eridu how to make canals, to grow crops, to work metals, to make pottery and bricks, and to build temples; hewas the artisan god--Nun-ura, "god of the potter"; Kuski-banda, "godof goldsmiths", &c. --the divine patron of the arts and crafts. "Eaknoweth everything", chanted the hymn maker. He taught the people howto form and use alphabetic signs and instructed them in mathematics:he gave them their code of laws. Like the Egyptian artisan god Ptah, and the linking deity Khnumu, Ea was the "potter or moulder of godsand man". Ptah moulded the first man on his potter's wheel: he alsomoulded the sun and moon; he shaped the universe and hammered out thecopper sky. Ea built the world "as an architect builds a house". [36]Similarly the Vedic Indra, who wielded a hammer like Ptah, fashionedthe universe after the simple manner in which the Aryans made theirwooden dwellings. [37]

Like Ptah, Ea also developed from an artisan god into a sublimeCreator in the highest sense, not merely as a producer of crops. Hisword became the creative force; he named those things he desired tobe, and they came into existence. "Who but Ea creates things", exclaimed a priestly poet. This change from artisan god to creator(Nudimmud) may have been due to the tendency of early religious cultsto attach to their chief god the attributes of rivals exalted at othercentres. 

Ea, whose name is also rendered Aa, was identified with Ya, Ya'u, orAu, the Jah of the Hebrews. "In Ya-Daganu, 'Jah is Dagon'", writesProfessor Pinches, "we have the elements reversed, showing a wish toidentify Jah with Dagon, rather than Dagon with Jah; whilst anotherinteresting name, Au-Aa, shows an identification of Jah with Aa, twonames which have every appearance of being etymologically connected. "Jah's name "is one of the words for 'god' in the Assyro-Babylonianlanguage". [38]

Ea was "Enki", "lord of the world", or "lord of what is beneath";Amma-ana-ki, "lord of heaven and earth"; Sa-kalama, "ruler of theland", as well as Engur, "god of the abyss", Naqbu, "the deep", andLugal-ida, "king of the river". As rain fell from "the waters abovethe firmament", the god of waters was also a sky and earth god. 

The Indian Varuna was similarly a sky as well as an ocean god beforethe theorizing and systematizing Brahmanic teachers relegated him to apermanent abode at the bottom of the sea. It may be that Ea-Oannes andVaruna were of common origin. 

Another Babylonian deity, named Dagan, is believed to be identicalwith Ea. His worship was certainly of great antiquity. "Hammurabi", writes Professor Pinches, "seems to speak of the Euphrates as being'the boundary of Dagan', " whom he calls his creator. In laterinscriptions the form Daguna, which approaches nearer to the WestSemitic form (Dagon of the Philistines), is found in a few personalnames. [39]

It is possible that the Philistine deity Dagon was a specialized formof ancient Ea, who was either imported from Babylonia or was a sea godof more than one branch of the Mediterranean race. The authorities areat variance regarding the form and attributes of Dagan. Our knowledgeregarding him is derived mainly from the Bible. He was a nationalrather than a city god. There are references to a Beth-dagon[40], "house or city of Dagon"; he had also a temple at Gaza, and Samsondestroyed it by pulling down the two middle pillars which were itsmain support. [41] A third temple was situated in Ashdod. When thecaptured ark of the Israelites was placed in it the image of Dagon"fell on his face", with the result that "the head of Dagon and boththe palms of his hands were cut off upon the threshold; only the stumpof Dagon was left". [42] A further reference to "the threshold ofDagon" suggests that the god had feet like Ea-Oannes. Those who holdthat Dagon had a fish form derive his name from the Semitic "dag = afish", and suggest that after the idol fell only the fishy part (dāgo)was left. On the other hand, it was argued that Dagon was a corn god, and that the resemblance between the words Dagan and Dagon areaccidental. Professor Sayce makes reference in this connection to acrystal seal from Phoenicia in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, bearingan inscription which he reads as Baal-dagon. Near the name is an earof corn, and other symbols, such as the winged solar disc, a gazelle, and several stars, but there is no fish. It may be, of course, thatBaal-dagon represents a fusion of deities. As we have seen in the caseof Ea-Oannes and the deities of Mendes, a fish god may also be a corngod, a land animal god and a god of ocean and the sky. The offering ofgolden mice representing "your mice that mar the land", [43] made bythe Philistines, suggests that Dagon was the fertilizing harvest god, among other things, whose usefulness had been impaired, as theybelieved, by the mistake committed of placing the ark of Israel in thetemple at Ashdod. The Philistines came from Crete, and if their Dagonwas imported from that island, he may have had some connection withPoseidon, whose worship extended throughout Greece. This god of thesea, who is somewhat like the Roman Neptune, carried a lightningtrident and caused earthquakes. He was a brother of Zeus, the sky andatmosphere deity, and had bull and horse forms. As a horse he pursuedDemeter, the earth and corn goddess, and, like Ea, he instructedmankind, but especially in the art of training horses. In his trainwere the Tritons, half men, half fishes, and the water fairies, theNereids. Bulls, boars, and rams were offered to this sea god offertility. Amphitrite was his spouse. 

An obscure god Shony, the Oannes of the Scottish Hebrides, receivedoblations from those who depended for their agricultural prosperity onhis gifts of fertilizing seaweed. He is referred to in Martin's_Western Isles_, and is not yet forgotten. The Eddic sea god Njord ofNoatun was the father of Frey, the harvest god. Dagda, the Irish corngod, had for wife Boann, the goddess of the river Boyne. Osiris andIsis of Egypt were associated with the Nile. The connection betweenagriculture and the water supply was too obvious to escape the earlysymbolists, and many other proofs of this than those referred to couldbe given. 

Ea's "faithful spouse" was the goddess Damkina, who was also calledNin-ki, "lady of the earth". "May Ea make thee glad", chanted thepriests. "May Damkina, queen of the deep, illumine thee with hercountenance; may Merodach (Marduk), the mighty overseer of the Igigi(heavenly spirits), exalt thy head. " Merodach was their son: in timehe became the Bel, or "Lord", of the Babylonian pantheon. 

Like the Indian Varuna, the sea god, Ea-Oannes had control over thespirits and demons of the deep. The "ferryman" who kept watch over theriver of death was called Arad-Ea, "servant of Ea". There are alsoreferences to sea maidens, the Babylonian mermaids, or Nereids. Wehave a glimpse of sea giants, which resemble the Indian Danavas andDaityas of ocean, in the chant:

 Seven are they, seven are they, In the ocean deep seven are they, Battening in heaven seven are they, Bred in the depths of ocean. .. . Of these seven the first is the south wind, The second a dragon with mouth agape. .. . [44]

A suggestion of the Vedic Vritra and his horde of monsters. 

These seven demons were also "the messengers of Anu", who, althoughspecialized as a sky god in more than one pantheon, appears to havebeen closely associated with Ea in the earliest Sumerian period. Hisname, signifying "the high one", is derived from "ana", "heaven"; hewas the city god of Erech (Uruk). It is possible that he was developedas an atmospheric god with solar and lunar attributes. The sevendemons, who were his messengers, recall the stormy Maruts, thefollowers of Indra. They are referred to as

 Forcing their way with baneful windstorms, Mighty destroyers, the deluge of the storm god, Stalking at the right hand of the storm god. [45]

When we deal with a deity in his most archaic form it is difficult todistinguish him from a demon. Even the beneficent Ea is associatedwith monsters and furies. "Evil spirits", according to a Babylonianchant, were "the bitter venom of the gods". Those attached to a deityas "attendants" appear to represent the original animistic group fromwhich he evolved. In each district the character of the deity wasshaped to accord with local conditions. 

At Nippur, which was situated on the vague and shifting boundary linebetween Sumer and Akkad, the chief god was Enlil, whose name istranslated "lord of mist", "lord of might", and "lord of demons" byvarious authorities. He was a storm god and a war god, and "lord ofheaven and earth ", like Ea and Anu. An atmospheric deity, he sharesthe attributes of the Indian Indra, the thunder and rain god, andVayu, the wind god; he also resembles the Semitic Adad or Rimman, wholinks with the Hittite Tarku. All these are deities of tempest and themountains--Wild Huntsmen in the Raging Host. The name of Enlil'stemple at Nippur has been translated as "mountain house", or "like amountain", and the theory obtained for a time that the god musttherefore have been imported by a people from the hills. But as theideogram for "mountain" and "land" was used in the earliest times, asKing shows, with reference to foreign countries, [46] it is moreprobable that Enlil was exalted as a world god who had dominion overnot only Sumer and Akkad, but also the territories occupied by therivals and enemies of the early Babylonians. 

Enlil is known as the "older Bel" (lord), to distinguish him from BelMerodach of Babylon. He was the chief figure in a triad in which hefigured as earth god, with Anu as god of the sky and Ea as god of thedeep. This classification suggests that Nippur had either risen inpolitical importance and dominated the cities of Erech and Eridu, orthat its priests were influential at the court of a ruler who was theoverlord of several city states. 

Associated with Bel Enlil was Beltis, later known as "Beltu--thelady". She appears to be identical with the other great goddesses, Ishtar, Nana, Zerpanituᵐ, &c. , a "Great Mother", or consort of anearly god with whom she was equal in power and dignity. 

In the later systematized theology of the Babylonians we seem to tracethe fragments of a primitive mythology which was vague in outline, forthe deities were not sharply defined, and existed in groups. Enneadswere formed in Egypt by placing a local god at the head of a group ofeight elder deities. The sun god Ra was the chief figure of theearliest pantheon of this character at Heliopolis, while at Hermopolisthe leader was the lunar god Thoth. Professor Budge is of opinion that"both the Sumerians and the early Egyptians derived their primevalgods from some common but exceedingly ancient source", for he finds inthe Babylonian and Nile valleys that there is a resemblance betweentwo early groups which "seems to be too close to be accidental". [47]

The Egyptian group comprises four pairs of vague gods andgoddesses--Nu and his consort Nut, Hehu and his consort Hehut, Kekuiand his consort Kekuit, and Kerh and his consort Kerhet. "Man alwayshas fashioned", he says, "and probably always will fashion, his god orgods in his own image, and he has always, having reached a certainstage in development, given to his gods wives and offspring; but thenature of the position taken by the wives of the gods depends upon thenature of the position of women in the households of those who writethe legends and the traditions of the gods. The gods of the oldestcompany in Egypt were, the writer believes, invented by people inwhose households women held a high position, and among whom theypossessed more power than is usually the case with Orientalpeoples. "[48]

We cannot say definitely what these various deities represent. Nu wasthe spirit of the primordial deep, and Nut of the waters above theheavens, the mother of moon and sun and the stars. The others werephases of light and darkness and the forces of nature in activity andrepose. 

Nu is represented in Babylonian mythology by Apsu-Rishtu, and Nut byMummu-Tiamat or Tiawath; the next pair is Lachmu and Lachamu, and thethird, Anshar and Kishar. The fourth pair is missing, but the names ofAnu and Ea (as Nudimmud) are mentioned in the first tablet of theCreation series, and the name of a third is lost. Professor Budgethinks that the Assyrian editors substituted the ancient triad of Anu, Ea, and Enlil for the pair which would correspond to those found inEgypt. Originally the wives of Anu and Ea may have made up the groupof eight primitive deities. 

There can be little doubt but that Ea, as he survives to us, is oflater characterization than the first pair of primitive deities whosymbolized the deep. The attributes of this beneficent god reflect theprogress, and the social and moral ideals of a people well advanced incivilization. He rewarded mankind for the services they rendered tohim; he was their leader and instructor; he achieved for them thevictories over the destructive forces of nature. In brief, he was thedragon slayer, a distinction, by the way, which was attached in latertimes to his son Merodach, the Babylonian god, although Ea was stillcredited with the victory over the dragon's husband. 

When Ea was one of the pre-Babylonian group--the triad of Bel-Enlil, Anu, and Ea--he resembled the Indian Vishnu, the Preserver, whileBel-Enlil resembled Shiva, the Destroyer, and Anu, the father, supremeBrahma, the Creator and Father of All, the difference in exactadjustment being due, perhaps, to Sumerian political conditions. 

Ea, as we have seen, symbolized the beneficence of the waters; theirdestructive force was represented by Tiamat or Tiawath, the dragon, and Apsu, her husband, the arch-enemy of the gods. We shall find theseelder demons figuring in the Babylonian Creation myth, which receivestreatment in a later chapter. 

The ancient Sumerian city of Eridu, which means "on the seashore", wasinvested with great sanctity from the earliest times, and Ea, the"great magician of the gods", was invoked by workers of spells, thepriestly magicians of historic Babylonia. Excavations have shown thatEridu was protected by a retaining wall of sandstone, of whichmaterial many of its houses were made. In its temple tower, built ofbrick, was a marble stairway, and evidences have been forthcoming thatin the later Sumerian period the structure was lavishly adorned. It isreferred to in the fragments of early literature which have survivedas "the splendid house, shady as the forest", that "none may enter". The mythological spell exercised by Eridu in later times suggests thatthe civilization of Sumeria owed much to the worshippers of Ea. At thesacred city the first man was created: there the souls of the deadpassed towards the great Deep. Its proximity to the sea--Ea wasNin-bubu, "god of the sailor"--may have brought it into contact withother peoples and other early civilizations. Like the early Egyptians, the early Sumerians may have been in touch with Punt (Somaliland), which some regard as the cradle of the Mediterranean race. TheEgyptians obtained from that sacred land incense-bearing trees whichhad magical potency. In a fragmentary Babylonian charm there is areference to a sacred tree or bush at Eridu. Professor Sayce hassuggested that it is the Biblical "Tree of Life" in the Garden ofEden. His translations of certain vital words, however, is sharplyquestioned by Mr. R. Campbell Thompson of the British Museum, who doesnot accept the theory. [49] It may be that Ea's sacred bush or tree isa survival of tree and water worship. 

If Eridu was not the "cradle" of the Sumerian race, it was possiblythe cradle of Sumerian civilization. Here, amidst the shifting riversin early times, the agriculturists may have learned to control anddistribute the water supply by utilizing dried-up beds of streams toirrigate the land. Whatever successes they achieved were credited toEa, their instructor and patron; he was Nadimmud, "god of everything". 

CHAPTER III. 

RIVAL PANTHEONS AND REPRESENTATIVE DEITIES

 Why Different Gods were Supreme at Different Centres--Theories regarding Origin of Life--Vital Principle in Water--Creative Tears of Weeping Deities--Significance of widespread Spitting Customs--Divine Water in Blood and Divine Blood in Water--Liver as the Seat of Life--Inspiration derived by Drinking Mead, Blood, &c. --Life Principle in Breath--Babylonian Ghosts as "Evil Wind Gusts"--Fire Deities--Fire and Water in Magical Ceremonies--Moon Gods of Ur and Harran--Moon Goddess and Babylonian "Jack and Jill"--Antiquity of Sun Worship--Tammuz and Ishtar--Solar Gods of War, Pestilence, and Death--Shamash as the "Great Judge"--His Mitra Name--Aryan Mitra or Mithra and linking Babylonian Deities--Varuna and Shamash Hymns compared--The Female Origin of Life--Goddesses of Maternity--The Babylonian Thor--Deities of Good and Evil. 

In dealing with the city cults of Sumer and Akkad, consideration mustbe given to the problems involved by the rival mythological systems. Pantheons not only varied in detail, but were presided over bydifferent supreme gods. One city's chief deity might be regarded as asecondary deity at another centre. Although Ea, for instance, wasgiven first place at Eridu, and was so pronouncedly Sumerian incharacter, the moon god Nannar remained supreme at Ur, while the sungod, whose Semitic name was Shamash, presided at Larsa and Sippar. Other deities were similarly exalted in other states. 

As has been indicated, a mythological system must have been stronglyinfluenced by city politics. To hold a community in sway, it wasnecessary to recognize officially the various gods worshipped bydifferent sections, so as to secure the constant allegiance of allclasses to their rulers. Alien deities were therefore associated withlocal and tribal deities, those of the nomads with those of theagriculturists, those of the unlettered folks with those of thelearned people. Reference has been made to the introduction of strangedeities by conquerors. But these were not always imposed upon acommunity by violent means. Indications are not awanting that theworshippers of alien gods were sometimes welcomed and encouraged tosettle in certain states. When they came as military allies to assista city folk against a fierce enemy, they were naturally much admiredand praised, honoured by the women and the bards, and rewarded by therulers. 

In the epic of Gilgamesh, the Babylonian Hercules, we meet withEa-bani, a Goliath of the wilds, who is entreated to come to the aidof the besieged city of Erech when it seemed that its deities wereunable to help the people against their enemies. 

 The gods of walled-round Erech To flies had turned and buzzed in the streets; The winged bulls of walled-round Erech Were turned to mice and departed through the holes. 

Ea-bani was attracted to Erech by the gift of a fair woman for wife. The poet who lauded him no doubt mirrored public opinion. We can seethe slim, shaven Sumerians gazing with wonder and admiration on theirrough heroic ally. 

 All his body was covered with hair, His locks were like a woman's, Thick as corn grew his abundant hair. He was a stranger to the people and in that land. Clad in a garment like Gira, the god, He had eaten grass with the gazelles, He had drunk water with savage beasts. His delight was to be among water dwellers. 

Like the giant Alban, the eponymous ancestor of a people who invadedprehistoric Britain, Ea-bani appears to have represented in Babylonianfolk legends a certain type of foreign settlers in the land. No doubtthe city dwellers, who were impressed by the prowess of the hairy andpowerful warriors, were also ready to acknowledge the greatness oftheir war gods, and to admit them into the pantheon. The fusion ofbeliefs which followed must have stimulated thought and beenproductive of speculative ideas. "Nowhere", remarks Professor Jastrow, "does a high form of culture arise without the commingling of diverseethnic elements. "

We must also take into account the influence exercised by leaders ofthought like En-we-dur-an-ki, the famous high priest of Sippar, whosepiety did much to increase the reputation of the cult of Shamesh, thesun god. The teachings and example of Buddha, for instance, revolutionized Brahmanic religion in India. 

A mythology was an attempt to solve the riddle of the Universe, and toadjust the relations of mankind with the various forces represented bythe deities. The priests systematized existing folk beliefs andestablished an official religion. To secure the prosperity of theState, it was considered necessary to render homage unto whom homagewas due at various seasons and under various circumstances. 

The religious attitude of a particular community, therefore, must havebeen largely dependent on its needs and experiences. The food supplywas a first consideration. At Eridu, as we have seen, it was assuredby devotion to Ea and obedience to his commands as an instructor. Elsewhere it might happen, however, that Ea's gifts were restricted orwithheld by an obstructing force--the raging storm god, or theparching, pestilence-bringing deity of the sun. It was necessary, therefore, for the people to win the favour of the god or goddess whoseemed most powerful, and was accordingly considered to be thegreatest in a particular district. A rain god presided over thedestinies of one community, and a god of disease and death overanother; a third exalted the war god, no doubt because raids werefrequent and the city owed its strength and prosperity to its battlesand conquests. The reputation won by a particular god throughoutBabylonia would depend greatly on the achievements of his worshippersand the progress of the city civilization over which he presided. Bel-Enlil's fame as a war deity was probably due to the politicalsupremacy of his city of Nippur; and there was probably good reasonfor attributing to the sun god a pronounced administrative and legalcharacter; he may have controlled the destinies of exceedingly wellorganized communities in which law and order and authority were heldin high esteem. 

In accounting for the rise of distinctive and rival city deities, weshould also consider the influence of divergent conceptions regardingthe origin of life in mingled communities. Each foreign element in acommunity had its own intellectual life and immemorial tribaltraditions, which reflected ancient habits of life and perpetuated thedoctrines of eponymous ancestors. Among the agricultural classes, thefolk religion which entered so intimately into their customs andlabours must have remained essentially Babylonish in character. Incities, however, where official religions were formulated, foreignideas were more apt to be imposed, especially when embraced byinfluential teachers. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that inBabylonia, as in Egypt, there were differences of opinion regardingthe origin of life and the particular natural element whichrepresented the vital principle. 

One section of the people, who were represented by the worshippers ofEa, appear to have believed that the essence of life was contained inwater. The god of Eridu was the source of the "water of life". Hefertilized parched and sunburnt wastes through rivers and irrigatingcanals, and conferred upon man the sustaining "food of life". Whenlife came to an end--

 Food of death will be offered thee. .. Water of death will be offered thee. .. 

Offerings of water and food were made to the dead so that the ghostsmight be nourished and prevented from troubling the living. Even thegods required water and food; they were immortal because they haddrunk ambrosia and eaten from the plant of life. When the goddessIshtar was in the Underworld, the land of the dead, the servant of Eaexclaimed--

 "Hail! lady, may the well give me of its waters, so that I may drink. "

The goddess of the dead commanded her servant to "sprinkle the ladyIshtar with the water of life and bid her depart". The sacred watermight also be found at a confluence of rivers. Ea bade his son, Merodach, to "draw water from the mouth of two streams", and "on thiswater to put his pure spell". 

The worship of rivers and wells which prevailed in many countries wasconnected with the belief that the principle of life was in moisture. In India, water was vitalized by the intoxicating juice of the Somaplant, which inspired priests to utter prophecies and filled theirhearts with religious fervour. Drinking customs had originally areligious significance. It was believed in India that the sap ofplants was influenced by the moon, the source of vitalizing moistureand the hiding-place of the mead of the gods. The Teutonic gods alsodrank this mead, and poets were inspired by it. Similar beliefsobtained among various peoples. Moon and water worship were thereforeclosely associated; the blood of animals and the sap of plants werevitalized by the water of life and under control of the moon. 

The body moisture of gods and demons had vitalizing properties. Whenthe Indian creator, Prajápati, wept at the beginning, "that (thetears) which fell into the water became the air. That which he wipedaway, upwards, became the sky. "[50] The ancient Egyptians believedthat all men were born from the eyes of Horus except negroes, who camefrom other parts of his body. [51] The creative tears of Ra, the sungod, fell as shining rays upon the earth. When this god grew oldsaliva dripped from his mouth, and Isis mixed the vitalizing moisturewith dust, and thus made the serpent which bit and paralysed the greatsolar deity. [52]

Other Egyptian deities, including Osiris and Isis, wept creativetears. Those which fell from the eyes of the evil gods producedpoisonous plants and various baneful animals. Orion, the Greek giant, sprang from the body moisture of deities. The weeping ceremonies inconnection with agricultural rites were no doubt believed to be ofmagical potency; they encouraged the god to weep creative tears. 

Ea, the god of the deep, was also "lord of life" (Enti), "king of theriver" (Lugal-ida), and god of creation (Nudimmud). His aid wasinvoked by means of magical formulae. As the "great magician of thegods" he uttered charms himself, and was the patron of all magicians. One spell runs as follows:

 I am the sorcerer priest of Ea. .. To revive the . .. Sick man The great lord Ea hath sent me; He hath added his pure spell to mine, He hath added his pure voice to mine, He hath added his pure spittle to mine. 

 _R. C. Thompson's Translation. _

Saliva, like tears, had creative and therefore curative qualities; italso expelled and injured demons and brought good luck. Spittingceremonies are referred to in the religious literature of AncientEgypt. When the Eye of Ra was blinded by Set, Thoth spat in it torestore vision. The sun god Tum, who was linked with Ra as Ra-Tum, spat on the ground, and his saliva became the gods Shu and Tefnut. Inthe Underworld the devil serpent Apep was spat upon to curse it, aswas also its waxen image which the priests fashioned. [53]

Several African tribes spit to make compacts, declare friendship, andto curse. 

Park, the explorer, refers in his _Travels_ to his carriers spittingon a flat stone to ensure a good journey. Arabian holy men anddescendants of Mohammed spit to cure diseases. Mohammed spat in themouth of his grandson Hasen soon after birth. Theocritus, Sophocles, and Plutarch testify to the ancient Grecian customs of spitting tocure and to curse, and also to bless when children were named. Plinyhas expressed belief in the efficacy of the fasting spittle for curingdisease, and referred to the custom of spitting to avert witchcraft. In England, Scotland, and Ireland spitting customs are not yetobsolete. North of England boys used to talk of "spitting their sauls"(souls). When the Newcastle colliers held their earliest strikes theymade compacts by spitting on a stone. There are still "spittingstones" in the north of Scotland. When bargains are made in ruraldistricts, hands are spat upon before they are shaken. The first moneytaken each day by fishwives and other dealers is spat upon to ensureincreased drawings. Brand, who refers to various spitting customs, quotes _Scot's Discovery of Witchcraft_ regarding the saliva cure forking's evil, which is still, by the way, practised in the Hebrides. Like Pliny, Scot recommended ceremonial spitting as a charm againstwitchcraft. [54] In China spitting to expel demons is a commonpractice. We still call a hasty person a "spitfire", and a calumniatora "spit-poison". 

The life principle in trees, &c. , as we have seen, was believed tohave been derived from the tears of deities. In India sap was calledthe "blood of trees", and references to "bleeding trees" are stillwidespread and common. "Among the ancients", wrote Professor RobertsonSmith, "blood is generally conceived as the principle or vehicle oflife, and so the account often given of sacred waters is that theblood of the deity flows in them. Thus as Milton writes:

 Smooth Adonis from his native rock Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood Of Thammuz yearly wounded. 

 _Paradise Lost_, i, 450. 

The ruddy colour which the swollen river derived from the soil at acertain season was ascribed to the blood of the god, who received hisdeath wound in Lebanon at that time of the year, and lay buried besidethe sacred source. "[55]

In Babylonia the river was regarded as the source of the life bloodand the seat of the soul. No doubt this theory was based on the factthat the human liver contains about a sixth of the blood in the body, the largest proportion required by any single organ. Jeremiah makes"Mother Jerusalem" exclaim: "My liver is poured upon the earth for thedestruction of the daughter of my people", meaning that her life isspent with grief. 

Inspiration was derived by drinking blood as well as by drinkingintoxicating liquors--the mead of the gods. Indian magicians who drinkthe blood of the goat sacrificed to the goddess Kali, are believed tobe temporarily possessed by her spirit, and thus enabled toprophesy. [56] Malayan exorcists still expel demons while they suck theblood from a decapitated fowl. [57]

Similar customs were prevalent in Ancient Greece. A woman who drankthe blood of a sacrificed lamb or bull uttered prophetic sayings. [58]

But while most Babylonians appear to have believed that the lifeprinciple was in blood, some were apparently of opinion that it was inbreath--the air of life. A man died when he ceased to breathe; hisspirit, therefore, it was argued, was identical with theatmosphere--the moving wind--and was accordingly derived from theatmospheric or wind god. When, in the Gilgamesh epic, the hero invokesthe dead Ea-bani, the ghost rises up like a "breath of wind". ABabylonian charm runs:

 The gods which seize on men Came forth from the grave; The evil wind gusts Have come forth from the grave, To demand payment of rites and the pouring out of libations They have come forth from the grave; All that is evil in their hosts, like a whirlwind, Hath come forth from the grave. [59]

The Hebrew "nephesh ruach" and "neshamah" (in Arabic "ruh" and "nefs")pass from meaning "breath" to "spirit". [60] In Egypt the god Khnumuwas "Kneph" in his character as an atmospheric deity. The ascendancyof storm and wind gods in some Babylonian cities may have been due tothe belief that they were the source of the "air of life". It ispossible that this conception was popularized by the Semites. Inspiration was perhaps derived from these deities by burning incense, which, if we follow evidence obtained elsewhere, induced a prophetictrance. The gods were also invoked by incense. In the Flood legend theBabylonian Noah burned incense. "The gods smelled a sweet savour andgathered like flies over the sacrificer. " In Egypt devotees whoinhaled the breath of the Apis bull were enabled to prophesy. 

In addition to water and atmospheric deities Babylonia had also itsfire gods, Girru, Gish Bar, Gibil, and Nusku. Their origin is obscure. It is doubtful if their worshippers, like those of the Indian Agni, believed that fire, the "vital spark", was the principle of life whichwas manifested by bodily heat. The Aryan fire worshippers crematedtheir dead so that the spirits might be transferred by fire toParadise. This practice, however, did not obtain among the fireworshippers of Persia, nor, as was once believed, in Sumer or Akkadeither. Fire was, however, used in Babylonia for magical purposes. Itdestroyed demons, and put to flight the spirits of disease. Possiblythe fire-purification ceremonies resembled those which were practisedby the Canaanites, and are referred to in the Bible. Ahaz "made hisson to pass through the fire, according to the abominations of theheathen". [61] Ezekiel declared that "when ye offer your gifts, when yemake your sons to pass through the fire, ye pollute yourselves withall your idols". [62] In _Leviticus_ it is laid down: "Thou shalt notlet any of thy seed pass through the fire to Moloch". [63] It may bethat in Babylonia the fire-cleansing ceremony resembled that whichobtained at Beltane (May Day) in Scotland, Germany, and othercountries. Human sacrifices might also have been offered up as burntofferings. Abraham, who came from the Sumerian city of Ur, wasprepared to sacrifice Isaac, Sarah's first-born. The fire gods ofBabylonia never achieved the ascendancy of the Indian Agni; theyappear to have resembled him mainly in so far as he was connected withthe sun. Nusku, like Agni, was also the "messenger of the gods". WhenMerodach or Babylon was exalted as chief god of the pantheon hismessages were carried to Ea by Nusku. He may have therefore symbolizedthe sun rays, for Merodach had solar attributes. It is possible thatthe belief obtained among even the water worshippers of Eridu that thesun and moon, which rose from the primordial deep, had their origin inthe everlasting fire in Ea's domain at the bottom of the sea. In theIndian god Varuna's ocean home an "Asura fire" (demon fire) burnedconstantly; it was "bound and confined", but could not beextinguished. Fed by water, this fire, it was believed, would burstforth at the last day and consume the universe. [64] A similar beliefcan be traced in Teutonic mythology. The Babylonian incantation cultappealed to many gods, but "the most important share in the rites", says Jastrow, "are taken by fire and water--suggesting, therefore, that the god of water--more particularly Ea--and the god of fire . .. Are the chief deities on which the ritual itself hinges". In sometemples there was a _bit rimki_, a "house of washing", and a _bitnuri_, a "house of light". [65]

It is possible, of course, that fire was regarded as the vitalprinciple by some city cults, which were influenced by imported ideas. If so, the belief never became prevalent. The most enduring influencein Babylonian religion was the early Sumerian; and as Sumerian modesof thought were the outcome of habits of life necessitated by thecharacter of the country, they were bound, sooner or later, to leave adeep impress on the minds of foreign peoples who settled in the Gardenof Western Asia. It is not surprising, therefore, to find thatimported deities assumed Babylonian characteristics, and wereidentified or associated with Babylonian gods in the later imperialpantheon. 

Moon worship appears to have been as ancient as water worship, withwhich, as we have seen, it was closely associated. It was widelyprevalent throughout Babylonia. The chief seat of the lunar deity, Nannar or Sin, was the ancient city of Ur, from which Abraham migratedto Harran, where the "Baal" (the lord) was also a moon god. Ur wassituated in Sumer, in the south, between the west bank of theEuphrates and the low hills bordering the Arabian desert, and not fardistant from sea-washed Eridu. No doubt, like that city, it had itsorigin at an exceedingly remote period. At any rate, the excavationsconducted there have afforded proof that it flourished in theprehistoric period. 

As in Arabia, Egypt, and throughout ancient Europe and elsewhere, themoon god of Sumeria was regarded as the "friend of man". He controllednature as a fertilizing agency; he caused grass, trees, and crops togrow; he increased flocks and herds, and gave human offspring. At Urhe was exalted above Ea as "the lord and prince of the gods, supremein heaven, the Father of all"; he was also called "great Anu", anindication that Anu, the sky god, had at one time a lunar character. The moon god was believed to be the father of the sun god: he was the"great steer with mighty horns and perfect limbs". 

His name Sin is believed to be a corruption of "Zu-ena", whichsignifies "knowledge lord". [66] Like the lunar Osiris of Egypt, he wasapparently an instructor of mankind; the moon measured time andcontrolled the seasons; seeds were sown at a certain phase of themoon, and crops were ripened by the harvest moon. The mountains ofSinai and the desert of Sin are called after this deity. 

As Nannar, which Jastrow considers to be a variation of "Narnar", the"light producer", the moon god scattered darkness and reduced theterrors of night. His spirit inhabited the lunar stone, so that moonand stone worship were closely associated; it also entered trees andcrops, so that moon worship linked with earth worship, as both linkedwith water worship. 

The consort of Nannar was Nin-Uruwa, "the lady of Ur", who was alsocalled Nin-gala. She links with Ishtar as Nin, as Isis of Egypt linkedwith other mother deities. The twin children of the moon were Mashuand Mashtu, a brother and sister, like the lunar girl and boy ofTeutonic mythology immortalized in nursery rhymes as Jack and Jill. 

Sun worship was of great antiquity in Babylonia, but appears to havebeen seasonal in its earliest phases. No doubt the sky god Anu had hissolar as well as his lunar attributes, which he shared with Ea. Thespring sun was personified as Tammuz, the youthful shepherd, who wasloved by the earth goddess Ishtar and her rival Eresh-ki-gal, goddessof death, the Babylonian Persephone. During the winter Tammuz dwelt inHades, and at the beginning of spring Ishtar descended to search forhim among the shades. [67] But the burning summer sun was symbolized asa destroyer, a slayer of men, and therefore a war god. As Ninip orNirig, the son of Enlil, who was made in the likeness of Anu, he wagedwar against the earth spirits, and was furiously hostile towards thedeities of alien peoples, as befitted a god of battle. Even his fatherfeared him, and when he was advancing towards Nippur, sent out Nusku, messenger of the gods, to soothe the raging deity with soft words. Ninip was symbolized as a wild bull, was connected with stone worship, like the Indian destroying god Shiva, and was similarly a deity ofFate. He had much in common with Nin-Girsu, a god of Lagash, who wasin turn regarded as a form of Tammuz. 

Nergal, another solar deity, brought disease and pestilence, and, according to Jensen, all misfortunes due to excessive heat. He was theking of death, husband of Eresh-ki-gal, queen of Hades. As a war godhe thirsted for human blood, and was depicted as a mighty lion. He wasthe chief deity of the city of Cuthah, which, Jastrow suggests, wassituated beside a burial place of great repute, like the EgyptianAbydos. 

The two great cities of the sun in ancient Babylonia were the AkkadianSippar and the Sumerian Larsa. In these the sun god, Shamash orBabbar, was the patron deity. He was a god of Destiny, the lord of theliving and the dead, and was exalted as the great Judge, the lawgiver, who upheld justice; he was the enemy of wrong, he loved righteousnessand hated sin, he inspired his worshippers with rectitude and punishedevildoers. The sun god also illumined the world, and his rayspenetrated every quarter: he saw all things, and read the thoughts ofmen; nothing could be concealed from Shamash. One of his names wasMitra, like the god who was linked with Varuna in the Indian_Rigveda_. These twin deities, Mitra and Varuna, measured out the spanof human life. They were the source of all heavenly gifts: theyregulated sun and moon, the winds and waters, and the seasons. [68]

These did the gods establish in royal power over themselves, becausethey were wise and the children of wisdom, and because they excelledin power. --_Prof. Arnold's trans. Of Rigvedic Hymn_. 

Mitra and Varuna were protectors of hearth and home, and theychastised sinners. "In a striking passage of the _Mahabharata_" saysProfessor Moulton, "one in which Indian thought comes nearest to theconception of conscience, a kingly wrongdoer is reminded that the sunsees secret sin. "[69]

In Persian mythology Mitra, as Mithra, is the patron of Truth, and"the Mediator" between heaven and earth[70]. This god was alsoworshipped by the military aristocracy of Mitanni, which held sway fora period over Assyria. In Roman times the worship of Mithra spreadinto Europe from Persia. Mithraic sculptures depict the deity as acorn god slaying the harvest bull; on one of the monuments "cornstalksinstead of blood are seen issuing from the wound inflicted with theknife". [71] The Assyrian word "metru" signifies rain[70]. As a sky godMitra may have been associated, like Varuna, with the waters above thefirmament. Rain would therefore be gifted by him as a fertilizing deity. In the Babylonian Flood legend it is the sun god Shamash who "appointedthe time" when the heavens were to "rain destruction" in the night, andcommanded Pir-napishtim, "Enter into the midst of thy ship and shut thydoor". The solar deity thus appears as a form of Anu, god of the sky andupper atmosphere, who controls the seasons and the various forces ofnature. Other rival chiefs of city pantheons, whether lunar, atmospheric, earth, or water deities, were similarly regarded as thesupreme deities who ruled the Universe, and decreed when man shouldreceive benefits or suffer from their acts of vengeance. 

It is possible that the close resemblances between Mithra and Mitra ofthe Aryan-speaking peoples of India and the Iranian plateau, and thesun god of the Babylonians--the Semitic Shamash, the SumerianUtu--were due to early contact and cultural influence through themedium of Elam. As a solar and corn god, the Persian Mithra links withTammuz, as a sky and atmospheric deity with Anu, and as a god oftruth, righteousness, and law with Shamash. We seem to trace in thesublime Vedic hymns addressed by the Indian Aryans to Mitra and Varunathe impress of Babylonian religious thought:

 Whate'er exists within this earth, and all within the sky, Yea, all that is beyond, King Varuna perceives. .. . 

 _Rigveda_, iv, 16. [72]

 O Varuna, whatever the offence may be That we as men commit against the heavenly folk, When through our want of thought we violate thy laws, Chastise us not, O god, for that iniquity. 

 _Rigveda_, vii, 89. [73]

Shamash was similarly exalted in Babylonian hymns:

 The progeny of those who deal unjustly will not prosper. What their mouth utters in thy presence Thou wilt destroy, what issues from their mouth thou wilt dissipate. Thou knowest their transgressions, the plan of the wicked thou rejectest. All, whoever they be, are in thy care. .. . He who takes no bribe, who cares for the oppressed, Is favoured by Shamash, --his life shall be prolonged. [74]

The worshippers of Varuna and Mitra in the Punjab did not crematetheir dead like those who exalted the rival fire god Agni. The gravewas the "house of clay", as in Babylonia. Mitra, who was identicalwith Yama, ruled over departed souls in the "Land of the Pitris"(Fathers), which was reached by crossing the mountains and the rushingstream of death. [75] As we have seen, the Babylonian solar god Nergalwas also the lord of the dead. 

As Ma-banda-anna, "the boat of the sky", Shamash links with theEgyptian sun god Ra, whose barque sailed over the heavens by day andthrough the underworld of darkness and death during the night. Theconsort of Shamash was Aa, and his attendants were Kittu and Mesharu, "Truth" and "Righteousness". 

Like the Hittites, the Babylonians had also a sun goddess: her namewas Nin-sun, which Jastrow renders "the annihilating lady". At Erechshe had a shrine in the temple of the sky god Anu. 

We can trace in Babylonia, as in Egypt, the early belief that life inthe Universe had a female origin. Nin-sun links with Ishtar, whoseSumerian name is Nana. Ishtar appears to be identical with theEgyptian Hathor, who, as Sekhet, slaughtered the enemies of the sungod Ra. She was similarly the goddess of maternity, and is depicted inthis character, like Isis and other goddesses of similar character, suckling a babe. Another Babylonian lady of the gods was Ama, Mama, orMami, "the creatress of the seed of mankind", and was "probably socalled as the 'mother' of all things". [76]

A characteristic atmospheric deity was Ramman, the Rimmon of theBible, the Semitic Addu, Adad, Hadad, or Dadu. He was not a presidingdeity in any pantheon, but was identified with Enlil at Nippur. As ahammer god, he was imported by the Semites from the hills. He was awind and thunder deity, a rain bringer, a corn god, and a god ofbattle like Thor, Jupiter, Tarku, Indra, and others, who were all sonsof the sky. 

In this brief review of the representative deities of early Babylonia, it will be seen that most gods link with Anu, Ea, and Enlil, whoseattributes they symbolized in various forms. The prominence accordedto an individual deity depended on local conditions, experiences, andinfluences. Ceremonial practices no doubt varied here and there, butalthough one section might exalt Ea and another Shamash, the religiousfaith of the people as a whole did not differ to any marked extent;they served the gods according to their lights, so that life might beprolonged and made prosperous, for the land of death and "no return"was regarded as a place of gloom and misery. 

When the Babylonians appear before us in the early stages of thehistorical period they had reached that stage of development set forthso vividly in the _Orations_ of Isocrates: "Those of the gods who arethe source to us of good things have the title of Olympians; thosewhose department is that of calamities and punishments have harshertitles: to the first class both private persons and states erectaltars and temples; the second is not worshipped either with prayersor burnt sacrifices, but in their case we perform ceremonies ofriddance". [77]

The Sumerians, like the Ancient Egyptians, developed their deities, who reflected the growth of culture, from vague spirit groups, which, like ghosts, were hostile to mankind. Those spirits who could bepropitiated were exalted as benevolent deities; those who could not bebargained with were regarded as evil gods and goddesses. A betterunderstanding of the character of Babylonian deities will therefore beobtained by passing the demons and evil spirits under review. 

CHAPTER IV. 

DEMONS, FAIRIES, AND GHOSTS

 Spirits in Everything and Everywhere--The Bringers of Luck and Misfortune--Germ Theory Anticipated--Early Gods indistinguishable from Demons--Repulsive form of Ea--Spirit Groups as Attendants of Deities--Egyptian, Indian, Greek, and Germanic parallels--Elder Gods as Evil Gods--Animal Demons--The Babylonian "Will-o'-the-Wisp"--"Foreign Devils"--Elves and Fairies--Demon Lovers--"Adam's first wife, Lilith"--Children Charmed against Evil Spirits--The Demon of Nightmare--Ghosts as Enemies of the Living--The Vengeful Dead Mother in Babylonia, India, Europe, and Mexico--Burial Contrast--Calling Back the Dead--Fate of Childless Ghosts--Religious Need for Offspring--Hags and Giants and Composite Monsters--Tempest Fiends--Legend of Adapa and the Storm Demon--Wind Hags of Ancient Britain--Tyrolese Storm Maidens--Zu Bird Legend and Indian Garuda Myth--Legend of the Eagle and the Serpent--The Snake Mother Goddess--Demons and the Moon God--Plague Deities--Classification of Spirits, and Egyptian, Arabian, and Scottish parallels--Traces of Progress from Animism to Monotheism. 

The memorable sermon preached by Paul to the Athenians when he stood"in the midst of Mars' hill", could have been addressed with equalappropriateness to the ancient Sumerians and Akkadians. "I perceive", he declared, "that in all things ye are too superstitious. .. . God thatmade the world and all things therein, seeing that he is Lord ofheaven and earth, dwelleth not in temples made with hands; neither isworshipped with men's hands as though he needed any thing, seeing hegiveth to all life, and breath, and all things . .. For in him we live, and move, and have our being; as certain also of your own poets havesaid, For we are also his offspring. Forasmuch then as we are theoffspring of God, we ought not to think that the Godhead is like untogold, or silver, or stone, graven by art and man's device. "[78]

Babylonian temples were houses of the gods in the literal sense; thegods were supposed to dwell in them, their spirits having entered intothe graven images or blocks of stone. It is probable that like theAncient Egyptians they believed a god had as many spirits as he hadattributes. The gods, as we have said, appear to have evolved fromearly spirit groups. All the world swarmed with spirits, whichinhabited stones and trees, mountains and deserts, rivers and ocean, the air, the sky, the stars, and the sun and moon. The spiritscontrolled Nature: they brought light and darkness, sunshine andstorm, summer and winter; they were manifested in the thunderstorm, the sandstorm, the glare of sunset, and the wraiths of mist risingfrom the steaming marshes. They controlled also the lives of men andwomen. The good spirits were the source of luck. The bad spiritscaused misfortunes, and were ever seeking to work evil against theBabylonian. Darkness was peopled by demons and ghosts of the dead. Thespirits of disease were ever lying in wait to clutch him with cruelinvisible hands. 

Some modern writers, who are too prone to regard ancient peoples froma twentieth-century point of view, express grave doubts as to whether"intelligent Babylonians" really believed that spirits came down inthe rain and entered the soil to rise up before men's eyes as stalksof barley or wheat. There is no reason for supposing that they thoughtotherwise. The early folks based their theories on the accumulatedknowledge of their age. They knew nothing regarding the composition ofwater or the atmosphere, of the cause of thunder and lightning, or ofthe chemical changes effected in soils by the action of bacteria. Theyattributed all natural phenomena to the operations of spirits or gods. In believing that certain demons caused certain diseases, they may besaid to have achieved distinct progress, for they anticipated the germtheory. They made discoveries, too, which have been approved andelaborated in later times when they lit sacred fires, bathed in sacredwaters, and used oils and herbs to charm away spirits of pestilence. Indeed, many folk cures, which were originally associated with magicalceremonies, are still practised in our own day. They were found to beeffective by early observers, although they were unable to explain whyand how cures were accomplished, like modern scientific investigators. 

In peopling the Universe with spirits, the Babylonians, like otherancient folks, betrayed that tendency to symbolize everything whichhas ever appealed to the human mind. Our painters and poets andsculptors are greatest when they symbolize their ideals and ideas andimpressions, and by so doing make us respond to their moods. Their"beauty and their terror are sublime". But what may seem poetic to us, was invariably a grim reality to the Babylonians. The statue orpicture was not merely a work of art but a manifestation of the god ordemon. As has been said, they believed that the spirit of the godinhabited the idol; the frown of the brazen image was the frown of thewicked demon. They entertained as much dread of the winged andhuman-headed bulls guarding the entrance to the royal palace as dosome of the Arab workmen who, in our own day, assist excavators torescue them from sandy mounds in which they have been hidden for longcenturies. 

When an idol was carried away from a city by an invading army, it wasbelieved that the god himself had been taken prisoner, and wastherefore unable any longer to help his people. 

In the early stages of Sumerian culture, the gods and goddesses whoformed groups were indistinguishable from demons. They were vaguelydefined, and had changing shapes. When attempts were made to depictthem they were represented in many varying forms. Some were wingedbulls or lions with human heads; others had even more remarkablecomposite forms. The "dragon of Babylon", for instance, which wasportrayed on walls of temples, had a serpent's head, a body coveredwith scales, the fore legs of a lion, hind legs of an eagle, and along wriggling serpentine tail. Ea had several monster forms. Thefollowing description of one of these is repulsive enough:--

 The head is the head of a serpent, From his nostrils mucus trickles, His mouth is beslavered with water; The ears are like those of a basilisk, His horns are twisted into three curls, He wears a veil in his head band, The body is a suh-fish full of stars, The base of his feet are claws, The sole of his foot has no heel, His name is Sassu-wunnu, A sea monster, a form of Ea. 

 _R. C. Thompson's Translation. _[79]

Even after the gods were given beneficent attributes to reflect thegrowth of culture, and were humanized, they still retained many oftheir savage characteristics. Bel Enlil and his fierce son, Nergal, were destroyers of mankind; the storm god desolated the land; the skygod deluged it with rain; the sea raged furiously, ever hungering forhuman victims; the burning sun struck down its victims; and the floodsplayed havoc with the dykes and houses of human beings. In Egypt thesun god Ra was similarly a "producer of calamity", the compositemonster god Sokar was "the lord of fear". [80] Osiris in prehistorictimes had been "a dangerous god", and some of the Pharaohs soughtprotection against him in the charms inscribed in their tombs. [81] TheIndian Shiva, "the Destroyer", in the old religious poems has alsoprimitive attributes of like character. 

The Sumerian gods never lost their connection with the early spiritgroups. These continued to be represented by their attendants, whoexecuted a deity's stern and vengeful decrees. In one of theBabylonian charms the demons are referred to as "the spleen of thegods"--the symbols of their wrathful emotions and vengeful desires. Bel Enlil, the air and earth god, was served by the demons of disease, "the beloved sons of Bel", which issued from the Underworld to attackmankind. Nergal, the sulky and ill-tempered lord of death anddestruction, who never lost his demoniac character, swept over theland, followed by the spirits of pestilence, sunstroke, weariness, anddestruction. Anu, the sky god, had "spawned" at creation the demons ofcold and rain and darkness. Even Ea and his consort, Damkina, wereserved by groups of devils and giants, which preyed upon mankind inbleak and desolate places when night fell. In the ocean home of Eawere bred the "seven evil spirits" of tempest--the gaping dragon, theleopard which preyed upon children, the great Beast, the terribleserpent, &c. 

In Indian mythology Indra was similarly followed by the stormy Maruts, and fierce Rudra by the tempestuous Rudras. In Teutonic mythology Odinis the "Wild Huntsman in the Raging Host". In Greek mythology theocean furies attend upon fickle Poseidon. Other examples of this kindcould be multiplied. 

As we have seen (Chapter II) the earliest group of Babylonian deitiesconsisted probably of four pairs of gods and goddesses as in Egypt. The first pair was Apsu-Rishtu and Tiamat, who personified theprimordial deep. Now the elder deities in most mythologies--the"grandsires" and "grandmothers" and "fathers" and "mothers"--are everthe most powerful and most vengeful. They appear to representprimitive "layers" of savage thought. The Greek Cronos devours evenhis own children, and, as the late Andrew Lang has shown, there aremany parallels to this myth among primitive peoples in various partsof the world. 

Lang regarded the Greek survival as an example of "the conservatism ofthe religious instinct". [82] The grandmother of the Teutonic deity Tyrwas a fierce giantess with nine hundred heads; his father was an enemyof the gods. In Scotland the hag-mother of winter and storm anddarkness is the enemy of growth and all life, and she raises storms tostop the grass growing, to slay young animals, and prevent the unionof her son with his fair bride. Similarly the Babylonian chaosspirits, Apsu and Tiamat, the father and mother of the gods, resolveto destroy their offspring, because they begin to set the Universe inorder. Tiamat, the female dragon, is more powerful than her husbandApsu, who is slain by his son Ea. She summons to her aid the gods ofevil, and creates also a brood of monsters--serpents, dragons, vipers, fish men, raging hounds, &c. --so as to bring about universal andenduring confusion and evil. Not until she is destroyed can thebeneficent gods establish law and order and make the earth habitableand beautiful. 

But although Tiamat was slain, the everlasting battle between theforces of good and evil was ever waged in the Babylonian world. Certain evil spirits were let loose at certain periods, and theystrove to accomplish the destruction of mankind and his works. Theseinvisible enemies were either charmed away by performing magicalceremonies, or by invoking the gods to thwart them and bind them. 

Other spirits inhabited the bodies of animals and were ever hoveringnear. The ghosts of the dead and male and female demons were birds, like the birds of Fate which sang to Siegfried. When the owl raisedits melancholy voice in the darkness the listener heard the spirit ofa departed mother crying for her child. Ghosts and evil spiritswandered through the streets in darkness; they haunted empty houses;they fluttered through the evening air as bats; they hastened, moaningdismally, across barren wastes searching for food or lay in wait fortravellers; they came as roaring lions and howling jackals, hungeringfor human flesh. The "shedu" was a destructive bull which might slayman wantonly or as a protector of temples. Of like character was the"lamassu", depicted as a winged bull with human head, the protector ofpalaces; the "alu" was a bull-like demon of tempest, and there werealso many composite, distorted, or formless monsters which werevaguely termed "seizers" or "overthrowers", the Semitic "labashu" and"ach-chazu", the Sumerian "dimmea" and "dimme-kur". A dialectic formof "gallu" or devil was "mulla". Professor Pinches thinks it notimprobable that "mulla" may be connected with the word "mula", meaning"star", and suggests that it referred to a "will-o'-the-wisp". [83] Inthese islands, according to an old rhyme, Some call him Robin Good-fellow, Hob-goblin, or mad Crisp, And some againe doe tearme him oft By name of Will the Wisp. 

Other names are "Kitty", "Peg", and "Jack with a lantern". "PoorRobin" sang:

 I should indeed as soon expect That Peg-a-lantern would direct Me straightway home on misty night As wand'ring stars, quite out of sight. 

In Shakespeare's _Tempest_[84] a sailor exclaims: "Your fairy, which, you say, is a harmless fairy, has done little better than played theJack with us". Dr. Johnson commented that the reference was to "Jackwith a lantern". Milton wrote also of the "wandering fire", Which oft, they say, some evil spirit attends, Hovering and blazing with delusive light, Misleads th' amaz'd night wand'rer from his way To bogs and mires, and oft through pond or pool; There swallowed up and lost from succour far. [85]

"When we stick in the mire", sang Drayton, "he doth with laughterleave us. " These fires were also "fallen stars", "death fires", and"fire drakes":

 So have I seen a fire drake glide along Before a dying man, to point his grave, And in it stick and hide. [86]

Pliny referred to the wandering lights as stars. [87] The Sumerian"mulla" was undoubtedly an evil spirit. In some countries the "firedrake" is a bird with gleaming breast: in Babylonia it assumed theform of a bull, and may have had some connection with the bull oflshtar. Like the Indian "Dasyu" and "Dasa", [88] Gallu was applied inthe sense of "foreign devil" to human and superhuman adversaries ofcertain monarchs. Some of the supernatural beings resemble our elvesand fairies and the Indian Rakshasas. Occasionally they appear incomely human guise; at other times they are vaguely monstrous. Thebest known of this class is Lilith, who, according to Hebrewtradition, preserved in the Talmud, was the demon lover of Adam. Shehas been immortalized by Dante Gabriel Rossetti:

 Of Adam's first wife Lilith, it is told (The witch he loved before the gift of Eve) That, ere the snake's, her sweet tongue could deceive, And her enchanted hair was the first gold. And still she sits, young while the earth is old, And, subtly of herself contemplative, Draws men to watch the bright web she can weave, Till heart and body and life are in its hold. The rose and poppy are her flowers; for where Is he not found, O Lilith, whom shed scent And soft shed kisses and soft sleep shall snare? Lo! as that youth's eyes burned at thine, so went Thy spell through him, and left his straight neck bent And round his heart one strangling golden hair. 

Lilith is the Babylonian Lilithu, a feminine form of Lilu, theSumerian Lila. She resembles Surpanakha of the _Ramayana_, who madelove to Rama and Lakshmana, and the sister of the demon Hidimva, whobecame enamoured of Bhima, one of the heroes of the _Mahabharata_, [89]and the various fairy lovers of Europe who lured men to eternalimprisonment inside mountains, or vanished for ever when they werecompletely under their influence, leaving them demented. The elfinLilu similarly wooed young women, like the Germanic Laurin of the"Wonderful Rose Garden", [90] who carried away the fair lady Kunhild tohis underground dwelling amidst the Tyrolese mountains, or left themhaunting the place of their meetings, searching for him in vain:

 A savage place! as holy and enchanted As ere beneath the waning moon was haunted By woman wailing for her demon lover. .. His flashing eyes, his floating hair! Weave a circle round him thrice, And close your eyes with holy dread, For he on honey dew hath fed And drunk the milk of Paradise. 

 _Coleridge's Kubla Khan. _

Another materializing spirit of this class was Ardat Lili, who appearsto have wedded human beings like the swan maidens, the mermaids, andNereids of the European folk tales, and the goddess Ganga, who for atime was the wife of King Shantanu of the _Mahabharata_. [91]

The Labartu, to whom we have referred, was a female who hauntedmountains and marshes; like the fairies and hags of Europe, she stoleor afflicted children, who accordingly had to wear charms round theirnecks for protection. Seven of these supernatural beings were reputedto be daughters of Anu, the sky god. 

The Alu, a storm deity, was also a spirit which caused nightmare. Itendeavoured to smother sleepers like the Scandinavian hag Mara, andsimilarly deprived them of power to move. In Babylonia this evilspirit might also cause sleeplessness or death by hovering near a bed. In shape it might be as horrible and repulsive as the Egyptian ghostswhich caused children to die from fright or by sucking out the breathof life. 

As most representatives of the spirit world were enemies of theliving, so were the ghosts of dead men and women. Death chilled allhuman affections; it turned love to hate; the deeper the love hadbeen, the deeper became the enmity fostered by the ghost. Certainghosts might also be regarded as particularly virulent and hostile ifthey happened to have left the body of one who was ceremoniallyimpure. The most terrible ghost in Babylonia was that of a woman whohad died in childbed. She was pitied and dreaded; her grief haddemented her; she was doomed to wail in the darkness; her impurityclung to her like poison. No spirit was more prone to work evilagainst mankind, and her hostility was accompanied by the most tragicsorrow. In Northern India the Hindus, like the ancient Babylonians, regard as a fearsome demon the ghost of a woman who died whilepregnant, or on the day of the child's birth. [92] A similar beliefprevailed in Mexico. In Europe there are many folk tales of deadmothers who return to avenge themselves on the cruel fathers ofneglected children. 

A sharp contrast is presented by the Mongolian Buriats, whose outlookon the spirit world is less gloomy than was that of the ancientBabylonians. According to Mr. Jeremiah Curtin, this interesting peopleare wont to perform a ceremony with purpose to entice the ghost toreturn to the dead body--a proceeding which is dreaded in the ScottishHighlands. [93] The Buriats address the ghost, saying: "You shall sleepwell. Come back to your natural ashes. Take pity on your friends. Itis necessary to live a real life. Do not wander along the mountains. Do not be like bad spirits. Return to your peaceful home. .. . Come backand work for your children. How can you leave the little ones?" If itis a mother, these words have great effect; sometimes the spirit moansand sobs, and the Buriats tell that there have been instances of itreturning to the body. [94] In his _Arabia Deserta_[95] Doughty relatesthat Arab women and children mock the cries of the owl. One explainedto him: "It is a wailful woman seeking her lost child; she has becomethis forlorn bird". So do immemorial beliefs survive to our own day. 

The Babylonian ghosts of unmarried men and women and of those withoutoffspring were also disconsolate night wanderers. Others who sufferedsimilar fates were the ghosts of men who died in battle far from homeand were left unburied, the ghosts of travellers who perished in thedesert and were not covered over, the ghosts of drowned men which rosefrom the water, the ghosts of prisoners starved to death or executed, the ghosts of people who died violent deaths before their appointedtime. The dead required to be cared for, to have libations poured out, to be fed, so that they might not prowl through the streets or enterhouses searching for scraps of food and pure water. The duty of givingofferings to the dead was imposed apparently on near relatives. As inIndia, it would appear that the eldest son performed the funeralceremony: a dreadful fate therefore awaited the spirit of the deadBabylonian man or woman without offspring. In Sanskrit literaturethere is a reference to a priest who was not allowed to enterParadise, although he had performed rigid penances, because he had nochildren. [96]

There were hags and giants of mountain and desert, of river and ocean. Demons might possess the pig, the goat, the horse, the lion, or theibis, the raven, or the hawk. The seven spirits of tempest, fire, anddestruction rose from the depths of ocean, and there were hosts ofdemons which could not be overcome or baffled by man without theassistance of the gods to whom they were hostile. Many were sexless;having no offspring, they were devoid of mercy and compassion. Theypenetrated everywhere:

 The high enclosures, the broad enclosures, like a flood they pass through, From house to house they dash along. No door can shut them out; No bolt can turn them back. Through the door, like a snake, they glide, Through the hinge, like the wind, they storm, Tearing the wife from the embrace of the man, Driving the freedman from his family home. [97]

These furies did not confine their unwelcomed attentions to mankindalone:

 They hunt the doves from their cotes, And drive the birds from their nests, And chase the marten from its hole. .. . Through the gloomy street by night they roam, Smiting sheepfold and cattle pen, Shutting up the land as with door and bolt. 

 _R. C. Thompson's Translation. _

The Babylonian poet, like Burns, was filled with pity for the animalswhich suffered in the storm:

 List'ning the doors an' winnocks rattle, I thought me o' the ourie cattle, Or silly sheep, wha bide this brattle O' winter war. .. . Ilk happing bird, wee, helpless thing! That in the merry months o' spring Delighted me to hear thee sing, What comes o' thee? Whare wilt thou cow'r thy chittering wing, And close thy e'e?

According to Babylonian belief, "the great storms directed fromheaven" were caused by demons. Mankind heard them "loudly roaringabove, gibbering below". [98] The south wind was raised by Shutu, aplumed storm demon resembling Hraesvelgur of the Icelandic Eddas:

 Corpse-swallower sits at the end of heaven, A Jötun in eagle form; From his wings, they say, comes the wind which fares Over all the dwellers of earth. [99]

The northern story of Thor's fishing, when he hooked and wounded theMidgard serpent, is recalled by the Babylonian legend of Adapa, son ofthe god Ea. This hero was engaged catching fish, when Shutu, the southwind, upset his boat. In his wrath Adapa immediately attacked thestorm demon and shattered her pinions. Anu, the sky god, was moved toanger against Ea's son and summoned him to the Celestial Court. Adapa, however, appeared in garments of mourning and was forgiven. Anuoffered him the water of life and the bread of life which would havemade him immortal, but Ea's son refused to eat or drink, believing, ashis father had warned him, that the sky god desired him to partake ofthe bread of death and to drink of the water of death. 

Another terrible atmospheric demon was the south-west wind, whichcaused destructive storms and floods, and claimed many human victimslike the Icelandic "corpse swallower". She was depicted with lidlessstaring eyes, broad flat nose, mouth gaping horribly, and showingtusk-like teeth, and with high cheek bones, heavy eyebrows, and lowbulging forehead. 

In Scotland the hag of the south-west wind is similarly a bloodthirstyand fearsome demon. She is most virulent in the springtime. AtCromarty she is quaintly called "Gentle Annie" by the fisher folks, who repeat the saying: "When Gentle Annie is skyawlan (yelling) roondthe heel of Ness (a promontory) wi' a white feather on her hat (thefoam of big billows) they (the spirits) will be harrying (robbing) thecrook"--that is, the pot which hangs from the crook is empty duringthe spring storms, which prevent fishermen going to sea. In Englandthe wind hag is Black Annis, who dwells in a Leicestershire hill cave. She may be identical with the Irish hag Anu, associated with the "Papsof Anu". According to Gaelic lore, this wind demon of spring is the"Cailleach" (old wife). She gives her name in the Highland calendar tothe stormy period of late spring; she raises gale after gale toprevent the coming of summer. Angerboda, the Icelandic hag, is also astorm demon, but represents the east wind. A Tyrolese folk tale tellsof three magic maidens who dwelt on Jochgrimm mountain, where they"brewed the winds". Their demon lovers were Ecke, "he who causesfear"; Vasolt, "he who causes dismay"; and the scornful Dietrich inhis mythical character of Donar or Thunor (Thor), the thunderer. 

Another Sumerian storm demon was the Zu bird, which is representedamong the stars by Pegasus and Taurus. A legend relates that this"worker of evil, who raised the head of evil", once aspired to rulethe gods, and stole from Bel, "the lord" of deities, the Tablets ofDestiny, which gave him his power over the Universe as controller ofthe fates of all. The Zu bird escaped with the Tablets and foundshelter on its mountain top in Arabia. Anu called on Ramman, thethunderer, to attack the Zu bird, but he was afraid; other gods appearto have shrunk from the conflict. How the rebel was overcome is notcertain, because the legend survives in fragmentary form. There is areference, however, to the moon god setting out towards the mountainin Arabia with purpose to outwit the Zu bird and recover the lostTablets. How he fared it is impossible to ascertain. In anotherlegend--that of Etana--the mother serpent, addressing the sun god, Shamash, says:

 Thy net is like unto the broad earth; Thy snare is like unto the distant heaven! Who hath ever escaped from thy net? Even Zu, the worker of evil, who raised the head of evil [did not escape]!

 _L. W. King's Translation. _

In Indian mythology, Garuda, half giant, half eagle, robs the Amrita(ambrosia) of the gods which gives them their power and renders themimmortal. It had assumed a golden body, bright as the sun. Indra, thethunderer, flung his bolt in vain; he could not wound Garuda, and onlydisplaced a single feather. Afterwards, however, he stole the moongoblet containing the Amrita, which Garuda had delivered to hisenemies, the serpents, to free his mother from bondage. This Indianeagle giant became the vehicle of the god Vishnu, and, according tothe _Mahabharata_, "mocked the wind with his fleetness". 

It would appear that the Babylonian Zu bird symbolized the summersandstorms from the Arabian desert. Thunder is associated with therainy season, and it may have been assumed, therefore, that thethunder god was powerless against the sandstorm demon, who was chased, however, by the moon, and finally overcome by the triumphant sun whenit broke through the darkening sand drift and brightened heaven andearth, "netting" the rebellious demon who desired to establish therule of evil over gods and mankind. 

In the "Legend of Etana" the Eagle, another demon which links with theIndian Garuda, slayer of serpents, devours the brood of the MotherSerpent. For this offence against divine law, Shamash, the sun god, pronounces the Eagle's doom. He instructs the Mother Serpent to slay awild ox and conceal herself in its entrails. The Eagle comes to feedon the carcass, unheeding the warning of one of his children, whosays, "The serpent lies in this wild ox":

 He swooped down and stood upon the wild ox, The Eagle . .. Examined the flesh; He looked about carefully before and behind him; He again examined the flesh; He looked about carefully before and behind him, Then, moving swiftly, he made for the hidden parts. When he entered into the midst, The serpent seized him by his wing. 

In vain the Eagle appealed for mercy to the Mother Serpent, who wascompelled to execute the decree of Shamash; she tore off the Eagle'spinions, wings, and claws, and threw him into a pit where he perishedfrom hunger and thirst. [100] This myth may refer to the ravages of awinged demon of disease who was thwarted by the sacrifice of an ox. The Mother Serpent appears to be identical with an ancient goddess ofmaternity resembling the Egyptian Bast, the serpent mother ofBubastis. According to Sumerian belief, Nintu, "a form of the goddessMa", was half a serpent. On her head there is a horn; she is "girtabout the loins"; her left arm holds "a babe suckling her breast":

 From her head to her loins The body is that of a naked woman; From the loins to the sole of the foot Scales like those of a snake are visible. 

 _R. C. Thompson's Translation. _

The close association of gods and demons is illustrated in an obscuremyth which may refer to an eclipse of the moon or a night storm at thebeginning of the rainy season. The demons go to war against the highgods, and are assisted by Adad (Ramman) the thunderer, Shamash thesun, and Ishtar. They desire to wreck the heavens, the home of Anu:

 They clustered angrily round the crescent of the moon god, And won over to their aid Shamash, the mighty, and Adad, the warrior, And Ishtar, who with Anu, the King, Hath founded a shining dwelling. 

The moon god Sin, "the seed of mankind", was darkened by the demonswho raged, "rushing loose over the land" like to the wind. Bel calledupon his messenger, whom he sent to Ea in the ocean depths, saying:"My son Sin . .. Hath been grievously bedimmed". Ea lamented, anddispatched his son Merodach to net the demons by magic, using "atwo-coloured cord from the hair of a virgin kid and from the wool of avirgin lamb". [101]

As in India, where Shitala, the Bengali goddess of smallpox, forinstance, is worshipped when the dreaded disease she controls becomesepidemic, so in Babylonia the people sought to secure immunity fromattack by worshipping spirits of disease. A tablet relates that Ura, aplague demon, once resolved to destroy all life, but ultimatelyconsented to spare those who praised his name and exalted him inrecognition of his bravery and power. This could be accomplished byreciting a formula. Indian serpent worshippers believe that theirdevotions "destroy all danger proceeding from snakes". [102]

Like the Ancient Egyptians, the Babylonians also had their kindlyspirits who brought luck and the various enjoyments of life. A good"labartu" might attend on a human being like a household fairy ofIndia or Europe: a friendly "shedu" could protect a household againstthe attacks of fierce demons and human enemies. Even the spirits ofFate who served Anu, god of the sky, and that "Norn" of theUnderworld, Eresh-ki-gal, queen of Hades, might sometimes bepropitious: if the deities were successfully invoked they could causethe Fates to smite spirits of disease and bringers of ill luck. Damu, a friendly fairy goddess, was well loved, because she inspiredpleasant dreams, relieved the sufferings of the afflicted, andrestored to good health those patients whom she selected to favour. 

In the Egyptian _Book of the Dead_ the kindly spirits are overshadowedby the evil ones, because the various magical spells which were put onrecord were directed against those supernatural beings who wereenemies of mankind. Similarly in Babylonia the fragments of this classof literature which survive deal mainly with wicked and vengefuldemons. It appears probable, however, that the highly emotionalSumerians and Akkadians were on occasion quite as cheerful a people asthe inhabitants of ancient Egypt. Although they were surrounded bybloodthirsty furies who desired to shorten their days, and theirnights were filled with vague lowering phantoms which inspired fear, they no doubt shared, in their charm-protected houses, a comfortablefeeling of security after performing magical ceremonies, and werehappy enough when they gathered round flickering lights to listen toancient song and story and gossip about crops and traders, the membersof the royal house, and the family affairs of their acquaintances. 

The Babylonian spirit world, it will be seen, was of complexcharacter. Its inhabitants were numberless, but often vaguely defined, and one class of demons linked with another. Like the European fairiesof folk belief, the Babylonian spirits were extremely hostile andirresistible at certain seasonal periods; and they were fickle andperverse and difficult to please even when inclined to be friendly. They were also similarly manifested from time to time in variousforms. Sometimes they were comely and beautiful; at other times theywere apparitions of horror. The Jinn of present-day Arabians are oflike character; these may be giants, cloudy shapes, comely women, serpents or cats, goats or pigs. 

Some of the composite monsters of Babylonia may suggest the vague andexaggerated recollections of terror-stricken people who have hadglimpses of unfamiliar wild beasts in the dusk or amidst reedymarshes. But they cannot be wholly accounted for in this way. Whileanimals were often identified with supernatural beings, and foreignerswere called "devils", it would be misleading to assert that the spiritworld reflects confused folk memories of human and bestial enemies. Even when a demon was given concrete human form it remainedessentially non-human: no ordinary weapon could inflict an injury, andit was never controlled by natural laws. The spirits of disease andtempest and darkness were creations of fancy: they symbolized moods;they were the causes which explained effects. A sculptor orstoryteller who desired to convey an impression of a spirit of stormor pestilence created monstrous forms to inspire terror. Sudden andunexpected visits of fierce and devastating demons were accounted forby asserting that they had wings like eagles, were nimble-footed asgazelles, cunning and watchful as serpents; that they had claws toclutch, horns to gore, and powerful fore legs like a lion to smitedown victims. Withal they drank blood like ravens and devoured corpseslike hyaenas. Monsters were all the more repulsive when they werepartly human. The human-headed snake or the snake-headed man and theman with the horns of a wild bull and the legs of a goat were horriblein the extreme. Evil spirits might sometimes achieve success bypractising deception. They might appear as beautiful girls or handsomemen and seize unsuspecting victims in deathly embrace or leave themdemented and full of grief, or come as birds and suddenly assumeawesome shapes. 

Fairies and elves, and other half-human demons, are sometimes regardedas degenerate gods. It will be seen, however, that while certainspirits developed into deities, others remained something betweenthese two classes of supernatural beings: they might attend upon godsand goddesses, or operate independently now against mankind and nowagainst deities even. The "namtaru", for instance, was a spirit offate, the son of Bel-Enlil and Eresh-ki-gal, queen of Hades. "Apparently", writes Professor Pinches, "he executed the instructionsgiven him concerning the fate of men, and could also have power overcertain of the gods. "[103] To this middle class belong the evil godswho rebelled against the beneficent deities. According to Hebrideanfolk belief, the fallen angels are divided into three classes--thefairies, the "nimble men" (aurora borealis), and the "blue men of theMinch". In _Beowulf_ the "brood of Cain" includes "monsters and elvesand sea-devils--giants also, who long time fought with God, for whichhe gave them their reward". [104] Similarly the Babylonian spiritgroups are liable to division and subdivision. The various classes maybe regarded as relics of the various stages of development from crudeanimism to sublime monotheism: in the fragmentary legends we trace thefloating material from which great mythologies have been framed. 

CHAPTER V. 

MYTHS OF TAMMUZ AND ISHTAR

 Forms of Tammuz--The Weeping Ceremony--Tammuz the Patriarch and the Dying God--Common Origin of Tammuz and other Deities from an Archaic God--The Mediterranean Racial Myth--Animal Forms of Gods of Fertility--Two Legends of the Death of Tammuz--Attis, Adonis, and Diarmid Slain by a Boar--Laments for Tammuz--His Soul in Underworld and the Deep--Myth of the Child God of Ocean--Sargon Myth Version--The Germanic Scyld of the Sheaf--Tammuz Links with Frey, Heimdal, Agni, &c. --Assyrian Legend of "Descent of Ishtar"--Sumerian Version--The Sister Belit-sheri and the Mother Ishtar--The Egyptian Isis and Nepthys--Goddesses as Mothers, Sisters, and Wives--Great Mothers of Babylonia--Immortal Goddesses and Dying Gods--The Various Indras--Celtic Goddess with Seven Periods of Youth--Lovers of Germanic and Classic Goddesses--The Lovers of Ishtar--Racial Significance of Goddess Cult--The Great Fathers and their Worshippers--Process of Racial and Religious Fusion--Ishtar and Tiamat--Mother Worship in Palestine--Women among Goddess Worshippers. 

Among the gods of Babylonia none achieved wider and more enduringfame than Tammuz, who was loved by Ishtar, the amorous Queen ofHeaven--the beautiful youth who died and was mourned for and came tolife again. He does not figure by his popular name in any of the citypantheons, but from the earliest times of which we have knowledgeuntil the passing of Babylonian civilization, he played a prominentpart in the religious life of the people. 

Tammuz, like Osiris of Egypt, was an agricultural deity, and as theBabylonian harvest was the gift of the rivers, it is probable that oneof his several forms was Dumu-zi-abzu, "Tammuz of the Abyss". He wasalso "the child", "the heroic lord", "the sentinel", "the healer", andthe patriarch who reigned over the early Babylonians for aconsiderable period. "Tammuz of the Abyss" was one of the members ofthe family of Ea, god of the Deep, whose other sons, in addition toMerodach, were Nira, an obscure deity; Ki-gulla, "world destroyer", Burnunta-sa, "broad ear", and Bara and Baragulla, probably "revealers"or "oracles". In addition there was a daughter, Khi-dimme-azaga, "child of the renowned spirit". She may have been identical withBelit-sheri, who is referred to in the Sumerian hymns as the sister ofTammuz. This family group was probably formed by symbolizing theattributes of Ea and his spouse Damkina. Tammuz, in his character as apatriarch, may have been regarded as a hostage from the gods: thehuman form of Ea, who instructed mankind, like King Osiris, how togrow corn and cultivate fruit trees. As the youth who perishedannually, he was the corn spirit. He is referred to in the Bible byhis Babylonian name. 

When Ezekiel detailed the various idolatrous practices of theIsraelites, which included the worship of the sun and "every form ofcreeping things and abominable beasts"--a suggestion of the compositemonsters of Babylonia--he was brought "to the door of the gate of theLord's house, which was towards the north; and, behold, there satwomen weeping for Tammuz". [105]

The weeping ceremony was connected with agricultural rites. Corndeities were weeping deities, they shed fertilizing tears; and thesowers simulated the sorrow of divine mourners when they cast seed inthe soil "to die", so that it might spring up as corn. This ancientcustom, like many others, contributed to the poetic imagery of theBible. "They that sow in tears", David sang, "shall reap in joy. Hethat goeth forth and weepeth, bearing precious seed, shall doubtlesscome again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves with him. "[106] InEgypt the priestesses who acted the parts of Isis and Nepthys, mournedfor the slain corn god Osiris. 

 Gods and men before the face of the gods are weeping for thee at the same time, when they behold me!. .. All thy sister goddesses are at thy side and behind thy couch, Calling upon thee with weeping--yet thou are prostrate upon thy bed!. .. Live before us, desiring to behold thee. [107]

It was believed to be essential that human beings should share theuniversal sorrow caused by the death of a god. If they remainedunsympathetic, the deities would punish them as enemies. Worshippersof nature gods, therefore, based their ceremonial practices on naturalphenomena. "The dread of the worshippers that the neglect of the usualritual would be followed by disaster, is particularly intelligible", writes Professor Robertson Smith, "if they regarded the necessaryoperations of agriculture as involving the violent extinction of aparticle of divine life. "[108] By observing their ritual, theworshippers won the sympathy and co-operation of deities, or exerciseda magical control over nature. 

The Babylonian myth of Tammuz, the dying god, bears a closeresemblance to the Greek myth of Adonis. It also links with the mythof Osiris. According to Professor Sayce, Tammuz is identical with"Daonus or Daos, the shepherd of Pantibibla", referred to by Berosusas the ruler of one of the mythical ages of Babylonia. We havetherefore to deal with Tammuz in his twofold character as a patriarchand a god of fertility. 

The Adonis version of the myth may be summarized briefly. Ere the godwas born, his mother, who was pursued by her angry sire, as the rivergoddesses of the folk tales are pursued by the well demons, transformed herself into a tree. Adonis sprang from the trunk of thistree, and Aphrodite, having placed the child in a chest, committed himto the care of Persephone, queen of Hades, who resembles theBabylonian Eresh-ki-gal. Persephone desired to retain the young god, and Aphrodite (Ishtar) appealed to Zeus (Anu), who decreed that Adonisshould spend part of the year with one goddess and part of the yearwith the other. 

It is suggested that the myth of Adonis was derived in post-Homerictimes by the Greeks indirectly from Babylonia through the WesternSemites, the Semitic title "Adon", meaning "lord", having beenmistaken for a proper name. This theory, however, cannot be acceptedwithout qualifications. It does not explain the existence of eitherthe Phrygian myth of Attis, which was developed differently from theTammuz myth, or the Celtic story of "Diarmid and the boar", whichbelongs to the archaeological "Hunting Period". There are traces inGreek mythology of pre-Hellenic myths about dying harvest deities, like Hyakinthos and Erigone, for instance, who appear to have beenmourned for. There is every possibility, therefore, that the Tammuzritual may have been attached to a harvest god of the pre-HellenicGreeks, who received at the same time the new name of Adonis. Osirisof Egypt resembles Tammuz, but his Mesopotamian origin has not beenproved. It would appear probable that Tammuz, Attis, Osiris, and thedeities represented by Adonis and Diarmid were all developed from anarchaic god of fertility and vegetation, the central figure of a mythwhich was not only as ancient as the knowledge and practice ofagriculture, but had existence even in the "Hunting Period". Traces ofthe Tammuz-Osiris story in various forms are found all over the areaoccupied by the Mediterranean or Brown race from Sumeria to theBritish Isles. Apparently the original myth was connected with treeand water worship and the worship of animals. Adonis sprang from atree; the body of Osiris was concealed in a tree which grew round thesea-drifted chest in which he was concealed. Diarmid concealed himselfin a tree when pursued by Finn. The blood of Tammuz, Osiris, andAdonis reddened the swollen rivers which fertilized the soil. Variousanimals were associated with the harvest god, who appears to have beenmanifested from time to time in different forms, for his spiritpervaded all nature. In Egypt the soul of Osiris entered the Apis bullor the ram of Mendes. 

Tammuz in the hymns is called "the pre-eminent steer of heaven", and apopular sacrifice was "a white kid of the god Tammuz", which, however, might be substituted by a sucking pig. Osiris had also associationswith swine, and the Egyptians, according to Herodotus, sacrificed apig to him annually. When Set at full moon hunted the boar in theDelta marshes, he probably hunted the boar form of Osiris, whose humanbody had been recovered from the sacred tree by Isis. As the soul ofBata, the hero of the Egyptian folk tale, [109] migrated from theblossom to the bull, and the bull to the tree, so apparently did thesoul of Osiris pass from incarnation to incarnation. Set, the demonslayer of the harvest god, had also a boar form; he was the black pigwho devoured the waning moon and blinded the Eye of Ra. 

In his character as a long-lived patriarch, Tammuz, the King Daonus orDaos of Berosus, reigned in Babylonia for 36, 000 years. When he died, he departed to Hades or the Abyss. Osiris, after reigning over theEgyptians, became Judge of the Dead. 

Tammuz of the Sumerian hymns, however, is the Adonis-like god wholived on earth for a part of the year as the shepherd andagriculturist so dearly beloved by the goddess Ishtar. Then he died sothat he might depart to the realm of Eresh-ki-gal (Persephone), queenof Hades. According to one account, his death was caused by the fickleIshtar. When that goddess wooed Gilgamesh, the Babylonian Hercules, heupbraided her, saying:

 On Tammuz, the spouse of thy youth, Thou didst lay affliction every year. 

 _King's Translation_. 

References in the Sumerian hymns suggest that there also existed aform of the legend which gave an account of the slaying of the younggod by someone else than Ishtar. The slayer may have been a Set-likedemon--perhaps Nin-shach, who appears to have symbolized thedestroying influence of the sun. He was a war deity, and his name, Professor Pinches says, "is conjectured to mean 'lord of the wildboar'". There is no direct evidence, however, to connect Tammuz'sslayer with the boar which killed Adonis. Ishtar's innocence isemphasized by the fact that she mourned for her youthful lover, crying:

 Oh hero, my lord, ah me! I will say; Food I eat not . .. Water I drink not . .. Because of the exalted one of the nether world, him of the radiant face, yea radiant, Of the exalted one of the nether world, him of the dove-like voice, yea dove-like. [110]

The Phrygian Attis met his death, according to one legend, byself-mutilation under a sacred tree. Another account sets forth, however, that he was slain by a boar. The Greek Adonis was similarlykilled by a boar. This animal was a form of Ares (Mars), god of warand tempest, who also loved Aphrodite (Ishtar). The Celtic Diarmid, inhis character as a love god, with lunar attributes, was slain by "thegreen boar", which appears to have been one of the animals of aferocious Hag, an earth and air "mother" with various names. In one ofthe many Fingalian stories the animal is

 . .. That venomous boar, and he so fierce, That Grey Eyebrows had with her herd of swine. [111]

Diarmid had eloped with the wife of Finn-mac-Coul (Fingal), who, likeAres, plotted to bring about his rival's death, and accordingly setthe young hero to hunt the boar. As a thunder god Finn carried ahammer with which he smote his shield; the blows were heard inLochlann (Scandinavia). Diarmid, like Tammuz, the "god of the tendervoice and shining eyes", had much beauty. When he expired, Finn cried:

 No maiden will raise her eye Since the mould has gone over thy visage fair. .. Blue without rashness in thine eye! Passion and beauty behind thy curls!. .. Oh, yesternight it was green the hillock, Red is it this day with Diarmid's blood. [112]

Tammuz died with the dying vegetation, and Diarmid expired when thehills apparently were assuming their purple tints. [113] The month ofTammuz wailings was from 20th June till 20th July, when the heat anddryness brought forth the demons of pestilence. The mourners chanted:

 He has gone, he has gone to the bosom of the earth, And the dead are numerous in the land. .. . Men are filled with sorrow: they stagger by day in gloom . .. In the month of thy year which brings not peace hast thou gone. Thou hast gone on a journey that makes an end of thy people. 

The following extract contains a reference to the slaying of the god:

 The holy one of Ishtar, in the middle of the year the fields languish. .. The shepherd, the wise one, the man of sorrows, why have they slain?. .. In his temple, in his inhabited domain, The child, lord of knowledge, abides no more. .. In the meadows, verily, verily, the soul of life perishes. 

There is wailing for Tammuz "at the sacred cedar, where the motherbore thee", a reference which connects the god, like Adonis andOsiris, with tree worship:

 The wailing is for the herbs: the first lament is, "they are not produced". The wailing is for the grain, ears are not produced. The wailing is for the habitations, for the flocks which bring forth no more. The wailing is for the perishing wedded ones; for the perishing children; the dark-headed people create no more. 

The wailing is also for the shrunken river, the parched meadows, thefishpools, the cane brakes, the forests, the plains, the gardens, andthe palace, which all suffer because the god of fertility hasdeparted. The mourner cries:

 How long shall the springing of verdure be restrained? How long shall the putting forth of leaves be held back?

Whither went Tammuz? His destination has already been referred to as"the bosom of the earth", and in the Assyrian version of the "Descentof Ishtar" he dwells in "the house of darkness" among the dead, "wheredust is their nourishment and their food mud", and "the light is neverseen"--the gloomy Babylonian Hades. In one of the Sumerian hymns, however, it is stated that Tammuz "upon the flood was cast out". Thereference may be to the submarine "house of Ea", or the Blessed Islandto which the Babylonian Noah was carried. In this Hades bloomed thenether "garden of Adonis". 

The following extract refers to the garden of Damu (Tammuz)[114]:--

 Damu his youth therein slumbers . .. Among the garden flowers he slumbers; among the garden flowers he is cast away . .. Among the tamarisks he slumbers, with woe he causes us to be satiated. 

Although Tammuz of the hymns was slain, he returned again from Hades. Apparently he came back as a child. He is wailed for as "child, LordGishzida", as well as "my hero Damu". In his lunar character theEgyptian Osiris appeared each month as "the child surpassinglybeautiful"; the Osiris bull was also a child of the moon; "it wasbegotten", says Plutarch, "by a ray of generative light falling fromthe moon". When the bull of Attis was sacrificed his worshippers weredrenched with its blood, and were afterwards ceremonially fed withmilk, as they were supposed to have "renewed their youth" and becomechildren. The ancient Greek god Eros (Cupid) was represented as awanton boy or handsome youth. Another god of fertility, the IrishAngus, who resembles Eros, is called "the ever young"; he slumberslike Tammuz and awakes in the Spring. 

Apparently it was believed that the child god, Tammuz, returned fromthe earlier Sumerian Paradise of the Deep, and grew into full manhoodin a comparatively brief period, like Vyasa and other super-men ofIndian mythology. A couplet from a Tammuz hymn says tersely:

 In his infancy in a sunken boat he lay. In his manhood in the submerged grain he lay. [115]

The "boat" may be the "chest" in which Adonis was concealed byAphrodite when she confided him to the care of Persephone, queen ofHades, who desired to retain the young god, but was compelled by Zeusto send him back to the goddess of love and vegetation. The fact thatIshtar descended to Hades in quest of Tammuz may perhaps explain thesymbolic references in hymns to mother goddesses being in sunken boatsalso when their powers were in abeyance, as were those of the god forpart of each year. It is possible, too, that the boat had a lunar anda solar significance. Khonsu, the Egyptian moon god, for instance, wasassociated with the Spring sun, being a deity of fertility andtherefore a corn spirit; he was a form of Osiris, the Patriarch, whosojourned on earth to teach mankind how to grow corn and cultivatefruit trees. In the Egyptian legend Osiris received the corn seedsfrom Isis, which suggests that among Great-Mother-worshipping peoples, it was believed that agricultural civilization had a female origin. The same myths may have been attached to corn gods and corn goddesses, associated with water, sun, moon, and stars. 

That there existed in Babylonia at an extremely remote period anagricultural myth regarding a Patriarch of divine origin who wasrescued from a boat in his childhood, is suggested by the legend whichwas attached to the memory of the usurper King Sargon of Akkad. Itruns as follows:

 "I am Sargon, the mighty King of Akkad. My mother was a vestal (priestess), my father an alien, whose brother inhabited the mountain. .. . When my mother had conceived me, she bare me in a hidden place. She laid me in a vessel of rushes, stopped the door thereof with pitch, and cast me adrift on the river. .. . The river floated me to Akki, the water drawer, who, in drawing water, drew me forth. Akki, the water drawer, educated me as his son, and made me his gardener. As a gardener, I was beloved by the goddess Ishtar. "

It is unlikely that this story was invented by Sargon. Like the manyvariants of it found in other countries, it was probably founded on aform of the Tammuz-Adonis myth. Indeed, a new myth would not havesuited Sargon's purpose so well as the adaptation of an old one, whichwas more likely to make popular appeal when connected with his name. The references to the goddess Ishtar, and Sargon's early life as agardener, suggest that the king desired to be remembered as anagricultural Patriarch, if not of divine, at any rate of semi-divineorigin. 

What appears to be an early form of the widespread Tammuz myth is theTeutonic legend regarding the mysterious child who came over the seato inaugurate a new era of civilization and instruct the people how togrow corn and become great warriors. The Northern peoples, asarchaeological evidence suggests, derived their knowledge ofagriculture, and therefore their agricultural myths, from theNeolithic representatives of the Mediterranean race with whom theycame into contact. There can be no doubt but that the Teutonic legendrefers to the introduction of agriculture. The child is called "Scef"or "Sceaf", which signifies "Sheaf", or "Scyld, the son of Sceaf". Scyld is the patriarch of the Scyldings, the Danes, a people of mixedorigin. In the Anglo-Saxon _Beowulf_ poem, the reference is to"Scyld", but Ethelweard, William of Malmesbury, and others adhered to"Sceaf" as the name of the Patriarch of the Western Saxons. 

The legend runs that one day a boat was seen approaching the shore; itwas not propelled by oars or sail. In it lay a child fast asleep, hishead pillowed upon a sheaf of grain. He was surrounded by armour, treasure, and various implements, including the fire-borer. The childwas reared by the people who found him, and he became a greatinstructor and warrior and ruled over the tribe as king. In _Beowulf_Scyld is the father of the elder Beowulf, whose grandson Hrothgarbuilt the famous Hall. The poem opens with a reference to thepatriarch "Scyld of the Sheaf". When he died, his body, according tothe request he had made, was laid in a ship which was set adrift:

 Upon his breast lay many treasures which were to travel with him into the power of the flood. Certainly they (the mourners) furnished him with no less of gifts, of tribal treasures, than those had done who, in his early days, started him over the sea alone, child as he was. Moreover, they set besides a gold-embroidered standard high above his head, and let the flood bear him--gave him to the sea. Their soul was sad, their spirit sorrowful. Who received that load, men, chiefs of council, heroes under heaven, cannot for certain tell. [116]

Sceaf or Scyld is identical with Yngve, the patriarch of the Ynglings;with Frey, the harvest and boar god, son of Njord, [117] the sea god;and with Hermod, referred to as follows in the Eddic "Lay of Hyndla":

 To some grants he wealth, to his children war fame, Word skill to many and wisdom to men, Fair winds to sea-farers, song craft to skalds, And might of manhood to many a warrior. 

Tammuz is similarly "the heroic lord of the land", the "wise one", the"lord of knowledge", and "the sovereign, lord of invocation". 

Heimdal, watchman of the Teutonic gods, also dwelt for a time amongmen as "Rig", and had human offspring, his son Thrall being theancestor of the Thralls, his son Churl of churls, and Jarl ofnoblemen. 

Tammuz, like Heimdal, is also a guardian. He watches the flocks andherds, whom he apparently guards against the Gallu demons as Heimdalguards the world and the heavens against attacks by giants andmonsters. The flocks of Tammuz, Professor Pinches suggests, "recallthe flocks of the Greek sun god Helios. These were the cloudsilluminated by the sun, which were likened to sheep--indeed, one ofthe early Sumerian expressions for 'fleece' was 'sheep of the sky'. The name of Tammuz in Sumerian is Dumu-zi, or in its rare fullestform, Dumuzida, meaning 'true or faithful son'. There is probably somelegend attached to this which is at present unknown. "[118]

So the Sumerian hymn-chanters lamented:

 Like an herdsman the sentinel place of sheep and cattle he (Tammuz) has forsaken. .. From his home, from his inhabited domain, the son, he of wisdom, pre-eminent steer of heaven, The hero unto the nether herding place has taken his way. [119]

Agni, the Aryo-Indian god, who, as the sky sentinel, has points ofresemblance to Heimdal, also links with Tammuz, especially in hisMitra character:

Agni has been established among the tribes of men, the son of thewaters, Mitra acting in the right way. _Rigveda_, iii, 5, 3. 

Agni, who has been looked and longed for in Heaven, who has beenlooked for on earth--he who has been looked for has entered all herbs. _Rigveda_, i, 98. [120]

Tammuz, like the Egyptian lunar and solar god Khonsu, is "the healer", and Agni "drives away all disease". Tammuz is the god "of sonorousvoice"; Agni "roars like a bull"; and Heimdal blows a horn when thegiants and demons threaten to attack the citadel of the gods. As thespring sun god, Tammuz is "a youthful warrior", says Jastrow, "triumphing over the storms of winter". [121] The storms, of course, were symbolized as demons. Tammuz, "the heroic lord", was therefore ademon slayer like Heimdal and Agni. Each of these gods appear to havebeen developed in isolation from an archaic spring god of fertilityand corn whose attributes were symbolized. In Teutonic mythology, forinstance, Heimdal was the warrior form of the patriarch Scef, whileFrey was the deified agriculturist who came over the deep as a child. In Saxo's mythical history of Denmark, Frey as Frode is taken prisonerby a storm giant, Beli, "the howler", and is loved by his hag sisterin the Teutonic Hades, as Tammuz is loved by Eresh-ki-gal, spouse ofthe storm god Nergal, in the Babylonian Hades. Frode returns to earth, like Tammuz, in due season. 

It is evident that there were various versions of the Tammuz myth inAncient Babylonia. In one the goddess Ishtar visited Hades to searchfor the lover of her youth. A part of this form of the legend survivesin the famous Assyrian hymn known as "The Descent of Ishtar ". It wasfirst translated by the late Mr. George Smith, of the British Museum. A box containing inscribed tablets had been sent from Assyria toLondon, and Mr. Smith, with characteristic patience and skill, arranged and deciphered them, giving to the world a fragment ofancient literature infused with much sublimity and imaginative power. Ishtar is depicted descending to dismal Hades, where the souls of thedead exist in bird forms:

 I spread like a bird my hands. I descend, I descend to the house of darkness, the dwelling of the god Irkalla: To the house out of which there is no exit, To the road from which there is no return: To the house from whose entrance the light is taken, The place where dust is their nourishment and their food mud. Its chiefs also are like birds covered with feathers; The light is never seen, in darkness they dwell. .. . Over the door and bolts is scattered dust. 

When the goddess reaches the gate of Hades she cries to the porter:

 Keeper of the waters, open thy gate, Open thy gate that I may enter. If thou openest not the gate that I may enter I will strike the door, the bolts I will shatter, I will strike the threshold and will pass through the doors; I will raise up the dead to devour the living, Above the living the dead shall exceed in numbers. 

The porter answers that he must first consult the Queen of Hades, herecalled Allatu, to whom he accordingly announces the arrival of theQueen of Heaven. Allatu's heart is filled with anger, and makesreference to those whom Ishtar caused to perish:

 Let me weep over the strong who have left their wives, Let me weep over the handmaidens who have lost the embraces of their husbands, Over the only son let me mourn, who ere his days are come is taken away. 

Then she issues abruptly the stern decree:

 Go, keeper, open the gate to her, Bewitch her according to the ancient rules;

that is, "Deal with her as you deal with others who come here". 

As Ishtar enters through the various gates she is stripped of herornaments and clothing. At the first gate her crown was taken off, atthe second her ear-rings, at the third her necklace of preciousstones, at the fourth the ornaments of her breast, at the fifth hergemmed waist-girdle, [122] at the sixth the bracelets of her hands andfeet, and at the seventh the covering robe of her body. Ishtar asks ateach gate why she is thus dealt with, and the porter answers, "Such isthe command of Allatu. "

After descending for a prolonged period the Queen of Heaven at lengthstands naked before the Queen of Hades. Ishtar is proud and arrogant, and Allatu, desiring to punish her rival whom she cannot humble, commands the plague demon, Namtar, to strike her with disease in allparts of her body. The effect of Ishtar's fate was disastrous uponearth: growth and fertility came to an end. 

Meanwhile Pap-sukal, messenger of the gods, hastened to Shamash, thesun deity, to relate what had occurred. The sun god immediatelyconsulted his lunar father, Sin, and Ea, god of the deep. Ea thencreated a man lion, named Nadushu-namir, to rescue Ishtar, giving himpower to pass through the seven gates of Hades. When this beingdelivered his message

 Allatu . .. Struck her breast; she bit her thumb, She turned again: a request she asked not. 

In her anger she cursed the rescuer of the Queen of Heaven. 

 May I imprison thee in the great prison, May the garbage of the foundations of the city be thy food, May the drains of the city be thy drink, May the darkness of the dungeon be thy dwelling, May the stake be thy seat, May hunger and thirst strike thy offspring. 

She was compelled, however, to obey the high gods, and addressedNamtar, saying:

 Unto Ishtar give the waters of life and bring her before me. 

Thereafter the Queen of Heaven was conducted through the variousgates, and at each she received her robe and the ornaments which weretaken from her on entering. Namtar says:

 Since thou hast not paid a ransom for thy deliverance to her (Allatu), so to her again turn back, For Tammuz the husband of thy youth. The glistening waters (of life) pour over him. .. In splendid clothing dress him, with a ring of crystal adorn him. 

Ishtar mourns for "the wound of Tammuz", smiting her breast, and shedid not ask for "the precious eye-stones, her amulets", which wereapparently to ransom Tammuz. The poem concludes with Ishtar's wail:

 O my only brother (Tammuz) thou dost not lament for me. In the day that Tammuz adorned me, with a ring of crystal, With a bracelet of emeralds, together with himself, he adorned me, [123] With himself he adorned me; may men mourners and women mourners On a bier place him, and assemble the wake. [124]

A Sumerian hymn to Tammuz throws light on this narrative. It setsforth that Ishtar descended to Hades to entreat him to be glad and toresume care of his flocks, but Tammuz refused or was unable to return. 

 His spouse unto her abode he sent back. 

She then instituted the wailing ceremony:

 The amorous Queen of Heaven sits as one in darkness. [125]

Mr. Langdon also translates a hymn (Tammuz III) which appears tocontain the narrative on which the Assyrian version was founded. Thegoddess who descends to Hades, however, is not Ishtar, but the"sister", Belit-sheri. She is accompanied by various demons--the"gallu-demon", the "slayer", &c. --and holds a conversation with Tammuzwhich, however, is "unintelligible and badly broken". Apparently, however, he promises to return to earth. 

 . .. I will go up, as for me I will depart with thee . .. . .. I will return, unto my mother let us go back. 

Probably two goddesses originally lamented for Tammuz, as the Egyptiansisters, Isis and Nepthys, lamented for Osiris, their brother. Ishtaris referred to as "my mother". Isis figures alternately in theEgyptian chants as mother, wife, sister, and daughter of Osiris. Shecries, "Come thou to thy wife in peace; her heart fluttereth for thylove", . .. "I am thy wife, made as thou art, the elder sister, soul ofher brother". .. . "Come thou to us as a babe". .. . "Lo, thou art as theBull of the two goddesses--come thou, child growing in peace, ourlord!". .. "Lo! the Bull, begotten of the two cows, Isis andNepthys". .. . "Come thou to the two widowed goddesses". .. . "Oh child, lord, first maker of the body". .. . "Father Osiris. "[126]

As Ishtar and Belit-sheri weep for Tammuz, so do Isis and Nepthys weepfor Osiris. 

 Calling upon thee with weeping--yet thou art prostrate upon thy bed! Gods and men . .. Are weeping for thee at the same time, when they behold me (Isis). Lo! I invoke thee with wailing that reacheth high as heaven. 

Isis is also identified with Hathor (Ishtar) the Cow. .. . "The cowweepeth for thee with her voice. "[127]

There is another phase, however, to the character of the mothergoddess which explains the references to the desertion and slaying ofTammuz by Ishtar. "She is", says Jastrow, "the goddess of the humaninstinct, or passion which accompanies human love. Gilgamesh . .. Reproaches her with abandoning the objects of her passion after abrief period of union. " At Ishtar's temple "public maidens acceptedtemporary partners, assigned to them by Ishtar". [128] The worship ofall mother goddesses in ancient times was accompanied by revoltingunmoral rites which are referred to in condemnatory terms in variouspassages in the Old Testament, especially in connection with theworship of Ashtoreth, who was identical with Ishtar and the EgyptianHathor. 

Ishtar in the process of time overshadowed all the other femaledeities of Babylonia, as did Isis in Egypt. Her name, indeed, which isSemitic, became in the plural, Ishtaráte, a designation for goddessesin general. But although she was referred to as the daughter of thesky, Anu, or the daughter of the moon, Sin or Nannar, she stillretained traces of her ancient character. Originally she was a greatmother goddess, who was worshipped by those who believed that life andthe universe had a female origin in contrast to those who believed inthe theory of male origin. Ishtar is identical with Nina, the fishgoddess, a creature who gave her name to the Sumerian city of Nina andthe Assyrian city of Nineveh. Other forms of the Creatrix includedMama, or Mami, or Ama, "mother", Aruru, Bau, Gula, and Zerpanituᵐ. These were all "Preservers" and healers. At the same time they were"Destroyers", like Nin-sun and the Queen of Hades, Eresh-ki-gal orAllatu. They were accompanied by shadowy male forms ere they becamewives of strongly individualized gods, or by child gods, their sons, who might be regarded as "brothers" or "husbands of their mothers", touse the paradoxical Egyptian term. Similarly Great Father deities hadvaguely defined wives. The "Semitic" Baal, "the lord", was accompaniedby a female reflection of himself--Beltu, "the lady". Shamash, the sungod, had for wife the shadowy Aa. 

As has been shown, Ishtar is referred to in a Tammuz hymn as themother of the child god of fertility. In an Egyptian hymn the skygoddess Nut, "the mother" of Osiris, is stated to have "built up lifefrom her own body". [129] Sri or Lakshmi, the Indian goddess, whobecame the wife of Vishnu, as the mother goddess Saraswati, a tribaldeity, became the wife of Brahma, was, according to a Puranacommentator, "the mother of the world . .. Eternal andundecaying". [130]

The gods, on the other hand, might die annually: the goddesses alonewere immortal. Indra was supposed to perish of old age, but his wife, Indrani, remained ever young. There were fourteen Indras in every "dayof Brahma", a reference apparently to the ancient conception of Indraamong the Great-Mother-worshipping sections of the Aryo-Indians. [131]In the _Mahabharata_ the god Shiva, as Mahadeva, commands Indra on"one of the peaks of Himavat", where they met, to lift up a stone andjoin the Indras who had been before him. "And Indra on removing thatstone beheld a cave on the breast of that king of mountains in whichwere four others resembling himself. " Indra exclaimed in his grief, "Shall I be even like these?" These five Indras, like the "SevenSleepers", awaited the time when they would be called forth. They wereultimately reborn as the five Pandava warriors. [132]

The ferocious, black-faced Scottish mother goddess, Cailleach Bheur, who appears to be identical with Mala Lith, "Grey Eyebrows" ofFingalian story, and the English "Black Annis", figures in Irish songand legend as "The Old Woman of Beare". This "old woman" (Cailleach)"had", says Professor Kuno Meyer, "seven periods of youth one afteranother, so that every man who had lived with her came to die of oldage, and her grandsons and great-grandsons were tribes and races". When old age at length came upon her she sang her "swan song", fromwhich the following lines are extracted:

 Ebb tide to me as of the sea! Old age causes me reproach . .. It is riches Ye love, it is not men: In the time when _we_ lived It was men we loved . .. My arms when they are seen Are bony and thin: Once they would fondle, They would be round glorious kings . .. I must take my garment even in the sun: The time is at hand that shall renew me. [133]

Freyja, the Germanic mother goddess, whose car was drawn by cats, hadsimilarly many lovers. In the Icelandic poem "Lokasenna", Loki tauntsher, saying:

 Silence, Freyja! Full well I know thee, And faultless art thou not found; Of the gods and elves who here are gathered Each one hast thou made thy mate. 

Idun, the keeper of the apples of immortal youth, which prevent thegods growing old, is similarly addressed:

 Silence, Idun! I swear, of all women Thou the most wanton art; Who couldst fling those fair-washed arms of thine About thy brother's slayer. 

Frigg, wife of Odin, is satirized as well:

 Silence, Frigg! Earth's spouse for a husband, And hast ever yearned after men![134]

The goddesses of classic mythology had similar reputations. Aphrodite(Venus) had many divine and mortal lovers. She links closely withAstarte and Ashtoreth (Ishtar), and reference has already been made toher relations with Adonis (Tammuz). These love deities were all ascruel as they were wayward. When Ishtar wooed the Babylonian hero, Gilgamesh, he spurned her advances, as has been indicated, saying:

 On Tammuz, the spouse of thy youth, Thou didst lay affliction every year. Thou didst love the brilliant Allalu bird But thou didst smite him and break his wing; He stands in the woods and cries "O my wing". 

He likewise charged her with deceiving the lion and the horse, makingreference to obscure myths:

 Thou didst also love a shepherd of the flock, Who continually poured out for thee the libation, And daily slaughtered kids for thee; But thou didst smite him and didst change him into a leopard, So that his own sheep boy hunted him, And his own hounds tore him to pieces. [135]

These goddesses were ever prone to afflict human beings who mightoffend them or of whom they wearied. Demeter (Ceres) changedAscalaphus into an owl and Stellio into a lizard. Rhea (Ops) resembled

 The tow'red Cybele, Mother of a hundred gods, the wanton who loved Attis (Adonis). Artemis (Diana) slew her loverOrion, changed Actaeon into a stag, which was torn to pieces by hisown dogs, and caused numerous deaths by sending a boar to ravage thefields of Oeneus, king of Calydon. Human sacrifices were frequentlyoffered to the bloodthirsty "mothers". The most famous victim ofArtemis was the daughter of Agamemnon, "divinely tall and mostdivinely fair". [136] Agamemnon had slain a sacred stag, and thegoddess punished him by sending a calm when the war fleet was about tosail for Troy, with the result that his daughter had to be sacrificed. Artemis thus sold breezes like the northern wind hags and witches. 

It used to be customary to account for the similarities manifested bythe various mother goddesses by assuming that there was constantcultural contact between separate nationalities, and, as a result, anot inconsiderable amount of "religious borrowing". Greece wassupposed to have received its great goddesses from the westernSemites, who had come under the spell of Babylonian religion. Archaeological evidence, however, tends to disprove this theory. "Themost recent researches into Mesopotamian history", writes Dr. Farnell, "establish with certainty the conclusion that there was no directpolitical contact possible between the powers in the valley of theEuphrates and the western shores of the Aegean in the secondmillennium B. C. In fact, between the nascent Hellas and the greatworld of Mesopotamia there were powerful and possibly independentstrata of cultures interposing. "[137]

The real connection appears to be the racial one. Among theMediterranean Neolithic tribes of Sumeria, Arabia, and Europe, thegoddess cult appears to have been influential. Mother worship was thepredominant characteristic of their religious systems, so that theGreek goddesses were probably of pre-Hellenic origin, the Celtic ofIberian, the Egyptian of proto-Egyptian, and the Babylonian ofSumerian. The northern hillmen, on the other hand, who may beidentified with the "Aryans" of the philologists, were fatherworshippers. The Vedic Aryo-Indians worshipped father gods, [138] asdid also the Germanic peoples and certain tribes in the "Hittiteconfederacy". Earth spirits were males, like the Teutonic elves, theAryo-Indian Ribhus, and the Burkans, "masters", of the present-dayBuriats, a Mongolian people. When the father-worshipping peoplesinvaded the dominions of the mother-worshipping peoples, theyintroduced their strongly individualized gods, but they did notdisplace the mother goddesses. "The Aryan Hellenes", says Dr. Farnell, "were able to plant their Zeus and Poseidon on the high hill ofAthens, but not to overthrow the supremacy of Athena in the centralshrine and in the aboriginal soul of the Athenian people. "[139] As inEgypt, the beliefs of the father worshippers, represented by theself-created Ptah, were fused with the beliefs of the motherworshippers, who adored Isis, Mut, Neith, and others. In Babyloniathis process of racial and religious fusion was well advanced beforethe dawn of history. Ea, who had already assumed manifold forms, mayhave originally been the son or child lover of Damkina, "Lady of theDeep", as was Tammuz of Ishtar. As the fish, Ea was the offspring ofthe mother river. 

The mother worshippers recognized male as well as female deities, butregarded the great goddess as the First Cause. Although the primevalspirits were grouped in four pairs in Egypt, and apparently inBabylonia also, the female in the first pair was more stronglyindividualized than the male. The Egyptian Nu is vaguer than hisconsort Nut, and the Babylonian Apsu than his consort Tiamat. Indeed, in the narrative of the Creation Tablets of Babylon, which willreceive full treatment in a later chapter, Tiamat, the great mother, is the controlling spirit. She is more powerful and ferocious thanApsu, and lives longer. After Apsu's death she elevates one of herbrood, named Kingu, to be her consort, a fact which suggests that inthe Ishtar-Tammuz myth survives the influence of exceedingly ancientmodes of thought. Like Tiamat, Ishtar is also a great battle heroine, and in this capacity she was addressed as "the lady of majestic rankexalted over all gods". This was no idle flattery on the part ofworshippers, but a memory of her ancient supremacy. 

Reference has been made to the introduction of Tammuz worship intoJerusalem. Ishtar, as Queen of Heaven, was also adored by thebacksliding Israelites as a deity of battle and harvest. When Jeremiahcensured the people for burning incense and serving gods "whom theyknew not", he said, "neither they, ye, nor your fathers", they madeanswer: "Since we left off to burn incense to the queen of heaven, andto pour out drink offerings unto her, we have wanted all things, andhave been consumed by the sword and the famine". The women took aleading part in these practices, but refused to accept all the blame, saying, "When we burned incense to the queen of heaven, and poured outdrink offerings unto her, did we make our cakes and pour out drinkofferings unto her without our men?"[140] That the husbands, and thechildren even, assisted at the ceremony is made evident in anotherreference to goddess worship: "The children gather wood, and thefathers kindle the fire, and the women knead the dough, to make cakesto the queen of heaven". [141]

Jastrow suggests that the women of Israel wept for Tammuz, offeredcakes to the mother goddess, &c. , because "in all religious bodies . .. Women represent the conservative element; among them religious customscontinue in practice after they have been abandoned by men". [142] Theevidence of Jeremiah, however, shows that the men certainlyco-operated at the archaic ceremonials. In lighting the fires with the"vital spark", they apparently acted in imitation of the god offertility. The women, on the other hand, represented the reproductiveharvest goddess in providing the food supply. In recognition of hergift, they rewarded the goddess by offering her the cakes preparedfrom the newly ground wheat and barley--the "first fruits of theharvest". As the corn god came as a child, the children began theceremony by gathering the wood for the sacred fire. When the womenmourned for Tammuz, they did so evidently because the death of the godwas lamented by the goddess Ishtar. It would appear, therefore, thatthe suggestion regarding the "conservative element" should reallyapply to the immemorial practices of folk religion. These differedfrom the refined ceremonies of the official cult in Babylonia, wherethere were suitable temples and organized bands of priests andpriestesses. But the official cult received no recognition inPalestine; the cakes intended for a goddess were not offered up in thetemple of Abraham's God, but "in the streets of Jerusalem" and thoseof other cities. [143]

The obvious deduction seems to be that in ancient times womeneverywhere played a prominent part in the ceremonial folk worship ofthe Great Mother goddess, while the men took the lesser part of thegod whom she had brought into being and afterwards received as"husband of his mother". This may account for the high social statusof women among goddess worshippers, like the representatives of theMediterranean race, whose early religion was not confined to temples, but closely associated with the acts of everyday life. 

CHAPTER VI. 

WARS OF THE CITY STATES OF SUMER AND AKKAD

 Civilization well advanced--The Patesi--Prominent City States--Surroundings of Babylonia--The Elamites--Biblical References to Susa--The Sumerian Temperament--Fragmentary Records--City States of Kish and Opis--A Shopkeeper who became a Queen--Goddess Worship--Tammuz as Nin-Girsu--Great Dynasty of Lagash--Ur-Nina and his Descendants--A Napoleonic Conqueror--Golden Age of Sumerian Art--The First Reformer in History--His Rise and Fall--The Dynasty of Erech--Sargon of Akkad--The Royal Gardener--Sargon Myth in India--A Great Empire--The King who Purchased Land--Naram Sin the Conqueror--Disastrous Foreign Raid--Lagash again Prominent--Gudea the Temple Builder--Dynasty of Ur--Dynasty of Isin--Another Gardener becomes King--Rise of Babylon--Humanized Deities--Why Sumerian Gods wore Beards. 

When the curtain rises to reveal the drama of Babylonian civilizationwe find that we have missed the first act and its many fascinatingscenes. Sumerians and Akkadians come and go, but it is not alwayspossible to distinguish between them. Although most Semites arerecognizable by their flowing beards, prominent noses, and long robes, some have so closely imitated the Sumerians as to suffer almostcomplete loss of identity. It is noticeable that in the north theAkkadians are more Semitic than their contemporaries in the south, butit is difficult at times to say whether a city is controlled by thedescendants of the indigenous people or those of later settlers. Dynasties rise and fall, and, as in Egypt at times, the progress ofthe fragmentary narrative is interrupted by a sudden change of sceneere we have properly grasped a situation and realized itssignificance. 

What we know for certain is that civilization is well advanced. Bothin the north and the south there are many organized and independentcity states, and not unfrequently these wage war one against another. Occasionally ambitious rulers tower among their fellows, conductvigorous military campaigns, and become overlords of wide districts. As a rule, a subjugated monarch who has perforce to acknowledge thesuzerainty of a powerful king is allowed to remain in a state ofsemi-independence on condition that he pays a heavy annual tribute ofgrain. His own laws continue in force, and the city deities remainsupreme, although recognition may also be given to the deities of hisconqueror. He styles himself a Patesi--a "priest king", or moreliterally, "servant of the chief deity". But as an independent monarchmay also be a pious Patesi, it does not always follow when a ruler isreferred to by that title he is necessarily less powerful than hisneighbours. 

When the historical narrative begins Akkad included the cities ofBabylon, Cutha, Kish, Akkad, and Sippar, and north of Babylonia properis Semitic Opis. Among the cities of Sumer were Eridu, Ur, Lagash, Larsa, Erech, Shuruppak, and probably Nippur, which was situated onthe "border". On the north Assyria was yet "in the making", andshrouded in obscurity. A vague but vast area above Hit on theEuphrates, and extending to the Syrian coast, was known as the "landof the Amorites". The fish-shaped Babylonian valley lying between therivers, where walled towns were surrounded by green fields andnumerous canals flashed in the sunshine, was bounded on the west bythe bleak wastes of the Arabian desert, where during the dry season"the rocks branded the body" and occasional sandstorms swept inblinding folds towards the "plain of Shinar" (Sumer) like demon hostswho sought to destroy the world. To the east the skyline was frettedby the Persian Highlands, and amidst the southern mountains dwelt thefierce Elamites, the hereditary enemies of the Sumerians, although apeople apparently of the same origin. Like the Nubians and theLibyans, who kept watchful eyes on Egypt, the Elamites seemed ever tobe hovering on the eastern frontier of Sumeria, longing for anopportunity to raid and plunder. 

The capital of the Elamites was the city of Susa, where excavationshave revealed traces of an independent civilization which reaches backto an early period in the Late Stone Age. Susa is referred to in theOld Testament--"The words of Nehemiah. .. . I was in Shushan thepalace". [144] An Assyrian plan of the city shows it occupying astrategic position at a bend of the Shawur river, which affordedprotection against Sumerian attacks from the west, while a canalcurved round its northern and eastern sides, so that Susa wascompletely surrounded by water. Fortifications had been erected on theriver and canal banks, and between these and the high city walls werethick clumps of trees. That the kings of Elam imitated the splendoursof Babylonian courts in the later days of Esther and Haman andMordecai, is made evident by the Biblical references to the gorgeouspalace, which had "white, green, and blue hangings, fastened withcords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble;the beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black marble ". [145] Beyond Elam were the plains, plateaus, and grassy steppes occupied by the Medes and other peoplesof Aryan speech. Cultural influences came and went like spring windsbetween the various ancient communities. 

For ten long centuries Sumer and Akkad flourished and prospered ere wemeet with the great Hammurabi, whose name has now become almost asfamiliar as that of Julius Caesar. But our knowledge of the leadinghistorical events of this vast period is exceedingly fragmentary. TheSumerians were not like the later Assyrians or their Egyptiancontemporaries--a people with a passion for history. When inscriptionswere composed and cut on stone, or impressed upon clay tablets andbricks, the kings selected as a general rule to record pious deedsrather than to celebrate their victories and conquests. Indeed, theaverage monarch had a temperament resembling that of Keats, whodeclared:

 The silver flow Of Hero's tears, the swoon of Imogen, Fair Pastorella in the bandits' den, Are things to brood on with more ardency Than the death day of empires. 

The Sumerian king was emotionally religious as the great English poetwas emotionally poetical. The tears of Ishtar for Tammuz, and theafflictions endured by the goddess imprisoned in Hades, to which shehad descended for love of her slain husband, seemed to have concernedthe royal recorder to a greater degree than the memories of politicalupheavals and the social changes which passed over the land, like theseasons which alternately brought greenness and gold, barrenness andflood. 

City chronicles, as a rule, are but indices of obscure events, towhich meagre references were sometimes also made on mace heads, vases, tablets, stelae, and sculptured monoliths. Consequently, present-dayexcavators and students have often reason to be grateful that thehabit likewise obtained of inscribing on bricks in buildings and thestone sockets of doors the names of kings and others. These recordsrender obscure periods faintly articulate, and are indispensable forcomparative purposes. Historical clues are also obtained from lists ofyear names. Each city king named a year in celebration of a greatevent--his own succession to the throne, the erection of a new templeor of a city wall, or, mayhap, the defeat of an invading army from arival state. Sometimes, too, a monarch gave the name of his father inan official inscription, or happily mentioned several ancestors. Another may be found to have made an illuminating statement regardinga predecessor, who centuries previously erected the particular templethat he himself has piously restored. A reckoning of this kind, however, cannot always be regarded as absolutely correct. It must becompared with and tested by other records, for in these ancient dayscalculations were not unfrequently based on doubtful inscriptions, ormere oral traditions, perhaps. Nor can implicit trust be placed onevery reference to historical events, for the memoried deeds of greatrulers were not always unassociated with persistent and cumulativemyths. It must be recognized, therefore, that even portions of thedata which had of late been sifted and systematized by Orientalscholars in Europe, may yet have to be subjected to revision. Manyinteresting and important discoveries, which will throw fresh light onthis fascinating early period, remain to be made in that ancient anddeserted land, which still lies under the curse of the Hebrew prophet, who exclaimed: "Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of theChaldees' excellency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom andGomorrah. It shall never be inhabited; neither shall the Arabian pitchtent there; neither shall the shepherds make their fold there. Butwild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their houses shall befull of doleful creatures; and owls shall dwell there, and satyrsshall dance there. And the wild beasts of the islands shall cry intheir desolate houses and dragons in their pleasant palaces. "[146]

The curtain rises, as has been indicated, after civilization had beenwell advanced. To begin with, our interests abide with Akkad, andduring a period dated approximately between 3000 B. C. And 2800 B. C. , when Egypt was already a united kingdom, and the Cretans were at thedawn of the first early Minoan period, and beginning to use bronze. InKish Sumerian and Akkadian elements had apparently blended, and thecity was the centre of a powerful and independent government. Afteryears have fluttered past dimly, and with them the shadow-shapes ofvigorous rulers, it is found that Kish came under the sway of thepronouncedly Semitic city of Opis, which was situated "farthest north"and on the western bank of the river Tigris. A century elapsed ereKish again threw off the oppressor's yoke and renewed the strength ofits youth. 

The city of Kish was one of the many ancient centres of goddessworship. The Great Mother appears to have been the Sumerian Bau, whosechief seat was at Lagash. If tradition is to be relied upon, Kish owedits existence to that notable lady, Queen Azag-Bau. Although floatinglegends gathered round her memory as they have often gathered roundthe memories of famous men, like Sargon of Akkad, Alexander the Great, and Theodoric the Goth, who became Emperor of Rome, it is probablethat the queen was a prominent historical personage. She was reputedto have been of humble origin, and to have first achieved popularityand influence as the keeper of a wine shop. Although no referencesurvives to indicate that she was believed to be of miraculous birth, the Chronicle of Kish gravely credits her with a prolonged andapparently prosperous reign of a hundred years. Her son, who succeededher, sat on the throne for a quarter of a century. These calculationsare certainly remarkable. If the Queen Azag-Bau founded Kish when shewas only twenty, and gave birth to the future ruler in her fiftiethyear, he must have been an elderly gentleman of seventy when he beganto reign. When it is found, further, that the dynasty in which motherand son flourished was supposed to have lasted for 586 years, dividedbetween eight rulers, one of whom reigned for only three years, twofor six, and two for eleven, it becomes evident that the historian ofKish cannot be absolutely relied upon in detail. It seems evident thatthe memory of this lady of forceful character, who flourished aboutthirteen hundred years before the rise of Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt, has overshadowed the doubtful annals of ancient Kish at a period whenSumerian and Semite were striving in the various states to achievepolitical ascendancy. 

Meanwhile the purely Sumerian city of Lagash had similarly grownpowerful and aggressive. For a time it acknowledged the suzerainty ofKish, but ultimately it threw off the oppressor's yoke and assertedits independence. The cumulative efforts of a succession of energeticrulers elevated Lagash to the position of a metropolis in AncientBabylonia. 

The goddess Bau, "the mother of Lagash", was worshipped in conjunctionwith other deities, including the god Nin-Girsu, an agriculturaldeity, and therefore a deity of war, who had solar attributes. One ofthe titles of Nin-Girsu was En-Mersi, which, according to Assyrianevidence, was another name of Tammuz, the spring god who slew thestorm and winter demons, and made the land fertile so that man mighthave food. Nin-Girsu was, it would seem, a developed form of Tammuz, like the Scandinavian Frey, god of harvest, or Heimdal, the celestialwarrior. Bau was one of the several goddesses whose attributes wereabsorbed by the Semitic Ishtar. She was a "Great Mother", a creatrix, the source of all human and bestial life, and, of course, a harvestgoddess. She was identified with Gula, "the great one", who cureddiseases and prolonged life. Evidently the religion of Lagash wasbased on the popular worship of the "Queen of Heaven", and her son, the dying god who became "husband of his mother". 

The first great and outstanding ruler of Lagash was Ur-Nina, whoappears to have owed his power to the successful military operationsof his predecessors. It is uncertain whether or not he himself engagedin any great war. His records are silent in that connection, but, judging from what we know of him, it may be taken for granted that hewas able and fully prepared to give a good account of himself inbattle. He certainly took steps to make secure his position, for hecaused a strong wall to be erected round Lagash. His inscriptions areeloquent of his piety, which took practical shape, for he repaired andbuilt temples, dedicated offerings to deities, and increased thewealth of religious bodies and the prosperity of the State by cuttingcanals and developing agriculture. In addition to serving localdeities, he also gave practical recognition to Ea at Eridu and Enlilat Nippur. He, however, overlooked Anu at Erech, a fact which suggeststhat he held sway over Eridu and Nippur, but had to recognize Erech asan independent city state. 

Among the deities of Lagash, Ur-Nina favoured most the goddess Nina, whose name he bore. As she was a water deity, and perhaps identicalwith Belit-sheri, sister of "Tammuz of the Abyss" and daughter of Ea, one of the canals was dedicated to her. She was also honoured with anew temple, in which was probably placed her great statue, constructedby special order of her royal worshipper. Like the Egyptian goddess, the "Mother of Mendes", Nina received offerings of fish, not only as apatroness of fishermen, but also as a corn spirit and a goddess ofmaternity. She was in time identified with Ishtar. 

A famous limestone plaque, which is preserved in the Louvre, Paris, depicts on its upper half the pious King Ur-Nina engaged in theceremony of laying the foundations of a temple dedicated either to thegoddess Nina or to the god Nin-Girsu. His face and scalp are cleanshaven, and he has a prominent nose and firm mouth, eloquent ofdecision. The folds of neck and jaw suggest Bismarckian traits. He isbare to the waist, and wears a pleated kilt, with three flounces, which reaches almost to his ankles. On his long head he has poiseddeftly a woven basket containing the clay with which he is to make thefirst brick. In front of him stand five figures. The foremost ishonoured by being sculptured larger than the others, except theprominent monarch. Apparently this is a royal princess, for her headis unshaven, and her shoulder dress or long hair drops over one of herarms. Her name is Lida, and the conspicuous part she took in theceremony suggests that she was the representative of the goddess Nina. She is accompanied by her brothers, and at least one official, Anita, the cup-bearer, or high priest. The concluding part of this ceremony, or another ceremonial act, is illustrated on the lower part of theplaque. Ur-Nina is seated on his throne, not, as would seem at firstsight, raising the wine cup to his lips and toasting to the success ofthe work, but pouring out a libation upon the ground. The princess isnot present; the place of honour next to the king is taken by thecrown prince. Possibly in this case it is the god Nin-Girsu who isbeing honoured. Three male figures, perhaps royal sons, accompany theprominent crown prince. The cup-bearer is in attendance behind thethrone. 

The inscription on this plaque, which is pierced in the centre so asto be nailed to a sacred shrine, refers to the temples erected byUr-Nina, including those of Nina and Nin-Girsu. 

After Ur-Nina's prosperous reign came to a close, his son Akurgalascended the throne. He had trouble with Umma, a powerful city, whichlay to the north-west of Lagash, between the Shatt-el-Kai andShatt-el-Hai canals. An army of raiders invaded his territory and hadto be driven back. 

The next king, whose name was Eannatum, had Napoleoniccharacteristics. He was a military genius with great ambitions, andwas successful in establishing by conquest a small but brilliantempire. Like his grandfather, he strengthened the fortifications ofLagash; then he engaged in a series of successful campaigns. Umma hadbeen causing anxiety in Lagash, but Eannatum stormed and captured thatrival city, appropriated one of its fertile plains, and imposed anannual tribute to be paid in kind. An army of Elamites swept down fromthe hills, but Ur-Nina's grandson inflicted upon these bold foreignersa crushing defeat and pursued them over the frontier. Several citieswere afterwards forced to come under the sway of triumphant Lagash, including Erech and Ur, and as his suzerainty was already acknowledgedat Eridu, Eannatum's power in Sumeria became as supreme as it wasfirmly established. 

Evidently Zuzu, king of the northern city of Opis, considered that theoccasion was opportune to overcome the powerful Sumerian conqueror, and at the same time establish Semitic rule over the subdued andwar-wasted cities. He marched south with a large army, but thetireless and ever-watchful Eannatum hastened to the fray, scatteredthe forces of Opis, and captured the foolhardy Zuzu. 

Eannatum's activities, however, were not confined to battlefields. AtLagash he carried out great improvements in the interests ofagriculture; he constructed a large reservoir and developed the canalsystem. He also extended and repaired existing temples in his nativecity and at Erech. Being a patron of the arts, he encouraged sculpturework, and the finest Sumerian examples belong to his reign. 

Eannatum was succeeded by his brother, Enannatum I. Apparently the newmonarch did not share the military qualities of his royal predecessor, for there were signs of unrest in the loose confederacy of states. Indeed, Umma revolted. From that city an army marched forth and tookforcible possession of the plain which Eannatum had appropriated, removing and breaking the landmarks, and otherwise challenging thesupremacy of the sovran state. A Lagash force defeated the men ofUmma, but appears to have done little more than hold in check theiraggressive tendencies. 

No sooner had Entemena, the next king, ascended the throne than theflame of revolt burst forth again. The Patesi of Umma was evidentlydetermined to free, once and for all, his native state from the yokeof Lagash. But he had gravely miscalculated the strength of thevigorous young ruler. Entemena inflicted upon the rebels a crushingdefeat, and following up his success, entered the walled city andcaptured and slew the patesi. Then he took steps to stamp out theembers of revolt in Umma by appointing as its governor one of his ownofficials, named Ili, who was duly installed with great ceremony. Other military successes followed, including the sacking of Opis andKish, which assured the supremacy of Lagash for many years. Entemena, with characteristic vigour, engaged himself during periods of peace instrengthening his city fortifications and in continuing the work ofimproving and developing the irrigation system. He lived in the goldenage of Sumerian art, and to his reign belongs the exquisite silvervase of Lagash, which was taken from the Tello mound, and is now inthe Louvre. This votive offering was placed by the king in the templeof Nin-Girsu. It is exquisitely shaped, and has a base of copper. Thesymbolic decorations include the lion-headed eagle, which was probablya form of the spring god of war and fertility, the lion, beloved bythe Mother goddess, and deer and ibexes, which recall the mountainherds of Astarte. In the dedicatory inscription the king is referredto as a patesi, and the fact that the name of the high priest, Dudu, is given may be taken as an indication of the growing power of anaggressive priesthood. After a brilliant reign of twenty-nine yearsthe king died, and was succeeded by his son, Enannatum II, who was thelast ruler of Ur-Nina's line. An obscure period ensued. Apparentlythere had been a city revolt, which may have given the enemies ofLagash the desired opportunity to gather strength for the comingconflict. There is a reference to an Elamite raid which, althoughrepulsed, may be regarded as proof of disturbed political conditions. 

One or two priests sat on the throne of Lagash in brief succession, and then arose to power the famous Urukagina, the first reformer inhistory. He began to rule as patesi, but afterwards styled himselfking. What appears certain is that he was the leader of a great socialupheaval, which received the support of a section of the priesthood, for he recorded that his elevation was due to the intercession of thegod Nin-Girsu. Other deities, who were sons and daughters of Nin-Girsuand Nina, had been given recognition by his predecessors, and it ispossible that the orthodox section of Lagash, and especially theagricultural classes, supported the new ruler in sweeping awayinnovations to which they were hostile. 

Like Khufu and his descendants, the Pyramid kings of Egypt's fourthdynasty, the vigorous and efficient monarchs of the Ur-Nina dynasty ofLagash were apparently remembered and execrated as tyrants andoppressors of the people. To maintain many endowed temples and astanding army the traders and agriculturists had been heavily taxed. Each successive monarch who undertook public works on a large scalefor the purpose of extending and developing the area undercultivation, appears to have done so mainly to increase the revenue ofthe exchequer, so as to conserve the strength of the city and secureits pre-eminence as a metropolis. A leisured class had come intoexistence, with the result that culture was fostered and civilizationadvanced. Lagash seems to have been intensely modern in characterprior to 2800 B. C. , but with the passing of the old order of thingsthere arose grave social problems which never appear to have beenseriously dealt with. All indications of social unrest were, it wouldappear, severely repressed by the iron-gloved monarchs of Ur-Nina'sdynasty. 

The people as a whole groaned under an ever-increasing burden oftaxation. Sumeria was overrun by an army of officials who werenotoriously corrupt; they do not appear to have been held in check, asin Egypt, by royal auditors. "In the domain of Nin-Girsu", one ofUrukagina's tablets sets forth, "there were tax gatherers down to thesea. " They not only attended to the needs of the exchequer, butenriched themselves by sheer robbery, while the priests followed theirexample by doubling their fees and appropriating temple offerings totheir own use. The splendid organization of Lagash was crippled by thedishonesty of those who should have been its main support. 

Reforms were necessary and perhaps overdue, but, unfortunately forLagash, Urukagina's zeal for the people's cause amounted tofanaticism. Instead of gradually readjusting the machinery ofgovernment so as to secure equality of treatment without impairing itsefficiency as a defensive force in these perilous times, heinaugurated sweeping and revolutionary social changes of far-reachingcharacter regardless of consequences. Taxes and temple fees were cutdown, and the number of officials reduced to a minimum. Society wasthoroughly disorganized. The army, which was recruited mainly from theleisured and official classes, went practically out of existence, sothat traders and agriculturists obtained relief from taxation at theexpense of their material security. 

Urukagina's motives were undoubtedly above reproach, and he showed anexample to all who occupied positions of trust by living an uprightlife and denying himself luxuries. He was disinterestedly pious, andbuilt and restored temples, and acted as the steward of his god withdesire to promote the welfare and comfort of all true worshippers. Hislaws were similar to those which over two centuries afterwards werecodified by Hammurabi, and like that monarch he was professedly theguardian of the weak and the helper of the needy; he sought toestablish justice and liberty in the kingdom. But his social Arcadiavanished like a dream because he failed to recognize that Right mustbe supported by Might. 

In bringing about his sudden social revolution, Urukagina had at thesame time unwittingly let loose the forces of disorder. Discontentedand unemployed officials, and many representatives of the despoiledleisured and military classes of Lagash, no doubt sought refugeelsewhere, and fostered the spirit of revolt which ever smouldered insubject states. At any rate, Umma, remembering the oppressions ofother days, was not slow to recognize that the iron hand of Lagash hadbecome unnerved. The zealous and iconoclastic reformer had reigned butseven years when he was called upon to defend his people against theinvader. He appears to have been utterly unprepared to do so. Thevictorious forces of Umma swept against the stately city of Lagash andshattered its power in a single day. Echoes of the great disasterwhich ensued rise from a pious tablet inscription left by a priest, who was convinced that the conquerors would be called to account forthe sins they had committed against the great god Nin-Girsu. Helamented the butchery and robbery which had taken place. We gatherfrom his composition that blood was shed by the raiders of Umma evenin the sacred precincts of temples, that statues were shattered, thatsilver and precious stones were carried away, that granaries wereplundered and standing crops destroyed, and that many buildings wereset on fire. Amidst these horrors of savagery and vengeance, the nowtragic figure of the great reformer suddenly vanishes from before oureyes. Perhaps he perished in a burning temple; perhaps he found anameless grave with the thousands of his subjects whose bodies hadlain scattered about the blood-stained streets. With Urukagina theglory of Lagash departed. Although the city was rebuilt in time, andwas even made more stately than before, it never again became themetropolis of Sumeria. 

The vengeful destroyer of Lagash was Lugal-zaggisi, Patesi of Umma, amasterful figure in early Sumerian history. We gather from the tabletof the unknown scribe, who regarded him as a sinner against the godNin-Girsu, that his city goddess was named Nidaba. He appears also tohave been a worshipper of Enlil of Nippur, to whose influence hecredited his military successes. But Enlil was not his highest god, hewas the interceder who carried the prayers of Lugal-zaggisi to thebeloved father, Anu, god of the sky. No doubt Nin-Girsu represented aschool of theology which was associated with unpleasant memories inUmma. The sacking and burning of the temples of Lagash suggests asmuch. 

Having broken the power of Lagash, Lugal-zaggisi directed hisattention to the rival city of Kish, where Semitic influence waspredominating. When Nanizak, the last monarch of the line of thefamous Queen Azag-Bau, had sat upon the throne for but three years, heperished by the sword of the Umma conqueror. Nippur likewise cameunder his sway, and he also subdued the southern cities. 

Lugal-zaggisi chose for his capital ancient Erech, the city of Anu, and of his daughter, the goddess Nana, who afterwards was identifiedwith Ishtar. Anu's spouse was Anatu, and the pair subsequently becameabstract deities, like Anshar and Kishar, their parents, who figure inthe Babylonian Creation story. Nana was worshipped as the goddess ofvegetation, and her relation to Anu was similar to that of Belit-sherito Ea at Eridu. Anu and Ea were originally identical, but it wouldappear that the one was differentiated as the god of the waters abovethe heaven and the other as god of the waters beneath the earth, bothbeing forms of Anshar. Elsewhere the chief god of the spring sun orthe moon, the lover of the goddess, became pre-eminent, displacing theelder god, like Nin-Girsu at Lagash. At Sippar the sun god, Babbar, whose Semitic name was Shamash, was exalted as the chief deity, whilethe moon god remained supreme at Ur. This specializing process, whichwas due to local theorizing and the influence of alien settlers, hasbeen dealt with in a previous chapter. 

In referring to himself as the favoured ruler of various city deities, Lugal-zaggisi appears as a ruler of all Sumeria. How far his empireextended it is impossible to determine with certainty. He appears tohave overrun Akkad, and even penetrated to the Syrian coast, for inone inscription it is stated that he "made straight his path from theLower Sea (the Persian Gulf) over the Euphrates and Tigris to theUpper Sea (the Mediterranean)". The allegiance of certain states, however, depended on the strength of the central power. One of hissuccessors found it necessary to attack Kish, which was ever waitingfor an opportunity to regain its independence. 

According to the Chronicle of Kish, the next ruler of Sumer and Akkadafter Lugal-zaggisi was the famous Sargon I. It would appear that hewas an adventurer or usurper, and that he owed his throne indirectlyto Lugal-zaggisi, who had dethroned the ruler of Akkad. Latertraditions, which have been partly confirmed by contemporaryinscriptions, agree that Sargon was of humble birth. In the previouschapter reference was made to the Tammuz-like myth attached to hismemory. His mother was a vestal virgin dedicated to the sun god, Shamash, and his father an unknown stranger from the mountains--asuggestion of immediate Semitic affinities. Perhaps Sargon owed hisrise to power to the assistance received by bands of settlers from theland of the Amorites, which Lugal-zaggisi had invaded. 

According to the legend, Sargon's birth was concealed. He was placedin a vessel which was committed to the river. Brought up by acommoner, he lived in obscurity until the Semitic goddess, Ishtar, gave him her aid. 

A similar myth was attached in India to the memory of Karna, theHector of that great Sanskrit epic the _Mahabharata_. Kama's mother, the Princess Pritha, who afterwards became a queen, was loved by thesun god, Surya. When in secret she gave birth to her son she placedhim in an ark of wickerwork, which was set adrift on a stream. Ultimately it reached the Ganges, and it was borne by that river tothe country of Anga, where the child was rescued by a woman andafterwards reared by her and her husband, a charioteer. In time Karnabecame a great warrior, and was crowned King of Anga by the Kauravawarriors. [147]

Before he became king, Sargon of Akkad, the Sharrukin of the texts, was, according to tradition, a gardener and watchman attached to thetemple of the war god Zamama of Kish. This deity was subsequentlyidentified with Merodach, son of Ea; Ninip, son of Enlil; andNin-Girsu of Lagash. He was therefore one of the many developed formsof Tammuz--a solar, corn, and military deity, and an interceder formankind. The goddess of Kish appears to have been a form of Bau, as istestified by the name of Queen Azag-Bau, the legendary founder of thecity. 

Unfortunately our knowledge of Sargon's reign is of meagre character. It is undoubted that he was a distinguished general and able ruler. Hebuilt up an empire which included Sumer and Akkad, and also Amurru, "the western land", or "land of the Amorites". The Elamites gave himan opportunity to extend his conquests eastward. They appear to haveattacked Opis, but he drove them back, and on more than one occasionpenetrated their country, over the western part of which, known asAnshan, he ultimately imposed his rule. Thither went many Semiticsettlers who had absorbed the culture of Sumeria. 

During Sargon's reign Akkad attained to a splendour which surpassedthat of Babylon. In an omen text the monarch is lauded as the "highlyexalted one without a peer". Tradition relates that when he was an oldman all the Babylonian states rose in revolt against him and besiegedAkkad. But the old warrior led forth his army against the combinedforces and achieved a shattering victory. 

Manishtusu, who succeeded Sargon I, had similarly to subdue a greatconfederacy of thirty-two city states, and must therefore have been adistinguished general. But he is best known as the monarch whopurchased several large estates adjoining subject cities, his aimhaving been probably to settle on these Semitic allies who would beless liable to rebel against him than the workers they displaced. Forthe latter, however, he found employment elsewhere. Thesetransactions, which were recorded on a monument subsequently carriedoff with other spoils by the Elamites and discovered at Susa, showthat at this early period (about 2600 B. C. ) even a conquering monarchconsidered it advisable to observe existing land laws. Urumush, [148]the next ruler, also achieved successes in Elam and elsewhere, but hislife was cut short by a palace revolution. 

The prominent figure of Naram Sin, a later king of Akkad, bulkslargely in history and tradition. According to the Chronicle of Kish, he was a son of Sargon. Whether he was or not, it is certain that heinherited the military and administrative genius of that famousex-gardener. The arts flourished during his reign. One of thememorable products of the period was an exquisitely sculpturedmonument celebrating one of Naram Sin's victories, which wasdiscovered at Susa. It is one of the most wonderful examples ofBabylonian stone work which has come to light. 

A successful campaign had been waged against a mountain people. Thestele shows the warrior king leading his army up a steep incline andround the base of a great peak surmounted by stars. His enemies fleein confusion before him. One lies on the ground clutching a spearwhich has penetrated his throat, two are falling over a cliff, whileothers apparently sue for mercy. Trees have been depicted to show thatpart of the conquered territory is wooded. Naram Sin is armed withbattleaxe and bow, and his helmet is decorated with horns. The wholecomposition is spirited and finely grouped; and the military bearingof the disciplined troops contrasts sharply with the despairingattitudes of the fleeing remnants of the defending army. 

During this period the Semitized mountaineers to the north-east ofBabylonia became the most aggressive opponents of the city states. Thetwo most prominent were the Gutium, or men of Kutu, and the Lulubu. Naram Sin's great empire included the whole of Sumer and Akkad, Amurruand northern Palestine, and part of Elam, and the district to thenorth. He also penetrated Arabia, probably by way of the Persian Gulf, and caused diorite to be quarried there. One of his steles, which isnow in the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople, depicts him as afully bearded man with Semitic characteristics. During his lifetime hewas deified--a clear indication of the introduction of foreign ideas, for the Sumerians were not worshippers of kings and ancestors. 

Naram Sin was the last great king of his line. Soon after his deaththe power of Akkad went to pieces, and the Sumerian city of Erechagain became the centre of empire. Its triumph, however, wasshortlived. After a quarter of a century had elapsed, Akkad and Sumerwere overswept by the fierce Gutium from the north-eastern mountains. They sacked and burned many cities, including Babylon, where thememory of the horrors perpetrated by these invaders endured until theGrecian Age. An obscure period, like the Egyptian Hyksos Age, ensued, but it was of comparatively brief duration. 

When the mists cleared away, the city Lagash once more came to thefront, having evidently successfully withstood the onslaughts of theGutium, but it never recovered the place of eminence it occupied underthe brilliant Ur-Nina dynasty. It is manifest that it must haveenjoyed under the various overlords, during the interval, aconsiderable degree of independence, for its individuality remainedunimpaired. Of all its energetic and capable patesis, the mostcelebrated was Gudea, who reigned sometime before 2400 B. C. Incontrast to the Semitic Naram Sin, he was beardless and pronouncedlySumerian in aspect. His favoured deity, the city god Nin-Girsu, againbecame prominent, having triumphed over his jealous rivals afterremaining in obscurity for three or four centuries. Trade flourished, and the arts were fostered. Gudea had himself depicted, in one of themost characteristic sculptures of his age, as an architect, seatedreverently with folded hands with a temple plan lying on his knees, and his head uplifted as if watching the builders engaged inmaterializing the dream of his life. The temple in which his interestswere centred was erected in honour of Nin-Girsu. Its ruins suggestthat it was of elaborate structure and great beauty. Like Solomon inlater days, Gudea procured material for his temple from many distantparts--cedar from Lebanon, marble from Amurru, diorite from Arabia, copper from Elam, and so forth. Apparently the King of Lagash wasstrong enough or wealthy enough to command respect over a wide area. 

Another city which also rose into prominence, amidst the shatteredSumerian states, was Ur, the centre of moon worship. After Gudea'sdeath, its kings exercised sway over Lagash and Nippur, and, farthersouth, over Erech and Larsa as well. This dynasty endured for nearly ahundred and twenty years, during which Ur flourished like Thebes inEgypt. Its monarchs styled themselves as "Kings of the Four Regions". The worship of Nannar (Sin) became officially recognized at Nippur, the seat of Enlil, during the reign of King Dungi of Ur; while atErech, the high priest of Anu, the sky god, became the high priest ofthe moon god. Apparently matriarchal ideas, associated with lunarworship, again came into prominence, for the king appointed two of hisdaughters to be rulers of conquered states in Elam and Syria. In thelatter half of his reign, Dungi, the conqueror, was installed as highpriest at Eridu. It would thus appear that there was a renascence ofearly Sumerian religious ideas. Ea, the god of the deep, had long beenovershadowed, but a few years before Dungi's death a temple waserected to him at Nippur, where he was worshipped as Dagan. Until thevery close of his reign, which lasted for fifty-eight years, thisgreat monarch of tireless activity waged wars of conquest, builttemples and palaces, and developed the natural resources of Sumer andAkkad. Among his many reforms was the introduction of standards ofweights, which received divine sanction from the moon god, who, as inEgypt, was the measurer and regulator of human transactions and humanlife. 

To this age also belongs many of the Sumerian business and legalrecords, which were ultimately carried off to Susa, where they havebeen recovered by French excavators. 

About half a century after Dungi's death the Dynasty of Ur came to anend, its last king having been captured by an Elamite force. 

At some time subsequent to this period, Abraham migrated from Ur tothe northern city of Harran, where the moon god was also the chiefcity deity--the Baal, or "lord". It is believed by certainEgyptologists that Abraham sojourned in Egypt during its TwelfthDynasty, which, according to the Berlin system of minimum dating, extended from about 2000 B. C. Till 1780 B. C. The Hebrew patriarch maytherefore have been a contemporary of Hammurabi's, who is identifiedwith Amraphel, king of Shinar (Sumer) in the Bible. [149]

But after the decline of Ur's ascendancy, and long before Babylon'sgreat monarch came to the throne, the centre of power in Sumeria wasshifted to Isin, where sixteen kings flourished for two and a quartercenturies. Among the royal names, recognition was given to Ea andDagan, Sin, Enlil, and Ishtar, indicating that Sumerian religion inits Semitized form was receiving general recognition. The sun god wasidentical with Ninip and Nin-Girsu, a god of fertility, harvest, andwar, but now more fully developed and resembling Babbar, "the shiningone", the solar deity of Akkadian Sippar, whose Semitic name wasShamash. As Shamash was ultimately developed as the god of justice andrighteousness, it would appear that his ascendancy occurred during theperiod when well-governed communities systematized their religiousbeliefs to reflect social conditions. 

The first great monarch of the Isin dynasty was Ishbi-Urra, whoreigned for thirty-two years. Like his successors, he called himself"King of Sumer and Akkad", and it appears that his sway extended tothe city of Sippar, where solar worship prevailed. Traces of him havealso been found at Eridu, Ur, Erech, and Nippur, so that he must havegiven recognition to Ea, Sin, Anu, and Enlil. In this period the earlynational pantheon may have taken shape, Bel Enlil being the chiefdeity. Enlil was afterwards displaced by Merodach of Babylon. 

Before 2200 B. C. There occurred a break in the supremacy of Isin. Gungunu, King of Ur, combined with Larsa, whose sun temple herestored, and declared himself ruler of Sumer and Akkad. But Isinagain gathered strength under Ur-Ninip, who was not related to hispredecessor. Perhaps he came from Nippur, where the god Ninip wasworshipped as the son of Bel Enlil. 

According to a Babylonian document, a royal grandson of Ur-Ninip's, having no direct heir, selected as his successor his gardener, Enlil-bani. He placed the crown on the head of this obscureindividual, abdicated in his favour, and then died a mysterious deathwithin his palace. 

It is highly probable that Enlil-bani, whose name signifies "Enlil ismy creator", was a usurper like Sargon of Akkad, and he may havesimilarly circulated a myth regarding his miraculous origin to justifyhis sudden rise to power. The truth appears to be that he came to thethrone as the leader of a palace revolution at a time of great unrest. But he was not allowed to remain in undisputed possession. A rivalnamed Sin-ikisha, evidently a moon worshipper and perhaps connectedwith Ur, displaced the usurper, and proclaimed himself king. After abrief reign of six months he was overthrown, however, by Enlil-bani, who piously credited his triumph over his enemy to the chief god ofNippur, whose name he bore. Although he took steps to secure hisposition by strengthening the fortifications of Isin, and reigned forabout a quarter of a century, he was not succeeded by his heir, if hehad one. King Zambia, who was no relation, followed him, but his reignlasted for only three years. The names of the next two kings areunknown. Then came Sin-magir, who was succeeded by Damik-ilishu, thelast King of Isin. 

Towards the close of Damik-ilishu's reign of twenty-four years he cameunder the suzerainty of Larsa, whose ruler was Rim Sin. Then Isin wascaptured by Sin-muballit, King of Babylon, the father of the greatHammurabi. Rim Sin was an Elamite. 

Afterwards the old order of things passed away. Babylon became themetropolis, the names of Sumer and Akkad dropped out of use, and thewhole country between the rivers was called Babylonia. [150] Thevarious systems of law which obtained in the different states werethen codified by Hammurabi, who appointed governors in all the citieswhich came under his sway to displace the patesis and kings. A newnational pantheon of representative character was also formed, overwhich Merodach (Marduk), the city god of Babylon, presided. How thisyounger deity was supposed to rise to power is related in theBabylonian legend of Creation, which is dealt with in the nextchapter. [151] In framing this myth from the fragments of older myths, divine sanction was given to the supremacy achieved by Merodach'scity. The allegiance of future generations was thus secured, not onlyby the strong arm of the law, but also by the combined influence ofthe reorganized priesthoods at the various centres of administration. 

An interesting problem, which should be referred to here, arises inconnection with the sculptured representations of deities before andafter the rise of Akkad as a great Power. It is found, although theSumerians shaved their scalps and faces at the dawn of the historicalage, that they worshipped gods who had long hair and also beards, which were sometimes square and sometimes pointed. 

At what period the Sumerian deities were given human shape it isimpossible to determine. As has been shown (Chapters II and III) allthe chief gods and goddesses had animal forms and composite monsterforms before they became anthropomorphic deities. Ea had evidently afish shape ere he was clad in the skin of a fish, as an Egyptian godwas simply a bull before he was depicted in human shape wearing abull's skin. The archaic Sumerian animal and composite monster gods ofanimistic and totemic origin survived after the anthropomorphic periodas mythical figures, which were used for decorative or magicalpurposes and as symbols. A form of divine headdress was a cap enclosedin horns, between which appeared the soaring lion-headed eagle, whichsymbolized Nin-Girsu. This god had also lion and antelope forms, whichprobably figured in lost myths--perhaps they were like the animalsloved by Ishtar and referred to in the Gilgamesh epic. Similarly thewinged bull was associated with the moon god Nannar, or Sin, of Ur, who was "a horned steer". On various cylinder seals appear groups ofcomposite monsters and rearing wild beasts, which were evidentlyrepresentations of gods and demons in conflict. 

Suggestive data for comparative study is afforded in this connectionby ancient Egypt. Sokar, the primitive Memphite deity, retained untilthe end his animal and composite monster forms. Other gods weredepicted with human bodies and the heads of birds, serpents, andcrocodiles, thus forming links between the archaic demoniac and thelater anthropomorphic deities. A Sumerian example is the deifiedEa-bani, who, like Pan, has the legs and hoofs of a goat. 

The earliest representations of Sumerian humanized deities appear onreliefs from Tello, the site of Lagash. These examples of archaicgods, however, are not bearded in Semitic fashion. On the contrary, their lips and cheeks are shaved, while an exaggerated chin tuft isretained. The explanation suggested is that the Sumerians gave theirdeities human shape before they themselves were clean shaven, and thatthe retention of the characteristic facial hair growth of theMediterranean Race is another example of the conservatism of thereligious instinct. In Egypt the clean-shaven Pharaohs, whorepresented gods, wore false chin-tuft beards; even Queen Hatshepsutconsidered it necessary to assume a beard on state occasions. Ptah-Osiris retained his archaic beard until the Ptolemaic period. 

It seems highly probable that in similarly depicting their gods withbeards, the early Sumerians were not influenced by the practices ofany alien people or peoples. Not until the period of Gudea, the Patesiof Lagash, did they give their gods heavy moustaches, side whiskers, and flowing beards of Semitic type. It may be, however, that by thenthey had completely forgotten the significance of an ancient custom. Possibly, too, the sculptors of Lagash were working under theinfluence of the Akkadian school of art, which had produced theexquisite stele of victory for Naram-Sin, and consequently adopted theconventional Semitic treatment of bearded figures. At any rate, theywere more likely to study and follow the artistic triumphs of Akkadthan the crude productions of the archaic period. Besides, they livedin an age when Semitic kings were deified and the Semitic overlordshad attained to great distinction and influence. 

The Semitic folks were not so highly thought of in the early Sumerianperiod. It is not likely that the agricultural people regarded asmodels of gods the plunderers who descended from the hills, and, afterachieving successes, returned home with their spoils. More probablythey regarded them as "foreign devils". Other Semites, however, whocame as traders, bringing wood, stone, and especially copper, andformed communities in cities, may well have influenced Sumerianreligious thought. The god Ramman, for instance, who was givenrecognition all through Babylonia, was a god of hill folks as farnorth as Asia Minor and throughout Syria. He may have been introducedby settlers who adopted Sumerian habits of life and shaved scalp andface. But although the old cities could never have existed in acomplete state of isolation from the outer world, it is unlikely thattheir inhabitants modelled their deities on those worshipped by groupsof aliens. A severe strain is imposed on our credulity if we areexpected to believe that it was due to the teachings and example ofuncultured nomads that the highly civilized Sumerians developed theirgods from composite monsters to anthropomorphic deities. Such asupposition, at any rate, is not supported by the evidence of AncientEgypt. 

CHAPTER VII. 

CREATION LEGEND: MERODACH THE DRAGON SLAYER

 Elder Spirits of the Primordial Deep--Apsu and the Tiamat Dragon--Plot to Destroy the Beneficent Gods--Ea overcomes Apsu and Muminu--The Vengeful Preparations of the Dragon--Anshar's Appeal to Merodach--The Festival of the High Gods--Merodach exalted as Ruler of the Universe--Dragon slain and Host taken captive--Merodach rearranges the Pantheon--Creation of Man--Merodach as Asari--The Babylonian Osiris--The Chief Purpose of Mankind--Tiamat as Source of Good and Evil--The Dragon as the Serpent or Worm--Folk Tale aspect of Creation Myth--British Neolithic Legends--German and Egyptian Contracts--Biblical references to Dragons--The Father and Son theme--Merodach and Tammuz--Monotheistic Tendency--Bi-sexual Deities. 

In the beginning the whole universe was a sea. Heaven on high had notbeen named, nor the earth beneath. Their begetter was Apsu, the fatherof the primordial Deep, and their mother was Tiamat, the spirit ofChaos. No plain was yet formed, no marsh could be seen; the gods hadno existence, nor had their fates been determined. Then there was amovement in the waters, and the deities issued forth. The first whohad being were the god Lachmu and the goddess Lachamu. Long ages wentpast. Then were created the god Anshar and the goddess Kishar. Whenthe days of these deities had increased and extended, they werefollowed by Anu, god of the sky, whose consort was Anatu; and Ea, mostwise and all-powerful, who was without an equal. Now Ea, god of thedeep, was also Enki, "lord of earth", and his eternal spouse, Damkina, was Gashan-ki, "lady of earth". The son of Ea and Damkina was Bel, thelord, who in time created mankind. [152] Thus were the high godsestablished in power and in glory. 

Now Apsu and Tiamat remained amidst confusion in the deeps of chaos. They were troubled because their offspring, the high gods, aspired tocontrol the universe and set it in order. [153] Apsu was still powerfuland fierce, and Tiamat snarled and raised tempests, smiting herself. Their purpose was to work evil amidst eternal confusion. 

Then Apsu called upon Mummu, his counsellor, the son who shared hisdesires, and said, "O Mummu, thou who art pleasing unto me, let us goforth together unto Tiamat and speak with her. "

So the two went forth and prostrated themselves before the ChaosMother to consult with her as to what should be done to prevent theaccomplishment of the purpose of the high gods. 

Apsu opened his mouth and spake, saying, "O Tiamat, thou gleaming one, the purpose of the gods troubles me. I cannot rest by day nor can Irepose by night. I will thwart them and destroy their purpose. I willbring sorrow and mourning so that we may lie down undisturbed bythem. "

Tiamat heard these words and snarled. She raised angry and roaringtempests; in her furious grief she uttered a curse, and then spake toApsu, saying, "What shall we do so that their purpose may be thwartedand we may lie down undisturbed again?"

Mummu, the counsellor, addressing Apsu, made answer, and said, "Although the gods are powerful, thou canst overcome them; althoughtheir purpose is strong, thou canst thwart it. Then thou shalt haverest by day and peace by night to lie down. "

The face of Apsu grew bright when he heard these words spoken byMummu, yet he trembled to think of the purpose of the high gods, towhom he was hostile. With Tiamat he lamented because the gods hadchanged all things; the plans of the gods filled their hearts withdread; they sorrowed and spake with Mummu, plotting evil. 

Then Ea, who knoweth all, drew near; he beheld the evil onesconspiring and muttering together. He uttered a pure incantation andaccomplished the downfall of Apsu and Mummu, who were takencaptive. [154]

Kingu, who shared the desires of Tiamat, spake unto her words ofcounsel, saying, "Apsu and Mummu have been overcome and we cannotrepose. Thou shalt be their Avenger, O Tempestuous One. "

Tiamat heard the words of this bright and evil god, and made answer, saying, "On my strength thou canst trust. So let war be waged. "

Then were the hosts of chaos and the deep gathered together. By dayand by night they plotted against the high gods, raging furiously, making ready for battle, fuming and storming and taking no rest. 

Mother Chuber, [155] the creator of all, provided irresistible weapons. She also brought into being eleven kinds of fierce monsters--giantserpents, sharp of tooth with unsparing fangs, whose bodies werefilled with poison instead of blood; snarling dragons, clad withterror, and of such lofty stature that whoever saw them wasoverwhelmed with fear, nor could any escape their attack when theylifted themselves up; vipers and pythons, and the Lachamu, hurricanemonsters, raging hounds, scorpion men, tempest furies, fish men, andmountain rams. These she armed with fierce weapons and they had nofear of war. 

Then Tiamat, whose commands are unchangeable and mighty, exaltedKingu, who had come to her aid, above all the evil gods; she made himthe leader to direct the army in battle, to go in front, to open theattack. Robing Kingu in splendour, she seated him on high and spoke, saying:

"I have established thy command over all the gods. Thou shalt ruleover them. Be mighty, thou my chosen husband, and let thy name beexalted over all the spirits of heaven and spirits of earth. "

Unto Kingu did Tiamat deliver the tablets of fate; she laid them inhis bosom, and said, "Thy commands cannot be changed; thy words shallremain firm. "

Thus was Kingu exalted; he was vested with the divine power of Anu todecree the fate of the gods, saying, "Let thy mouth open to thwart thefire god; be mighty in battle nor brook resistance. "

Then had Ea knowledge of Tiamat's doings, how she had gathered herforces together, and how she had prepared to work evil against thehigh gods with purpose to avenge Apsu. The wise god was stricken withgrief, and he moaned for many days. Thereafter he went and stoodbefore his father, Anshar, and spake, saying, "Our mother, Tiamat, hath turned against us in her wrath. She hath gathered the gods abouther, and those thou didst create are with her also. "

When Anshar heard all that Ea revealed regarding the preparations madeby Tiamat, he smote his loins and clenched his teeth, and was ill atease. In sorrow and anger he spoke and said, "Thou didst go forthaforetime to battle; thou didst bind Mummu and smite Apsu. Now Kinguis exalted, and there is none who can oppose Tiamat. "[156]

Anshar called his son, Anu, before him, and spoke, saying: "O mightyone without fear, whose attack is irresistible, go now before Tiamatand speak so that her anger may subside and her heart be mademerciful. But if she will not hearken unto thee, speak thou for me, sothat she may be reconciled. "

Anu was obedient to the commands of Anshar. He departed, and descendedby the path of Tiamat until he beheld her fuming and snarling, but hefeared to approach her, and turned back. 

Then Ea was sent forth, but he was stricken with terror and turnedback also. [157]

Anshar then called upon Merodach, son of Ea, and addressed him, saying, "My son, who softeneth my heart, thou shalt go forth to battleand none shall stand against thee. "

The heart of Merodach was made glad at these words. He stood beforeAnshar, who kissed him, because that he banished fear. Merodach spake, saying: "O lord of the gods, withdraw not thy words; let me go forthto do as is thy desire. What man hath challenged thee to battle?"

Anshar made answer and said: "No man hath challenged me. It is Tiamat, the woman, who hath resolved to wage war against us. But fear not andmake merry, for thou shalt bruise the head of Tiamat. O wise god, thoushalt overcome her with thy pure incantation. Tarry not but hastenforth; she cannot wound thee; thou shalt come back again. " The wordsof Anshar delighted the heart of Merodach, who spake, saying: "O lordof the gods, O fate of the high gods, if I, the avenger, am to subdueTiamat and save all, then proclaim my greatness among the gods. Letall the high gods gather together joyfully in Upshukinaku (the CouncilHall), so that my words like thine may remain unchanged, and what I domay never be altered. Instead of thee I will decree the fates of thegods. "

Then Anshar called unto his counsellor, Gaga, and addressing him, said: "O thou who dost share my desires, thou who dost understand thepurpose of my heart, go unto Lachmu and Lachamu and summon all thehigh gods to come before me to eat bread and drink wine. Repeat tothem all I tell you of Tiamat's preparations for war, of my commandsto Anu and Ea, who turned back, fearing the dragon, of my choice ofMerodach to be our avenger, and his desire to be equipped with mypower to decree fate, so that he may be made strong to combat againstour enemy. "

As Anshar commanded so did Gaga do. He went unto Lachmu and Lachamuand prostrated himself humbly before them. Then he rose and deliveredthe message of Anshar, their son, adding: "Hasten and speedily decidefor Merodach your fate. Permit him to depart to meet your powerfulfoe. "

When Lachmu and Lachamu heard all that Gaga revealed unto them theyuttered lamentations, while the Igigi (heavenly spirits) sorrowedbitterly, and said: "What change hath happened that Tiamat hath becomehostile to her own offspring? We cannot understand her deeds. "

All the high gods then arose and went unto Anshar, They filled hiscouncil chamber and kissed one another. Then they sat down to eatbread and drink sesame wine. And when they were made drunk and weremerry and at their ease, they decreed the fate for Merodach. 

In the chamber of Anshar they honoured the Avenger. He was exalted asa prince over them all, and they said: "Among the high gods thou artthe highest; thy command is the command of Anu. Henceforth thou wilthave power to raise up and to cast down. None of the gods will disputethy authority. O Merodach, our avenger, we give thee sovereignty overthe entire Universe. Thy weapon will ever be irresistible. Smite downthe gods who have raised revolt, but spare the lives of those whorepose their trust in thee. "

Then the gods laid down a garment before Merodach, saying: "Open thymouth and speak words of command, so that the garment may bedestroyed; speak again and it will be brought back. "

Merodach spake with his mouth and the garment vanished; he spake againand the garment was reproduced. 

All the gods rejoiced, and they prostrated themselves and cried out, "Merodach is King!"

Thereafter they gave him the sceptre and the throne and the insigniaof royalty, and also an irresistible weapon[158] with which toovercome his enemies, saying: "Now, O Merodach, hasten and slayTiamat. Let the winds carry her blood to hidden places. "

So was the fate of Merodach decreed by the gods; so was a path ofprosperity and peace prepared for him. He made ready for battle; hestrung his bow and hung his quiver; he slung a dart over his shoulder, and he grasped a club in his right hand; before him he set lightning, and with flaming fire he filled his body. Anu gave unto him a greatnet with which to snare his enemies and prevent their escape. ThenMerodach created seven winds--the wind of evil, the uncontrollablewind, the sandstorm, and the whirlwind, the fourfold wind, thesevenfold wind, and the wind that has no equal--and they went afterhim. Next he seized his mighty weapon, the thunderstone, and leaptinto his storm chariot, to which were yoked four rushing anddestructive steeds of rapid flight, with foam-flecked mouths and teethfull of venom, trained for battle, to overthrow enemies and tramplethem underfoot. A light burned on the head of Merodach, and he wasclad in a robe of terror. He drove forth, and the gods, his fathers, followed after him: the high gods clustered around and followed him, hastening to battle. 

Merodach drove on, and at length he drew nigh to the secret lair ofTiamat, and he beheld her muttering with Kingu, her consort. For amoment he faltered, and when the gods who followed him beheld this, their eyes were troubled. 

Tiamat snarled nor turned her head. She uttered curses, and said: "OMerodach, I fear not thy advance as chief of the gods. My allies areassembled here, and are more powerful than thou art. "

Merodach uplifted his arm, grasping the dreaded thunderstone, andspake unto Tiamat, the rebellious one, saying: "Thou hast exaltedthyself, and with wrathful heart hath prepared for war against thehigh gods and their fathers, whom thou dost hate in thy heart of evil. Unto Kingu thou hast given the power of Anu to decree fate, becausethou art hostile to what is good and loveth what is sinful. Gather thyforces together, and arm thyself and come forth to battle. "

When Tiamat heard these mighty words she raved and cried aloud likeone who is possessed; all her limbs shook, and she muttered a spell. The gods seized their weapons. 

Tiamat and Merodach advanced to combat against one another. They madeready for battle. The lord of the high gods spread out the net whichAnu had given him. He snared the dragon and she could not escape. Tiamat opened her mouth which was seven miles wide, and Merodachcalled upon the evil wind to smite her; he caused the wind to keep hermouth agape so that she could not close it. All the tempests and thehurricanes entered in, filling her body, and her heart grew weak; shegasped, overpowered. Then the lord of the high gods seized his dartand cast it through the lower part of her body; it tore her inwardparts and severed her heart. So was Tiamat slain. 

Merodach overturned the body of the dead dragon and stood upon it. Allthe evil gods who had followed her were stricken with terror and brokeinto flight. But they were unable to escape. Merodach caught them inhis great net, and they stumbled and fell uttering cries of distress, and the whole world resounded with their wailing and lamentations. Thelord of the high gods broke the weapons of the evil gods and put themin bondage. Then he fell upon the monsters which Tiamat had created;he subdued them, divested them of their powers, and trampled themunder his feet. Kingu he seized with the others. From this god greatMerodach took the tablets of fate, and impressing upon them his ownseal, placed them in his bosom. 

So were the enemies of the high gods overthrown by the Avenger. Ansar's commands were fulfilled and the desires of Ea fullyaccomplished. 

Merodach strengthened the bonds which he had laid upon the evil godsand then returned to Tiamat. He leapt upon the dragon's body; he cloveher skull with his great club; he opened the channels of her bloodwhich streamed forth, and caused the north to carry her blood tohidden places. The high gods, his fathers, clustered around; theyraised shouts of triumph and made merry. Then they brought gifts andofferings to the great Avenger. 

Merodach rested a while, gazing upon the dead body of the dragon. Hedivided the flesh of Ku-pu[159], and devised a cunning plan. 

Then the lord of the high gods split the body of the dragon like thatof a mashde fish into two halves. With one half he enveloped thefirmament; he fixed it there and set a watchman to prevent the watersfalling down[160]. With the other half he made the earth[161]. Then hemade the abode of Ea in the deep, and the abode of Anu in high heaven. The abode of Enlil was in the air. 

Merodach set all the great gods in their several stations. He alsocreated their images, the stars of the Zodiac, and fixed them all. Hemeasured the year and divided it into months; for twelve months hemade three stars each. After he had given starry images of the godsseparate control of each day of the year, he founded the station ofNibiru (Jupiter), his own star, to determine the limits of all stars, so that none might err or go astray. He placed beside his own thestations of Enlil and Ea, and on each side he opened mighty gates, fixing bolts on the left and on the right. He set the zenith in thecentre. 

Merodach decreed that the moon god should rule the night and measurethe days, and each month he was given a crown. Its various phases thegreat lord determined, and he commanded that on the evening of itsfullest brilliancy it should stand opposite the sun. [162]

He placed his bow in heaven (as a constellation) and his net also. 

We have now reached the sixth tablet, which begins with a reference towords spoken to Merodach by the gods. Apparently Ea had conceived inhis heart that mankind should be created. The lord of the gods readhis thoughts and said: "I will shed my blood and fashion bone. .. Iwill create man to dwell on the earth so that the gods may beworshipped and shrines erected for them. I will change the pathways ofthe gods. .. . "

The rest of the text is fragmentary, and many lines are missing. Berosus states, however, that Belus (Bel Merodach) severed his headfrom his shoulders. His blood flowed forth, and the gods mixed it withearth and formed the first man and various animals. 

In another version of the creation of man, it is related that Merodach"laid a reed upon the face of the waters; he formed dust, and pouredit out beside the reed. .. . That he might cause the gods to dwell inthe habitation of their heart's desire, he formed mankind. " Thegoddess Aruru, a deity of Sippar, and one of the forms of "the lady ofthe gods ", is associated with Merodach as the creatrix of the seed ofmankind. "The beasts of the field and living creatures in the field heformed. " He also created the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, grass, reeds, herbs and trees, lands, marshes and swamps, cows, goats, &c. [163]

In the seventh tablet Merodach is praised by the gods--the Igigi(spirits of heaven). As he has absorbed all their attributes, he isaddressed by his fifty-one names; henceforth each deity is a form ofMerodach. Bel Enlil, for instance, is Merodach of lordship anddomination; Sin, the moon god, is Merodach as ruler of night; Shamashis Merodach as god of law and holiness; Nergal is Merodach of war; andso on. The tendency to monotheism appears to have been most markedamong the priestly theorists of Babylon. 

Merodach is hailed to begin with as Asari, the introducer ofagriculture and horticulture, the creator of grain and plants. He alsodirects the decrees of Anu, Bel, and Ea; but having rescued the godsfrom destruction at the hands of Kingu and Tiamat, he was greater thanhis "fathers", the elder gods. He set the Universe in order, andcreated all things anew. He is therefore Tutu, "the creator", amerciful and beneficent god. The following are renderings of lines 25to 32:

 Tutu: Aga-azaga (the glorious crown) may he make the crowns glorious-- The lord of the glorious incantation bringing the dead to life; He who had mercy on the gods who had been overpowered; Made heavy the yoke which he had laid on the gods who were his enemies, (And) to redeem (?) them created mankind. "The merciful one", "he with whom is salvation", May his word be established, and not forgotten, In the mouth of the black-headed ones whom his hands have made. 

 _Pinches' Translation_[164]

 Tutu as Aga-azag may mankind fourthly magnify! "The Lord of the Pure Incantation", "the Quickener of the Dead ", "Who had mercy upon the captive gods", "Who removed the yoke from upon the gods his enemies". "For their forgiveness did he create mankind", "The Merciful One, with whom it is to bestow life!" May his deeds endure, may they never be forgotten In the mouth of mankind whom his hands have made. 

 _King's Translation. _[165]

Apparently the Babylonian doctrine set forth that mankind was creatednot only to worship the gods, but also to bring about the redemptionof the fallen gods who followed Tiamat. 

 Those rebel angels (_ili_ gods) He prohibited return; He stopped their service; He removed them unto the gods (_ili_) who were His enemies. In their room he created mankind. [166]

Tiamat, the chaos dragon, is the Great Mother. She has a dualcharacter. As the origin of good she is the creatrix of the gods. Herbeneficent form survived as the Sumerian goddess Bau, who wasobviously identical with the Phoenician Baau, mother of the first man. Another name of Bau was Ma, and Nintu, "a form of the goddess Ma", washalf a woman and half a serpent, and was depicted with "a babesuckling her breast" (Chapter IV). The Egyptian goddesses Neheb-kauand Uazit were serpents, and the goddesses Isis and Nepthys had alsoserpent forms. The serpent was a symbol of fertility, and as a motherwas a protector. Vishnu, the Preserver of the Hindu Trinity, sleeps onthe world-serpent's body. Serpent charms are protective and fertilitycharms. 

As the origin of evil Tiamat personified the deep and tempests. Inthis character she was the enemy of order and good, and strove todestroy the world. 

 I have seen The ambitious ocean swell and rage and foam To be exalted with the threatening clouds. [167]

Tiamat was the dragon of the sea, and therefore the serpent orleviathan. The word "dragon" is derived from the Greek "drakon", theserpent known as "the seeing one" or "looking one", whose glance wasthe lightning. The Anglo-Saxon "fire drake" ("draca", Latin "draco")is identical with the "flying dragon". 

In various countries the serpent or worm is a destroyer which swallowsthe dead. "The worm shall eat them like wool", exclaimed Isaiah insymbolic language. [168] It lies in the ocean which surrounds the worldin Egyptian, Babylonian, Greek, Teutonic, Indian, and othermythologies. The Irish call it "morúach", and give it a mermaid formlike the Babylonian Nintu. In a Scottish Gaelic poem Tiamat figures as"The Yellow Muilearteach", who is slain by Finn-mac-Coul, assisted byhis warrior band. 

 There was seen coming on the top of the waves The crooked, clamouring, shivering brave . .. Her face was blue black of the lustre of coal, And her bone-tufted tooth was like rusted bone. [169]

The serpent figures in folk tales. When Alexander the Great, accordingto Ethiopic legend, was lowered in a glass cage to the depths of theocean, he saw a great monster going past, and sat for two days"watching for its tail and hinder parts to appear". [170] AnArgyllshire Highlander had a similar experience. He went to fish onemorning on a rock. "He was not long there when he saw the head of aneel pass. He continued fishing for an hour and the eel was stillpassing. He went home, worked in the field all day, and havingreturned to the same rock in the evening, the eel was still passing, and about dusk he saw her tail disappearing. "[171] Tiamat's sea-broodis referred to in the Anglo-Saxon epic _Beowulf_ as "nickers". Thehero "slew by night sea monsters on the waves" (line 422). 

The well dragon--the French "draco"--also recalls the Babylonian watermonsters. There was a "dragon well" near Jerusalem. [172] From China toIreland rivers are dragons, or goddesses who flee from the welldragons. The demon of the Rhone is called the "drac". Floods are alsoreferred to as dragons, and the Hydra, or water serpent, slain byHercules, belongs to this category. Water was the source of evil aswell as good. To the Sumerians, the ocean especially was the abode ofmonsters. They looked upon it as did Shakespeare's Ferdinand, when, leaping into the sea, he cried: "Hell is empty and all the devils arehere". [173]

There can be little doubt but that in this Babylonian story ofCreation we have a glorified variation of the widespread Dragon myth. Unfortunately, however, no trace can be obtained of the pre-existingSumerian oral version which the theorizing priests infused with suchsublime symbolism. No doubt it enjoyed as great popularity as theimmemorial legend of Perseus and Andromeda, which the sages of Greeceattempted to rationalize, and parts of which the poets made use of anddeveloped as these appealed to their imaginations. 

The lost Sumerian story may be summarized as follows: There existed inthe savage wilds, or the ocean, a family of monsters antagonistic to agroup of warriors represented in the Creation legend by the gods. Ea, the heroic king, sets forth to combat with the enemies of man, andslays the monster father, Apsu, and his son, Mummu. But the mostpowerful demon remains to be dealt with. This is the mother Tiamat, who burns to avenge the deaths of her kindred. To wage war against herthe hero makes elaborate preparations, and equips himself with specialweapons. The queen of monsters cannot be overcome by ordinary means, for she has great cunning, and is less vulnerable than were herhusband and son. Although Ea may work spells against her, she is ableto thwart him by working counter spells. Only a hand-to-hand combatcan decide the fray. Being strongly protected by her scaly hide, shemust be wounded either on the under part of her body or through hermouth by a weapon which will pierce her liver, the seat of life. Itwill be noted in this connection that Merodach achieved success bycausing the winds which followed him to distend the monster's jaws, sothat he might be able to inflict the fatal blow and prevent her at thesame time from uttering spells to weaken him. 

This type of story, in which the mother monster is greater and morepowerful than her husband or son, is exceedingly common in Scottishfolklore. In the legend which relates the adventures of "Finn in theKingdom of Big Men", the hero goes forth at night to protect hisallies against the attacks of devastating sea monsters. Standing onthe beach, "he saw the sea advancing in fiery kilns and as a dartingserpent. .. . A huge monster came up, and looking down below where he(Finn) was, exclaimed, 'What little speck do I see here?'" Finn, aidedby his fairy dog, slew the water monster. On Finn, aided by his fairydog, slew the water monster. On the following night a bigger monster, "the father", came ashore, and he also was slain. But the mostpowerful enemy had yet to be dealt with. "The next night a Big Hagcame ashore, and the tooth in the front of her mouth would make adistaff. 'You killed my husband and son, ' she said. " Finn acknowledgedthat he did, and they began to fight. After a prolonged struggle, inwhich Finn was almost overcome, the Hag fell and her head was cutoff. [174]

The story of "Finlay the Changeling" has similar features. The heroslew first a giant and then the giant's father. Thereafter the Hagcame against him and exclaimed, "Although with cunning anddeceitfulness you killed my husband last night and my son on the nightbefore last, I shall certainly kill you to-night. " A fierce wrestlingmatch ensued on the bare rock. The Hag was ultimately thrown down. Shethen offered various treasures to ransom her life, including "a goldsword in my cave", regarding which she says, "never was it drawn toman or to beast whom it did not overcome". [175] In other Scottishstories of like character the hero climbs a tree, and says somethingto induce the hag to open her mouth, so that he may plunge his weapondown her throat. 

The Grendel story in _Beowulf_, [176] the Anglo-Saxon epic, is of likecharacter. A male water monster preys nightly upon the warriors whosleep in the great hall of King Hrothgar. Beowulf comes over the sea, as did Finn to the "Kingdom of Big Men", to sky Grendel. He wrestleswith this man-eater and mortally wounds him. Great rejoicings ensue, but they have to be brought to an abrupt conclusion, because themother of Grendel has meanwhile resolved "to go a sorry journey andavenge the death of her son". 

The narrative sets forth that she enters the Hall in the darkness ofnight. "Quickly she grasped one of the nobles tight, and then she wenttowards the fen", towards her submarine cave. Beowulf follows in duecourse, and, fully armoured, dives through the waters and ultimatelyenters the monster's lair. In the combat the "water wife" proves to bea more terrible opponent than was her son. Indeed, Beowulf was unableto slay her until he possessed himself of a gigantic sword, "adornedwith treasure", which was hanging in the cave. With this magic weaponhe slays the mother monster, whose poisonous blood afterwards meltsthe "damasked blade". Like Finn, he subsequently returns with the headof one of the monsters. 

An interesting point about this story is that it does not appear inany form in the North German cycle of Romance. Indeed, the poet whoincluded in his epic the fiery dragon story, which links the heroBeowulf with Sigurd and Siegfried, appears to be doubtful about themother monster's greatness, as if dealing with unfamiliar material, for he says: "The terror (caused by Grendel's mother) was less by justso much as woman's strength, woman's war terror, is (measured) byfighting men". [177] Yet, in the narrative which follows the Amazon isproved to be the stronger monster of the two. Traces of the mothermonster survive in English folklore, especially in the traditionsabout the mythical "Long Meg of Westminster", referred to by BenJonson in his masque of the "Fortunate Isles":

 Westminster Meg, With her long leg, As long as a crane; And feet like a plane, With a pair of heels As broad as two wheels. 

Meg has various graves. One is supposed to be marked by a huge stonein the south side of the cloisters of Westminster Abbey; it probablymarks the trench in which some plague victims--regarded, perhaps, asvictims of Meg--were interred. Meg was also reputed to have beenpetrified, like certain Greek and Irish giants and giantesses. AtLittle Salkeld, near Penrith, a stone circle is referred to as "LongMeg and her Daughters". Like "Long Tom", the famous giant, "Mons Meg"gave her name to big guns in early times, all hags and giants havingbeen famous in floating folk tales as throwers of granite boulders, balls of hard clay, quoits, and other gigantic missiles. 

The stories about Grendel's mother and Long Meg are similar to thosestill repeated in the Scottish Highlands. These contrast sharply withcharacteristic Germanic legends, in which the giant is greater thanthe giantess, and the dragon is a male, like Fafner, who is slain bySigurd, and Regin whom Siegfried overcomes. It is probable, therefore, that the British stories of female monsters who were more powerfulthan their husbands and sons, are of Neolithic and Iberianorigin--immemorial relics of the intellectual life of the westernbranch of the Mediterranean race. 

In Egypt the dragon survives in the highly developed mythology of thesun cult of Heliopolis, and, as sun worship is believed to have beenimported, and the sun deity is a male, it is not surprising to findthat the night demon, Apep, was a personification of Set. This god, who is identical with Sutekh, a Syrian and Asia Minor deity, wasapparently worshipped by a tribe which was overcome in the course ofearly tribal struggles in pre-dynastic times. Being an old anddiscredited god, he became by a familiar process the demon of theconquerors. In the eighteenth dynasty, however, his ancient glory wasrevived, for the Sutekh of Rameses II figures as the "dragonslayer". [178] It is in accordance with Mediterranean modes of thought, however, to find that in Egypt there is a great celestial battleheroine. This is the goddess Hathor-Sekhet, the "Eye of Ra". [179]Similarly in India, the post-Vedic goddess Kali is a destroyer, whileas Durga she is a guardian of heroes. [180] Kali, Durga, andHathor-Sekhet link with the classical goddesses of war, and also withthe Babylonian Ishtar, who, as has been shown, retained theoutstanding characteristics of Tiamat, the fierce old "Great Mother"of primitive Sumerian folk religion. 

It is possible that in the Babylonian dragon myth the original herowas Ea. As much may be inferred from the symbolic references in theBible to Jah's victory over the monster of the deep: "Art thou not itthat hath cut Rahab and wounded the dragon?"[181] "Thou brakest theheads of the dragons in the waters; thou brakest the heads ofleviathan in pieces, and gavest him to be meat to the peopleinhabiting the wilderness";[182] "He divideth the sea with his power, and by his understanding he smiteth through the proud (Rahab). By hisspirit he hath garnished the heavens: his hand hath formed (orpierced) the crooked serpent";[183] "Thou hast broken Rahab in piecesas one that is slain: thou hast scattered thine enemies with thystrong arm";[184] "In that day the Lord with his sore and great andstrong sword shall punish leviathan the piercing (or stiff) serpent, even leviathan that crooked serpent; and he shall slay the dragon thatis in the sea". [185]

In the Babylonian Creation legend Ea is supplanted as dragon slayer byhis son Merodach. Similarly Ninip took the place of his father, Enlil, as the champion of the gods. "In other words, " writes Dr. Langdon, "later theology evolved the notion of the son of the earth god, whoacquires the attributes of the father, and becomes the god of war. Itis he who stood forth against the rebellious monsters of darkness, whowould wrest the dominion of the world from the gods who held theirconclave on the mountain. The gods offer him the Tablets of Fate; theright to utter decrees is given unto him. " This development is "ofextreme importance for studying the growth of the idea of father andson, as creative and active principles of the world". [186] In Indianmythology Indra similarly takes the place of his bolt-throwing fatherDyaus, the sky god, who so closely resembles Zeus. Andrew Lang hasshown that this myth is of widespread character. [187] Were theBabylonian theorists guided by the folk-lore clue?

Now Merodach, as the son of Ea whom he consulted and received spellsfrom, was a brother of "Tammuz of the Abyss". It seems that in thegreat god of Babylon we should recognize one of the many forms of theprimeval corn spirit and patriarch--the shepherd youth who was belovedby Ishtar. As the deity of the spring sun, Tammuz slew the winterdemons of rain and tempest, so that he was an appropriate spouse forthe goddess of harvest and war. Merodach may have been a developmentof Tammuz in his character as a demon slayer. When he was raised tothe position of Bel, "the Lord" by the Babylonian conquerors, Merodachsupplanted the older Bel--Enlil of Nippur. Now Enlil, who had absorbedall the attributes of rival deities, and become a world god, was the

 Lord of the harvest lands . .. Lord of the grain fields, being "lord of the anunnaki", or "earth spirits". As agriculturists inearly times went to war so as to secure prisoners who could besacrificed to feed the corn spirit, Enlil was a god of war and wasadored as such:

 The haughty, the hostile land thou dost humiliate . .. With thee who ventureth to make war?

He was also "the bull of goring horns . .. Enlil the bull", the god offertility as well as of battle. [188]

Asari, one of Merodach's names, links him with Osiris, the EgyptianTammuz, who was supplanted by his son Horus. As the dragon slayer, herecalls, among others, Perseus, the Grecian hero, of whom it wasprophesied that he would slay his grandfather. Perseus, like Tammuzand Osiris, was enclosed in a chest which was cast into the sea, to berescued, however, by a fisherman on the island of Seriphos. This heroafterwards slew Medusa, one of the three terrible sisters, theGorgons--a demon group which links with Tiamat. In time, Perseusreturned home, and while an athletic contest was in progress, hekilled his grandfather with a quoit. There is no evidence, however, toshow that the displacement of Enlil by Merodach had any legendarysanction of like character. The god of Babylon absorbed all otherdeities, apparently for political purposes, and in accordance with thetendency of the thought of the times, when raised to supreme rank inthe national pantheon; and he was depicted fighting the winged dragon, flapping his own storm wings, and carrying the thunder weaponassociated with Ramman. 

Merodach's spouse Zer-panituᵐ was significantly called "the lady ofthe Abyss", a title which connects her with Damkina, the mother, andBelit-sheri, the sister of Tammuz. Damkina was also a sky goddess likeIshtar. 

Zer-panituᵐ was no pale reflection of her Celestial husband, but agoddess of sharply defined character with independent powers. Apparently she was identical with Aruru, creatrix of the seed ofmankind, who was associated with Merodach when the first man and thefirst woman were brought into being. Originally she was one of themothers in the primitive spirit group, and so identical with Ishtarand the other prominent goddesses. 

As all goddesses became forms of Ishtar, so did all gods become formsof Merodach. Sin was "Merodach as illuminator of night", Nergal was"Merodach of war", Addu (Ramman) was "Merodach of rain", and so on. Acolophon which contains a text in which these identifications aredetailed, appears to be "a copy", says Professor Pinches, "of an oldinscription", which, he thinks, "may go back as far as 2000 B. C. Thisis the period at which the name _Yauᵐ-ilu_, 'Jah is god', is found, together with references to _ilu_ as the name for the one great god, and is also, roughly, the date of Abraham, who, it may be noted, was aBabylonian of Ur of the Chaldees. "[189]

In one of the hymns Merodach is addressed as follows:--

 Who shall escape from before thy power? Thy will is an eternal mystery! Thou makest it plain in heaven And in the earth, Command the sea And the sea obeyeth thee. Command the tempest And the tempest becometh a calm. Command the winding course Of the Euphrates, And the will of Merodach Shall arrest the floods. Lord, thou art holy! Who is like unto thee? Merodach thou art honoured Among the gods that bear a name. 

The monotheistic tendency, which was a marked feature of Merodachworship, had previously become pronounced in the worship of Bel Enlilof Nippur. Although it did not affect the religion of the masses, itserves to show that among the ancient scholars and thinkers ofBabylonia religious thought had, at an early period, risen far abovethe crude polytheism of those who bargained with their deities andpropitiated them with offerings and extravagant flattery, or exercisedover them a magical influence by the performance of seasonalceremonies, like the backsliders in Jerusalem, censured so severely byJeremiah, who baked cakes to reward the Queen of Heaven for anabundant harvest, and wept with her for the slain Tammuz when hedeparted to Hades. 

Perhaps it was due to the monotheistic tendency, if not to the fusionof father-worshipping and mother-worshipping peoples, that bi-sexualdeities were conceived of. Nannar, the moon god, was sometimesaddressed as father and mother in one, and Ishtar as a god as well asa goddess. In Egypt Isis is referred to in a temple chant as "thewoman who was made a male by her father Osiris", and the Nile god Hapiwas depicted as a man with female breasts. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

DEIFIED HEROES: ETANA AND GILGAMESH

 God and Heroes and the "Seven Sleepers"--Quests of Etana, Gilgamesh, Hercules, &c. --The Plant of Birth--Eagle carries Etana to Heaven--Indian Parallel--Flights of Nimrod, Alexander the Great, and a Gaelic Hero--Eagle as a God--Indian Eagle identified with Gods of Creation, Fire, Fertility, and Death--Eagle carries Roman Emperor's Soul to Heaven--Fire and Agricultural Ceremonies--Nimrod of the _Koran_ and John Barleycorn--Gilgamesh and the Eagle--Sargon-Tammuz Garden Myth--Ea-bani compared to Pan, Bast, and Nebuchadnezzar--Exploits of Gilgamesh and Ea-bani--Ishtar's Vengeance--Gilgamesh journeys to Otherworld--Song of Sea Maiden and "Lay of the Harper"--Babylonian Noah and the Plant of Life--Teutonic Parallels--Alexander the Great as Gilgamesh--Water of Life in the _Koran_--The Indian Gilgamesh and Hercules--The Mountain Tunnel in various Mythologies--Widespread Cultural Influences. 

One of the oldest forms of folk stories relates to the wanderings ofa hero in distant regions. He may set forth in search of a fair ladywho has been taken captive, or to obtain a magic herb or stone torelieve a sufferer, to cure diseases, and to prolong life. Invariablyhe is a slayer of dragons and other monsters. A friendly spirit, or agroup of spirits, may assist the hero, who acts according to theadvice given him by a "wise woman", a magician, or a god. The spiritsare usually wild beasts or birds--the "fates" of immemorial folkbelief--and they may either carry the hero on their backs, instructhim from time to time, or come to his aid when called upon. 

When a great national hero appealed by reason of his achievements tothe imagination of a people, all the floating legends of antiquitywere attached to his memory, and he became identified with gods andgiants and knight-errants "old in story". In Scotland, for instance, the boulder-throwing giant of Eildon hills bears the name of Wallace, the Edinburgh giant of Arthur's Seat is called after an ancient Celticking, [190] and Thomas the Rhymer takes the place, in an Invernessfairy mound called Tom-na-hurich, of Finn (Fingal) as chief of the"Seven Sleepers". Similarly Napoleon sleeps in France and Skobeleff inRussia, as do also other heroes elsewhere. In Germany the myths ofThunor (Thor) were mingled with hazy traditions of Theodoric the Goth(Dietrich), while in Greece, Egypt, and Arabia, Alexander the Greatabsorbed a mass of legendary matter of great antiquity, and displacedin the memories of the people the heroes of other Ages, as thoseheroes had previously displaced the humanized spirits of fertility andgrowth who alternately battled fiercely against the demons of spring, made love, gorged and drank deep and went to sleep--the sleep ofwinter. Certain folk tales, and the folk beliefs on which they werebased, seem to have been of hoary antiquity before the close of theLate Stone Age. 

There are two great heroes of Babylonian fame who link with Perseusand Hercules, Sigurd and Siegfried, Dietrich and Finn-mac-Coul. Theseare Etana and Gilgamesh, two legendary kings who resemble Tammuz thePatriarch referred to by Berosus, a form of Tammuz the Sleeper of theSumerian psalms. One journeys to the Nether World to obtain the Plantof Birth and the other to obtain the Plant of Life. The floatinglegends with which they were associated were utilized and developed bythe priests, when engaged in the process of systematizing andsymbolizing religious beliefs, with purpose to unfold the secrets ofcreation and the Otherworld. Etana secures the assistance or a gianteagle who is an enemy of serpents like the Indian Garuda, half giant, half eagle. As Vishnu, the Indian god, rides on the back of Garuda, sodoes Etana ride on the back of the Babylonian Eagle. In onefragmentary legend which was preserved in the tablet-library ofAshur-banipal, the Assyrian monarch, Etana obtained the assistance ofthe Eagle to go in quest of the Plant of Birth. His wife was about tobecome a mother, and was accordingly in need of magical aid. A similarbelief caused birth girdles of straw or serpent skins, and eaglestones found in eagles' nests, to be used in ancient Britain andelsewhere throughout Europe apparently from the earliest times. [191]

On this or another occasion Etana desired to ascend to highest heaven. He asked the Eagle to assist him, and the bird assented, saying: "Beglad, my friend. Let me bear thee to the highest heaven. Lay thybreast on mine and thine arms on my wings, and let my body be as thybody. " Etana did as the great bird requested him, and together theyascended towards the firmament. After a flight which extended over twohours, the Eagle asked Etana to gaze downwards. He did so, and beheldthe ocean surrounding the earth, and the earth seemed like amountainous island. The Eagle resumed its flight, and when another twohours had elapsed, it again asked Etana to look downwards. Then thehero saw that the sea resembled a girdle which clasped the land. Twohours later Etana found that he had been raised to a height from whichthe sea appeared to be no larger than a pond. By this time he hadreached the heaven of Anu, Bel, and Ea, and found there rest andshelter. 

Here the text becomes fragmentary. Further on it is gathered from thenarrative that Etana is being carried still higher by the Eagletowards the heaven of Ishtar, "Queen of Heaven", the supreme mothergoddess. Three times, at intervals of two hours, the Eagle asks Etanato look downwards towards the shrinking earth. Then some disasterhappens, for further onwards the broken tablet narrates that the Eagleis falling. Down and down eagle and man fall together until theystrike the earth, and the Eagle's body is shattered. 

The Indian Garuda eagle[192] never met with such a fate, but on oneoccasion Vishnu overpowered it with his right arm, which was heavierthan the whole universe, and caused many feathers to fall _off_. Inthe story of Rama's wanderings, however, as told in the _Ramayana_ andthe _Mahabharata_, there are interesting references in this connectionto Garuda's two "sons". One was mortally wounded by Ravana, the demonking of Ceylon. The other bird related to Rama, who found it disabled:"Once upon a time we two (brothers), with the desire of outstrippingeach other, flew towards the sun. My wings were burnt, but those of mybrother were not. .. . I fell down on the top of this great mountain, where I still am. "[193]

Another version of the Etana story survives among the Arabian Moslems. In the "Al Fatihat" chapter of the _Koran_ it is related that aBabylonian king held a dispute with Abraham "concerning his Lord". Commentators identify the monarch with Nimrod, who afterwards causedthe Hebrew patriarch to be cast into a fire from which he hadmiraculous deliverance. Nimrod then built a tower so as to ascend toheaven "to see Abraham's god", and make war against Him, but the towerwas overthrown. He, however, persisted in his design. The narrativestates that he was "carried to heaven in a chest borne by fourmonstrous birds; but after wandering for some time through the air, hefell down on a mountain with such a force that he made it shake". Areference in the _Koran_ to "contrivances . .. Which make mountainstremble" is believed to allude to Nimrod's vain attempt. [194]

Alexander the Great was also reputed to have ascended on the back ofan eagle. Among the myths attached to his memory in the Ethiopic"history" is one which explains how "he knew and comprehended thelength and breadth of the earth", and how he obtained knowledgeregarding the seas and mountains he would have to cross. "He madehimself small and flew through the air on an eagle, and he arrived inthe heights of the heavens and he explored them. " Another Alexandrianversion of the Etana myth resembles the Arabic legend of Nimrod. "Inthe Country of Darkness" Alexander fed and tamed great birds whichwere larger than eagles. Then he ordered four of his soldiers to mountthem. The men were carried to the "Country of the Living", and whenthey returned they told Alexander "all that had happened and all thatthey had seen". [195]

In a Gaelic story a hero is carried off by a Cromhineach, "a vast birdlike an eagle". He tells that it "sprang to the clouds with me, and Iwas a while that I did not know which was heaven or earth for me". Thehero died, but, curiously enough, remained conscious of what washappening. Apparently exhausted, the eagle flew to an island in themidst of the ocean. It laid the hero on the sunny side. The heroproceeds: "Sleep came upon herself (the eagle) and she slept. The sunwas enlivening me pretty well though I was dead. " Afterwards the eaglebathed in a healing well, and as it splashed in the water, drops fellon the hero and he came to life. "I grew stronger and more active", headds, "than I had ever been before. "[196]

The eagle figures in various mythologies, and appears to have been atone time worshipped as the god or goddess of fertility, and storm andlightning, as the bringer of children, and the deity who carried soulsto Hades. It was also the symbol of royalty, because the earthly rulerrepresented the controlling deity. Nin-Girsu, the god of Lagash, whowas identified with Tammuz, was depicted as a lion-headed eagle. Zeus, the Greek sky and air god, was attended by an eagle, and may, at onetime, have been simply an eagle. In Egypt the place of the eagle istaken by Nekhebit, the vulture goddess whom the Greeks identified with"Eileithyia, the goddess of birth; she was usually represented as avulture hovering over the king". [197]

The double-headed eagle of the Hittites, which figures in the royalarms of Germany and Russia, appears to have symbolized the deity ofwhom the king was an incarnation or son. In Indian mythology Garuda, the eagle giant, which destroyed serpents like the Babylonian Etanaeagle, issued from its egg like a flame of fire; its eyes flashed thelightning and its voice was the thunder. This bird is identified in ahymn with Agni, god of fire, who has the attributes of Tammuz andMithra, with Brahma, the creator, with Indra, god of thunder andfertility, and with Yama, god of the dead, who carries off souls toHades. It is also called "the steed-necked incarnation of Vishnu", the"Preserver" of the Hindu trinity who rode on its back. The hymnreferred to lauds Garuda as "the bird of life, the presiding spirit ofthe animate and inanimate universe . .. Destroyer of all, creator ofall". It burns all "as the sun in his anger burneth allcreatures". [198]

Birds were not only fates, from whose movements in flight omens weredrawn, but also spirits of fertility. When the childless Indian sageMandapala of the _Mahabharata_ was refused admittance to heaven untila son was born to him, he "pondered deeply" and "came to know that ofall creatures birds alone were blest with fecundity"; so he became abird. 

It is of interest, therefore, to find the Etana eagle figuring as asymbol of royalty at Rome. The deified Roman Emperor's waxen image wasburned on a pyre after his death, and an eagle was let loose from thegreat pile to carry his soul to heaven. [199] This custom was probablya relic of seasonal fire worship, which may have been introduced intoNorthern and Western Syria and Asia Minor by the mysterious Mitannirulers, if it was not an archaic Babylonian custom[200] associatedwith fire-and-water magical ceremonies, represented in the BritishIsles by May-Day and Midsummer fire-and-water festivals. Sandan, themythical founder of Tarsus, was honoured each year at that city byburning a great bonfire, and he was identified with Hercules. Probablyhe was a form of Moloch and Melkarth. [201] Doves were burned toAdonis. The burning of straw figures, representing gods of fertility, on May-Day bonfires may have been a fertility rite, and perhapsexplains the use of straw birth-girdles. 

According to the commentators of the _Koran_, Nimrod, the Babylonianking, who cast victims in his annual bonfires at Cuthah, died on theeighth day of the Tammuz month, which, according to the Syriancalendar, fell on 13th July. [202] It is related that gnats enteredNimrod's brain, causing the membrane to grow larger. He suffered greatpain, and to relieve it had his head beaten with a mallet. Although helived for several hundred years, like other agricultural patriarchs, including the Tammuz of Berosus, it is possible that he was ultimatelysacrificed and burned. The beating of Nimrod recalls the beating ofthe corn spirit of the agricultural legend utilized by Burns in hisballad of "John Barleycorn", which gives a jocular account ofwidespread ancient customs that are not yet quite extinct even inScotland:[203]

 They laid him down upon his back And cudgelled him full sore; They hung him up before a storm And turned him o'er and o'er. 

 They filled up a darksome pit With water to the brim, They heaved in John Barleycorn-- There let him sink or swim. 

 They wasted o'er a scorching flame The marrow of his bones, But the miller used him worst of all, For he crushed him between two stones. 

Hercules, after performing many mythical exploits, had himself burnedalive on the pyre which he built upon Mount Oeta, and was borne toOlympus amidst peals of thunder. 

Gilgamesh, the Babylonian Hercules, who links with Etana, Nimrod, andSandan, is associated with the eagle, which in India, as has beenshown, was identified with the gods of fertility, fire, and death. According to a legend related by Aelian, [204] "the guards of thecitadel of Babylon threw down to the ground a child who had beenconceived and brought forth in secret, and who afterwards became knownas Gilgamos". This appears to be another version of the Sargon-Tammuzmyth, and may also refer to the sacrifice of children to Melkarth andMoloch, who were burned or slain "in the valleys under the clefts ofthe rocks"[205] to ensure fertility and feed the corn god. Gilgamesh, however, did not perish. "A keen-eyed eagle saw the child falling, andbefore it touched the ground the bird flew under it and received it onits back, and carried it away to a garden and laid it down gently. "Here we have, it would appear, Tammuz among the flowers, and Sargon, the gardener, in the "Garden of Adonis". Mimic Adonis gardens werecultivated by women. Corn, &c. , was forced in pots and baskets, andthrown, with an image of the god, into streams. "Ignorant people", writes Professor Frazer, "suppose that by mimicking the effect whichthey desire to produce they actually help to produce it: thus bysprinkling water they make rain, by lighting a fire they makesunshine, and so on. "[206] Evidently Gilgamesh was a heroic form ofthe god Tammuz, the slayer of the demons of winter and storm, whopassed one part of the year in the world and another in Hades (ChapterVI). 

Like Hercules, Gilgamesh figured chiefly in legendary narrative as amighty hero. He was apparently of great antiquity, so that it isimpossible to identify him with any forerunner of Sargon of Akkad, orAlexander the Great. His exploits were depicted on cylinder seals ofthe Sumerian period, and he is shown wrestling with a lion as Herculeswrestled with the monstrous lion in the valley of Nemea. The story ofhis adventures was narrated on twelve clay tablets, which werepreserved in the library of Ashur-banipal, the Assyrian emperor. Inthe first tablet, which is badly mutilated, Gilgamesh is referred toas the man who beheld the world, and had great wisdom because hepeered into the mysteries. He travelled to distant places, and wasinformed regarding the flood and the primitive race which the godsdestroyed; he also obtained the plant of life, which his enemy, theearth-lion, in the form of a serpent or well demon, afterwards carriedaway. 

Gilgamesh was associated with Erech, where he reigned as "the lord". There Ishtar had a great temple, but her worldly wealth had decreased. The fortifications of the city were crumbling, and for three years theElamites besieged it. The gods had turned to flies and the wingedbulls had become like mice. Men wailed like wild beasts and maidensmoaned like doves. Ultimately the people prayed to the goddess Aruruto create a liberator. Bel, Shamash, and Ishtar also came to theiraid. 

Aruru heard the cries of her worshippers. She dipped her hands inwater and then formed a warrior with clay. He was named Ea-bani, whichsignifies "Ea is my creator". It is possible, therefore, that anancient myth of Eridu forms the basis of the narrative. 

Ea-bani is depicted on the cylinder seals as a hairy man-monsterresembling the god Pan. He ate grass with the gazelles and drank waterwith wild beasts, and he is compared to the corn god, which suggeststhat he was an early form of Tammuz, and of character somewhatresembling the Egyptian Bast, the half-bestial god of fertility. Ahunter was sent out from Erech to search for the man-monster, andfound him beside a stream in a savage place drinking with hisassociates, the wild animals. The description of Ea-bani recalls thatof Nebuchadnezzar when he was stricken with madness. "He was drivenfrom men, and did eat grass as oxen, and his body was wet with the dewof heaven, till his hairs were grown like eagles' feathers, and hisnails like birds' claws. "[207]

The hunter had no desire to combat with Ea-bani, so he had him luredfrom the wilds by a beautiful woman. Love broke the spell which keptEa-bani in his savage state, and the wild beasts fled from him. Thenthe temptress pleaded with him to go with her to Erech, where Anu andIshtar had their temples, and the mighty Gilgamesh lived in hispalace. Ea-bani, deserted by his bestial companions, felt lonely anddesired human friendship. So he consented to accompany his bride. Having heard of Gilgamesh from the hunter, he proposed to test hisstrength in single combat, but Shamash, god of the sun, warned Ea-banithat he was the protector of Gilgamesh, who had been endowed withgreat knowledge by Bel and Anu and Ea. Gilgamesh was also counselledin a vision of night to receive Ea-bani as an ally. 

Ea-bani was not attracted by city life and desired to return to thewilds, but Shamash prevailed upon him to remain as the friend ofGilgamesh, promising that he would be greatly honoured and exalted tohigh rank. 

The two heroes became close friends, and when the narrative becomesclear again, they are found to be setting forth to wage war againstChumbaba, [208] the King of Elam. Their journey was long and perilous. In time they entered a thick forest, and wondered greatly at thenumerous and lofty cedars. They saw the great road which the king hadcaused to be made, the high mountain, and the temple of the god. Beautiful were the trees about the mountain, and there were many shadyretreats that were fragrant and alluring. 

At this point the narrative breaks off, for the tablet is mutilated. When it is resumed a reference is made to "the head of Chumbaba", whohas apparently been slain by the heroes. Erech was thus freed from theoppression of its fierce enemy. 

Gilgamesh and Ea-bani appear to have become prosperous and happy. Butin the hour of triumph a shadow falls. Gilgamesh is robed in royalsplendour and wears his dazzling crown. He is admired by all men, butsuddenly it becomes known that the goddess Ishtar has been strickenwith love for him. She "loved him with that love which was his doom". Those who are loved by celestials or demons become, in folk tales, melancholy wanderers and "night wailers". The "wretched wight" inKeats' "La Belle Dame Sans Merci" is a typical example. 

 O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms, Alone and palely loitering? The sedge is withered from the lake And no birds sing. 

 * * * * *

 I met a lady in the meads, Full beautiful--a faery's child; Her hair was long, her foot was light, And her eyes were wild. 

 * * * * *

 She found me roots of relish sweet, And honey wild and manna dew; And sure in language strange she said, "I love thee true". 

Having kissed her lover to sleep, the fairy woman vanished. The"knight" then saw in a dream the ghosts of knights and warriors, herprevious victims, who warned him of his fate. 

 I saw their starved lips in the gloam, With horrid warning gaped wide; And I awoke and found me here On the cold hill's side. 

The goddess Ishtar appeared as "La Belle Dame Sans Merci" beforeGilgamesh and addressed him tenderly, saying: "Come, O Gilgamesh, andbe my consort. Gift thy strength unto me. Be thou my husband and Iwill be thy bride. Thou shalt have a chariot of gold and lapis lazuliwith golden wheels and gem-adorned. Thy steeds shall be fair and whiteand powerful. Into my dwelling thou shalt come amidst the fragrantcedars. Every king and every prince will bow down before thee, OGilgamesh, to kiss thy feet, and all people will become subject untothee. "

Gilgamesh feared the fate which would attend him as the lover ofIshtar, and made answer saying: "To what husband hast thou everremained faithful? Each year Tammuz, the lover of thy youth, is causedby thee to weep. Thou didst love the Allala bird and then broke hiswings, and he moans in the woods crying, 'O my wings!' Thou didst lovethe lion and then snared him. Thou didst love the horse, and then laidharness on him and made him gallop half a hundred miles so that hesuffered great distress, and thou didst oppress his mother Silili. Thou didst love a shepherd who sacrificed kids unto thee, and thenthou didst smite him so that he became a jackal (or leopard); his ownherd boy drove him away and his dogs rent him in pieces. Thou didstlove Ishullanu, the gardener of Anu, who made offerings unto thee, andthen smote him so that he was unable to move. Alas! if thou wouldstlove me, my fate would be like unto the fates of those on whom thouhast laid affliction. "

Ishtar's heart was filled with wrath when she heard the words whichGilgamesh had spoken, and she prevailed upon her father Anu to createa fierce bull which she sent against the lord of Erech. 

This monster, however, was slain by Gilgamesh[209] and Ea-bani, buttheir triumph was shortlived. Ishtar cursed Gilgamesh. Ea-bani thendefied her and threatened to deal with her as he had dealt with thebull, with the result that he was cursed by the goddess also. 

Gilgamesh dedicated the horns of the bull to Shamash and returned withhis friend to Erech, where they were received with great rejoicings. Afestival was held, and afterwards the heroes lay down to sleep. ThenEa-bani dreamt a dream of ill omen. He met his death soon afterwards, apparently in a battle, and Gilgamesh lamented over him. From thesurviving fragments of the narrative it would appear that Gilgameshresolved to undertake a journey, for he had been stricken by disease. He wept and cried out, "Oh! let me not die like Ea-bani, for death isfearful. I will seek the aid of mine ancestor, Pir-napishtim"--theBabylonian Noah, who was believed to be dwelling on an island whichcorresponds to the Greek "Island of the Blessed". The Babylonianisland lay in the ocean of the Nether World. 

It seems that Gilgamesh not only hoped to obtain the Water of Life andthe Plant of Life to cure his own disease, but also to restore to lifehis dead friend, Ea-bani, whom he loved. 

Gilgamesh set out on his journey and in time reached a mountain chasm. Gazing on the rugged heights, he beheld fierce lions and his hearttrembled. Then he cried upon the moon god, who took pity upon him, andunder divine protection the hero pressed onward. He crossed the rockyrange and then found himself confronted by the tremendous mountain ofMashi--"Sunset hill", which divided the land of the living from thewestern land of the dead. The mountain peak rose to heaven, and itsfoundations were in Aralu, the Underworld. [210] A dark tunnel piercedit and could be entered through a door, but the door was shut and oneither side were two monsters of horrible aspect--the gigantic"scorpion man" and his wife, whose heads reached to the clouds. WhenGilgamesh beheld them he swooned with terror. But they did him noharm, perceiving that he was a son of a god and had a body like a god. 

When Gilgamesh revived, he realized that the monsters regarded himwith eyes of sympathy. Addressing the scorpion giant, he told that hedesired to visit his ancestor, Pir-napishtim, who sat in the councilof the gods and had divine attributes. The giant warned him of thedangers which he would encounter, saying that the mountain passage wastwelve miles long and beamless and black. Gilgamesh, however, resolvedto encounter any peril, for he was no longer afraid, and he wasallowed to go forward. So he entered through the monster-guardedmountain door and plunged into thick unbroken darkness. For twicetwelve hours he groped blindly onward, until he saw a ray of light. Quickening his steps, he then escaped from the dreadful tunnel andonce more rejoiced in the rays of the sun. He found himself in anenchanted garden, and in the midst of it he saw a divine and beautifultree towards which he hastened. On its gleaming branches hung clustersof precious stones and its leaves were of lapis lazuli. His eyes weredazzled, but he did not linger there. Passing many other wonderfultrees, he came to a shoreland, and he knew that he was drawing nigh tothe Sea of Death. The country which he entered was ruled over by thesea lady whose name was Sabitu. When she saw the pilgrim drawing nigh, she entered her palace and shut the door. 

Gilgamesh called out requesting that he should be allowed to enter, and mingled his entreaties with threats to break open the door. In theend Sabitu appeared and spoke, saying:

 Gilgamesh, whither hurriest thou? The life that thou seekest thou wilt not find. When the gods created man They fixed death for mankind. Life they took in their own hand. Thou, O Gilgamesh, let thy belly be filled! Day and night be merry, Daily celebrate a feast, Day and night dance and make merry! Clean be thy clothes, Thy head be washed, bathe in water! Look joyfully on the child that grasps thy hand, Be happy with the wife in thine arms![211]

This is the philosophy of the Egyptian "Lay of the Harper". Thefollowing quotations are from two separate versions:--

 How rests this just prince! The goodly destiny befalls, The bodies pass away Since the time of the god, And generations come into their places. 

 * * * * *

 (Make) it pleasant for thee to follow thy desire While thou livest. Put myrrh upon thy head, And garments on thee of fine linen. .. . Celebrate the glad day, Be not weary therein. .. . Thy sister (wife) who dwells in thy heart. She sits at thy side. Put song and music before thee, Behind thee all evil things, And remember thou (only) joy. [212]

Jastrow contrasts the Babylonian poem with the following quotationfrom Ecclesiastes:--

 Go thy way, eat thy bread with joy, and drink thy wine with a merry heart. .. . Let thy garments be always white; and let thy head lack no ointment. Live joyfully with the wife whom thou lovest all the days of the life of thy vanity, which he [God] hath given thee under the sun, all the days of thy vanity: for that is thy portion in this life, and in thy labour which thou takest under the sun. [213]

"The pious Hebrew mind", Jastrow adds, "found the corrective to thisview of life in the conception of a stern but just God, actingaccording to self-imposed standards of right and wrong, whose ruleextends beyond the grave. " The final words of the Preacher are, "FearGod and keep his commandments". [214]

Gilgamesh did not accept the counsel of the fatalistic sea lady. Heasked her how he could reach Pir-napishtim, his ancestor, saying hewas prepared to cross the Sea of Death: if he could not cross it hewould die of grief. 

Sabitu answered him, saying: "O Gilgamesh, no mortal is ferried overthis great sea. Who can pass over it save Shamash alone? The way isfull of peril. O Gilgamesh, how canst thou battle against the billowsof death?"

At length, however, the sea lady revealed to the pilgrim that he mightobtain the aid of the sailor, Arad Ea, who served his ancestorPir-napishtim. 

Gilgamesh soon found where Arad Ea dwelt, and after a time prevailedupon him to act as ferryman. Arad Ea required a helm for his boat, andGilgamesh hastened to fashion one from a tree. When it was fixed on, the boat was launched and the voyage began. Terrible experiences werepassed through as they crossed the Sea of Death, but at length theydrew nigh to the "Island of the Blessed" on which dwelt Pir-napishtimand his wife. Wearied by his exertions and wasted by disease, Gilgamesh sat resting in the boat. He did not go ashore. 

Pir-napishtim had perceived the vessel crossing the Sea of Death andmarvelled greatly. 

The story is unfortunately interrupted again, but it appears thatGilgamesh poured into the ears of his ancestor the tale of hissufferings, adding that he feared death and desired to escape hisfate. 

Pir-napishtim made answer, reminding the pilgrim that all men mustdie. Men built houses, sealed contracts, disputed one with another, and sowed seeds in the earth, but as long as they did so and therivers rose in flood, so long would their fate endure. Nor could anyman tell when his hour would come. The god of destiny measured out thespan of life: he fixed the day of death, but never revealed hissecrets. 

Gilgamesh then asked Pir-napishtim how it chanced that he was stillalive. "Thou hast suffered no change, " he said, "thou art even as Iam. Harden not thy heart against me, but reveal how thou hast obtaineddivine life in the company of the gods. "

Pir-napishtim thereupon related to his descendant the story of thedeluge, which is dealt with fully in the next chapter. The gods hadresolved to destroy the world, and Ea in a dream revealed untoPir-napishtim how he could escape. He built a ship which was tossedabout on the waters, and when the world had been destroyed, Beldiscovered him and transported him to that island in the midst of theSea of Death. 

Gilgamesh sat in the boat listening to the words of his ancestor. Whenthe narrative was ended, Pir-napishtim spoke sympathetically and said:"Who among the gods will restore thee to health, O Gilgamesh? Thouhast knowledge of my life, and thou shalt be given the life thou doststrive after. Take heed, therefore, to what I say unto thee. For sixdays and seven nights thou shalt not lie down, but remain sitting likeone in the midst of grief. "[215]

Gilgamesh sat in the ship, and sleep enveloped him like to a blackstorm cloud. 

Pir-napishtim spoke to his wife and said: "Behold the hero whodesireth to have life. Sleep envelops him like to a black stormcloud. "

To that lone man his wife made answer: "Lay thine hand upon him sothat he may have perfect health and be enabled to return to his ownland. Give him power to pass through the mighty door by which heentered. "

Then Pir-napishtim addressed his wife, saying: "His sufferings make mesad. Prepare thou for him the magic food, and place it near his head. "

On the day when Gilgamesh lay down, the food was prepared by sevenmagic processes, and the woman administered it while yet he slept. Then Pir-napishtim touched him, and he awoke full of life. 

Gilgamesh spake unto Pir-napishtim and said: "I was suddenly overcomeby sleep. .. . But thou didst awaken me by touching me, even thou. .. . Lo! I am bewitched. What hast thou done unto thy servant?"

Then Pir-napishtim told Gilgamesh that he had been given to eat of themagic food. Afterwards he caused Arad Ea to carry Gilgamesh to afountain of healing, where his disease-stricken body was cleansed. Theblemished skin fell from him, and he was made whole. 

Thereafter Gilgamesh prepared to return to his own land. Ere he badefarewell, however, Pir-napishtim revealed unto him the secret of amagic plant which had power to renew life and give youth and strengthunto those who were old. 

Arad Ea conducted the hero to the island where the plant grew, andwhen Gilgamesh found it he rejoiced, and said that he would carry itto Erech, his own city, where he would partake of it and restore hisyouth. 

So Gilgamesh and Arad Ea went on their way together, nor paused untilthey came to a well of pure water. The hero stooped down to drawwater. [216] But while he was thus engaged that demon, the Earth Lion, crept forth as a serpent, and, seizing the magic plant of life, carried it away. Stricken with terror, Gilgamesh uttered a curse. Thenhe sat down and wept bitterly, and the tears streamed over his face. To Arad Ea he spake, saying: "Why has my health been restored to me?Why should I rejoice because that I live? The benefit which I shouldhave derived for myself has now fallen to the Earth Lion. "

The two travellers then resumed their journey, performing religiousacts from time to time; chanting dirges and holding feasts for thedead, and at length Gilgamesh returned to Erech. He found that thecity walls were crumbling, and he spake regarding the ceremonies whichhad been performed while yet he was in a far-distant country. 

During the days which followed Gilgamesh sorrowed for his lost friendEa-bani, whose spirit was in the Underworld, the captive of thespirits of death. "Thou canst not draw thy bow now, " he cried, "norraise the battle shout. Thou canst not kiss the woman thou hast loved;thou canst not kiss the child thou hast loved, nor canst thou smitethose whom thou hast hated. "

In vain Gilgamesh appealed to his mother goddess to restore Ea-bani tohim. Then he turned to the gods, and Ea heard him. Thereafter Nergal, god of death, caused the grave to yawn, and the spirit of Ea-baniarose like a wind gust. 

Gilgamesh, still dreading death, spoke to the ghost of his friend, saying: "Tell me, my friend, O tell me regarding the land in whichthou dost dwell. "

Ea-bani made answer sorrowfully: "Alas! I cannot tell thee, my friend. If I were to tell thee all, thou wouldst sit down and weep. "

Said Gilgamesh: "Let me sit down and weep, but tell me regarding theland of spirits. "

The text is mutilated here, but it can be gathered that Ea-banidescribed the land where ill-doers were punished, where the young werelike the old, where the worm devoured, and dust covered all. But thestate of the warrior who had been given burial was better than that ofthe man who had not been buried, and had no one to lament or care forhim. "He who hath been slain in battle, " the ghost said, "reposeth ona couch drinking pure water--one slain in battle as thou hast seen andI have seen. His head is supported by his parents: beside him sits hiswife. His spirit doth not haunt the earth. But the spirit of that manwhose corpse has been left unburied and uncared for, rests not, butprowls through the streets eating scraps of food, the leavings of thefeast, and drinking the dregs of vessels. "

So ends the story of Gilgamesh in the form which survives to us. 

The journey of Gilgamesh to the Island of the Blessed recalls thejourneys made by Odin, Hermod, Svipdag, Hotherus and others to theGermanic Hela. When Hermod went to search for Balder, as the ProseEdda relates, he rode through thick darkness for nine days and ninenights ere he crossed the mountains. As Gilgamesh met Sabitu, Hermodmet Modgudur, "the maiden who kept the bridge" over the river Gjõll. Svipdag, according to a Norse poem, was guided like the Babylonianhero by the moon god, Gevar, who instructed him what way he shouldtake to find the irresistible sword. Saxo's Hother, who is instructedby "King Gewar", crosses dismal mountains "beset with extraordinarycold". [217] Thorkill crosses a stormy ocean to the region of perpetualdarkness, where the ghosts of the dead are confined in loathsome anddusty caves. At the main entrance "the door posts were begrimed withthe soot of ages". [218] In the _Elder Edda_ Svipdag is charmed againstthe perils he will be confronted by as he fares "o'er seas mightierthan men do know", or is overtaken by night "wandering on the mistyway ". [219] When Odin "downward rode into Misty Hel" he sang spells ata "witch's grave", and the ghost rose up to answer his questionsregarding Balder. "Tell me tidings of Hel", he addressed her, asGilgamesh addressed the ghost of Ea-bani. 

In the mythical histories of Alexander the Great, the hero searchesfor the Water of Life, and is confronted by a great mountain calledMusas (Mashti). A demon stops him and says; "O king, thou art not ableto march through this mountain, for in it dwelleth a mighty god who islike unto a monster serpent, and he preventeth everyone who would gounto him. " In another part of the narrative Alexander and his armyarrive at a place of darkness "where the blackness is not like thedarkness of night, but is like unto the mists and clouds which descendat the break of day". A servant uses a shining jewel stone, which Adamhad brought from Paradise, to guide him, and found the well. He drankof the "waters of life" and bathed in them, with the result that hewas strengthened and felt neither hunger nor thirst. When he came outof the well "all the flesh of his body became bluish-green and hisgarments likewise bluish-green". Apparently he assumed the colour ofsupernatural beings. Rama of India was blue, and certain of his monkeyallies were green, like the fairies of England and Scotland. Thisfortunate man kept his secret. His name was Matun, but he wasafterwards nicknamed "'El-Khidr', that is to say, 'Green'". Whatexplanation he offered for his sudden change of appearance has notbeen recorded. [220] It is related that when Matun reached the Well ofLife a dried fish which he dipped in the water was restored to lifeand swam away. In the _Koran_ a similar story is told regarding Mosesand Joshua, who travelled "for a long space of time" to a place wheretwo seas met. "They forgot their fish which they had taken with them, and the fish took its way freely to the sea. " The Arabian commentatorsexplain that Moses once agreed to the suggestion that he was thewisest of men. In a dream he was directed to visit Al Khedr, who was"more knowing than he", and to take a fish with him in a basket. Onthe seashore Moses fell asleep, and the fish, which had been roasted, leapt out of the basket into the sea. Another version sets forth thatJoshua, "making the ablution at the fountain of life", some of thewater happened to be sprinkled on the fish, which immediately leaptup. [221]

The Well of Life is found in Fingalian legends. When Diarmid wasmortally wounded by the boar, he called upon Finn to carry water tohim from the well:

 Give me a draught from thy palms, O Finn, Son of my king for my succour, For my life and my dwelling. 

 _Campbell's West Highland Tales_, vol. Iii, 80. 

The quest of the plant, flower, or fruit of life is referred to inmany folk tales. In the _Mahabharata_, Bhima, the Indian Gilgamesh orHercules, journeys to north-eastern Celestial regions to find the lakeof the god Kuvera (Kubera), on which grow the "most beautiful andunearthly lotuses", which restore health and give strength to theweary. As Gilgamesh meets with Pir-napishtim, who relates the story ofthe Deluge which destroyed the "elder race", Bhima meets with Hanuman, who informs him regarding the Ages of the Universe and the races whichwere periodically destroyed by deluges. When Bhima reaches the lotuslake he fights with demons. To heal his wounds and recover strength heplunges into the lake. "As he drank of the waters, like unto nectar, his energy and strength were again fully restored. "[222]

Hercules similarly sets out to search for the golden apples which growin

 those Hesperian gardens famed of old, Fortunate fields, and groves and flowery vales. 

As Bhima slew Yakshas which guarded the lotuses, Hercules slew Ladon, the guardian of the apples. Other heroes kill treasure-protectingdragons of various kinds. 

There is a remarkable resemblance between the Babylonian account ofGilgamesh's journey through the mountain tunnel to the garden andseashore, and the Indian story of the demigod Hanuman passing throughthe long cavern to the shoreland palace of the female ascetic, when hewas engaged searching for Sita, the wife of Rama, who had been carriedaway by Ravana, the demon king of Ceylon. In the version of the latternarrative which is given in the _Mahabharata_, Hanuman says: "I bringthee good news, O Rama; for Janaka's daughter hath been seen by me. Having searched the southern region with all its hills, forests, andmines for some time, we became very weary. At length we beheld a greatcavern. And having beheld it, we entered that cavern which extendedover many _yojanas_. It was dark and deep, and overgrown with treesand infested by worms. And having gone a great way through it, we cameupon sunshine and beheld a beautiful palace. It was the abode of theDaitya (sea demon) Maya. And there we beheld a female ascetic namedParbhàvati engaged in ascetic austerities. And she gave us food anddrink of various kinds. And having refreshed ourselves therewith andregained our strength, we proceeded along the way shown by her. Atlast we came out of the cavern and beheld the briny sea, and on itsshores, the _Sahya_, the _Malaya_, and the great _Dardura_ mountains. And ascending the mountains of _Malaya_, we beheld before us the vastocean (or, "the abode of Varuna"). And beholding it, we felt sorelygrieved in mind. .. . We despaired of returning with our lives. .. . Wethen sat together, resolved to die there of starvation. "

Hanuman and his friends, having had, so far, experiences similar tothose of Gilgamesh, next discovered the eagle giant which had burnedits wings when endeavouring to soar to the sun. This great bird, whichresembles the Etana eagle, expressed the opinion that Sita was inLanka (Ceylon), whither she must have been carried by Ravana. But noone dared to cross the dangerous ocean. Hanuman at length, however, obtained the assistance of Vayu, the wind god, his divine father, andleapt over the sea, slaying monsters as he went. He discovered wherethe fair lady was concealed by the king of demons. [223]

The dark tunnel is met with in many British stories of daring heroeswho set out to explore it, but never return. In the Scottish versionsthe adventurers are invariably pipers who are accompanied by dogs. Thesound of the pipes is heard for a time; then the music ceasessuddenly, and shortly afterwards the dog returns without a hair uponits body. It has evidently been in conflict with demons. 

The tunnel may run from a castle to the seashore, from a cave on oneside of a hill to a cave on the other, or from a seashore cave to adistant island. 

It is possible that these widespread tunnel stories had origin amongthe cave dwellers of the Palaeolithic Age, who believed that deepcaverns were the doors of the underground retreats of dragons andgiants and other supernatural enemies of mankind. 

In Babylonia, as elsewhere, the priests utilized the floating materialfrom which all mythologies were framed, and impressed upon it thestamp of their doctrines. The symbolized stories were afterwardsdistributed far and wide, as were those attached to the memory ofAlexander the Great at a later period. Thus in many countries may befound at the present day different versions of immemorial folk tales, which represent various stages of culture, and direct and indirectcontact at different periods with civilizations that have stirred theocean of human thought, and sent their ideas rippling in wideningcircles to far-distant shores. 

CHAPTER IX. 

DELUGE LEGEND, THE ISLAND OF THE BLESSED, AND HADES

 Babylonian Story of the Flood--The Two Immortals on the Island of the Blessed--Deluge Legends in the Old and New Worlds--How Babylonian Culture reached India--Theory of Cosmic Periods--Gilgamesh resembles the Indian Yama and Persian Yimeh--Links with Varuna and Mitra--The Great Winter in Persian and Teutonic Mythologies--Babylonian Hades compared with the Egyptian, Greek, Indian, Teutonic, and Celtic Otherworlds--Legend of Nergal and the Queen of Death--Underworld originally the Grave--Why Weapons, &c. , were Buried with the Dead--Japanese and Roman Beliefs--Palaeolithic Burial Customs--"Our Graves are our Houses"--Importance of Babylonian Funerary Ceremonies--Doctrine of Eternal Bliss in Egypt and India--Why Suppressed in Babylonia--Heavy Burial Fees--Various Burial Customs. 

The story of the Deluge which was related to Gilgamesh byPir-napishtim runs as follows:--

"Hear me, O Gilgamesh, and I will make revelation regarding the hiddendoings of the high gods. As thou knowest, the city of Shurippak issituated upon the bank of the Euphrates. The gods were within it:there they assembled together in council. Anu, the father, was there, and Bel the counsellor and warrior, Ninip the messenger, and Ennugithe governor. Ea, the wise lord, sat also with them. In their heartsthe gods agreed together to send a great deluge. 

"Thereafter Ea made known the purpose of the divine rulers in the hutof reeds, saying:[224] 'O hut of reeds, hear; O wall, understand . .. Oman of Shurippak, son of Umbara Tutu, tear down thy house and build aship; leave all thou dost possess and save thy life, and preserve inthe ship the living seed of every kind. The ship that thou wilt buildmust be of goodly proportions in length and height. It must be floatedon the great deep. '

"I heard the command of Ea and understood, and I made answer, saying, 'O wise lord, as thou hast said so will I do, for thy counsel is mostexcellent. But how shall I give reason for my doings to the young menand the elders?'

"Ea opened his mouth and said unto me, his servant: 'What thou shaltsay unto them is this. .. . _It hath been revealed unto me that Bel dothhate me, therefore I cannot remain any longer in his domain, this cityof Shurippak, so I must depart unto the domain of Ea and dwell withhim. .. . Unto you will Bel send abundance of rain, so that you mayobtain birds and fishes in plenty and have a rich harvest. But Shamashhath appointed a time for Ramman to pour down destruction from theheavens. _'"[225]

Ea then gave instructions to Pir-napishtim how to build the ship inwhich he should find refuge. So far as can be gathered from thefragmentary text, it appears that this vessel was to have a deck housesix stories high, with nine apartments in each story. According toanother account, Ea drew a plan of the great ship upon the sand. 

Pir-napishtim set to work and made a flat-bottomed vessel, which was120 cubits wide and 120 cubits in height. He smeared it with bitumeninside and pitch outside; and on the seventh day it was ready. Then hecarried out Ea's further instructions. Continuing his narrative toGilgamesh, he said:

"I gathered together all that I possessed, my silver and gold andseeds of every kind, and my goods also. These I placed in the ship. Then I caused to go aboard all my family and house servants, theanimals of the field and the beasts of the field and theworkers--every one of them I sent up. 

"The god Shamash appointed the time, saying: 'I will cause the NightLord to send much rain and bring destruction. Then enter thou the shipand shut thy door. '

"At the appointed time the Night Lord sent at even-time much rain. Isaw the beginning of the deluge and I was afraid to look up. I enteredthe ship and shut the door. I appointed Buzur-Kurgala, the sailor, tobe captain, and put under his command the great vessel and all that itcontained. 

"At the dawn of day I saw rising athwart the heavens a dark cloud, andin the midst of it Ramman thundered. Nebo and Merodach went in front, speeding like emissaries over hills and plains. The cables of the shipwere let loose. 

"Then Ninip, the tempest god, came nigh, and the storm broke in furybefore him. All the earth spirits leapt up with flaming torches andthe whole land was aflare. The thunder god swept over the heavens, blotting out the sunlight and bringing thick darkness. Rain poureddown the whole day long, and the earth was covered with water; therivers were swollen; the land was in confusion; men stumbled about inthe darkness, battling with the elements. Brothers were unable to seebrothers; no man could recognize his friends. .. . The spirits abovelooked down and beheld the rising flood and were afraid: they fledaway, and in the heaven of Anu they crouched like to hounds in theprotecting enclosures. 

"In time Ishtar, the lady of the gods, cried out distressfully, saying: 'The elder race hath perished and turned to clay because thatI have consented to evil counsel in the assembly of the gods. Alas! Ihave allowed my people to be destroyed. I gave being to man, but whereis he? Like the offspring of fish he cumbers the deep. '

"The earth spirits were weeping with Ishtar: they sat down coweringwith tightened lips and spake not; they mourned in silence. 

"Six days and six nights went past, and the tempest raged over thewaters which gradually covered the land. But when the seventh daycame, the wind fell, the whirling waters grew peaceful, and the searetreated. The storm was over and the rain of destruction had ceased. I looked forth. I called aloud over the waters. But all mankind hadperished and turned to clay. Where fields had been I saw marshes only. 

"Then I opened wide the window of the ship, and the sunlight suffusedmy countenance. I was dazzled and sank down weeping and the tearsstreamed over my face. Everywhere I looked I saw water. 

"At length, land began to appear. The ship drifted towards the countryof Nitsir, and then it was held fast by the mountain of Nitsir. Sixdays went past and the ship remained stedfast. On the seventh day Isent forth a dove, and she flew away and searched this way and that, but found no resting place, so she returned. I then sent forth aswallow, and she returned likewise. Next I sent forth a raven, and sheflew away. She saw that the waters were shrinking, and gorged andcroaked and waded, but did not come back. Then I brought forth all theanimals into the air of heaven. 

"An offering I made on the mountain. I poured out a libation. I set upincense vessels seven by seven on heaped-up reeds and used cedar woodwith incense. The gods smelt the sweet savour, and they clustered likeflies about the sacrificer. 

"Thereafter Ishtar (Sirtu) drew nigh. Lifting up the jewels, which thegod Anu had fashioned for her according to her desire, she spake, saying: 'Oh! these gods! I vow by the lapis lazuli gems upon my neckthat I will never forget! I will remember these days for ever andever. Let all the gods come hither to the offering, save Bel (Enlil)alone, because that he ignored my counsel, and sent a great delugewhich destroyed my people. '

"But Bel Enlil came also, and when he beheld the ship he paused. Hisheart was filled with wrath against the gods and the spirits ofheaven. Angrily he spake and said: 'Hath one escaped? It was decreedthat no human being should survive the deluge. '

"Ninip, son of Bel, spoke, saying: 'Who hath done this save Ea alone?He knoweth all things. '

"Ea, god of the deep, opened his mouth and said unto the warrior Bel:'Thou art the lord of the gods, O warrior. But thou wouldst nothearken to my counsel and caused the deluge to be. Now punish thesinner for his sins and the evil doer for his evil deed, but bemerciful and do not destroy all mankind. May there never again be aflood. Let the lion come and men will decrease. May there never againbe a flood. Let the leopard come and men will decrease. May therenever again be a flood. Let famine come upon the land; let Ura, god ofpestilence, come and snatch off mankind. .. . I did not reveal thesecret purpose of the mighty gods, but I caused Atra-chasis(Pir-napishtim) to dream a dream in which he had knowledge of what thegods had decreed. '

"Having pondered a time over these words, Bel entered the ship alone. He grasped my hand and led me forth, even me, and he led forth my wifealso, and caused her to kneel down beside me. Then he stood between usand gave his blessing. He spoke, saying: 'In time past Pir-napishtimwas a man. Henceforth Pir-napishtim and his wife will be like untodeities, even us. Let them dwell apart beyond the river mouths. '

"Thereafter Bel carried me hither beyond the mouths of rivers. "

 * * * * *

Flood myths are found in many mythologies both in the Old World andthe New. 

The violent and deceitful men of the mythical Bronze Age of Greecewere destroyed by a flood. It is related that Zeus said on oneoccasion to Hermes: "I will send a great rain, such as hath not beensince the making of the world, and the whole race of men shall perish. I am weary of their iniquity. "

For receiving with hospitable warmth these two gods in human guise, Deucalion, an old man, and his wife Pyrrha were spared, however. Zeusinstructed his host to build an ark of oak, and store it well withfood. When this was done, the couple entered the vessel and shut thedoor. Then Zeus "broke up all the fountains of the deep, and openedthe well springs of heaven, and it rained for forty days and fortynights continually". The Bronze folk perished: not even those who fledto the hilltops could escape. The ark rested on Parnassus, and whenthe waters ebbed the old couple descended the mountain and took uptheir abode in a cave. [226]

In Indian mythology the world is destroyed by a flood at the end ofeach Age of the Universe. There are four ages: the Krita or PerfectAge, the Treta Age, the Dwapara Age, and the Kali or Wicked Age. Thesecorrespond closely to the Greek and Celtic ages. [227] There are alsoreferences in Sanskrit literature to the destruction of the worldbecause too many human beings lived upon it. "When the increase ofpopulation had been so frightful, " a sage related, "the Earth, oppressed with the excessive burden, sank down for a hundred Yojanas. Suffering pain in all her limbs, and being deprived of her senses byexcessive pressure, the Earth in distress sought the protection ofNarayana, the foremost of the gods. "[228]

Manu's account of the flood has been already referred to (Chapter II). The god in fish shape informed him: "The time is ripe for purging theworld. .. . Build a strong and massive ark, and furnish it with a longrope. .. . " When the waters rose the horned fish towed the ark over theroaring sea, until it grounded on the highest peak of the Himavat, which is still called Naubandha (the harbour). Manu was accompanied byseven rishis. [229]

In the Celtic (Irish) account of the flood, Cessair, granddaughter ofNoah, was refused a chamber for herself in the ark, and fled to thewestern borders of the world as advised by her idol. [230] Her fleetconsisted of three ships, but two foundered before Ireland wasreached. The survivors in addition to Cessair were, her father Bith, two other men, Fintan and Ladru, and fifty women. All of theseperished on the hills except Fintan, who slept on the crest of a greatbillow, and lived to see Partholon, the giant, arriving from Greece. 

There is a deluge also in Egyptian mythology. When Ra, the sun god, grew old as an earthly king, men began to mutter words against him. Hecalled the gods together and said: "I will not slay them (hissubjects) until I have heard what ye say concerning them. " Nu, hisfather, who was the god of primeval waters, advised the wholesaledestruction of mankind. 

Said Ra: "Behold men flee unto the hills; their heart is full of fearbecause of that which they said. "

The goddess Hathor-Sekhet, the Eye of Ra, then went forth and slewmankind on the hills. Thereafter Ra, desiring to protect the remnantof humanity, caused a great offering to be made to the goddess, consisting of corn beer mixed with herbs and human blood. This drinkwas poured out during the night. "And the goddess came in the morning;she found the fields inundated, she rejoiced thereat, she drankthereof, her heart was rejoiced, she went about drunken and took nomore cognizance of men. "[231]

It is obvious that the Egyptian myth refers to the annual inundationof the Nile, the "human blood" in the "beer" being the blood of theslain corn god, or of his earthly representative. It is probable thatthe flood legends of North and South America similarly reflected localphenomena, although the possibility that they were of Asiatic origin, like the American Mongoloid tribes, cannot be overlooked. Whether ornot Mexican civilization, which was flourishing about the time of thebattle of Hastings, received any cultural stimulus from Asia is aquestion regarding which it would be unsafe to dogmatize, owing to themeagre character of the available data. 

The Mexican deluge was caused by the "water sun", which suddenlydischarged the moisture it had been drawing from the earth in the formof vapour through long ages. All life was destroyed. 

A flood legend among the Nahua tribes resembles closely the Babylonianstory as told by Pir-napishtim. The god Titlacahuan instructed a mannamed Nata to make a boat by hollowing out a cypress tree, so as toescape the coming deluge with his wife Nena. This pair escapeddestruction. They offered up a fish sacrifice in the boat and enragedthe deity who visited them, displaying as much indignation as did Belwhen he discovered that Pir-napishtim had survived the great disaster. Nata and Nena had been instructed to take with them one ear of maizeonly, which suggests that they were harvest spirits. 

In Brazil, Monan, the chief god, sent a great fire to burn up theworld and its wicked inhabitants. To extinguish the flames a magiciancaused so much rain to fall that the earth was flooded. 

The Californian Indians had a flood legend, and believed that theearly race was diminutive; and the Athapascan Indians of thenorth-west professed to be descendants of a family who escaped thedeluge. Indeed, deluge myths were widespread in the "New World". 

The American belief that the first beings who were created were unableto live on earth was shared by the Babylonians. According to Berosusthe first creation was a failure, because the animals could not bearthe light and they all died. [232] Here we meet with the germs of theDoctrine of the World's Ages, which reached its highest development inIndian, Greek, and Celtic (Irish) mythologies. 

The Biblical account of the flood is familiar to readers. "It forms", says Professor Pinches, "a good subject for comparison with theBabylonian account, with which it agrees so closely in all the mainpoints, and from which it differs so much in many essentialdetails. "[233]

The drift of Babylonian culture was not only directed westward towardsthe coast of Palestine, and from thence to Greece during thePhoenician period, but also eastward through Elam to the Iranianplateau and India. Reference has already been made to the resemblancesbetween early Vedic and Sumerian mythologies. When the "new songs" ofthe Aryan invaders of India were being composed, the sky and oceangod, Varuna, who resembles Ea-Oannes, and Mitra, who links withShamash, were already declining in splendour. Other culturalinfluences were at work. Certain of the Aryan tribes, for instance, buried their dead in Varuna's "house of clay", while a growingproportion cremated their dead and worshipped Agni, the fire god. Atthe close of the Vedic period there were fresh invasions into middleIndia, and the "late comers" introduced new beliefs, including thedoctrines of the Transmigration of Souls and of the Ages of theUniverse. Goddesses also rose into prominence, and the Vedic godsbecame minor deities, and subject to Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. These"late comers" had undoubtedly been influenced by Babylonian ideasbefore they entered India. In their Doctrine of the World's Ages orYugas, for instance, we are forcibly reminded of the Euphratean ideasregarding space and time. Mr. Robert Brown, junr. , who is an authorityin this connection, shows that the system by which the "Day of Brahma"was calculated in India resembles closely an astronomical system whichobtained in Babylonia, where apparently the theory of cosmic periodshad origin. [234]

The various alien peoples, however, who came under the spell ofBabylonian modes of thought did not remain in a state of intellectualbondage. Thought was stimulated rather than arrested by religiousborrowing, and the development of ideas regarding the mysteries oflife and death proceeded apace in areas over which the ritualistic andrestraining priesthood of Babylonia exercised no sway. As much may beinferred from the contrasting conceptions of the Patriarchs of Vedicand Sumerian mythologies. Pir-napishtim, the Babylonian Noah, and thesemi-divine Gilgamesh appear to be represented in Vedic mythology byYama, god of the dead. Yama was "the first man", and, like Gilgamesh, he set out on a journey over mountains and across water to discoverParadise. He is lauded in the Vedic hymns as the explorer of "thepath" or "way" to the "Land of the Pitris" (Fathers), the Paradise towhich the Indian uncremated dead walked on foot. Yama never lost hisoriginal character. He is a traveller in the Epics as in theVedas. [235]

 Him who along the mighty heights departed, Him who searched and spied the path for many, Son of Vivasvat, gatherer of the people, Yama, the King, with sacrifices worship. _Rigveda_, x, 14, 1. [236] To Yama, mighty King, be gifts and homage paid, He was the first of men that died, the first to brave Death's rapid rushing stream, the first to point the road To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode. _Sir M. Monier Williams' Translation_. [237]

Yama and his sister Yami were the first human pair. They are identicalwith the Persian Celestial twins, Yima and Yimeh. Yima resembles Mitra(Mithra); Varuna, the twin brother of Mitra, in fact, carries thenoose associated with the god of death. [238]

The Indian Yama, who was also called Pitripati, "lord of the fathers", takes Mitra's place in the Paradise of Ancestors beside Varuna, god ofthe sky and the deep. He sits below a tree, playing on a flute anddrinking the Soma drink which gives immortality. When the descendantsof Yama reached Paradise they assumed shining forms "refined and fromall taint set free". [239]

In Persian mythology "Yima", says Professor Moulton, "reigns over acommunity which may well have been composed of his own descendants, for he lived yet longer than Adam. To render them immortal, he givesthem to eat forbidden food, being deceived by the Daevas (demons). What was this forbidden food? May we connect it with another legendwhereby, at the Regeneration, Mithra is to make men immortal by givingthem to eat the fat of the _Ur-Kuh_, the primeval cow from whose slainbody, according to the Aryan legends adopted by Mithraism, mankind wasfirst created?"

Yima is punished for "presumptuously grasping at immortality forhimself and mankind, on the suggestion of an evil power, instead ofwaiting Ahura's good time". Professor Moulton wonders if this story, which he endeavours to reconstruct, "owed anything to Babylon?"

Yima, like the Babylonian Pir-napishtim, is also a revealer of thesecrets of creation. He was appointed to be "Guardian, Overseer, Watcher over my Creation" by Ahura, the supreme god. Three hundredyears went past--

 Then the earth became abounding, Full of flocks and full of cattle, Full of men, of birds, dogs likewise, Full of fires all bright and blazing, Nor did men, flocks, herds of cattle, Longer find them places in it. 

 _Jackson's Translation_. 

The earth was thereafter cloven with a golden arrow. Yima then built arefuge in which mankind and the domesticated animals might findshelter during a terrible winter. "The picture", says ProfessorMoulton, "strongly tempts us to recognize the influence of theBabylonian Flood-Legend. "[240] The "Fimbul winter" of Germanicmythology is also recalled. Odin asks in one of the Icelandic Eddiepoems:

 What beings shall live when the long dread winter Comes o'er the people of earth?[241]

In another Eddie poem, the Voluspa, the Vala tells of a Sword Age, anAxe Age, a Wind Age, and a Wolf Age which is to come "ere the worldsinks". After the battle of the gods and demons, The sun is darkened, earth sinks in the sea. 

In time, however, a new world appears. 

 I see uprising a second time Earth from the Ocean, green anew; The waters fall, on high the eagle Flies o'er the fell and catches fish. 

When the surviving gods return, they will talk, according to the Vala(prophetess), of "the great world serpent" (Tiamat). The fields willbe sown and "Balder will come"[242]--apparently as Tammuz came. Theassociation of Balder with corn suggests that, like Nata of the Nahuatribes, he was a harvest spirit, among other things. 

Leaving, meantime, the many problems which arise from consideration ofthe Deluge legends and their connection with primitive agriculturalmyths, the attention of readers may be directed to the Babylonianconception of the Otherworld. 

Pir-napishtim, who escaped destruction at the Flood, resides in anIsland Paradise, which resembles the Greek "Islands of the Blessed", and the Irish "Tir nan og" or "Land of the Young", situated in thewestern ocean, and identical with the British[243]

 island-valley of Avilion, Where falls not hail, or rain, or any snow, Nor ever wind blows loudly, but it lies Deep meadow'd, happy, fair with orchard lawns And bowery hollows crowned with summer sea. [244]

Only two human beings were permitted to reside on the Babylonianisland paradise, however. These were Pir-napishtim and his wife. Apparently Gilgamesh could not join them there. His gods did nottransport heroes and other favoured individuals to a happy isle orisles like those of the Greeks and Celts and Aryo-Indians. There wasno Heaven for the Babylonian dead. All mankind were doomed to enterthe gloomy Hades of the Underworld, "the land of darkness and theshadow of death; a land of darkness, as darkness itself; and of theshadow of death, without any order, and where the light is darkness", as Job exclaimed in the hour of despair, lamenting his fate. [245]

This gloomy habitation of the dead resembles the Greek Hades, theTeutonic Nifelhel, and the Indian "Put". No detailed description of ithas been found. The references, however, in the "Descent of Ishtar"and the Gilgamesh epic suggest that it resembled the hidden regions ofthe Egyptians, in which souls were tortured by demons who stabbedthem, plunged them in pools of fire, and thrust them into cold outerdarkness where they gnashed their teeth, or into places of horrorswarming with poisonous reptiles. 

Ishtar was similarly tortured by the plague demon, Namtar, when sheboldly entered the Babylonian Underworld to search for Tammuz. Othersufferings were, no doubt, in store for her, resembling those, perhaps, with which the giant maid in the Eddic poem "Skirnismal" wasthreatened when she refused to marry Frey, the god of fertility andharvest:

 Trolls shall torment thee from morn till eve In the realms of the Jotun race, Each day to the dwellings of Frost giants must thou Creep helpless, creep hopeless of love; Thou shalt weeping have in the stead of joy, And sore burden bear with tears. .. . May madness and shrieking, bondage and yearning Burden thee with bondage and tears. [246]

In like manner, too, the inhabitants of the Indian Hell sufferedendless and complicated tortures. [247]

The Persephone of the Babylonian Underworld was Eresh-ki-gal, who wasalso called Allatu. A myth, which was found among the EgyptianTel-el-Amarna "Letters", sets forth that on one occasion theBabylonian gods held a feast. All the deities attended it, exceptEresh-ki-gal. She was unable to leave her gloomy Underworld, and senther messenger, the plague demon Namtar, to obtain her share. Thevarious deities honoured Namtar, except Nergal, by standing up toreceive him. When Eresh-ki-gal was informed of this slight she becamevery angry, and demanded that Nergal should be delivered up to her sothat he might be put to death. The storm god at once hastened to theUnderworld, accompanied by his own group of fierce demons, whom heplaced as guardians at the various doors so as to prevent the escapeof Eresh-ki-gal. Then he went boldly towards the goddess, clutched herby the hair, and dragged her from her throne. After a brief struggle, she found herself overpowered. Nergal made ready to cut off her head, but she cried for mercy and said: "Do not kill me, my brother! Let mespeak to thee. "

This appeal indicated that she desired to ransom her life--like thehags in the European folk tales--so Nergal unloosed his hold. 

Then Eresh-ki-gal continued: "Be thou my husband and I will be thywife. On thee I confer sovereignty over the wide earth, giving theethe tablet of wisdom. Thou shalt be my lord and I will be thy lady. "

Nergal accepted these terms by kissing the goddess. Affectionatelydrying her tears, he spoke, saying: "Thou shalt now have from me whatthou hast demanded during these past months. "

In other words, Nergal promises to honour her as she desired, afterbecoming her husband and equal. 

In the "Descent of Ishtar" the Babylonian Underworld is called Cuthah. This city had a famous cemetery, like Abydos in Egypt, where manypious and orthodox worshippers sought sepulture. The local god wasNergal, who symbolized the destructive power of the sun and the sandstorm; he was a gloomy, vengeful deity, attended by the spirits oftempest, weariness, pestilence, and disease, and was propitiatedbecause he was dreaded. 

In Nether Cuthah, as Ea-bani informed Gilgamesh, the worm devoured thedead amidst the dust and thick darkness. 

It is evident that this Underworld was modelled on the grave. In earlytimes men believed that the spirits of the dead hovered in or aboutthe place of sepulture. They were therefore provided with "houses" toprotect them, in the same manner as the living were protected in theirhouses above the ground. 

The enemies of the human ghosts were the earth spirits. Weapons werelaid beside the dead in their graves so that they might wage waragainst demons when necessary. The corpse was also charmed, againstattack, by the magical and protecting ornaments which were worn by theliving--necklaces, armlets, ear-rings, &c. Even face paint wasprovided, probably as a charm against the evil eye and other subtleinfluences. 

So long as corpses were left in their graves, the spirits of the deadwere, it would appear, believed to be safe. But they required food andrefreshment. Food vessels and drinking urns were therefore included inthe funerary furniture, and the dead were given food offerings atregular intervals. Once a year the living held feasts in the burialground, and invited the ghosts to share in the repast. This custom wasobserved in Babylonia, and is not yet obsolete in Egypt; Moslems andCoptic Christians alike hold annual all-night feasts in theircemeteries. 

The Japanese "Land of Yomi" is similarly an underworld, or greatgrave, where ghosts mingle with the demons of disease and destruction. Souls reach it by "the pass of Yomi". The Mikado, however, may beprivileged to ascend to heaven and join the gods in the "EternalLand". 

Among the ancient Romans the primitive belief survived that the spiritof the dead "just sank into the earth where it rested, and returnedfrom time to time to the upper world through certain openings in theground (mundi), whose solemn uncovering was one of the regularobservances of the festal calendar". [248]

According to Babylonian belief, the dead who were not properly buriedroamed through the streets searching for food, eating refuse anddrinking impure water. 

Prior to the period of ceremonial burials, the dead were interred inthe houses in which they had lived--a custom which has made itpossible for present-day scientists to accumulate much valuable dataregarding primitive races and their habits of life. The Palaeolithiccave-dwellers of Europe were buried in their caves. These were thendeserted and became the haunts of wild animals. After a long intervala deserted cave was occupied by strangers. In certain characteristiccaves the various layers containing human remains represent distinctperiods of the vast Pleistocene Age. 

When Mediterranean man moved northward through Europe, he utilizedsome of these caves, and constructed in them well-built graves for hisdead, digging down through older layers. In thus making a "house"within a "house", he has provided us with a link between an old customand a new. Apparently he was influenced by local practices andbeliefs, for he met and mingled in certain localities with the men ofthe Late Palaeolithic Age. 

The primitive house-burial rite is referred to in the Ethiopic versionof the life of Alexander the Great. The "Two-horned", as the hero wascalled, conversed with Brahmans when he reached India. He spoke to oneof them, "saying: 'Have ye no tombs wherein to bury any man among yewho may die?' And an interpreter made answer to him, saying: 'Man andwoman and child grow up, and arrive at maturity, and become old, andwhen any one of them dieth we bury him in the place wherein he lived;thus our graves are our houses. And our God knoweth that we desirethis more than the lust for food and meat which all men have: this isour life and manner of living in the darkness of our tombs. '" WhenAlexander desired to make a gift to these Brahmans, and asked themwhat they desired most, their answer was, "Give us immortality". [249]

In the Gilgamesh epic the only ray of hope which relieves the gloomyclosing passages is Ea-bani's suggestion that the sufferings enduredby the dead may be alleviated by the performance of strict burialrites. Commenting on this point Professor Jastrow says: "A properburial with an affectionate care of the corpse ensures at least aquiet repose. 

 Such a one rests on a couch and drinks pure water; But he whose shade has no rest in the earth, as I have seen and you will see, His shade has no rest in the earth Whose shade no one cares for . .. What is left over in the pot, remains of food That are thrown in the street, he eats. "[250]

 _Gilgamesh Epic_. 

By disseminating the belief that the dead must be buried with muchceremony, the priests secured great power over the people, andextracted large fees. 

In Egypt, on the other hand, the teachers of the sun cult sold charmsand received rewards to perform ceremonies so that chosen worshippersmight enter the sun-barque of Ra; while the Osirian priests promisedthe just and righteous that they would reach an agricultural Paradisewhere they could live and work as on earth, but receive a greaterreturn for their labour, the harvests of the Otherworld being ofunequalled abundance. 

In the sacred books of India a number of Paradises are referred to. Nohuman beings, however, entered the Paradise of Varuna, who resemblesthe Sumerian Ea-Oannes. The souls of the dead found rest and enjoymentin the Paradise of Yama, while "those kings that yield up their lives, without turning their backs on the field of battle, attain", as thesage told a hero, "to the mansion of Indra", which recalls the Valhalof Odin. It will thus be seen that belief in immortality was a tenetof the Indian cults of Indra and Yama. 

It is possible that the Gilgamesh epic in one of its forms concludedwhen the hero reached the island of Pir-napishtim, like the IndianYama who "searched and spied the path for many". The Indian "Land ofthe Pitris" (Ancestors), over which Yama presided, may be compared tothe Egyptian heaven of Osiris. It contains, we are told, "all kinds ofenjoyable articles", and also "sweet, juicy, agreeable and deliciousedibles . .. Floral wreaths of the most delicious fragrance, and treesthat yield fruits that are desired of them". Thither go "all sinnersamong human beings, as also (those) that have died during the wintersolstice"[251]--a suggestion that this Paradise was not unconnectedwith the Tammuz-like deity who took up his abode in the spirit landduring the barren season. 

The view may be urged that in the Gilgamesh epic we have a developmentof the Tammuz legend in its heroic form. Like Ishtar, when shedescended to Hades, the King of Erech could not return to earth untilhe had been sprinkled by the water of life. No doubt, an incident ofthis character occurred also in the original Tammuz legend. The lifeof the god had to be renewed before he could return. Did he slumber, like one of the Seven Sleepers, in Ea's house, and not awake againuntil he arrived as a child in his crescent moon boat--"the sunkenboat" of the hymns--like Scef, who came over the waves to the land ofthe Scyldings?

It seems remarkable that the doctrine of Eternal Bliss, which obtainedin Egypt on the one hand and in India on the other, should never havebeen developed among the Babylonians. Of course, our knowledge in thisconnection is derived from the orthodox religious texts. Perhaps thegreat thinkers, whose influence can be traced in the tendenciestowards monotheism which became marked at various periods, believed ina Heaven for the just and good. If they did, their teachings must havebeen suppressed by the mercenary priests. It was extremely profitablefor these priests to perpetuate the belief that the spirits of thedead were consigned to a gloomy Hades, where the degree of sufferingwhich they endured depended on the manner in which their bodies weredisposed of upon earth. An orthodox funeral ceremony was costly at alltimes. This is made evident by the inscriptions which record thesocial reforms of Urukagina, the ill-fated patesi of Lagash. When hecame to the throne he cut down the burial fees by more than a half. "In the case of an ordinary burial, " writes Mr. King, "when a corpsewas laid in a grave, it had been the custom for the presiding priestto demand as a fee for himself seven urns of wine or strong drink, four hundred and twenty loaves of bread, one hundred and twentymeasures of corn, a garment, a kid, a bed, and a seat. " The reformerreduced the perquisites to "three urns of wine, eighty loaves ofbread, a bed, and a kid, while the fee of his (the priest's) assistantwas cut down from sixty to thirty measures of corn". [252]

The conservative element in Babylonian religion is reflected by theburial customs. These did not change greatly after the Neolithicperiod. Prehistoric Sumerian graves resemble closely those ofpre-Dynastic Egypt. The bodies of the dead were laid on their sides incrouching posture, with a "beaker", or "drinking cup" urn, beside theright hand. Other vessels were placed near the head. In thisconnection it may be noted that the magic food prepared for Gilgameshby Pir-napishtim's wife, when he lay asleep, was also placed near hishead. 

The corpse was always decked with various ornaments, including rings, necklaces, and armlets. As has been indicated, these were worn by theliving as charms, and, no doubt, they served the same purpose for thedead. This charm-wearing custom was condemned by the Hebrew teachers. On one occasion Jacob commanded his household to "put away the strangegods which were in their hand, and all the ear-rings which were intheir ears; and Jacob buried them under the oak which was byShechem". [253] To Jacob, personal ornaments had quite evidently anidolatrous significance. 

"A very typical class of grave furniture", writes Mr. King, "consistedof palettes, or colour dishes, made of alabaster, often of gracefulshape, and sometimes standing on four feet. .. . There is no doubt as totheir use, for colour still remains in many of them, generally blackand yellow, but sometimes a light rose and light green. " Palettes forface paint have also been found in many early Egyptian graves. 

The gods had their faces painted like the living and the dead and weresimilarly adorned with charms. In the course of the daily service inthe Egyptian temples an important ceremony was "dressing the god withwhite, green, bright-red, and dark-red sashes, and supplying two kindsof ointment and black and green eye paint". [254] In the word-pictureof the Aryo-Indian Varuna's heaven in the _Mahabharata_ the deity isdepicted "attired in celestial robes and decked with celestialornaments and jewels". His attendants, the Adityas, appear "adornedwith celestial garlands and perfumed with celestial scents andbesmeared with paste of celestial fragrance". [255] Apparently the"paste", like the face paint of the Babylonians and Egyptians, hadprotective qualities. The Picts of Scotland may have similarly paintedthemselves to charm their bodies against magical influences and theweapons of their enemies. A painted man was probably regarded as onewho was likely to have good luck, being guarded against bad luck. 

Weapons and implements were also laid in the Sumerian graves, indicating a belief that the spirits of the dead could not onlyprotect themselves against their enemies but also provide themselveswith food. The funerary gifts of fish-hooks suggests that spirits wereexpected to catch fish and thus obtain clean food, instead ofreturning to disturb the living as they searched for the remnants ofthe feast, like the Scottish Gunna, perched alone On a chilly old grey stone, Nibbling, nibbling at a bone That we'll maybe throw away. 

Some bodies which were laid in Sumerian graves were wrapped up in reedmatting, a custom which suggests that the reeds afforded protection orimparted magical powers. Magical ceremonies were performed inBabylonian reed huts. As we have seen, Ea revealed the "purpose" ofthe gods, when they resolved to send a flood, by addressing the reedhut in which Pir-napishtim lay asleep. Possibly it was believed thatthe dead might also have visions in their dreams which would revealthe "purpose" of demons who were preparing to attack them. In Syria itwas customary to wrap the dead in a sheep skin. [256] As priests andgods were clad in the skins of animals from which their powers werederived, it is probable that the dead were similarly supposed toreceive inspiration in their skin coverings. The Highland seer waswrapped in a bull's skin and left all night beside a stream so as toobtain knowledge of the future. This was a form of the Taghairmceremony, which is referred to by Scott in his "Lady of theLake". [257] The belief in the magical influence of sacred clothinggave origin to the priestly robes. When David desired to ascertainwhat Saul intended to do he said, "Bring hither the ephod". Then hecame to know that his enemy had resolved to attack Keilah. [258] Elishabecame a prophet when he received Elijah's mantle. [259]

Sometimes the bodies of the Sumerians were placed in sarcophagi ofclay. The earlier type was of "bath-tub" shape, round andflat-bottomed, with a rounded lid, while the later was the"slipper-shaped coffin", which was ornamented with charms. There is aclose resemblance between the "bath-tub" coffins of Sumeria and theEgyptian pottery coffins of oval shape found in Third and FourthDynasty tombs in rock chambers near Nuerat. Certain designs on woodencoffins, and tombs as early as the First Dynasty, have directanalogies in Babylonia. [260]

No great tombs were erected in Sumeria. The coffins were usually laidin brick vaults below dwellings, or below temples, or in trenchesoutside the city walls. On the "stele of victory", which belongs tothe period of Eannatum, patesi of Lagash, the dead bodies on thebattlefield are piled up in pairs quite naked, and earth is beingheaped over them; this is a specimen of mound burial. 

According to Herodotus the Babylonians "buried their dead in honey, and had funeral lamentations like the Egyptians". [261] The custom ofpreserving the body in this manner does not appear to have been anancient one, and may have resulted from cultural contact with the Nilevalley during the late Assyrian period. So long as the bones wereundisturbed, the spirit was supposed to be assured of rest in theUnderworld. This archaic belief was widespread, and finds an echo inthe quaint lines over Shakespeare's grave in Stratford church:--

 Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbeare To dig the dust enclosed heare; Blest be the man that spares these stones, And curst be he that moves my bones. 

In Babylonia the return of the spirits of the dead was greatlydreaded. Ishtar once uttered the terrible threat: "I will cause thedead to rise; they will then eat and live. The dead will be morenumerous than the living. " When a foreign country was invaded, it wasa common custom to break open the tombs and scatter the bones theycontained. Probably it was believed, when such acts of vandalism werecommitted, that the offended spirits would plague their kinsfolk. Ghosts always haunted the homes they once lived in, and were asmalignant as demons. It is significant to find in this connection thatthe bodies of enemies who were slain in battle were not given decentburial, but mutilated and left for birds and beasts of prey to devour. 

The demons that plagued the dead might also attack the living. Afragmentary narrative, which used to be referred to as the "CutheanLegend of Creation", [262] and has been shown by Mr. L. W. King to haveno connection with the struggle between Merodach and the dragon, [263]deals with a war waged by an ancient king against a horde of evilspirits, led by "the lord of heights, lord of the Anunaki (earthspirits)". Some of the supernatural warriors had bodies like birds;others had "raven faces", and all had been "suckled by Tiamat". 

For three years the king sent out great armies to attack the demons, but "none returned alive". Then he decided to go forth himself to savehis country from destruction. So he prepared for the conflict, andtook the precaution of performing elaborate and therefore costlyreligious rites so as to secure the co-operation of the gods. Hisexpedition was successful, for he routed the supernatural army. On hisreturn home, he recorded his great victory on tablets which wereplaced in the shrine of Nergal at Cuthah. 

This myth may be an echo of Nergal's raid against Eresh-ki-gal. Or, being associated with Cuthah, it may have been composed to encourageburial in that city's sacred cemetery, which had been cleared by thefamous old king of the evil demons which tormented the dead and madeseasonal attacks against the living. 

CHAPTER X. 

BUILDINGS AND LAWS AND CUSTOMS OF BABYLON

 Decline and Fall of Sumerian Kingdoms--Elamites and Semites strive for Supremacy--Babylon's Walls, Gates, Streets, and Canals--The Hanging Gardens--Merodach's Great Temple--The Legal Code of Hammurabi--The Marriage Market--Position of Women--Marriage brought Freedom--Vestal Virgins--Breach of Promise and Divorce--Rights of Children--Female Publicans--The Land Laws--Doctors legislated out of Existence--Folk Cures--Spirits of Disease expelled by Magical Charms--The Legend of the Worm--"Touch Iron"--Curative Water--Magical Origin of Poetry and Music. 

The rise of Babylon inaugurated a new era in the history of WesternAsia. Coincidentally the political power of the Sumerians came to anend. It had been paralysed by the Elamites, who, towards the close ofthe Dynasty of Isin, successfully overran the southern district andendeavoured to extend their sway over the whole valley. Two Elamitekings, Warad-Sin and his brother Rim-Sin, struggled with the rulers ofBabylon for supremacy, and for a time it appeared as if the intrudersfrom the East were to establish themselves permanently as a militaryaristocracy over Sumer and Akkad. But the Semites were stronglyreinforced by new settlers of the same blended stock who swarmed fromthe land of the Amorites. Once again Arabia was pouring into Syriavast hordes of its surplus population, with the result that ethnicdisturbances were constant and widespread. This migration is termedthe Canaanitic or Amorite: it flowed into Mesopotamia and acrossAssyria, while it supplied the "driving power" which secured theascendancy of the Hammurabi Dynasty at Babylon. Indeed, the rulingfamily which came into prominence there is believed to have been ofCanaanitic origin. 

Once Babylon became the metropolis it retained its pre-eminence untilthe end. Many political changes took place during its long andchequered history, but no rival city in the south ever attained to itssplendour and greatness. Whether its throne was occupied by Amorite orKassite, Assyrian or Chaldean, it was invariably found to be the mosteffective centre of administration for the lower Tigro-Euphratesvalley. Some of the Kassite monarchs, however, showed a preference forNippur. 

Of its early history little is known. It was overshadowed in turn byKish and Umma, Lagash and Erech, and may have been little better thana great village when Akkad rose into prominence. Sargon I, the royalgardener, appears to have interested himself in its development, forit was recorded that he cleared its trenches and strengthened itsfortifications. The city occupied a strategic position, and probablyassumed importance on that account as well as a trading and industrialcentre. Considerable wealth had accumulated at Babylon when theDynasty of Ur reached the zenith of its power. It is recorded thatKing Dungi plundered its famous "Temple of the High Head", E-sagila, which some identify with the Tower of Babel, so as to secure treasurefor Ea's temple at Eridu, which he specially favoured. His vandalisticraid, like that of the Gutium, or men of Kutu, was remembered for longcenturies afterwards, and the city god was invoked at the time to cutshort his days. 

No doubt, Hammurabi's Babylon closely resembled the later city sovividly described by Greek writers, although it was probably not ofsuch great dimensions. According to Herodotus, it occupied an exactsquare on the broad plain, and had a circumference of sixty of ourmiles. "While such is its size, " the historian wrote, "in magnificencethere is no other city that approaches to it. " Its walls wereeighty-seven feet thick and three hundred and fifty feet high, andeach side of the square was fifteen miles in length. The whole citywas surrounded by a deep, broad canal or moat, and the river Euphratesran through it. 

"Here", continued Herodotus, "I may not omit to tell the use to whichthe mould dug out of the great moat was turned, nor the manner inwhich the wall was wrought. As fast as they dug the moat the soilwhich they got from the cutting was made into bricks, and when asufficient number were completed they baked the bricks in kilns. Thenthey set to building, and began with bricking the borders of the moat, after which they proceeded to construct the wall itself, usingthroughout for their cement hot bitumen, and interposing a layer ofwattled reeds at every thirtieth course of the bricks. On the top, along the edges of the wall, they constructed buildings of a singlechamber facing one another, leaving between them room for a four-horsechariot to turn. In the circuit of the wall are a hundred gates, allof brass, with brazen lintels and side posts. "[264] These were thegates referred to by Isaiah when God called Cyrus:

 I will loose the loins of kings, to open before him the two leaved gates; and the gates shall not be shut: I will go before thee, and make the crooked places straight; I will break in pieces the gates of brass, and cut in sunder the bars of iron. [265]

The outer wall was the main defence of the city, but there was also aninner wall less thick but not much inferior in strength. In addition, a fortress stood in each division of the city. The king's palace andthe temple of Bel Merodach were surrounded by walls. 

All the main streets were perfectly straight, and each crossed thecity from gate to gate, a distance of fifteen miles, half of thembeing interrupted by the river, which had to be ferried. As there weretwenty-five gates on each side of the outer wall, the greatthoroughfares numbered fifty in all, and there were six hundred andseventy-six squares, each over two miles in circumference. FromHerodotus we gather that the houses were three or four stories high, suggesting that the tenement system was not unknown, and according toQ. Curtius, nearly half of the area occupied by the city was taken upby gardens within the squares. 

In Greek times Babylon was famous for the hanging or terraced gardensof the "new palace", which had been erected by Nebuchadnezzar II. These occupied a square which was more than a quarter of a mile incircumference. Great stone terraces, resting on arches, rose up like agiant stairway to a height of about three hundred and fifty feet, andthe whole structure was strengthened by a surrounding wall over twentyfeet in thickness. So deep were the layers of mould on each terracethat fruit trees were grown amidst the plants of luxuriant foliage andthe brilliant Asian flowers. Water for irrigating the gardens wasraised from the river by a mechanical contrivance to a great cisternsituated on the highest terrace, and it was prevented from leaking outof the soil by layers of reeds and bitumen and sheets of lead. Spacious apartments, luxuriously furnished and decorated, wereconstructed in the spaces between the arches and were festooned byflowering creepers. A broad stairway ascended from terrace to terrace. 

The old palace stood in a square nearly four miles in circumference, and was strongly protected by three walls, which were decorated bysculptures in low relief, representing battle scenes and scenes of thechase and royal ceremonies. Winged bulls with human heads guarded themain entrance. 

Another architectural feature of the city was E-sagila, the temple ofBel Merodach, known to the Greeks as "Jupiter-Belus". The high wallwhich enclosed it had gates of solid brass. "In the middle of theprecinct", wrote Herodotus, "there was a tower of solid masonry, afurlong in length and breadth, upon which was raised a second tower, and on that a third, and so on up to eight. The ascent to the top ison the outside, by a path which winds round all the towers. When oneis about halfway up, one finds a resting-place and seats, wherepersons are wont to sit some time on their way to the summit. On thetopmost tower there is a spacious temple, and inside the temple standsa couch of unusual size, richly adorned, with a golden table by itsside. There is no statue of any kind set up in the place, nor is thechamber occupied of nights by anyone but a single native woman, who, as the Chaldaeans, the priests of this god, affirm, is chosen forhimself by the deity out of all the women of the land. "

A woman who was the "wife of Amon" also slept in that god's temple atThebes in Egypt. A similar custom was observed in Lycia. 

"Below, in the same precinct, " continued Herodotus, "there is a secondtemple, in which is a sitting figure of Jupiter, all of gold. Beforethe figure stands a large golden table, and the throne whereon itsits, and the base on which the throne is placed, are likewise of puregold. .. . Outside the temple are two altars, one of solid gold, onwhich it is only lawful to offer sucklings; the other, a common altar, but of great size, on which the full-grown animals are sacrificed. Itis also on the great altar that the Chaldaeans burn the frankincense, which is offered to the amount of a thousand talents' weight, everyyear, at the festival of the god. In the time of Cyrus there waslikewise in this temple a figure of a man, twelve cubits high, entirely of solid gold. .. . Besides the ornaments which I havementioned, there are a large number of private offerings in this holyprecinct. "[266]

The city wall and river gates were closed every night, and whenBabylon was besieged the people were able to feed themselves. Thegardens and small farms were irrigated by canals, and canals alsocontrolled the flow of the river Euphrates. A great dam had beenformed above the town to store the surplus water during inundation andincrease the supply when the river sank to its lowest. 

In Hammurabi's time the river was crossed by ferry boats, but long erethe Greeks visited the city a great bridge had been constructed. Socompletely did the fierce Sennacherib destroy the city, that most ofthe existing ruins date from the period of Nebuchadnezzar II. [267]

Our knowledge of the social life of Babylon and the territory underits control is derived chiefly from the Hammurabi Code of laws, ofwhich an almost complete copy was discovered at Susa, towards the endof 1901, by the De Morgan expedition. The laws were inscribed on astele of black diorite 7 ft. 3 in. High, with a circumference at thebase of 6 ft. 2 in. And at the top of 5 ft. 4 in. This important relicof an ancient law-abiding people had been broken in three pieces, butwhen these were joined together it was found that the text was notmuch impaired. On one side are twenty-eight columns and on the othersixteen. Originally there were in all nearly 4000 lines ofinscriptions, but five columns, comprising about 300 lines, had beenerased to give space, it is conjectured, for the name of the invaderwho carried the stele away, but unfortunately the record was nevermade. 

On the upper part of the stele, which is now one of the treasures ofthe Louvre, Paris, King Hammurabi salutes, with his right handreverently upraised, the sun god Shamash, seated on his throne, at thesummit of E-sagila, by whom he is being presented with the stylus withwhich to inscribe the legal code. Both figures are heavily bearded, but have shaven lips and chins. The god wears a conical headdress anda flounced robe suspended from his left shoulder, while the king hasassumed a round dome-shaped hat and a flowing garment which almostsweeps the ground. 

It is gathered from the Code that there were three chief socialgrades--the aristocracy, which included landowners, high officials andadministrators; the freemen, who might be wealthy merchants or smalllandholders; and the slaves. The fines imposed for a given offenceupon wealthy men were much heavier than those imposed upon the poor. Lawsuits were heard in courts. Witnesses were required to tell thetruth, "affirming before the god what they knew", and perjurers wereseverely dealt with; a man who gave false evidence in connection witha capital charge was put to death. A strict watch was also kept overthe judges, and if one was found to have willingly convicted aprisoner on insufficient evidence he was fined and degraded. 

Theft was regarded as a heinous crime, and was invariably punished bydeath. Thieves included those who made purchases from minors or slaveswithout the sanction of elders or trustees. Sometimes the accused wasgiven the alternative of paying a fine, which might exceed by ten oreven thirty fold the value of the article or animal he hadappropriated. It was imperative that lost property should be restored. If the owner of an article of which he had been wrongfully deprivedfound it in possession of a man who declared that he had purchased itfrom another, evidence was taken in court. When it happened that theseller was proved to have been the thief, the capital penalty wasimposed. On the other hand, the alleged purchaser was dealt with inlike manner if he failed to prove his case. Compensation for propertystolen by a brigand was paid by the temple, and the heirs of a manslain by a brigand within the city had to be compensated by the localauthority. 

Of special interest are the laws which relate to the position ofwomen. In this connection reference may first be made to themarriage-by-auction custom, which Herodotus described as follows:"Once a year in each village the maidens of age to marry werecollected all together into one place, while the men stood round themin a circle. Then a herald called up the damsels one by one, andoffered them for sale. He began with the most beautiful. When she wassold for no small sum of money, he offered for sale the one who camenext to her in beauty. All of them were sold to be wives. The richestof the Babylonians who wished to wed bid against each other for theloveliest maidens, while the humbler wife-seekers, who wereindifferent about beauty, took the more homely damsels with marriageportions. For the custom was that when the herald had gone through thewhole number of the beautiful damsels, he should then call up theugliest--a cripple, if there chanced to be one--and offer her to themen, asking who would agree to take her with the smallest marriageportion. And the man who offered to take the smallest sum had herassigned to him. The marriage portions were furnished by the moneypaid for the beautiful damsels, and thus the fairer maidens portionedout the uglier. No one was allowed to give his daughter in marriage tothe man of his choice, nor might anyone carry away the damsel whom hehad purchased without finding bail really and truly to make her hiswife; if, however, it turned out that they did not agree, the moneymight be paid back. All who liked might come, even from distantvillages, and bid for the women. "[268]

This custom is mentioned by other writers, but it is impossible toascertain at what period it became prevalent in Babylonia and by whomit was introduced. Herodotus understood that it obtained also in "theIllyrian tribe of the Eneti", which was reputed to have entered Italywith Antenor after the fall of Troy, and has been identified with theVenetians of later times. But the ethnic clue thus afforded isexceedingly vague. There is no direct reference to the custom in theHammurabi Code, which reveals a curious blending of the principles of"Father right" and "Mother right". A girl was subject to her father'swill; he could dispose of her as he thought best, and she alwaysremained a member of his family; after marriage she was known as thedaughter of so and so rather than the wife of so and so. But marriagebrought her freedom and the rights of citizenship. The power vested inher father was never transferred to her husband. 

A father had the right to select a suitable spouse for his daughter, and she could not marry without his consent. That this law did notprevent "love matches" is made evident by the fact that provision wasmade in the Code for the marriage of a free woman with a male slave, part of whose estate in the event of his wife's death could be claimedby his master. 

When a betrothal was arranged, the father fixed the "bride price", which was paid over before the contract could be concluded, and healso provided a dowry. The amount of the "bride price" might, however, be refunded to the young couple to give them a start in life. If, during the interval between betrothal and marriage, the man "lookedupon another woman", and said to his father-in-law, "I will not marryyour daughter", he forfeited the "bride price" for breach of promiseof marriage. 

A girl might also obtain a limited degree of freedom by taking vows ofcelibacy and becoming one of the vestal virgins, or nuns, who wereattached to the temple of the sun god. She did not, however, live alife of entire seclusion. If she received her due proportion of herfather's estate, she could make business investments within certainlimits. She was not, for instance, allowed to own a wineshop, and ifshe even entered one she was burned at the stake. Once she took thesevows she had to observe them until the end of her days. If shemarried, as she might do to obtain the legal status of a married womanand enjoy the privileges of that position, she denied her husbandconjugal rites, but provided him with a concubine who might bear himchildren, as Sarah did to Abraham. These nuns must not be confusedwith the unmoral women who were associated with the temples of Ishtarand other love goddesses of shady repute. 

The freedom secured by a married woman had its legal limitations. Ifshe became a widow, for instance, she could not remarry without theconsent of a judge, to whom she was expected to show good cause forthe step she proposed to take. Punishments for breaches of themarriage law were severe. Adultery was a capital crime; the guiltyparties were bound together and thrown into the river. If it happened, however, that the wife of a prisoner went to reside with another manon account of poverty, she was acquitted and allowed to return to herhusband after his release. In cases where no plea of poverty could beurged the erring women were drowned. The wife of a soldier who hadbeen taken prisoner by an enemy was entitled to a third part of herhusband's estate if her son was a minor, the remainder was held intrust. The husband could enter into possession of all his propertyagain if he happened to return home. 

Divorce was easily obtained. A husband might send his wife away eitherbecause she was childless or because he fell in love with anotherwoman. Incompatibility of temperament was also recognized assufficient reason for separation. A woman might hate her husband andwish to leave him. "If", the Code sets forth, "she is careful and iswithout blame, and is neglected by her husband who has deserted her", she can claim release from the marriage contract. But if she is foundto have another lover, and is guilty of neglecting her duties, she isliable to be put to death. 

A married woman possessed her own property. Indeed, the value of hermarriage dowry was always vested in her. When, therefore, she divorcedher husband, or was divorced by him, she was entitled to have herdowry refunded and to return to her father's house. Apparently shecould claim maintenance from her father. 

A woman could have only one husband, but a man could have more thanone wife. He might marry a secondary wife, or concubine, because hewas without offspring, but "the concubine", the Code lays down, "shallnot rank with the wife". Another reason for second marriage recognizedby law was a wife's state of health. In such circumstances a man couldnot divorce his sickly wife. He had to support her in his house aslong as she lived. 

Children were the heirs of their parents, but if a man during hislifetime gifted his property to his wife, and confirmed it on "asealed tablet", the children could have no claim, and the widow wasentitled to leave her estate to those of her children she preferred;but she could not will any portion of it to her brothers. In ordinarycases the children of a first marriage shared equally the estate of afather with those of a second marriage. If a slave bore children toher employer, their right to inheritance depended on whether or notthe father had recognized them as his offspring during his lifetime. Afather might legally disown his son if the young man was guilty ofcriminal practices. 

The legal rights of a vestal virgin were set forth in detail. If shehad received no dowry from her father when she took vows of celibacy, she could claim after his death one-third of the portion of a son. Shecould will her estate to anyone she favoured, but if she diedintestate her brothers were her heirs. When, however, her estateconsisted of fields or gardens allotted to her by her father, shecould not disinherit her legal heirs. The fields or gardens might beworked during her lifetime by her brothers if they paid rent, or shemight employ a manager on the "share system". 

Vestal virgins and married women were protected against the slanderer. Any man who "pointed the finger" against them unjustifiably wascharged with the offence before a judge, who could sentence him tohave his forehead branded. It was not difficult, therefore, in ancientBabylonia to discover the men who made malicious and unfoundedstatements regarding an innocent woman. Assaults on women werepunished according to the victim's rank; even slaves were protected. 

Women appear to have monopolized the drink traffic. At any rate, thereis no reference to male wine sellers. A female publican had to conducther business honestly, and was bound to accept a legal tender. If sherefused corn and demanded silver, when the value of the silver by"grand weight" was below the price of corn, she was prosecuted andpunished by being thrown into the water. Perhaps she was simplyducked. As much may be inferred from the fact that when she was foundguilty of allowing rebels to meet in her house, she was put to death. 

The land laws were strict and exacting. A tenant could be penalizedfor not cultivating his holding properly. The rent paid was aproportion of the crop, but the proportion could be fixed according tothe average yield of a district, so that a careless or inefficienttenant had to bear the brunt of his neglect or want of skill. Thepunishment for allowing a field to lie fallow was to make a man hoeand sow it and then hand it over to his landlord, and this appliedeven to a man who leased unreclaimed land which he had contracted tocultivate. Damage done to fields by floods after the rent was paid wasborne by the cultivator; but if it occurred before the corn was reapedthe landlord's share was calculated in proportion to the amount of theyield which was recovered. Allowance was also made for poor harvests, when the shortage was not due to the neglect of the tenant, but toother causes, and no interest was paid for borrowed money even if thefarm suffered from the depredations of the tempest god; themoneylender had to share risks with borrowers. Tenants who neglectedtheir dykes, however, were not exempted from their legal liabilities, and their whole estates could be sold to reimburse their creditors. 

The industrious were protected against the careless. Men who werenegligent about controlling the water supply, and caused floods byopening irrigation ditches which damaged the crops of theirneighbours, had to pay for the losses sustained, the damages beingestimated according to the average yield of a district. A tenant whoallowed his sheep to stray on to a neighbour's pasture had to pay aheavy fine in corn at the harvest season, much in excess of the valueof the grass cropped by his sheep. Gardeners were similarly subject tostrict laws. All business contracts had to be conducted according tothe provisions of the Code, and in every case it was necessary that aproper record should be made on clay tablets. As a rule a dishonesttenant or trader had to pay sixfold the value of the sum under disputeif the judge decided in court against his claim. 

The law of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth was strictlyobserved in Babylonia. A freeman who destroyed an eye of a freeman hadone of his own destroyed; if he broke a bone, he had a bone broken. Fines were imposed, however, when a slave was injured. For striking agentleman, a commoner received sixty lashes, and the son who smote hisfather had his hands cut off. A slave might have his ears cut off forassaulting his master's son. 

Doctors must have found their profession an extremely risky one. Noallowance was made for what is nowadays known as a "professionalerror". A doctor's hands were cut off if he opened a wound with ametal knife and his patient afterwards died, or if a man lost his eyeas the result of an operation. A slave who died under a doctor's handshad to be replaced by a slave, and if a slave lost his eye, the doctorhad to pay half the man's market value to the owner. Professional feeswere fixed according to a patient's rank. Gentlemen had to pay fiveshekels of silver to a doctor who set a bone or restored diseasedflesh, commoners three shekels, and masters for their slaves twoshekels. There was also a scale of fees for treating domesticatedanimals, and it was not over-generous. An unfortunate surgeon whoundertook to treat an ox or ass suffering from a severe wound had topay a quarter of its price to its owner if it happened to die. Ashrewd farmer who was threatened with the loss of an animal must havebeen extremely anxious to engage the services of a surgeon. 

It is not surprising, after reviewing this part of the Hammurabi Code, to find Herodotus stating bluntly that the Babylonians had nophysicians. "When a man is ill", he wrote, "they lay him in the publicsquare, and the passers-by come up to him, and if they have ever hadhis disease themselves, or have known anyone who has suffered from it, they give him advice, recommending him to do whatever they found goodin their own case, or in the case known to them; and no one is allowedto pass the sick man in silence without asking him what his ailmentis. " One might imagine that Hammurabi had legislated the medicalprofession out of existence, were it not that letters have been foundin the Assyrian library of Ashur-banipal which indicate that skilledphysicians were held in high repute. It is improbable, however, thatthey were numerous. The risks they ran in Babylonia may account fortheir ultimate disappearance in that country. 

No doubt patients received some benefit from exposure in the streetsin the sunlight and fresh air, and perhaps, too, from some of the oldwives' remedies which were gratuitously prescribed by passers-by. InEgypt, where certain of the folk cures were recorded on papyri, quiteeffective treatment was occasionally given, although the "medicines"were exceedingly repugnant as a rule; ammonia, for instance, was takenwith the organic substances found in farmyards. Elsewhere somewonderful instances of excellent folk cures have come to light, especially among isolated peoples, who have received them interwovenin their immemorial traditions. A medical man who has investigatedthis interesting subject in the Scottish Highlands has shown that "thesimple observation of the people was the starting-point of our fullerknowledge, however complete we may esteem it to be". For dropsy andheart troubles, foxglove, broom tops, and juniper berries, which havereputations "as old as the hills", are "the most reliable medicines inour scientific armoury at the present time". These discoveries of theancient folks have been "merely elaborated in later days". Ancientcures for indigestion are still in use. "Tar water, which was a remedyfor chest troubles, especially for those of a consumptive nature, hasendless imitations in our day"; it was also "the favourite remedy forskin diseases". No doubt the present inhabitants of Babylonia, whoutilize bitumen as a germicide, are perpetuating an ancient folkcustom. 

This medical man who is being quoted adds: "The whole matter may besummed up, that we owe infinitely more to the simple nature study ofour people in the great affair of health than we owe to all the laterscience. "[269]

Herodotus, commenting on the custom of patients taking a census offolk cures in the streets, said it was one of the wisest institutionsof the Babylonian people. It is to be regretted that he did not enterinto details regarding the remedies which were in greatest favour inhis day. His data would have been useful for comparative purposes. 

So far as can be gathered from the clay tablets, faith cures were notunknown, and there was a good deal of quackery. If surgery declined, as a result of the severe restrictions which hampered progress in anhonourable profession, magic flourished like tropical fungi. Indeed, the worker of spells was held in high repute, and his operations werein most cases allowed free play. There are only two paragraphs in theHammurabi Code which deal with magical practices. It is set forth thatif one man cursed another and the curse could not be justified, theperpetrator of it must suffer the death penalty. Provision was alsomade for discovering whether a spell had been legally imposed or not. The victim was expected to plunge himself in a holy river. If theriver carried him away it was held as proved that he deserved hispunishment, and "the layer of the spell" was given possession of thevictim's house. A man who could swim was deemed to be innocent; heclaimed the residence of "the layer of the spell", who was promptlyput to death. With this interesting glimpse of ancient superstitionthe famous Code opens, and then strikes a modern note by detailing thepunishments for perjury and the unjust administration of law in thecourts. 

The poor sufferers who gathered at street corners in Babylon to makemute appeal for cures believed that they were possessed by evilspirits. Germs of disease were depicted by lively imaginations asinvisible demons, who derived nourishment from the human body. When apatient was wasted with disease, growing thinner and weaker and morebloodless day by day, it was believed that a merciless vampire wassucking his veins and devouring his flesh. It had therefore to beexpelled by performing a magical ceremony and repeating a magicalformula. The demon was either driven or enticed away. 

A magician had to decide in the first place what particular demon wasworking evil. He then compelled its attention and obedience bydetailing its attributes and methods of attack, and perhaps by namingit. Thereafter he suggested how it should next act by releasing araven, so that it might soar towards the clouds like that bird, or byoffering up a sacrifice which it received for nourishment and ascompensation. Another popular method was to fashion a waxen figure ofthe patient and prevail upon the disease demon to enter it. The figurewas then carried away to be thrown in the river or burned in a fire. 

Occasionally a quite effective cure was included in the ceremony. Asmuch is suggested by the magical treatment of toothache. First of allthe magician identified the toothache demon as "the worm ". Then herecited its history, which is as follows: After Anu created theheavens, the heavens created the earth, the earth created the rivers, the rivers created the canals, the canals created the marshes, andlast of all the marshes created "the worm". 

This display of knowledge compelled the worm to listen, and no doubtthe patient was able to indicate to what degree it gave evidence ofits agitated mind. The magician continued:

 Came the worm and wept before Shamash, Before Ea came her tears: "What wilt thou give me for my food, What wilt thou give me to devour?"

One of the deities answered: "I will give thee dried bones and scented. .. Wood"; but the hungry worm protested:

 "Nay, what are these dried bones of thine to me? Let me drink among the teeth; And set me on the gums That I may devour the blood of the teeth, And of their gums destroy their strength-- Then shall I hold the bolt of the door. "

The magician provided food for "the worm", and the following is hisrecipe: "Mix beer, the plant sa-kil-bir, and oil together; put it onthe tooth and repeat Incantation. " No doubt this mixture soothed thepain, and the sufferer must have smiled gladly when the magicianfinished his incantation by exclaiming:

 "So must thou say this, O Worm! May Ea smite thee with the might of his fist. "[270]

Headaches were no doubt much relieved when damp cloths were wrappedround a patient's head and scented wood was burned beside him, whilethe magician, in whom so much faith was reposed, droned out a mysticalincantation. The curative water was drawn from the confluence of twostreams and was sprinkled with much ceremony. In like manner theevil-eye curers, who still operate in isolated districts in theseislands, draw water from under bridges "over which the dead and theliving pass", [271] and mutter charms and lustrate victims. 

Headaches were much dreaded by the Babylonians. They were usually thefirst symptoms of fevers, and the demons who caused them were supposedto be bloodthirsty and exceedingly awesome. According to the charms, these invisible enemies of man were of the brood of Nergal. No housecould be protected against them. They entered through keyholes andchinks of doors and windows; they crept like serpents and stank likemice; they had lolling tongues like hungry dogs. 

Magicians baffled the demons by providing a charm. If a patient"touched iron"--meteoric iron, which was the "metal of heaven"--reliefcould be obtained. Or, perhaps, the sacred water would dispel the evilone; as the drops trickled from the patient's face, so would the feverspirit trickle away. When a pig was offered up in sacrifice as asubstitute for a patient, the wicked spirit was commanded to departand allow a kindly spirit to take its place--an indication that theBabylonians, like the Germanic peoples, believed that they wereguarded by spirits who brought good luck. 

The numerous incantations which were inscribed on clay tablets andtreasured in libraries, do not throw much light on the progress ofmedical knowledge, for the genuine folk cures were regarded as ofsecondary importance, and were not as a rule recorded. But thesemetrical compositions are of special interest, in so far as theyindicate how poetry originated and achieved widespread popularityamong ancient peoples. Like the religious dance, the earliest poemswere used for magical purposes. They were composed in the first placeby men and women who were supposed to be inspired in the literalsense; that is, possessed by spirits. Primitive man associated"spirit" with "breath", which was the "air of life", and identicalwith wind. The poetical magician drew in a "spirit", and thus receivedinspiration, as he stood on some sacred spot on the mountain summit, amidst forest solitudes, beside a' whispering stream, or on thesounding shore. As Burns has sung:

 The muse, nae poet ever fand her, Till by himsel' he learn'd to wander, Adown some trottin' burn's meander, An' no think lang: O sweet to stray, an' pensive ponder A heart-felt sang!

Or, perhaps, the bard received inspiration by drinking magic waterfrom the fountain called Hippocrene, or the skaldic mead which drippedfrom the moon. 

The ancient poet did not sing for the mere love of singing: he knewnothing about "Art for Art's sake". His object in singing appears tohave been intensely practical. The world was inhabited by countlesshordes of spirits, which were believed to be ever exercisingthemselves to influence mankind. The spirits caused suffering; theyslew victims; they brought misfortune; they were also the source ofgood or "luck ". Man regarded spirits emotionally; he conjured themwith emotion; he warded off their attacks with emotion; and hisemotions were given rhythmical expression by means of metrical magicalcharms. 

Poetic imagery had originally a magical significance; if the ocean wascompared to a dragon, it was because it was supposed to be inhabitedby a storm-causing dragon; the wind whispered because a spiritwhispered in it. Love lyrics were charms to compel the love god towound or possess a maiden's heart--to fill it, as an Indian charm setsforth, with "the yearning of the Apsaras (fairies)"; satires conjuredup evil spirits to injure a victim; and heroic narratives chanted atgraves were statements made to the god of battle, so that he mightaward the mighty dead by transporting him to the Valhal of Odin orSwarga of Indra. 

Similarly, music had magical origin as an imitation of the voices ofspirits--of the piping birds who were "Fates", of the wind high andlow, of the thunder roll, of the bellowing sea. So the god Pan pipedon his reed bird-like notes, Indra blew his thunder horn, Thor usedhis hammer like a drumstick, Neptune imitated on his "wreathed horn"the voice of the deep, the Celtic oak god Dagda twanged his windywooden harp, and Angus, the Celtic god of spring and love, camethrough budding forest ways with a silvern harp which had strings ofgold, echoing the tuneful birds, the purling streams, the whisperingwinds, and the rustling of scented fir and blossoming thorn. 

Modern-day poets and singers, who voice their moods and cast the spellof their moods over readers and audiences, are the representatives ofancient magicians who believed that moods were caused by the spiritswhich possessed them--the rhythmical wind spirits, those harpers ofthe forest and songsters of ocean. 

The following quotations from Mr. R. C. Thompson's translations ofBabylonian charms will serve to illustrate their poetic qualities:--

 Fever like frost hath come upon the land. 

 Fever hath blown upon the man as the wind blast, It hath smitten the man and humbled his pride. 

 Headache lieth like the stars of heaven in the desert and hath no praise; Pain in the head and shivering like a scudding cloud turn unto the form of man. 

 Headache whose course like the dread windstorm none knoweth. 

 Headache roareth over the desert, blowing like the wind, Flashing like lightning, it is loosed above and below, It cutteth off him, who feareth not his god, like a reed . .. From amid mountains it hath descended upon the land. 

 Headache . .. A rushing hag-demon, Granting no rest, nor giving kindly sleep . .. Whose shape is as the whirlwind. Its appearance is as the darkening heavens, And its face as the deep shadow of the forest. 

 Sickness . .. Breaking the fingers as a rope of wind . .. Flashing like a heavenly star, it cometh like the dew. 

These early poets had no canons of Art, and there were no critics todisturb their meditations. Many singers had to sing and die ere acritic could find much to say. In ancient times, therefore, poets hadtheir Golden Age--they were a law unto themselves. Even the "minors"were influential members of society. 

CHAPTER XI. 

THE GOLDEN AGE OF BABYLONIA

 Rise of the Sun God--Amorites and Elamites struggle for Ascendancy--The Conquering Ancestors of Hammurabi--Sumerian Cities Destroyed--Widespread Race Movements--Phoenician Migration from Persian Gulf--Wanderings of Abraham and Lot--Biblical References to Hittites and Amorites--Battles of Four Kings with Five--Amraphel, Arioch, and Tidal--Hammurabi's Brilliant Reign--Elamite Power Stamped Out--Babylon's Great General and Statesman--The Growth of Commerce, Agriculture, and Education--An Ancient School--Business and Private Correspondence--A Love Letter--Postal System--Hammurabi's Successors--The Earliest Kassites--The Sealand Dynasty--Hittite Raid on Babylon and Hyksos Invasion of Egypt. 

Sun worship came into prominence in its most fully developed formduring the obscure period which followed the decline of the Dynasty ofIsin. This was probably due to the changed political conditions whichbrought about the ascendancy for a time of Larsa, the seat of theSumerian sun cult, and of Sippar, the seat of the Akkadian sun cult. Larsa was selected as the capital of the Elamite conquerors, whiletheir rivals, the Amorites, appear to have first established theirpower at Sippar. 

Babbar, the sun god of Sippar, whose Semitic name was Shamash, musthave been credited with the early successes of the Amorites, whobecame domiciled under his care, and it was possibly on that accountthat the ruling family subsequently devoted so much attention to hisworship in Merodach's city of Babylon, where a sun temple was erected, and Shamash received devout recognition as an abstract deity ofrighteousness and law, who reflected the ideals of well organized andfirmly governed communities. 

The first Amoritic king was Sumu-abum, but little is known regardinghim except that he reigned at Sippar. He was succeeded by Sumu-la-ilu, a deified monarch, who moved from Sippar to Babylon, the great wall ofwhich he either repaired or entirely reconstructed in his fifth year. With these two monarchs began the brilliant Hammurabi, or FirstDynasty of Babylonia, which endured for three centuries. ExceptSumu-abum, who seems to stand alone, all its kings belonged to thesame family, and son succeeded father in unbroken succession. 

Sumu-la-ilu was evidently a great general and conqueror of the type ofThothmes III of Egypt. His empire, it is believed, included the risingcity states of Assyria, and extended southward as far as ancientLagash. 

Of special interest on religious as well as political grounds was hisassociation with Kish. That city had become the stronghold of a rivalfamily of Amoritic kings, some of whom were powerful enough to asserttheir independence. They formed the Third Dynasty of Kish. The localgod was Zamama, the Tammuz-like deity, who, like Nin-Girsu of Lagash, was subsequently identified with Merodach of Babylon. But prominencewas also given to the moon god Nannar, to whom a temple had beenerected, a fact which suggests that sun worship was not morepronounced among the Semites than the Arabians, and may not, indeed, have been of Semitic origin at all. Perhaps the lunar temple was arelic of the influential Dynasty of Ur. 

Sumu-la-ilu attacked and captured Kish, but did not slayBunutakhtunila, its king, who became his vassal. Under theoverlordship of Sumu-la-ilu, the next ruler of Kish, whose name wasImmerum, gave prominence to the public worship of Shamash. Politicsand religion went evidently hand in hand. 

Sumu-la-ilu strengthened the defences of Sippar, restored the wall andtemple of Cuthah, and promoted the worship of Merodach and his consortZerpanituᵐ at Babylon. He was undoubtedly one of the forcefulpersonalities of his dynasty. His son, Zabium, had a short butsuccessful reign, and appears to have continued the policy of hisfather in consolidating the power of Babylon and securing theallegiance of subject cities. He enlarged Merodach's temple, E-sagila, restored the Kish temple of Zamama, and placed a golden image ofhimself in the temple of the sun god at Sippar. Apil-Sin, his son, surrounded Babylon with a new wall, erected a temple to Ishtar, andpresented a throne of gold and silver to Shamash in that city, whilehe also strengthened Borsippa, renewed Nergal's temple at Cuthah, anddug canals. 

The next monarch was Sin-muballit, son of Apil-Sin and father ofHammurabi. He engaged himself in extending and strengthening the areacontrolled by Babylon by building city fortifications and improvingthe irrigation system. It is recorded that he honoured Shamash withthe gift of a shrine and a golden altar adorned with jewels. LikeSumu-la-ilu, he was a great battle lord, and was specially concernedin challenging the supremacy of Elam in Sumeria and in the westernland of the Amorites. 

For a brief period a great conqueror, named Rim-Anum, had establishedan empire which extended from Kish to Larsa, but little is knownregarding him. Then several kings flourished at Larsa who claimed tohave ruled over Ur. The first monarch with an Elamite name who becameconnected with Larsa was Kudur-Mabug, son of Shimti-Shilkhak, thefather of Warad-Sin and Rim-Sin. 

It was from one of these Elamite monarchs that Sin-muballit capturedIsin, and probably the Elamites were also the leaders of the army ofUr which he had routed before that event took place. He was notsuccessful, however, in driving the Elamites from the land, andpossibly he arranged with them a treaty of peace or perhaps ofalliance. 

Much controversy has been waged over the historical problems connectedwith this disturbed age. The records are exceedingly scanty, becausethe kings were not in the habit of commemorating battles which proveddisastrous to them, and their fragmentary references to successes arenot sufficient to indicate what permanent results accrued from theirvarious campaigns. All we know for certain is that for a considerableperiod, extending perhaps over a century, a tremendous and disastrousstruggle was waged at intervals, which desolated middle Babylonia. Atleast five great cities were destroyed by fire, as is testified by theevidence accumulated by excavators. These were Lagash, Umma, Shurruppak, Kisurra, and Adab. The ancient metropolis of Lagash, whoseglory had been revived by Gudea and his kinsmen, fell soon after therise of Larsa, and lay in ruins until the second century B. C. , when, during the Seleucid Period, it was again occupied for a time. From itsmound at Tello, and the buried ruins of the other cities, most of therelics of ancient Sumerian civilization have been recovered. 

It was probably during one of the intervals of this stormy period thatthe rival kings in Babylonia joined forces against a common enemy andinvaded the Western Land. Probably there was much unrest there. Greatethnic disturbances were in progress which were changing the politicalcomplexion of Western Asia. In addition to the outpourings of Arabianpeoples into Palestine and Syria, which propelled other tribes toinvade Mesopotamia, northern Babylonia, and Assyria, there was alsomuch unrest all over the wide area to north and west of Elam. Indeed, the Elamite migration into southern Babylonia may not have beenunconnected with the southward drift of roving bands from Media andthe Iranian plateau. 

It is believed that these migrations were primarily due to changingclimatic conditions, a prolonged "Dry Cycle" having caused a shortageof herbage, with the result that pastoral peoples were compelled to gofarther and farther afield in quest of "fresh woods and pastures new". Innumerable currents and cross currents were set in motion once theserace movements swept towards settled districts either to flood themwith human waves, or surround them like islands in the midst oftempest-lashed seas, fretting the frontiers with restless fury, andever groping for an inlet through which to flow with irresistibleforce. 

The Elamite occupation of Southern Babylonia appears to have propelledmigrations of not inconsiderable numbers of its inhabitants. No doubtthe various sections moved towards districts which were suitable fortheir habits of life. Agriculturists, for instance, must have shownpreference for those areas which were capable of agriculturaldevelopment, while pastoral folks sought grassy steppes and valleys, and seafarers the shores of alien seas. 

Northern Babylonia and Assyria probably attracted the tillers of thesoil. But the movements of seafarers must have followed a differentroute. It is possible that about this time the Phoenicians began tomigrate towards the "Upper Sea". According to their own traditionstheir racial cradle was on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf. Sofar as we know, they first made their appearance on the Mediterraneancoast about 2000 B. C. , where they subsequently entered intocompetition as sea traders with the mariners of ancient Crete. Apparently the pastoral nomads pressed northward through Mesopotamiaand towards Canaan. As much is suggested by the Biblical narrativewhich deals with the wanderings of Terah, Abraham, and Lot. Takingwith them their "flocks and herds and tents ", and accompanied bywives, and families, and servants, they migrated, it is stated, fromthe Sumerian city of Ur northwards to Haran "and dwelt there". AfterTerah's death the tribe wandered through Canaan and kept movingsouthward, unable, it would seem, to settle permanently in anyparticular district. At length "there was a famine in the land"--aninteresting reference to the "Dry Cycle"--and the wanderers found itnecessary to take refuge for a time in Egypt. There they appear tohave prospered. Indeed, so greatly did their flocks and herds increasethat when they returned to Canaan they found that "the land was notable to bear them", although the conditions had improved somewhatduring the interval. "There was", as a result, "strife between theherdmen of Abram's cattle and the herdmen of Lot's cattle. "

It is evident that the area which these pastoral flocks were allowedto occupy must have been strictly circumscribed, for more than once itis stated significantly that "the Canaanite and the Perizzite dwelledin the land". The two kinsmen found it necessary, therefore, to partcompany. Lot elected to go towards Sodom in the plain of Jordan, andAbraham then moved towards the plain of Mamre, the Amorite, in theHebron district. [272] With Mamre, and his brothers, Eshcol and Aner, the Hebrew patriarch formed a confederacy for mutual protection. [273]

Other tribes which were in Palestine at this period included theHorites, the Rephaims, the Zuzims, the Zamzummims, and the Emims. These were probably representatives of the older stocks. Like theAmorites, the Hittites or "children of Heth" were evidently "latecomers", and conquerors. When Abraham purchased the burial cave atHebron, the landowner with whom he had to deal was one Ephron, son ofZohar, the Hittite. [274] This illuminating statement agrees with whatwe know regarding Hittite expansion about 2000 B. C. The "Hatti" or"Khatti" had constituted military aristocracies throughout Syria andextended their influence by forming alliances. Many of their settlerswere owners of estates, and traders who intermarried with theindigenous peoples and the Arabian invaders. As has been indicated(Chapter I), the large-nosed Armenoid section of the Hittiteconfederacy appear to have contributed to the racial blend knownvaguely as the Semitic. Probably the particular group of Amorites withwhom Abraham became associated had those pronounced Armenoid traitswhich can still be traced in representatives of the Hebrew people. Ofspecial interest in this connection is Ezekiel's declaration regardingthe ethnics of Jerusalem: "Thy birth and thy nativity", he said, "isof the land of Canaan; thy father was an Amorite, and thy mother anHittite. "[275]

It was during Abraham's residence in Hebron that the Western Land wasraided by a confederacy of Babylonian and Elamite battle lords. TheBiblical narrative which deals with this episode is of particularinterest and has long engaged the attention of European scholars:

"And it came to pass in the days of Amraphel (Hammurabi) king ofShinar (Sumer), Arioch (Eri-aku or Warad-Sin) king of Ellasar (Larsa), Chedor-laomer (Kudur-Mabug) king of Elam, and Tidal (Tudhula) king ofnations; that these made war with Bera king of Sodom, and with Birshaking of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah, and Shemeber king of Zeboiim, and the king of Bela, which is Zoar. All these joined together in thevale of Siddim, which is the salt sea. Twelve years they servedChedor-laomer, and in the thirteenth year they rebelled. "[276]Apparently the Elamites had conquered part of Syria after enteringsouthern Babylonia. 

Chedor-laomer and his allies routed the Rephaims, the Zuzims, theEmims, the Horites and others, and having sacked Sodom and Gomorrah, carried away Lot and "his goods". On hearing of this disaster, Abrahamcollected a force of three hundred and eighteen men, all of whom wereno doubt accustomed to guerrilla warfare, and delivered a night attackon the tail of the victorious army which was withdrawing through thearea afterwards allotted to the Hebrew tribe of Dan. The surprise wascomplete; Abraham "smote" the enemy and "pursued them unto Hobah, which is on the left hand of Damascus. And he brought back all thegoods, and also brought again his brother Lot, and his goods, and thewomen also, and the people. "[277]

The identification of Hammurabi with Amraphel is now generallyaccepted. At first the guttural "h", which gives the English rendering"Khammurabi", presented a serious difficulty, but in time the form"Ammurapi" which appears on a tablet became known, and the conclusionwas reached that the softer "h" sound was used and not the guttural. The "l" in the Biblical Amraphel has suggested "Ammurapi-ilu", "Hammurabi, the god", but it has been argued, on the other hand, thatthe change may have been due to western habitual phonetic conditions, or perhaps the slight alteration of an alphabetical sign. Chedor-laomer, identified with Kudur-Mabug, may have had several localnames. One of his sons, either Warad-Sin or Rim-Sin, but probably theformer, had his name Semitized as Eri-Aku, and this variant appears ininscriptions. "Tidal, king of nations", has not been identified. Thesuggestion that he was "King of the Gutium" remains in the realm ofsuggestion. Two late tablets have fragmentary inscriptions which readlike legends with some historical basis. One mentions Kudur-lahmal(?Chedor-laomer) and the other gives the form "Kudur-lahgumal", andcalls him "King of the land of Elam". Eri-Eaku (?Eri-aku) and Tudhula(?Tidal) are also mentioned. Attacks had been delivered on Babylon, and the city and its great temple E-sagila were flooded. It isasserted that the Elamites "exercised sovereignty in Babylon" for aperiod. These interesting tablets have been published by ProfessorPinches. 

The fact that the four leaders of the expedition to Canaan are allreferred to as "kings" in the Biblical narrative need not present anydifficulty. Princes and other subject rulers who governed under anoverlord might be and, as a matter of fact, were referred to as kings. "I am a king, son of a king", an unidentified monarch recorded on oneof the two tablets just referred to. Kudur-Mabug, King of Elam, duringhis lifetime called his son Warad-Sin (Eri-Aku = Arioch) "King ofLarsa". It is of interest to note, too, in connection with theBiblical narrative regarding the invasion of Syria and Palestine, thathe styled himself "overseer of the Amurru (Amorites)". 

No traces have yet been found in Palestine of its conquest by theElamites, nor have the excavators been able to substantiate the claimof Lugal-zaggizi of a previous age to have extended his empire to theshores of the Mediterranean. Any relics which these and other easternconquerors may have left were possibly destroyed by the Egyptians andHittites. 

When Hammurabi came to the throne he had apparently to recognize theoverlordship of the Elamite king or his royal son at Larsa. AlthoughSin-muballit had captured Isin, it was retaken, probably after thedeath of the Babylonian war-lord, by Rim-Sin, who succeeded hisbrother Warad-Sin, and for a time held sway in Lagash, Nippur, andErech, as well as Larsa. 

It was not until the thirty-first year of his reign that Hammurabiachieved ascendancy over his powerful rival. Having repulsed anElamite raid, which was probably intended to destroy the growing powerof Babylon, he "smote down Rim-Sin", whose power he reduced almost tovanishing point. For about twenty years afterwards that subduedmonarch lived in comparative obscurity; then he led a force of alliesagainst Hammurabi's son and successor, Samsu-iluna, who defeated himand put him to death, capturing, in the course of his campaign, therevolting cities of Emutbalum, Erech, and Isin. So was the lastsmouldering ember of Elamite power stamped out in Babylonia. 

Hammurabi, statesman and general, is one of the great personalities ofthe ancient world. No more celebrated monarch ever held sway inWestern Asia. He was proud of his military achievements, but preferredto be remembered as a servant of the gods, a just ruler, a father ofhis people, and "the shepherd that gives peace". In the epilogue tohis code of laws he refers to "the burden of royalty", and declaresthat he "cut off the enemy" and "lorded it over the conquered" so thathis subjects might have security. Indeed, his anxiety for theirwelfare was the most pronounced feature of his character. "I carriedall the people of Sumer and Akkad in my bosom", he declared in hisepilogue. "By my protection, I guided in peace its brothers. By mywisdom I provided for them. " He set up his stele, on which the legalcode was inscribed, so "that the great should not oppress the weak"and "to counsel the widow and orphan", and "to succour the injured. .. . The king that is gentle, king of the city, exalted am I. "[278]

Hammurabi was no mere framer of laws but a practical administrator aswell. He acted as supreme judge, and his subjects could appeal to himas the Romans could to Caesar. Nor was any case too trivial for hisattention. The humblest man was assured that justice would be done ifhis grievance were laid before the king. Hammurabi was no respecter ofpersons, and treated alike all his subjects high and low. He punishedcorrupt judges, protected citizens against unjust governors, reviewedthe transactions of moneylenders with determination to curbextortionate demands, and kept a watchful eye on the operations oftaxgatherers. 

There can be little doubt but that he won the hearts of his subjects, who enjoyed the blessings of just administration under a well-ordainedpolitical system. He must also have endeared himself to them as anexemplary exponent of religious tolerance. He respected the variousdeities in whom the various groups of people reposed their faith, restored despoiled temples, and re-endowed them with characteristicgenerosity. By so doing he not only afforded the pious full freedomand opportunity to perform their religious ordinances, but alsopromoted the material welfare of his subjects, for the temples werecentres of culture and the priests were the teachers of the young. Excavators have discovered at Sippar traces of a school which datesfrom the Hammurabi Dynasty. Pupils learned to read and write, andreceived instruction in arithmetic and mensuration. They copiedhistorical tablets, practised the art of composition, and studiedgeography. 

Although there were many professional scribes, a not inconsiderableproportion of the people of both sexes were able to write private andbusiness letters. Sons wrote from a distance to their fathers when inneed of money then as now, and with the same air of undeservedmartyrdom and subdued but confident appeal. One son indited a longcomplaint regarding the quality of the food he was given in hislodgings. Lovers appealed to forgetful ladies, showing great concernregarding their health. "Inform me how it fares with thee, " one wrotefour thousand years ago. "I went up to Babylon so that I might meetthee, but did not, and was much depressed. Let me know why thou didstgo away so that I may be made glad. And do come hither. Ever have careof thy health, remembering me. " Even begging-letter writers were notunknown. An ancient representative of this class once wrote to hisemployer from prison. He expressed astonishment that he had beenarrested, and, having protested his innocence, he made touching appealfor little luxuries which were denied to him, adding that the lastconsignment which had been forwarded had never reached him. 

Letters were often sent by messengers who were named, but there alsoappears to have been some sort of postal system. Letter carriers, however, could not have performed their duties without the assistanceof beasts of burden. Papyri were not used as in Egypt. Nor was inkrequired. Babylonian letters were shapely little bricks resemblingcushions. The angular alphabetical characters, bristling withthorn-like projections, were impressed with a wedge-shaped stylus ontablets of soft clay which were afterwards carefully baked in an oven. Then the letters were placed in baked clay envelopes, sealed andaddressed, or wrapped in pieces of sacking transfixed by seals. If theancient people had a festive season which was regarded, like theEuropean Yuletide or the Indian Durga fortnight, as an occasionsuitable for the general exchange of expressions of goodwill, theBabylonian streets and highways must have been greatly congested bythe postal traffic, while muscular postmen worked overtimedistributing the contents of heavy and bulky letter sacks. Door todoor deliveries would certainly have presented difficulties. Woodbeing dear, everyone could not afford doors, and some houses wereentered by stairways leading to the flat and partly open roofs. 

King Hammurabi had to deal daily with a voluminous correspondence. Hereceived reports from governors in all parts of his realm, legaldocuments containing appeals, and private communications fromrelatives and others. He paid minute attention to details, and wasprobably one of the busiest men in Babylonia. Every day while at home, after worshipping Merodach at E-sagila, he dictated letters to hisscribes, gave audiences to officials, heard legal appeals and issuedinterlocutors, and dealt with the reports regarding his privateestates. He looks a typical man of affairs in sculpturedrepresentations--shrewd, resolute, and unassuming, feeling "theburden of royalty", but ever ready and well qualified to discharge hisduties with thoroughness and insight. His grasp of detail was equalledonly by his power to conceive of great enterprises which appealed tohis imagination. It was a work of genius on his part to weld togetherthat great empire of miscellaneous states extending from southernBabylonia to Assyria, and from the borders of Elam to theMediterranean coast, by a universal legal Code which securedtranquillity and equal rights to all, promoted business, and setbefore his subjects the ideals of right thinking and right living. 

Hammurabi recognized that conquest was of little avail unless followedby the establishment of a just and well-arranged political system, andthe inauguration of practical measures to secure the domestic, industrial, and commercial welfare of the people as a whole. Heengaged himself greatly, therefore, in developing the naturalresources of each particular district. The network of irrigatingcanals was extended in the homeland so that agriculture might prosper:these canals also promoted trade, for they were utilized fortravelling by boat and for the distribution of commodities. As aresult of his activities Babylon became not only the administrative, but also the commercial centre of his Empire--the London of WesternAsia--and it enjoyed a spell of prosperity which was never surpassedin subsequent times. Yet it never lost its pre-eminent positiondespite the attempts of rival states, jealous of its glory andinfluence, to suspend its activities. It had been too firmlyestablished during the Hammurabi Age, which was the Golden Age ofBabylonia, as the heartlike distributor and controller of businesslife through a vast network of veins and arteries, to be displaced byany other Mesopotamian city to pleasure even a mighty monarch. For twothousand years, from the time of Hammurabi until the dawn of theChristian era, the city of Babylon remained amidst many politicalchanges the metropolis of Western Asiatic commerce and culture, andnone was more eloquent in its praises than the scholarly pilgrim fromGreece who wondered at its magnificence and reverenced itsantiquities. 

Hammurabi's reign was long as it was prosperous. There is no generalagreement as to when he ascended the throne--some say in 2123 B. C. , others hold that it was after 2000 B. C. --but it is certain that hepresided over the destinies of Babylon for the long period offorty-three years. 

There are interesting references to the military successes of hisreign in the prologue to the legal Code. It is related that when he"avenged Larsa", the seat of Rim-Sin, he restored there the temple ofthe sun god. Other temples were built up at various ancient centres, so that these cultural organizations might contribute to the welfareof the localities over which they held sway. At Nippur he thushonoured Enlil, at Eridu the god Ea, at Ur the god Sin, at Erech thegod Anu and the goddess Nana (Ishtar), at Kish the god Zamama and thegoddess Ma-ma, at Cuthah the god Nergal, at Lagash the god Nin-Girsu, while at Adab and Akkad, "celebrated for its wide squares", and othercentres he carried out religious and public works. In Assyria herestored the colossus of Ashur, which had evidently been carried awayby a conqueror, and he developed the canal system of Nineveh. 

Apparently Lagash and Adab had not been completely deserted during hisreign, although their ruins have not yielded evidence that theyflourished after their fall during the long struggle with theaggressive and plundering Elamites. 

Hammurabi referred to himself in the Prologue as "a king who commandedobedience in all the four quarters". He was the sort of benevolentdespot whom Carlyle on one occasion clamoured vainly for--not anOriental despot in the commonly accepted sense of the term. As aGerman writer puts it, his despotism was a form of PatriarchalAbsolutism. "When Marduk (Merodach)", as the great king recorded, "brought me to direct all people, and commissioned me to givejudgment, I laid down justice and right in the provinces, I made allflesh to prosper. "[279] That was the keynote of his long life; heregarded himself as the earthly representative of the Ruler ofall--Merodach, "the lord god of right", who carried out the decrees ofAnu, the sky god of Destiny. 

The next king, Samsu-iluna, reigned nearly as long as his illustriousfather, and similarly lived a strenuous and pious life. Soon after hecame to the throne the forces of disorder were let loose, but, as hasbeen stated, he crushed and slew his most formidable opponent, Rim-Sin, the Elamite king, who had gathered together an army ofallies. During his reign a Kassite invasion was repulsed. The earliestKassites, a people of uncertain racial affinities, began to settle inthe land during Hammurabi's lifetime. Some writers connect them withthe Hittites, and others with the Iranians, vaguely termed asIndo-European or Indo-Germanic folk. Ethnologists as a rule regardthem as identical with the Cossaei, whom the Greeks found settledbetween Babylon and Media, east of the Tigris and north of Elam. TheHittites came south as raiders about a century later. It is possiblethat the invading Kassites had overrun Elam and composed part ofRim-Sin's army. After settled conditions were secured many of themremained in Babylonia, where they engaged like their pioneers inagricultural pursuits. No doubt they were welcomed in that capacity, for owing to the continuous spread of culture and the development ofcommerce, rural labour had become scarce and dear. Farmers had along-standing complaint, "The harvest truly is plenteous, but thelabourers are few". [280] "Despite the existence of slaves, who werefor the most part domestic servants, there was", writes Mr. Johns, "considerable demand for free labour in ancient Babylonia. This isclear from the large number of contracts relating to hire which havecome down to us. .. . As a rule, the man was hired for the harvest andwas free directly after. But there are many examples in which the termof service was different--one month, half a year, or a whole year. .. . Harvest labour was probably far dearer than any other, because of itsimportance, the skill and exertion demanded, and the fact that so manywere seeking for it at once. " When a farm worker was engaged hereceived a shekel for "earnest money" or arles, and was penalized fornon-appearance or late arrival. [281]

So great was the political upheaval caused by Rim-Sin and his alliesand imitators in southern Babylonia, that it was not until theseventeenth year of his reign that Samsu-iluna had recaptured Erechand Ur and restored their walls. Among other cities which had to bechastised was ancient Akkad, where a rival monarch endeavoured toestablish himself. Several years were afterwards spent in building newfortifications, setting up memorials in temples, and cutting andclearing canals. On more than one occasion during the latter part ofhis reign he had to deal with aggressive bands of Amorites. 

The greatest danger to the Empire, however, was threatened by a newkingdom which had been formed in Bit-Jakin, a part of Sealand whichwas afterwards controlled by the mysterious Chaldeans. Here may havecollected evicted and rebel bands of Elamites and Sumerians andvarious "gentlemen of fortune" who were opposed to the Hammurabiregime. After the fall of Rim-Sin it became powerful under a kingcalled Ilu-ma-ilu. Samsu-iluna conducted at least two campaignsagainst his rival, but without much success. Indeed, he was in the endcompelled to retreat with considerable loss owing to the difficultcharacter of that marshy country. 

Abeshu, the next Babylonian king, endeavoured to shatter the cause ofthe Sealanders, and made it possible for himself to strike at them bydamming up the Tigris canal. He achieved a victory, but the wilyIlu-ma-ilu eluded him, and after a reign of sixty years was succeededby his son, Kiannib. The Sealand Dynasty, of which little is known, lasted for over three and a half centuries, and certain of its latermonarchs were able to extend their sway over part of Babylonia, butits power was strictly circumscribed so long as Hammurabi'sdescendants held sway. 

During Abeshu's reign of twenty-eight years, of which but scantyrecords survive, he appears to have proved an able statesman andgeneral. He founded a new city called Lukhaia, and appears to haverepulsed a Kassite raid. 

His son, Ammiditana, who succeeded him, apparently inherited aprosperous and well-organized Empire, for during the first fifteenyears of his reign he attended chiefly to the adornment of temples andother pious undertakings. He was a patron of the arts witharchaeological leanings, and displayed traits which suggest that heinclined, like Sumu-la-ilu, to ancestor worship. Entemena, the piouspatesi of Lagash, whose memory is associated with the famous silvervase decorated with the lion-headed eagle form of Nin-Girsu, had beenraised to the dignity of a god, and Ammiditana caused his statue to beerected so that offerings might be made to it. He set up severalimages of himself also, and celebrated the centenary of the accessionto the throne of his grandfather, Samsu-iluna, "the warrior lord", byunveiling his statue with much ceremony at Kish. About the middle ofhis reign he put down a Sumerian rising, and towards its close had tocapture a city which is believed to be Isin, but the reference is tooobscure to indicate what political significance attached to thisincident. His son, Ammizaduga, reigned for over twenty years quitepeacefully so far as is known, and was succeeded by Samsuditana, whoserule extended over a quarter of a century. Like Ammiditana, these twomonarchs set up images of themselves as well as of the gods, so thatthey might be worshipped, no doubt. They also promoted the interestsof agriculture and commerce, and incidentally increased the revenuefrom taxation by paying much attention to the canals and extending thecultivatable areas. 

But the days of the brilliant Hammurabi Dynasty were drawing to aclose. It endured for about a century longer than the Twelfth Dynastyof Egypt, which came to an end, according to the Berlin calculations, in 1788 B. C. Apparently some of the Hammurabi and Amenemhet kings werecontemporaries, but there is no evidence that they came into directtouch with one another. It was not until at about two centuries afterHammurabi's day that Egypt first invaded Syria, with which, however, it had for a long period previously conducted a brisk trade. Evidentlythe influence of the Hittites and their Amoritic allies predominatedbetween Mesopotamia and the Delta frontier of Egypt, and it issignificant to find in this connection that the "Khatti" or "Hatti"were referred to for the first time in Egypt during the TwelfthDynasty, and in Babylonia during the Hammurabi Dynasty, sometimeshortly before or after 2000 B. C. About 1800 B. C. A Hittite raidresulted in the overthrow of the last king of the Hammurabi family atBabylon. The Hyksos invasion of Egypt took place after 1788 B. C. 

CHAPTER XII. 

RISE OF THE HITTITES, MITANNIANS, KASSITES, HYKSOS, AND ASSYRIANS

 The War God of Mountaineers--Antiquity of Hittite Civilization--Prehistoric Movements of "Broad Heads"--Evidence of Babylon and Egypt--Hittites and Mongolians--Biblical References to Hittites in Canaan--Jacob's Mother and her Daughters-in-law--Great Father and Great Mother Cults--History in Mythology--The Kingdom of Mitanni--Its Aryan Aristocracy--The Hyksos Problem--The Horse in Warfare--Hittites and Mitannians--Kassites and Mitannians--Hyksos Empire in Asia--Kassites overthrow Sealand Dynasty--Egyptian Campaigns in Syria--Assyria in the Making--Ethnics of Genesis--Nimrod as Merodach--Early Conquerors of Assyria--Mitannian Overlords--Tell-el-Amarna Letters--Fall of Mitanni--Rise of Hittite and Assyrian Empires--Egypt in Eclipse--Assyrian and Babylonian Rivalries. 

When the Hammurabi Dynasty, like the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt, isfound to be suffering languid decline, the gaps in the dulledhistorical records are filled with the echoes of the thunder god, whose hammer beating resounds among the northern mountains. As thisdeity comes each year in Western Asia when vegetation has withered andafter fruits have dropped from trees, bringing tempests and blackrainclouds to issue in a new season of growth and fresh activity, sohe descended from the hills in the second millennium before theChristian era as the battle lord of invaders and the stormy herald ofa new age which was to dawn upon the ancient world. 

He was the war god of the Hittites as well as of the northernAmorites, the Mitannians, and the Kassites; and he led the Aryans fromthe Iranian steppes towards the verdurous valley of the Punjab. Hisworshippers engraved his image with grateful hands on the beetlingcliffs of Cappadocian chasms in Asia Minor, where his sway wassteadfast and pre-eminent for long centuries. In one locality heappears mounted on a bull wearing a fringed and belted tunic withshort sleeves, a conical helmet, and upturned shoes, while he graspsin one hand the lightning symbol, and in the other a triangular bowresting on his right shoulder. In another locality he is the bringerof grapes and barley sheaves. But his most familiar form is thebearded and thick-set mountaineer, armed with a ponderous thunderhammer, a flashing trident, and a long two-edged sword with ahemispherical knob on the hilt, which dangles from his belt, while anantelope or goat wearing a pointed tiara prances beside him. Thisdeity is identical with bluff, impetuous Thor of northern Europe, Indra of the Himalayas, Tarku of Phrygia, and Teshup or Teshub ofArmenia and northern Mesopotamia, Sandan, the Hercules of Cilicia, Adad or Hadad of Amurru and Assyria, and Ramman, who at an earlyperiod penetrated Akkad and Sumer in various forms. His Hittite nameis uncertain, but in the time of Rameses II he was identified withSutekh (Set). He passed into southern Europe as Zeus, and became "thelord" of the deities of the Aegean and Crete. 

The Hittites who entered Babylon about 1800 B. C. , and overthrew thelast king of the Hammurabi Dynasty, may have been plundering raiders, like the European Gauls of a later age, or a well-organized force of astrong, consolidated power, which endured for a period of uncertainduration. They were probably the latter, for although they carried offMerodach and Zerpanituᵐ, these idols were not thrust into the meltingpot, but retained apparently for political reasons. 

These early Hittites are "a people of the mist". More than once inancient history casual reference is made to them; but on most of theseoccasions they soon vanish suddenly behind their northern mountains. The explanation appears to be that at various periods great leadersarose who were able to weld together the various tribes, and maketheir presence felt in Western Asia. But when once the organizationbroke down, either on account of internal rivalries or the influenceof an outside power, they lapsed back again into a state of politicalinsignificance in the affairs of the ancient world. It is possiblethat about 1800 B. C. The Hittite confederacy was controlled by anambitious king who had dreams of a great empire, and was accordinglypursuing a career of conquest. 

Judging from what we know of the northern worshippers of the hammergod in later times, it would appear that when they were referred to asthe Hatti or Khatti, the tribe of that name was the dominating powerin Asia Minor and north Syria. The Hatti are usually identified withthe broad-headed mountaineers of Alpine or Armenoid type--theancestors of the modern Armenians. Their ancient capital was atBoghaz-Köi, the site of Pteria, which was destroyed, according to theGreeks, by Croesus, the last King of Lydia, in the sixth century B. C. It was strongly situated in an excellent pastoral district on thehigh, breezy plateau of Cappadocia, surrounded by high mountains, andapproached through narrow river gorges, which in winter were blockedwith snow. 

Hittite civilization was of great antiquity. Excavations which havebeen conducted at an undisturbed artificial mound at Sakje-Geuzi haverevealed evidences of a continuous culture which began to flourishbefore 3000 B. C. [282] In one of the lower layers occurred thatparticular type of Neolithic yellow-painted pottery, with blackgeometric designs, which resembles other specimens of painted fabricsfound in Turkestan by the Pumpelly expedition; in Susa, the capital ofElam, and its vicinity, by De Morgan; in the Balkan peninsula bySchliemann; in a First Dynasty tomb at Abydos in Egypt by Petrie; andin the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age (Minoan) strata of Crete byEvans. It may be that these interesting relics were connected with theprehistoric drift westward of the broad-headed pastoral peoples whoultimately formed the Hittite military aristocracy. 

According to Professor Elliot Smith, broad-headed aliens from AsiaMinor first reached Egypt at the dawn of history. There they blendedwith the indigenous tribes of the Mediterranean or Brown Race. Amesocephalic skull then became common. It is referred to as the Gizatype, and has been traced by Professor Elliot Smith from Egypt to thePunjab, but not farther into India. [283]

During the early dynasties this skull with alien traits was confinedchiefly to the Delta region and the vicinity of Memphis, the city ofthe pyramid builders. It is not improbable that the Memphite god Ptahmay have been introduced into Egypt by the invading broad heads. Thisdeity is a world artisan like Indra, and is similarly associated withdwarfish artisans; he hammers out the copper sky, and therefore linkswith the various thunder gods--Tarku, Teshup, Adad, Ramman, &c, of theAsian mountaineers. Thunderstorms were of too rare occurrence in Egyptto be connected with the food supply, which has always depended on theriver Nile. Ptah's purely Egyptian characteristics appear to have beenacquired after fusion with Osiris-Seb, the Nilotic gods of inundation, earth, and vegetation. The ancient god Set (Sutekh), who became ademon, and was ultimately re-exalted as a great deity during theNineteenth Dynasty, may also have had some connection with theprehistoric Hatti. 

Professor Elliot Smith, who has found alien traits in the mummies ofthe Rameses kings, is convinced that the broad-headed folks whoentered Europe by way of Asia Minor, and Egypt through the Delta, atthe close of the Neolithic Age, represent "two streams of the sameAsiatic folk". [284] The opinion of such an authority cannot be lightlyset aside. 

The earliest Egyptian reference to the Kheta, as the Hittites werecalled, was made in the reign of the first Amenemhet of the TwelfthDynasty, who began to reign about 2000 B. C. Some authorities, including Maspero, [285] are of opinion that the allusion to the Hattiwhich is found in the Babylonian _Book of Omens_ belongs to theearlier age of Sargon of Akkad and Naram-Sin, but Sayce favours theage of Hammurabi. Others would connect the Gutium, or men of Kutu, with the Kheta or Hatti. Sayce has expressed the opinion that theBiblical Tidal, identified with Tudkhul or Tudhula, "king of nations", the ally of Arioch, Amraphel, and Chedor-laomer, was a Hittite king, the "nations" being the confederacy of Asia Minor tribes controlled bythe Hatti. "In the fragments of the Babylonian story of Chedor-laomerpublished by Dr. Pinches", says Professor Sayce, "the name ofTid^{c}al is written Tudkhul, and he is described as King of the_Umman Manda_, or Nations of the North, of which the Hebrew _Goyyim_is a literal translation. Now the name is Hittite. In the account ofthe campaign of Rameses II against the Hittites it appears asTid^{c}al, and one of the Hittite kings of Boghaz-Köi bears the samename, which is written as Dud-khaliya in cuneiform. "[286]

One of the racial types among the Hittites wore pigtails. These headadornments appear on figures in certain Cappadocian sculptures and onHittite warriors in the pictorial records of a north Syrian campaignof Rameses II at Thebes. It is suggestive, therefore, to find that onthe stele of Naram-Sin of Akkad, the mountaineers who are conquered bythat battle lord wear pigtails also. Their split robes are unlike theshort fringed tunics of the Hittite gods, but resemble the long splitmantles worn over their tunics by high dignitaries like KingTarku-dimme, who figures on a famous silver boss of an ancient Hittitedagger. Naram-Sin inherited the Empire of Sargon of Akkad, whichextended to the Mediterranean Sea. If his enemies were not natives ofCappadocia, they may have been the congeners of the Hittite pigtailedtype in another wooded and mountainous country. 

It has been suggested that these wearers of pigtails were Mongolians. But although high cheek bones and oblique eyes occurred in ancienttimes, and still occur, in parts of Asia Minor, suggesting occasionalMongolian admixture with Ural-Altaic broad heads, the Hittitepigtailed warriors must not be confused with the true small-nosedMongols of north-eastern Asia. The Egyptian sculptors depicted themwith long and prominent noses, which emphasize their strong Armenoidaffinities. 

Other tribes in the Hittite confederacy included the representativesof the earliest settlers from North Africa of Mediterranean racialstock. These have been identified with the Canaanites, and especiallythe agriculturists among them, for the Palestinian Hittites are alsoreferred to as Canaanites in the Bible, and in one particularconnection under circumstances which afford an interesting glimpse ofdomestic life in those far-off times. When Esau, Isaac's eldest son, was forty years of age, "he took to wife Judith the daughter of Beerithe Hittite, and Bashemath the daughter of Elon the Hittite"[287]. Apparently the Hittite ladies considered themselves to be of highercaste than the indigenous peoples and the settlers from othercountries, for when Ezekiel declared that the mother of Jerusalem wasa Hittite he said: "Thou art thy mother's daughter, that lotheth herhusband and her children. "[288] Esau's marriage was "a grief of mindunto Isaac and to Rebekah". [287] The Hebrew mother seems tohave entertained fears that her favourite son Jacob wouldfall a victim to the allurements of other representatives ofthe same stock as her superior and troublesome daughters-in-law, for she said to Isaac: "I am weary of my lifebecause of the daughters of Heth; if Jacob take a wifeof the daughters of Heth, such as these which are of thedaughters of the land, what good shall my life do me?"[289]Isaac sent for Jacob, "and charged him, and said untohim, Thou shalt not take a wife of the daughters ofCanaan. Arise, go to Padan-aram, to the house ofBethuel, thy mother's father; and take thee a wife fromthence of the daughters of Laban, thy mother's brother. "[290]From these quotations two obvious deductions may bedrawn: the Hebrews regarded the Hittites "of the land"as one with the Canaanites, the stocks having probablybeen so well fused, and the worried Rebekah had thechoosing of Jacob's wife or wives from among her ownrelations in Mesopotamia who were of Sumerian stockand kindred of Abraham. [291] It is not surprising to findtraces of Sumerian pride among the descendants of theevicted citizens of ancient Ur, especially when broughtinto association with the pretentious Hittites. 

Evidence of racial blending in Asia Minor is also afforded by Hittitemythology. In the fertile agricultural valleys and round the shores ofthat great Eur-Asian "land bridge" the indigenous stock was also ofthe Mediterranean race, as Sergi and other ethnologists havedemonstrated. The Great Mother goddess was worshipped from theearliest times, and she bore various local names. At Comana in Pontusshe was known to the Greeks as Ma, a name which may have been as oldas that of the Sumerian Mama (the creatrix), or Mamituᵐ (goddess ofdestiny); in Armenia she was Anaitis; in Cilicia she was Ate ('Athehof Tarsus); while in Phrygia she was best known as Cybele, mother ofAttis, who links with Ishtar as mother and wife of Tammuz, Aphroditeas mother and wife of Adonis, and Isis as mother and wife of Osiris. The Great Mother was in Phoenicia called Astarte; she was a form ofIshtar, and identical with the Biblical Ashtoreth. In the Syrian cityof Hierapolis she bore the name of Atargatis, which Meyer, with whomFrazer agrees, considers to be the Greek rendering of the Aramaic'Athar-'Atheh--the god 'Athar and the goddess 'Atheh. Like the"bearded Aphrodite", Atargatis may have been regarded as a bisexualdeity. Some of the specialized mother goddesses, whose outstandingattributes reflected the history and politics of the states theyrepresented, were imported into Egypt--the land of ancient motherdeities--during the Empire period, by the half-foreign Rameses kings;these included the voluptuous Kadesh and the warlike Anthat. In everydistrict colonized by the early representatives of the Mediterraneanrace, the goddess cult came into prominence, and the gods and thepeople were reputed to be descendants of the great Creatrix. This ruleobtained as far distant as Ireland, where the Danann folk and theDanann gods were the children of the goddess Danu. 

Among the Hatti proper--that is, the broad-headed militaryaristocracy--the chief deity of the pantheon was the Great Father, thecreator, "the lord of Heaven", the Baal. As Sutekh, Tarku, Adad, orRamman, he was the god of thunder, rain, fertility, and war, and heultimately acquired solar attributes. A famous rock sculpture atBoghaz-Köi depicts a mythological scene which is believed to representthe Spring marriage of the Great Father and the Great Mother, suggesting a local fusion of beliefs which resulted from the union oftribes of the god cult with tribes of the goddess cult. So long as theHatti tribe remained the predominant partner in the Hittiteconfederacy, the supremacy was assured of the Great Father whosymbolized their sway. But when, in the process of time, the power ofthe Hatti declined, their chief god "fell. .. From his predominantplace in the religion of the interior", writes Dr. Garstang. "But theGreat Mother lived on, being the goddess of the land. "[292]

In addition to the Hittite confederacy of Asia Minor and North Syria, another great power arose in northern Mesopotamia. This was theMitanni Kingdom. Little is known regarding it, except what is derivedfrom indirect sources. Winckler believes that it was first establishedby early "waves" of Hatti people who migrated from the east. 

The Hittite connection is based chiefly on the following evidence. Oneof the gods of the Mitanni rulers was Teshup, who is identical withTarku, the Thor of Asia Minor. The raiders who in 1800 B. C. EnteredBabylon, set fire to E-sagila, and carried off Merodach and hisconsort Zerpanituᵐ, were called the Hatti. The images of these deitieswere afterwards obtained from Khani (Mitanni). 

At a later period, when we come to know more about Mitanni from theletters of one of its kings to two Egyptian Pharaohs, and the Wincklertablets from Bog-haz-Köi, it is found that its military aristocracyspoke an Indo-European language, as is shown by the names of theirkings--Saushatar, Artatama, Sutarna, Artashshumara, Tushratta, andMattiuza. They worshipped the following deities:

 Mi-it-ra, Uru-w-na, In-da-ra, and Na-sa-at-ti-ia--

Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatyau (the "Twin Aswins" = Castor andPollux)--whose names have been deciphered by Winckler. These gods werealso imported into India by the Vedic Aryans. The Mitanni tribe (themilitary aristocracy probably) was called "Kharri", and somephilologists are of opinion that it is identical with "Arya", whichwas "the normal designation in Vedic literature from the Rigvedaonwards of an Aryan of the three upper classes". [293] Mitannisignifies "the river lands", and the descendants of its inhabitants, who lived in Cappadocia, were called by the Greeks "Mattienoi". "Theyare possibly", says Dr. Haddon, "the ancestors of the modernKurds", [294] a conspicuously long-headed people, proverbial, like theancient Aryo-Indians and the Gauls, for their hospitality and theirraiding propensities. 

It would appear that the Mitannian invasion of northern Mesopotamiaand the Aryan invasion of India represented two streams of divergingmigrations from a common cultural centre, and that the separate groupsof wanderers mingled with other stocks with whom they came intocontact. Tribes of Aryan speech were associated with the Kassiteinvaders of Babylon, who took possession of northern Babylonia soonafter the disastrous Hittite raid. It is believed that they came fromthe east through the highlands of Elam. 

For a period, the dating of which is uncertain, the Mitannians wereoverlords of part of Assyria, including Nineveh and even Asshur, aswell as the district called "Musri" by the Assyrians, and part ofCappadocia. They also occupied the cities of Harran and Kadesh. Probably they owed their great military successes to their cavalry. The horse became common in Babylon during the Kassite Dynasty, whichfollowed the Hammurabi, and was there called "the ass of the east", aname which suggests whence the Kassites and Mitannians came. 

The westward movement of the Mitannians in the second millennium B. C. May have been in progress prior to the Kassite conquest of Babylon andthe Hyksos invasion of Egypt. Their relations in Mesopotamia and Syriawith the Hittites and the Amorites are obscure. Perhaps they were fora time the overlords of the Hittites. At any rate it is of interest tonote that when Thothmes III struck at the last Hyksos strongholdduring his long Syrian campaign of about twenty years' duration, hisoperations were directly against Kadesh on the Orontes, which was thenheld by his fierce enemies the Mitannians of Naharina. [295]

During the Hyksos Age the horse was introduced into Egypt. Indeed theHyksos conquest was probably due to the use of the horse, which wasdomesticated, as the Pumpelly expedition has ascertained, at a remoteperiod in Turkestan, whence it may have been obtained by thehorse-sacrificing Aryo-Indians and the horse-sacrificing ancestors ofthe Siberian Buriats. 

If the Mitanni rulers were not overlords of the Hittites about 1800B. C. , the two peoples may have been military allies of the Kassites. Some writers suggest, indeed, that the Kassites came from Mitanni. Another view is that the Mitannians were the Aryan allies of theKassites who entered Babylon from the Elamite highlands, and that theyafterwards conquered Mesopotamia and part of Cappadocia prior to theHyksos conquest of Egypt. A third solution of the problem is that theAryan rulers of the Mitannian Hittites were the overlords of northernBabylonia, which they included in their Mesopotamian empire for acentury before the Kassites achieved political supremacy in theTigro-Euphrates valley, and that they were also the leaders of theHyksos invasion of Egypt, which they accomplished with the assistanceof their Hittite and Amoritic allies. 

The first Kassite king of Babylonia of whom we have knowledge wasGandash. He adopted the old Akkadian title, "king of the fourquarters", as well as the title "king of Sumer and Akkad", first usedby the rulers of the Dynasty of Ur. Nippur appears to have beenselected by Gandash as his capital, which suggests that his war andstorm god, Shuqamuna, was identified with Bel Enlil, who as a "worldgiant" has much in common with the northern hammer gods. Afterreigning for sixteen years, Gandash was succeeded by his son, Agum theGreat, who sat on the throne for twenty-two years. The great-grandsonof Agum the Great was Agum II, and not until his reign were thestatues of Merodach and his consort Zerpanituᵐ brought back to thecity of Babylon. This monarch recorded that, in response to the oracleof Shamash, the sun god, he sent to the distant land of Khani(Mitanni) for the great deity and his consort. Babylon would thereforeappear to have been deprived of Merodach for about two centuries. TheHittite-Mitanni raid is dated about 1800 B. C. , and the rise ofGandash, the Kassite, about 1700 B. C. At least a century elapsedbetween the reigns of Gandash and Agum II. These calculations do notcoincide, it will be noted, with the statement in a Babylonian hymn, that Merodach remained in the land of the Hatti for twenty-four years, which, however, may be either a priestly fiction or a reference to alater conquest. The period which followed the fall of the HammurabiDynasty of Babylonia is as obscure as the Hyksos Age of Egypt. 

Agum II, the Kassite king, does not state whether or not he waged waragainst Mitanni to recover Babylon's god Merodach. If, however, he wasan ally of the Mitanni ruler, the transference of the deity may havebeen an ordinary diplomatic transaction. The possibility may also besuggested that the Hittites of Mitanni were not displaced by the Aryanmilitary aristocracy until after the Kassites were firmly establishedin northern Babylonia between 1700 B. C. And 1600 B. C. This may accountfor the statements that Merodach was carried off by the Hatti andreturned from the land of Khani. 

The evidence afforded by Egypt is suggestive in this connection. Therewas a second Hyksos Dynasty in that country. The later rulers became"Egyptianized" as the Kassites became "Babylonianized", but they wereall referred to by the exclusive and sullen-Egyptians as "barbarians"and "Asiatics". They recognized the sun god of Heliopolis, but werealso concerned in promoting the worship of Sutekh, a deity of sky andthunder, with solar attributes, whom Rameses II identified with the"Baal" of the Hittites. The Mitannians, as has been stated, recognizeda Baal called Teshup, who was identical with Tarku of the WesternHittites and with their own tribal Indra also. One of the Hyksoskings, named Ian or Khian, the Ianias of Manetho, was either anoverlord or the ally of an overlord, who swayed a great empire inAsia. His name has been deciphered on relics found as far apart asKnossos in Crete and Baghdad on the Tigris, which at the time wassituated within the area of Kassite control. Apparently peacefulconditions prevailed during his reign over a wide extent of Asia andtrade was brisk between far-distant centres of civilization. The veryterm Hyksos is suggestive in this connection. According to Breasted itsignifies "rulers of countries", which compares with the Biblical"Tidal king of nations", whom Sayce, as has been indicated, regards asa Hittite monarch. When the Hittite hieroglyphics have been read andMesopotamia thoroughly explored, light may be thrown on the relationsof the Mitannians, the Hittites, the Hyksos, and the Kassites between1800 B. C. And 1500 B. C. It is evident that a fascinating volume ofancient history has yet to be written. 

The Kassites formed the military aristocracy of Babylonia, which wascalled Karduniash, for nearly six centuries. Agum II was the first oftheir kings who became thoroughly Babylonianized, and although hestill gave recognition to Shuqamuna, the Kassite god of battle, here-exalted Merodach, whose statue he had taken back from "Khani", anddecorated E-sagila with gifts of gold, jewels, rare woods, frescoes, and pictorial tiles; he also re-endowed the priesthood. During thereign of his successor, Burnaburiash I, the Dynasty of Sealand came toan end. 

Little is known regarding the relations between Elam and Babyloniaduring the Kassite period. If the Kassite invaders crossed the Tigrissoon after the raid of the Mitannian Hittites they must havepreviously overrun a great part of Elam, but strongly situated Susamay have for a time withstood their attacks. At first the Kassitesheld northern Babylonia only, while the ancient Sumerian area wasdominated by the Sealand power, which had gradually regained strengthduring the closing years of the Hammurabi Dynasty. No doubt manynorthern Babylonian refugees reinforced its army. 

The Elamites, or perhaps the Kassites of Elam, appear to have madefrequent attacks on southern Babylonia. At length Ea-gamil, king ofSealand, invaded Elam with purpose, no doubt, to shatter the power ofhis restless enemies. He was either met there, however, by an armyfrom Babylon, or his country was invaded during his absence. PrinceUlamburiash, son of Burnaburiash I, defeated Ea-gamil and brought toan end the Sealand Dynasty which had been founded by Ilu-ma-ilu, thecontemporary and enemy of Samsu-la-ilu, son of Hammurabi. Ulamburiashis referred to on a mace-head which was discovered at Babylon as "kingof Sealand", and he probably succeeded his father at the capital. Thewhole of Babylonia thus came under Kassite sway. 

Agum III, a grandson of Ulamburiash, found it necessary, however, toinvade Sealand, which must therefore have revolted. It was probably acentre of discontent during the whole period of Kassite ascendancy. 

After a long obscure interval we reach the period when the Hyksospower was broken in Egypt, that is, after 1580 B. C. The great WesternAsiatic kingdoms at the time were the Hittite, the Mitannian, theAssyrian, and the Babylonian (Kassite). Between 1557 B. C. And 1501B. C. Thothmes I of Egypt was asserting his sway over part of Syria. Many years elapsed, however, before Thothmes III, who died in 1447B. C. , established firmly, after waging a long war of conquest, thesupremacy of Egypt between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean coastas far north as the borders of Asia Minor. 

"At this period", as Professor Flinders Petrie emphasizes, "thecivilization of Syria was equal or superior to that of Egypt. " Notonly was there in the cities "luxury beyond that of the Egyptians", but also "technical work which could teach them". The Syrian soldiershad suits of scale armour, which afterwards were manufactured inEgypt, and they had chariots adorned with gold and silver and highlydecorated, which were greatly prized by the Egyptians when theycaptured them, and reserved for royalty. "In the rich wealth of goldand silver vases", obtained from captured cities by the Niloticwarriors, "we see also", adds Petrie, "the sign of a people who weretheir (the Egyptians') equals, if not their superiors in taste andskill. "[296] It is not to be wondered at, therefore, when the Pharaohsreceived tribute from Syria that they preferred it to be carried intoEgypt by skilled workmen. "The keenness with which the Egyptiansrecord all the beautiful and luxurious products of the Syrians showsthat the workmen would probably be more in demand than other kinds orslave tribute. "[297]

One of the monarchs with whom Thothmes III corresponded was the kingof Assyria. The enemies of Egypt in northern Mesopotamia were theHittites and Mitannians, and their allies, and these were also theenemies of Assyria. But to enable us to deal with the new situationwhich was created by Egypt in Mesopotamia, it is necessary in thefirst place to trace the rise of Assyria, which was destined to becomefor a period the dominating power in Western Asia, and ultimately inthe Nile valley also. 

The Assyrian group of cities grew up on the banks of the Tigris to thenorth of Babylonia, the mother country. The following Biblicalreferences regarding the origins of the two states are of specialinterest:--

 Now these are the generations of the sons of Noah: Shem, Ham, and Japheth. .. . The sons of Ham: Cush, and Mizraim, and Phut, and Canaan. .. . And Cush begat Nimrod; he began to be a mighty one in the earth. He was a mighty hunter before the Lord; wherefore it is said, Even as Nimrod the mighty hunter before the Lord. And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of that land went forth Asshur and builded Nineveh, and the city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Resen between Nineveh and Calah: the same is a great city. The children of Shem: Elam and Asshur . .. (_Genesis_, x, 1-22). The land of Assyria . .. And the land of Nimrod in the entrances thereof (_Micah_, v, 6). 

It will be observed that the Sumero-Babylonians are Cushites orHamites, and therefore regarded as racially akin to theproto-Egyptians of the Mediterranean race--an interesting confirmationof recent ethnological conclusions. 

Nimrod, the king of Babel (Babylon), in Shinar (Sumer), was, it wouldappear, a deified monarch who became ultimately identified with thenational god of Babylonia. Professor Pinches has shown[298] that hisname is a rendering of that of Merodach. In Sumerian Merodach wascalled Amaruduk or Amarudu, and in the Assyro-Babylonian languageMarduk. By a process familiar to philologists the suffix "uk" wasdropped and the rendering became Marad. The Hebrews added "ni" ="ni-marad", assimilating the name "to a certain extent to the 'niphalforms' of the Hebrew verbs and making a change", says Pinches, "inconformity with the genius of the Hebrew language". 

Asshur, who went out of Nimrod's country to build Nineveh, was a sonof Shem--a Semite, and so far as is known it was after the Semitesachieved political supremacy in Akkad that the Assyrian colonies wereformed. Asshur may have been a subject ruler who was deified andbecame the god of the city of Asshur, which probably gave its name toAssyria. 

According to Herodotus, Nineveh was founded by King Ninus and QueenSemiramis. This lady was reputed to be the daughter of Derceto, thefish goddess, whom Pliny identified with Atargatis. Semiramis wasactually an Assyrian queen of revered memory. She was deified and tookthe place of a goddess, apparently Nina, the prototype of Derceto. This Nina, perhaps a form of Damkina, wife of Ea, was the great motherof the Sumerian city of Nina, and there, and also at Lagash, receivedofferings of fish. She was one of the many goddesses of maternityabsorbed by Ishtar. The Greek Ninus is regarded as a male form of hername; like Atargatis, she may have become a bisexual deity, if she wasnot always accompanied by a shadowy male form. Nineveh (Ninua) wasprobably founded or conquered by colonists from Nina or Lagash, andcalled after the fish goddess. 

All the deities of Assyria were imported from Babylonia except, assome hold, Ashur, the national god. [299] The theory that Ashur wasidentical with the Aryo-Indian Asura and the Persian Ahura is notgenerally accepted. One theory is that he was an eponymous hero whobecame the city god of Asshur, although the early form of his name, Ashir, presents a difficulty in this connection. Asshur was the firstcapital of Assyria. Its city god may have become the national god onthat account. 

At an early period, perhaps a thousand years before Thothmes IIIbattled with the Mitannians in northern Syria, an early wave of one ofthe peoples of Aryan speech may have occupied the Assyrian cities. Mr. Johns points out in this connection that the names of Ushpia, Kikia, and Adasi, who, according to Assyrian records, were early rulers inAsshur, "are neither Semitic nor Sumerian". An ancient name of thegoddess of Nineveh was Shaushka, which compares with Shaushkash, theconsort of Teshup, the Hittite-Mitanni hammer god. As many of theMitannian names "are", according to Mr. Johns, "really Elamitic", hesuggests an ethnic connection between the early conquerors of Assyriaand the people of Elam. [300] Were the pre-Semitic Elamites originallyspeakers of an agglutinative language, like the Sumerians andpresent-day Basques, who were conquered in prehistoric times by apeople of Aryan speech?

The possibility is urged by Mr. Johns's suggestion that Assyria mayhave been dominated in pre-Semitic times by the congeners of the Aryanmilitary aristocracy of Mitanni. As has been shown, it was Semitizedby the Amoritic migration which, about 2000 B. C. , brought intoprominence the Hammurabi Dynasty of Babylon. 

A long list of kings with Semitic names held sway in the Assyriancities during and after the Hammurabi Age. But not until well on inthe Kassite period did any of them attain prominence in Western Asia. Then Ashur-bel-nish-eshu, King of Asshur, was strong enough to deal onequal terms with the Kassite ruler Kara-indash I, with whom hearranged a boundary treaty. He was a contemporary of Thothmes III ofEgypt. 

After Thothmes III had secured the predominance of Egypt in Syria andPalestine he recognized Assyria as an independent power, and suppliedits king with Egyptian gold to assist him, no doubt, in strengtheninghis territory against their common enemy. Gifts were also sent fromAssyria to Egypt to fan the flame of cordial relations. 

The situation was full of peril for Saushatar, king of Mitanni. Deprived by Egypt of tribute-paying cities in Syria, his exchequermust have been sadly depleted. A standing army had to be maintained, for although Egypt made no attempt to encroach further on histerritory, the Hittites were ever hovering on his north-westernfrontier, ready when opportunity offered to win back Cappadocia. Eastward, Assyria was threatening to become a dangerous rival. He hadhimself to pay tribute to Egypt, and Egypt was subsidizing his enemy. It was imperative on his part, therefore, to take action withoutdelay. The power of Assyria had to be crippled; its revenues wererequired for the Mitannian exchequer. So Saushatar raided Assyriaduring the closing years of the reign of Thothmes III, or soon afterhis successor, Amenhotep II, ascended the Egyptian throne. 

Nothing is known from contemporary records regarding this campaign;but it can be gathered from the references of a later period that thecity of Asshur was captured and plundered; its king, Ashur-nadin-akhe, ceased corresponding and exchanging gifts with Egypt. That Ninevehalso fell is made clear by the fact that a descendant of Saushatar(Tushratta) was able to send to a descendant of Thothmes III at Thebes(Amenhotep III) the image of Ishtar (Shaushka) of Nineveh. Apparentlyfive successive Mitannian kings were overlords of Assyria during aperiod which cannot be estimated at much less than a hundred years. 

Our knowledge regarding these events is derived chiefly from theTell-el-Amarna letters, and the tablets found by Professor HugoWinckler at Boghaz-Köi in Cappadocia, Asia Minor. 

The Tell-el-Amarna letters were discovered among the ruins of thepalace of the famous Egyptian Pharaoh, Akhenaton, of the EighteenthDynasty, who died about 1358 B. C. During the winter of 1887-8 anEgyptian woman was excavating soil for her garden, when she happenedupon the cellar of Akhenaton's foreign office in which the officialcorrespondence had been stored. The "letters" were baked clay tabletsinscribed with cuneiform alphabetical signs in the Babylonian-Assyrianlanguage, which, like French in modern times, was the language ofinternational diplomacy for many centuries in Western Asia after theHyksos period. 

The Egyptian natives, ever so eager to sell antiquities so as to makea fortune and retire for life, offered some specimens of the tabletsfor sale. One or two were sent to Paris, where they were promptlydeclared to be forgeries, with the result that for a time theinscribed bricks were not a marketable commodity. Ere their value wasdiscovered, the natives had packed them into sacks, with the resultthat many were damaged and some completely destroyed. At length, however, the majority of them reached the British Museum and theBerlin Museum, while others drifted into the museums at Cairo, St. Petersburg, and Paris. When they were deciphered, Mitanni wasdiscovered, and a flood of light thrown on the internal affairs ofEgypt and its relations with various kingdoms in Asia, while glimpseswere also afforded of the life and manners of the times. 

The letters covered the reigns of Amenhotep III, the great-grandson ofThothmes III, and of his son Akhenaton, "the dreamer king", andincluded communications from the kings of Babylonia, Assyria, Mitanni, Cyprus, the Hittites, and the princes of Phoenicia and Canaan. Thecopies of two letters from Amenhotep III to Kallima-Sin, King ofBabylonia, had also been preserved. One deals with statements made byBabylonian ambassadors, whom the Pharaoh stigmatizes as liars. Kallima-Sin had sent his daughter to the royal harem of Egypt, anddesired to know if she was alive and well. He also asked for "muchgold" to enable him to carry on the work of extending his temple. Whentwenty minas of gold was sent to him, he complained in due course thatthe quantity received was not only short but that the gold was notpure; it had been melted in the furnace, and less than five minas cameout. In return he sent to Akhenaton two minas of enamel, and somejewels for his daughter, who was in the Egyptian royal harem. 

Ashur-uballit, king of Ashur, once wrote intimating to Akhenaton thathe was gifting him horses and chariots and a jewel seal. He asked forgold to assist in building his palace. "In your country", he added, "gold is as plentiful as dust. " He also made an illuminating statementto the effect that no ambassador had gone from Assyria to Egypt sincethe days of his ancestor Ashur-nadin-akhe. It would therefore appearthat Ashur-uballit had freed part of Assyria from the yoke of Mitanni. 

The contemporary king of Mitanni was Tushratta. He corresponded bothwith his cousin Amenhotep III and his son-in-law Akhenaton. In hiscorrespondence with Amenhotep III Tushratta tells that his kingdom hadbeen invaded by the Hittites, but his god Teshup had delivered theminto his hand, and he destroyed them; "not one of them", he declared, "returned to his own country". Out of the booty captured he sentAmenhotep several chariots and horses, and a boy and a girl. To hissister Gilu-khipa, who was one of the Egyptian Pharaoh's wives, hegifted golden ornaments and a jar of oil. In another letter Tushrattaasked for a large quantity of gold "without measure". He complainedthat he did not receive enough on previous occasions, and hinted thatsome of the Egyptian gold looked as if it were alloyed with copper. Like the Assyrian king, he hinted that gold was as plentiful as dustin Egypt. His own presents to the Pharaoh included precious stones, gold ornaments, chariots and horses, and women (probably slaves). Thismay have been tribute. It was during the third Amenhotep's illnessthat Tushratta forwarded the Nineveh image of Ishtar to Egypt, and hemade reference to its having been previously sent thither by hisfather, Sutarna. 

When Akhenaton came to the throne Tushratta wrote to him, desiring tocontinue the friendship which had existed for two or three generationsbetween the kings of Mitanni and Egypt, and made complimentaryreferences to "the distinguished Queen Tiy", Akhenaton's mother, whoevidently exercised considerable influence in shaping Egypt's foreignpolicy. In the course of his long correspondence with the Pharaohs, Tushratta made those statements regarding his ancestors which haveprovided so much important data for modern historians of his kingdom. 

During the early part of the Tell-el-Amarna period, Mitanni was themost powerful kingdom in Western Asia. It was chiefly on that accountthat the daughters of its rulers were selected to be the wives andmothers of great Egyptian Pharaohs. But its numerous enemies were everplotting to accomplish its downfall. Among these the foremost and mostdangerous were the Hittites and the Assyrians. 

The ascendancy of the Hittites was achieved in northern Syria withdramatic suddenness. There arose in Asia Minor a great conqueror, named Subbi-luliuma, the successor of Hattusil I, who established astrong Hittite empire which endured for about two centuries. Hiscapital was at Boghaz-Köi. Sweeping through Cappadocia, at the head ofa finely organized army, remarkable for its mobility, he attacked thebuffer states which owed allegiance to Mitanni and Egypt. City aftercity fell before him, until at length he invaded Mitanni; but it isuncertain whether or not Tushratta met him in battle. Large numbers ofthe Mitannians were, however, evicted and transferred to the land ofthe Hittites, where the Greeks subsequently found them, and where theyare believed to be represented by the modern Kurds, the hereditaryenemies of the Armenians. 

In the confusion which ensued, Tushratta was murdered by Sutarna II, who was recognized by Subbi-luliuma. The crown prince, Mattiuza, fledto Babylon, where he found protection, but was unable to receive anyassistance. Ultimately, when the Hittite emperor had secured his swayover northern Syria, he deposed Sutarna II and set Mattiuza as hisvassal on the throne of the shrunken Mitanni kingdom. 

Meanwhile the Egyptian empire in Asia had gone to pieces. WhenAkhenaton, the dreamer king, died in his palace at Tell-el-Amarna, theKhabiri were conquering the Canaanite cities which had paid himtribute, and the Hittite ruler was the acknowledged overlord of theAmorites. 

The star of Assyria was also in the ascendant. Its king, Ashur-uballit, who had corresponded with Akhenaton, was, like theHittite king, Subbi-luliuma, a distinguished statesman and general, and similarly laid the foundations of a great empire. Before or afterSubbi-luliuma invaded Tushratta's domains, he drove the Mitannians outof Nineveh, and afterwards overcame the Shubari tribes of Mitanni onthe north-west, with the result that he added a wide extent ofterritory to his growing empire. 

He had previously thrust southward the Assyro-Babylonian frontier. Infact, he had become so formidable an opponent of Babylonia that hisdaughter had been accepted as the wife of Karakhardash, the Kassiteking of that country. In time his grandson, Kadashman-Kharbe, ascendedthe Babylonian throne. This young monarch co-operated with hisgrandfather in suppressing the Suti, who infested the trade routestowards the west, and plundered the caravans of merchants and themessengers of great monarchs with persistent impunity. 

A reference to these bandits appears in one of the Tell-el-Amarnaletters. Writing to Akhenaton, Ashur-uballit said: "The lands (ofAssyria and Egypt) are remote, therefore let our messengers come andgo. That your messengers were late in reaching you, (the reason isthat) if the Suti had waylaid them, they would have been dead men. Forif I had sent them, the Suti would have sent bands to waylay them;therefore I have retained them. My messengers (however), may they not(for this reason) be delayed. "[301]

Ashur-uballit's grandson extended his Babylonian frontier into Amurru, where he dug wells and erected forts to protect traders. The Kassitearistocracy, however, appear to have entertained towards him a strongdislike, perhaps because he was so closely associated with theirhereditary enemies the Assyrians. He had not reigned for long when theembers of rebellion burst into flame and he was murdered in hispalace. The Kassites then selected as their king a man of humbleorigin, named Nazibugash, who was afterwards referred to as "the sonof nobody". Ashur-uballit deemed the occasion a fitting one tointerfere in the affairs of Babylonia. He suddenly appeared at thecapital with a strong army, overawed the Kassites, and seized and slewNazibugash. Then he set on the throne his great grandson the infantKurigalzu II, who lived to reign for fifty-five years. 

Ashur-uballit appears to have died soon after this event. He wassucceeded by his son Bel-nirari, who carried on the policy ofstrengthening and extending the Assyrian empire. For many years hemaintained excellent relations with his kinsman Kurigalzu II, butultimately they came into conflict apparently over disputed territory. A sanguinary battle was fought, in which the Babylonians sufferedheavily and were put to rout. A treaty of peace was afterwardsarranged, which secured for the Assyrians a further extension of theirfrontier "from the borders of Mitanni as far as Babylonia". Thestruggle of the future was to be for the possession of Mesopotamia, soas to secure control over the trade routes. 

Thus Assyria rose from a petty state in a comparatively brief periodto become the rival of Babylonia, at a time when Egypt at thebeginning of its Nineteenth Dynasty was endeavouring to win back itslost empire in Syria, and the Hittite empire was being consolidated inthe north. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

ASTROLOGY AND ASTRONOMY

 Culture and Superstition--Primitive Star Myths--Naturalism, Totemism, and Animism--Stars as Ghosts of Men, Giants, and Wild Animals--Gods as Constellations and Planets--Babylonian and Egyptian Mysticism--Osiris, Tammuz, and Merodach--Ishtar and Isis as Bisexual Deities--The Babylonian Planetary Deities--Planets as Forms of Tammuz and Ghosts of Gods--The Signs of the Zodiac--The "Four Quarters"--Cosmic Periods in Babylonia, India, Greece, and Ireland--Babylonian System of Calculation--Traced in Indian Yuga System--Astrology--Beliefs of the Masses--Rise of Astronomy--Conflicting Views of Authorities--Greece and Babylonia--Eclipses Foretold--The Dial of Ahaz--Omens of Heaven and Air--Biblical References to Constellations--The Past in the Present. 

The empire builders of old who enriched themselves with the spoils ofwar and the tribute of subject States, not only satisfied personalambition and afforded protection for industrious traders and workers, but also incidentally promoted culture and endowed research. When aconqueror returned to his capital laden with treasure, he madegenerous gifts to the temples. He believed that his successes wererewards for his piety, that his battles were won for him by his god orgoddess of war. It was necessary, therefore, that he should continueto find favour in the eyes of the deity who had been proved to be morepowerful than the god of his enemies. Besides, he had to makeprovision during his absence on long campaigns, or while absorbed inadministrative work, for the constant performance of religious rites, so that the various deities of water, earth, weather, and corn mightbe sustained or propitiated with sacrificial offerings, or held inmagical control by the performance of ceremonial rites. Consequentlyan endowed priesthood became a necessity in all powerful andwell-organized states. 

Thus came into existence in Babylonia, as elsewhere, as a result ofthe accumulation of wealth, a leisured official class, whose dutiestended to promote intellectual activity, although they were primarilydirected to perpetuate gross superstitious practices. Culture wasreally a by-product of temple activities; it flowed forth like puregold from furnaces of thought which were walled up by the crude oresof magic and immemorial tradition. 

No doubt in ancient Babylonia, as in Europe during the Middle Ages, the men of refinement and intellect among the upper classes wereattracted to the temples, while the more robust types preferred theoutdoor life, and especially the life of the soldier. [302] Thepermanent triumphs of Babylonian civilization were achieved either bythe priests, or in consequence of the influence they exercised. Theywere the grammarians and the scribes, the mathematicians and thephilosophers of that ancient country, the teachers of the young, andthe patrons of the arts and crafts. It was because the temples werecentres of intellectual activity that the Sumerian language remainedthe language of culture for long centuries after it ceased to be theeveryday speech of the people. 

Reference has already been made to the growth of art, and theprobability that all the arts had their origin in magical practices, and to the growth of popular education necessitated by thecentralization of business in the temples. It remains with us to dealnow with priestly contributions to the more abstruse sciences. InIndia the ritualists among the Brahmans, who concerned themselvesgreatly regarding the exact construction and measurements of altars, gave the world algebra; the pyramid builders of Egypt, who erectedvast tombs to protect royal mummies, had perforce to lay thegroundwork of the science of geometry; and the Babylonian priests whoelaborated the study of astrology became great astronomers becausethey found it necessary to observe and record accurately the movementsof the heavenly bodies. 

From the earliest times of which we have knowledge, the religiousbeliefs of the Sumerians had vague stellar associations. But it doesnot follow that their myths were star myths to begin with. A peoplewho called constellations "the ram", "the bull", "the lion", or "thescorpion", did not do so because astral groups suggested the forms ofanimals, but rather because the animals had an earlier connection withtheir religious life. 

At the same time it should be recognized that the mystery of the starsmust ever have haunted the minds of primitive men. Night with all itsterrors appealed more strongly to their imaginations than refulgentday when they felt more secure; they were concerned most regardingwhat they feared most. Brooding in darkness regarding their fate, theyevidently associated the stars with the forces which influenced theirlives--the ghosts of ancestors, of totems, the spirits that broughtfood or famine and controlled the seasons. As children see images in afire, so they saw human life reflected in the starry sky. To thesimple minds of early folks the great moon seemed to be the parent ofthe numerous twinkling and moving orbs. In Babylon, indeed, the moonwas regarded as the father not only of the stars but of the sun also;there, as elsewhere, lunar worship was older than solar worship. 

Primitive beliefs regarding the stars were of similar character invarious parts of the world. But the importance which they assumed inlocal mythologies depended in the first place on local phenomena. Onthe northern Eur-Asian steppes, for instance, where stars vanishedduring summer's blue nights, and were often obscured by clouds inwinter, they did not impress men's minds so persistently and deeply asin Babylonia, where for the greater part of the year they gleamed indarkness through a dry transparent atmosphere with awesome intensity. The development of an elaborate system of astral myths, besides, wasonly possible in a country where the people had attained to a highdegree of civilization, and men enjoyed leisure and security to makeobservations and compile records. It is not surprising, therefore, tofind that Babylonia was the cradle of astronomy. But before thisscience had destroyed the theory which it was fostered to prove, itlay smothered for long ages in the debris of immemorial beliefs. It isnecessary, therefore, in dealing with Babylonian astral myths toendeavour to approach within reasonable distance of the point of view, or points of view, of the people who framed them. 

Babylonian religious thought was of highly complex character. Itsprogress was ever hampered by blended traditions. The earliestsettlers in the Tigro-Euphrates valley no doubt imported many crudebeliefs which they had inherited from their Palaeolithicancestors--the modes of thought which were the moulds of new theoriesarising from new experiences. When consideration is given to theexisting religious beliefs of various peoples throughout the world, inlow stages of culture, it is found that the highly developed creeds ofBabylonia, Egypt and other countries where civilization flourishedwere never divested wholly of their primitive traits. 

Among savage peoples two grades of religious ideas have beenidentified, and classified as Naturalism and Animism. In the plane ofNaturalism the belief obtains that a vague impersonal force, which mayhave more than one manifestation and is yet manifested in everything, controls the world and the lives of human beings. An illustration ofthis stage of religious consciousness is afforded by Mr. Risley, who, in dealing with the religion of the jungle dwellers of Chota Nagpur, India, says that "in most cases the indefinite something which theyfear and attempt to propitiate is not a person at all in any sense ofthe word; if one must state the case in positive terms, I should saythat the idea which lies at the root of their religion is that of apower rather than many powers". [303]

Traces of Naturalism appear to have survived in Sumeria in the beliefthat "the spiritual, the Zi, was that which manifested life. .. . Thetest of the manifestation of life was movement. "[304] All things thatmoved, it was conceived in the plane of Naturalism, possessed "selfpower"; the river was a living thing, as was also the fountain; astone that fell from a hill fell of its own accord; a tree groanedbecause the wind caused it to suffer pain. This idea that inanimateobjects had conscious existence survived in the religion of theAryo-Indians. In the Nala story of the Indian epic, the _Mahabharata_, the disconsolate wife Damayanti addresses a mountain when searchingfor her lost husband:

 "This, the monarch of all mountains, ask I of the king of men; O all-honoured Prince of Mountains, with thy heavenward soaring peaks . .. Hast thou seen the kingly Nala in this dark and awful wood. .. . Why repliest thou not, O Mountain?"

She similarly addresses the Asoka tree:

 "Hast thou seen Nishadha's monarch, hast thou seen my only love?. .. That I may depart ungrieving, fair Asoka, answer me. .. . " Many a tree she stood and gazed on. .. . [305]

It will be recognized that when primitive men gave names to mountains, rivers, or the ocean, these possessed for them a deeper significancethan they do for us at the present day. The earliest peoples ofIndo-European speech who called the sky "dyeus", and those of Sumerianspeech who called it "ana", regarded it not as the sky "and nothingmore", but as something which had conscious existence and "selfpower". Our remote ancestors resembled, in this respect, thoseimaginative children who hold conversations with articles offurniture, and administer punishment to stones which, they believe, have tripped them up voluntarily and with desire to commit an offence. 

In this early stage of development the widespread totemic beliefsappear to have had origin. Families or tribes believed that they weredescended from mountains, trees, or wild animals. 

Aesop's fable about the mountain which gave birth to a mouse may be arelic of Totemism; so also may be the mountain symbols on thestandards of Egyptian ships which appear on pre-dynastic pottery; theblack dwarfs of Teutonic mythology were earth children. [306]

Adonis sprang from a tree; his mother may have, according to primitivebelief, been simply a tree; Dagda, the patriarchal Irish corn god, wasan oak; indeed, the idea of a "world tree", which occurs in Sumerian, Vedic-Indian, Teutonic, and other mythologies, was probably a productof Totemism. 

Wild animals were considered to be other forms of human beings whocould marry princes and princesses as they do in so many fairy tales. Damayanti addressed the tiger, as well as the mountain and tree, saying:

 I approach him without fear. "Of the beasts art thou the monarch, all this forest thy domain;. .. Thou, O king of beasts, console me, if my Nala thou hast seen. "[307]

A tribal totem exercised sway over a tribal district. In Egypt, asHerodotus recorded, the crocodile was worshipped in one district andhunted down in another. Tribes fought against tribes when totemicanimals were slain. The Babylonian and Indian myths about theconflicts between eagles and serpents may have originated as recordsof battles between eagle clans and serpent clans. Totemic animals weretabooed. The Set pig of Egypt and the devil pig of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales were not eaten except sacrificially. Families were supposedto be descended from swans and were named Swans, or from seals andwere named Seals, like the Gaelic "Mac Codrums", whose surnamesignifies "son of the seal"; the nickname of the Campbells, "sons ofthe pig", may refer to their totemic boar's head crest, whichcommemorated the slaying, perhaps the sacrificial slaying, of the boarby their ancestor Diarmid. Mr. Garstang, in _The Syrian Goddess_, thinks it possible that the boar which killed Adonis was of totemicorigin. So may have been the fish form of the Sumerian god Ea. When ananimal totem was sacrificed once a year, and eaten sacrificially sothat the strength of the clan might be maintained, the priest whowrapped himself in its skin was supposed to have transmitted to himcertain magical powers; he became identified with the totem andprophesied and gave instruction as the totem. Ea was depicted clad inthe fish's skin. 

Animism, the other early stage of human development, also produceddistinctive modes of thought. Men conceived that the world swarmedwith spirits, that a spirit groaned in the wind-shaken tree, that thehowling wind was an invisible spirit, that there were spirits infountains, rivers, valleys, hills, and in ocean, and in all animals;and that a hostile spirit might possess an individual and change hisnature. The sun and the moon were the abodes of spirits, or thevessels in which great spirits sailed over the sea of the sky; thestars were all spirits, the "host of heaven". These spirits existed ingroups of seven, or groups of three, and the multiple of three, or inpairs, or operated as single individuals. 

Although certain spirits might confer gifts upon mankind, they were atcertain seasons and in certain localities hostile and vengeful, likethe grass-green fairies in winter, or the earth-black elves when theirgold was sought for in forbidden and secret places. These spirits werethe artisans of creation and vegetation, like the Egyptian Khnumu andthe Indian Rhibus; they fashioned the grass blades and the stalks ofcorn, but at times of seasonal change they might ride on their tempeststeeds, or issue forth from flooding rivers and lakes. Man was greatlyconcerned about striking bargains with them to secure their services, and about propitiating them, or warding off their attacks withprotective charms, and by performing "ceremonies of riddance". Theghosts of the dead, being spirits, were similarly propitious orharmful on occasion; as emissaries of Fate they could injure theliving. 

Ancestor worship, the worship of ghosts, had origin in the stage ofAnimism. But ancestor worship was not developed in Babylonia as inChina, for instance, although traces of it survived in the worship ofstars as ghosts, in the deification of kings, and the worship ofpatriarchs, who might be exalted as gods or identified with a supremegod. The Egyptian Pharaoh Unas became the sun god and theconstellation of Orion by devouring his predecessors[308]. He ate hisgod as a tribe ate its animal totem; he became the "bull of heaven". 

There were star totems as well as mountain totems. A St. Andrew'scross sign, on one of the Egyptian ship standards referred to, mayrepresent a star. The Babylonian goddess Ishtar was symbolized as astar, and she was the "world mother". Many primitive currents ofthought shaped the fretted rocks of ancient mythologies. 

In various countries all round the globe the belief prevailed that thestars were ghosts of the mighty dead--of giants, kings, or princes, orprincesses, or of pious people whom the gods loved, or of animalswhich were worshipped. A few instances may be selected at random. Whenthe Teutonic gods slew the giant Thjasse, he appeared in the heavensas Sirius. In India the ghosts of the "seven Rishis", who weresemi-divine Patriarchs, formed the constellation of the Great Bear, which in Vedic times was called the "seven bears". The wives of theseven Rishis were the stars of the Pleiades. In Greece the Pleiadeswere the ghosts of the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione, and inAustralia they were and are a queen and six handmaidens. In thesecountries, as elsewhere, stories were told to account for the "lostPleiad", a fact which suggests that primitive men were more constantobservers of the heavenly bodies than might otherwise be supposed. TheArcadians believed that they were descended, as Hesiod recorded, froma princess who was transformed by Zeus into a bear; in this formArtemis slew her and she became the "Great Bear" of the sky. TheEgyptian Isis was the star Sirius, whose rising coincided with thebeginning of the Nile inundation. Her first tear for the dead Osirisfell into the river on "the night of the drop". The flood which ensuedbrought the food supply. Thus the star was not only the Great Motherof all, but the sustainer of all. 

The brightest stars were regarded as being the greatest and mostinfluential. In Babylonia all the planets were identified with greatdeities. Jupiter, for instance, was Merodach, and one of the astralforms of Ishtar was Venus. Merodach was also connected with "the fishof Ea" (Pisces), so that it is not improbable that Ea worship hadstellar associations. Constellations were given recognition before theplanets were identified. 

A strange blending of primitive beliefs occurred when the deities weregiven astral forms. As has been shown (Chapter III) gods were supposedto die annually. The Egyptian priests pointed out to Herodotus thegrave of Osiris and also his star. There are "giants' graves" also inthose countries in which the gods were simply ferocious giants. A godmight assume various forms; he might take the form of an insect, likeIndra, and hide in a plant, or become a mouse, or a serpent, like thegods of Erech in the Gilgamesh epic. The further theory that a godcould exist in various forms at one and the same time suggests that ithad its origin among a people who accepted the idea of a personal godwhile yet in the stage of Naturalism. In Egypt Osiris, for instance, was the moon, which came as a beautiful child each month and wasdevoured as the wasting "old moon" by the demon Set; he was the younggod who was slain in his prime each year; he was at once the father, husband, and son of Isis; he was the Patriarch who reigned over menand became the Judge of the Dead; he was the earth spirit, he was thebisexual Nile spirit, he was the spring sun; he was the Apis bull ofMemphis, and the ram of Mendes; he was the reigning Pharaoh. In hisfusion with Ra, who was threefold--Khepera, Ra, and Tum--he died eachday as an old man; he appeared in heaven at night as the constellationOrion, which was his ghost, or was, perhaps, rather the Sumerian Zi, the spiritual essence of life. Osiris, who resembled Tammuz, a god ofmany forms also, was addressed as follows in one of the Isis chants:

 There proceedeth from thee the strong Orion in heaven at evening, at the resting of every day! Lo it is I (Isis), at the approach of the Sothis (Sirius) period, who doth watch for him (the child Osiris), Nor will I leave off watching for him; for that which proceedeth from thee (the living Osiris) is revered. An emanation from thee causeth life to gods and men, reptiles and animals, and they live by means thereof. Come thou to us from thy chamber, in the day when thy soul begetteth emanations, -- The day when offerings upon offerings are made to thy spirit, which causeth the gods and men likewise to live. [309]

This extract emphasizes how unsafe it is to confine certain deitieswithin narrow limits by terming them simply "solar gods", "lunargods", "astral gods", or "earth gods". One deity may have beensimultaneously a sun god and moon god, an air god and an earth god, one who was dead and also alive, unborn and also old. The priests ofBabylonia and Egypt were less accustomed to concrete and logicaldefinitions than their critics and expositors of the twentiethcentury. Simple explanations of ancient beliefs are often by reason oftheir very simplicity highly improbable. Recognition must ever begiven to the puzzling complexity of religious thought in Babylonia andEgypt, and to the possibility that even to the priests the doctrinesof a particular cult, which embraced the accumulated ideas ofcenturies, were invariably confusing and vague, and full ofinconsistencies; they were mystical in the sense that theunderstanding could not grasp them although it permitted theiracceptance. A god, for instance, might be addressed at once in thesingular and plural, perhaps because he had developed from ananimistic group of spirits, or, perhaps, for reasons we cannotdiscover. This is shown clearly by the following pregnant extract froma Babylonian tablet: "_Powerful, O Sevenfold, one are ye_". Mr. L. W. King, the translator, comments upon it as follows: "There is no doubtthat the name was applied to a group of gods who were so closelyconnected that, though addressed in the plural, they could in the samesentence be regarded as forming a single personality". [310]

Like the Egyptian Osiris, the Babylonian Merodach was a highly complexdeity. He was the son of Ea, god of the deep; he died to give originto human life when he commanded that his head should be cut off sothat the first human beings might be fashioned by mixing his bloodwith the earth; he was the wind god, who gave "the air of life"; hewas the deity of thunder and the sky; he was the sun of spring in hisTammuz character; he was the daily sun, and the planets Jupiter andMercury as well as Sharru (Regulus); he had various astralassociations at various seasons. Ishtar, the goddess, was Iku(Capella), the water channel star, in January-February, and Merodachwas Iku in May-June. This strange system of identifying the chiefdeity with different stars at different periods, or simultaneously, must not be confused with the monotheistic identification of him withother gods. Merodach changed his forms with Ishtar, and had similarlymany forms. This goddess, for instance, was, even when connected withone particular heavenly body, liable to change. According to a tabletfragment she was, as the planet Venus, "a female at sunset and a maleat sunrise[311]"--that is, a bisexual deity like Nannar of Ur, thefather and mother deity combined, and Isis of Egypt. Nannar isaddressed in a famous hymn:

 Father Nannar, Lord, God Sin, ruler among the gods. .. . _Mother body which produceth all things_. .. . Merciful, gracious Father, in whose hand the life of the whole land is contained. 

One of the Isis chants of Egypt sets forth, addressing Osiris:

 There cometh unto thee Isis, lady of the horizon, who hath begotten herself alone in the image of the gods. .. . She hath taken vengeance before Horus, _the woman who was made a male by her father Osiris_. [312]

Merodach, like Osiris-Sokar, was a "lord of many existences", andlikewise "the mysterious one, he who is unknown to mankind[313]". Itwas impossible for the human mind "a greater than itself to know". 

Evidence has not yet been forthcoming to enable us to determine theperiod at which the chief Babylonian deities were identified with theplanets, but it is clear that Merodach's ascendancy in astral formcould not have occurred prior to the rise of that city god of Babylonas chief of the pantheon by displacing Enlil. At the same time it mustbe recognized that long before the Hammurabi age the star-gazers ofthe Tigro-Euphrates valley must have been acquainted with themovements of the chief planets and stars, and, no doubt, theyconnected them with seasonal changes as in Egypt, where Isis wasidentified with Sirius long before the Ptolemaic age, when Babylonianastronomy was imported. Horus was identified not only with the sun butalso with Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars. [314] Even the primitiveAustralians, as has been indicated, have their star myths; they referto the stars Castor and Pollux as two young men, like the ancientGreeks, while the African Bushmen assert that these stars are twogirls. It would be a mistake, however, to assume that the prehistoricSumerians were exact astronomers. Probably they were, like theAryo-Indians of the Vedic period, "not very accurate observers". [315]

It is of special interest to find that the stars were grouped by theBabylonians at the earliest period in companies of seven. Theimportance of this magical number is emphasized by the group of sevendemons which rose from the deep to rage over the land (p. 71). Perhapsthe sanctity of Seven was suggested by Orion, the Bears, and thePleiad, one of which constellations may have been the "Sevenfold"deity addressed as "one". At any rate arbitrary groupings of otherstars into companies of seven took place, for references are made tothe seven Tikshi, the seven Lumashi, and the seven Mashi, which areolder than the signs of the Zodiac; so far as can be ascertained thesegroups were selected from various constellations. When the fiveplanets were identified, they were associated with the sun and moonand connected with the chief gods of the Hammurabi pantheon. Abilingual list in the British Museum arranges the sevenfold planetarygroup in the following order:--

 The moon, Sin. The sun, Shamash. Jupiter, Merodach. Venus, Ishtar. Saturn, Ninip (Nirig). Mercury, Nebo. Mars, Nergal. 

An ancient name of the moon was Aa, Â, or Ai, which recalls theEgyptian Aâh or Ah. The Sumerian moon was Aku, "the measurer", likeThoth of Egypt, who in his lunar character as a Fate measured out thelives of men, and was a god of architects, mathematicians, andscribes. The moon was the parent of the sun or its spouse; and mightbe male, or female, or both as a bisexual deity. 

As the "bull of light" Jupiter had solar associations; he was also theshepherd of the stars, a title shared by Tammuz as Orion; Nin-Girsu, adeveloped form of Tammuz, was identified with both Orion and Jupiter. 

Ishtar's identification with Venus is of special interest. When thatplanet was at its brightest phase, its rays were referred to as "thebeard" of the goddess; she was the "bearded Aphrodite"--a bisexualdeity evidently. The astrologers regarded the bright Venus as luckyand the rayless Venus as unlucky. 

Saturn was Nirig, who is best known as Ninip, a deity who wasdisplaced by Enlil, the elder Bel, and afterwards regarded as his son. His story has not been recovered, but from the references made to itthere is little doubt that it was a version of the widespread mythabout the elder deity who was slain by his son, as Saturn was byJupiter and Dyaus by Indra. It may have resembled the lost Egyptianmyth which explained the existence of the two Horuses--Horus theelder, and Horus, the posthumous son of Osiris. At any rate, it is ofinterest to find in this connection that in Egypt the planet Saturnwas Her-Ka, "Horus the Bull". Ninip was also identified with the bull. Both deities were also connected with the spring sun, like Tammuz, andwere terrible slayers of their enemies. Ninip raged through Babylonialike a storm flood, and Horus swept down the Nile, slaying thefollowers of Set. As the divine sower of seed, Ninip may havedeveloped from Tammuz as Horus did from Osiris. Each were at once thefather and the son, different forms of the same deity at variousseasons of the year. The elder god was displaced by the son (spring), and when the son grew old his son slew him in turn. As the planetSaturn, Ninip was the ghost of the elder god, and as the son of Bel hewas the solar war god of spring, the great wild bull, the god offertility. He was also as Ber "lord of the wild boar", an animalassociated with Rimmon[316]. 

Nebo (Nabu), who was identified with Mercury, was a god of Borsippa. He was a messenger and "announcer" of the gods, as the Egyptian Horusin his connection with Jupiter was Her-ap-sheta, "Horus the opener ofthat which is secret[317]". Nebo's original character is obscure. Heappears to have been a highly developed deity of a people welladvanced in civilization when he was exalted as the divine patron ofBorsippa. Although Hammurabi ignored him, he was subsequently invokedwith Merodach, and had probably much in common with Merodach. Indeed, Merodach was also identified with the planet Mercury. Like the GreekHermes, Nebo was a messenger of the gods and an instructor of mankind. Jastrow regards him as "a counterpart of Ea", and says: "Like Ea, heis the embodiment and source of wisdom. The art of writing--andtherefore of all literature--is more particularly associated with him. A common form of his name designates him as the 'god of thestylus'. "[318] He appears also to have been a developed form ofTammuz, who was an incarnation of Ea. Professor Pinches shows that oneof his names, Mermer, was also a non-Semitic name of Ramman. [319]Tammuz resembled Ramman in his character as a spring god of war. Itwould seem that Merodach as Jupiter displaced at Babylon Nebo asSaturn, the elder god, as Bel Enlil displaced the elder Ninip atNippur. 

The god of Mars was Nergal, the patron deity of Cuthah, [320] whodescended into the Underworld and forced into submission Eresh-ki-gal(Persephone), with whom he was afterwards associated. His "name", saysProfessor Pinches, "is supposed to mean 'lord of the greathabitation', which would be a parallel to that of his spouse, Eresh-ki-gal". [321] At Erech he symbolized the destroying influence ofthe sun, and was accompanied by the demons of pestilence. Mars was aplanet of evil, plague, and death; its animal form was the wolf. InEgypt it was called Herdesher, "the Red Horus", and in Greece it wasassociated with Ares (the Roman Mars), the war god, who assumed hisboar form to slay Adonis (Tammuz). 

Nergal was also a fire god like the Aryo-Indian Agni, who, as has beenshown, links with Tammuz as a demon slayer and a god of fertility. Itmay be that Nergal was a specialized form of Tammuz, who, in a versionof the myth, was reputed to have entered the Underworld as a conquerorwhen claimed by Eresh-ki-gal, and to have become, like Osiris, thelord of the dead. If so, Nergal was at once the slayer and the slain. 

The various Babylonian deities who were identified with the planetshad their characters sharply defined as members of an organizedpantheon. But before this development took place certain of theprominent heavenly bodies, perhaps all the planets, were evidentlyregarded as manifestations of one deity, the primeval Tammuz, who wasa form of Ea, or of the twin deities Ea and Anu. Tammuz may have beenthe "sevenfold one" of the hymns. At a still earlier period the starswere manifestations of the Power whom the jungle dwellers of ChotaNagpur attempt to propitiate--the "world soul" of the culturedBrahmans of the post-Vedic Indian Age. As much is suggested by theresemblances which the conventionalized planetary deities bear toTammuz, whose attributes they symbolized, and by the Egyptianconception that the sun, Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars were manifestationsof Horus. Tammuz and Horus may have been personifications of the Poweror World Soul vaguely recognized in the stage of Naturalism. 

The influence of animistic modes of thought may be traced in the ideathat the planets and stars were the ghosts of gods who were supersededby their sons. These sons were identical with their fathers; theybecame, as in Egypt, "husbands of their mothers". This idea wasperpetuated in the Aryo-Indian _Laws of Manu_, in which it is setforth that "the husband, after conception by his wife, becomes anembryo and is born again of her[322]". The deities died every year, but death was simply change. Yet they remained in the separate formsthey assumed in their progress round "the wide circle of necessity". Horus was remembered as various planets--as the falcon, as the eldersun god, and as the son of Osiris; and Tammuz was the spring sun, thechild, youth, warrior, the deity of fertility, and the lord of death(Orion-Nergal), and, as has been suggested, all the planets. 

The stars were also the ghosts of deities who died daily. When the sunperished as an old man at evening, it rose in the heavens as Orion, orwent out and in among the stars as the shepherd of the flock, Jupiter, the planet of Merodach in Babylonia, and Attis in Asia Minor. Theflock was the group of heavenly spirits invisible by day, the "host ofheaven"--manifestations or ghosts of the emissaries of the controllingpower or powers. 

The planets presided over various months of the year. Sin (the moon)was associated with the third month; it also controlled the calendar;Ninip (Saturn) was associated with the fourth month, Ishtar (Venus)with the sixth, Shamash (the sun) with the seventh, Merodach (Jupiter)with the eighth, Nergal (Mars) with the ninth, and a messenger of thegods, probably Nebo (Mercury), with the tenth. 

Each month was also controlled by a zodiacal constellation. In theCreation myth of Babylon it is stated that when Merodach engaged inthe work of setting the Universe in order he "set all the great godsin their several stations", and "also created their images, the starsof the Zodiac, [323] and fixed them all" (p. 147). 

Our signs of the Zodiac are of Babylonian origin. They were passed onto the Greeks by the Phoenicians and Hittites. "There was a time ", says Professor Sayce, "when the Hittites were profoundly affected byBabylonian civilization, religion, and art. .. . " They "carried thetime-worn civilizations of Babylonia and Egypt to the furthestboundary of Egypt, and there handed them over to the West in the greydawn of European history. .. . Greek traditions affirmed that the rulersof Mykenae had come from Lydia, bringing with them the civilizationand treasures of Asia Minor. The tradition has been confirmed bymodern research. While certain elements belonging to the prehistoricculture of Greece, as revealed at Mykenae and elsewhere, were derivedfrom Egypt and Phoenicia, there are others which point to Asia Minoras their source. And the culture of Asia Minor was Hittite. "[324]

The early Babylonian astronomers did not know, of course, that theearth revolved round the sun. They believed that the sun travelledacross the heavens flying like a bird or sailing like a boat. [325] Instudying its movements they observed that it always travelled fromwest to east along a broad path, swinging from side to side of it inthe course of the year. This path is the Zodiac--the celestial "circleof necessity". The middle line of the sun's path is the Ecliptic. TheBabylonian scientists divided the Ecliptic into twelve equal parts, and grouped in each part the stars which formed their constellations;these are also called "Signs of the Zodiac". Each month had thus itssign or constellation. 

The names borne at the present day by the signs of the Zodiac areeasily remembered even by children, who are encouraged to repeat thefollowing familiar lines:

 The _Ram_, the _Bull_, the heavenly _Twins_, And next the _Crab_, the _Lion_ shines. The _Virgin_ and the _Scales_; The _Scorpion, Archer_, and _Sea goat_, The man that holds the _water pot_, And _Fish_ with glitt'ring[326] tails. 

The table on p. 308 shows that our signs are derived from ancientBabylonia. 

The celestial regions were also divided into three or more parts. Three "fields" were allotted to the ancient triad formed by Ea, Anu, and Bel. The zodiacal "path" ran through these "fields". Ea's fieldwas in the west, and was associated with Amurru, the land of theAmorites; Anu's field was in the south, and was associated with Elam;and Bel's central "field" was associated with the land of Akkad. Whenthe rulers of Akkad called themselves "kings of the four quarters", the reference was to the countries associated with the three divinefields and to Gutium[327](east = our north-east). Was Gutiumassociated with demons, as in Scandinavia the north-east wasassociated with the giants against whom Thor waged war?

+---------------------------------------------------------------------+| | Date of Sun's Entry | ||Constellations. |(Babylonian Month in | Babylonian Equivalent. || | brackets). | ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Aries (the |20th March (Nisan = |The Labourer or Messenger. ||Ram). |March-April) | ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Taurus (the |20th April (Iyyar = |A divine figure and the "bull ||Bull). |April-May) |of heaven". ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Gemini (the |21st May (Sivan = |The Faithful Shepherd and Twins||Twins). |May-June). |side by side, or head to head || | |and feet to teet. ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Cancer (the |21st June (Tammuz = |Crab or Scorpion. ||Crab). |June-July). | ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Leo (the Lion). |22nd July (Ab = |The big dog (Lion). || |July-August). | ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Virgo (the |23rd August (Elul = |Ishtar, the Virgin's ear of ||Virgin). |August-Sept. ). |corn. ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Libra (the |23rd September (Tisri|The Balance. ||Balance). |= Sept. -Oct. ). | ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Scorpio (the |23rd October | ||Scorpion). |(Marcheswan = |Scorpion of darkness. || |Oct. -Nov. ). | ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Sagittarius |22nd November |Man or man-horse with bow, or ||(the Archer). |(Chisleu = |an arrow symbol. || |Nov. -Dec. ). | ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Capricornus |21st December (Tebet |Ea's goat-fish. ||(the Goat). |= Dec. -Jan. ). | ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Aquarius (the |19th January (Sebat =|God with water urn. ||Water Carrier). |Jan. -Feb. ). | ||---------------+---------------------+-------------------------------||Pisces (the |18th February (Adar =|Fish tails in canal. ||Fishes). |Feb. -March). | |+---------------------------------------------------------------------+

The Babylonian Creation myth states that Merodach, having fixed thestars of the Zodiac, made three stars for each month (p. 147). Mr. Robert Brown, jun. , who has dealt as exhaustively with theastronomical problems of Babylonia as the available data permittedhim, is of opinion that the leading stars of three constellations arereferred to, viz. : (1) the central or zodiacal constellations, (2) thenorthern constellations, and (3) the southern constellations. We havethus a scheme of thirty-six constellations. The "twelve zodiacal starswere flanked on either side by twelve non-zodiacal stars". Mr. Brownquotes Diodorus, who gave a résumé of Babylonianastronomico-astrology, in this connection. He said that "the fiveplanets were called 'Interpreters'; and in subjection to these weremarshalled 'Thirty Stars', which were styled 'Divinities of theCouncil'. .. . The chiefs of the Divinities are twelve in number, toeach of whom they assign a month and one of the twelve signs of theZodiac. " Through these twelve signs sun, moon, and planets run theircourses. "And with the zodiacal circle they mark out twenty-fourstars, half of which they say are arranged in the north and half inthe south. "[328] Mr. Brown shows that the thirty stars referred to"constituted the original Euphratean Lunar Zodiac, the parent of theseven ancient lunar zodiacs which have come down to us, namely, thePersian, Sogdian, Khorasmian, Chinese, Indian, Arab, and Copticschemes". 

The three constellations associated with each month had each asymbolic significance: they reflected the characters of their months. At the height of the rainy season, for instance, the month of Ramman, the thunder god, was presided over by the zodiacal constellation ofthe water urn, the northern constellation "Fish of the Canal", and thesouthern "the Horse". In India the black horse was sacrificed atrain-getting and fertility ceremonies. The months of growth, pestilence, and scorching sun heat were in turn symbolized. The "GreatBear" was the "chariot" = "Charles's Wain", and the "Milky Way" the"river of the high cloud", the Celestial Euphrates, as in Egypt it wasthe Celestial Nile. 

Of special interest among the many problems presented by Babylonianastronomical lore is the theory of Cosmic periods or Ages of theUniverse. In the Indian, Greek, and Irish mythologies there are fourAges--the Silvern (white), Golden (yellow), the Bronze (red), and theIron (black). As has been already indicated, Mr. R. Brown, jun. , showsthat "the Indian system of Yugas, or ages of the world, presents manyfeatures which forcibly remind us of the Euphratean scheme". TheBabylonians had ten antediluvian kings, who were reputed to havereigned for vast periods, the total of which amounted to 120 saroi, or432, 000 years. These figures at once recall the Indian Maha-yuga of4, 320, 000 years = 432, 000 x 10. Apparently the Babylonian and Indiansystems of calculation were of common origin. In both countries themeasurements of time and space were arrived at by utilizing thenumerals 10 and 6. 

When primitive man began to count he adopted a method which comesnaturally to every schoolboy; he utilized his fingers. Twice five gavehim ten, and from ten he progressed to twenty, and then on to ahundred and beyond. In making measurements his hands, arms, and feetwere at his service. We are still measuring by feet and yards(standardized strides) in this country, while those who engage in theimmemorial art of knitting, and, in doing so, repeat designs found onneolithic pottery, continue to measure in finger breadths, fingerlengths, and hand breadths as did the ancient folks who called an armlength a cubit. Nor has the span been forgotten, especially by boys intheir games with marbles; the space from the end of the thumb to theend of the little finger when the hand is extended must have been animportant measurement from the earliest times. 

As he made progress in calculations, the primitive Babylonian appearsto have been struck by other details in his anatomy besides his setsof five fingers and five toes. He observed, for instance, that hisfingers were divided into three parts and his thumb into two partsonly;[329] four fingers multiplied by three gave him twelve, andmultiplying 12 by 3 he reached 36. Apparently the figure 6 attractedhim. His body was divided into 6 parts--2 arms, 2 legs, the head, andthe trunk; his 2 ears, 2 eyes, and mouth, and nose also gave him 6. The basal 6, multiplied by his 10 fingers, gave him 60, and 60 x 2(for his 2 hands) gave him 120. In Babylonian arithmetic 6 and 60 areimportant numbers, and it is not surprising to find that in the systemof numerals the signs for 1 and 10 combined represent 60. 

In fixing the length of a mythical period his first great calculationof 120 came naturally to the Babylonian, and when he undertook tomeasure the Zodiac he equated time and space by fixing on 120 degrees. His first zodiac was the Sumerian lunar zodiac, which contained thirtymoon chambers associated with the "Thirty Stars" of the tablets, andreferred to by Diodorus as "Divinities of the Council". The chiefs ofthe Thirty numbered twelve. In this system the year began in thewinter solstice. Mr. Hewitt has shown that the chief annual festivalof the Indian Dravidians begins with the first full moon after thewinter festival, and Mr. Brown emphasizes the fact that the list ofTamil (Dravidian) lunar and solar months are named like the Babylonianconstellations. [330] "Lunar chronology", wrote Professor Max Mailer, "seems everywhere to have preceded solar chronology. "[331] The laterSemitic Babylonian system had twelve solar chambers and the thirty-sixconstellations. 

Each degree was divided into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixtyseconds. The hours of the day and night each numbered twelve. 

Multiplying 6 by 10 (pur), the Babylonian arrived at 60 (soss); 60x10gave him 600 (ner), and 600x6, 3600 (sar), while 3600x10 gave him36, 000, and 36, 000x12, 432, 000 years, or 120 saroi, which is equal tothe "sar" multiplied by the "soss"x2. "Pur" signifies "heap"--the tenfingers closed after being counted; and "ner" signifies "foot". Mr. George Bertin suggests that when 6x10 fingers gave 60 this number wasmultiplied by the ten toes, with the result that 600 was afterwardsassociated with the feet (ner). The Babylonian sign for 10 resemblesthe impression of two feet with heels closed and toes apart. Thissuggests a primitive record of the first round of finger counting. 

In India this Babylonian system of calculation was developed duringthe Brahmanical period. The four Yugas or Ages, representing the fourfingers used by the primitive mathematicians, totalled 12, 000 divineyears, a period which was called a Maha-yuga; it equalled theBabylonian 120 saroi, multiplied by 100. Ten times a hundred of theseperiods gave a "Day of Brahma". 

Each day of the gods, it was explained by the Brahmans, was a year tomortals. Multiplied by 360 days, 12, 000 divine years equalled4, 320, 000 human years. This Maha-yuga, multiplied by 1000, gave the"Day of Brahma" as 4, 320, 000, 000 human years. 

The shortest Indian Yuga is the Babylonian 120 saroi multiplied by10=1200 divine years for the Kali Yuga; twice that number gives theDvapara Yuga of 2400 divine years; then the Treta Yuga is 2400 + 1200= 3600 divine years, and Krita Yuga 3600 + 1200 = 4800 divine years. 

The influence of Babylonia is apparent in these calculations. Duringthe Vedic period "Yuga" usually signified a "generation", and thereare no certain references to the four Ages as such. The names "Kali", "Dvapara", "Treta", and "Krita" "occur as the designations of throwsof dice". [332] It was after the arrival of the "late comers", thepost-Vedic Aryans, that the Yuga system was developed in India. [333]

In _Indian Myth and Legend[334] it is shown that the Indian and IrishAges have the same colour sequence: (1) White or Silvern, (2) Red orBronze, (3) Yellow or Golden, and (4) Black or Iron. The Greek orderis: (1) Golden, (2) Silvern, (3) Bronze, and (4) Iron. 

The Babylonians coloured the seven planets as follows: the moon, silvern; the sun, golden; Mars, red; Saturn, black; Jupiter, orange;Venus, yellow; and Mercury, blue. 

As the ten antediluvian kings who reigned for 120 saroi had an astralsignificance, their long reigns corresponding "with the distancesseparating certain of the principal stars in or near theecliptic", [335] it seems highly probable that the planets weresimilarly connected with mythical ages which were equated with the"four quarters" of the celestial regions and the four regions of theearth, which in Gaelic story are called "the four red divisions of theworld". 

Three of the planets may have been heralds of change. Venus, as"Dilbat", was the "Proclaimer", and both Jupiter and Mercury werecalled "Face voices of light", and "Heroes of the rising sun" amongother names. Jupiter may have been the herald of the "Golden Age" as amorning star. This planet was also associated with bronze, as "KakkubUrud", "the star of bronze", while Mars was "Kakkub Aban Kha-urud, ""the star of the bronze fish stone". Mercury, the lapis lazuli planet, may have been connected with the black Saturn, the ghost of the deadsun, the demoniac elder god; in Egypt lapis lazuli was the hair colourof Ra when he grew old, and Egyptologists translate it as black. [336]The rare and regular appearances of Mercury may have suggested theplanet's connection with a recurring Age. Venus as an evening starmight be regarded as the herald of the lunar or silver age; she waspropitious as a bearded deity and interchanged with Merodach as aseasonal herald. 

Connecting Jupiter with the sun as a propitious planet, and with Marsas a destroying planet, Venus with the moon, and Mercury with Saturn, we have left four colour schemes which suggest the Golden, Silvern, Bronze, and Iron Ages. The Greek order of mythical ages may have had asolar significance, beginning as it does with the "golden" period. Onthe other hand the Indian and Irish systems begin with the Silvern orwhite lunar period. In India the White Age (Treta Yuga) was the age ofperfect men, and in Greece the Golden Age was the age of men who livedlike gods. Thus the first ages in both cases were "Perfect" Ages. TheBronze Age of Greece was the age of notorious fighters and takers oflife; in Babylonia the bronze planet Mars was the symbol of thedestroying Nergal, god of war and pestilence, while Jupiter was also adestroyer as Merodach, the slayer of Tiamat. In India the Black Age isthe age of wickedness. The Babylonian Saturn, as we have seen, isblack, and its god, Ninip, was the destroying boar, which recalls theblack boar of the Egyptian demon (or elder god) Set. The Greek Cronoswas a destroyer even of his own children. All the elder gods haddemoniac traits like the ghosts of human beings. 

As the Babylonian lunar zodiac was imported into India before solarworship and the solar zodiac were developed, so too may have been thegerms of the Yuga doctrine, which appears to have a long history. Greece, on the other hand, came under the influence of Babylon at amuch later period. In Egypt Ra, the sun god, was an antediluvian king, and he was followed by Osiris. Osiris was slain by Set, who wasdepicted sometimes red and sometimes black. There was also a HorusAge. 

The Irish system of ages suggests an early cultural drift into Europe, through Asia Minor, and along the uplands occupied by therepresentatives of the Alpine or Armenoid peoples who have been tracedfrom Hindu Kush to Brittany. The culture of Gaul resembles that ofIndia in certain particulars; both the Gauls and the post-VedicAryans, for instance, believed in the doctrine of Transmigration ofSouls, and practised "suttee". After the Roman occupation of Gaul, Ireland appears to have been the refuge of Gaulish scholars, whoimported their beliefs and traditions and laid the foundations of thatbrilliant culture which shed lustre on the Green Isle in late Paganand early Christian times. 

The part played by the Mitanni people of Aryan speech in distributingAsiatic culture throughout Europe may have been considerable, but weknow little or nothing regarding their movements and influence, norhas sufficient evidence been forthcoming to connect them with thecremating invaders of the Bronze Age, who penetrated as far asnorthern Scotland and Scandinavia. On the other hand it is certainthat the Hittites adopted the planetary system of Babylonia and passedit on to Europeans, including the Greeks. The five planets Ninip, Merodach, Nergal, Ishtar, and Nebo were called by the Greeks aftertheir gods Kronos, Zeus, Ares, Aphrodite, and Hermes, and by theRomans Saturnus, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercurius. It must berecognized, however, that these equations were somewhat arbitrary. Ninip resembled Kronos and Saturnus as a father, but he was also atthe same time a son; he was the Egyptian Horus the elder and Horus theyounger in one. Merodach was similarly of complex character--acombination of Ea, Anu, Enlil, and Tammuz, who acquired, when exaltedby the Amoritic Dynasty of Babylon, the attributes of the thunder godAdad-Ramman in the form of Amurru, "lord of the mountains". During theHammurabi Age Amurru was significantly popular in personal names. Itis as Amurru-Ramman that Merodach bears comparison with Zeus. He alsolinks with Hercules. Too much must not be made, therefore, of theGreek and Roman identifications of alien deities with their own. Mulla, the Gaulish mule god, may have resembled Mars somewhat, but itis a "far cry" from Mars-Mulla to Mars-Nergal, as it is also from theGaulish Moccus, the boar, called "Mercury", to Nebo, the god ofculture, who was the "Mercury" of the Tigro-Euphrates valley. Similarly the differences between "Jupiter-Amon" of Egypt and"Jupiter-Merodach" of Babylon were more pronounced than theresemblances. 

The basal idea in Babylonian astrology appears to be the recognitionof the astral bodies as spirits or fates, who exercised an influenceover the gods, the world, and mankind. These were worshipped in groupswhen they were yet nameless. The group addressed, "Powerful, Osevenfold, one are ye", may have been a constellation consisting ofseven stars. [337] The worship of stars and planets, which wereidentified and named, "seems never to have spread", says ProfessorSayce, "beyond the learned classes, and to have remained to the lastan artificial system. The mass of the people worshipped the stars as awhole, but it was only as a whole and not individually. "[338] Themasses perpetuated ancient animistic beliefs, like the pre-Hellenicinhabitants of Greece. "The Pelasgians, as I was informed at Dodona, "wrote Herodotus, "formerly offered all things indiscriminately to thegods. They distinguished them by no name or surname, for they werehitherto unacquainted with either; but they called them gods, which byits etymology means disposers, from observing the orderly dispositionand distribution of the various parts of the universe. "[339] Theoldest deities are those which bore no individual names. They weresimply "Fates" or groups called "Sevenfold". The crude giant gods ofScotland are "Fomhairean" (Fomorians), and do not have individualnames as in Ireland. Families and tribes were controlled by the Fatesor nameless gods, which might appear as beasts or birds, or be heardknocking or screaming. 

In the Babylonian astral hymns, the star spirits are associated withthe gods, and are revealers of the decrees of Fate. "Ye brilliantstars. .. Ye bright ones. .. To destroy evil did Anu create you. .. . Atthy command mankind was named (created)! Give thou the Word, and withthee let the great gods stand! Give thou my judgment, make mydecision!"[340]

The Indian evidence shows that the constellations, and especially thebright stars, were identified before the planets. Indeed, in Vedicliterature there is no certain reference to a single planet, althoughconstellations are named. It seems highly probable that before theBabylonian gods were associated with the astral bodies, the beliefobtained that the stars exercised an influence over human lives. Inone of the Indian "Forest Books", for instance, reference is made to aman who was "born under the Nakshatra Rohini ". [341] "Nakshatras" arestars in the _Rigveda_ and later, and "lunar mansions" in Brahmanicalcompositions. [342] "Rohini, 'ruddy', is the name of a conspicuouslyreddish star, ɑ Tauri or Aldebaran, and denotes the group of theHyades. "[343] This reference may be dated before 600 B. C. , perhaps 800B. C. 

From Greece comes the evidence of Plutarch regarding the principles ofBabylonian astrology. "Respecting the planets, which they call _thebirth-ruling divinities_, the Chaldeans", he wrote, "lay down that two(Venus and Jupiter) are propitious, and two (Mars and Saturn) malign, and three (Sun, Moon, and Mercury) of a middle nature, and onecommon. " "That is, " Mr. Brown comments, "an astrologer would say, these three are propitious with the good, and may be malign with thebad. "[344]

Jastrow's views in this connection seem highly controversial. He holdsthat Babylonian astrology dealt simply with national affairs, and hadno concern with "the conditions under which the individual was born";it did not predict "the fate in store for him". He believes that theGreeks transformed Babylonian astrology and infused it with the spiritof individualism which is a characteristic of their religion, and thatthey were the first to give astrology a personal significance. 

Jastrow also perpetuates the idea that astronomy began with theGreeks. "Several centuries before the days of Alexander the Great, " hesays, "the Greeks had begun to cultivate the study of the heavens, notfor purposes of divination, but prompted by a scientific spirit as anintellectual discipline that might help them to solve the mysteries ofthe universe. " It is possible, however, to overrate the "scientificspirit" of the Greeks, who, like the Japanese in our own day, wereaccomplished borrowers from other civilizations. That astronomy hadhumble beginnings in Greece as elsewhere is highly probable. The lateMr. Andrew Lang wrote in this connection: "The very oddest example ofthe survival of the notion that the stars are men and women is foundin the _Pax_ of Aristophanes. Trygaeus in that comedy has just made anexpedition to heaven. A slave meets him, and asks him: 'Is not thestory true, then, that we become stars when we die?' The answer is, 'Certainly'; and Trygaeus points out the star into which Ion of Chioshas just been metamorphosed. " Mr. Lang added: "Aristophanes is makingfun of some popular Greek superstition". The Eskimos, Persians, Aryo-Indians, Germans, New Zealanders, and others had a similarsuperstition. [345]

Jastrow goes on to say that the Greeks "imparted their scientific viewof the Universe to the East. They became the teachers of the East inastronomy as in medicine and other sciences, and the credit of havingdiscovered the law of the precession of the equinoxes belongs toHipparchus, the Greek astronomer, who announced this important theoryabout the year 130 B. C. "[346] Undoubtedly the Greeks contributed tothe advancement of the science of astronomy, with which, as otherauthorities believe, they became acquainted after it had become welldeveloped as a science by the Assyrians and Babylonians. 

"In return for improved methods of astronomical calculation which, "Jastrow says, "_it may be assumed_ (the italics are ours), contactwith Greek science gave to the Babylonian astronomers, the Greeksaccepted from the Babylonians the names of the constellations of theecliptic. "[347] This is a grudging admission; they evidently acceptedmore than the mere names. 

Jastrow's hypothesis is certainly interesting, especially as he is anOriental linguist of high repute. But it is not generally accepted. The sudden advance made by the Tigro-Euphratean astronomers whenAssyria was at the height of its glory, may have been due to thediscoveries made by great native scientists, the Newtons and theHerschels of past ages, who had studied the data accumulated bygenerations of astrologers, the earliest recorders of the movements ofthe heavenly bodies. It is hard to believe that the Greeks made muchprogress as scientists before they had identified the planets, andbecome familiar with the Babylonian constellations through the mediumof the Hittites or the Phoenicians. What is known for certain is thatlong centuries before the Greek science was heard of, there werescientists in Babylonia. During the Sumerian period "the forms andrelations of geometry", says Professor Goodspeed, "were employed forpurposes of augury. The heavens were mapped out, and the courses ofthe heavenly bodies traced to determine the bearing of their movementsupon human destinies. "[348]

Several centuries before Hipparchus was born, the Assyrian kings hadin their palaces official astronomers who were able to foretell, withvarying degrees of accuracy, when eclipses would take place. Instructions were sent to various observatories, in the king's name, to send in reports of forthcoming eclipses. A translation of one ofthese official documents sent from the observatory of Babylon toNineveh, has been published by Professor Harper. The following areextracts from it: "As for the eclipse of the moon about which the kingmy lord has written to me, a watch was kept for it in the cities ofAkkad, Borsippa, and Nippur. We observed it ourselves in the city ofAkkad. .. . And whereas the king my lord ordered me to observe also theeclipse of the sun, I watched to see whether it took place or not, andwhat passed before my eyes I now report to the king my lord. It was aneclipse of the moon that took place. .. . It was total over Syria, andthe shadow fell on the land of the Amorites, the land of the Hittites, and in part on the land of the Chaldees. " Professor Sayce comments:"We gather from this letter that there were no less than threeobservatories in Northern Babylonia: one at Akkad, near Sippara; oneat Nippur, now Niffer; and one at Borsippa, within sight of Babylon. As Borsippa possessed a university, it was natural that one of thethree observatories should be established there. "[349]

It is evident that before the astronomers at Nineveh could foretelleclipses, they had achieved considerable progress as scientists. Thedata at their disposal probably covered nearly two thousand years. Mr. Brown, junior, calculates that the signs of the Zodiac were fixed inthe year 2084 B. C. [350] These star groups do not now occupy thepositions in which they were observed by the early astronomers, because the revolving earth is rocking like a top, with the resultthat the pole does not always keep pointing at the same spot in theheavens. Each year the meeting-place of the imaginary lines of theecliptic and equator is moving westward at the rate of about fiftyseconds. In time--ages hence--the pole will circle round to the pointit spun at when the constellations were named by the Babylonians. Itis by calculating the period occupied by this world-curve that thedate 2084 B. C. Has been arrived at. 

As a result of the world-rocking process, the present-day "signs ofthe Zodiac" do not correspond with the constellations. In March, forinstance, when the sun crosses the equator it enters the sign of theRam (Aries), but does not reach the constellation till the 20th, asthe comparative table shows on p. 308. 

When "the ecliptic was marked off into the twelve regions" and thesigns of the Zodiac were designated, "the year of three hundredsixty-five and one-fourth days was known", says Goodspeed, "though thecommon year was reckoned according to twelve months of thirty dayseach[351], and equated with the solar year by intercalating a month atthe proper times. .. . The month was divided into weeks of sevendays. .. . The clepsydra and the sundial were Babylonian inventions formeasuring time. "[352]

The sundial of Ahaz was probably of Babylonian design. When the shadowwent "ten degrees backward" (_2 Kings_, xx, II) ambassadors were sentfrom Babylon "to enquire of the wonder that was done in the land" (_2Chron. _ xxxii, 31). It was believed that the king's illness wasconnected with the incident. According to astronomical calculationthere was a partial eclipse of the sun which was visible at Jerusalemon 11th January, 689 B. C, about 11. 30 a. M. When the upper part of thesolar disc was obscured, the shadow on the dial was strangelyaffected. 

The Babylonian astrologers in their official documents were moreconcerned regarding international omens than those which affectedindividuals. They made observations not only of the stars, but alsothe moon, which, as has been shown, was one of their planets, and tooknote of the clouds and the wind likewise. 

As portions of the heavens were assigned to various countries, so wasthe moon divided into four quarters for the same purpose--the upperpart for the north, Gutium, the lower for the south, Akkad orBabylonia, the eastern part for Elam, and the western for Amurru. Thecrescent was also divided in like manner; looking southward theastrologers assigned the right horn to the west and the left to theeast. In addition, certain days and certain months were connected withthe different regions. Lunar astrology was therefore of complicatedcharacter. When the moon was dim at the particular phase which wasconnected with Amurru, it was believed that the fortunes of thatregion were in decline, and if it happened to shine brightly in theBabylonian phase the time was considered auspicious to wage war in thewest. Great importance was attached to eclipses, which werefortunately recorded, with the result that the ancient astronomerswere ultimately enabled to forecast them. 

The destinies of the various states in the four quarters weresimilarly influenced by the planets. When Venus, for instance, rosebrightly in the field of Anu, it was a "prosperor" for Elam; if itwere dim it foretold misfortune. Much importance was also attached tothe positions occupied by the constellations when the planets werepropitious or otherwise; no king would venture forth on an expeditionunder a "yoke of inauspicious stars". 

Biblical references to the stars make mention of well-known Babylonianconstellations:

 Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth (? the Zodiac) in his season? or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons? Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven? canst thou set the dominion thereof in the earth? _Job_, xxxviii, 31-33. Which maketh Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the chambers of the south. _Job_, ix, 9. Seek him that maketh the seven stars and Orion, and turneth the shadow of death into the morning, and maketh the day dark with night. _Amos_, v, 8. 

The so-called science of astrology, which had origin in ancientBabylonia and spread eastward and west, is not yet extinct, and hasits believers even in our own country at the present day, althoughthey are not nearly so numerous as when Shakespeare made Malvolioread:

 In my stars I am above thee; but be not afraid of greatness: some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon 'em. Thy Fates open their hands. .. . [353]

or when Byron wrote:

 Ye stars! which are the poetry of heaven! If in your bright leaves we would read the fate Of men and empires--'t is to be forgiven That in our aspirations to be great, Our destinies o'erleap their mortal state And claim a kindred with you. .. . [354]

Our grave astronomers are no longer astrologers, but they still callcertain constellations by the names given them in Babylonia. Everytime we look at our watches we are reminded of the ancientmathematicians who counted on their fingers and multiplied 10 by 6, togive us minutes and seconds, and divided the day and the night intotwelve hours by multiplying six by the two leaden feet of Time. Thepast lives in the present. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

ASHUR THE NATIONAL GOD OF ASSYRIA

 Derivation of Ashur--Ashur as Anshar and Anu--Animal forms of Sky God--Anshar as Star God on the Celestial Mount--Isaiah's Parable--Symbols of World God and World Hill--Dance of the Constellations and Dance of Satyrs--Goat Gods and Bull Gods--Symbols of Gods as "High Heads"--The Winged Disc--Human Figure as Soul of the Sun--Ashur as Hercules and Gilgamesh--Gods differentiated by Cults--Fertility Gods as War Gods--Ashur's Tree and Animal forms--Ashur as Nisroch--Lightning Symbol in Disc--Ezekiel's Reference to Life Wheel--Indian Wheel and Discus--Wheels of Shamash and Ahura-Mazda--Hittite Winged Disc--Solar Wheel causes Seasonal Changes--Bonfires to stimulate Solar Deity--Burning of Gods and Kings--Magical Ring and other Symbols of Scotland--Ashur's Wheel of Life and Eagle Wings--King and Ashur--Ashur associated with Lunar, Fire, and Star Gods--The Osirian Clue--Hittite and Persian Influences. 

The rise of Assyria brings into prominence the national god Ashur, who had been the city god of Asshur, the ancient capital. When firstmet with, he is found to be a complex and mystical deity, and theproblem of his origin is consequently rendered exceedingly difficult. Philologists are not agreed as to the derivation of his name, andpresent as varied views as they do when dealing with the name ofOsiris. Some give Ashur a geographical significance, urging that itsoriginal form was Aushar, "water field"; others prefer the renderings"Holy", "the Beneficent One", or "the Merciful One"; while not a fewregard Ashur as simply a dialectic form of the name of Anshar, the godwho, in the Assyrian version, or copy, of the Babylonian Creationmyth, is chief of the "host of heaven", and the father of Anu, Ea, andEnlil. 

If Ashur is to be regarded as an abstract solar deity, who wasdeveloped from a descriptive place name, it follows that he had ahistory, like Anu or Ea, rooted in Naturalism or Animism. We cannotassume that his strictly local character was produced by modes ofthought which did not obtain elsewhere. The colonists who settled atAsshur no doubt imported beliefs from some cultural area; they musthave either given recognition to a god, or group of gods, or regardedthe trees, hills, rivers, sun, moon, and stars, and the animals asmanifestations of the "self power" of the Universe, before theyundertook the work of draining and cultivating the "water field" anderecting permanent homes. Those who settled at Nineveh, for instance, believed that they were protected by the goddess Nina, the patrondeity of the Sumerian city of Nina. As this goddess was alsoworshipped at Lagash, and was one of the many forms of the GreatMother, it would appear that in ancient times deities had a tribalrather than a geographical significance. 

If the view is accepted that Ashur is Anshar, it can be urged that hewas imported from Sumeria. "Out of that land (Shinar)", according tothe Biblical reference, "went forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh. "[355]Asshur, or Ashur (identical, Delitzsch and Jastrow believe, withAshir), [356] may have been an eponymous hero--a deified king likeEtana, or Gilgamesh, who was regarded as an incarnation of an ancientgod. As Anshar was an astral or early form of Anu, the Sumerian cityof origin may have been Erech, where the worship of the mother goddesswas also given prominence. 

Damascius rendered Anshar's name as "Assōros", a fact usually cited toestablish Ashur's connection with that deity. This writer stated thatthe Babylonians passed over "Sige, [357] the mother, that has begottenheaven and earth", and made two--Apason (Apsu), the husband, andTauthe (Tiawath or Tiamat), whose son was Moymis (Mummu). From theseanother progeny came forth--Lache and Lachos (Lachmu and Lachamu). These were followed by the progeny Kissare and Assōros (Kishar andAnshar), "from which were produced Anos (Anu), Illillos (Enlil) andAos (Ea). And of Aos and Dauke (Dawkina or Damkina) was born Belos(Bel Merodach), whom they say is the Demiurge"[358] (the world artisanwho carried out the decrees of a higher being). 

Lachmu and Lachamu, like the second pair of the ancient group ofEgyptian deities, probably symbolized darkness as a reproducing andsustaining power. Anshar was apparently an impersonation of the nightsky, as his son Anu was of the day sky. It may have been believed thatthe soul of Anshar was in the moon as Nannar (Sin), or in a star, orthat the moon and the stars were manifestations of him, and that thesoul of Anu was in the sun or the firmament, or that the sun, firmament, and the wind were forms of this "self power". 

If Ashur combined the attributes of Anshar and Anu, his early mysticalcharacter may be accounted for. Like the Indian Brahma, he may havebeen in his highest form an impersonation, or symbol, of the "selfpower" or "world soul" of developed Naturalism--the "creator", "preserver", and "destroyer" in one, a god of water, earth, air, andsky, of sun, moon, and stars, fire and lightning, a god of the grove, whose essence was in the fig, or the fir cone, as it was in allanimals. The Egyptian god Amon of Thebes, who was associated withwater, earth, air, sky, sun and moon, had a ram form, and was "thehidden one", was developed from one of the elder eight gods; in thePyramid Texts he and his consort are the fourth pair. When Amon wasfused with the specialized sun god Ra, he was placed at the head ofthe Ennead as the Creator. "We have traces", says Jastrow, "of anAssyrian myth of Creation in which the sphere of creator is given toAshur. "[359]

Before a single act of creation was conceived of, however, the earlypeoples recognized the eternity of matter, which was permeated by the"self power" of which the elder deities were vague phases. These weretoo vague, indeed, to be worshipped individually. The forms of the"self power" which were propitiated were trees, rivers, hills, oranimals. As indicated in the previous chapter, a tribe worshipped ananimal or natural object which dominated its environment. The animalmight be the source of the food supply, or might have to bepropitiated to ensure the food supply. Consequently they identifiedthe self power of the Universe with the particular animal with whichthey were most concerned. One section identified the spirit of theheavens with the bull and another with the goat. In India Dyaus was abull, and his spouse, the earth mother, Prithivi, was a cow. TheEgyptian sky goddess Hathor was a cow, and other goddesses wereidentified with the hippopotamus, the serpent, the cat, or thevulture. Ra, the sun god, was identified in turn with the cat, theass, the bull, the ram, and the crocodile, the various animal forms ofthe local deities he had absorbed. The eagle in Babylonia and India, and the vulture, falcon, and mysterious Phoenix in Egypt, wereidentified with the sun, fire, wind, and lightning. The animalsassociated with the god Ashur were the bull, the eagle, and the lion. He either absorbed the attributes of other gods, or symbolized the"Self Power" of which the animals were manifestations. 

The earliest germ of the Creation myth was the idea that night was theparent of day, and water of the earth. Out of darkness and death camelight and life. Life was also motion. When the primordial watersbecame troubled, life began to be. Out of the confusion came order andorganization. This process involved the idea of a stable andcontrolling power, and the succession of a group of deities--passivedeities and active deities. When the Babylonian astrologers assistedin developing the Creation myth, they appear to have identified withthe stable and controlling spirit of the night heaven that steadfastorb the Polar Star. Anshar, like Shakespeare's Caesar, seemed to say:

 I am constant as the northern star, Of whose true-fixed and resting quality There is no fellow in the firmament. The skies are painted with unnumbered sparks; They are all fire, and every one doth shine; But there's but one in all doth hold his place. [360]

Associated with the Polar Star was the constellation Ursa Minor, "theLittle Bear", called by the Babylonian astronomers, "the LesserChariot". There were chariots before horses were introduced. A patesiof Lagash had a chariot which was drawn by asses. 

The seemingly steadfast Polar Star was called "Ilu Sar", "the godShar", or Anshar, "star of the height", or "Shar the most high". Itseemed to be situated at the summit of the vault of heaven. The godShar, therefore, stood upon the Celestial mountain, the BabylonianOlympus. He was the ghost of the elder god, who in Babylonia wasdisplaced by the younger god, Merodach, as Mercury, the morning star, or as the sun, the planet of day; and in Assyria by Ashur, as the sun, or Regulus, or Arcturus, or Orion. Yet father and son were identical. They were phases of the One, the "self power". 

A deified reigning king was an incarnation of the god; after death hemerged in the god, as did the Egyptian Unas. The eponymous hero Asshurmay have similarly merged in the universal Ashur, who, like Horus, anincarnation of Osiris, had many phases or forms. 

Isaiah appears to have been familiar with the Tigro-Euphratean mythsabout the divinity of kings and the displacement of the elder god bythe younger god, of whom the ruling monarch was an incarnation, andwith the idea that the summit of the Celestial mountain was crowned bythe "north star", the symbol of Anshar. "Thou shalt take up thisparable", he exclaimed, making use of Babylonian symbolism, "againstthe king of Babylon and say, How hath the oppressor ceased! the goldencity ceased!. .. How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of themorning! how art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken thenations! For thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend unto heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God; I will sit also uponthe mount of the congregation, _in the sides of the north_; I willascend above the heights of the clouds; I will be like the mostHigh. "[361] The king is identified with Lucifer as the deity of fireand the morning star; he is the younger god who aspired to occupy themountain throne of his father, the god Shar--the Polar or North Star. 

It is possible that the Babylonian idea of a Celestial mountain gaveorigin to the belief that the earth was a mountain surrounded by theouter ocean, beheld by Etana when he flew towards heaven on theeagle's back. In India this hill is Mount Meru, the "world spine", which "sustains the earth"; it is surmounted by Indra's Valhal, or"the great city of Brahma". In Teutonic mythology the heavens revolveround the Polar Star, which is called "Veraldar nagli", [362] the"world spike"; while the earth is sustained by the "world tree". The"ded" amulet of Egypt symbolized the backbone of Osiris as a worldgod: "ded" means "firm", "established";[363] while at burialceremonies the coffin was set up on end, inside the tomb, "on a smallsandhill intended to represent the Mountain of the West--the realm ofthe dead". [364] The Babylonian temple towers were apparently symbolsof the "world hill". At Babylon, the Du-azaga, "holy mound", wasMerodach's temple E-sagila, "the Temple of the High Head". E-kur, rendered "the house or temple of the Mountain", was the temple of BelEnlil at Nippur. At Erech, the temple of the goddess Ishtar wasE-anna, which connects her, as Nina or Ninni, with Anu, derived from"ana", "heaven". Ishtar was "Queen of heaven". 

Now Polaris, situated at the summit of the celestial mountain, wasidentified with the sacred goat, "the highest of the flock ofnight". [365] Ursa Minor (the "Little Bear" constellation) may havebeen "the goat with six heads", referred to by Professor Sayce. [366]The six astral goats or goat-men were supposed to be dancing round thechief goat-man or Satyr (Anshar). Even in the dialogues of Plato theimmemorial belief was perpetuated that the constellations were "movingas in a dance". Dancing began as a magical or religious practice, andthe earliest astronomers saw their dancing customs reflected in theheavens by the constellations, whose movements were rhythmical. Nodoubt, Isaiah had in mind the belief of the Babylonians regarding thedance of their goat-gods when he foretold: "Their houses shall be fullof doleful creatures; and owls (ghosts) shall dwell there, and _satyrsshall dance there_". [367] In other words, there would be no peopleleft to perform religious dances beside the "desolate houses"; thestars only would be seen dancing round Polaris. 

Tammuz, like Anshar, as sentinel of the night heaven, was a goat, aswas also Nin-Girsu of Lagash. A Sumerian reference to "a white kid ofEn Mersi (Nin-Girsu)" was translated into Semitic, "a white kid ofTammuz". The goat was also associated with Merodach. Babylonians, having prayed to that god to take away their diseases or their sins, released a goat, which was driven into the desert. The present PolarStar, which was not, of course, the Polar star of the earliestastronomers, the world having rocked westward, is called in ArabicAl-Jedy, "the kid". In India, the goat was connected with Agni andVaruna; it was slain at funeral ceremonies to inform the gods that asoul was about to enter heaven. Ea, the Sumerian lord of water, earth, and heaven, was symbolized as a "goat fish". Thor, the Teutonicfertility and thunder god, had a chariot drawn by goats. It is ofinterest to note that the sacred Sumerian goat bore on its foreheadthe same triangular symbol as the Apis bull of Egypt. 

Ashur was not a "goat of heaven", but a "bull of heaven", like theSumerian Nannar (Sin), the moon god of Ur, Ninip of Saturn, and BelEnlil. As the bull, however, he was, like Anshar, the ruling animal ofthe heavens; and like Anshar he had associated with him "sixdivinities of council". 

Other deities who were similarly exalted as "high heads" at variouscentres and at various periods, included Anu, Bel Enlil, and Ea, Merodach, Nergal, and Shamash. A symbol of the first three was aturban on a seat, or altar, which may have represented the "worldmountain". Ea, as "the world spine", was symbolized as a column, withram's head, standing on a throne, beside which crouched a "goat fish". Merodach's column terminated in a lance head, and the head of a lioncrowned that of Nergal. These columns were probably connected withpillar worship, and therefore with tree worship, the pillar being thetrunk of the "world tree". The symbol of the sun god Shamash was adisc, from which flowed streams of water; his rays apparently were"fertilizing tears", like the rays of the Egyptian sun god Ra. Horus, the Egyptian falcon god, was symbolized as the winged solar disc. 

It is necessary to accumulate these details regarding other deitiesand their symbols before dealing with Ashur. The symbols of Ashur mustbe studied, because they are one of the sources of our knowledgeregarding the god's origin and character. These include (1) a wingeddisc with horns, enclosing four circles revolving round a middlecircle; rippling rays fall down from either side of the disc; (2) acircle or wheel, suspended from wings, and enclosing a warrior drawinghis bow to discharge an arrow; and (3) the same circle; the warrior'sbow, however, is carried in his left hand, while the right hand isuplifted as if to bless his worshippers. These symbols are taken fromseal cylinders. 

An Assyrian standard, which probably represented the "world column", has the disc mounted on a bull's head with horns. The upper part ofthe disc is occupied by a warrior, whose head, part of his bow, andthe point of his arrow protrude from the circle. The rippling waterrays are V-shaped, and two bulls, treading river-like rays, occupy thedivisions thus formed. There are also two heads--a lion's and aman's--with gaping mouths, which may symbolize tempests, thedestroying power of the sun, or the sources of the Tigris andEuphrates. 

Jastrow regards the winged disc as "the purer and more genuine symbolof Ashur as a solar deity". He calls it "a sun disc with protrudingrays", and says: "To this symbol the warrior with the bow and arrowwas added--a despiritualization that reflects the martial spirit ofthe Assyrian empire". [368]

The sun symbol on the sun boat of Ra encloses similarly a humanfigure, which was apparently regarded as the soul of the sun: the lifeof the god was in the "sun egg". In an Indian prose treatise it is setforth: "Now that man in yonder orb (the sun) and that man in the righteye truly are no other than Death (the soul). His feet have stuck fastin the heart, and having pulled them out he comes forth; and when hecomes forth then that man dies; whence they say of him who has passedaway, 'he has been cut off (his life or life string has beensevered)'. "[369] The human figure did not indicate a process of"despiritualization" either in Egypt or in India. The Horus "wingeddisc" was besides a symbol of destruction and battle, as well as oflight and fertility. Horus assumed that form in one legend to destroySet and his followers. [370] But, of course, the same symbols may nothave conveyed the same ideas to all peoples. As Blake put it:

 What to others a trifle appears Fills me full of smiles and tears. .. . With my inward Eye, 't is an old Man grey, With my outward, a Thistle across my way. 

Indeed, it is possible that the winged disc meant one thing to anAssyrian priest, and another thing to a man not gifted with what Blakecalled "double vision". 

What seems certain, however, is that the archer was as truly solar asthe "wings" or "rays". In Babylonia and Assyria the sun was, amongother things, a destroyer from the earliest times. It is notsurprising, therefore, to find that Ashur, like Merodach, resembled, in one of his phases, Hercules, or rather his prototype Gilgamesh. Oneof Gilgamesh's mythical feats was the slaying of three demon birds. These may be identical with the birds of prey which Hercules, inperforming his sixth labour, hunted out of Stymphalus. [371] In theGreek Hipparcho-Ptolemy star list Hercules was the constellation ofthe "Kneeler", and in Babylonian-Assyrian astronomy he was (asGilgamesh or Merodach) "Sarru", "the king". The astral "Arrow"(constellation of Sagitta) was pointed against the constellations ofthe "Eagle", "Vulture", and "Swan". In Phoenician astronomy theVulture was "Zither" (Lyra), a weapon with which Hercules (identifiedwith Melkarth) slew Linos, the musician. Hercules used a solar arrow, which he received from Apollo. In various mythologies the arrow isassociated with the sun, the moon, and the atmospheric deities, and isa symbol of lightning, rain, and fertility, as well as of famine, disease, war, and death. The green-faced goddess Neith of Libya, compared by the Greeks to Minerva, carries in one hand two arrows anda bow. [372] If we knew as little of Athena (Minerva), who was armedwith a lance, a breastplate made of the skin of a goat, a shield, andhelmet, as we do of Ashur, it might be held that she was simply agoddess of war. The archer in the sun disc of the Assyrian standardprobably represented Ashur as the god of the people--a deity closelyakin to Merodach, with pronounced Tammuz traits, and therefore linkingwith other local deities like Ninip, Nergal, and Shamash, andpartaking also like these of the attributes of the elder gods Anu, BelEnlil, and Ea. 

All the other deities worshipped by the Assyrians were of Babylonianorigin. Ashur appears to have differed from them just as one localBabylonian deity differed from another. He reflected Assyrianexperiences and aspirations, but it is difficult to decide whether thesublime spiritual aspect of his character was due to the beliefs ofalien peoples, by whom the early Assyrians were influenced, or to theteachings of advanced Babylonian thinkers, whose doctrines foundreadier acceptance in a "new country" than among the conservativeritualists of ancient Sumerian and Akkadian cities. New cults wereformed from time to time in Babylonia, and when they achievedpolitical power they gave a distinctive character to the religion oftheir city states. Others which did not find political support andremained in obscurity at home, may have yet extended their influencefar and wide. Buddhism, for instance, originated in India, but nowflourishes in other countries, to which it was introduced bymissionaries. In the homeland it was submerged by the revival ofBrahmanism, from which it sprung, and which it was intendedpermanently to displace. An instance of an advanced cult suddenlyachieving prominence as a result of political influence is afforded byEgypt, where the fully developed Aton religion was embraced andestablished as a national religion by Akhenaton, the so-called"dreamer". That migrations were sometimes propelled by cults, whichsought new areas in which to exercise religious freedom and propagatetheir beliefs, is suggested by the invasion of India at the close ofthe Vedic period by the "later comers", who laid the foundations ofBrahmanism. They established themselves in Madhyadesa, "the MiddleCountry", "the land where the Brahmanas and the later Samhitas wereproduced". From this centre went forth missionaries, who accomplishedthe Brahmanization of the rest of India. [373]

It may be, therefore, that the cult of Ashur was influenced in itsdevelopment by the doctrines of advanced teachers from Babylonia, andthat Persian Mithraism was also the product of missionary effortsextended from that great and ancient cultural area. Mitra, as has beenstated, was one of the names of the Babylonian sun god, who was also agod of fertility. But Ashur could not have been to begin with merely abattle and solar deity. As the god of a city state he must have beenworshipped by agriculturists, artisans, and traders; he must have beenrecognized as a deity of fertility, culture, commerce, and law. Evenas a national god he must have made wider appeal than to the culturedand ruling classes. Bel Enlil of Nippur was a "world god" and war god, but still remained a local corn god. 

Assyria's greatness was reflected by Ashur, but he also reflected theorigin and growth of that greatness. The civilization of which he wasa product had an agricultural basis. It began with the development ofthe natural resources of Assyria, as was recognized by the Hebrewprophet, who said: "Behold, the Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon withfair branches. .. . The waters made him great, the deep set him up onhigh with her rivers running round about his plants, and sent out herlittle rivers unto all the trees of the field. Therefore his heightwas exalted above all the trees of the field, and his boughs weremultiplied, and his branches became long because of the multitude ofwaters when he shot forth. All the fowls of heaven made their nests inhis boughs, and under his branches did all the beasts of the fieldbring forth their young, and under his shadow dwelt all great nations. Thus was he fair in his greatness, in the length of his branches; forhis root was by great waters. The cedars in the garden of God couldnot hide him: the fir trees were not like his boughs, and the chestnuttrees were not like his branches; nor any tree in the garden of Godwas like unto him in his beauty. "[374]

Asshur, the ancient capital, was famous for its merchants. It isreferred to in the Bible as one of the cities which traded with Tyre"in all sorts of things, in blue clothes, and broidered work, and inchests of rich apparel, bound with cords, and made of cedar". [375]

As a military power, Assyria's name was dreaded. "Behold, " Isaiahsaid, addressing King Hezekiah, "thou hast heard what the kings ofAssyria have done to all lands by destroying them utterly. "[376] Thesame prophet, when foretelling how Israel would suffer, exclaimed: "OAssyrian, the rod of mine anger, and the staff in their hand is mineindignation. I will send him against an hypocritical nation, andagainst the people of my wrath will I give him a charge, to take thespoil, and to take the prey, and to tread them down like the mire ofthe streets. "[377]

We expect to find Ashur reflected in these three phases of Assyriancivilization. If we recognize him in the first place as a god offertility, his other attributes are at once included. A god offertility is a corn god and a water god. The river as a river was a"creator" (p. 29), and Ashur was therefore closely associated with the"watery place", with the canals or "rivers running round about hisplants". The rippling water-rays, or fertilizing tears, appear on thesolar discs. As a corn god, he was a god of war. Tammuz's first actwas to slay the demons of winter and storm, as Indra's in India was toslay the demons of drought, and Thor's in Scandinavia was toexterminate the frost giants. The corn god had to be fed with humansacrifices, and the people therefore waged war against foreigners toobtain victims. As the god made a contract with his people, he was adeity of commerce; he provided them with food and they in turn fed himwith offerings. 

In Ezekiel's comparison of Assyria to a mighty tree, there is no doubta mythological reference. The Hebrew prophets invariably utilized fortheir poetic imagery the characteristic beliefs of the peoples to whomthey made direct reference. The "owls", "satyrs", and "dragons" ofBabylon, mentioned by Isaiah, were taken from Babylonian mythology, ashas been indicated. When, therefore, Assyria is compared to a cedar, which is greater than fir or chestnut, and it is stated that there arenesting birds in the branches, and under them reproducing beasts ofthe field, and that the greatness of the tree is due to "the multitudeof waters", the conclusion is suggested that Assyrian religion, whichAshur's symbols reflect, included the worship of trees, birds, beasts, and water. The symbol of the Assyrian tree--probably the "world tree"of its religion--appears to be "the rod of mine anger . .. The staff intheir hand"; that is, the battle standard which was a symbol of Ashur. Tammuz and Osiris were tree gods as well as corn gods. 

Now, as Ashur was evidently a complex deity, it is futile to attemptto read his symbols without giving consideration to the remnants ofAssyrian mythology which are found in the ruins of the ancient cities. These either reflect the attributes of Ashur, or constitute thematerial from which he evolved. 

As Layard pointed out many years ago, the Assyrians had a sacred treewhich became conventionalized. It was "an elegant device, in whichcurved branches, springing from a kind of scroll work, terminated inflowers of graceful form. As one of the figures last described[378]was turned, as if in act of adoration, towards this device, it wasevidently a sacred emblem; and I recognized in it the holy tree, ortree of life, so universally adored at the remotest period in theEast, and which was preserved in the religious systems of the Persiansto the final overthrow of their Empire. .. . The flowers were formed byseven petals. "[379]

This tree looks like a pillar, and is thrice crossed byconventionalized bull's horns tipped with ring symbols which may bestars, the highest pair of horns having a larger ring between them, but only partly shown as if it were a crescent. The tree with its many"sevenfold" designs may have been a symbol of the"Sevenfold-one-are-ye" deity. This is evidently the Assyrian treewhich was called "the rod" or "staff". 

What mythical animals did this tree shelter? Layard found that "thefour creatures continually introduced on the sculptured walls", were"a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle". [380]

In Sumeria the gods were given human form, but before this stage wasreached the bull symbolized Nannar (Sin), the moon god, Ninip (Saturn, the old sun), and Enlil, while Nergal was a lion, as a tribal sun god. The eagle is represented by the Zu bird, which symbolized the stormand a phase of the sun, and was also a deity of fertility. On thesilver vase of Lagash the lion and eagle were combined as thelion-headed eagle, a form of Nin-Girsu (Tammuz), and it was associatedwith wild goats, stags, lions, and bulls. On a mace head dedicated toNin-Girsu, a lion slays a bull as the Zu bird slays serpents in thefolk tale, suggesting the wars of totemic deities, according to one"school", and the battle of the sun with the storm clouds according toanother. Whatever the explanation may be of one animal deity offertility slaying another, it seems certain that the conflict wasassociated with the idea of sacrifice to procure the food supply. 

In Assyria the various primitive gods were combined as a winged bull, a winged bull with human head (the king's), a winged lion with humanhead, a winged man, a deity with lion's head, human body, and eagle'slegs with claws, and also as a deity with eagle's head and featherheaddress, a human body, wings, and feather-fringed robe, carrying inone hand a metal basket on which two winged men adored the holy tree, and in the other a fir cone. [381]

Layard suggested that the latter deity, with eagle's head, wasNisroch, "the word Nisr signifying, in all Semitic languages, an eagle". [382] This deity is referred to in the Bible: "Sennacherib, king ofAssyria, . .. Was worshipping in the house of Nisroch, his god". [383]Professor Pinches is certain that Nisroch is Ashur, but considers thatthe "ni" was attached to "Ashur" (Ashuraku or Ashurachu), as it was to"Marad" (Merodach) to give the reading Ni-Marad = Nimrod. The names ofheathen deities were thus made "unrecognizable, and in all probabilityridiculous as well. .. . Pious and orthodox lips could pronounce themwithout fear of defilement. "[384] At the same time the "Nisr" theoryis probable: it may represent another phase of this process. The namesof heathen gods were not all treated in like manner by the Hebrewteachers. Abed-_nebo_, for instance, became Abed-_nego_, _Daniel_, i, 7, as Professor Pinches shows. 

Seeing that the eagle received prominence in the mythologies ofSumeria and Assyria, as a deity of fertility with solar andatmospheric attributes, it is highly probable that the Ashur symbol, like the Egyptian Horus solar disk, is a winged symbol of life, fertility, and destruction. The idea that it represents the sun ineclipse, with protruding rays, seems rather far-fetched, becauseeclipses were disasters and indications of divine wrath;[385] itcertainly does not explain why the "rays" should only stretch outsideways, like wings, and downward like a tail, why the "rays" shouldbe double, like the double wings of cherubs, bulls, &c, and dividedinto sections suggesting feathers, or why the disk is surmounted byconventionalized horns, tipped with star-like ring symbols, identicalwith those depicted in the holy tree. What particular connection thefive small rings within the disk were supposed to have with theeclipse of the sun is difficult to discover. 

In one of the other symbols in which appears a feather-robed archer, it is significant to find that the arrow he is about to discharge hasa head shaped like a trident; it is evidently a lightning symbol. 

When Ezekiel prophesied to the Israelitish captives at Tel-abib, "bythe river of Chebar" in Chaldea (Kheber, near Nippur), he appears tohave utilized Assyrian symbolism. Probably he came into contact inBabylonia with fugitive priests from Assyrian cities. 

This great prophet makes interesting references to "four livingcreatures", with "four faces "--the face of a man, the face of a lion, the face of an ox, and the face of an eagle; "they had the hands of aman under their wings, . .. Their wings were joined one to another; . .. Their wings were stretched upward: two wings of every one were joinedone to another. .. . Their appearance was like burning coals of fire andlike the appearance of lamps. .. . The living creatures ran and returnedas the appearance of a flash of lightning. "[386]

Elsewhere, referring to the sisters, Aholah and Aholibah, who had beenin Egypt and had adopted unmoral ways of life Ezekiel tells that whenAholibah "doted upon the Assyrians" she "saw men pourtrayed upon thewall, the images of the Chaldeans pourtrayed with vermilion, girdedwith girdles upon their loins". [387] Traces of the red colour on thewalls of Assyrian temples and palaces have been observed byexcavators. The winged gods "like burning coals" were probably paintedin vermilion. 

Ezekiel makes reference to "ring" and "wheel" symbols. In his visionhe saw "one wheel upon the earth by the living creatures, with hisfour faces. The appearance of the wheels and their work was like untothe colour of beryl; and they four had one likeness; and theirappearance and their work was as it were a wheel in the middle of awheel. .. . As for their rings, they were so high that they weredreadful; and their rings were full of eyes round about them four. Andwhen the living creatures went, the wheels went by them; and when theliving creatures were lifted up from the earth, the wheels were liftedup. Whithersoever the spirit was to go, they went, thither was theirspirit to go; and the wheels were lifted up over against them; _forthe spirit of the living creature was in the wheels_. .. . [388] And thelikeness of the firmament upon the heads of the living creature was asthe colour of terrible crystal, stretched forth over their headsabove. .. . And when they went I heard the noise of their wings, likethe noise of great waters, as the voice of the Almighty, the voice ofspeech, as the noise of an host; when they stood they let down theirwings. .. . "[389]

Another description of the cherubs states: "Their whole body, andtheir backs, and their hands, and their wings, and the wheels, werefull of eyes (? stars) round about, even the wheels that they fourhad. As for the wheels, it was cried unto them in my hearing, Owheel!"--or, according to a marginal rendering, "they were called inmy hearing, wheel, or Gilgal, " i. E. Move round. .. . "And the cherubimswere lifted up. "[390]

It would appear that the wheel (or hoop, a variant rendering) was asymbol of life, and that the Assyrian feather-robed figure which itenclosed was a god, not of war only, but also of fertility. Histrident-headed arrow resembles, as has been suggested, a lightningsymbol. Ezekiel's references are suggestive in this connection. Whenthe cherubs "ran and returned" they had "the appearance of a flash oflightning", and "the noise of their wings" resembled "the noise ofgreat waters". Their bodies were "like burning coals of fire". Fertility gods were associated with fire, lightning, and water. Agniof India, Sandan of Asia Minor, and Melkarth of Phoenicia were highlydeveloped fire gods of fertility. The fire cult was also representedin Sumeria (pp. 49-51). 

In the Indian epic, the _Mahabharata_, the revolving ring or wheelprotects the Soma[391] (ambrosia) of the gods, on which theirexistence depends. The eagle giant Garuda sets forth to steal it. Thegods, fully armed, gather round to protect the life-giving drink. Garuda approaches "darkening the worlds by the dust raised by thehurricane of his wings". The celestials, "overwhelmed by that dust", swoon away. Garuda afterwards assumes a fiery shape, then looks "likemasses of black clouds", and in the end its body becomes golden andbright "as the rays of the sun". The Soma is protected by fire, whichthe bird quenches after "drinking in many rivers" with the numerousmouths it has assumed. Then Garuda finds that right above the Soma is"a wheel of steel, keen edged, and sharp as a razor, revolvingincessantly. That fierce instrument, of the lustre of the blazing sunand of terrible form, was devised by the gods for cutting to piecesall robbers of the Soma. " Garuda passes "through the spokes of thewheel", and has then to contend against "two great snakes of thelustre of blazing fire, of tongues bright as the lightning flash, ofgreat energy, of mouth emitting fire, of blazing eyes". He slays thesnakes. .. . The gods afterwards recover the stolen Soma. 

Garuda becomes the vehicle of the god Vishnu, who carries the discus, another fiery wheel which revolves and returns to the thrower likelightning. "And he (Vishnu) made the bird sit on the flagstaff of hiscar, saying: 'Even thus thou shalt stay above me'. "[392]

The Persian god Ahura Mazda hovers above the king in sculpturedrepresentations of that high dignitary, enclosed in a winged wheel, ordisk, like Ashur, grasping a ring in one hand, the other being liftedup as if blessing those who adore him. 

Shamash, the Babylonian sun god; Ishtar, the goddess of heaven; andother Babylonian deities carried rings as the Egyptian gods carriedthe ankh, the symbol of life. Shamash was also depicted sitting on histhrone in a pillar-supported pavilion, in front of which is a sunwheel. The spokes of the wheel are formed by a star symbol andthreefold rippling "water rays". 

In Hittite inscriptions there are interesting winged emblems; "thecentral portion" of one "seems to be composed of two crescentsunderneath a disk (which is also divided like a crescent). Above theemblem there appear the symbol of sanctity (the divided oval) and thehieroglyph which Professor Sayce interprets as the name of the godSandes. " In another instance "the centre of the winged emblem may beseen to be a rosette, with a curious spreading object below. Above, two dots follow the name of Sandes, and a human arm bent 'inadoration' is by the side. .. . " Professor Garstang is here dealing withsacred places "on rocky points or hilltops, bearing out the suggestionof the sculptures near Boghaz-Keui[393], in which there may bereasonably suspected the surviving traces of mountain cults, or cultsof mountain deities, underlying the newer religious symbolism". Whothe deity is it is impossible to say, but "he was identified at sometime or other with Sandes". [394] It would appear, too, that the godmay have been "called by a name which was that used also by thepriest". Perhaps the priest king was believed to be an incarnation ofthe deity. 

Sandes or Sandan was identical with Sandon of Tarsus, "the prototypeof Attis", [395] who links with the Babylonian Tammuz. Sandon's animalsymbol was the lion, and he carried the "double axe" symbol of the godof fertility and thunder. As Professor Frazer has shown in _The GoldenBough_, he links with Hercules and Melkarth. [396]

All the younger gods, who displaced the elder gods as one yeardisplaces another, were deities of fertility, battle, lightning, fire, and the sun; it is possible, therefore, that Ashur was like Merodach, son of Ea, god of the deep, a form of Tammuz in origin. His spirit wasin the solar wheel which revolved at times of seasonal change. InScotland it was believed that on the morning of May Day (Beltaine) therising sun revolved three times. The younger god was a spring sun godand fire god. Great bonfires were lit to strengthen him, or as aceremony of riddance; the old year was burned out. Indeed the godhimself might be burned (that is, the old god), so that he might renewhis youth. Melkarth was burned at Tyre. Hercules burned himself on amountain top, and his soul ascended to heaven as an eagle. 

These fiery rites were evidently not unknown in Babylonia and Assyria. When, according to Biblical narrative, Nebuchadnezzar "made an imageof gold" which he set up "in the plain of Dura, in the province ofBabylon", he commanded: "O people, nations, and languages. .. At thetime ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of musick. .. Fall down and worship the goldenimage". Certain Jews who had been "set over the affairs of theprovince of Babylonia", namely, "Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego", refused to adore the idol. They were punished by being thrown into "aburning fiery furnace", which was heated "seven times more than it waswont to be heated". They came forth uninjured. [397]

In the Koran it is related that Abraham destroyed the images ofChaldean gods; he "brake them all in pieces except the biggest ofthem; that they might lay the blame on that". [398] According to thecommentators the Chaldaeans were at the time "abroad in the fields, celebrating a great festival". To punish the offender Nimrod had agreat pyre erected at Cuthah. "Then they bound Abraham, and puttinghim into an engine, shot him into the midst of the fire, from which hewas preserved by the angel Gabriel, who was sent to his assistance. "Eastern Christians were wont to set apart in the Syrian calendar the25th of January to commemorate Abraham's escape from Nimrod'spyre. [399]

It is evident that the Babylonian fire ceremony was observed in thespring season, and that human beings were sacrificed to the sun god. Amock king may have been burned to perpetuate the ancient sacrifice ofreal kings, who were incarnations of the god. 

Isaiah makes reference to the sacrificial burning of kings in Assyria:"For through the voice of the Lord shall the Assyrian be beaten down, which smote with a rod. And in every place where the grounded staffshall pass, which the Lord shall lay upon him, it shall be withtabrets and harps: and in battles of shaking will he fight with it. For Tophet is ordained of old; yea, for the king it is prepared: hehath made it deep and large: the pile thereof is fire and much wood:the breath of the Lord, like a stream of brimstone, doth kindleit. "[400] When Nineveh was about to fall, and with it the AssyrianEmpire, the legendary king, Sardanapalus, who was reputed to havefounded Tarsus, burned himself, with his wives, concubines, andeunuchs, on a pyre in his palace. Zimri, who reigned over Israel forseven days, "burnt the king's house over him with fire"[401]. Saul, another fallen king, was burned after death, and his bones were buried"under the oak in Jabesh". [402] In Europe the oak was associated withgods of fertility and lightning, including Jupiter and Thor. Theceremony of burning Saul is of special interest. Asa, the orthodoxking of Judah, was, after death, "laid in the bed which was filledwith sweet odours and divers kinds of spices prepared by theapothecaries' art: and they made a very great burning for him" (_2Chronicles_, xvi, 14). Jehoram, the heretic king of Judah, who "walkedin the way of the kings of Israel", died of "an incurable disease. Andhis people made no burning for him like the burning of his fathers"(_2 Chronicles_, xxi, 18, 19). 

The conclusion suggested by the comparative study of the beliefs ofneighbouring peoples, and the evidence afforded by Assyriansculptures, is that Ashur was a highly developed form of the god offertility, who was sustained, or aided in his conflicts with demons, by the fires and sacrifices of his worshippers. 

It is possible to read too much into his symbols. These are not morecomplicated and vague than are the symbols on the standing stones ofScotland--the crescent with the "broken" arrow; the trident with thedouble rings, or wheels, connected by two crescents; the circle withthe dot in its centre; the triangle with the dot; the large disk withtwo small rings on either side crossed by double straight lines; theso-called "mirror", and so on. Highly developed symbolism may notindicate a process of spiritualization so much, perhaps, as thepersistence of magical beliefs and practices. There is really nodirect evidence to support the theory that the Assyrian winged disk, or disk "with protruding rays", was of more spiritual character thanthe wheel which encloses the feather-robed archer with histrident-shaped arrow. 

The various symbols may have represented phases of the god. When thespring fires were lit, and the god "renewed his life like the eagle", his symbol was possibly the solar wheel or disk with eagle's wings, which became regarded as a symbol of life. The god brought life andlight to the world; he caused the crops to grow; he gave increase; hesustained his worshippers. But he was also the god who slew the demonsof darkness and storm. The Hittite winged disk was Sandes or Sandon, the god of lightning, who stood on the back of a bull. As thelightning god was a war god, it was in keeping with his character tofind him represented in Assyria as "Ashur the archer" with the bow andlightning arrow. On the disk of the Assyrian standard the lion and thebull appear with "the archer" as symbols of the war god Ashur, butthey were also symbols of Ashur the god of fertility. 

The life or spirit of the god was in the ring or wheel, as the life ofthe Egyptian and Indian gods, and of the giants of folk tales, was in"the egg". The "dot within the circle", a widespread symbol, may haverepresented the seed within "the egg" of more than one mythology, orthe thorn within the egg of more than one legendary story. It may bethat in Assyria, as in India, the crude beliefs and symbols of themasses were spiritualized by the speculative thinkers in thepriesthood, but no literary evidence has survived to justify us inplacing the Assyrian teachers on the same level as the Brahmans whocomposed the Upanishads. 

Temples were erected to Ashur, but he might be worshipped anywhere, like the Queen of Heaven, who received offerings in the streets ofJerusalem, for "he needed no temple", as Professor Pinches says. Whether this was because he was a highly developed deity or a productof folk religion it is difficult to decide. One important fact is thatthe ruling king of Assyria was more closely connected with the worshipof Ashur than the king of Babylonia was with the worship of Merodach. This may be because the Assyrian king was regarded as an incarnationof his god, like the Egyptian Pharaoh. Ashur accompanied the monarchon his campaigns: he was their conquering war god. Where the king was, there was Ashur also. No images were made of him, but his symbols werecarried aloft, as were the symbols of Indian gods in the great war ofthe _Mahabharata_ epic. 

It would appear that Ashur was sometimes worshipped in the temples ofother gods. In an interesting inscription he is associated with themoon god Nannar (Sin) of Haran. Esarhaddon, the Assyrian king, isbelieved to have been crowned in that city. "The writer", saysProfessor Pinches, "is apparently addressing Assur-bani-apli, 'thegreat and noble Asnapper':

"When the father of my king my lord went to Egypt, he was crowned (?)in the _ganni_ of Harran, the temple (lit. 'Bethel') of cedar. The godSin remained over the (sacred) standard, two crowns upon his head, (and) the god Nusku stood beside him. The father of the king my lordentered, (and) he (the priest of Sin) placed (the crown?) upon hishead, (saying) thus: 'Thou shalt go and capture the lands in themidst'. (He we)nt, he captured the land of Egypt. The rest of thelands not submitting (?) to Assur (Ashur) and Sin, the king, the lordof kings, shall capture (them). "[403]

Ashur and Sin are here linked as equals. Associated with them isNusku, the messenger of the gods, who was given prominence in Assyria. The kings frequently invoked him. As the son of Ea he acted as themessenger between Merodach and the god of the deep. He was also a sonof Bel Enlil, and like Anu was guardian or chief of the Igigi, the"host of heaven". Professor Pinches suggests that he may have beeneither identical with the Sumerian fire god Gibil, or a brother of thefire god, and an impersonation of the light of fire and sun. In Haranhe accompanied the moon god, and may, therefore, have symbolized thelight of the moon also. Professor Pinches adds that in one inscription"he is identified with Nirig or En-reshtu" (Nin-Girsu = Tammuz). [404]The Babylonians and Assyrians associated fire and light with moistureand fertility. 

The astral phase of the character of Ashur is highly probable. As hasbeen indicated, the Greek rendering of Anshar as "Assoros", issuggestive in this connection. Jastrow, however, points out that theuse of the characters Anshar for Ashur did not obtain until the eighthcentury B. C. "Linguistically", he says, "the change of Ashir to Ashurcan be accounted for, but not the transformation of An-shar to Ashuror Ashir; so that we must assume the 'etymology' of Ashur, proposed bysome learned scribe, to be the nature of a play upon the name. "[405]On the other hand, it is possible that what appears arbitrary to usmay have been justified in ancient Assyria on perfectly reasonable, orat any rate traditional, grounds. Professor Pinches points out that asa sun god, and "at the same time not Shamash", Ashur resembledMerodach. "His identification with Merodach, if that was everaccepted, may have been due to the likeness of the word to Asari, oneof the deities' names. "[406] As Asari, Merodach has been compared tothe Egyptian Osiris, who, as the Nile god, was Asar-Hapi. Osirisresembles Tammuz and was similarly a corn deity and a ruler of theliving and the dead, associated with sun, moon, stars, water, andvegetation. We may consistently connect Ashur with Aushar, "waterfield", Anshar, "god of the height", or "most high", and with theeponymous King Asshur who went out on the land of Nimrod and "buildedNineveh", if we regard him as of common origin with Tammuz, Osiris, and Attis--a developed and localized form of the ancient deity offertility and corn. 

Ashur had a spouse who is referred to as Ashuritu, or Beltu, "thelady". Her name, however, is not given, but it is possible that shewas identified with the Ishtar of Nineveh. In the historical textsAshur, as the royal god, stands alone. Like the Hittite Great Father, he was perhaps regarded as the origin of life. Indeed, it may havebeen due to the influence of the northern hillmen in the earlyAssyrian period, that Ashur was developed as a father god--a Baal. When the Hittite inscriptions are read, more light may be thrown onthe Ashur problem. Another possible source of cultural influence isPersia. The supreme god Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd) was, as has beenindicated, represented, like Ashur, hovering over the king's head, enclosed in a winged disk or wheel, and the sacred tree figured inPersian mythology. The early Assyrian kings had non-Semitic andnon-Sumerian names. It seems reasonable to assume that the religiousculture of the ethnic elements they represented must have contributedto the development of the city god of Asshur. 

CHAPTER XV. 

CONFLICTS FOR TRADE AND SUPREMACY

 Modern Babylonia--History repeating itself--Babylonian Trade Route in Mesopotamia--Egyptian Supremacy in Syria--Mitanni and Babylonia--Bandits who plundered Caravans--Arabian Desert Trade Route opened--Assyrian and Elamite Struggles with Babylonia--Rapid Extension of Assyrian Empire--Hittites control Western Trade Routes--Egypt's Nineteenth Dynasty Conquests--Campaigns of Rameses II--Egyptians and Hittites become Allies--Babylonian Fears of Assyria--Shalmaneser's Triumphs--Assyria Supreme in Mesopotamia--Conquest of Babylonia--Fall of a Great King--Civil War in Assyria--Its Empire goes to pieces--Babylonian Wars with Elam--Revival of Babylonian Power--Invasions of Assyrians and Elamites--End of the Kassite Dynasty--Babylonia contrasted with Assyria. 

It is possible that during the present century Babylonia may onceagain become one of the great wheat-producing countries of the world. A scheme of land reclamation has already been inaugurated by theconstruction of a great dam to control the distribution of the watersof the Euphrates, and, if it is energetically promoted on a generousscale in the years to come, the ancient canals, which are used atpresent as caravan roads, may yet be utilized to make the wholecountry as fertile and prosperous as it was in ancient days. When thathappy consummation is reached, new cities may grow up and flourishbeside the ruins of the old centres of Babylonian culture. 

With the revival of agriculture will come the revival of commerce. Ancient trade routes will then be reopened, and the slow-travellingcaravans supplanted by speedy trains. A beginning has already beenmade in this direction. The first modern commercial highway which iscrossing the threshold of Babylonia's new Age is the German railwaythrough Asia Minor, North Syria, and Mesopotamia to Baghdad. [407] Itbrings the land of Hammurabi into close touch with Europe, and willsolve problems which engaged the attention of many rival monarchs forlong centuries before the world knew aught of "the glory that wasGreece and the grandeur that was Rome". 

These sudden and dramatic changes are causing history to repeatitself. Once again the great World Powers are evincing much concernregarding their respective "spheres of influence" in Western Asia, andpressing together around the ancient land of Babylon. On the east, where the aggressive Elamites and Kassites were followed by thetriumphant Persians and Medes, Russia and Britain have assertedthemselves as protectors of Persian territory, and the influence ofBritain is supreme in the Persian Gulf. Turkey controls the land ofthe Hittites, while Russia looms like a giant across the Armenianhighlands; Turkey is also the governing power in Syria andMesopotamia, which are being crossed by Germany's Baghdad railway. France is constructing railways in Syria, and will control the ancient"way of the Philistines". Britain occupies Cyprus on the Mediterraneancoast, and presides over the destinies of the ancient land of Egypt, which, during the brilliant Eighteenth Dynasty, extended its sphere ofinfluence to the borders of Asia Minor. Once again, after the lapse ofmany centuries, international politics is being strongly influenced bythe problems connected with the development of trade in Babylonia andits vicinity. 

The history of the ancient rival States, which is being piecedtogether by modern excavators, is, in view of present-day politicaldevelopments, invested with special interest to us. We have seenAssyria rising into prominence. It began to be a great Power whenEgypt was supreme in the "Western Land" (the land of the Amorites) asfar north as the frontiers of Cappadocia. Under the Kassite regimeBabylonia's political influence had declined in Mesopotamia, but itscultural influence remained, for its language and script continued inuse among traders and diplomatists. 

At the beginning of the Pharaoh Akhenaton period, the supreme power inMesopotamia was Mitanni. As the ally of Egypt it constituted a bufferstate on the borders of North Syria, which prevented the southernexpansion from Asia Minor of the Hittite confederacy and the westernexpansion of aggressive Assyria, while it also held in check theambitions of Babylonia, which still claimed the "land of theAmorites". So long as Mitanni was maintained as a powerful kingdom theSyrian possessions of Egypt were easily held in control, and theEgyptian merchants enjoyed preferential treatment compared with thoseof Babylonia. But when Mitanni was overcome, and its territories weredivided between the Assyrians and the Hittites, the North SyrianEmpire of Egypt went to pieces. A great struggle then ensued betweenthe nations of western Asia for political supremacy in the "land ofthe Amorites". 

Babylonia had been seriously handicapped by losing control of itswestern caravan road. Prior to the Kassite period its influence wassupreme in Mesopotamia and middle Syria; from the days of Sargon ofAkkad and of Naram-Sin until the close of the Hammurabi Age itsmerchants had naught to fear from bandits or petty kings between thebanks of the Euphrates and the Mediterranean coast. The city ofBabylon had grown rich and powerful as the commercial metropolis ofWestern Asia. 

Separated from the Delta frontier by the broad and perilous wastes ofthe Arabian desert, Babylonia traded with Egypt by an indirect route. Its caravan road ran northward along the west bank of the Euphratestowards Haran, and then southward through Palestine. This was a longdetour, but it was the only possible way. 

During the early Kassite Age the caravans from Babylon had to passthrough the area controlled by Mitanni, which was therefore able toimpose heavy duties and fill its coffers with Babylonian gold. Nor didthe situation improve when the influence of Mitanni suffered declinein southern Mesopotamia. Indeed the difficulties under which tradersoperated were then still further increased, for the caravan roads wereinfested by plundering bands of "Suti", to whom references are made inthe Tell-el-Amarna letters. These bandits defied all the great powers, and became so powerful that even the messengers sent from one king toanother were liable to be robbed and murdered without discrimination. When war broke out between powerful States they harried live stock andsacked towns in those areas which were left unprotected. 

The "Suti" were Arabians of Aramaean stock. What is known as the"Third Semitic Migration" was in progress during this period. Thenomads gave trouble to Babylonia and Assyria, and, penetratingMesopotamia and Syria, sapped the power of Mitanni, until it wasunable to resist the onslaughts of the Assyrians and the Hittites. 

The Aramaean tribes are referred to, at various periods and by variouspeoples, not only as the "Suti", but also as the "Achlame", the"Arimi", and the "Khabiri". Ultimately they were designated simply as"Syrians", and under that name became the hereditary enemies of theHebrews, although Jacob was regarded as being of their stock: "ASyrian ready to perish", runs a Biblical reference, "was my father(ancestor), and he went down into Egypt and sojourned there with afew, and became there a nation, great, mighty, and populous". [408]

An heroic attempt was made by one of the Kassite kings of Babylonia toafford protection to traders by stamping out brigandage between Arabiaand Mesopotamia, and opening up a new and direct caravan road to Egyptacross the Arabian desert. The monarch in question wasKadashman-Kharbe, the grandson of Ashur-uballit of Assyria. As we haveseen, he combined forces with his distinguished and powerful kinsman, and laid a heavy hand on the "Suti". Then he dug wells and erected achain of fortifications, like "block-houses", so that caravans mightcome and go without interruption, and merchants be freed from theimposts of petty kings whose territory they had to penetrate whentravelling by the Haran route. 

This bold scheme, however, was foredoomed to failure. It was shownscant favour by the Babylonian Kassites. No record survives toindicate the character of the agreement between Kadashman-Kharbe andAshur-uballit, but there can be little doubt that it involved theabandonment by Babylonia of its historic claim upon Mesopotamia, orpart of it, and the recognition of an Assyrian sphere of influence inthat region. It was probably on account of his pronounced pro-Assyriantendencies that the Kassites murdered Kadashman-Kharbe, and set thepretender, known as "the son of nobody", on the throne for a briefperiod. 

Kadashman-Kharbe's immediate successors recognized in Assyria adangerous and unscrupulous rival, and resumed the struggle for thepossession of Mesopotamia. The trade route across the Arabian deserthad to be abandoned. Probably it required too great a force to keep itopen. Then almost every fresh conquest achieved by Assyria involved itin war with Babylonia, which appears to have been ever waiting for asuitable opportunity to cripple its northern rival. 

But Assyria was not the only power which Babylonia had to guard itselfagainst. On its eastern frontier Elam was also panting for expansion. Its chief caravan roads ran from Susa through Assyria towards AsiaMinor, and through Babylonia towards the Phoenician coast. It wasprobably because its commerce was hampered by the growth of Assyrianpower in the north, as Servia's commerce in our own day has beenhampered by Austria, that it cherished dreams of conquering Babylonia. In fact, as Kassite influence suffered decline, one of the greatproblems of international politics was whether Elam or Assyria wouldenter into possession of the ancient lands of Sumer and Akkad. 

Ashur-uballit's vigorous policy of Assyrian expansion was continued, as has been shown, by his son Bel-nirari. His grandson, Arik-den-ilu, conducted several successful campaigns, and penetrated westward as faras Haran, thus crossing the Babylonian caravan road. He captured greatherds of cattle and flocks of sheep, which were transported to Asshur, and on one occasion carried away 250, 000 prisoners. 

Meanwhile Babylonia waged war with Elam. It is related thatKhur-batila, King of Elam, sent a challenge to Kurigalzu III, adescendant of Kadashman-Kharbe, saying: "Come hither; I will fightwith thee". The Babylonian monarch accepted the challenge, invaded theterritory of his rival, and won a great victory. Deserted by histroops, the Elamite king was taken prisoner, and did not securerelease until he had ceded a portion of his territory and consented topay annual tribute to Babylonia. 

Flushed with his success, the Kassite king invaded Assyria whenAdad-nirari I died and his son Arik-den-ilu came to the throne. Hefound, however, that the Assyrians were more powerful than theElamites, and suffered defeat. His son, Na´zi-mar-ut´tash[409], alsomade an unsuccessful attempt to curb the growing power of the northernPower. 

These recurring conflicts were intimately associated with theMesopotamian question. Assyria was gradually expanding westward andshattering the dreams of the Babylonian statesmen and traders whohoped to recover control of the caravan routes and restore theprestige of their nation in the west. 

Like his father, Adad-nirari I of Assyria had attacked the Aramaean"Suti" who were settling about Haran. He also acquired a furtherportion of the ancient kingdom of Mitanni, with the result that heexercised sway over part of northern Mesopotamia. After defeatingNa´zi-mar-ut´tash, he fixed the boundaries of the Assyrian andBabylonian spheres of influence much to the advantage of his owncountry. 

At home Adad-nirari conducted a vigorous policy. He developed theresources of the city state of Asshur by constructing a great dam andquay wall, while he contributed to the prosperity of the priesthoodand the growth of Assyrian culture by extending the temple of the godAshur. Ere he died, he assumed the proud title of "Shar Kishshate", "king of the world", which was also used by his son Shalmaneser I. Hisreign extended over a period of thirty years and terminated about 1300B. C. 

Soon after Shalmaneser came to the throne his country suffered greatlyfrom an earthquake, which threw down Ishtar's temple at Nineveh andAshur's temple at Asshur. Fire broke out in the latter building anddestroyed it completely. 

These disasters did not dismay the young monarch. Indeed, they appearto have stimulated him to set out on a career of conquest, to securetreasure and slaves, so as to carry out the work of reconstructing thetemples without delay. He became as great a builder, and as tireless acampaigner as Thothmes III of Egypt, and under his guidance Assyriabecame the most powerful nation in Western Asia. Ere he died hisarmies were so greatly dreaded that the Egyptians and Assyrians drewtheir long struggle for supremacy in Syria to a close, and formed analliance for mutual protection against their common enemy. 

It is necessary at this point to review briefly the history ofPalestine and north Syria after the period of Hittite expansion underKing Subbi-luliuma and the decline of Egyptian power under Akhenaton. The western part of Mitanni and the most of northern Syria had beencolonized by the Hittites. [410] Farther south, their allies, theAmorites, formed a buffer State on the borders of Egypt's limitedsphere of influence in southern Palestine, and of Babylonia's spherein southern Mesopotamia. Mitanni was governed by a subject king whowas expected to prevent the acquisition by Assyria of territory in thenorth-west. 

Subbi-luliuma was succeeded on the Hittite throne by his son, KingMursil, who was known to the Egyptians as "Meraser", or "Maurasar". The greater part of this monarch's reign appears to have been peacefuland prosperous. His allies protected his frontiers, and he was able todevote himself to the work of consolidating his empire in Asia Minorand North Syria. He erected a great palace at Boghaz Köi, and appearsto have had dreams of imitating the splendours of the royal Courts ofEgypt, Assyria, and Babylon. 

At this period the Hittite Empire was approaching the zenith of itspower. It controlled the caravan roads of Babylonia and Egypt, and itsrulers appear not only to have had intimate diplomatic relations withboth these countries, but even to have concerned themselves regardingtheir internal affairs. When Rameses I came to the Egyptian throne, atthe beginning of the Nineteenth Dynasty, he sealed an agreement withthe Hittites, and at a later date the Hittite ambassador at Babylon, who represented Hattusil II, the second son of King Mursil, actuallyintervened in a dispute regarding the selection of a successor to thethrone. 

The closing years of King Mursil's reign were disturbed by themilitary conquests of Egypt, which had renewed its strength underRameses I. Seti I, the son of Rameses I, and the third Pharaoh of thepowerful Nineteenth Dynasty, took advantage of the inactivity of theHittite ruler by invading southern Syria. He had first to grapple withthe Amorites, whom he successfully defeated. Then he pressed northwardas far as Tunip, and won a decisive victory over a Hittite army, whichsecured to Egypt for a period the control of Palestine as far north asPhoenicia. 

When Mursil died he was succeeded on the Hittite throne by his sonMutallu, whom the Egyptians referred to as "Metella" or "Mautinel". Hewas a vigorous and aggressive monarch, and appears to have lost notime in compelling the Amorites to throw off their allegiance to Egyptand recognize him as their overlord. As a result, when Rameses IIascended the Egyptian throne he had to undertake the task of winningback the Asiatic possessions of his father. 

The preliminary operations conducted by Rameses on the Palestiniancoast were attended with much success. Then, in his fifth year, hemarched northward with a great army, with purpose, it would appear, toemulate the achievements of Thothmes III and win fame as a mightyconqueror. But he underestimated the strength of his rival andnarrowly escaped disaster. Advancing impetuously, with but two of hisfour divisions, he suddenly found himself surrounded by the army ofthe wily Hittite, King Mutallu, in the vicinity of the city of Kadesh, on the Orontes. His first division remained intact, but his second wasput to flight by an intervening force of the enemy. From this perilousposition Rameses extricated himself by leading a daring charge againstthe Hittite lines on the river bank, which proved successful. Throwninto confusion, his enemies sought refuge in the city, but the Pharaohrefrained from attacking them there. 

Although Rameses boasted on his return home of having achieved a greatvictory, there is nothing more certain than that this campaign proveda dismal failure. He was unable to win back for Egypt the northernterritories which had acknowledged the suzerainty of Egypt during theEighteenth Dynasty. Subsequently he was kept fully engaged inmaintaining his prestige in northern Palestine and the vicinity ofPhoenicia. Then his Asiatic military operations, which extendedaltogether over a period of about twenty years, were brought to aclose in a dramatic and unexpected manner. The Hittite king Mutalluhad died in battle, or by the hand of an assassin, and was succeededby his brother Hattusil II (Khetasar), who sealed a treaty of peacewith the great Rameses. 

An Egyptian copy of this interesting document can still be read on thewalls of a Theban temple, but it is lacking in certain details whichinterest present-day historians. No reference, for instance, is madeto the boundaries of the Egyptian Empire in Syria, so that it isimpossible to estimate the degree of success which attended thecampaigns of Rameses. An interesting light, however, is thrown on thepurport of the treaty by a tablet letter which has been discovered byProfessor Hugo Winckler at Boghaz Köi. It is a copy of a communicationaddressed by Hattusil II to the King of Babylonia, who had made anenquiry regarding it. "I will inform my brother, " wrote the Hittitemonarch; "the King of Egypt and I have made an alliance, and madeourselves brothers. Brothers we are and will [unite against] a commonfoe, and with friends in common. "[411] The common foe could have beenno other than Assyria, and the Hittite king's letter appears to conveya hint to Kadashman-turgu of Babylon that he should make common causewith Rameses II and Hattusil. 

Shalmaneser I of Assyria was pursuing a determined policy of westernand northern expansion. He struck boldly at the eastern Hittite Statesand conquered Malatia, where he secured great treasure for the godAshur. He even founded colonies within the Hittite sphere of influenceon the borders of Armenia. Shalmaneser's second campaign was conductedagainst the portion of ancient Mitanni which was under Hittitecontrol. The vassal king, Sattuari, apparently a descendant ofTushratta's, endeavoured to resist the Assyrians with the aid ofHittites and Aramaeans, but his army of allies was put to flight. Thevictorious Shalmaneser was afterwards able to penetrate as farwestward as Carchemish on the Euphrates. 

Having thus secured the whole of Mitanni, the Assyrian conquerorattacked the Aramaean hordes which were keeping the territory roundHaran in a continuous state of unrest, and forced them to recognizehim as their overlord. 

Shalmaneser thus, it would appear, gained control of northernMesopotamia and consequently of the Babylonian caravan route to Haran. As a result Hittite prestige must have suffered decline in Babylon. For a generation the Hittites had had the Babylonian merchants attheir mercy, and apparently compelled them to pay heavy duties. Winckler has found among the Boghaz Köi tablets several letters fromthe king of Babylon, who made complaints regarding robberies committedby Amoritic bandits, and requested that they should be punished andkept in control. Such a communication is a clear indication that hewas entitled, in lieu of payment, to have an existing agreementfulfilled. 

Shalmaneser found that Asshur, the ancient capital, was unsuitable forthe administration of his extended empire, so he built a great city atKalkhi (Nimrud), the Biblical Calah, which was strategically situatedamidst fertile meadows on the angle of land formed by the Tigris andthe Upper Zab. Thither to a new palace he transferred his brilliantCourt. 

He was succeeded by his son, Tukulti-Ninip I, who was the mostpowerful of the Assyrian monarchs of the Old Empire. He made greatconquests in the north and east, extended and strengthened Assyrianinfluence in Mesopotamia, and penetrated into Hittite territory, bringing into subjection no fewer than forty kings, whom he compelledto pay annual tribute. It was inevitable that he should be drawn intoconflict with the Babylonian king, who was plotting with the Hittitesagainst him. One of the tablet letters found by Winckler at Boghaz Köiis of special interest in this connection. Hattusil advises the youngmonarch of Babylonia to "go and plunder the land of the foe". Apparently he sought to be freed from the harassing attention of theAssyrian conqueror by prevailing on his Babylonian royal friend to actas a "cat's paw". 

It is uncertain whether or not Kashtiliash II of Babylonia invadedAssyria with purpose to cripple his rival. At any rate war broke outbetween the two countries, and Tukulti-Ninip proved irresistible inbattle. He marched into Babylonia, and not only defeated Kashtiliash, but captured him and carried him off to Asshur, where he was presentedin chains to the god Ashur. 

The city of Babylon was captured, its wall was demolished, and many ofits inhabitants were put to the sword. Tukulti-Ninip was evidentlywaging a war of conquest, for he pillaged E-sagila, "the temple of thehigh head", and removed the golden statue of the god Merodach toAssyria, where it remained for about sixteen years. He subdued thewhole of Babylonia as far south as the Persian Gulf, and ruled itthrough viceroys. 

Tukulti-Ninip, however, was not a popular emperor even in his owncountry. He offended national susceptibilities by showing preferencefor Babylonia, and founding a new city which has not been located. There he built a great palace and a temple for Ashur and his pantheon. He called the city after himself, Kar-Tukulti-Ninip[412]. 

Seven years after the conquest of Babylonia revolts broke out againstthe emperor in Assyria and Babylonia, and he was murdered in hispalace, which had been besieged and captured by an army headed by hisown son, Ashur-natsir-pal I, who succeeded him. The Babylonian noblesmeantime drove the Assyrian garrisons from their cities, and set onthe throne the Kassite prince Adad-shum-utsur. 

Thus in a brief space went to pieces the old Assyrian Empire, which, at the close of Tukulti-Ninip's thirty years' reign, embraced thewhole Tigro-Euphrates valley from the borders of Armenia to thePersian Gulf. An obscure century followed, during which Assyria wasraided by its enemies and broken up into petty States. 

The Elamites were not slow to take advantage of the state of anarchywhich prevailed in Babylonia during the closing years of Assyrianrule. They overran a part of ancient Sumer, and captured Nippur, wherethey slew a large number of inhabitants and captured many prisoners. On a subsequent occasion they pillaged Isin. When, however, theBabylonian king had cleared his country of the Assyrians, he attackedthe Elamites and drove them across the frontier. 

Nothing is known regarding the reign of the parricide Ashur-natsir-palI of Assyria. He was succeeded by Ninip-Tukulti-Ashur andAdad-shum-lishir, who either reigned concurrently or were father andson. After a brief period these were displaced by another two rulers, Ashur-nirari III and Nabu-dan. 

It is not clear why Ninip-Tukulti-Ashur was deposed. Perhaps he was anally of Adad-shum-utsur, the Babylonian king, and was unpopular onthat account. He journeyed to Babylon on one occasion, carrying withhim the statue of Merodach, but did not return. Perhaps he fled fromthe rebels. At any rate Adad-shum-utsur was asked to send him back, byan Assyrian dignitary who was probably Ashur-nirari III. The king ofBabylon refused this request, nor would he give official recognitionto the new ruler or rulers. 

Soon afterwards another usurper, Bel-kudur-utsur, led an Assyrian armyagainst the Babylonians, but was slain in battle. He was succeeded byNinip-apil-esharia, who led his forces back to Asshur, followed byAdad-shum-utsur. The city was besieged but not captured by theBabylonian army. 

Under Adad-shum-utsur, who reigned for thirty years, Babyloniarecovered much of its ancient splendour. It held Elam in check andlaid a heavy hand on Assyria, which had been paralysed by civil war. Once again it possessed Mesopotamia and controlled its caravan road toHaran and Phoenicia, and apparently its relations with the Hittitesand Syrians were of a cordial character. The next king, Meli-shipak, assumed the Assyrian title "Shar Kishshati", "king of the world", andhad a prosperous reign of fifteen years. He was succeeded byMarduk-aplu-iddin I, who presided over the destinies of Babylonia forabout thirteen years. Thereafter the glory of the Kassite Dynastypassed away. King Zamama-shum-iddin followed with a twelvemonth'sreign, during which his kingdom was successfully invaded from thenorth by the Assyrians under King Ashur-dan I, and from the east bythe Elamites under a king whose name has not been traced. Severaltowns were captured and pillaged, and rich booty was carried off toAsshur and Susa. 

Bel-shum-iddin succeeded Zamama-shum-iddin, but three years afterwardshe was deposed by a king of Isin. So ended the Kassite Dynasty ofBabylonia, which had endured for a period of 576 years and ninemonths. 

Babylonia was called Karduniash during the Kassite Dynasty. This namewas originally applied to the district at the river mouths, where thealien rulers appear to have first achieved ascendancy. Apparently theywere strongly supported by the non-Semitic elements in the population, and represented a popular revolt against the political supremacy ofthe city of Babylon and its god Merodach. It is significant to find inthis connection that the early Kassite kings showed a preference forNippur as their capital and promoted the worship of Enlil, the elderBel, who was probably identified with their own god of fertility andbattle. Their sun god, Sachi, appears to have been merged in Shamash. In time, however, the kings followed the example of Hammurabi byexalting Merodach. 

The Kassite language added to the "Babel of tongues" among the commonpeople, but was never used in inscriptions. At an early period thealien rulers became thoroughly Babylonianized, and as they held swayfor nearly six centuries it cannot be assumed that they wereunpopular. They allowed their mountain homeland, or earliest area ofsettlement in the east, to be seized and governed by Assyria, andprobably maintained as slight a connection with it after settlement inBabylonia as did the Saxons of England with their Continental area oforigin. 

Although Babylonia was not so great a world power under the Kassitesas it had been during the Hammurabi Dynasty, it prospered greatly asan industrial, agricultural, and trading country. The Babylonianlanguage was used throughout western Asia as the language of diplomacyand commerce, and the city of Babylon was the most importantcommercial metropolis of the ancient world. Its merchants tradeddirectly and indirectly with far-distant countries. They importedcobalt--which was used for colouring glass a vivid blue--from China, and may have occasionally met Chinese traders who came westward withtheir caravans, while a brisk trade in marble and limestone wasconducted with and through Elam. Egypt was the chief source of thegold supply, which was obtained from the Nubian mines; and in exchangefor this precious metal the Babylonians supplied the Nilotic merchantswith lapis-lazuli from Bactria, enamel, and their own wonderfulcoloured glass, which was not unlike the later Venetian, as well aschariots and horses. The Kassites were great horse breeders, and thebattle steeds from the Babylonian province of Namar were everywhere ingreat demand. They also promoted the cattle trade. Cattle rearing wasconfined chiefly to the marshy districts at the head of the PersianGulf, and the extensive steppes on the borders of the Arabian desert, so well known to Abraham and his ancestors, which provided excellentgrazing. Agriculture also flourished; as in Egypt it constituted thebasis of national and commercial prosperity. 

It is evident that great wealth accumulated in Karduniash during theKassite period. When the images of Merodach and Zerpanituᵐ were takenback to Babylon, from Assyria, they were clad, as has been recorded, in garments embroidered with gold and sparkling with gems, whileE-sagila was redecorated on a lavish scale with priceless works ofart. 

Assyria presented a sharp contrast to Babylonia, the mother land, fromwhich its culture was derived. As a separate kingdom it had to developalong different lines. In fact, it was unable to exist as a worldpower without the enforced co-operation of neighbouring States. Babylonia, on the other hand, could have flourished in comparativeisolation, like Egypt during the Old Kingdom period, because it wasable to feed itself and maintain a large population so long as itsrich alluvial plain was irrigated during its dry season, whichextended over about eight months in the year. 

The region north of Baghdad was of different geographical formation tothe southern plain, and therefore less suitable for the birth andgrowth of a great independent civilization. Assyria embraced a chalkplateau of the later Mesozoic period, with tertiary deposits, and hadan extremely limited area suitable for agricultural pursuits. Itsoriginal inhabitants were nomadic pastoral and hunting tribes, andthere appears to be little doubt that agriculture was introduced alongthe banks of the Tigris by colonists from Babylonia, who formed cityStates which owed allegiance to the kings of Sumer and Akkad. 

After the Hammurabi period Assyria rose into prominence as a predatorypower, which depended for its stability upon those productivecountries which it was able to conquer and hold in sway. It never hada numerous peasantry, and such as it had ultimately vanished, for thekings pursued the short-sighted policy of colonizing districts on theborders of their empire with their loyal subjects, and settling aliensin the heart of the homeland, where they were controlled by themilitary. In this manner they built up an artificial empire, whichsuffered at critical periods in its history because it lacked thegreat driving and sustaining force of a population welded together byimmemorial native traditions and the love of country which is theessence of true patriotism. National sentiment was chiefly confined tothe military aristocracy and the priests; the enslaved and unculturedmasses of aliens were concerned mainly with their daily duties, and nodoubt included communities, like the Israelites in captivity, wholonged to return to their native lands. 

Assyria had to maintain a standing army, which grew from an allianceof brigands who first enslaved the native population, and ultimatelyextended their sway over neighbouring States. The successes of thearmy made Assyria powerful. Conquering kings accumulated rich booty bypillaging alien cities, and grew more and more wealthy as they wereable to impose annual tribute on those States which came under theirsway. They even regarded Babylonia with avaricious eyes. It was toachieve the conquest of the fertile and prosperous mother State thatthe early Assyrian emperors conducted military operations in thenorth-west and laid hands on Mesopotamia. There was no surer way ofstrangling it than by securing control of its trade routes. What thecommand of the sea is to Great Britain at the present day, the commandof the caravan roads was to ancient Babylonia. 

Babylonia suffered less than Assyria by defeat in battle; its naturalresources gave it great recuperative powers, and the native populationwas ever so intensely patriotic that centuries of alien sway could notobliterate their national aspirations. A conqueror of Babylon had tobecome a Babylonian. The Amorites and Kassites had in turn to adoptthe modes of life and modes of thought of the native population. Likethe Egyptians, the Babylonians ever achieved the intellectual conquestof their conquerors. 

The Assyrian Empire, on the other hand, collapsed like a house ofcards when its army of mercenaries suffered a succession of disasters. The kings, as we have indicated, depended on the tribute of subjectStates to pay their soldiers and maintain the priesthood; they werefaced with national bankruptcy when their vassals successfullyrevolted against them. 

The history of Assyria as a world power is divided into three periods:(1) the Old Empire; (2) the Middle Empire; (3) the New or Last Empire. 

We have followed the rise and growth of the Old Empire from the daysof Ashur-uballit until the reign of Tukulti-Ninip, when it flourishedin great splendour and suddenly went to pieces. Thereafter, until thesecond period of the Old Empire, Assyria comprised but a few cityStates which had agricultural resources and were trading centres. Ofthese the most enterprising was Asshur. When a ruler of Asshur wasable, by conserving his revenues, to command sufficient capital withpurpose to raise a strong army of mercenaries as a businessspeculation, he set forth to build up a new empire on the ruins of theold. In its early stages, of course, this process was slow anddifficult. It necessitated the adoption of a military career by nativeAssyrians, who officered the troops, and these troops had to betrained and disciplined by engaging in brigandage, which also broughtthem rich rewards for their services. Babylonia became powerful bydeveloping the arts of peace; Assyria became powerful by developingthe science of warfare. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

RACE MOVEMENTS THAT SHATTERED EMPIRES

 The Third Semitic Migration--Achaean Conquest of Greece--Fall of Crete--Tribes of Raiders--European Settlers in Asia Minor--The Muski overthrow the Hittites--Sea Raids on Egypt--The Homeric Age--Israelites and Philistines in Palestine--Culture of Philistines--Nebuchadrezzar I of Babylonia--Wars against Elamites and Hittites--Conquests in Mesopotamia and Syria--Assyrians and Babylonians at War--Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria--His Sweeping Conquests--Muski Power broken--Big-game Hunting in Mesopotamia--Slaying of a Sea Monster--Decline of Assyria and Babylonia--Revival of Hittite Civilization--An Important Period in History--Philistines as Overlords of Hebrews--Kingdom of David and Saul--Solomon's Relations with Egypt and Phoenicia--Sea Trade with India--Aramaean Conquests--The Chaldaeans--Egyptian King plunders Judah and Israel--Historical Importance of Race Movements. 

Great changes were taking place in the ancient world during theperiod in which Assyria rose into prominence and suddenly suffereddecline. These were primarily due to widespread migrations of pastoralpeoples from the steppe lands of Asia and Europe, and the resultingdisplacement of settled tribes. The military operations of the greatPowers were also a disturbing factor, for they not only propelledfresh movements beyond their spheres of influence, but caused thepetty States to combine against a common enemy and foster ambitions toachieve conquests on a large scale. 

Towards the close of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, of whichAmenhotep III and Akhenaton were the last great kings, twowell-defined migrations were in progress. The Aramaean folk-waves hadalready begun to pour in increasing volume into Syria from Arabia, andin Europe the pastoral fighting folk from the mountains wereestablishing themselves along the south-eastern coast and crossing theHellespont to overrun the land of the Hittites. These race movementswere destined to exercise considerable influence in shaping thehistory of the ancient world. 

The Aramaean, or Third Semitic migration, in time swamped variousdecaying States. Despite the successive efforts of the great Powers tohold it in check, it ultimately submerged the whole of Syria and partof Mesopotamia. Aramaean speech then came into common use among themingled peoples over a wide area, and was not displaced until the timeof the Fourth Semitic or Moslem migration from Arabia, which began inthe seventh century of the Christian era, and swept northward throughSyria to Asia Minor, eastward across Mesopotamia into Persia andIndia, and westward through Egypt along the north African coast toMorocco, and then into Spain. 

When Syria was sustaining the first shocks of Aramaean invasion, thelast wave of Achaeans, "the tamers of horses" and "shepherds of thepeople", had achieved the conquest of Greece, and contributed to theoverthrow of the dynasty of King Minos of Crete. Professor Ridgewayidentifies this stock, which had been filtering southward for severalcenturies, with the tall, fair-haired, and grey-eyed "Keltoi"(Celts), [413] who, Dr. Haddon believes, were representatives of "themixed peoples of northern and Alpine descent". [414] Mr. Hawes, following Professor Sergi, holds, on the other hand, that the Achaeanswere "fair in comparison with the native (Pelasgian-Mediterranean)stock, but not necessarily blonde". [415] The earliest Achaeans wererude, uncultured barbarians, but the last wave came from some unknowncentre of civilization, and probably used iron as well as bronzeweapons. 

The old Cretans were known to the Egyptians as the "Keftiu", andtraded on the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. It is significant tofind, however, that no mention is made of them in the inscriptions ofthe Pharaohs after the reign of Amenhotep III. In their place appearthe Shardana, the Mykenaean people who gave their name to Sardinia, the Danauna, believed to be identical with the Danaoi of Homer, theAkhaivasha, perhaps the Achaeans, and the Tursha and Shakalsha, whomay have been of the same stock as the piratical Lycians. 

When Rameses II fought his famous battle at Kadesh the Hittite kingincluded among his allies the Aramaeans from Arabia, and othermercenaries like the Dardanui and Masa, who represented theThraco-Phrygian peoples who had overrun the Balkans, occupied Thraceand Macedonia, and crossed into Asia Minor. In time the Hittiteconfederacy was broken up by the migrating Europeans, and theirdominant tribe, the Muski[416]--the Moschoi of the Greeks and theMeshech of the Old Testament--came into conflict with the Assyrians. The Muski were forerunners of the Phrygians, and were probably ofallied stock. 

Pharaoh Meneptah, the son of Rameses II, did not benefit much by thealliance with the Hittites, to whom he had to send a supply of grainduring a time of famine. He found it necessary, indeed, to invadeSyria, where their influence had declined, and had to beat back fromthe Delta region the piratical invaders of the same tribes as weresecuring a footing in Asia Minor. In Syria, Meneptah fought with theIsraelites, who apparently had begun their conquest of Canaan duringhis reign. 

Before the Kassite Dynasty had come to an end, Rameses III of Egypt(1198-1167 B. C. ) freed his country from the perils of a great invasionof Europeans by land and sea. He scattered a fleet on the Delta coast, and then arrested the progress of a strong force which was pressingsouthward through Phoenicia towards the Egyptian frontier. Theseevents occurred at the beginning of the Homeric Age, and were followedby the siege of Troy, which, according to the Greeks, began about 1194B. C. 

The land raiders who were thwarted by Rameses III were thePhilistines, a people from Crete. [417] When the prestige of Egyptsuffered decline they overran the coastline of Canaan, and thatcountry was then called Palestine, "the land of the Philistines", while the Egyptian overland trade route to Phoenicia became known as"the way of the Philistines". Their conflicts with the Hebrews arefamiliar to readers of the Old Testament. "The only contributions theHebrews made to the culture of the country", writes ProfessorMacalister, "were their simple desert customs and their religiousorganization. On the other hand, the Philistines, sprung from one ofthe great homes of art of the ancient world, had brought with them theartistic instincts of their race: decayed no doubt, but still superiorto anything they met with in the land itself. Tombs to be ascribed tothem, found in Gezer, contained beautiful jewellery and ornaments. ThePhilistines, in fact, were the only cultured or artistic race who everoccupied the soil of Palestine, at least until the time when theinfluence of classical Greece asserted itself too strongly to bewithstood. Whatsoever things raised life in the country above the dullanimal existence of fellahin were due to this people. .. . The peasantryof the modern villages . .. Still tell of the great days of old when it(Palestine) was inhabited by the mighty race of the 'Fenish'. "[418]

When the Kassite Dynasty of Babylonia was extinguished, about 1140B. C. , the Amorites were being displaced in Palestine by thePhilistines and the Israelitish tribes; the Aramaeans were extendingtheir conquests in Syria and Mesopotamia; the Muski were the overlordsof the Hittites; Assyrian power was being revived at the beginning ofthe second period of the Old Empire; and Egypt was governed by aweakly king, Rameses VIII, a puppet in the hands of the priesthood, who was unable to protect the rich tombs of the Eighteenth DynastyPharaohs against the bands of professional robbers who were plunderingthem. 

A new dynasty--the Dynasty of Pashe--had arisen at the ancientSumerian city of Isin. Its early kings were contemporary with some ofthe last Kassite monarchs, and they engaged in conflicts with theElamites, who were encroaching steadily upon Babylonian territory, andwere ultimately able to seize the province of Namar, famous for itshorses, which was situated to the east of Akkad. The Assyrians, underAshur-dan I, were not only reconquering lost territory, but invadingBabylonia and carrying off rich plunder. Ashur-dan inflicted acrushing defeat upon the second-last Kassite ruler. 

There years later Nebuchadrezzar I, of the Dynasty of Pashe, seizedthe Babylonian throne. He was the most powerful and distinguishedmonarch of his line--an accomplished general and a wise statesman. Hisname signifies: "May the god Nebo protect my boundary". His first dutywas to drive the Elamites from the land, and win back from them thestatue of Merodach which they had carried off from E-sagila. At firsthe suffered a reverse, but although the season was midsummer, and theheat overpowering, he persisted in his campaign. The Elamites wereforced to retreat, and following up their main force he inflicted uponthem a shattering defeat on the banks of the Ula, a tributary of theTigris. He then invaded Elam and returned with rich booty. Theprovince of Namar was recovered, and its governor, Ritti Merodach, whowas Nebuchadrezzar's battle companion, was restored to his familypossessions and exempted from taxation. A second raid to Elam resultedin the recovery of the statue of Merodach. The Kassite and Lullumemountaineers also received attention, and were taught to respect thepower of the new monarch. 

Having freed his country from the yoke of the Elamites, and driven theAssyrians over the frontier, Nebuchadrezzar came into conflict withthe Hittites, who appear to have overrun Mesopotamia. Probably theinvaders were operating in conjunction with the Muski, who wereextending their sway over part of northern Assyria. They were notcontent with securing control of the trade route, but endeavoured alsoto establish themselves permanently in Babylon, the commercialmetropolis, which they besieged and captured. This happened in thethird year of Nebuchadrezzar, when he was still reigning at Isin. Assembling a strong force, he hastened northward and defeated theHittites, and apparently followed up his victory. Probably it was atthis time that he conquered the "West Land" (the land of the Amorites)and penetrated to the Mediterranean coast. Egyptian power had beenlong extinguished in that region. 

The possession of Mesopotamia was a signal triumph for Babylonia. Aswas inevitable, however, it brought Nebuchadrezzar into conflict someyears later with the Assyrian king, Ashur-resh-ishi I, grandson ofAshur-dan, and father of the famous Tiglath-pileser I. The northernmonarch had engaged himself in subduing the Lullume and Akhlami hilltribes in the south-east, whose territory had been conquered byNebuchadrezzar. Thereafter he crossed the Babylonian frontier. Nebuchadrezzar drove him back and then laid siege to the borderfortress of Zanki, but the Assyrian king conducted a sudden andsuccessful reconnaissance in force which rendered perilous theposition of the attacking force. By setting fire to his siege trainthe Babylonian war lord was able, however, to retreat in good order. 

Some time later Nebuchadrezzar dispatched another army northward, butit suffered a serious defeat, and its general, Karashtu, fell into thehands of the enemy. 

Nebuchadrezzar reigned less than twenty years, and appears to havesecured the allegiance of the nobility by restoring the feudal systemwhich had been abolished by the Kassites. He boasted that he was "thesun of his country, who restored ancient landmarks and boundaries", and promoted the worship of Ishtar, the ancient goddess of the people. By restoring the image of Merodach he secured the support of Babylon, to which city he transferred his Court. 

Nebuchadrezzar was succeeded by his son Ellil-nadin-apil, who reigneda few years; but little or nothing is known regarding him. Hisgrandson, Marduk-nadin-akhe, came into conflict with Tiglath-pileser Iof Assyria, and suffered serious reverses, from the effects of whichhis country did not recover for over a century. 

Tiglath-pileser I, in one of his inscriptions, recorded significantly:"The feet of the enemy I kept from my country". When he came to thethrone, northern Assyria was menaced by the Muski and their allies, the Hittites and the Shubari of old Mitanni. The Kashiari hill tribesto the north of Nineveh, whom Shalmaneser I subdued, had half acentury before thrown off the yoke of Assyria, and their kings wereapparently vassals of the Muski. 

Tiglath-pileser first invaded Mitanni, where he routed a combinedforce of Shubari hillmen and Hittites. Thereafter a great army of theMuski and their allies pressed southward with purpose to deal ashattering blow against the Assyrian power. The very existence ofAssyria as a separate power was threatened by this movement. Tiglath-pileser, however, was equal to the occasion. He surprised theinvaders among the Kashiari mountains and inflicted a crushing defeat, slaying about 14, 000 and capturing 6000 prisoners, who weretransported to Asshur. In fact, he wiped the invading army out ofexistence and possessed himself of all its baggage. Thereafter hecaptured several cities, and extended his empire beyond the Kashiarihills and into the heart of Mitanni. 

His second campaign was also directed towards the Mitanni district, which had been invaded during his absence by a force of Hittites, about 4000 strong. The invaders submitted to him as soon as he drewnear, and he added them to his standing army. 

Subsequent operations towards the north restored the pre-eminence ofAssyria in the Nairi country, on the shores of Lake Van, in Armenia, where Tiglath-pileser captured no fewer than twenty-three petty kings. These he liberated after they had taken the oath of allegiance andconsented to pay annual tribute. 

In his fourth year the conqueror learned that the Aramaeans werecrossing the Euphrates and possessing themselves of Mitanni, which hehad cleared of the Hittites. By a series of forced marches he caughtthem unawares, scattered them in confusion, and entered Carchemish, which he pillaged. Thereafter his army crossed the Euphrates in boatsof skin, and plundered and destroyed six cities round the base of themountain of Bishru. 

While operating in this district, Tiglath-pileser engaged in big-gamehunting. He recorded: "Ten powerful bull elephants in the land ofHaran and on the banks of the Khabour I killed; four elephants alive Itook. Their skins, their teeth, with the living elephants, I broughtto my city of Asshur. "[419] He also claimed to have slain 920 lions, as well as a number of wild oxen, apparently including in his recordthe "bags" of his officers and men. A later king credited him withhaving penetrated to the Phoenician coast, where he put to sea andslew a sea monster called the "nakhiru". While at Arvad, the narrativecontinues, the King of Egypt, who is not named, sent him ahippopotamus (pagutu). This story, however, is of doubtfulauthenticity. About this time the prestige of Egypt was at so low anebb that its messengers were subjected to indignities by thePhoenician kings. 

The conquests of Tiglath-pileser once more raised the Mesopotamianquestion in Babylonia, whose sphere of influence in that region hadbeen invaded. Marduk-nadin-akhe, the grandson of Nebuchadrezzar I, "arrayed his chariots" against Tiglath-pileser, and in the firstconflict achieved some success, but subsequently he was defeated inthe land of Akkad. The Assyrian army afterwards captured severalcities, including Babylon and Sippar. 

Thus once again the Assyrian Empire came into being as the predominantworld Power, extending from the land of the Hittites into the heart ofBabylonia. Its cities were enriched by the immense quantities of bootycaptured by its warrior king, while the coffers of state were gluttedwith the tribute of subject States. Fortifications were renewed, temples were built, and great gifts were lavished on the priesthood. Artists and artisans were kept fully employed restoring the fadedsplendours of the Old Empire, and everywhere thousands of slaveslaboured to make the neglected land prosperous as of old. Canals wererepaired and reopened; the earthworks and quay wall of Ashur werestrengthened, and its great wall was entirely rebuilt, faced with arampart of earth, and protected once again by a deep moat. The royalpalace was enlarged and redecorated. 

Meanwhile Babylonia was wasted by civil war and invasions. It wasentered more than once by the Aramaeans, who pillaged several citiesin the north and the south. Then the throne was seized byAdad-aplu-iddina, the grandson of "a nobody", who reigned for aboutten years. He was given recognition, however, by the Assyrian king, Ashur-bel-kala, son of Tiglath-pileser I, who married his daughter, and apparently restored to him Sippar and Babylon after receiving ahandsome dowry. Ashur-bel-kala died without issue, and was succeededby his brother, Shamshi-Adad. 

An obscure period followed. In Babylonia there were two weak dynastiesin less than half a century, and thereafter an Elamite Dynasty whichlasted about six years. An Eighth Dynasty ensued, and lasted betweenfifty and sixty years. The records of its early kings are exceedinglymeagre and their order uncertain. During the reign of Nabu-mukin-apli, who was perhaps the fourth monarch, the Aramaeans constantly raidedthe land and hovered about Babylon. The names of two or three kingswho succeeded Nabu-mukin-apli are unknown. 

A century and a half after Tiglath-pileser I conquered the northSyrian possessions of the Hittites, the Old Assyrian Empire reachedthe close of its second and last period. It had suffered gradualdecline, under a series of inert and luxury-loving kings, until it wasunable to withstand the gradual encroachment on every side of therestless hill tribes, who were ever ready to revolt when the authorityof Ashur was not asserted at the point of the sword. 

After 950 B. C. The Hittites of North Syria, having shaken off the lastsemblance of Assyrian authority, revived their power, and enjoyed afull century of independence and prosperity. In Cappadocia theirkinsmen had freed themselves at an earlier period from the yoke of theMuski, who had suffered so severely at the hands of Tiglath-pileser I. The Hittite buildings and rock sculptures of this period testify tothe enduring character of the ancient civilization of the "Hatti". Until the hieroglyphics can be read, however, we must wait patientlyfor the detailed story of the pre-Phrygian period, which was of greathistorical importance, because the tide of cultural influence was thenflowing at its greatest volume from the old to the new world, whereGreece was emerging in virgin splendour out of the ruins of theancient Mykenaean and Cretan civilizations. 

It is possible that the conquest of a considerable part of Palestineby the Philistines was not unconnected with the revival of Hittitepower in the north. They may have moved southward as the allies of theCilician State which was rising into prominence. For a period theywere the overlords of the Hebrews, who had been displacing the olderinhabitants of the "Promised Land", and appear to have been armed withweapons of iron. In fact, as is indicated by a passage in the Book ofSamuel, they had made a "corner" in that metal and restricted its useamong their vassals. "Now", the Biblical narrative sets forth, "therewas no smith found throughout all the land of Israel; for thePhilistines said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords and spears; butall the Israelites went down to the Philistines, to sharpen every manhis share, and his coulter, and his axe, and his mattock". [420] "Weare inclined", says Professor Macalister, "to picture the West as athing of yesterday, new fangled with its inventions and itsprogressive civilization, and the East as an embodiment of hoary andunchanging traditions. But when West first met East on the shores ofthe Holy Land, it was the former which represented the magnificenttraditions of the past, and the latter which looked forward to thefuture. The Philistines were of the remnant of the dying glories ofCrete; the Hebrews had no past to speak of, but were entering on theheritage they regarded as theirs, by right of a recently ratifieddivine covenant. "[421]

Saul was the leader of a revolt against the Philistines in northernPalestine, and became the ruler of the kingdom of Israel. Then David, having liberated Judah from the yoke of the Philistines, succeededSaul as ruler of Israel, and selected Jerusalem as his capital. Healso conquered Edom and Moab, but was unsuccessful in his attempt tosubjugate Ammon. The Philistines were then confined to a restrictedarea on the seacoast, where they fused with the Semites and ultimatelysuffered loss of identity. Under the famous Solomon the united kingdomof the Hebrews reached its highest splendour and importance among thenations. 

If the Philistines received the support of the Hittites, the Hebrewswere strengthened by an alliance with Egypt. For a period of two and ahalf centuries no Egyptian army had crossed the Delta frontier intoSyria. The ancient land of the Pharaohs had been overshadowed meantimeby a cloud of anarchy, and piratical and robber bands settled freelyon its coast line. At length a Libyan general named Sheshonk (Shishak)seized the throne from the Tanite Dynasty. He was the Pharaoh withwhom Solomon "made affinity", [422] and from whom he received the cityof Gezer, which an Egyptian army had captured. [423] Solomon hadpreviously married a daughter of Sheshonk's. 

Phoenicia was also flourishing. Freed from Egyptian, Hittite, andAssyrian interference, Tyre and Sidon attained to a high degree ofpower as independent city States. During the reigns of David andSolomon, Tyre was the predominant Phoenician power. Its kings, Abibaaland his son Hiram, had become "Kings of the Sidonians", and arebelieved to have extended their sway over part of Cyprus. Therelations between the Hebrews and the Phoenicians were of a cordialcharacter, indeed the two powers became allies. 

 And Hiram king of Tyre sent his servants unto Solomon; for he had heard that they had anointed him king in the room of his father: for Hiram was ever a lover of David. And Solomon sent to Hiram, saying, Thou knowest how that David my father could not build an house unto the name of the Lord His God for the wars which were about him on every side, until the Lord put them under the soles of his feet. But now the Lord my God hath given me rest on every side, so that there is neither adversary nor evil occurrent. And, behold, I purpose to build an house unto the name of the Lord my God, as the Lord spake unto David my father, saying, Thy son, whom I will set upon thy throne in thy room, he shall build an house unto my name. Now therefore command thou that they hew me cedar trees out of Lebanon; and my servants shall be with thy servants: and unto thee will I give hire for thy servants according to all that thou shalt appoint: for thou knowest that there is not among us any that can skill to hew timber like unto the Sidonians. And it came to pass, when Hiram heard the words of Solomon, that he rejoiced greatly, and said, Blessed be the Lord this day, which hath given unto David a wise son over this great people. And Hiram sent to Solomon, saying, I have considered the things which thou sentest to me for: and I will do all thy desire concerning timber of cedar, and concerning timber of fir. My servants shall bring them down from Lebanon unto the sea: and I will convey them by sea in floats unto the place that thou shalt appoint me, and will cause them to be discharged there, and thou shalt receive them: and thou shalt accomplish my desire, in giving food for my household. So Hiram gave Solomon cedar trees and fir trees according to all his desire. And Solomon gave Hiram twenty thousand measures of wheat for food to his household, and twenty measures of pure oil: thus gave Solomon to Hiram year by year. And the Lord gave Solomon wisdom, as he promised him: and there was peace between Hiram and Solomon; and they two made a league together. [424]

Hiram also sent skilled workers to Jerusalem to assist in the work ofbuilding the temple and Solomon's palace, including his famousnamesake, "a widow's son of the (Hebrew) tribe of Naphtali", who, likehis father, "a man of Tyre", had "understanding and cunning to workall works in brass". [425]

Solomon must have cultivated good relations with the Chaldaeans, forhe had a fleet of trading ships on the Persian Gulf which was mannedby Phoenician sailors. "Once in three years", the narrative runs, "came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, andapes, and peacocks. "[426] Apparently he traded with India, the land ofpeacocks, during the Brahmanical period, when the Sanskrit name"Samudra", which formerly signified the "collected waters" of thebroadening Indus, was applied to the Indian Ocean. [427]

The Aramaeans of the Third Semitic migration were not slow to takeadvantage of the weakness of Assyria and Babylon. They overran thewhole of Syria, and entered into the possession of Mesopotamia, thusacquiring full control of the trade routes towards the west. From timeto time they ravaged Babylonia from the north to the south. Largenumbers of them acquired permanent settlement in that country, likethe Amorites of the Second Semitic migration in the pre-Hammurabi Age. 

In Syria the Aramaeans established several petty States, and werebeginning to grow powerful at Damascus, an important trading centre, which assumed considerable political importance after the collapse ofAssyria's Old Empire. 

At this period, too, the Chaldaeans came into prominence in Babylonia. Their kingdom of Chaldaea (Kaldu, which signifies Sealand) embraces awide stretch of the coast land at the head of the Persian Gulf betweenArabia and Elam. As we have seen, an important dynasty flourished inthis region in the time of Hammurabi. Although more than one king ofBabylon recorded that he had extinguished the Sealand Power, itcontinued to exist all through the Kassite period. It is possible thatthis obscure kingdom embraced diverse ethnic elements, and that it wascontrolled in turn by military aristocracies of Sumerians, Elamites, Kassites, and Arabians. After the downfall of the Kassites it hadbecome thoroughly Semitized, perhaps as a result of the Aramaeanmigration, which may have found one of its outlets around the head ofthe Persian Gulf. The ancient Sumerian city of Ur, which dominated aconsiderable area of steppe land to the west of the Euphrates, wasincluded in the Sealand kingdom, and was consequently referred to inafter-time as "Ur of the Chaldees". 

When Solomon reigned over Judah and Israel, Babylonia was broken upinto a number of petty States, as in early Sumerian times. The feudalrevival of Nebuchadrezzar I had weakened the central power, with theresult that the nominal high kings were less able to resist theinroads of invaders. Military aristocracies of Aramaeans, Elamites, and Chaldaeans held sway in various parts of the valley, and struggledfor supremacy. 

When Assyria began to assert itself again, it laid claim on Babylonia, ostensibly as the protector of its independence, and the Chaldaeansfor a time made common cause with the Elamites against it. The future, however, lay with the Chaldaeans, who, like the Kassites, became theliberators of the ancient inhabitants. When Assyria was finallyextinguished as a world power they revived the ancient glory ofBabylonia, and supplanted the Sumerians as the scholars and teachersof Western Asia. The Chaldaeans became famous in Syria, and even inGreece, as "the wise men from the east", and were renowned asastrologers. 

The prestige of the Hebrew kingdom suffered sharp and serious declineafter Solomon's death. Pharaoh Sheshonk fostered the elements ofrevolt which ultimately separated Israel from Judah, and, when afavourable opportunity arose, invaded Palestine and Syria andreestablished Egypt's suzerainty over part of the area which had beenswayed by Rameses II, replenishing his exhausted treasury with richbooty and the tribute he imposed. Phoenicia was able, however, tomaintain its independence, but before the Assyrians moved westwardagain, Sidon had shaken off the yoke of Tyre and become an independentState. 

It will be seen from the events outlined in this chapter how greatlythe history of the ancient world was affected by the periodicmigrations of pastoral folks from the steppe lands. These human tideswere irresistible. The direction of their flow might be diverted for atime, but they ultimately overcame every obstacle by sheer persistencyand overpowering volume. Great emperors in Assyria and Egyptendeavoured to protect their countries from the "Bedouin peril" bystrengthening their frontiers and extending their spheres ofinfluence, but the dammed-up floods of humanity only gathered strengthin the interval for the struggle which might be postponed but couldnot be averted. 

These migrations, as has been indicated, were due to natural causes. They were propelled by climatic changes which caused a shortage of thefood supply, and by the rapid increase of population under peacefulconditions. Once a migration began to flow, it set in motion manycurrents and cross currents, but all these converged towards thedistricts which offered the most attractions to mankind. Prosperousand well-governed States were ever in peril of invasion by barbarouspeoples. The fruits of civilization tempted them; the reward ofconquest was quickly obtained in Babylon and Egypt with theirflourishing farms and prosperous cities. Waste land was reclaimed thenas now by colonists from centres of civilization; the migratingpastoral folks lacked the initiative and experience necessary toestablish new communities in undeveloped districts. Highly civilizedmen sowed the harvest and the barbarians reaped it. 

It must not be concluded, however, that the migrations were historicaldisasters, or that they retarded the general advancement of the humanrace. In time the barbarians became civilized and fused with thepeoples whom they conquered. They introduced, too, into communitieswhich had grown stagnant and weakly, a fresh and invigoratingatmosphere that acted as a stimulant in every sphere of humanactivity. The Kassite, for instance, was a unifying and therefore astrengthening influence in Babylonia. He shook off the manacles of thepast which bound the Sumerian and the Akkadian alike to traditionallines of policy based on unforgotten ancient rivalries. His concernwas chiefly with the future. The nomads with their experience ofdesert wandering promoted trade, and the revival of trade inauguratednew eras of prosperity in ancient centres of culture, and brought theminto closer touch than ever before with one another. The rise ofGreece was due to the blending of the Achaeans and other pastoralfighting folks with the indigenous Pelasgians. Into the early Stateswhich fostered the elements of ancient Mykenaean civilization, pouredthe cultural influences of the East through Asia Minor and Phoeniciaand from the Egyptian coast. The conquerors from the steppes meanwhilecontributed their genius for organization, their simple and frugalhabits of life, and their sterling virtues; they left a deep impresson the moral, physical, and intellectual life of Greece. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

THE HEBREWS IN ASSYRIAN HISTORY

 Revival of Assyrian Power--The Syro-Cappadocian Hittites--The Aramaean State of Damascus--Reign of Terror in Mesopotamia--Barbarities of Ashur-natsir-pal III--Babylonia and Chaldaea subdued--Glimpse of the Kalkhi Valley--The Hebrew Kingdoms of Judah and Israel--Rival Monarchs and their Wars--How Judah became subject to Damascus--Ahab and the Phoenician Jezebel--Persecution of Elijah and other Prophets--Israelites fight against Assyrians--Shalmaneser as Overlord of Babylonia--Revolts of Jehu in Israel and Hazael in Damascus--Shalmaneser defeats Hazael--Jehu sends Tribute to Shalmaneser--Baal Worship Supplanted by Golden Calf Worship in Israel--Queen Athaliah of Judah--Crowning of the Boy King Joash--Damascus supreme in Syria and Palestine--Civil War in Assyria--Triumphs of Shamshi-Adad VII--Babylonia becomes an Assyrian Province. 

In one of the Scottish versions of the Seven Sleepers legend ashepherd enters a cave, in which the great heroes of other days liewrapped in magic slumber, and blows two blasts on the horn which hangssuspended from the roof. The sleepers open their eyes and raisethemselves on their elbows. Then the shepherd hears a warning voicewhich comes and goes like the wind, saying: "If the horn is blown onceagain, the world will be upset altogether". Terrified by the Voice andthe ferocious appearance of the heroes, the shepherd retreatshurriedly, locking the door behind him; he casts the key into the sea. The story proceeds: "If anyone should find the key and open the door, and blow but a single blast on the horn, Finn and all the Feans wouldcome forth. And that would be a great day in Alban. "[428]

After the lapse of an obscure century the national heroes of Assyriawere awakened as if from sleep by the repeated blasts from the horn ofthe triumphant thunder god amidst the northern and westernmountains--Adad or Rimmon of Syria, Teshup of Armenia, Tarku of thewestern Hittites. The great kings who came forth to "upset the world"bore the familiar names, Ashur-natsir-pal, Shalmaneser, Shamash-Adad, Ashur-dan, Adad-nirari, and Ashur-nirari. They revived and increasedthe ancient glory of Assyria during its Middle Empire period. 

The Syro-Cappadocian Hittites had grown once again powerful andprosperous, but no great leader like Subbiluliuma arose to weld thevarious States into an Empire, so as to ensure the protection of themingled peoples from the operations of the aggressive and ambitiouswar-lords of Assyria. One kingdom had its capital at Hamath andanother at Carchemish on the Euphrates. The kingdom of Tabalflourished in Cilicia (Khilakku); it included several city States likeTarsus, Tiana, and Comana (Kammanu). Farther west was the dominion ofthe Thraco-Phrygian Muski. The tribes round the shores of Lake Van hadasserted themselves and extended their sphere of influence. The Stateof Urartu was of growing importance, and the Nairi tribes had spreadround the south-eastern shores of Lake Van. The northern frontier ofAssyria was continually menaced by groups of independent hill Stateswhich would have been irresistible had they operated together againsta common enemy, but were liable to be extinguished when attacked indetail. 

A number of Aramaean kingdoms had come into existence in Mesopotamiaand throughout Syria. The most influential of these was the State ofDamascus, the king of which was the overlord of the Hebrew kingdoms ofIsrael and Judah when Ashur-natsir-pal III ascended the Assyrianthrone about 885 B. C. Groups of the Aramaeans had acquired a highdegree of culture and become traders and artisans. Large numbers hadfiltered, as well, not only into Babylonia but also Assyria and thenorth Syrian area of Hittite control. Accustomed for generations todesert warfare, they were fearless warriors. Their armies had greatmobility, being composed mostly of mounted infantry, and were noteasily overpowered by the Assyrian forces of footmen and charioteers. Indeed, it was not until cavalry was included in the standing army ofAssyria that operations against the Aramaeans were attended withpermanent success. 

Ashur-natsir-pal III[429] was preceded by two vigorous Assyrianrulers, Adad-nirari III (911-890 B. C. ) and Tukulti-Ninip II (890-885B. C). The former had raided North Syria and apparently penetrated asfar as the Mediterranean coast. In consequence he came into conflictwith Babylonia, but he ultimately formed an alliance with thatkingdom. His son, Tukulti-Ninip, operated in southern Mesopotamia, andapparently captured Sippar. In the north he had to drive back invadingbands of the Muski. Although, like his father, he carried out greatworks at Asshur, he appears to have transferred his Court to Nineveh, a sure indication that Assyria was once again becoming powerful innorthern Mesopotamia and the regions towards Armenia. 

Ashur-natsir-pal III, son of Tukulti-Ninip II, inaugurated a veritablereign of terror in Mesopotamia and northern Syria. His methods ofdealing with revolting tribes were of a most savage character. Chiefswere skinned alive, and when he sacked their cities, not onlyfighting-men but women and children were either slaughtered or burnedat the stake. It is not surprising to find therefore that, on morethan one occasion, the kings of petty States made submission to himwithout resistance as soon as he invaded their domains. 

In his first year he overran the mountainous district between Lake Vanand the upper sources of the Tigris. Bubu, the rebel son of thegovernor of Nishtun, who had been taken prisoner, was transported toArbela, where he was skinned alive. Like his father, Ashur-natsir-palfought against the Muski, whose power was declining. Then he turnedsouthward from the borders of Asia Minor and dealt with a rebellion innorthern Mesopotamia. 

An Aramaean pretender named Akhiababa had established himself at Suruin the region to the east of the Euphrates, enclosed by itstributaries the Khabar and the Balikh. He had come from theneighbouring Aramaean State of Bit-Adini, and was preparing, it wouldappear, to form a powerful confederacy against the Assyrians. 

When Ashur-natsir-pal approached Suru, a part of its populationwelcomed him. He entered the city, seized the pretender and many ofhis followers. These he disposed of with characteristic barbarity. Some were skinned alive and some impaled on stakes, while others wereenclosed in a pillar which the king had erected to remind theAramaeans of his determination to brook no opposition. Akhiababa thepretender was sent to Nineveh with a few supporters; and when they hadbeen flayed their skins were nailed upon the city walls. 

Another revolt broke out in the Kirkhi district between the upperreaches of the Tigris and the southwestern shores of Lake Van. It waspromoted by the Nairi tribes, and even supported by some Assyrianofficials. Terrible reprisals were meted out to the rebels. When thecity of Kinabu was captured, no fewer than 3000 prisoners were burnedalive, the unfaithful governor being flayed. The city of Damdamusa wasset on fire. Then Tela was attacked. Ashur-natsir-pal's own account ofthe operations runs as follows:--

 The city (of Tello) was very strong; three walls surrounded it. The inhabitants trusted to their strong walls and numerous soldiers; they did not come down or embrace my feet. With battle and slaughter I assaulted and took the city. Three thousand warriors I slew in battle. Their booty and possessions, cattle, sheep, I carried away; many captives I burned with fire. Many of their soldiers I took alive; of some I cut off hands and limbs; of others the noses, ears, and arms; of many soldiers I put out the eyes. I reared a column of the living and a column of heads. I hung on high their heads on trees in the vicinity of their city. Their boys and girls I burned up in flames. I devastated the city, dug it up, in fire burned it; I annihilated it. [430]

The Assyrian war-lord afterwards forced several Nairi kings toacknowledge him as their overlord. He was so greatly feared by theSyro-Cappadocian Hittites that when he approached their territory theysent him tribute, yielding without a struggle. 

For several years the great conqueror engaged himself in thus subduingrebellious tribes and extending his territory. His militaryheadquarters were at Kalkhi, to which city the Court had beentransferred. Thither he drafted thousands of prisoners, the greatmajority of whom he incorporated in the Assyrian army. Assyriancolonies were established in various districts for strategicalpurposes, and officials supplanted the petty kings in certain of thenorthern city States. 

The Aramaeans of Mesopotamia gave much trouble to Ashur-natsir-pal. Although he had laid a heavy hand on Suru, the southern tribes, theSukhi, stirred up revolts in Mesopotamia as the allies of theBabylonians. On one occasion Ashur-natsir-pal swept southward throughthis region, and attacked a combined force of Sukhi Aramaeans andBabylonians. The Babylonians were commanded by Zabdanu, brother ofNabu-aplu-iddin, king of Babylonia, who was evidently anxious toregain control of the western trade route. The Assyrian war-lord, however, proved to be too powerful a rival. He achieved so complete avictory that he captured the Babylonian general and 3000 of hisfollowers. The people of Kashshi (Babylonia) and Kaldu (Chaldaea) were"stricken with terror", and had to agree to pay increased tribute. 

Ashur-natsir-pal reigned for about a quarter of a century, but hiswars occupied less than half of that period. Having accumulated greatbooty, he engaged himself, as soon as peace was secured throughout hisempire, in rebuilding the city of Kalkhi, where he erected a greatpalace and made records of his achievements. He also extended andredecorated the royal palace at Nineveh, and devoted much attention tothe temples. 

Tribute poured in from the subject States. The mountain and valleytribes in the north furnished in abundance wine and corn, sheep andcattle and horses, and from the Aramaeans of Mesopotamia and theSyro-Cappadocian Hittites came much silver and gold, copper and lead, jewels and ivory, as well as richly decorated furniture, armour andweapons. Artists and artisans were also provided by the vassals ofAssyria. There are traces of Phoenician influence in the art of thisperiod. 

Ashur-natsir-pal's great palace at Kalkhi was excavated by Layard, whohas given a vivid description of the verdant plain on which theancient city was situated, as it appeared in spring. "Its pasturelands, known as the 'Jaif', are renowned", he wrote, "for their richand luxuriant herbage. In times of quiet, the studs of the Pasha andof the Turkish authorities, with the horses of the cavalry and of theinhabitants of Mosul, are sent here to graze. .. . Flowers of every hueenamelled the meadows; not thinly scattered over the grass as innorthern climes, but in such thick and gathering clusters that thewhole plain seemed a patchwork of many colours. The dogs, as theyreturned from hunting, issued from the long grass dyed red, yellow, orblue, according to the flowers through which they had last forcedtheir way. .. . In the evening, after the labour of the day, I often satat the door of my tent, giving myself up to the full enjoyment of thatcalm and repose which are imparted to the senses by such scenes asthese. .. . As the sun went down behind the low hills which separate theriver from the desert--even their rocky sides had struggled to emulatethe verdant clothing of the plain--its receding rays were graduallywithdrawn, like a transparent veil of light from the landscape. Overthe pure cloudless sky was the glow of the last light. In the distanceand beyond the Zab, Keshaf, another venerable ruin, rose indistinctlyinto the evening mist. Still more distant, and still more indistinct, was a solitary hill overlooking the ancient city of Arbela. TheKurdish mountains, whose snowy summits cherished the dying sunbeams, yet struggled with the twilight. The bleating of sheep and lowing ofcattle, at first faint, became louder as the flocks returned fromtheir pastures and wandered amongst the tents. Girls hurried over thegreensward to seek their fathers' cattle, or crouched down to milkthose which had returned alone to their well-remembered folds. Somewere coming from the river bearing the replenished pitcher on theirheads or shoulders; others, no less graceful in their form, and erectin their carriage, were carrying the heavy loads of long grass whichthey had cut in the meadows. "[431]

Across the meadows so beautiful in March the great armies ofAshur-natsir-pal returned with the booty of great campaigns--horsesand cattle and sheep, bales of embroidered cloth, ivory and jewels, silver and gold, the products of many countries; while thousands ofprisoners were assembled there to rear stately buildings whichultimately fell into decay and were buried by drifting sands. 

Layard excavated the emperor's palace and dispatched to London, amongother treasures of antiquity, the sublime winged human-headed lionswhich guarded the entrance, and many bas reliefs. 

The Assyrian sculptures of this period lack the technical skill, thedelicacy and imagination of Sumerian and Akkadian art, but they arefull of energy, dignified and massive, and strong and lifelike. Theyreflect the spirit of Assyria's greatness, which, however, had amaterialistic basis. Assyrian art found expression in delineating theoutward form rather than in striving to create a "thing of beauty"which is "a joy for ever". 

When Ashur-natsir-pal died, he was succeeded by his son ShalmaneserIII (860-825 B. C. ), whose military activities extended over his wholereign. No fewer than thirty-two expeditions were recorded on hisfamous black obelisk. 

As Shalmaneser was the first Assyrian king who came into direct touchwith the Hebrews, it will be of interest here to review the history ofthe divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah, as recorded in the Bible, because of the light it throws on international politics and thesituation which confronted Shalmaneser in Mesopotamia and Syria in theearly part of his reign. 

After Solomon died, the kingdom of his son Rehoboam was restricted toJudah, Benjamin, Moab, and Edom. The "ten tribes" of Israel hadrevolted and were ruled over by Jeroboam, whose capital was atTirzah. [432] "There were wars between Rehoboam and Jeroboamcontinually. "[433]

The religious organization which had united the Hebrews under Davidand Solomon was thus broken up. Jeroboam established the religion ofthe Canaanites and made "gods and molten images". He was condemned forhis idolatry by the prophet Ahijah, who declared, "The Lord shallsmite Israel, as a reed is shaken in the water; and he shall root upIsrael out of this good land, which he gave to their fathers, andshall scatter them beyond the river, because they have made theirgroves, provoking the Lord to anger. And he shall give Israel upbecause of the sins of Jeroboam, who did sin, and who made Israel tosin. "[434]

In Judah Rehoboam similarly "did evil in the sight of the Lord"; hissubjects "also built them high places and images and groves, on everyhigh hill, and under every green tree". [435] After the raid of theEgyptian Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonk) Rehoboam repented, however. "Andwhen he humbled himself, the wrath of the Lord turned from him, thathe would not destroy him altogether: and also in Judah things wentwell. "[436]

Rehoboam was succeeded by his son Abijah, who shattered the power ofJeroboam, defeating that monarch in battle after he was surrounded asRameses II had been by the Hittite army. "The children of Israel fledbefore Judah: and God delivered them into their hand. And Abijah andhis people slew them with a great slaughter: so there fell down slainin Israel five hundred thousand chosen men. Thus the children ofIsrael were brought under at that time, and the children of Judahprevailed, because they relied upon the Lord God of their fathers. AndAbijah pursued after Jeroboam, and took cities from him, Bethel withthe towns thereof, and Jeshanah with the towns thereof, and Ephraimwith the towns thereof. Neither did Jeroboam recover strength again inthe days of Abijah, and the Lord struck him and he died. "[437]

Ere Jeroboam died, however, "Abijah slept with his fathers, and theyburied him in the city of David: and Asa his son reigned in his stead. In his days the land was quiet ten years. And Asa did that which wasgood and right in the eyes of the Lord his God. For he took away thealtars of the strange gods, and the high places, and brake down theimages, and cut down the groves. And commanded Judah to seek the LordGod of their fathers and to do the law and the commandment. Also hetook away out of all the cities of Judah the high places and theimages: and the kingdom was quiet before him. And he built fencedcities in Judah: for the land had rest, and he had no war in thoseyears; because the Lord had given him rest. "[438]

Jeroboam died in the second year of Asa's reign, and was succeeded byhis son Nadab, who "did evil in the sight of the Lord, and walked inthe way of his father, and in his sin wherewith he made Israel tosin". [439] Nadab waged war against the Philistines, and was besiegingGibbethon when Baasha revolted and slew him. Thus ended the FirstDynasty of the Kingdom of Israel. 

Baasha was declared king, and proceeded to operate against Judah. Having successfully waged war against Asa, he proceeded to fortifyRamah, a few miles to the north of Jerusalem, "that he might notsuffer any to go out or come in to Asa king of Judah". [440]

Now Israel was at this time one of the allies of the powerful AramaeanState of Damascus, which had resisted the advance of the Assyrianarmies during the reign of Ashur-natsir-pal I, and apparentlysupported the rebellions of the northern Mesopotamian kings. Judah wasnominally subject to Egypt, which, however, was weakened by internaltroubles, and therefore unable either to assert its authority in Judahor help its king to resist the advance of the Israelites. 

In the hour of peril Judah sought the aid of the king of Damascus. "Asa took all the silver and the gold that were left in the treasuresof the house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king's house, anddelivered them into the hand of his servants: and King Asa sent themto Ben-hadad, the son of Tabrimon, the son of Hezion, king of Syria, that dwelt at Damascus, saying, There is a league between me and thee, and between my father and thy father: behold, I have sent unto thee apresent of silver and gold: _come and break thy league with Baashaking of Israel, that he may depart from me_". [441]

Ben-hadad accepted the invitation readily. He waged war againstIsrael, and Baasha was compelled to abandon the building of thefortifications at Ramah. "Then king Asa made a proclamation throughoutall Judah; none was exempted: and they took away the stones of Ramah, and the timber thereof, wherewith Baasha had builded; and king Asabuilt with them Geba of Benjamin, and Mizpah. "[442]

Judah and Israel thus became subject to Damascus, and had to recognizethe king of that city as arbiter in all their disputes. 

After reigning about twenty-four years, Baasha of Israel died in 886B. C. And was succeeded by his son Elah who came to the throne "in thetwenty and sixth year of Asa". He had ruled a little over a year whenhe was murdered by "his servant Zimri, captain of half his chariots", while he was "drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza steward ofhis house in Tirzah". [443] Thus ended the Second Dynasty of theKingdom of Israel. 

Zimri's revolt was shortlived. He reigned only "seven days in Tirzah". The army was "encamped against Gibbethon, which belonged to thePhilistines. And the people that were encamped heard say, Zimri hathconspired and hath also slain the king; wherefore all Israel madeOmri, the captain of the host, king over Israel that day in the camp. And Omri went up from Gibbethon and all Israel with him, and theybesieged Tirzah. And it came to pass when Zimri saw that the city wastaken, that he went into the palace of the king's house, and burnt theking's house over him with fire, and died. "[444]

Omri's claim to the throne was disputed by a rival named Tibni. "Butthe people that followed Omri prevailed against the people thatfollowed Tibni, son of Ginath: so Tibni died, and Omri reigned. "[445]

Omri was the builder of Samaria, whither his Court was transferredfrom Tirzah towards the close of his six years reign. He was followedby his son Ahab, who ascended the throne "in the thirty and eighthyear of Asa king of Judah. .. . And Ahab . .. Did evil in the sight ofthe Lord above all that were before him. " So notorious indeed werefather and son that the prophet Micah declared to the backsliders ofhis day, "For the statutes of Omri are kept, and all the works of thehouse of Ahab, and ye walk in their counsel; that I should make thee adesolation, and the inhabitants thereof an hissing: therefore ye shallbear the reproach of my people". [446]

Ahab was evidently an ally of Sidon as well as a vassal of Damascus, for he married the notorious princess Jezebel, the daughter of theking of that city State. He also became a worshipper of the Phoeniciangod Baal, to whom a temple had been erected in Samaria. "And Ahab madea grove; and Ahab did more to provoke the Lord God of Israel to angerthan all the kings of Israel that were before him. "[447] Obadiah, who"feared the Lord greatly", was the governor of Ahab's house, but theoutspoken prophet Elijah, whose arch enemy was the notorious QueenJezebel, was an outcast like the hundred prophets concealed by Obadiahin two mountain caves. [448]

Ahab became so powerful a king that Ben-hadad II of Damascus picked aquarrel with him, and marched against Samaria. It was on this occasionthat Ahab sent the famous message to Ben-hadad: "Let not him thatgirdeth on his harness (armour) boast himself as he that putteth itoff". The Israelites issued forth from Samaria and scattered theattacking force. "And Israel pursued them: and Ben-hadad the king ofSyria escaped on a horse with the horseman. And the king of Israelwent out, and smote the horses and chariots, and slew the Syrians witha great slaughter. " Ben-hadad was made to believe afterwards by hiscounsellors that he owed his defeat to the fact that the gods ofIsrael were "gods of the hills; therefore they are stronger than we". They added: "Let us fight against them in the plain, and surely weshall be stronger than they". In the following year Ben-hadad foughtagainst the Israelites at Aphek, but was again defeated. He then foundit necessary to make "a covenant" with Ahab. [449]

In 854 B. C. Shalmaneser III of Assyria was engaged in militaryoperations against the Aramaean Syrians. Two years previously he hadbroken the power of Akhuni, king of Bit-Adini in northern Mesopotamia, the leader of a strong confederacy of petty States. Thereafter theAssyrian monarch turned towards the south-west and attacked theHittite State of Hamath and the Aramaean State of Damascus. Thevarious rival kingdoms of Syria united against him, and an army of70, 000 allies attempted to thwart his progress at Qarqar on theOrontes. Although Shalmaneser claimed a victory on this occasion, itwas of no great advantage to him, for he was unable to follow it up. Among the Syrian allies were Bir-idri (Ben-hadad II) of Damascus, andAhab of Israel ("Akhabbu of the land of the Sir'ilites"). The latterhad a force of 10, 000 men under his command. 

Four years after Ahab began to reign, Asa died at Jerusalem and hisson Jehoshaphat was proclaimed king of Judah. "And he walked in allthe ways of Asa his father; he turned not aside from it, doing thatwhich was right in the eyes of the Lord: nevertheless the high placeswere not taken away; for the people offered and burnt incense yet inthe high places. "[450]

There is no record of any wars between Israel and Judah during thisperiod, but it is evident that the two kingdoms had been drawntogether and that Israel was the predominating power. Jehoshaphat"joined affinity with Ahab", and some years afterwards visitedSamaria, where he was hospitably entertained. [451] The two monarchsplotted together. Apparently Israel and Judah desired to throw off theyoke of Damascus, which was being kept constantly on the defence byAssyria. It is recorded in the Bible that they joined forces and setout on an expedition to attack Ramoth in Gilead, which Israel claimed, and take it "out of the hand of the king of Syria". [452] In the battlewhich ensued (in 853 B. C. ) Ahab was mortally wounded, "and about thetime of the sun going down he died". He was succeeded by his sonAhaziah, who acknowledged the suzerainty of Damascus. After a reign oftwo years Ahaziah was succeeded by Joram. 

Jehoshaphat did not again come into conflict with Damascus. He devotedhimself to the development of his kingdom, and attempted to revive thesea trade on the Persian gulf which had flourished under Solomon. "Hemade ships of Tharshish to go to Ophir for gold; but they went not;for the ships were broken (wrecked) at Ezion-geber. " Ahaziah offeredhim sailors--probably Phoenicians--but they were refused. [453]Apparently Jehoshaphat had close trading relations with theChaldaeans, who were encroaching on the territory of the king ofBabylon, and menacing the power of that monarch. Jehoram succeededJehoshaphat and reigned eight years. 

After repulsing the Syrian allies at Qarqar on the Orontes in 854B. C. , Shalmaneser III of Assyria found it necessary to invadeBabylonia. Soon after he came to the throne he had formed an alliancewith Nabu-aplu-iddin of that kingdom, and was thus able to operate inthe north-west without fear of complications with the rival claimantof Mesopotamia. When Nabu-aplu-iddin died, his two sonsMarduk-zakir-shum and Marduk-bel-usate were rivals for the throne. Theformer, the rightful heir, appealed for help to Shalmaneser, and thatmonarch at once hastened to assert his authority in the southernkingdom. In 851 B. C. Marduk-bel-usate, who was supported by an Aramæanarmy, was defeated and put to death. 

Marduk-zakir-shum afterwards reigned over Babylonia as the vassal ofAssyria, and Shalmaneser, his overlord, made offerings to the gods atBabylon, Borsippa, and Cuthah. The Chaldæans were afterwards subdued, and compelled to pay annual tribute. 

In the following year Shalmaneser had to lead an expedition intonorthern Mesopotamia and suppress a fresh revolt in that troubledregion. But the western allies soon gathered strength again, and in846 B. C. He found it necessary to return with a great army, but wasnot successful in achieving any permanent success, although he put hisenemies to flight. The various western kingdoms, including Damascus, Israel, and Tyre and Sidon, remained unconquered, and continued toconspire against him. 

The resisting power of the Syrian allies, however, was being greatlyweakened by internal revolts, which may have been stirred up byAssyrian emissaries. Edom threw off the yoke of Judah and becameindependent. Jehoram, who had married Athaliah, a royal princess ofIsrael, was dead. His son Ahaziah, who succeeded him, joined forceswith his cousin and overlord, King Joram of Israel, to assist him incapturing Ramoth-gilead from the king of Damascus. Joram tookpossession of the city, but was wounded, and returned to Jezreel to behealed. [454] He was the last king of the Omri Dynasty of Israel. Theprophet Elisha sent a messenger to Jehu, a military leader, who was atRamoth-gilead, with a box of oil and the ominous message, "Thus saiththe Lord, I have anointed thee king over Israel. And thou shalt smitethe house of Ahab thy master, that I may avenge the blood of myservants the prophets, and the blood of all the servants of the Lord, at the hand of Jezebel. .. . And the dogs shall eat Jezebel in theportion of Jezreel, and there shall be none to bury her. "

Jehu "conspired against Joram", and then, accompanied by an escort, "rode in a chariot and went to Jezreel", so that he might be the firstto announce the revolt to the king whom he was to depose. 

The watchman on the tower of Jezreel saw Jehu and his companyapproaching and informed Joram, who twice sent out a messenger toenquire, "Is it peace?" Neither messenger returned, and the watchmaninformed the wounded monarch of Israel, "He came even unto them, andcometh not again; and the driving is like the driving of Jehu the sonof Nimshi; for he driveth furiously". 

King Joram went out himself to meet the famous charioteer, but turnedto flee when he discovered that he came as an enemy. Then Jehu drewhis bow and shot Joram through the heart. Ahaziah endeavoured toconceal himself in Samaria, but was slain also. Jezebel was throwndown from a window of the royal harem and trodden under foot by thehorsemen of Jehu; her body was devoured by dogs. [455]

The Syrian king against whom Joram fought at Ramoth-gilead was Hazael. He had murdered Ben-hadad II as he lay on a bed of sickness bysmothering him with a thick cloth soaked in water. Then he had himselfproclaimed the ruler of the Aramaean State of Damascus. The prophetElisha had previously wept before him, saying, "I know the evil thatthou wilt do unto the children of Israel; their strongholds wilt thouset on fire, and their young men wilt thou slay with the sword, andwilt dash their children and rip up their women with child". [456]

The time seemed ripe for Assyrian conquest. In 843 B. C. ShalmaneserIII crossed the Euphrates into Syria for the sixteenth time. His firstobjective was Aleppo, where he was welcomed. He made offerings thereto Hadad, the local Thor, and then suddenly marched southward. Hazaelwent out to oppose the advancing Assyrians, and came into conflictwith them in the vicinity of Mount Hermon. "I fought with him", Shalmaneser recorded, "and accomplished his defeat; I slew with thesword 1600 of his warriors and captured 1121 chariots and 470 horses. He fled to save his life. "

Hazael took refuge within the walls of Damascus, which the Assyriansbesieged, but failed, however, to capture. Shalmaneser's soldiersmeanwhile wasted and burned cities without number, and carried awaygreat booty. "In those days", Shalmaneser recorded, "I receivedtribute from the Tyrians and Sidonians and from Yaua (Jehu) son(successor) of Khumri (Omri). " The following is a translation from abas relief by Professor Pinches of a passage detailing Jehu's tribute:

 The tribute of Yaua, son of Khumri: silver, gold, a golden cup, golden vases, golden vessels, golden buckets, lead, a staff for the hand of the king (and) sceptres, I received. [457]

The scholarly translator adds, "It is noteworthy that the Assyrianform of the name, Yaua, shows that the unpronounced aleph at the endwas at that time sounded, so that the Hebrews must have called himYahua (Jehua)". 

Shalmaneser did not again attack Damascus. His sphere of influence wastherefore confined to North Syria. He found it more profitable, indeed, to extend his territories into Asia Minor. For several yearshe engaged himself in securing control of the north-western caravanroad, and did not rest until he had subdued Cilicia and overrun theHittite kingdoms of Tabal and Malatia. 

Hazael of Damascus avenged himself meanwhile on his unfaithful allieswho had so readily acknowledged the shadowy suzerainty of Assyria. "Inthose days the Lord began to cut Israel short: and Hazael smote themin all the coasts of Israel; from Jordan eastward, all the land ofGilead, the Gadites, and the Reubenites, and the Manassites, fromAroer, which is by the river Arnon, even Gilead and Bashan. "[458]Israel thus came completely under the sway of Damascus. 

Jehu appears to have cherished the ambition of uniting Israel andJudah under one crown. His revolt received the support of the orthodoxHebrews, and he began well by inaugurating reforms in the northernkingdom with purpose apparently to re-establish the worship of David'sGod. He persecuted the prophets of Baal, but soon became a backslider, for although he stamped out the Phoenician religion he began toworship "the golden calves that were in Bethel and that were inDan. .. . He departed not from the sins of Jeroboam, which made Israelto sin. "[459] Apparently he found it necessary to secure the supportof the idolators of the ancient cult of the "Queen of Heaven". 

The crown of Judah had been seized by the Israelitish Queen motherAthaliah after the death of her son Ahaziah at the hands of Jehu. [460]She endeavoured to destroy "all the seed royal of the house of Judah". But another woman thwarted the completion of her monstrous design. This was Jehoshabeath, sister of Ahaziah and wife of the priestJehoiada, who concealed the young prince Joash "and put him and hisnurse in a bedchamber", in "the house of God". There Joash wasstrictly guarded for six years. [461]

In time Jehoiada stirred up a revolt against the Baal-worshippingqueen of Judah. Having secured the support of the captains of theroyal guard and a portion of the army, he brought out from the templethe seven years old prince Joash, "the king's son, and put upon himthe crown, and gave him the testimony, and made him king. And Jehoiadaand his sons anointed him, and said, God save the king. 

"Now when Athaliah heard the noise of the people running and praisingthe king, she came to the people into the house of the Lord: and shelooked, and, behold the king stood at his pillar at the entering in, and the princes and the trumpets by the king: and all the people ofthe land rejoiced, and sounded with trumpets, also the singers withinstruments of musick, and such as taught to sing praise. ThenAthaliah rent her clothes, and said, Treason, Treason. 

"Then Jehoiada the priest brought out the captains of hundreds thatwere set over the host, and said unto them, Have her forth of theranges: and whoso followeth her, let him be slain by the sword. Forthe priest said, Slay her not in the house of the Lord. So they laidhands on her; and when she was come to the entering of the horse gateby the king's house, they slew her there. 

"And Jehoiada made a covenant between him, and between all the people, and between the king, that they should be the Lord's people. Then allthe people went to the house of Baal, and brake it down, and brake hisaltars and his images in pieces, and slew Mattan the priest of Baalbefore the altars. "[462]

When Jehu of Israel died, he was succeeded by Jehoahaz. "The Lord waskindled against Israel, and he delivered them into the hand ofBen-hadad the son of Hazael all their days. " Then Jehoahaz repented. He "besought the Lord, and the Lord hearkened unto him: for he saw theoppression of Israel, because the king of Syria oppressed them. Andthe Lord gave Israel a saviour, so that they went out from under thehands of the Syrians. "[463] The "saviour", as will be shown, wasAssyria. Not only Israel, but Judah, under King Joash, Edom, thePhilistines and the Ammonites were compelled to acknowledge thesuzerainty of Damascus. 

Shalmaneser III swayed an extensive and powerful empire, and kept hisgenerals continually employed suppressing revolts on his frontiers. After he subdued the Hittites, Kati, king of Tabal, sent him hisdaughter, who was received into the royal harem. Tribes of the Medescame under his power: the Nairi and Urartian tribes continued battlingwith his soldiers on his northern borders like the frontier tribes ofIndia against the British troops. The kingdom of Urartu was growingmore and more powerful. 

In 829 B. C. The great empire was suddenly shaken to its foundations bythe outbreak of civil war. The party of rebellion was led byShalmaneser's son Ashur-danin-apli, who evidently desired to supplantthe crown prince Shamshi-Adad. He was a popular hero and received thesupport of most of the important Assyrian cities, including Nineveh, Asshur, Arbela, Imgurbel, and Dur-balat, as well as some of thedependencies. Shalmaneser retained Kalkhi and the provinces ofnorthern Mesopotamia, and it appears that the greater part of the armyalso remained loyal to him. 

After four years of civil war Shalmaneser died. His chosen heir, Shamshi-Adad VII, had to continue the struggle for the throne for twomore years. 

When at length the new king had stamped out the last embers of revoltwithin the kingdom, he had to undertake the reconquest of thoseprovinces which in the interval had thrown off their allegiance toAssyria. Urartu in the north had grown more aggressive, the Syrianswere openly defiant, the Medes were conducting bold raids, and theBabylonians were plotting with the Chaldaeans, Elamites, and Aramaeansto oppose the new ruler. Shamshi-Adad, however, proved to be as greata general as his father. He subdued the Medes and the Nairi tribes, burned many cities and collected enormous tribute, while thousands ofprisoners were taken and forced to serve the conqueror. 

Having established his power in the north, Shamshi-Adad then turnedattention to Babylonia. On his way southward he subdued many villages. He fell upon the first strong force of Babylonian allies atDur-papsukal in Akkad, and achieved a great victory, killing 13, 000and taking 3000 captives. Then the Babylonian king, Marduk-balatsu-ikbi, advanced to meet him with his mixed force ofBabylonians, Chaldaeans, Elamites, and Aramaeans, but was defeated ina fierce battle on the banks of the Daban canal. The Babylonian campwas captured, and the prisoners taken by the Assyrians included 5000footmen, 200 horsemen, and 100 chariots. 

Shamshi-Adad conducted in all five campaigns in Babylonia andChaldaea, which he completely subdued, penetrating as far as theshores of the Persian Gulf. In the end he took prisoner the new king, Bau-akh-iddina, the successor of Marduk-balatsu-ikbi, and transportedhim to Assyria, and offered up sacrifices as the overlord of theancient land at Babylon, Borsippa, and Cuthah. For over half a centuryafter this disaster Babylonia was a province of Assyria. During thatperiod, however, the influence which it exercised over the AssyrianCourt was so great that it contributed to the downfall of the royalline of the Second Empire. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE AGE OF SEMIRAMIS

 Queen Sammu-rammat the original of Semiramis--"Mother-right" among "Mother Worshippers"--Sammu-rammat compared to Queen Tiy--Popularity of Goddess Cults--Temple Worship and Domestic Worship--Babylonian Cultural Influence in Assyria--Ethical Tendency in Shamash Worship--The Nebo Religious Revolt--Aton Revolt in Egypt--The Royal Assyrian Library--Fish Goddess of Babylonia in Assyria--The Semiramis and Shakuntala Stories--The Mock King and Queen--Dove Goddesses of Assyria, Phoenicia, and Cyprus--Ishtar's Dove Form--St. Valentine's Day beliefs--Sacred Doves of Cretans, Hittites, and Egyptians--Pigeon Lore in Great Britain and Ireland--Deities associated with various Animals--The Totemic Theory--Common Element in Ancient Goddess Cults--Influence of Agricultural Beliefs--Nebo a form of Ea--His Spouse Tashmit a Love Goddess and Interceder--Traditions of Famous Mother Deities--Adad-nirari IV the "Saviour" of Israel--Expansion of the Urartian Empire--Its Famous Kings--Decline and Fall of Assyria's Middle Empire Dynasty. 

One of the most interesting figures in Mesopotamian history came intoprominence during the Assyrian Middle Empire period. This was thefamous Sammu-rammat, the Babylonian wife of an Assyrian ruler. LikeSargon of Akkad, Alexander the Great, and Dietrich von Bern, she made, by reason of her achievements and influence, a deep impression on thepopular imagination, and as these monarchs became identified intradition with gods of war and fertility, she had attached to hermemory the myths associated with the mother goddess of love and battlewho presided over the destinies of mankind. In her character as thelegendary Semiramis of Greek literature, the Assyrian queen wasreputed to have been the daughter of Derceto, the dove and fishgoddess of Askalon, and to have departed from earth in bird form. 

It is not quite certain whether Sammu-rammat was the wife ofShamshi-Adad VII or of his son, Adad-nirari IV. Before the formermonarch reduced Babylonia to the status of an Assyrian province, hehad signed a treaty of peace with its king, and it is suggested thatit was confirmed by a matrimonial alliance. This treaty was repudiatedby King Bau-akh-iddina, who was transported with his palace treasuresto Assyria. 

As Sammu-rammat was evidently a royal princess of Babylonia, it seemsprobable that her marriage was arranged with purpose to legitimatizethe succession of the Assyrian overlords to the Babylonian throne. Theprinciple of "mother right" was ever popular in those countries wherethe worship of the Great Mother was perpetuated if not in official atany rate in domestic religion. Not a few Egyptian Pharaohs reigned ashusbands or as sons of royal ladies. Succession by the female line wasalso observed among the Hittites. When Hattusil II gave his daughterin marriage to Putakhi, king of the Amorites, he inserted a clause inthe treaty of alliance "to the effect that the sovereignty over theAmorite should belong to the son and descendants of his daughter forevermore". [464]

As queen or queen-mother, Sammu-rammat occupied as prominent aposition in Assyria as did Queen Tiy of Egypt during the lifetime ofher husband, Amenhotep III, and the early part of the reign of herson, Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton). The Tell-el-Amarna letters testify toTiy's influence in the Egyptian "Foreign Office", and we know that athome she was joint ruler with her husband and took part with him inpublic ceremonials. During their reign a temple was erected to themother goddess Mut, and beside it was formed a great lake on whichsailed the "barque of Aton" in connection with mysterious religiousceremonials. After Akhenaton's religious revolt was inaugurated, theworship of Mut was discontinued and Tiy went into retirement. InAkhenaton's time the vulture symbol of the goddess Mut did not appearabove the sculptured figures of royalty. 

What connection the god Aton had with Mut during the period of the Tiyregime remains obscure. There is no evidence that Aton was firstexalted as the son of the Great Mother goddess, although this is notimprobable. 

Queen Sammu-rammat of Assyria, like Tiy of Egypt, is associated withsocial and religious innovations. She was the first, and, indeed, theonly Assyrian royal lady, to be referred to on equal terms with herroyal husband in official inscriptions. In a dedication to the godNebo, that deity is reputed to be the protector of "the life ofAdad-nirari, king of the land of Ashur, his lord, and the life ofSammu-rammat, she of the palace, his lady". [465]

During the reign of Adad-nirari IV the Assyrian Court radiatedBabylonian culture and traditions. The king not only recorded hisdescent from the first Shalmaneser, but also claimed to be adescendant of Bel-kap-kapu, an earlier, but, to us, unknown, Babylonian monarch than "Sulili", i. E. Sumu-la-ilu, thegreat-great-grandfather of Hammurabi. Bel-kap-kapu was reputed to havebeen an overlord of Assyria. 

Apparently Adad-nirari desired to be regarded as the legitimate heirto the thrones of Assyria and Babylonia. His claim upon the lattercountry must have had a substantial basis. It is not too much toassume that he was a son of a princess of its ancient royal family. Sammurammat may therefore have been his mother. She could have beencalled his "wife" in the mythological sense, the king having become"husband of his mother". If such was the case, the royal pair probablyposed as the high priest and high priestess of the ancient goddesscult--the incarnations of the Great Mother and the son who displacedhis sire. 

The worship of the Great Mother was the popular religion of theindigenous peoples of western Asia, including parts of Asia Minor, Egypt, and southern and western Europe. It appears to have beenclosely associated with agricultural rites practised amongrepresentative communities of the Mediterranean race. In Babylonia andAssyria the peoples of the goddess cult fused with the peoples of thegod cult, but the prominence maintained by Ishtar, who absorbed manyof the old mother deities, testifies to the persistence of immemorialhabits of thought and antique religious ceremonials among thedescendants of the earliest settlers in the Tigro-Euphrates valley. Merodach's spouse Zerpanituᵐ was not a shadowy deity but a goddess whoexercised as much influence as her divine husband. As Aruru she tookpart with him in the creation of mankind. In Asia Minor the mothergoddess was overshadowed by the father god during the period of Hattipredominance, but her worship was revived after the early people alongthe coast and in the agricultural valleys were freed from the yoke ofthe father-god worshippers. 

It must be recognized, in this connection, that an official religionwas not always a full reflection of popular beliefs. In all the greatcivilizations of antiquity it was invariably a compromise between thebeliefs of the military aristocracy and the masses of mingled peoplesover whom they held sway. Temple worship had therefore a politicalaspect; it was intended, among other things, to strengthen theposition of the ruling classes. But ancient deities could still beworshipped, and were worshipped, in homes and fields, in groves and onmountain tops, as the case might be. Jeremiah has testified to thepersistence of the folk practices in connection with the worship ofthe mother goddess among the inhabitants of Palestine. Sacrificialfires were lit and cakes were baked and offered to the "Queen ofHeaven" in the streets of Jerusalem and other cities. In Babylonia andEgypt domestic religious practices were never completely supplanted bytemple ceremonies in which rulers took a prominent part. It was alwayspossible, therefore, for usurpers to make popular appeal by revivingancient and persistent forms of worship. As we have seen, Jehu ofIsrael, after stamping out Phoenician Baal worship, secured a strongfollowing by giving official recognition to the cult of the goldencalf. 

It is not possible to set forth in detail, or with intimate knowledge, the various innovations which Sammu-rammat introduced, or with whichshe was credited, during the reigns of Adad-nirari IV (810-782 B. C. )and his father. No discovery has been made of documents like theTell-el-Amarna "letters", which would shed light on the social andpolitical life of this interesting period. But evidence is notawanting that Assyria was being suffused with Babylonian culture. Royal inscriptions record the triumphs of the army, but suppress thedetails of barbarities such as those which sully the annals ofAshur-natsir-pal, who had boys and girls burned on pyres and theheroes of small nations flayed alive. An ethical tendency becomesapparent in the exaltation of the Babylonian Shamash as an abstractdeity who loved law and order, inspired the king with wisdom andordained the destinies of mankind. He is invoked on equal terms withAshur. 

The prominence given to Nebo, the god of Borsippa, during the reign ofAdad-nirari IV is highly significant. He appears in his latercharacter as a god of culture and wisdom, the patron of scribes andartists, and the wise counsellor of the deities. He symbolized theintellectual life of the southern kingdom, which was more closelyassociated with religious ethics than that of war-loving Assyria. 

A great temple was erected to Nebo at Kalkhi, and four statues of himwere placed within it, two of which are now in the British Museum. Onone of these was cut the inscription, from which we have quoted, lauding the exalted and wise deity and invoking him to protectAdad-nirari and the lady of the palace, Sammu-rammat, and closing withthe exhortation, "Whoso cometh in after time, let him trust in Neboand trust in no other god". 

The priests of Ashur in the city of Asshur must have been as deeplystirred by this religious revolt at Kalkhi as were the priests of Amonwhen Akhenaton turned his back on Thebes and the national god toworship Aton in his new capital at Tell-el-Amarna. 

It would appear that this sudden stream of Babylonian culture hadbegun to flow into Assyria as early as the reign of Shalmaneser III, and it may be that it was on account of that monarch's pro-Babyloniantendencies that his nobles and priests revolted against him. Shalmaneser established at Kalkhi a royal library which was stockedwith the literature of the southern kingdom. During the reign ofAdad-nirari IV this collection was greatly increased, and subsequentadditions were made to it by his successors, and especiallyAshur-nirari IV, the last monarch of the Middle Empire. Theinscriptions of Shamshi-Adad, son of Shalmaneser III, have literaryqualities which distinguish them from those of his predecessors, andmay be accounted for by the influence exercised by Babylonian scholarswho migrated northward. 

To the reign of Adad-nirari belongs also that important compilationthe "Synchronistic History of Assyria and Babylonia", which deals withthe relations of the two kingdoms and refers to contemporary eventsand rulers. 

The legends of Semiramis indicate that Sammu-rammat was associatedlike Queen Tiy with the revival of mother worship. As we have said, she went down to tradition as the daughter of the fish goddess, Derceto. Pliny identified that deity with Atargatis ofHierapolis. [466]

In Babylonia the fish goddess was Nina, a developed form of Damkina, spouse of Ea of Eridu. In the inscription on the Nebo statue, that godis referred to as the "son of Nudimmud" (Ea). Nina was the goddess whogave her name to Nineveh, and it is possible that Nebo may have beenregarded as her son during the Semiramis period. 

The story of Semiramis's birth is evidently of great antiquity. Itseems to survive throughout Europe in the nursery tale of the "Babesin the Wood". A striking Indian parallel is afforded by the legend ofShakuntala, which may be first referred to for the purpose ofcomparative study. Shakuntala was the daughter of the rishi, Viswamitra, and Menaka, the Apsara (celestial fairy). Menaka gavebirth to her child beside the sacred river Malini. "And she cast thenew-born infant on the bank of that river and went away. And beholdingthe newborn infant lying in that forest destitute of human beings butabounding with lions and tigers, a number of vultures sat around toprotect it from harm. " A sage discovered the child and adopted her. "Because", he said, "she was surrounded by _Shakuntas_ (birds), therefore hath she been named by me _Shakuntala_ (birdprotected). "[467]

Semiramis was similarly deserted at birth by her Celestial mother. Shewas protected by doves, and her Assyrian name, Sammu-rammat, isbelieved to be derived from "Summat"--"dove", and to signify "the dovegoddess loveth her". Simmas, the chief of royal shepherds, found thechild and adopted her. She was of great beauty like Shakuntala, themaiden of "perfect symmetry", "sweet smiles", and "faultlessfeatures", with whom King Dushyanta fell in love and married inGandharva fashion. [468]

Semiramis became the wife of Onnes, governor of Nineveh, and one ofthe generals of its alleged founder, King Ninus. She accompanied herhusband to Bactria on a military campaign, and is said to haveinstructed the king how that city should be taken. Ninus fell in lovewith Semiramis, and Onnes, who refused to give her up, went and hangedhimself. The fair courtesan then became the wife of the king. 

The story proceeds that Semiramis exercised so great an influence overthe impressionable King Ninus, that she persuaded him to proclaim herQueen of Assyria for five days. She then ascended the throne decked inroyal robes. On the first day she gave a great banquet, and on thesecond thrust Ninus into prison, or had him put to death. In thismanner she secured the empire for herself. She reigned for over fortyyears. 

Professor Frazer inclines to the view that the legend is areminiscence of the custom of appointing a mock king and queen to whomthe kingdom was yielded up for five days. Semiramis played the part ofthe mother goddess, and the priestly king died a violent death in thecharacter of her divine lover. "The mounds of Semiramis which werepointed out all over Western Asia were said to have been the graves ofher lovers whom she buried alive. .. . This tradition is one of thesurest indications of the identity of the mythical Semiramis with theBabylonian goddess Ishtar or Astarte. "[469] As we have seen, Ishtarand other mother goddesses had many lovers whom they deserted like LaBelle Dame sans Merci (pp. 174-175). 

As Queen of Assyria, Semiramis was said to have cut roads throughmountainous districts and erected many buildings. According to oneversion of the legend she founded the city of Babylon. Herodotus, however, says in this connection: "Semiramis held the throne for fivegenerations before the later princess (Nitocris). .. . She raisedcertain embankments, well worthy of inspection, in the plain nearBabylon, to control the river (Euphrates), which, till then, used tooverflow and flood the whole country round about. "[470] Lucian, whoassociates the famous queen with "mighty works in Asia", states thatshe was reputed by some to be the builder of the ancient temple ofAphrodite in the Libanus, although others credited it to Cinyras, orDeukalion. [471] Several Median places bear her name, and according toancient Armenian tradition she was the founder of Van, which wasformerly called "Shamiramagerd". Strabo tells that unidentifiedmountains in Western Asia were named after Semiramis. [472] Indeed, many of the great works in the Tigro-Euphrates valley, not exceptingthe famous inscription of Darius, were credited to the legendary queenof Babylonia and Assyria. [473] She was the rival in tradition of thefamous Sesostris of Egypt as a ruler, builder, and conqueror. 

All the military expeditions of Semiramis were attended with success, except her invasion of India. She was supposed to have been defeatedin the Punjab. After suffering this disaster she died, or abdicatedthe throne in favour of her son Ninyas. The most archaic form of thelegend appears to be that she was turned into a dove and took flightto heaven in that form. After her death she was worshipped as a dovegoddess like "Our Lady of Trees and Doves" in Cyprus, whose shrine atold Paphos was founded, Herodotus says, by Phoenician colonists fromAskalon. [474] Fish and doves were sacred to Derceto (Attar), [475] whohad a mermaid form. "I have beheld", says Lucian, "the image ofDerceto in Phoenicia. A marvellous spectacle it is. One half is awoman, but the part which extends from thighs to feet terminates withthe tail of a fish. "[476]

Derceto was supposed to have been a woman who threw herself in despairinto a lake. After death she was adored as a goddess and herworshippers abstained from eating fish, except sacrificially. A goldenimage of a fish was suspended in her temple. Atargatis, who wasidentical with Derceto, was reputed in another form of the legend tohave been born of an egg which the sacred fishes found in theEuphrates and thrust ashore (p. 28). The Greek Aphrodite was born ofthe froth of the sea and floated in a sea-shell. According to Hesiod, The wafting waves First bore her to Cythera the divine: To wave-encircled Cyprus came she then, And forth emerged, a goddess, in the charms Of awful beauty. Where her delicate feet Had pressed the sands, green herbage flowering sprang. Her Aphrodite gods and mortals name, The foam-born goddess; and her name is known As Cytherea with the blooming wreath, For that she touched Cythera's flowery coast; And Cypris, for that on the Cyprian shore She rose, amid the multitude of waves. _Elton's translation_. 

The animals sacred to Aphrodite included the sparrow, the dove, theswan, the swallow, and the wryneck. [477] She presided over the monthof April, and the myrtle, rose, poppy, and apple were sacred to her. 

Some writers connect Semiramis, in her character as a dove goddess, with Media and the old Persian mother goddess Anaitis, and regard asarbitrary her identification with the fish goddess Derceto orAtargatis. The dove was certainly not a popular bird in the religiousart of Babylonia and Assyria, but in one of the hymns translated byProfessor Pinches Ishtar says, "Like a lonely dove I rest". In anotherthe worshipper tries to touch Ishtar's heart by crying, "Like the doveI moan". A Sumerian psalmist makes a goddess (Gula, who presided overLarak, a part of Isin) lament over the city after it was captured bythe enemy:

 My temple E-aste, temple of Larak, Larak the city which Bel Enlil gave, Beneath are turned to strangeness, above are turned to strangeness, With wailings on the lyre my dwelling-place is surrendered to the stranger, _The dove cots they wickedly seized, the doves they entrapped_. .. . The ravens he (Enlil) caused to fly. [478]

Apparently there were temple and household doves in Babylonia. TheEgyptians had their household dovecots in ancient as in modern times. Lane makes reference to the large pigeon houses in many villages. Theyare of archaic pattern, "with the walls slightly inclining inwards(like many of the ancient Egyptian buildings)", and are "constructedupon the roofs of the huts with crude brick, pottery, and mud. .. . Eachpair of pigeons occupies a separate (earthen) pot. "[479] It may bethat the dove bulked more prominently in domestic than in officialreligion, and had a special seasonal significance. Ishtar appears tohave had a dove form. In the Gilgamesh epic she is said to have lovedthe "brilliant Allalu bird" (the "bright-coloured wood pigeon", according to Sayce), and to have afterwards wounded it by breaking itswings. [480] She also loved the lion and the horse, and must thereforehave assumed the forms of these animals. The goddess Bau, "she whosecity is destroyed", laments in a Sumerian psalm:

 Like a dove to its dwelling-place, how long to my dwelling-place will they pursue me, To my sanctuary . .. The sacred place they pursue me. .. . My resting place, the brick walls of my city Isin, thou art destroyed; My sanctuary, shrine of my temple Galmah, thou art destroyed. 

 _Langdon's translation. _

Here the goddess appears to be identified with the doves which rest onthe walls and make their nests in the shrine. The Sumerian poets didnot adorn their poems with meaningless picturesque imagery; theirimages were stern facts; they had a magical or religious significancelike the imagery of magical incantations; the worshipper invoked thedeity by naming his or her various attributes, forms, &c. 

Of special interest are the references in Sumerian psalms to theravens as well as the doves of goddesses. Throughout Asia and Europeravens are birds of ill omen. In Scotland there still linger curiousfolk beliefs regarding the appearance of ravens and doves after death. Michael Scott, the great magician, when on his deathbed told hisfriends to place his body on a hillock. "Three ravens and three doveswould be seen flying towards it. If the ravens were first the body wasto be burned, but if the doves were first it was to receive Christianburial. The ravens were foremost, but in their hurry flew beyond theirmark. So the devil, who had long been preparing a bed for Michael, wasdisappointed. "[481]

In Indian mythology Purusha, the chaos giant, first divided himself. "Hence were husband and wife produced. " This couple then assumedvarious animal forms and thus "created every living pair whatsoeverdown to the ants". [482] Goddesses and fairies in the folk tales ofmany countries sometimes assume bird forms. The "Fates" appear toDamayanti in the Nala story as swans which carry love messages. [483]

According to Aryo-Indian belief, birds were "blessed with fecundity". The Babylonian Etana eagle and the Egyptian vulture, as has beenindicated, were deities of fertility. Throughout Europe birds, whichwere "Fates", mated, according to popular belief, on St. Valentine'sDay in February, when lots were drawn for wives by rural folks. Another form of the old custom is referred to by the poet Gay:--

 Last Valentine, the day when birds of kind Their paramours with mutual chirpings find, I early rose. .. . Thee first I spied, and the first swain we see, In spite of fortune, shall our true love be. 

The dove appears to have been a sacred bird in various areas occupiedby tribes of the Mediterranean race. Models of a shrine found in tworoyal graves at Mycenae are surmounted by a pair of doves, suggestingtwin goddesses like Isis and Nepthys of Egypt and Ishtar andBelitsheri of Babylonia. Doves and snakes were associated with themother goddess of Crete, "typifying", according to one view, "herconnection with air and earth. Although her character was distinctlybeneficent and pacific, yet as Lady of the Wild Creatures she had amore fearful aspect, one that was often depicted on carved gems, wherelions are her companions. "[484] Discussing the attributes and symbolsof this mother goddess, Professor Burrows says: "As the serpent, coming from the crevices of the earth, shows the possession of thetree or pillar from the underworld, so the dove, with which thisgoddess is also associated, shows its possession from the world of thesky". [485] Professor Robertson Smith has demonstrated that the dovewas of great sanctity among the Semites. [486] It figures in Hittitesculptures and was probably connected with the goddess cult in AsiaMinor. Although Egypt had no dove goddess, the bird was addressed bylovers--

 I hear thy voice, O turtle dove-- The dawn is all aglow-- Weary am I with love, with love, Oh, whither shall I go?[487]

Pigeons, as indicated, are in Egypt still regarded as sacred birds, and a few years ago British soldiers created a riot by shooting them. Doves were connected with the ancient Greek oracle at Dodona. In manycountries the dove is closely associated with love, and alsosymbolizes innocence, gentleness, and holiness. 

The pigeon was anciently, it would appear, a sacred bird in theseislands, and Brand has recorded curious folk beliefs connected withit. In some districts the idea prevailed that no person could die on abed which contained pigeon feathers: "If anybody be sick and lye adying, if they lye upon pigeon feathers they will be languishing andnever die, but be in pain and torment, " wrote a correspondent. Asimilar superstition about the feathers of different varieties of wildfowl[488] obtained in other districts. Brand traced this interestingtraditional belief in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Derbyshire, and some ofthe Welsh and Irish counties. [489] It still lingers in parts of theScottish Highlands. In the old ballad of "The Bloody Gardener" thewhite dove appears to a young man as the soul of his lady love who wasmurdered by his mother. He first saw the bird perched on his breastand then "sitting on a myrtle tree". [490]

The dove was not only a symbol of Semiramis, but also of her motherDerceto, the Phoenician fish goddess. The connection between bird andfish may have been given an astral significance. In "Poor Robin'sAlmanack" for 1757 a St. Valentine rhyme begins:--

 This month bright Phoebus enters Pisces, The maids will have good store of kisses, For always when the sun comes there, Valentine's day is drawing near, And both the men and maids incline To choose them each a Valentine. 

As we have seen, the example was set by the mating birds. The"Almanack" poet no doubt versified an old astrological belief: whenthe spring sun entered the sign of the Fishes, the love goddess inbird form returned to earth. 

Advocates of the Totemic theory, on the other hand, may hold that theassociation of doves with snake goddesses and fish goddesses offertility was due to the fusion of tribes who had various animaltotems. "The Pelew Islanders believed", says Professor Frazer, "thatthe souls of their forefathers lived in certain species of animals, which accordingly they held sacred and would not injure. For thisreason one man would not kill snakes, another would not harm pigeons, and so on; but everyone was quite ready to kill and eat the sacredanimals of his neighbours. "[491] That the Egyptians had similarcustoms is suggested by what Herodotus tells us regarding their sacredanimals: "Those who live near Thebes and the lake Moeris hold thecrocodile in religious veneration. .. . Those who live in or nearElephantine, so far from considering these beasts as sacred, make theman article of food. .. . The hippopotamus is esteemed sacred in thedistrict of Papremis, but in no other part of Egypt. .. . They roast andboil . .. Birds and fishes . .. Excepting those which are preserved forsacred purposes. "[492] Totemic animals controlled the destinies oftribes and families. "Grose tells us", says Brand, "that, besidesgeneral notices of death, many families have particular warnings ornotices: some by the appearance of a bird, and others by the figure ofa tall woman, dressed all in white. .. . Pennant says that many of thegreat families in Scotland had their demon or genius, who gave themmonitions of future events. "[493] Members of tribes which veneratedthe pigeon therefore invoked it like the Egyptian love poet and drewomens from its notes, or saw one appearing as the soul of the deadlike the lover in the ballad of "The Bloody Gardener". They refrainedalso from killing the pigeon except sacrificially, and sufferedagonies on a deathbed which contained pigeon feathers, the "taboo"having been broken. 

Some such explanation is necessary to account for the specializationof certain goddesses as fish, snake, cat, or bird deities. Aphrodite, who like Ishtar absorbed the attributes of several goddesses offertility and fate, had attached to her the various animal symbolswhich were prominent in districts or among tribes brought into closecontact, while the poppy, rose, myrtle, &c. , which were used as lovecharms, or for making love potions, were also consecrated to her. Anthropomorphic deities were decorated with the symbols and flowers offolk religion. 

From the comparative evidence accumulated here, it will be seen thatthe theory of the mythical Semiramis's Median or Persian origin issomewhat narrow. It is possible that the dove was venerated in Cyprus, as it certainly was in Crete, long centuries before Assyrian andBabylonian influence filtered westward through Phoenician and Hittitechannels. In another connection Sir Arthur Evans shows that theresemblance between Cretan and early Semitic beliefs "points rather tosome remote common element, the nature of which is at present obscure, than to any definite borrowing by one side or another". [494]

From the evidence afforded by the Semiramis legends and theinscriptions of the latter half of the Assyrian Middle Empire period, it may be inferred that a renascence of "mother worship" was favouredby the social and political changes which were taking place. In thefirst place the influence of Babylon must have been strongly felt inthis connection. The fact that Adadnirari found it necessary to winthe support of the Babylonians by proclaiming his descent from one oftheir ancient royal families, suggests that he was not only concernedabout the attitude assumed by the scholars of the southern kingdom, but also that of the masses of old Sumerian and Akkadian stocks whocontinued to bake cakes to the Queen of Heaven so as to ensure goodharvests. In the second place it is not improbable that even inAssyria the introduction of Nebo and his spouse made widespreadappeal. That country had become largely peopled by an alienpopulation; many of these aliens came from districts where "motherworship" prevailed, and had no traditional respect for Ashur, whilethey regarded with hostility the military aristocracy who conqueredand ruled in the name of that dreaded deity. Perhaps, too, theinfluence of the Aramaeans, who in Babylonia wrecked the temples ofthe sun god, tended to revive the ancient religion of theMediterranean race. Jehu's religious revolt in Israel, whichestablished once again the cult of Ashtoreth, occurred after he cameunder the sway of Damascus, and may have not been unconnected with thepolitical ascendancy elsewhere of the goddess cult. 

Nebo, whom Adad-nirari exalted at Kalkhi, was more than a local god ofBorsippa. "The most satisfactory view", says Jastrow, "is to regardhim as a counterpart of Ea. Like Ea, he is the embodiment and sourceof wisdom. .. . The study of the heavens formed part of the wisdom whichis traced back to Nebo, and the temple school at Borsippa became oneof the chief centres for the astrological, and, subsequently, for theastronomical lore of Babylonia. .. . Like Nebo, Ea is also associatedwith the irrigation of the fields and with their consequent fertility. A hymn praises him as the one who fills the canals and the dikes, whoprotects the fields and brings the crops to maturity. " Nebo links withMerodach (Marduk), who is sometimes referred to as his father. Jastrowassumes that the close partnership between Nebo and Merodach "had as aconsequence a transfer of some of the father Marduk's attributes as asolar deity to Nebo, [495] his son, just as Ea passed his traits on tohis son, Marduk". [496]

As the "recorder" or "scribe" among the gods, Nebo resembles theEgyptian god Thoth, who links with Khonsu, the lunar and spring sungod of love and fertility, and with Osiris. In Borsippa he had, likeMerodach in Babylon, pronounced Tammuz traits. Nebo, in fact, appearsto be the Tammuz of the new age, the son of the ancient goddess, whobecame "Husband of his Mother". If Nebo had no connection with GreatMother worship, it is unlikely that his statue would have borne aninscription referring to King Adad-nirari and Queen Sammu-rammat onequal terms. The Assyrian spouse of Nebo was called Tashmit. This"goddess of supplication and love" had a lunar significance. A prayeraddressed to her in association with Nannar (Sin) and Ishtar, proceeds:

 In the evil of the eclipse of the moon which . .. Has taken place, In the evil of the powers, of the portents, evil and not good, which are in my palace and my land, (I) have turned towards thee!. .. Before Nabu (Nebo) thy spouse, thy lord, the prince, the first-born of E-sagila, intercede for me! May he hearken to my cry at the word of thy mouth; may he remove my sighing, may he learn my supplication!

Damkina is similarly addressed in another prayer:

 O Damkina, mighty queen of all the gods, O wife of Ea, valiant art thou, O Ir-nina, mighty queen of all the gods . .. Thou that dwellest in the Abyss, O lady of heaven and earth!. .. In the evil of the eclipse of the moon, etc. 

Bau is also prayed in a similar connection as "mighty lady thatdwellest in the bright heavens", i. E. "Queen of heaven". [497]

Tashmit, whose name signifies "Obedience", according to Jastrow, or"Hearing", according to Sayce, carried the prayers of worshippers toNebo, her spouse. As Isis interceded with Osiris, she interceded withNebo, on behalf of mankind. But this did not signify that she was theleast influential of the divine pair. A goddess played many parts: shewas at once mother, daughter, and wife of the god; the servant of onegod or the "mighty queen of all the gods". The Great Mother was, ashas been indicated, regarded as the eternal and undecaying one; thegods passed away, son succeeding father; she alone remained. Thus, too, did Semiramis survive in the popular memory, as the queen-goddessof widespread legends, after kings and gods had been forgotten. To herwas ascribed all the mighty works of other days in the lands where theindigenous peoples first worshipped the Great Mother as Damkina, Nina, Bau, Ishtar, or Tashmit, because the goddess was anciently believed tobe the First Cause, the creatrix, the mighty one who invested theruling god with the powers he possessed--the god who held sway becausehe was her husband, as did Nergal as the husband of Eresh-ki-gal, queen of Hades. 

The multiplication of well-defined goddesses was partly due to thetendency to symbolize the attributes of the Great Mother, and partlydue to the development of the great "Lady" in a particular districtwhere she reflected local phenomena and where the political influenceachieved by her worshippers emphasized her greatness. Legendsregarding a famous goddess were in time attached to other goddesses, and in Aphrodite and Derceto we appear to have mother deities whoabsorbed the traditions of more than one local "lady" of river andplain, forest and mountain. Semiramis, on the other hand, survived asa link between the old world and the new, between the country fromwhich emanated the stream of ancient culture and the regions whichreceived it. As the high priestess of the cult, she became identifiedwith the goddess whose bird name she bore, as Gilgamesh and Etanabecame identified with the primitive culture-hero or patriarch of theancient Sumerians, and Sargon became identified with Tammuz. No doubtthe fame of Semiramis was specially emphasized because of her closeassociation, as Queen Sammu-rammat, with the religious innovationswhich disturbed the land of the god Ashur during the Middle Empireperiod. 

Adad-nirari IV, the son or husband of Sammu-rammat, was a vigorous andsuccessful campaigner. He was the Assyrian king who became the"saviour" of Israel. Although it is not possible to give a detailedaccount of his various expeditions, we find from the list of thesewhich survives in the Eponym Chronicle that he included in theAssyrian Empire a larger extent of territory than any of hispredecessors. In the north-east he overcame the Median and othertribes, and acquired a large portion of the Iranian plateau; hecompelled Edom to pay tribute, and established his hold in Babyloniaby restricting the power of the Chaldaeans in Sealand. In the north heswayed--at least, so he claimed--the wide domains of the Nairi people. He also confirmed his supremacy over the Hittites. 

The Aramaean state of Damascus, which had withstood the attack of thegreat Shalmaneser and afterwards oppressed, as we have seen, thekingdoms of Israel and Judah, was completely overpowered byAdad-nirari. The old king, Hazael, died when Assyria's power was beingstrengthened and increased along his frontiers. He was succeeded byhis son Mari, who is believed to be identical with the BiblicalBen-Hadad III. [498]

Shortly after this new monarch came to the throne, Adad-nirari IV leda great army against him. The Syrian ruler appears to have been takenby surprise; probably his kingdom was suffering from the three defeatswhich had been previously administered by the revoltingIsraelites. [499] At any rate Mari was unable to gather together anarmy of allies to resist the Assyrian advance, and took refuge behindthe walls of Damascus. This strongly fortified city was closelyinvested, and Mari had at length to submit and acknowledge Adad-nirarias his overlord. The price of peace included 23, 000 talents of silver, 20 of gold, 3000 of copper, and 5000 of iron, as well as ivoryornaments and furniture, embroidered materials, and other goods "to acountless amount". Thus "the Lord gave Israel a saviour, so that theywent out from under the hand of the Syrians: and the children ofIsrael dwelt in their tents, as beforetime". This significantreference to the conquest of Damascus by the Assyrian king is followedby another which throws light on the religious phenomena of theperiod: "Nevertheless they departed not from the sins of the house ofJeroboam, who made Israel sin, but walked therein: and there remainedthe grove also in Samaria". [500] Ashtoreth and her golden calfcontinued to be venerated, and doves were sacrificed to the localAdonis. 

It is not certain whether Adad-nirari penetrated farther thanDamascus. Possibly all the states which owed allegiance to the king ofthat city became at once the willing vassals of Assyria, theirprotector. The tribute received by Adad-nirari from Tyre, Sidon, theland of Omri (Israel), Edom, and Palastu (Philistia) may have beengifted as a formal acknowledgment of his suzerainty and with purposeto bring them directly under Assyrian control, so that Damascus mightbe prevented from taking vengeance against them. 

Meagre details survive regarding the reign of the next king, Shalmaneser IV (781-772 B. C). These are, however, supplemented by theUrartian inscriptions. Although Adad-nirari boasted that he hadsubdued the kingdom of Urartu in the north, he appears to have done nomore than limit its southern expansion for a time. 

The Urarti were, like the Mitanni, a military aristocracy[501] whowelded together by conquest the tribes of the eastern and northernHighlands which several Assyrian monarchs included in their Empire. They acquired the elements of Assyrian culture, and used the Assyrianscript for their own language. Their god was named Khaldis, and theycalled their nation Khaldia. During the reign of Ashur-natsir-paltheir area of control was confined to the banks of the river Araxes, but it was gradually extended under a succession of vigorous kingstowards the south-west until they became supreme round the shores ofLake Van. Three of their early kings were Lutipris, Sharduris I, andArame. 

During the reign of Shamshi-Adad the Assyrians came into conflict withthe Urarti, who were governed at the time by "Ushpina of Nairi"(Ishpuinis, son of Sharduris II). The Urartian kingdom had extendedrapidly and bordered on Assyrian territory. To the west were thetribes known as the Mannai, the northern enemies of the Medes, apeople of Indo-European speech. 

When Adad-nirari IV waged war against the Urarti, their king wasMenuas, the son of Ishpuinis. Menuas was a great war-lord, and wasable to measure his strength against Assyria on equal terms. He hadnearly doubled by conquest the area controlled by his predecessors. Adad-nirari endeavoured to drive his rival northward, but all alongthe Assyrian frontier from the Euphrates to the Lower Zab, Menuasforced the outposts of Adad-nirari to retreat southward. TheAssyrians, in short, were unable to hold their own. 

Having extended his kingdom towards the south, Menuas invaded Hittiteterritory, subdued Malatia and compelled its king to pay tribute. Healso conquered the Mannai and other tribes. Towards the north andnorth-west he added a considerable area to his kingdom, which becameas large as Assyria. 

Menuas's capital was the city of Turushpa or Dhuspas (Van), which wascalled Khaldinas[502] after the national god. For a century it was theseat of Urartian administration. The buildings erected there by Menuasand his successors became associated in after-time with the traditionsof Semiramis, who, as Queen Sammu-rammat of Assyria, was acontemporary of the great Urartian conqueror. Similarly a sculpturedrepresentation of the Hittite god was referred to by Herodotus as amemorial of the Egyptian king Sesostris. 

The strongest fortification at Dhuspas was the citadel, which waserected on a rocky promontory jutting into Lake Van. A small garrisoncould there resist a prolonged siege. The water supply of the city wasassured by the construction of subterranean aqueducts. Menuas erecteda magnificent palace, which rivalled that of the Assyrian monarch atKalkhi, and furnished it with the rich booty brought back fromvictorious campaigns. He was a lover of trees and planted many, and helaid out gardens which bloomed with brilliant Asian flowers. Thepalace commanded a noble prospect of hill and valley scenery on thesouth-western shore of beautiful Lake Van. 

Menuas was succeeded by his son Argistis, who ascended the throneduring the lifetime of Adad-nirari of Assyria. During the early partof his reign he conducted military expeditions to the north beyond theriver Araxes. He afterwards came into conflict with Assyria, andacquired more territory on its northern frontier. He also subdued theMannai, who had risen in revolt. 

For three years (781-778 B. C. ) the general of Shalmaneser IV waged warconstantly with Urartu, and again in 776 B. C. And 774 B. C. Attemptswere made to prevent the southern expansion of that Power. On morethan one occasion the Assyrians were defeated and compelled toretreat. 

Assyria suffered serious loss of prestige on account of its inabilityto hold in check its northern rival. Damascus rose in revolt and hadto be subdued, and northern Syria was greatly disturbed. Hadrach wasvisited in the last year of the king's reign. 

Ashur-dan III (771-763 B. C. ) occupied the Assyrian throne during aperiod of great unrest. He was unable to attack Urartu. His army hadto operate instead on his eastern and southern frontiers. A greatplague broke out in 765 B. C. , the year in which Hadrach had again tobe dealt with. On June 15, 763 B. C. , there was a total eclipse of thesun, and that dread event was followed by a revolt at Asshur which wasno doubt of priestly origin. The king's son Adad-nirari was involvedin it, but it is not certain whether or not he displaced his fatherfor a time. In 758 B. C. Ashur-dan again showed signs of activity byendeavouring to suppress the revolts which during the period of civilwar had broken out in Syria. 

Adad-nirari V came to the throne in 763 B. C. He had to deal withrevolts in Asshur in other cities. Indeed for the greater part of hisreign he seems to have been kept fully engaged endeavouring toestablish his authority within the Assyrian borders. The Syrianprovinces regained their independence. 

During the first four years of his successor Ashurnirari IV (753-746B. C. ) the army never left Assyria. Namri was visited in 749-748 B. C. , but it is not certain whether he fought against the Urartians, or theAramaeans who had become active during this period of Assyriandecline. In 746 B. C. A revolt broke out in the city of Kalkhi and theking had to leave it. Soon afterwards he died--perhaps he wasassassinated--and none of his sons came to the throne. A yearpreviously Nabu-natsir, known to the Greeks as Nabonassar, was crownedking of Babylonia. 

Ashur-nirari IV appears to have been a monarch of somewhat likecharacter to the famous Akhenaton of Egypt--an idealist for whom warhad no attractions. He kept his army at home while his foreignpossessions rose in revolt one after another. Apparently he had dreamsof guarding Assyria against attack by means of treaties of peace. Hearranged one with a Mesopotamian king, Mati-ilu of Agusi, who pledgedhimself not to go to war without the consent of his Assyrian overlord, and it is possible that there were other documents of like characterwhich have not survived to us. During his leisure hours the kingengaged himself in studious pursuits and made additions to the royallibrary. In the end his disappointed soldiers found a worthy leader inone of its generals who seized the throne and assumed the royal nameof Tiglath-pileser. 

Ashur-nirari IV was the last king of the Middle Empire of Assyria. Hemay have been a man of high character and refinement and worthy of ouresteem, although an unsuitable ruler for a predatory State. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

ASSYRIA'S AGE OF SPLENDOUR

 Tiglath-pileser IV, the Biblical Pul--Babylonian Campaign--Urartian Ambitions in North Syria--Battle of Two Kings and Flight of Sharduris--Conquest of Syro-Cappadocian States--Hebrew History from Jehu to Menahem--Israel subject to Assyria--Urartu's Power broken--Ahaz's Appeal to Assyria--Damascus and Israel subdued--Babylonia united to Assyria--Shalmaneser and Hoshea--Sargon deports the "Lost Ten Tribes"--Merodach Baladan King of Babylonia--Egyptian Army of Allies routed--Ahaz and Isaiah--Frontier Campaigns--Merodach Baladan overthrown--Sennacherib and the Hittite States--Merodach Baladan's second and brief Reign--Hezekiah and Sennacherib--Destruction of Assyrian Army--Sack of Babylon-- Esarhaddon--A Second Semiramis--Raids of Elamites, Cimmerians, Scythians, and Medes--Sack of Sidon--Manasseh and Isaiah's Fate--Esarhaddon conquers Lower Egypt--Revolt of Assyrian Nobles--Ashurbanipal. 

We now enter upon the last and most brilliant phase of Assyriancivilization--the period of the Third or New Empire during whichflourished Tiglath-pileser IV, the mighty conqueror; the Shalmaneserof the Bible; "Sargon the Later", who transported the "lost tentribes" of Israel; Sennacherib, the destroyer of Babylon, andEsarhaddon, who made Lower Egypt an Assyrian province. We also meetwith notable figures of Biblical fame, including Ahaz, Hezekiah, Isaiah, and the idolatrous Manasseh. 

Tiglath-pileser IV, who deposed Ashur-nirari IV, was known to theBabylonians as Pulu, which, some think, was a term of contemptsignifying "wild animal". In the Bible he is referred to as Pul, Tiglath-pilneser, and Tiglath-pileser. [503] He came to the Assyrianthrone towards the end of April in 745 B. C. And reigned until 727 B. C. We know nothing regarding his origin, but it seems clear that he wasnot of royal descent. He appears to have been a popular leader of therevolt against Ashur-nirari, who, like certain of his predecessors, had pronounced pro-Babylonian tendencies. It is significant to note inthis connection that the new king was an unswerving adherent of thecult of Ashur, by the adherents of which he was probably stronglysupported. 

Tiglath-pileser combined in equal measure those qualities ofgeneralship and statesmanship which were necessary for thereorganization of the Assyrian state and the revival of its militaryprestige. At the beginning of his reign there was much socialdiscontent and suffering. The national exchequer had been exhausted bythe loss of tribute from revolting provinces, trade was paralysed, andthe industries were in a languishing condition. Plundering bands ofAramaeans were menacing the western frontiers and had overrun part ofnorthern Babylonia. New political confederacies in Syria kept thenorth-west regions in a constant state of unrest, and the now powerfulUrartian kingdom was threatening the Syro-Cappadocian states as if itsrulers had dreams of building up a great world empire on the ruins ofthat of Assyria. 

Tiglath-pileser first paid attention to Babylonia, and extinguishedthe resistance of the Aramaeans in Akkad. He appears to have beenwelcomed by Nabonassar, who became his vassal, and he offeredsacrifices in the cities of Babylon, Sippar, Cuthah, and Nippur. Sippar had been occupied by Aramaeans, as on a previous occasion whenthey destroyed the temple of the sun god Shamash which was restored byNabu-aplu-iddina of Babylon. 

Tiglath-pileser did not overrun Chaldaea, but he destroyed itscapital, Sarrabanu, and impaled King Nabu-ushabshi. He proclaimedhimself "King of Sumer and Akkad" and "King of the Four Quarters". Thefrontier states of Elam and Media were visited and subdued. 

Having disposed of the Aramaeans and other raiders, the Assyrianmonarch had next to deal with his most powerful rival, Urartu. Argistis I had been succeeded by Sharduris III, who had formed analliance with the north Mesopotamian king, Mati-ilu of Agusi, on whomAshur-nirari had reposed his faith. Ere long Sharduris pressedsouthward from Malatia and compelled the north Syrian Hittite states, including Carchemish, to acknowledge his suzerainty. A struggle thenensued between Urartu and Assyria for the possession of theSyro-Cappadocian states. 

At this time the reputation of Tiglath-pileser hung in the balance. Ifhe failed in his attack on Urartu, his prestige would vanish at homeand abroad and Sharduris might, after establishing himself in northernSyria, invade Assyria and compel its allegiance. 

Two courses lay before Tiglath-pileser. He could either cross themountains and invade Urartu, or strike at his rival in north Syria, where the influence of Assyria had been completely extinguished. Thelatter appeared to him to be the most feasible and judiciousprocedure, for if he succeeded in expelling the invaders he would atthe same time compel the allegiance of the rebellious Hittite states. 

In the spring of 743 B. C. Tiglath-pileser led his army across theEuphrates and reached Arpad without meeting with any resistance. Thecity appears to have opened its gates to him although it was in thekingdom of Mati-ilu, who acknowledged Urartian sway. Its foreigngarrison was slaughtered. Well might Sharduris exclaim, in the wordsof the prophet, "Where is the king of Arpad? where are the gods ofArpad?"[504]

Leaving Arpad, Tiglath-pileser advanced to meet Sharduris, who wasapparently hastening southward to attack the Assyrians in the rear. Tiglath-pileser, however, crossed the Euphrates and, moving northward, delivered an unexpected attack on the Urartian army in Qummukh. Afierce battle ensued, and one of its dramatic incidents was a singlecombat between the rival kings. The tide of battle flowed in Assyria'sfavour, and when evening was falling the chariots and cavalry ofUrartu were thrown into confusion. An attempt was made to capture KingSharduris, who leapt from his chariot and made hasty escape onhorseback, hotly pursued in the gathering darkness by an Assyriancontingent of cavalry. Not until "the bridge of the Euphrates" wasreached was the exciting night chase abandoned. 

Tiglath-pileser had achieved an overwhelming victory against an armysuperior to his own in numbers. Over 70, 000 of the enemy were slain ortaken captive, while the Urartian camp with its stores and horses andfollowers fell into the hands of the triumphant Assyrians. Tiglath-pileser burned the royal tent and throne as an offering toAshur, and carried Sharduris's bed to the temple of the goddess ofNineveh, whither he returned to prepare a new plan of campaign againsthis northern rival. 

Despite the blow dealt against Urartu, Assyria did not immediatelyregain possession of north Syria. The shifty Mati-ilu either cherishedthe hope that Sharduris would recover strength and again invade northSyria, or that he might himself establish an empire in that region. Tiglath-pileser had therefore to march westward again. For three yearshe conducted vigorous campaigns in "the western land", where he metwith vigorous resistance. In 740 B. C. Arpad was captured and Mati-iludeposed and probably put to death. Two years later Kullani and Hamathfell, and the districts which they controlled were included in theAssyrian empire and governed by Crown officials. 

Once again the Hebrews came into contact with Assyria. The Dynasty ofJehu had come to an end by this time. Its fall may not have beenunconnected with the trend of events in Assyria during the closingyears of the Middle Empire. 

Supported by Assyria, the kings of Israel had become powerful andhaughty. Jehoash, the grandson of Jehu, had achieved successes inconflict with Damascus. In Judah the unstable Amaziah, son of Joash, was strong enough to lay a heavy hand on Edom, and flushed withtriumph then resolved to readjust his relations with his overlord, theking of Israel. Accordingly he sent a communication to Jehoash whichcontained some proposal regarding their political relations, concluding with the offer or challenge, "Come, let us look one anotherin the face". A contemptuous answer was returned. 

 Jehoash the king of Israel sent to Amaziah king of Judah, saying, The thistle that was in Lebanon sent to the cedar that was in Lebanon, saying, Give thy daughter to my son to wife: and there passed by a wild beast that was in Lebanon, and trode down the thistle. Thou hast indeed smitten Edom, and thine heart hath lifted thee up: glory of this, and tarry at home, for why shouldest thou meddle to thy hurt, that thou shouldest fall, even thou, and Judah with thee? But Amaziah would not hear. Therefore Jehoash king of Israel went up; and he and Amaziah king of Judah looked one another in the face at Beth-shemesh [city of Shamash, the sun god], which belongeth to Judah. And Judah was put to the worse before Israel; and they fled every man to their tents. 

Jehoash afterwards destroyed a large portion of the wall of Jerusalemand plundered the temple and palace, returning home to Samaria withrich booty and hostages. [505] Judah thus remained a vassal state ofIsrael's. 

Jeroboam, son of Jehoash, had a long and prosperous reign. About 773B. C. He appears to have co-operated with Assyria and conqueredDamascus and Hamath. His son Zachariah, the last king of the JehuDynasty of Israel, came to the throne in 740 B. C. Towards the close ofthe reign of Azariah, son of Amaziah, king of Judah. Six monthsafterwards he was assassinated by Shallum. This usurper held sway atSamaria for only a month. "For Menahem the son of Gadi went up fromTirzah, and came to Samaria, and smote Shallum the son of Jabesh inSamaria, and slew him, and reigned in his stead. "[506]

Tiglath-pileser was operating successfully in middle Syria when he haddealings with, among others, "Menihimme (Menahem) of the city of theSamarians", who paid tribute. No resistance was possible on the partof Menahem, the usurper, who was probably ready to welcome theAssyrian conqueror, so that, by arranging an alliance, he might securehis own position. The Biblical reference is as follows: "And Pul theking of Assyria came against the land: and Menahem gave Pul a thousandtalents of silver, that his hand might be with him to confirm thekingdom in his hand. And Menahem exacted the money of Israel, even ofall the mighty men of wealth, of each man fifty shekels of silver, togive to the king of Assyria. So the king of Assyria turned back, andstayed not there in the land. "[507] Rezin of Damascus, Hiram of Tyre, and Zabibi, queen of the Arabians, also sent gifts to Tiglath-pileserat this time (738 B. C. ). Aramaean revolts on the borders of Elam weresuppressed by Assyrian governors, and large numbers of the inhabitantswere transported to various places in Syria. 

Tiglath-pileser next operated against the Median and other hill tribesin the north-east. In 735 B. C. He invaded Urartu, the great Armenianstate which had threatened the supremacy of Assyria in north Syria andCappadocia. King Sharduris was unable to protect his frontier orhamper the progress of the advancing army, which penetrated to hiscapital. Dhuspas was soon captured, but Sharduris took refuge in hisrocky citadel which he and his predecessors had laboured to renderimpregnable. There he was able to defy the might of Assyria, for thefortress could be approached on the western side alone by a narrowpath between high walls and towers, so that only a small force couldfind room to operate against the numerous garrison. 

Tiglath-pileser had to content himself by devastating the city on theplain and the neighbouring villages. He overthrew buildings, destroyedorchards, and transported to Nineveh those of the inhabitants he hadnot put to the sword, with all the live stock he could lay hands on. Thus was Urartu crippled and humiliated: it never regained its formerprestige among the northern states. 

In the following year Tiglath-pileser returned to Syria. Thecircumstances which made this expedition necessary are of specialinterest on account of its Biblical associations. Menahem, king ofIsrael, had died, and was succeeded by his son Pekahiah. "But Pekahthe son of Remaliah, a captain of his, conspired against him and smotehim in Samaria, in the palace of the king's house, . .. And he killedhim, and reigned in his room. "[508] When Pekah was on the throne, Ahazbegan to reign over Judah. 

Judah had taken advantage of the disturbed conditions in Israel toassert its independence. The walls of Jerusalem were repaired byJotham, father of Ahaz, and a tunnel constructed to supply it withwater. Isaiah refers to this tunnel: "Go forth and meet Ahaz . .. Atthe end of the conduit of the upper pool in the highway of thefuller's field" (_Isaiah, _ vii, 3). 

Pekah had to deal with a powerful party in Israel which favoured there-establishment of David's kingdom in Palestine. Their most prominentleader was the prophet Amos, whose eloquent exhortations were couchedin no uncertain terms. He condemned Israel for its idolatries, andcried:

 For thus saith the Lord unto the house of Israel, Seek ye me and ye shall live. .. . Have ye offered unto me sacrifices and offerings in the wilderness forty years, O house of Israel? But ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloch and Chiun your images, the star of your god, which ye made to yourselves. [509]

Pekah sought to extinguish the orthodox party's movement by subduingJudah. So he plotted with Rezin, king of Damascus. Amos prophesied, Thus saith the Lord. .. . I will send a fire into the house of Hazael, which will devour the palaces of Ben-hadad. I will break also the bar of Damascus . .. And the people of Syria shall go into captivity unto Kir. .. . The remnant of the Philistines shall perish. 

Tyre, Edom, and Ammon would also be punished. [510] Judah wascompletely isolated by the allies who acknowledged the suzerainty ofDamascus. Soon after Ahaz came to the throne he found himself hemmedin on every side by adversaries who desired to accomplish his fall. "At that time Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah . .. Came up to Jerusalemto war: and they besieged Ahaz, but could not overcome him. "[511]Judah, however, was overrun; the city of Elath was captured andrestored to Edom, while the Philistines were liberated from thecontrol of Jerusalem. 

Isaiah visited Ahaz and said, Take heed, and be quiet; fear not, neither be faint-hearted for the two tails of these smoking firebrands, for the fierce anger of Rezin with Syria, and of the son of Remaliah. Because Syria, Ephraim, and the son of Remaliah, have taken evil counsel against thee, saying, Let us go up against Judah, and vex it, and let us make a breach therein for us, and set a king in the midst of it, even the son of Tabeal: Thus saith the Lord God, It shall not stand, neither shall it come to pass. [512]

The unstable Ahaz had sought assistance from the Baal, and "made hisson to pass through the fire, according to the abominations of theheathen". [513] Then he resolved to purchase the sympathy of one of thegreat Powers. There was no hope of assistance from "the fly that is inthe uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt", for the Ethiopian Pharaohshad not yet conquered the Delta region, so he turned to "the bee thatis in the land of Assyria ". [514] Assyria was the last resource of theking of Judah. 

 So Ahaz sent messengers to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria, saying, I am thy servant and thy son: come up and save me out of the hand of Syria and out of the hand of the king of Israel, which rise up against me. And Ahaz took the silver and gold that was found in the house of the Lord, and in the treasures of the king's house, and sent it for a present to the king of Assyria. And the king of Assyria hearkened unto him: for the king of Assyria went up against Damascus, and took it, and carried the people of it captive to Kir[515] and slew Rezin. [516]

Tiglath-pileser recorded that Rezin took refuge in his city like "amouse". Israel was also dealt with. 

 In the days of Pekah king of Israel came Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria, and took Ijon and Abel-beth-maachah, and Janoah and Kedesh, and Hazor, and Gilead, and Galilee, all the land of Naphtali, and carried them captive to Assyria. And Hoshea the son of Elah made a conspiracy against Pekah the son of Remaliah, and smote him, and slew him, and reigned in his stead. [517]

Tiglath-pileser recorded: "They overthrew Paqaha (Pekah), their king, and placed Ausi'a (Hoshea) over them". He swept through Israel "like ahurricane". The Philistines and the Arabians of the desert were alsosubdued. Tribute was sent to the Assyrian monarch by Phoenicia, Moab, Ammon, and Edom. It was a proud day for Ahaz when he paid a visit toTiglath-pileser at Damascus. [518] An Assyrian governor was appointedto rule over Syria and its subject states. 

Babylon next claimed the attention of Tiglath-pileser. Nabonassar haddied and was succeeded by his son Nabu-nadin-zeri, who, after reigningfor two years, was slain in a rebellion. The throne was then seized byNabu-shum-ukin, but in less than two months this usurper wasassassinated and the Chaldaeans had one of their chiefs, Ukinzer, proclaimed king (732 B. C. ). 

When the Assyrian king returned from Syria in 731 B. C. He invadedBabylonia. He was met with a stubborn resistance. Ukinzer took refugein his capital, Shapia, which held out successfully, although thesurrounding country was ravaged and despoiled. Two years afterwardsTiglath-pileser returned, captured Shapia, and restored peacethroughout Babylonia. He was welcomed in Babylon, which opened itsgates to him, and he had himself proclaimed king of Sumer and Akkad. The Chaldaeans paid tribute. 

Tiglath-pileser had now reached the height of his ambition. He had notonly extended his empire in the west from Cappadocia to the river ofEgypt, crippled Urartu and pacified his eastern frontier, but broughtAssyria into close union with Babylonia, the mother land, the home ofculture and the land of the ancient gods. He did not live long, however, to enjoy his final triumph, for he died a little over twelvemonths after he "took the hands of Bel (Merodach)" at Babylon. 

He was succeeded by Shalmaneser V (727-722 B. C. ), who may have beenhis son, but this is not quite certain. Little is known regarding hisbrief reign. In 725 B. C. He led an expedition to Syria and Phoenicia. Several of the vassal peoples had revolted when they heard of thedeath of Tiglath-pileser. These included the Phoenicians, thePhilistines, and the Israelites who were intriguing with either Egyptor Mutsri. 

Apparently Hoshea, king of Israel, pretended when the Assyriansentered his country that he remained friendly. Shalmaneser, however, was well informed, and made Hoshea a prisoner. Samaria closed itsgates against him although their king had been dispatched to Assyria. 

The Biblical account of the campaign is as follows: "Against him(Hoshea) came up Shalmaneser king of Assyria; and Hoshea became hisservant, and gave him presents. And the king of Assyria foundconspiracy in Hoshea: for he had sent messengers to So king ofEgypt, [519] and brought no present to the king of Assyria, as he haddone year by year; therefore the king of Assyria shut him up and boundhim in prison. 

"Then the king of Assyria came up throughout all the land, and went upto Samaria, and besieged it three years. "[520]

Shalmaneser died before Samaria was captured, and may have beenassassinated. The next Assyrian monarch, Sargon II (722-705 B. C. ), wasnot related to either of his two predecessors. He is referred to byIsaiah, [521] and is the Arkeanos of Ptolemy. He was the Assyrianmonarch who deported the "Lost Ten Tribes". 

"In the ninth year of Hoshea" (and the first of Sargon) "the king ofAssyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria, and placedthem in Halah and in Habor by the river of Gozan, and in the cities ofthe Medes. "[522] In all, according to Sargon's record, "27, 290 peopledwelling in the midst of it (Samaria) I carried off". 

 They (the Israelites) left all the commandments of the Lord their God, and made them molten images, even two calves, and made a grove, and worshipped all the host of heaven (the stars), and served Baal. And they caused their sons and their daughters to pass through the fire, and used divination and enchantments, and sold themselves to do evil in the sight of the Lord, to provoke him to anger. Therefore the Lord was very angry with Israel, and removed them out of his sight: there was none left but the tribe of Judah only. And the king of Assyria brought men from Babylon, and from Cuthah, and from Ava, and from Hamath, and from Sepharvaim, and placed them in the cities of Samaria instead of the children of Israel: and they possessed Samaria, and dwelt in the cities thereof. .. . And the men of Babylon made Succoth-benoth, and the men of Cuth (Cuthah) made Nergal, and the men of Hamath made Ashima, and the Avites made Nibhaz and Tartak, and the Sepharites burnt their children in fire to Adram-melech and Anam-melech, the gods of Sepharvaim. 

A number of the new settlers were slain by lions, and the king ofAssyria ordered that a Samaritan priest should be sent to "teach themthe manner of the God of the land". This man was evidently an orthodoxHebrew, for he taught them "how they should fear the Lord. .. . So theyfeared the Lord", but also "served their own gods . .. Their gravenimages". [523]

There is no evidence to suggest that the "Ten Lost Tribes", "regardingwhom so many nonsensical theories have been formed", were notultimately absorbed by the peoples among whom they settled betweenMesopotamia and the Median Highlands. [524] The various sections musthave soon lost touch with one another. They were not united like theJews (the people of Judah), who were transported to Babylonia acentury and a half later, by a common religious bond, for although afew remained faithful to Abraham's God, the majority of the Israelitesworshipped either the Baal or the Queen of Heaven. 

The Assyrian policy of transporting the rebellious inhabitants of onepart of their empire to another was intended to break their nationalspirit and compel them to become good and faithful subjects amongstthe aliens, who must have disliked them. "The colonists, " saysProfessor Maspero, "exposed to the same hatred as the originalAssyrian conquerors, soon forgot to look upon the latter as theoppressors of all, and, allowing their present grudge to efface thememory of past injuries, did not hesitate to make common cause withthem. In time of peace the (Assyrian) governor did his best to protectthem against molestation on the part of the natives, and in return forthis they rallied round him whenever the latter threatened to get outof hand, and helped him to stifle the revolt, or hold it in checkuntil the arrival of reinforcements. Thanks to their help, the empirewas consolidated and maintained without too many violent outbreaks inregions far removed from the capital, and beyond the immediate reachof the sovereign. "[525]

While Sargon was absent in the west, a revolt broke out in Babylonia. A Chaldaean king, Merodach Baladan III, had allied himself with theElamites, and occupied Babylon. A battle was fought at Dur-ilu and theElamites retreated. Although Sargon swept triumphantly through theland, he had to leave his rival, the tyrannous Chaldaean, inpossession of the capital, and he reigned there for over eleven years. 

Trouble was brewing in Syria. It was apparently fostered by anEgyptian king--probably Bocchoris of Sais, the sole Pharaoh so far ascan be ascertained of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty, who had alliedhimself with the local dynasts of Lower Egypt and apparently sought toextend his sway into Asia, the Ethiopians being supreme in UpperEgypt. An alliance had been formed to cast off the yoke of Assyria. The city states involved Arpad, Simirra, Damascus, Samaria, and Gaza. Hanno of Gaza had fled to Egypt after Tiglath-pileser came to therelief of Judah and broke up the league of conspirators by capturingDamascus, and punishing Samaria, Gaza, and other cities. His return inSargon's reign was evidently connected with the new rising in which hetook part. The throne of Hamath had been seized by an adventurer, named Ilu-bi´di, a smith. The Philistines of Ashdod and the Arabiansbeing strongly pro-Egyptian in tendency, were willing sympathizers andhelpers against the hated Assyrians. 

Sargon appeared in the west with a strong army before the allies hadmatured their plans. He met the smith king of Hamath in battle atQarqar, and, having defeated him, had him skinned alive. Then hemarched southward. At Rapiki (Raphia) he routed an army of allies. Shabi (?So), the Tartan (commander-in-chief) of Pi´ru[526] (Pharaoh), King of Mutsri (an Arabian state confused, perhaps, with Misraim =Egypt), escaped "like to a shepherd whose sheep have been taken". Piruand other two southern kings, Samsi and Itamara, afterwards paidtribute to Sargon. Hanno of Gaza was transported to Asshur. 

In 715 B. C. Sargon, according to his records, appeared with his armyin Arabia, and received gifts in token of homage from Piru of Mutsri, Samsi of Aribi, and Itamara of Saba. 

Four years later a revolt broke out in Ashdod which was, it wouldappear, directly due to the influence of Shabaka, the EthiopianPharaoh, who had deposed Bocchoris of Sais. Another league was aboutto be formed against Assyria. King Azuri of Ashdod had been deposedbecause of his Egyptian sympathies by the Assyrian governor, and hisbrother Akhimiti was placed on the throne. The citizens, however, overthrew Akhimiti, and an adventurer from Cyprus was proclaimed king(711 B. C). 

It would appear that advances were made by the anti-Assyrians to Ahazof Judah. That monarch was placed in a difficult position. He knewthat if the allies succeeded in stamping out Assyrian authority inSyria and Palestine they would certainly depose him, but if on theother hand he joined them and Assyria triumphed, its emperor wouldshow him small mercy. As Babylon defied Sargon and received the activesupport of Elam, and there were rumours of risings in the north, itmust have seemed to the western kings as if the Assyrian empire waslikely once again to go to pieces. 

Fortunately for Ahaz he had a wise counsellor at this time in thegreat statesman and prophet, the scholarly Isaiah. The Lord spake byIsaiah saying, "Go and loose the sackcloth from off thy loins, and putoff thy shoe from thy foot. And he did so, walking naked and barefoot. And the Lord said, Like as my servant Isaiah hath walked naked andbarefoot three years for a sign and wonder upon Egypt and uponEthiopia; so shall the king of Assyria lead away the Egyptiansprisoners. .. . And they (the allies) shall be afraid and ashamed ofEthiopia their expectation, and of Egypt their glory. "[527]

Isaiah warned Ahaz against joining the league, "in the year thatTartan[528] came unto Ashdod (when Sargon the king of Assyria senthim)". The Tartan "fought against Ashdod and took it". [529] Accordingto Sargon's record the Pretender of Ashdod fled to Arabia, where hewas seized by an Arabian chief and delivered up to Assyria. Thepro-Egyptian party in Palestine went under a cloud for a periodthereafter. 

Before Sargon could deal with Merodach Baladan of Babylon, he found itnecessary to pursue the arduous task of breaking up a powerful leaguewhich had been formed against him in the north. The Syro-CappadocianHittite states, including Tabal in Asia Minor and Carchemish in northSyria, were combining for the last time against Assyria, supported byMita (Midas), king of the Muski-Phrygians, and Rusas, son of ShardurisIII, king of Urartu. 

Urartu had recovered somewhat from the disasters which it had sufferedat the hands of Tiglath-pileser, and was winning back portions of itslost territory on the north-east frontier of Assyria. A buffer statehad been formed in that area by Tiglath-pileser, who had assisted theking of the Mannai to weld together the hill tribesmen between LakeVan and Lake Urmia into an organized nation. Iranzu, its ruler, remained faithful to Assyria and consequently became involved in warwith Rusas of Urartu, who either captured or won over several citiesof the Mannai. Iranzu was succeeded by his son Aza, and this king wasso pronounced a pro-Assyrian that his pro-Urartian subjectsassassinated him and set on the throne Bagdatti of Umildish. 

Soon after Sargon began his operations in the north he capturedBagdatti and had him skinned alive. The flag of revolt, however, waskept flying by his brother, Ullusunu, but ere long this ambitious manfound it prudent to submit to Sargon on condition that he would retainthe throne as a faithful Assyrian vassal. His sudden change of policyappears to have been due to the steady advance of the Median tribesinto the territory of the Mannai. Sargon conducted a vigorous andsuccessful campaign against the raiders, and extended Ullusunu's areaof control. 

The way was now clear to Urartu. In 714 B. C. Sargon attacked therevolting king of Zikirtu, who was supported by an army led by Rusas, his overlord. A fierce battle was fought in which the Assyriansachieved a great victory. King Rusas fled, and when he found that theAssyrians pressed home their triumph by laying waste the countrybefore them, he committed suicide, according to the Assyrian records, although those of Urartu indicate that he subsequently took part inthe struggle against Sargon. The Armenian peoples were compelled toacknowledge the suzerainty of Assyria, and the conqueror receivedgifts from various tribes between Lake Van and the Caspian Sea, andalong the frontiers from Lake Van towards the south-east as far as theborders of Elam. 

Rusas of Urartu was succeeded by Argistes II, who reigned over ashrunken kingdom. He intrigued with neighbouring states againstAssyria, but was closely watched. Ere long he found himself caughtbetween two fires. During his reign the notorious Cimmerians andScythians displayed much activity in the north and raided histerritory. 

The pressure of fresh infusions of Thraco-Phrygian tribes into westernAsia Minor had stirred Midas of the Muski to co-operate with theUrartian power in an attempt to stamp out Assyrian influence inCilicia, Cappadocia, and north Syria. A revolt in Tabal in 718 B. C. Was extinguished by Sargon, but in the following year evidences wereforthcoming of a more serious and widespread rising. Pisiris, king ofCarchemish, threw off the Assyrian yoke. Before, however, his alliescould hasten to his assistance he was overcome by the vigilant Sargon, who deported a large proportion of the city's inhabitants andincorporated it in an Assyrian province. Tabal revolted in 713 B. C. And was similarly dealt with. In 712 B. C. Milid had to be overcome. The inhabitants were transported, and "Suti" Aramaean peoples settledin their homes. The king of Commagene, having remained faithful, received large extensions of territory. Finally in 709 B. C. Midas ofthe Muski-Phrygians was compelled to acknowledge the suzerainty ofAssyria. The northern confederacy was thus completely worsted andbroken up. Tribute was paid by many peoples, including the rulers ofCyprus. 

Sargon was now able to deal with Babylonia, which for about twelveyears had been ruled by Merodach Baladan, who oppressed the people andset at defiance ancient laws by seizing private estates andtransferring them to his Chaldaean kinsmen. He still received theactive support of Elam. 

Sargon's first move was to interpose his army between those of theBabylonians and Elamites. Pushing southward, he subdued the Aramaeanson the eastern banks of the Tigris, and drove the Elamites into themountains. Then he invaded middle Babylonia from the east. MerodachBaladan hastily evacuated Babylon, and, moving southward, succeeded inevading Sargon's army. Finding Elam was unable to help him, he tookrefuge in the Chaldaean capital, Bit Jakin, in southern Babylonia. 

Sargon was visited by the priests of Babylon and Borsippa, and hailedas the saviour of the ancient kingdom. He was afterwards proclaimedking at E-sagila, where he "took the hands of Bel". Then havingexpelled the Aramaeans from Sippar, he hastened southward, attackedBit Jakin and captured it. Merodach Baladan escaped into Elam. Thewhole of Chaldaea was subdued. 

Thus "Sargon the Later" entered at length into full possession of theempire of Sargon of Akkad. In Babylonia he posed as an incarnation ofhis ancient namesake, and had similarly Messianic pretensions whichwere no doubt inspired by the Babylonian priesthood. Under him Assyriaattained its highest degree of splendour. 

He recorded proudly not only his great conquests but also his works ofpublic utility: he restored ancient cities, irrigated vast tracts ofcountry, fostered trade, and promoted the industries. Like the piousPharaohs of Egypt he boasted that he fed the hungry and protected theweak against the strong. 

Sargon found time during his strenuous career as a conqueror to layout and build a new city, called Dur-Sharrukin, "the burgh of Sargon", to the north of Nineveh. It was completed before he undertook theBabylonian campaign. The new palace was occupied in 708 B. C. Previousto that period he had resided principally at Kalkhi, in the restoredpalace of Ashur-natsir-pal III. 

He was a worshipper of many gods. Although he claimed to have restoredthe supremacy of Asshur "which had come to an end", he not only adoredAshur but also revived the ancient triad of Anu, Bel, and Ea, andfostered the growth of the immemorial "mother-cult" of Ishtar. Beforehe died he appointed one of his sons, Sennacherib, viceroy of thenorthern portion of the empire. He was either assassinated at amilitary review or in some frontier war. As much is suggested by thefollowing entry in an eponym list. 

 Eponymy of Upahhir-belu, prefect of the city of Amedu . .. According to the oracle of the Kulummite(s). .. . A soldier (entered) the camp of the king of Assyria (and killed him?), month Ab, day 12th, Sennacherib (sat on the throne). [530]

The fact that Sennacherib lamented his father's sins suggests that theold king had in some manner offended the priesthood. Perhaps, likesome of the Middle Empire monarchs, he succumbed to the influence ofBabylon during the closing years of his life. It is stated that "hewas not buried in his house", which suggests that the customaryreligious rites were denied him, and that his lost soul was supposedto be a wanderer which had to eat offal and drink impure water likethe ghost of a pauper or a criminal. 

The task which lay before Sennacherib (705-680 B. C. ) was to maintainthe unity of the great empire of his distinguished father. He wagedminor wars against the Kassite and Illipi tribes on the Elamiteborder, and the Muski and Hittite tribes in Cappadocia and Cilicia. The Kassites, however, were no longer of any importance, and theHittite power had been extinguished, for ere the states could recoverfrom the blows dealt by the Assyrians the Cimmerian hordes ravagedtheir territory. Urartu was also overrun by the fierce barbarians fromthe north. It was one of these last visits of the Assyrians to Tabalof the Hittites and the land of the Muski (Meshech) which the Hebrewprophet referred to in after-time when he exclaimed:

 Asshur is there and all her company: his graves are about him: all of them slain, fallen by the sword. .. . There is Meshech, Tubal, and all her multitude: her graves are round about him: all of them uncircumcised, slain by the sword, though they caused their terror in the land of the living. .. . (_Ezekiel_, xxxii. )

Sennacherib found that Ionians had settled in Cilicia, and he deportedlarge numbers of them to Nineveh. The metal and ivory work at Ninevehshow traces of Greek influence after this period. 

A great conspiracy was fomented in several states against Sennacheribwhen the intelligence of Sargon's death was bruited abroad. Egypt wasconcerned in it. Taharka (the Biblical Tirhakah[531]), the lastPharaoh of the Ethiopian Dynasty, had dreams of re-establishingEgyptian supremacy in Palestine and Syria, and leagued himself withLuli, king of Tyre, Hezekiah, king of Judah, and others. MerodachBaladan, the Chaldaean king, whom Sargon had deposed, supported byElamites and Aramaeans, was also a party to the conspiracy. "At thattime Merodach Baladan, the son of Baladan, king of Babylon, sentletters and a present to Hezekiah. .. . And Hezekiah was glad ofthem. "[532]

Merodach Baladan again seized the throne of Babylon. Sargon's son, whohad been appointed governor, was murdered and a pretender sat on thethrone for a brief period, but Merodach Baladan thrust him aside andreigned for nine months, during which period he busied himself byencouraging the kings of Judah and Tyre to revolt. Sennacherib invadedBabylonia with a strong army, deposed Merodach Baladan, routed theChaldaeans and Aramaeans, and appointed as vassal king Bel-ibni, anative prince, who remained faithful to Assyria for about three years. 

In 707 B. C. Sennacherib appeared in the west. When he approached Tyre, Luli, the king, fled to Cyprus. The city was not captured, but much ofits territory was ceded to the king of Sidon. Askalon was afterwardsreduced. At Eltekeh Sennacherib came into conflict with an army ofallies, including Ethiopian, Egyptian, and Arabian Mutsri forces, which he routed. Then he captured a number of cities in Judah andtransported 200, 150 people. He was unable, however, to enterJerusalem, in which Hezekiah was compelled to remain "like a bird in acage". It appears that Hezekiah "bought off" the Assyrians on thisoccasion with gifts of gold and silver and jewels, costly furniture, musicians, and female slaves. 

In 689 B. C. Sennacherib found it necessary to penetrate Arabia. Apparently another conspiracy was brewing, for Hezekiah againrevolted. On his return from the south--according to Berosus he hadbeen in Egypt--the Assyrian king marched against the king of Judah. 

 And when Hezekiah saw that Sennacherib was come, and that he was purposed to fight against Jerusalem, he took counsel with the princes and his mighty men to stop the waters of the fountains which were without the city: and they did help him. .. . Why should the kings of Assyria come and find much water?

Sennacherib sent messengers to Jerusalem to attempt to stir up thepeople against Hezekiah. "He wrote also letters to rail on the LordGod of Israel, and to speak against him, saying, As the gods of thenations of other lands have not delivered their people out of minehand, so shall not the God of Hezekiah deliver his people out of minehand. "[533]

Hezekiah sent his servants to Isaiah, who was in Jerusalem at thetime, and the prophet said to them:

 Thus shall ye say to your master. Thus saith the Lord, Be not afraid of the words which thou hast heard, with which the servants of the king of Assyria have blasphemed me. Behold, I will send a blast upon him, and he shall hear a rumour, and shall return to his own land; and I will cause him to fall by the sword in his own land. [534]

According to Berosus, the Babylonian priestly historian, the camp ofSennacherib was visited in the night by swarms of field mice which ateup the quivers and bows and the (leather) handles of shields. Nextmorning the army fled. 

The Biblical account of the disaster is as follows:

 And it came to pass that night, that the angel of the Lord went out, and smote the camp of the Assyrians an hundred and four score and five thousand: and when they arose early in the morning, behold, they were all dead corpses. So Sennacherib king of Assyria departed, and went and returned and dwelt at Nineveh. [535]

A pestilence may have broken out in the camp, the infection, perhaps, having been carried by field mice. Byron's imagination was stirred bythe vision of the broken army of Assyria. 

 The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold; And the sheen of their spears was like stars of the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 

 Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, That host with their banners at sunset were seen; Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown, That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 

 For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast, And breathed on the face of the foe as he passed; And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, And their hearts but once heaved--and forever grew still!

 And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide, But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride; And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf, And cold as the spray of the rock-beating surf. 

 And there lay the rider distorted and pale, With the dew on his brow, and the rust on his mail; And the tents were all silent--the banners alone-- Thelances uplifted--the trumpet unblown. 

 And the widows of Asshur are loud in their wail, And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal; And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword, Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord. 

Before this disaster occurred Sennacherib had to invade Babyloniaagain, for the vassal king, Bel-ibni, had allied himself with theChaldaeans and raised the standard of revolt. The city of Babylon wasbesieged and captured, and its unfaithful king deported with a numberof nobles to Assyria. Old Merodach Baladan was concerned in the plotand took refuge on the Elamite coast, where the Chaldaeans had formeda colony. He died soon afterwards. 

Sennacherib operated in southern Babylonia and invaded Elam. But erehe could return to Assyria he was opposed by a strong army of allies, including Babylonians, Chaldaeans, Aramaeans, Elamites, and Persians, led by Samunu, son of Merodach Baladan. A desperate battle was fought. Although Sennacherib claimed a victory, he was unable to follow it up. This was in 692 B. C. A Chaldaean named Mushezib-Merodach seized theBabylonian throne. 

In 691 B. C. Sennacherib again struck a blow for Babylonia, but wasunable to depose Mushezib-Merodach. His opportunity came, however, in689 B. C. Elam had been crippled by raids of the men of Parsua(Persia), and was unable to co-operate with the Chaldaean king ofBabylon. Sennacherib captured the great commercial metropolis, tookMushezib-Merodach prisoner, and dispatched him to Nineveh. Then hewreaked his vengeance on Babylon. For several days the Assyriansoldiers looted the houses and temples, and slaughtered theinhabitants without mercy. E-sagila was robbed of its treasures, images of deities were either broken in pieces or sent to Nineveh: thestatue of Bel-Merodach was dispatched to Asshur so that he might takehis place among the gods who were vassals of Ashur. "The city and itshouses, " Sennacherib recorded, "from foundation to roof, I destroyedthem, I demolished them, I burned them with fire; walls, gateways, sacred chapels, and the towers of earth and tiles, I laid them low andcast them into the Arakhtu. "[536]

"So thorough was Sennacherib's destruction of the city in 689 B. C. , "writes Mr. King, "that after several years of work, Dr. Koldeweyconcluded that all traces of earlier buildings had been destroyed onthat occasion. More recently some remains of earlier strata have beenrecognized, and contract-tablets have been found which date from theperiod of the First Dynasty. Moreover, a number of earlier pot-burialshave been unearthed, but a careful examination of the greater part ofthe ruins has added little to our knowledge of this most famous citybefore the Neo-Babylonian period. "[537]

It is possible that Sennacherib desired to supplant Babylon as acommercial metropolis by Nineveh. He extended and fortified that city, surrounding it with two walls protected by moats. According toDiodorus, the walls were a hundred feet high and about fifty feetwide. Excavators have found that at the gates they were about ahundred feet in breadth. The water supply of the city was ensured bythe construction of dams and canals, and strong quays were erected toprevent flooding. Sennacherib repaired a lofty platform which wasisolated by a canal, and erected upon it his great palace. On anotherplatform he had an arsenal built. 

Sennacherib's palace was the most magnificent building of its kindever erected by an Assyrian emperor. It was lavishly decorated, andits bas-reliefs display native art at its highest pitch of excellence. The literary remains of the time also give indication of the growth ofculture: the inscriptions are distinguished by their prose style. Itis evident that men of culture and refinement were numerous inAssyria. The royal library of Kalkhi received many additions duringthe reign of the destroyer of Babylon. 

Like his father, Sennacherib died a violent death. According to theBabylonian Chronicle he was slain in a revolt by his son "on thetwentieth day of Tebet" (680 B. C). The revolt continued from the "20thof Tebet" (early in January) until the 2nd day of Adar (the middle ofFebruary). On the 18th of Adar, Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib, wasproclaimed king. 

Berosus states that Sennacherib was murdered by two of his sons, butEsarhaddon was not one of the conspirators. The Biblical reference isas follows: "Sennacherib . .. Dwelt at Nineveh. And it came to pass, ashe was worshipping in the house of Nisroch (?Ashur) his god, thatAdrammelech and Sharezer (Ashur-shar-etir) his sons smote him with thesword: and they escaped into the land of Armenia (Urartu). AndEsarhaddon his son reigned in his stead. " Ashur-shar-etir appears tohave been the claimant to the throne. 

Esarhaddon (680-668 B. C. ) was a man of different type from his father. He adopted towards vassal states a policy of conciliation, and didmuch to secure peace within the empire by his magnanimous treatment ofrebel kings who had been intimidated by their neighbours and forced toentwine themselves in the meshes of intrigue. His wars were directedmainly to secure the protection of outlying provinces againstaggressive raiders. 

The monarch was strongly influenced by his mother, Naki'a, aBabylonian princess who appears to have been as distinguished a ladyas the famous Sammu-rammat. Indeed, it is possible that traditionsregarding her contributed to the Semiramis legends. But it was notonly due to her that Esarhaddon espoused the cause of thepro-Babylonian party. He appears to be identical with the Axerdes ofBerosus, who ruled over the southern kingdom for eight years. Apparently he had been appointed governor by Sennacherib after thedestruction of Babylon, and it may be that during his term of officein Babylonia he was attracted by its ethical ideals, and developedthose traits of character which distinguished him from his father andgrandfather. He married a Babylonian princess, and one of his sons, Shamash-shum-ukin, was born in a Babylonian palace, probably atSippar. He was a worshipper of the mother goddess Ishtar of Ninevehand Ishtar of Arbela, and of Shamash, as well as of the national godAshur. 

As soon as Esarhaddon came to the throne he undertook the restorationof Babylon, to which many of the inhabitants were drifting back. Inthree years the city resumed its pre-eminent position as a trading andindustrial centre. Withal, he won the hearts of the natives byexpelling Chaldaeans from the private estates which they had seizedduring the Merodach-Baladan regime, and restoring them to the rightfulheirs. 

A Chaldaean revolt was inevitable. Two of Merodach Baladan's sons gavetrouble in the south, but were routed in battle. One fled to Elam, where he was assassinated; the other sued for peace, and was acceptedby the diplomatic Esarhaddon as a vassal king. 

Egypt was intriguing in the west. Its Ethiopian king, Taharka (theBiblical Tirhakah) had stirred up Hezekiah to revolt duringSennacherib's reign. An Assyrian ambassador who had visited Jerusalem"heard say concerning Tirhakah. .. . He sent messengers to Hezekiahsaying. .. . Let not thy God, in whom thou trustest, deceive theesaying, Jerusalem shall not be given into the hand of the king ofAssyria. Behold, thou hast heard what the kings of Assyria have doneto all lands by destroying them utterly; and shalt thou be delivered?Have the gods of the nations delivered them which my fathers havedestroyed, as Gozan, and Haran, and Rezeph, and the children of Edenwhich were in Telassar? Where is the king of Hamath, and the king ofArphad, and the king of the city of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Ivah?"[538]Sidon was a party to the pro-Egyptian league which had been formed inPalestine and Syria. 

Early in his reign Esarhaddon conducted military operations in thewest, and during his absence the queen-mother Naki'a held the reins ofgovernment. The Elamites regarded this innovation as a sign ofweakness, and invaded Babylon. Sippar was plundered, and its godscarried away. The Assyrian governors, however, ultimately repulsed theElamite king, who was deposed soon after he returned home. His son, who succeeded him, restored the stolen gods, and cultivated goodrelations with Esarhaddon. There was great unrest in Elam at thisperiod: it suffered greatly from the inroads of Median and Persianpastoral fighting folk. 

In the north the Cimmerians and Scythians, who were constantly warringagainst Urartu, and against each other, had spread themselves westwardand east. Esarhaddon drove Cimmerian invaders out of Cappadocia, andthey swamped Phrygia. 

The Scythian peril on the north-east frontier was, however, of morepronounced character. The fierce mountaineers had allied themselveswith Median tribes and overrun the buffer State of the Mannai. BothUrartu and Assyria were sufferers from the brigandage of these allies. Esarhaddon's generals, however, were able to deal with the situation, and one of the notable results of the pacification of thenorth-eastern area was the conclusion of an alliance with Urartu. 

The most serious situation with which the emperor had to deal was inthe west. The King of Sidon, who had been so greatly favoured bySennacherib, had espoused the Egyptian cause. He allied himself withthe King of Cilicia, who, however, was unable to help him much. Sidonwas besieged and captured; the royal allies escaped, but a few yearslater were caught and beheaded. The famous seaport was destroyed, andits vast treasures deported to Assyria (about 676 B. C). Esarhaddonreplaced it by a new city called Kar-Esarhaddon, which formed thenucleus of the new Sidon. 

It is believed that Judah and other disaffected States were dealt withabout this time. Manasseh had succeeded Hezekiah at Jerusalem when buta boy of twelve years. He appears to have come under the influence ofheathen teachers. 

 For he built up again the high places which Hezekiah his father had destroyed; and he reared up altars for Baal, and made a grove, as did Ahab king of Israel; and worshipped all the host of heaven, and served them. .. . And he built altars for all the host of heaven in the two courts of the house of the Lord. And he made his son pass through the fire, and observed times, and used enchantments, and dealt with familiar spirits and wizards: he wrought much wickedness in the sight of the Lord, to provoke him to anger. And he set a graven image of the grove that he had made in the house, of which the Lord said to David, and to Solomon his son, In this house, and in Jerusalem, which I have chosen out of all tribes of Israel, will I put my name for ever. [539]

Isaiah ceased to prophesy after Manasseh came to the throne. Accordingto Rabbinic traditions he was seized by his enemies and enclosed inthe hollow trunk of a tree, which was sawn through. Other orthodoxteachers appear to have been slain also. "Manasseh shed innocent bloodvery much, till he had filled Jerusalem from one end to another. "[540]It is possible that there is a reference to Isaiah's fate in an earlyChristian lament regarding the persecutions of the faithful: "Othershad trial of cruel mockings and scourgings, yea, moreover of bonds andimprisonment: they were stoned, _they were sawn asunder_, weretempted, were slain with the sword". [541] There is no Assyrianevidence regarding the captivity of Manasseh. "Wherefore the Lordbrought upon them (the people of Judah) the captains of the host ofthe king of Assyria, which took Manasseh among the thorns, and boundhim with fetters, and carried him to Babylon. And when he was inaffliction, he besought the Lord his God, and humbled himself greatlybefore the God of his fathers, and prayed unto him: and he wasintreated of him, and heard his supplication, and brought him again toJerusalem into his kingdom. "[542] It was, however, in keeping with thepolicy of Esarhaddon to deal in this manner with an erring vassal. TheAssyrian records include Manasseh of Judah (Menasê of the city ofYaudu) with the kings of Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, Ashdod, Gaza, Byblos, &c, and "twenty-two kings of Khatti" as payers of tribute toEsarhaddon, their overlord. Hazael of Arabia was conciliated by havingrestored to him his gods which Sennacherib had carried away. 

Egypt continued to intrigue against Assyria, and Esarhaddon resolvedto deal effectively with Taharka, the last Ethiopian Pharaoh. In 674B. C. He invaded Egypt, but suffered a reverse and had to retreat. Tyrerevolted soon afterwards (673 B. C). 

Esarhaddon, however, made elaborate preparations for his nextcampaign. In 671 B. C. He went westward with a much more powerful army. A detachment advanced to Tyre and invested it. The main forcemeanwhile pushed on, crossed the Delta frontier, and sweptvictoriously as far south as Memphis, where Taharka suffered acrushing defeat. That great Egyptian metropolis was then occupied andplundered by the soldiers of Esarhaddon. Lower Egypt became anAssyrian province; the various petty kings, including Necho of Sais, had set over them Assyrian governors. Tyre was also captured. 

When he returned home Esarhaddon erected at the Syro-Cappadocian cityof Singirli[543] a statue of victory, which is now in the Berlinmuseum. On this memorial the Assyrian "King of the kings of Egypt" isdepicted as a giant. With one hand he pours out an oblation to a god;in the other he grasps his sceptre and two cords attached to rings, which pierce the lips of dwarfish figures representing the PharaohTaharka of Egypt and the unfaithful King of Tyre. 

In 668 B. C. Taharka, who had fled to Napata in Ethiopia, returned toUpper Egypt, and began to stir up revolts. Esarhaddon planned outanother expedition, so that he might shatter the last vestige of powerpossessed by his rival. But before he left home he found it necessaryto set his kingdom in order. 

During his absence from home the old Assyrian party, who disliked theemperor because of Babylonian sympathies, had been intriguingregarding the succession to the throne. According to the BabylonianChronicle, "the king remained in Assyria" during 669 B. C. , "and heslew with the sword many noble men". Ashur-bani-pal was evidentlyconcerned in the conspiracy, and it is significant to find that hepleaded on behalf of certain of the conspirators. The crown princeSinidinabal was dead: perhaps he had been assassinated. 

At the feast of the goddess Gula (identical with Bau, consort ofNinip), towards the end of April in 668 B. C. , Esarhaddon divided hisempire between two of his sons. Ashur-bani-pal was selected to be Kingof Assyria, and Shamash-shum-ukin to be King of Babylon and the vassalof Ashur-banipal. Other sons received important priestly appointments. 

Soon after these arrangements were completed Esarhaddon, who wassuffering from bad health, set out for Egypt. He died towards the endof October, and the early incidents of his campaign were included inthe records of Ashur-bani-pal's reign. Taharka was defeated atMemphis, and retreated southward to Thebes. 

So passed away the man who has been eulogized as "the noblest and mostsympathetic figure among the Assyrian kings". There was certainly muchwhich was attractive in his character. He inaugurated many socialreforms, and appears to have held in check his overbearing nobles. Trade flourished during his reign. He did not undertake the erectionof a new city, like his father, but won the gratitude of thepriesthood by his activities as a builder and restorer of temples. Hefounded a new "house of Ashur" at Nineveh, and reconstructed severaltemples in Babylonia. His son Ashur-bani-pal was the last greatAssyrian ruler. 

CHAPTER XX. 

THE LAST DAYS OF ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA

 Doom of Nineveh and Babylon--Babylonian Monotheism--Ashur-banipal and his Brother, King of Babylon--Ceremony of "Taking the Hands of Bel"--Merodach restored to E-sagila--Assyrian Invasion of Egypt and Sack of Thebes--Lydia's Appeal to Assyria--Elam subdued--Revolt of Babylon--Death of Babylonian King--Sack of Susa--Psamtik of Egypt--Cimmerians crushed--Ashur-bani-pal's Literary Activities--The Sardanapalus Legend--Last Kings of Assyria--Fall of Nineveh--The New Babylonian Empire--Necho of Egypt expelled from Syria--King Jehoaikin of Judah deposed--Zedekiah's Revolt and Punishment--Fall of Jerusalem and Hebrew Captivity--Jeremiah laments over Jerusalem--Babylonia's Last Independent King--Rise of Cyrus the Conqueror--The Persian Patriarch and Eagle Legend--Cyrus conquers Lydia--Fall of Babylon--Jews return to Judah--Babylon from Cyrus to Alexander the Great. 

The burden of Nineveh. .. . The Lord is slow to anger, and great inpower, and will not at all acquit the wicked: the Lord hath his way inthe whirlwind and in the storm, and the clouds are the dust of hisfeet. He rebuketh the sea, and maketh it dry, and drieth up all therivers: Bashan languisheth, and Carmel, and the flower of Lebanonlanguisheth. .. . He that dasheth in pieces is come up before thyface. .. . The gates of the rivers shall be opened, and the palace shallbe dissolved. And Huzzab shall be led away captive, she shall bebrought up, and her maids shall lead her as with the voice of doves, tabering upon their breasts. .. . Draw thee waters for the siege, fortify thy strong holds: go into clay, and tread the morter, makestrong the brick-kiln. There shall the fire devour thee; the swordshall cut thee off. .. . Thy shepherds slumber, O king of Assyria: thynobles shall dwell in the dust: thy people is scattered upon themountains, and no man gathereth them. There is no healing of thybruise; thy wound is grievous: all that hear the bruit of thee shallclap the hands over thee: for upon whom hath not thy wickedness passedcontinually?[544]

The doom of Babylon was also foretold:

 Bel boweth down, Nebo stoopeth. .. . Come down, and sit in the dust, O virgin daughter of Babylon, sit on the ground: there is no throne, O daughter of the Chaldeans. .. . Stand now with thine enchantments, and with the multitude of thy sorceries, wherein thou hast laboured from thy youth; if so be thou shalt be able to profit, if so be thou mayest prevail. Thou art wearied in the multitude of thy counsels. Let now the astrologers, the star-gazers, the monthly prognosticators, stand up, and save thee from these things that shall come upon thee. Behold, they shall be as stubble; the fire shall burn them. .. . Thus shall they be unto thee with whom thou hast laboured, even thy merchants, from thy youth: they shall wander every one to his quarter; none shall save thee. [545]

Against a gloomy background, dark and ominous as a thundercloud, wehave revealed in the last century of Mesopotamian glory the splendourof Assyria and the beauty of Babylon. The ancient civilizationsripened quickly before the end came. Kings still revelled in pomp andluxury. Cities resounded with "the noise of a whip, and the noise ofthe rattling of the wheels, and of the prancing horses, and of thejumping chariots. The horseman lifteth up both the bright sword andthe glittering spear. .. . The valiant men are in scarlet. "[546] But theminds of cultured men were more deeply occupied than ever with themysteries of life and creation. In the libraries, the temples, andobservatories, philosophers and scientists were shattering theunsubstantial fabric of immemorial superstition; they attained tohigher conceptions of the duties and responsibilities of mankind; theyconceived of divine love and divine guidance; they discovered, likeWordsworth, that the soul has--

 An obscure sense Of possible sublimity, whereto With growing faculties she doth aspire. 

One of the last kings of Babylon, Nebuchadrezzar, recorded a prayerwhich reveals the loftiness of religious thought and feeling attainedby men to whom graven images were no longer worthy of adoration andreverence--men whose god was not made by human hands--

 O eternal prince! Lord of all being! As for the king whom thou lovest, and Whose name thou hast proclaimed As was pleasing to thee, Do thou lead aright his life, Guide him in a straight path. I am the prince, obedient to thee, The creature of thy hand; Thou hast created me, and With dominion over all people Thou hast entrusted me. According to thy grace, O Lord, Which thou dost bestow on All people, Cause me to love thy supreme dominion, And create in my heart The worship of thy godhead And grant whatever is pleasing to thee, Because thou hast fashioned my life. [547]

The "star-gazers" had become scientists, and foretold eclipses: inevery sphere of intellectual activity great men were sifting out truthfrom the debris of superstition. It seemed as if Babylon and Assyriawere about to cross the threshold of a new age, when their doom wassounded and their power was shattered for ever. Nineveh perished withdramatic suddenness: Babylon died of "senile decay". 

When, in 668 B. C. , intelligence reached Nineveh that Esarhaddon hadpassed away, on the march through Egypt, the arrangements which he hadmade for the succession were carried out smoothly and quickly. Naki'a, the queen mother, was acting as regent, and completed her lifework byissuing a proclamation exhorting all loyal subjects and vassals toobey the new rulers, her grandsons, Ashur-bani-pal, Emperor ofAssyria, and Shamash-shum-ukin, King of Babylon. Peace prevailed inthe capital, and there was little or no friction throughout theprovinces: new rulers were appointed to administer the States of Arvadand Ammon, but there were no changes elsewhere. 

Babylon welcomed its new king--a Babylonian by birth and the son of aBabylonian princess. The ancient kingdom rejoiced that it was nolonger to be ruled as a province; its ancient dignities and privilegeswere being partially restored. But one great and deep-seated grievanceremained. The god Merodach was still a captive in the temple of Ashur. No king could reign aright if Merodach were not restored to E-sagila. Indeed he could not be regarded as the lord of the land until he had"taken the hands of Bel". 

The ceremony of taking the god's hands was an act of homage. When itwas consummated the king became the steward or vassal of Merodach, andevery day he appeared before the divine one to receive instructionsand worship him. The welfare of the whole kingdom depended on themanner in which the king acted towards the god. If Merodach wassatisfied with the king he sent blessings to the land; if he was angryhe sent calamities. A pious and faithful monarch was therefore theprotector of the people. 

This close association of the king with the god gave the priests greatinfluence in Babylon. They were the power behind the throne. Thedestinies of the royal house were placed in their hands; they couldstrengthen the position of a royal monarch, or cause him to be deposedif he did not satisfy their demands. A king who reigned over Babylonwithout the priestly party on his side occupied an insecure position. Nor could he secure the co-operation of the priests unless the imageof the god was placed in the temple. Where king was, there Merodachhad to be also. 

Shamash-shum-ukin pleaded with his royal brother and overlord torestore Bel Merodach to Babylon. Ashur-bani-pal hesitated for a time;he was unwilling to occupy a less dignified position, as therepresentative of Ashur, than his distinguished predecessor, in hisrelation to the southern kingdom. At length, however, he was prevailedupon to consult the oracle of Shamash, the solar lawgiver, therevealer of destiny. The god was accordingly asked ifShamash-shum-ukin could "take the hands of Bel" in Ashur's temple, andthen proceed to Babylon as his representative. In response, thepriests of Shamash informed the emperor that Bel Merodach could notexercise sway as sovereign lord so long as he remained a prisoner in acity which was not his own. 

Ashur-bani-pal accepted the verdict, and then visited Ashur's templeto plead with Bel Merodach to return to Babylon. "Let thy thoughts", he cried, "dwell in Babylon, which in thy wrath thou didst bring tonaught. Let thy face be turned towards E-sagila, thy lofty and divinetemple. Return to the city thou hast deserted for a house unworthy ofthee. O Merodach! lord of the gods, issue thou the command to returnagain to Babylon. "

Thus did Ashur-bani-pal make pious and dignified submission to thewill of the priests. A favourable response was, of course, receivedfrom Merodach when addressed by the emperor, and the god's image wascarried back to E-sagila, accompanied by a strong force. Ashur-bani-pal and Shamash-shum-ukin led the procession of priests andsoldiers, and elaborate ceremonials were observed at each city theypassed, the local gods being carried forth to do homage to Merodach. 

Babylon welcomed the deity who was thus restored to his temple afterthe lapse of about a quarter of a century, and the priests celebratedwith unconcealed satisfaction and pride the ceremony at whichShamash-shum-ukin "took the hands of Bel". The public rejoicings wereconducted on an elaborate scale. Babylon believed that a new era ofprosperity had been inaugurated, and the priests and nobles lookedforward to the day when the kingdom would once again become free andindependent and powerful. 

Ashur-bani-pal (668-626 B. C. ) made arrangements to complete hisfather's designs regarding Egypt. His Tartan continued the campaign, and Taharka, as has been stated, was driven from Memphis. The beatenPharaoh returned to Ethiopia and did not again attempt to expel theAssyrians. He died in 666 B. C. It was found that some of the pettykings of Lower Egypt had been intriguing with Taharka, and theircities were severely dealt with. Necho of Sais had to be arrested, among others, but was pardoned after he appeared beforeAshur-bani-pal, and sent back to Egypt as the Assyrian governor. 

Tanutamon, a son of Pharaoh Shabaka, succeeded Taharka, and in 663B. C. Marched northward from Thebes with a strong army. He capturedMemphis. It is believed Necho was slain, and Herodotus relates thathis son Psamtik took refuge in Syria. In 661 B. C. Ashur-bani-pal'sarmy swept through Lower Egypt and expelled the Ethiopians. Tanutamonfled southward, but on this occasion the Assyrians followed up theirsuccess, and besieged and captured Thebes, which they sacked. Itsnobles were slain or taken captive. According to the prophet Nahum, who refers to Thebes as No (Nu-Amon = city of Amon), "her youngchildren also were dashed in pieces at the top of all the streets: andthey (the Assyrians) cast lots for her honourable men, and all hergreat men were bound in chains". [548] Thebes never again recovered itsprestige. Its treasures were transported to Nineveh. The Ethiopiansupremacy in Egypt was finally extinguished, and Psamtik, son ofNecho, who was appointed the Pharaoh, began to reign as the vassal ofAssyria. 

When the kings on the seacoasts of Palestine and Asia Minor found thatthey could no longer look to Egypt for help, they resigned themselvesto the inevitable, and ceased to intrigue against Assyria. Gifts weresent to Ashur-bani-pal by the kings of Arvad, Tyre, Tarsus, and Tabal. The Arvad ruler, however, was displaced, and his son set on histhrone. But the most extraordinary development was the visit toNineveh of emissaries from Gyges, king of Lydia, who figures in thelegends of Greece. This monarch had been harassed by the Cimmeriansafter they accomplished the fall of Midas of Phrygia in 676 B. C. , andhe sought the help of Ashur-bani-pal. It is not known whether theAssyrians operated against the Cimmerians in Tabal, but, as Gyges didnot send tribute, it would appear that he held his own with the aid ofmercenaries from the State of Caria in southwestern Asia Minor. TheGreeks of Cilicia, and the Achaeans and Phoenicians of Cyprus remainedfaithful to Assyria. 

Elam gave trouble in 665 B. C. By raiding Akkad, but the Assyrian armyrepulsed the invaders at Dur-ilu and pushed on to Susa. The Elamitesreceived a crushing defeat in a battle on the banks of the River Ula. King Teumman was slain, and a son of the King of Urtagu was placed onhis throne. Elam thus came under Assyrian sway. 

The most surprising and sensational conspiracy against Ashur-bani-palwas fomented by his brother Shamash-shum-ukin of Babylon, after thetwo had co-operated peacefully for fifteen years. No doubt thepriestly party at E-sagila were deeply concerned in the movement, andthe king may have been strongly influenced by the fact that Babyloniawas at the time suffering from severe depression caused by a series ofpoor harvests. Merodach, according to the priests, was angry; it wasprobably argued that he was punishing the people because they had notthrown off the yoke of Assyria. 

The temple treasures of Babylon were freely drawn upon to purchase theallegiance of allies. Ere Ashur-bani-pal had any knowledge of theconspiracy his brother had won over several governors in Babylonia, the Chaldaeans, Aramaeans and Elamites, and many petty kings inPalestine and Syria: even Egypt and Libya were prepared to help him. When, however, the faithful governor of Ur was approached, hecommunicated with his superior at Erech, who promptly informedAshur-bani-pal of the great conspiracy. The intelligence reachedNineveh like a bolt from the blue. The emperor's heart was filled withsorrow and anguish. In after-time he lamented in an inscription thathis "faithless brother" forgot the favours he had shown him. "Outwardly with his lips he spoke friendly things, while inwardly hisheart plotted murder. "

In 652 B. C. Shamash-shum-ukin precipitated the crisis by forbiddingAshur-bani-pal to make offerings to the gods in the cities ofBabylonia. He thus declared his independence. 

War broke out simultaneously. Ur and Erech were besieged and capturedby the Chaldaeans, and an Elamite army marched to the aid of the Kingof Babylon, but it was withdrawn before long on account of theunsettled political conditions at home. The Assyrian armies sweptthrough Babylonia, and the Chaldeans in the south were completelysubjugated before Babylon was captured. That great commercialmetropolis was closely besieged for three years, and was starved intosubmission. When the Assyrians were entering the city gates asensational happening occurred. Shamash-shum-ukin, the rebel king, shut himself up in his palace and set fire to it, and perished thereamidst the flames with his wife and children, his slaves and all histreasures. Ashur-bani-pal was in 647 B. C. Proclaimed KingKandalanu[549] of Babylon, and reigned over it until his death in 626B. C. 

Elam was severely dealt with. That unhappy country was terriblydevastated by Assyrian troops, who besieged and captured Susa, whichwas pillaged and wrecked. It was recorded afterwards as a greattriumph of this campaign that the statue of Nana of Erech, which hadbeen carried off by Elamites 1635 years previously, was recovered andrestored to the ancient Sumerian city. Elam's power of resistance wasfinally extinguished, and the country fell a ready prey to the Medesand Persians, who soon entered into possession of it. Thus, bydestroying a buffer State, Ashur-bani-pal strengthened the hands ofthe people who were destined twenty years after his death to destroythe Empire of Assyria. 

The western allies of Babylon were also dealt with, and it may be thatat this time Manasseh of Judah was taken to Babylon (_2 Chronicles_, xxxiii, II), where, however, he was forgiven. The Medes and the Mannaiin the north-west were visited and subdued, and a new alliance wasformed with the dying State of Urartu. 

Psamtik of Egypt had thrown off the yoke of Assyria, and with theassistance of Carian mercenaries received from his ally, Gyges, kingof Lydia, extended his sway southward. He made peace with Ethiopia bymarrying a princess of its royal line. Gyges must have weakened hisarmy by thus assisting Psamtik, for he was severely defeated and slainby the Cimmerians. His son, Ardys, appealed to Assyria for help. Ashur-bani-pal dispatched an army to Cilicia. The joint operations ofAssyria and Lydia resulted in the extinction of the kingdom of theCimmerians about 645 B. C. 

The records of Ashur-bani-pal cease after 640 B. C. , so that we areunable to follow the events of his reign during its last fourteenyears. Apparently peace prevailed everywhere. The great monarch, whowas a pronounced adherent of the goddess cults, appears to have givenhimself up to a life of indulgence and inactivity. Under the nameSardanapalus he went down to tradition as a sensual Oriental monarchwho lived in great pomp and luxury, and perished in his burning palacewhen the Medes revolted against him. It is evident, however, that thememory of more than one monarch contributed to the Sardanapaluslegend, for Ashur-bani-pal had lain nearly twenty years in his gravebefore the siege of Nineveh took place. 

In the Bible he is referred to as "the great and noble Asnapper", andhe appears to have been the emperor who settled the Babylonian, Elamite, and other colonists "in the cities of Samaria". [550]

He erected at Nineveh a magnificent palace, which was decorated on alavish scale. The sculptures are the finest productions of Assyrianart, and embrace a wide variety of subjects--battle scenes, huntingscenes, and elaborate Court and temple ceremonies. Realism is combinedwith a delicacy of touch and a degree of originality which raises theartistic productions of the period to the front rank among theartistic triumphs of antiquity. 

Ashur-bani-pal boasted of the thorough education which he had receivedfrom the tutors of his illustrious father, Esarhaddon. In his palacehe kept a magnificent library. It contained thousands of clay tabletson which were inscribed and translated the classics of Babylonia. Tothe scholarly zeal of this cultured monarch is due the preservation ofthe Babylonian story of creation, the Gilgamesh and Etana legends, andother literary and religious products of remote antiquity. Most of theliterary tablets in the British Museum were taken fromAshur-bani-pal's library. 

There are no Assyrian records of the reigns of Ashur-bani-pal's twosons, Ashur-etil-ilani--who erected a small palace and reconstructedthe temple to Nebo at Kalkhi--and Sin-shar-ishkun, who is supposed tohave perished in Nineveh. Apparently Ashur-etil-ilani reigned for atleast six years, and was succeeded by his brother. 

A year after Ashur-bani-pal died, Nabopolassar, who was probably aChaldaean, was proclaimed king at Babylon. According to Babylonianlegend he was an Assyrian general who had been sent southward with anarmy to oppose the advance of invaders from the sea. Nabopolassar'ssway at first was confined to Babylon and Borsippa, but hestrengthened himself by forming an offensive and defensive alliancewith the Median king, whose daughter he had married to his sonNebuchadrezzar. He strengthened the fortifications of Babylon, rebuiltthe temple of Merodach, which had been destroyed by Ashur-bani-pal, and waged war successfully against the Assyrians and their allies inMesopotamia. 

About 606 B. C. Nineveh fell, and Sin-shar-ishkun may have burnedhimself there in his palace, like his uncle, Shamash-shum-ukin ofBabylon, and the legendary Sardanapalus. It is not certain, however, whether the Scythians or the Medes were the successful besiegers ofthe great Assyrian capital. "Woe to the bloody city! it is all full oflies and robbery", Nahum had cried. ". .. The gates of the rivers shallbe opened, and the palace shall be dissolved. .. . Take ye the spoil ofsilver, take the spoil of gold. .. . Behold, I am against thee, saiththe Lord of hosts[551]. "

According to Herodotus, an army of Medes under Cyaxares had defeatedthe Assyrians and were besieging Nineveh when the Scythians overranMedia. Cyaxares raised the siege and went against them, but wasdefeated. Then the Scythians swept across Assyria and Mesopotamia, andpenetrated to the Delta frontier of Egypt. Psamtik ransomed hiskingdom with handsome gifts. At length, however, Cyaxares had theScythian leaders slain at a banquet, and then besieged and capturedNineveh. 

Assyria was completely overthrown. Those of its nobles and priests whoescaped the sword no doubt escaped to Babylonia. Some may have foundrefuge also in Palestine and Egypt. 

Necho, the second Pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth Egyptian Dynasty, didnot hesitate to take advantage of Assyria's fall. In 609 B. C. Heproceeded to recover the long-lost Asiatic possessions of Egypt, andoperated with an army and fleet. Gaza and Askalon were captured. Josiah, the grandson of Manasseh, was King of Judah. "In his daysPharaoh-nechoh king of Egypt went up against the king of Assyria tothe river Euphrates: and king Josiah went against him; and he (Necho)slew him at Megiddo. "[552] His son, Jehoahaz, succeeded him, but wasdeposed three months later by Necho, who placed another son of Josiah, named Eliakim, on the throne, "and turned his name to Jehoiakim". [553]The people were heavily taxed to pay tribute to the Pharaoh. 

When Necho pushed northward towards the Euphrates he was met by aBabylonian army under command of Prince Nebuchadrezzar. [554] TheEgyptians were routed at Carchemish in 605 B. C. (_Jeremiah, _ xvi, 2). 

In 604 B. C. Nabopolassar died, and the famous Nebuchadrezzar IIascended the throne of Babylon. He lived to be one of its greatestkings, and reigned for over forty years. It was he who built the citydescribed by Herodotus (pp. 219 _et seq. _), and constructed its outerwall, which enclosed so large an area that no army could invest it. Merodach's temple was decorated with greater magnificence than everbefore. The great palace and hanging gardens were erected by thismighty monarch, who no doubt attracted to the city large numbers ofthe skilled artisans who had fled from Nineveh. He also restoredtemples at other cities, and made generous gifts to the priests. Captives were drafted into Babylonia from various lands, and employedcleaning out the canals and as farm labourers. 

The trade and industries of Babylon flourished greatly, andNebuchadrezzar's soldiers took speedy vengeance on roving bands whichinfested the caravan roads. "The king of Egypt", after his crushingdefeat at Carchemish, "came not again any more out of his land: forthe king of Babylon had taken from the river of Egypt unto the riverEuphrates all that pertained to the king of Egypt. "[555] Jehoiakim ofJudah remained faithful to Necho until he was made a prisoner byNebuchadrezzar, who "bound him in fetters to carry him toBabylon". [556] He was afterwards sent back to Jerusalem. "AndJehoiakim became his (Nebuchadrezzar's) servant three years: then heturned and rebelled against him. "[557]

Bands of Chaldaeans, Syrians, Moabites, and Ammonites were harassingthe frontiers of Judah, and it seemed to the king as if the Babylonianpower had collapsed. Nebuchadrezzar hastened westward and scatteredthe raiders before him. Jehoiakim died, and his son Jehoiachan, ayouth of eighteen years, succeeded him. Nebuchadrezzar laid siege toJerusalem, and the young king submitted to him and was carried off toBabylon, with "all the princes, and all the mighty men of valour, eventen thousand captives, and all the craftsmen and smiths: none remainedsave the poorest sort of the people of the land". [558] Nebuchadrezzarhad need of warriors and workmen. 

Zedekiah was placed on the throne of Judah as an Assyrian vassal. Heremained faithful for a few years, but at length began to conspirewith Tyre and Sidon, Moab, Edom, and Ammon in favour of Egyptiansuzerainty. Pharaoh Hophra (Apries), the fourth king of theTwenty-sixth Dynasty, took active steps to assist the conspirators, and "Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon[559]". 

Nebuchadrezzar led a strong army through Mesopotamia, and divided itat Riblah, on the Orontes River. One part of it descended upon Judahand captured Lachish and Azekah. Jerusalem was able to hold out forabout eighteen months. Then "the famine was sore in the city, so thatthere was no bread for the people of the land. Then the city wasbroken up, and all the men of war fled, and went forth out of the cityby night by way of the gate between the two walls, which was by theking's garden. " Zedekiah attempted to escape, but was captured andcarried before Nebuchadrezzar, who was at Riblah, in the land ofHamath. 

 And the king of Babylon slew the sons of Zedekiah before his eyes. .. . Then he put out the eyes of Zedekiah; and the king of Babylon bound him in chains and carried him to Babylon and put him in prison till the day of his death[560]. 

The majority of the Jews were deported to Babylonia, where they wereemployed as farm labourers. Some rose to occupy important officialpositions. A remnant escaped to Egypt with Jeremiah. 

Jerusalem was plundered and desolated. The Assyrians "burned the houseof the Lord and the king's house, and all the houses of Jerusalem", and "brake down all the walls of Jerusalem round about". Jeremiahlamented:

 How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people! how is she become as a widow! she that was great among the nations, and princess among the provinces, how is she become tributary! She weepeth sore in the night, and her tears are on her cheeks: among all her lovers she hath none to comfort her: all her friends have dealt treacherously with her, they are become her enemies. Judah is gone into captivity because of affliction, and because of great servitude: she dwelleth among the heathen, she findeth no rest: all her persecutors overtook her between the straits. .. . Jerusalem remembered in the days of her affliction and of her miseries all her pleasant things that she had in the days of old. .. . [561]

Tyre was besieged, but was not captured. Its king, however, arrangedterms of peace with Nebuchadrezzar. 

Amel-Marduk, the "Evil Merodach" of the Bible, the next king ofBabylon, reigned for a little over two years. He released Jehoiachinfrom prison, and allowed him to live in the royal palace. [562] Berosusrelates that Amel-Marduk lived a dissipated life, and was slain by hisbrother-in-law, Nergal-shar-utsur, who reigned two years (559-6 B. C. ). Labashi-Marduk, son of Nergal-shar-utsur, followed with a reign ofnine months. He was deposed by the priests. Then a Babylonian princenamed Nabu-na´id (Nabonidus) was set on the throne. He was the lastindependent king of Babylonia. His son Belshazzar appears to haveacted as regent during the latter part of the reign. 

Nabonidus engaged himself actively during his reign (556-540 B. C. ) inrestoring temples. He entirely reconstructed the house of Shamash, thesun god, at Sippar, and, towards the end of his reign, the house ofSin, the moon god, at Haran. The latter building had been destroyed bythe Medes. 

The religious innovations of Nabonidus made him exceedingly unpopularthroughout Babylonia, for he carried away the gods of Ur, Erech, Larsa, and Eridu, and had them placed in E-sagila. Merodach and hispriests were displeased: the prestige of the great god was threatenedby the policy adopted by Nabonidus. As an inscription composed afterthe fall of Babylon sets forth; Merodach "gazed over the surroundinglands . .. Looking for a righteous prince, one after his own heart, whoshould take his hands. .. . He called by name Cyrus. "

Cyrus was a petty king of the shrunken Elamite province of Anshan, which had been conquered by the Persians. He claimed to be anAchaemenian--that is a descendant of the semi-mythical Akhamanish (theAchaemenes of the Greeks), a Persian patriarch who resembled theAryo-Indian Manu and the Germanic Mannus. Akhamanish was reputed tohave been fed and protected in childhood by an eagle--the sacred eaglewhich cast its shadow on born rulers. Probably this eagle was remotelyTotemic, and the Achaemenians were descendants of an ancient eagletribe. Gilgamesh was protected by an eagle, as we have seen, as theAryo-Indian Shakuntala was by vultures and Semiramis by doves. Thelegends regarding the birth and boyhood of Cyrus resemble thoserelated regarding Sargon of Akkad and the Indian Karna and Krishna. 

Cyrus acknowledged as his overlord Astyages, king of the Medes. Herevolted against Astyages, whom he defeated and took prisoner. Thereafter he was proclaimed King of the Medes and Persians, who werekindred peoples of Indo-European speech. The father of Astyages wasCyaxares, the ally of Nabopolassar of Babylon. When this powerful kingcaptured Nineveh he entered into possession of the northern part ofthe Assyrian Empire, which extended westward into Asia Minor to thefrontier of the Lydian kingdom; he also possessed himself of Urartu(Armenia). Lydia had, after the collapse of the Cimmerian power, absorbed Phrygia, and its ambitious king, Alyattes, waged war againstthe Medes. At length, owing to the good offices of Nebuchadrezzar ofBabylon and Syennesis of Cilicia, the Medes and Lydians made peace in585 B. C. Astyages then married a daughter of the Lydian ruler. 

When Cyrus overthrew Cyaxares, king of the Medes, Croesus, king ofLydia, formed an alliance against him with Amasis, king of Egypt, andNabonidus, king of Babylon. The latter was at first friendly to Cyrus, who had attacked Cyaxares when he was advancing on Babylon to disputeNabonidus's claim to the throne, and perhaps to win it for adescendant of Nebuchadrezzar, his father's ally. It was after the fallof the Median Dynasty that Nabonidus undertook the restoration of themoon god's temple at Haran. 

Cyrus advanced westward against Croesus of Lydia before that monarchcould receive assistance from the intriguing but pleasure-lovingAmasis of Egypt; he defeated and overthrew him, and seized his kingdom(547-546 B. C. ). Then, having established himself as supreme ruler inAsia Minor, he began to operate against Babylonia. In 539 B. C. Belshazzar was defeated near Opis. Sippar fell soon afterwards. Cyrus's general, Gobryas, then advanced upon Babylon, where Belshazzardeemed himself safe. One night, in the month of Tammuz--

 Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his lords, and drank wine before the thousand. Belshazzar, whiles he tasted the wine, commanded to bring the golden and silver vessels which his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple which was in Jerusalem; that the king, and his princes, his wives, and his concubines, might drink therein. .. . They drank wine, and praised the gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood, and of stone. .. . In that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain. [563]

On the 16th of Tammuz the investing army under Gobryas enteredBabylon, the gates having been opened by friends within the city. Somethink that the Jews favoured the cause of Cyrus. It is quite aspossible, however, that the priests of Merodach had a secretunderstanding with the great Achaemenian, the "King of kings". 

A few days afterwards Cyrus arrived at Babylon. Belshazzar had beenslain, but Nabonidus still lived, and he was deported to Carmania. Perfect order prevailed throughout the city, which was firmly policedby the Persian soldiers, and there was no looting. Cyrus was welcomedas a deliverer by the priesthood. He "took the hands" of Bel Merodachat E-sagila, and was proclaimed "King of the world, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, and King of the Four Quarters". 

Cyrus appointed his son Cambyses as governor of Babylon. Although aworshipper of Ahura-Mazda and Mithra, Cambyses appears to haveconciliated the priesthood. When he became king, and swept throughEgypt, he was remembered as the madman who in a fit of passion slew asacred Apis bull. It is possible, however, that he performed what heconsidered to be a pious act: he may have sacrificed the bull toMithra. 

The Jews also welcomed Cyrus. They yearned for their native land. 

 By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remembered Zion. We hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof. For there they that carried us away captive required of us a song; and they that wasted us required of us mirth, saying, Sing us one of the songs of Zion. How shall we sing the Lord's song in a strange land? If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning. If I do not remember thee, let my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth; if I prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy. [564]

Cyrus heard with compassion the cry of the captives. 

 Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah might be fulfilled, the Lord stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing, saying, Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, The Lord God of heaven hath given me all kingdoms of the earth; and he hath charged me to build him an house at Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Who is there among you of all his people? his God be with him, and let him go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judah, and build the house of the Lord God of Israel (he is the God) which is in Jerusalem. [565]

In 538 B. C. The first party of Jews who were set free saw throughtears the hills of home, and hastened their steps to reach Mount Zion. Fifty years later Ezra led back another party of the faithful. Thework of restoring Jerusalem was undertaken by Nehemiah in 445 B. C. 

The trade of Babylon flourished under the Persians, and the influenceof its culture spread far and wide. Persian religion was infused withnew doctrines, and their deities were given stellar attributes. Ahura-Mazda became identified with Bel Merodach, as, perhaps, he hadpreviously been with Ashur, and the goddess Anahita absorbed theattributes of Nina, Ishtar, Zerpanituᵐ, and other Babylonian "motherdeities". 

Another "Semiramis" came into prominence. This was the wife and sisterof Cambyses. After Cambyses died she married Darius I, who, likeCyrus, claimed to be an Achaemenian. He had to overthrow a pretender, but submitted to the demands of the orthodox Persian party to purifythe Ahura-Mazda religion of its Babylonian innovations. Frequentrevolts in Babylon had afterwards to be suppressed. The Merodachpriesthood apparently suffered loss of prestige at Court. According toHerodotus, Darius plotted to carry away from E-sagila a great statueof Bel "twelve cubits high and entirely of solid gold". He, however, was afraid "to lay his hands upon it". Xerxes, son of Darius (485-465B. C. ), punished Babylon for revolting, when intelligence reached themof his disasters in Greece, by pillaging and partly destroying thetemple. "He killed the priest who forbade him to move the statue, andtook it away. "[566] The city lost its vassal king, and was put underthe control of a governor. It, however, regained some of its ancientglory after the burning of Susa palace, for the later Persian monarchsresided in it. Darius II died at Babylon, and Artaxerxes II promotedin the city the worship of Anaitis. 

When Darius III, the last Persian emperor, was overthrown by Alexanderthe Great in 331 B. C. , Babylon welcomed the Macedonian conqueror as ithad welcomed Cyrus. Alexander was impressed by the wisdom andaccomplishments of the astrologers and priests, who had become knownas "Chaldaeans", and added Bel Merodach to his extraordinary pantheon, which already included Amon of Egypt, Melkarth, and Jehovah. Impressedby the antiquity and magnificence of Babylon, he resolved to make itthe capital of his world-wide empire, and there he receivedambassadors from countries as far east as India and as far west asGaul. 

The canals of Babylonia were surveyed, and building operations on avast scale planned out. No fewer than ten thousand men were engagedworking for two months reconstructing and decorating the temple ofMerodach, which towered to a height of 607 feet. It looked as ifBabylon were about to rise to a position of splendour unequalled inits history, when Alexander fell sick, after attending a banquet, anddied on an evening of golden splendour sometime in June of 323 B. C. 

One can imagine the feelings of the Babylonian priests and astrologersas they spent the last few nights of the emperor's life reading "theomens of the air"--taking note of wind and shadow, moon and stars andplanets, seeking for a sign, but unable to discover one favourable. Their hopes of Babylonian glory were suspended in the balance, andthey perished completely when the young emperor passed away in thethirty-third year of his life. For four days and four nights thecitizens mourned in silence for Alexander and for Babylon. 

The ancient city fell into decay under the empire of the Seleucidae. Seleucus I had been governor of Babylon, and after the break-up ofAlexander's empire he returned to the ancient metropolis as aconqueror. "None of the persons who succeeded Alexander", Strabowrote, "attended to the undertaking at Babylon"--the reconstruction ofMerodach's temple. "Other works were neglected, and the city wasdilapidated partly by the Persians and partly by time and through theindifference of the Greeks, particularly after Seleucus Nicatorfortified Seleukeia on the Tigris. "[567]

Seleucus drafted to the city which bore his name the great bulk of theinhabitants of Babylon. The remnant which was left behind continued toworship Merodach and other gods after the walls had crumbled and thegreat temple began to tumble down. Babylon died slowly, but at lengththe words of the Hebrew prophet were fulfilled:

 The cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it. .. . They shall call the nobles thereof to the kingdom, but none shall be there, and all her princes shall be nothing. And thorns shall come up in her palaces, nettles and brambles in the fortresses thereof: and it shall be an habitation of dragons, and a court for owls. The wild beasts of the desert shall also meet with the wild beasts of the island, and the satyr shall cry to his fellow: the screech owl also shall rest there, and find for herself a place of rest. [568]

FOOTNOTES

[1] _Life of Apollonius of Tyana_, i, 20. 

[2] _Egyptian Tales_ (Second Series), W. M. Flinders Petrie, pp. 98 _etseq. _

[3] _Revelation_, xviii. The Babylon of the Apocalypse is generallybelieved to symbolize or be a mystic designation of Rome. 

[4] _Nineveh and Its Remains_, vol. I, p. 17. 

[5] _Ezra_, iv, 10. 

[6] The culture god. 

[7] Langdon's _Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms_, p. 179. 

[8] _Crete the Forerunner of Greece_, p. 18. 

[9] _The Scapegoat vol. _, p. 409 (3rd edition). 

[10] _The Seven Tablets of Creation_, L. W. King, p. 129. 

[11] _Ibid_, pp. 133-4. 

[12] _The Races of Europe_, W. Z. Ripley, p. 203. 

[13] _The Ancient Egyptians_, by Elliot Smith, p. 41 _et seq. _

[14] _The Ancient Egyptians_, p. 140. 

[15] _Crete the Forerunner of Greece_, C. H. And H. B. Hawes, 1911, p. 23 _et seq. _

[16] _The Races of Europe_, W. Z. Ripley, p. 443 _et seq. _

[17] _The Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 144-5. 

[18] _The Ancient Egyptians_, p. 114. 

[19] _The Ancient Egyptians_, p. 136. 

[20] _A History of Palestine_, R. A. S. Macalister, pp. 8-16. 

[21] _The Mediterranean Race_ (1901 trans. ), G. Sergi, p. 146 _et seq. _

[22] _The Ancient Egyptians_, p. 130. 

[23] _A History of Civilization in Palestine, p. 20 et seq. _

[24] _Joshua_, xi. 21. 

[25] _Genesis_, xxiii. 

[26] _Genesis_, xvi. 8, 9. 

[27] _1 Kings_, xvi. 16. 

[28] _2 Kings_, xviii, 32. 

[29] _Herodotus_, i, 193. 

[30] Peter's _Nippur_, i, p. 160. 

[31] A Babylonian priest of Bel Merodach. In the third century a. C. Hecomposed in Greek a history of his native land, which has perished. Extracts from it are given by Eusebius, Josephus, Apollodorus, andothers. 

[32] _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. 140, 141. 

[33] _The Religion of the Semites_, pp. 159, 160. 

[34] _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, M. Jastrow, p. 88. 

[35] _The Seven Tablets of Creation_, L. W. King, vol. I, p. 129. 

[36] _Religious Belief in Babylonia and Assyria_, M. Jastrow, p. 88. 

[37] _Cosmology of the Rigveda, _ Wallis, and _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 10. 

[38] _The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records andLegends of Assyria and Babylonia_, T. G. Pinches, pp. 59-61. 

[39] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, T. G. Pinches, pp. 91, 92. 

[40] _Joshua_, xv, 41; xix, 27. 

[41] _Judges_, xvi, 14. 

[42] _I Sam_. , v, 1-9. 

[43] _I Sam_. , vi, 5. 

[44] _The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_, R. Campbell Thompson, London, 1903, vol. I, p. Xlii. 

[45] _The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_, R. C. Thompson, vol. I, p. Xliii. 

[46] _A History of Sumer and Akkad_, L. W. King, p. 54. 

[47] _The Gods of the Egyptians_, E. Wallis Budge, vol. I, p. 290. 

[48] _The Gods of the Egyptians_, vol. I, p. 287. 

[49] _The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_, vol. I, _Intro_. Seealso Sayce's _The Religion of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia_ (GiffordLectures, 1902), p. 385, and Pinches' _The Old Testament in the Light ofHistorical Records_, &c. , p. 71. 

[50] _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 100. 

[51] Maspero's _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 156 _et seq. _

[52] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, p. I _et seq. _ The saliva of the frailand elderly was injurious. 

[53] _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, E. Wallis Budge, vol. Ii, p. 203 _et seq. _

[54] _Brana's Popular Antiquities_, vol. Iii, pp. 259-263 (1889 ed. ). 

[55] _The Religion of the Semites_, pp. 158, 159. 

[56] _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, E. Thurston, iv, 187. 

[57] _Omens and Superstitions of Southern India_, E. Thurston (1912), pp. 245, 246. 

[58] Pausanias, ii, 24, 1. 

[59] _Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_, R. C. Thompson, vol. Ii, tablet Y. 

[60] _Animism_, E. Clodd, p. 37. 

[61] _2 Kings_, xvi, 3. 

[62] _Ezekiel_, xx, 31. 

[63] _Leviticus_, xviii, 21. 

[64] _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 65. 

[65] _Religious Belief in Babylonia and Assyria_, M. Jastrow, pp. 312, 313. 

[66] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, T. G. Pinches, p. 81. 

[67] In early times two goddesses searched for Tammuz at differentperiods. 

[68] _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 30. 

[69] _Early Religious Poetry of Persia_, p. 35. 

[70] _Early Religious Poetry of Persia_, p. 37. 

[71] _The Golden Bough_ (Spirits of the Corn and Wild, vol. Ii, p. 10), 3rd edition. 

[72] _Indian Wisdom_, Sir Monier Monier-Williams. 

[73] _A History of Sanskrit Literature_, Professor Macdonell. 

[74] _Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, M. Jastrow, pp. 111, 112. 

[75] _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. Xxxii, and 38 _et seq. _

[76] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, T. G. Pinches, p. 94. 

[77] _The Religion of Ancient Greece_, J. E. Harrison, p. 46, and Isoc. _Orat. _, v, 117

[78] _The Acts_, xvii, 22-31. 

[79] _Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_, vol. Ii, p. 149 _et seq. _

[80] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, xxxix, _n. _

[81] _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, J. H. Breasted, pp. 38, 74. 

[82] _Custom and Myth_, p. 45 _et seq. _

[83] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 108. 

[84] Act iv, scene 1. 

[85] _Paradise Lost_, book ix. 

[86] Chapman's _Caesar and Pompey_. 

[87] _Natural History_, 2nd book. 

[88] _Indian Myth and Legend_, 70, n. 

[89] _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. 202-5, 400, 401. 

[90] _Teutonic Myth and Legend_, p. 424 et seq. 

[91] _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 164 et seq. 

[92] _Popular Religion and Folk Lore of Northern India_, W. Crooke, vol. I, p. 254. 

[93] When a person, young or old, is dying, near relatives must not callout their names in case the soul may come back from the spirit world. Asimilar belief still lingers, especially among women, in the Lowlands. The writer was once present in a room when a child was supposed to bedying. Suddenly the mother called out the child's name in agonizedvoice. It revived soon afterwards. Two old women who had attempted toprevent "the calling" shook their heads and remarked: "She has done it!The child will never do any good in this world after being called back. "In England and Ireland, as well as in Scotland, the belief also prevailsin certain localities that if a dying person is "called back" the soulwill tarry for another twenty-four hours, during which the individualwill suffer great agony. 

[94] _A Journey in Southern Siberia_, Jeremiah Curtin, pp. 103, 104. 

[95] Vol. I, p. 305. 

[96] _Adi Parva_ section of _Mahàbhàrata_, Roy's trans. , p. 635. 

[97] Jastrow's _Aspects of Religious Belief in Babylonia_, &c. , p. 312. 

[98] R. C. Thompson's trans. 

[99] _The Elder or Poetic Edda_, Olive Bray, part i, p. 53. 

[100] _Babylonian Religion_, L. W. King, pp. 186-8. 

[101] _The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_, R. Campbell Thompson, vol. I, p. 53 et seq. 

[102] _Omens and Superstitions of Southern India_, E. Thurston, p. 124. 

[103] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 110. 

[104] _Beowulf_, Clark Hall, p. 14. 

[105] _Ezekiel_, viii. 

[106] _Psalms_, cxxvi. 

[107] _The Burden of Isis_, J. T. Dennis _(Wisdom of the East_ series), pp. 21, 22. 

[108] _Religion of the Semites_, pp. 412, 414. 

[109] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, pp. 45 et seq. 

[110] Langdon's _Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms_, pp. 319-321. 

[111] Campbell's _West Highland Tales_, vol. Iii, p. 74. 

[112] _West Highland Tales_, vol. Iii, pp. 85, 86. 

[113] If Finn and his band were really militiamen--the originalFenians--as is believed in Ireland, they may have had attached to theirmemories the legends of archaic Iberian deities who differed from theCeltic Danann deities. Theodoric the Goth, as Dietrich von Bern, wasidentified, for instance, with Donar or Thunor (Thor), the thunder god. In Scotland Finn and his followers are all giants. Diarmid is thepatriarch of the Campbell clan, the MacDiarmids being "sons of Diarmid". 

[114] Isaiah condemns a magical custom connected with the worship ofTammuz in the garden, _Isaiah_, xvii, 9, 11. This "Garden of Adonis" isdealt with in the next chapter. 

[115] Quotations are from _Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms_, translatedby Stephen Langdon, Ph. D. (Paris and London, 1909), pp. 299-341. 

[116] _Beowulf_, translated by J. R. Clark Hall (London, 1911), pp. 9-11. 

[117] For Frey's connection with the Ynglings see Morris and Magnusson's_Heimskringla_ (_Saga Library_, vol. Iii, pp. 23-71. 

[118] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 72. 

[119] Langdon's _Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms_, pp. 325, 339. 

[120] Professor Oldenberg's translation. 

[121] Osiris is also invoked to "remove storms and rain and givefecundity in the nighttime". As a spring sun god he slays demons; as alunar god he brings fertility. 

[122] Like the love-compelling girdle of Aphrodite. 

[123] A wedding bracelet of crystal is worn by Hindu women; they breakit when the husband dies. 

[124] Quotations from the translation in _The Chaldean Account ofGenesis_, by George Smith. 

[125] Langdon's _Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms_, p. 329 _et seq. _

[126] _The Burden of Isis_, translated by J. T. Dennis (_Wisdom of theEast_ series), pp. 24, 31, 32, 39, 45, 46, 49. 

[127] _The Burden of Isis_, pp. 22, 46. 

[128] _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia andAssyria_, p. 137, and _Herodotus_, book i, 199. 

[129] _The Burden of Isis_, p. 47. 

[130] _Original Sanskrit Texts_, J. Muir, London, 1890, vol. I, p. 67. 

[131] _Original Sanskrit Texts_, vol. I, p. 44. 

[132] _Adi Parva_ section of _Mahàbhàrata_ (Roy's translation), pp. 553, 555. 

[133] _Ancient Irish Poetry_, Kuno Meyer (London, 1911), pp. 88-90. 

[134] Translations from _The Elder Edda_, by O. Bray (part i), London, 1908. 

[135] _Babylonian Religion_, L. W. King, pp. 160, 161. 

[136] Tennyson's _A Dream of Fair Women. _

[137] _Greece and Babylon_, L. R. Farnell (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 35. 

[138] The goddesses did not become prominent until the "late invasion"of the post-Vedic Aryans. 

[139] _Greece and Babylon_, p. 96. 

[140] _Jeremiah_, xliv. 

[141] _Jeremiah, vii, 18. _

[142] _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia andAssyria_, pp. 348, 349. 

[143] _Jeremiah, vii, 17. _

[144] _Nehemiah_, i, 1. 

[145] _Esther_, i, 6. 

[146] _Isaiah_, xiii, 19-22. 

[147] _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. 173-175 and 192-194. 

[148] Or Rimush. 

[149] _Genesis_, xiv. 

[150] That is, the equivalent of Babylonia. During the Kassite periodthe name was Karduniash. 

[151] The narrative follows _The Seven Tablets of Creation_ and otherfragments, while the account given by Berosus is also drawn upon. 

[152] The elder Bel was Enlil of Nippur and the younger Merodach ofBabylon. According to Damascius the elder Bel came into existence beforeEa, who as Enki shared his attributes. 

[153] This is the inference drawn from fragmentary texts. 

[154] A large portion of the narrative is awaiting here. 

[155] A title of Tiamat; pron. _ch_ guttural. 

[156] There is another gap here which interrupts the narrative. 

[157] This may refer to Ea's first visit when he overcame Kingu, but didnot attack Tiamat. 

[158] The lightning trident or thunderstone. 

[159] The authorities are not agreed as to the meaning of "Ku-pu. "Jensen suggests "trunk, body". In European dragon stories the heroes ofthe Siegfried order roast and eat the dragon's heart. Then they areinspired with the dragon's wisdom and cunning. Sigurd and Siegfriedimmediately acquire the language of birds. The birds are the "Fates", and direct the heroes what next they should do. Apparently Merodach's"cunning plan" was inspired after he had eaten a part of the body ofTiamat. 

[160] The waters above the firmament. 

[161] According to Berosus. 

[162] This portion is fragmentary and seems to indicate that theBabylonians had made considerable progress in the science of astronomy. It is suggested that they knew that the moon derived its light from thesun. 

[163] _The Seven Tablets of Creation_, L. W. King, pp. 134, 135. 

[164] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, T. G. Pinches, p. 43. 

[165] _The Seven Tablets of Creation_, L. W. King, vol. I, pp. 98, 99. 

[166] _Trans. Soc. Bib. Arch_. , iv, 251-2. 

[167] Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_, i, 3, 8. 

[168] _Isaiah_, li, 8. 

[169] Campbell's _West Highland Tales_, pp. 136 _et seq. _

[170] _The Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great_, E. A. WallisBudge, pp. 284, 285. 

[171] Campbell's _West Highland Tales_. 

[172] _Nehemiah_, ii, 13. 

[173] _The Tempest_, i, 2, 212. 

[174] _Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition_, vol. Iv, p. 176 et seq. 

[175] From unpublished folk tale. 

[176] _Beowulf_, translated by Clark Hall, London, 1911, p. 18 et seq. 

[177] _Beowulf_, translated by Clark Hall, London, 1911, p. 69, lines1280-1287. 

[178] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, pp. 260, 261. 

[179] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, pp. 8, 9. 

[180] _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. Xli, 149, 150. 

[181] _Isaiah_, li, 9. 

[182] _Psalms_, lxxiv, 13, 14. It will be noted that the Semitic dragon, like the Egyptian, is a male. 

[183] _Job_, xxvi, 12, 13. 

[184] _Psalms_, lxxxix, 10. 

[185] _Isaiah_, xxvii, I. 

[186] _Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms_, p. 204. 

[187] _Custom and Myth_, pp. 45 et seq. 

[188] Translation by Dr. Langdon, pp. 199 _et seq. _

[189] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, T. G. Pinches, pp. 118, 119. 

[190] It is suggested that Arthur is derived from the Celtic word for"bear". If so, the bear may have been the "totem" of the Arthur triberepresented by the Scottish clan of MacArthurs. 

[191] See "Lady in the Straw" beliefs in _Brand's Popular Antiquities_, vol. Ii, 66 _et seq. _ (1899 ed. ). 

[192] Like the Etana "mother eagle" Garuda was a slayer of serpents(Chapter III). 

[193] _Vana Parva_ section of the _Mahábhárata_ (Roy's trans. ), p. 818_et seq. _, and _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 413. 

[194] _The Koran_ (with notes from approved commentators), trans. ByGeorge Sale, P-246, _n_. 

[195] _The Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great_, E. Wallis Budge(London, 1896), pp. 277-8, 474-5. 

[196] Campbell's _West Highland Tales_, vol. Iii, pp. 251-4 (1892 ed. ). 

[197] _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, A. Wiedemann, p. 141. 

[198] _Adi Parva_ section of the _Mahàbhàrata_ (Hymn to Garuda), Roy'strans. , p. 88, 89. 

[199] Herodian, iv, 2. 

[200] The image made by Nebuchadnezzar is of interest in thisconnection. He decreed that "whoso falleth not down and worshippeth"should be burned in the "fiery furnace". The Hebrews, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, were accordingly thrown into the fire, but were deliveredby God. _Daniel_, iii, 1-30. 

[201] The Assyrian and Phoenician Hercules is discussed by RaoulRochette in _Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres_(Paris, 1848), pp. 178 et seq. 

[202] G. Sale's _Koran_, p. 246, n. 

[203] In the Eddic poem "Lokasenna" the god Byggvir (Barley) isaddressed by Loki, "Silence, Barleycorn!" _The Elder Edda_, translationby Olive Bray, pp. 262, 263. 

[204] _De Nat. Animal_. , xii, 21, ed. Didot, p. 210, quoted by ProfessorBudge in _The Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great_, p. 278, n. 

[205] _Isaiah_, lvii, 4 and 5. 

[206] _The Golden Bough (Adonis, Attis, Osiris_ vol. ), "The Gardens ofAdonis", pp. 194 _et seq. _ (3rd ed. ). 

[207] _Daniel_, iv, 33. It is possible that Nebuchadnezzar, as the humanrepresentative of the god of corn and fertility, imitated the god byliving a time in the wilds like Ea-bani. 

[208] Pronounce _ch_ guttural. 

[209] On a cylinder seal the heroes each wrestle with a bull. 

[210] Alexander the Great in the course of his mythical travels reacheda mountain at the world-end. "Its peak reached to the first heaven andits base to the seventh earth. "--_Budge_. 

[211] Jastrow's trans. , _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice inBabylonia and Assyria_, p. 374. 

[212] _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_ (1912), J. H. Breasted, pp. 183-5. 

[213] _Ecclesiastes_, ix, 7-9. 

[214] Ibid. , xii, 13. 

[215] Perhaps brooding and undergoing penance like an Indian Rishi withpurpose to obtain spiritual power. 

[216] Probably to perform the ceremony of pouring out a libation. 

[217] _Saxo_, iii, 71. 

[218] Ibid. , viii, 291. 

[219] _The Elder Edda_, O. Bray, pp. 157 et seq. See also _Teutonic Mythand Legend_. 

[220] _The Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great_, E. Wallis Budge, pp. Xl et seq. , 167 et seq. 

[221] _The Koran_, trans, by G. Sale, pp. 222, 223 (chap. Xviii). 

[222] _Vana Parva_ section of the _Mahàbhàrata_ (Roy's trans. ), pp. 435-60, and _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. 105-9. 

[223] _Vana Parva_ section of the _Mahàbhàrata_ (Roy's translation), pp. 832, 833. 

[224] Ea addresses the hut in which his human favourite, Pir-napishtim, slept. His message was conveyed to this man in a dream. 

[225] The second sentence of Ea's speech is conjectural, as the linesare mutilated. 

[226] _The Muses' Pageant_, W. M. L. Hutchinson, pp. 5 _et seq. _

[227] _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. 107 _et seq. _

[228] _Vana Parva_ section of the _Mahábhárata_ (Roy's trans. ), p. 425. 

[229] _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 141. 

[230] _Book of Leinster_, and Keating's _History of Ireland_, p. 150(1811 ed. ). 

[231] _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, A. Wiedemann, pp. 58 _etseq. _

[232] Pinches' _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 42. 

[233] The problems involved are discussed from different points of viewby Mr. L. W. King in _Babylonian Religion_ (Books on Egypt and Chaldaea, vol. Iv), Professor Pinches in _The Old Testament in the Light of theHistorical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia, _ and othervols. 

[234] _Primitive Constellations_, vol. I, pp. 334-5. 

[235] _Indian Myth and Legend_, chap. Iii. 

[236] Professor Macdonell's translation. 

[237] _Indian Wisdom_. 

[238] "Varuna, the deity bearing the noose as his weapon", _Sabha Parva_section of the _Mahábhárata_ (Roy's trans. ), p. 29. 

[239] _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. 38-42. 

[240] _Early Religious Poetry of Persia_, J. H. Moulton, pp. 41 _et seq. _and 154 _et seq. _

[241] _The Elder Edda_, O. Bray, p. 55. 

[242] _The Elder Edda_, O. Bray, pp. 291 _et seq. _

[243] _Celtic Myth and Legend_, pp. 133 _et seq. _

[244] Tennyson's _The Passing of Arthur_. 

[245] _Job_, x, 1-22. 

[246] _The Elder Edda_, O. Bray, pp. 150-1. 

[247] _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 326. 

[248] _The Religion of Ancient Rome_, Cyril Bailey, p. 50. 

[249] _The Life and Exploits of Alexander the Great (Ethiopic version ofthe Pseudo Callisthenes)_, pp. 133-4. The conversation possibly nevertook place, but it is of interest in so far as it reflects beliefs whichwere familiar to the author of this ancient work. His Brahmans evidentlybelieved that immortality was denied to ordinary men, and reserved onlyfor the king, who was the representative of the deity, of course. 

[250] _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia andAssyria_, Morris Jastrow, pp. 358-9. 

[251] The _Mahàbhàrata_ (_Sabha Parva_ section), Roy's translation, pp. 25-7. 

[252] _A History of Sumer and Akkad_, L. W. King, pp. 181-2. 

[253] _Genesis_, xxxv, 2-4. 

[254] _The Religion of Ancient Egypt_, W. M. Flinders Petrie, p. 72. 

[255] _Sabha Parva_ section of the _Mahàbhàrata_ (Roy's trans. ), p. 29. 

[256] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, p. 214. 

[257] Canto iv:--

[258] _1 Samuel_, xxiii, 9-11. 

[259] _1 Kings_, xix, 19 and _2 Kings_, ii, 13-15. 

[260] _The Burial Customs of Ancient Egypt_, John Garstang, pp. 28, 29(London, 1907). 

[261] _Herod. _, book i, 198. 

[262] _Records of the Past_ (old series), xi, pp. 109 et seq. , and (newseries), vol. I, pp. 149 et seq. 

[263] L. W. King's _The Seven Tablets of Creation_. 

[264] _Herodotus_, book i, 179 (Rawlinson's translation). 

[265] _Isaiah_, xlv, 1, 2. 

[266] _Herodotus_, book i, 181-3 (Rawlinson's translation). 

[267] _History of Sumer and Akkad_, L. W. King, p. 37. 

[268] _Herodotus_, book i, 196 (Rawlinson's translation). 

[269] _Home Life of the Highlanders_ (Dr. Cameron Gillies on _MedicalKnowledge_, ) pp. 85 _et seq. _ Glasgow, 1911. 

[270] Translations by R. C. Thompson in _The Devils and Spirits ofBabylon_, vol. I, pp. Lxiii _et seq. _

[271] Bridges which lead to graveyards. 

[272] _Genesis_, xii and xiii. 

[273] _Genesis_, xiv, 13. 

[274] _Ibid_. , xxiii. 

[275] _Ezekiel_, xvi, 3. 

[276] _Genesis_, xiv, 1-4. 

[277] _Ibid_. , 5-24. 

[278] _Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and Letters_, C. H. W. Johns, pp. 392 _et seq. _

[279] Translation by Johns in _Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and Letters_, pp. 390 _et seq. _

[280] _Matthew_, ix, 37. 

[281] Johns's _Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, &c. _, pp. 371-2. 

[282] _The Land of the Hittites_, John Garstang, pp. 312 _et seq. _ and315 _et seq. _

[283] _The Ancient Egyptian_, pp. 106 _et seq. _

[284] _The Ancient Egyptians_, p. 130. 

[285] _Struggle of the Nations_ (1896), p. 19. 

[286] Note contributed to _The Land of the Hittites_, J. Garstang, p. 324. 

[287] _Genesis_, xxvi, 34, 35. 

[288] _Ezekiel_, xvi, 45. 

[289] _Genesis_, xxvii, 46. 

[290] _Genesis_, xxviii, 1, 2. 

[291] _Genesis_, xxiv. 

[292] _The Syrian Goddess_, John Garstang (London, 1913), pp. 17-8. 

[293] _Vedic Index of Names and Subjects_, Macdonald & Keith, vol. I, pp. 64-5 (London, 1912). 

[294] _The Wanderings of Peoples_, p. 21. 

[295] Breasted's _History of Egypt_, pp. 219-20. 

[296] _A History of Egypt_, W. M. Flinders Petrie, vol. Ii, p. 146 _etseq. _ (1904 ed. ). 

[297] _A History of Egypt_, W. M. Flinders Petrie, vol. Ii, p. 147 (1904ed. ). 

[298] _The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records andLegends of Assyria and Babylonia, _ pp. 126 _et seq. _

[299] His connection with Anu is discussed in chapter xiv. 

[300] _Ancient Assyria_, C. H. W. Johns, p. 11 (London, 1912). 

[301] _The Tell-el-Amarna Letters_, Hugo Winckler, p. 31. 

[302] "It may be worth while to note again", says Beddoe, "how oftenfinely developed skulls are discovered in the graveyards of oldmonasteries, and how likely seems Galton's conjecture, that progress wasarrested in the Middle Ages, because the celibacy of the clergy broughtabout the extinction of the best strains of blood. " _The AnthropologicalHistory of Europe_, p. 161 (1912). 

[303] _Census of India_, vol. I, part i, pp. 352 et seq. 

[304] _Hibbert Lectures_, Professor Sayce, p. 328. 

[305] _The Story of Nala_, Monier Williams, pp. 68-9 and 77. 

[306] "In Ymer's flesh (the earth) the dwarfs were engendered and beganto move and live. .. . The dwarfs had been bred in the mould of the earth, just as worms are in a dead body. " _The Prose Edda_. "The gods . .. Tookcounsel whom they should make the lord of dwarfs out of Ymer's blood(the sea) and his swarthy limbs (the earth). " _The Elder Edda (Voluspa_, stanza 9). 

[307] _The Story of Nala_, Monier Williams, p. 67. 

[308] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, pp. 168 _it seq. _

[309] _The Burden of Isis_, Dennis, p. 24. 

[310] _Babylonian Magic and Sorcery_, p. 117. 

[311] _Babylonian and Assyrian Religion_, T. G. Pinches, p. L00. 

[312] _The Burden of Isis_, J. T. Dennis, p. 49. 

[313] _Ibid_. , p. 52. 

[314] _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, A. Wiedemann, p. 30. 

[315] _Vedic Index_, Macdonell & Keith, vol. I, pp. 423 _et seq. _

[316] _Religion of the Ancient Babylonians_, Sayce, p. 153, n. 6. 

[317] _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, A. Wiedemann, p. 30. 

[318] _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia andAssyria_, p. 95. 

[319] _Babylonian and Assyrian Religion_, pp. 63 and 83. 

[320] When the King of Assyria transported the Babylonians, &c. , toSamaria "the men of Cuth made Nergal", _2 Kings_, xvii, 30. 

[321] _Babylonian and Assyrian Religion_, p. 80. 

[322] _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 13. 

[323] Derived from the Greek zōon, an animal. 

[324] _The Hittites_, pp. 116, 119, 120, 272. 

[325] "The sun. .. Is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber, andrejoiceth as a strong man to run a race. " (_Psalm_ xix, 4 _et seq. _) Themarriage of the sun bridegroom with the moon bride appears to occur inHittite mythology. In Aryo-Indian Vedic mythology the bride of the sun(Surya) is Ushas, the Dawn. The sun maiden also married the moon god. The Vedic gods ran a race and Indra and Agni were the winners. The sunwas "of the nature of Agni". _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. 14, 36, 37. 

[326] Or golden. 

[327] The later reference is to Assyria. There was no Assyrian kingdomwhen these early beliefs were developed. 

[328] _Primitive Constellations_, R. Brown, jun. , vol. Ii, p. 1 _etseq. _

[329] In India "finger counting" (Kaur guna) is associated with prayeror the repeating of mantras. The counting is performed by the thumb, which, when the hand is drawn up, touches the upper part of the thirdfinger. The two upper "chambers" of the third finger are counted, thenthe two upper "chambers" of the little finger; the thumb then touchesthe tip of each finger from the little finger to the first; when itcomes down into the upper chamber of the first finger 9 is counted. By asimilar process each round of 9 on the right hand is recorded by theleft up to 12; 12 X 9 = 108 repetitions of a mantra. The upper"chambers" of the fingers are the "best" or "highest" (uttama), thelower (adhama) chambers are not utilized in the prayer-counting process. When Hindus sit cross-legged at prayers, with closed eyes, the righthand is raised from the elbow in front of the body, and the thumb moveseach time a mantra is repeated; the left hand lies palm upward on theleft knee, and the thumb moves each time nine mantras have been counted. 

[330] _Primitive Constellations_, R. Brown, jun. , vol. Ii, p. 61; and_Early History of Northern India, _ J. F. Hewitt, pp. 551-2. 

[331] _Rigveda-Samhita, _ vol. Iv (1892), p. 67. 

[332] _Vedic Index_, Macdonell & Keith, vol. Ii, pp. 192 _et seq. _

[333] _Indian Myth and Legend_

[334] Pp. 107 _et seq. _

[335] _Primitive Constellation_, R. Brown, jun. , vol. I, 1. 333. A tableis given showing how 120 saroi equals 360 degrees, each king beingidentified with a star. 

[336] "Behold, his majesty the god Ra is grown old; his bones are becomesilver, his limbs gold, and his hair pure lapis lazuli. " _Religion ofthe Ancient Egyptians, _ A. Wiedemann, p. 58. Ra became a destroyer aftercompleting his reign as an earthly king. 

[337] As Nin-Girau, Tammuz was associated with "sevenfold" Orion. 

[338] _Babylonian and Assyrian Life_, pp. 61, 62. 

[339] Herodotus (ii, 52) as quoted in _Egypt and Scythia_ (London, 1886), p. 49. 

[340] _Babylonian Magic and Sorcery_, L. W. King (London, 1896), pp. 43and 115. 

[341] _Vedic Index_, Macdonell & Keith, vol. Ii, p. 229. 

[342] _Ibid_ vol. I, pp. 409, 410. 

[343] _Ibid_ vol. I, p. 415. 

[344] _Primitive Constellations_, vol. I, p. 343. 

[345] _Custom and Myth_, pp. 133 _et seq. _

[346] Dr. Alfred Jeremias gives very forcible reasons for believing thatthe ancient Babylonians were acquainted with the precession of theequinoxes. _Das Alter der Babylonischen Astronomie_ (Hinrichs, Leipzig, 1908), pp. 47 _et seq. _

[347] _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia andAssyria_, pp. 207 _et seq. _

[348] _A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians_, p. 93. 

[349] _Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs_, pp. 219, 220. 

[350] _Primitive Constellations_, vol. Ii, pp. 147 et seq. 

[351] The Aryo-Indians had a lunar year of 360 days (_Vedic Index_, ii, 158). 

[352] _A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians_, p. 94. 

[353] _Twelfth Night_, act ii, scene 5. 

[354] _Childe Harold_, canto iii, v, 88. 

[355] _Genesis_, x, 11. 

[356] "A number of tablets have been found in Cappadocia of the time ofthe Second Dynasty of Ur which show marked affinities with Assyria. Thedivine name Ashir, as in early Assyrian texts, the institution ofeponyms and many personal names which occur in Assyria, are socharacteristic that we must assume kinship of peoples. But whether theywitness to a settlement in Cappadocia from Assyria, or vice versa, isnot yet clear. " _Ancient Assyria_, C. H. W. Johns (Cambridge, 1912), pp. 12-13. 

[357] Sumerian Ziku, apparently derived from Zi, the spiritual essenceof life, the "self power" of the Universe. 

[358] _Peri Archon_, cxxv. 

[359] _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 197 et seq. 

[360] _Julius Caesar_, act iii, scene I. 

[361] _Isaiah_, xiv, 4-14. 

[362] _Eddubrott_, ii. 

[363] _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, A. Wiedemann, pp. 289-90. 

[364] _Ibid_. , p. 236. Atlas was also believed to be in the west. 

[365] _Primitive Constellations_, vol. Ii, p. 184. 

[366] _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, _ xxx, II. 

[367] _Isaiah_, xiii, 21. For "Satyrs" the Revised Version gives thealternative translation, "or he-goats". 

[368] _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia andAssyria_, p. 120, plate 18 and note. 

[369] _Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by Professor Eggeling, part iv, 1897, p. 371. _(Sacred Books of the East_. )

[370] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, pp. 165 et seq. 

[371] _Classic Myth and Legend_, p. 105. The birds were called"Stymphalides". 

[372] The so-called "shuttle" of Neith may be a thunderbolt. Scotland'sarchaic thunder deity is a goddess. The bow and arrows suggest alightning goddess who was a deity of war because she was a deity offertility. 

[373] _Vedic Index_, Macdonell & Keith, vol. Ii, pp. 125-6, and vol. I, 168-9. 

[374] _Ezekiel_, xxxi, 3-8. 

[375] _Ezekiel_, xxvii, 23, 24. 

[376] _Isaiah_, xxxvii, 11. 

[377] _Ibid_. , x, 5, 6. 

[378] A winged human figure, carrying in one hand a basket and inanother a fir cone. 

[379] Layard's _Nineveh_ (1856), p. 44. 

[380] _Ibid_. , p. 309. 

[381] The fir cone was offered to Attis and Mithra. Its association withAshur suggests that the great Assyrian deity resembled the gods of cornand trees and fertility. 

[382] _Nineveh_, p. 47. 

[383] _Isaiah_, xxxvii, 37-8. 

[384] _The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records andLegends of Assyria and Babylonia, _ pp. 129-30. 

[385] An eclipse of the sun in Assyria on June 15, 763 B. C. , wasfollowed by an outbreak of civil war. 

[386] _Ezekiel_, i, 4-14. 

[387] _Ezekiel, _ xxiii, 1-15. 

[388] As the soul of the Egyptian god was in the sun disk or sun egg. 

[389] _Ezekiel, _, i, 15-28. 

[390] _Ezekiel_, x, 11-5. 

[391] Also called "Amrita". 

[392] The _Mahabharata_ (_Adi Parva_), Sections xxxiii-iv. 

[393] Another way of spelling the Turkish name which signifies "villageof the pass". The deep "gh" guttural is not usually attempted by Englishspeakers. A common rendering is "Bog-haz' Kay-ee", a slight "oo" soundbeing given to the "a" in "Kay"; the "z" sound is hard and hissing. 

[394] _The Land of the Hittites_, J. Garstang, pp. 178 _et seq. _

[395] _Ibid_. , p. 173. 

[396] _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, chaps. V and vi. 

[397] _Daniel_, iii, 1-26. 

[398] The story that Abraham hung an axe round the neck of Baal afterdestroying the other idols is of Jewish origin. 

[399] _The Koran_, George Sale, pp. 245-6. 

[400] _Isaiah_, xxx, 31-3. See also for Tophet customs _2 Kings_, xxiii, 10; _Jeremiah_, vii, 31, 32 and xix, 5-12. 

[401] _1 Kings_, xvi, 18. 

[402] _1 Samuel_, xxxi, 12, 13 and _1 Chronicles_, x, 11, 12. 

[403] _The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records andLegends of Assyria and Babylonia, _ pp. 201-2. 

[404] _Babylonian and Assyrian Religion_, pp. 57-8. 

[405] _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia andAssyria_, p. 121. 

[406] _Babylonian and Assyrian Religion_, p. 86. 

[407] At Carchemish a railway bridge spans the mile-wide river ferrywhich Assyria's soldiers were wont to cross with the aid of skin floats. The engineers have found it possible to utilize a Hittite river wallabout 3000 years old--the oldest engineering structure in the world. Theferry was on the old trade route. 

[408] _Deuteronomy_, xxvi, 5

[409] Pr. _u_ as _oo_. 

[410] The chief cities of North Syria were prior to this period Hittite. This expansion did not change the civilization but extended the area ofoccupation and control. 

[411] Garstang's _The Land of the Hittites, _ p. 349. 

[412] "Burgh of Tukulti-Ninip. "

[413] Article "Celts" in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, eleventh ed. 

[414] _The Wanderings of Peoples_, p. 41. 

[415] _Crete, the Forerunner of Greece_, p. 146. 

[416] Pr. Moosh´kee. 

[417] "Have I not brought up Israel out of the land of Egypt and thePhilistines from Caphtor (Crete)?" _Amos_, viii, 7. 

[418] _A History of Civilization in Palestine_, p. 58. 

[419] Pinches' translation. 

[420] _I Samuel_, xiii, 19. 

[421] _A History of Civilization in Palestine_, p. 54. 

[422] _1 Kings_, iii, 1. 

[423] _Ibid_. , ix, 16. 

[424] _1 Kings_, v, 1-12. 

[425] _Ibid_. , vii, 14 _et seq. _

[426] _Ibid_. , x, 22-3. 

[427] _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. 83-4. 

[428] _Finn and His Warrior Band_, pp. 245 _et seq. _ (London, 1911). 

[429] Also rendered Ashur-na'sir-pal. 

[430] _A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians_, G. S. Goodspeed, p. 197. 

[431] _Discoveries at Nineveh_, Sir A. H. Layard (London, 1856), pp. 55, 56. 

[432] "Thou art beautiful, O my love, as Tirzah, comely as Jerusalem. "_Solomon's Song_, vi, 4. 

[433] _2 Chronicles_, xii, 15. 

[434] _1 Kings_, xiv, 1-20. 

[435] _Ibid. _, 21-3. 

[436] _2 Chronicles_, xii, 1-12. 

[437] _2 Chronicles_, xiii, 1-20. 

[438] _Ibid. _, xiv, 1-6. 

[439] _1 Kings_, xv, 25-6. 

[440] _1 Kings_, xv, 16-7. 

[441] _Ibid. _, 18-9. 

[442] _Ibid. _, 20-2. 

[443] _1 Kings_, xvi, 9-10. 

[444] _Ibid. _, 15-8. 

[445] _Ibid. _, 21-2. 

[446] _Micah_, vi, 16. 

[447] _1 Kings_, xvi, 29-33. 

[448] _Ibid. _, xviii, 1-4. 

[449] _1 Kings_, xx. 

[450] _Ibid. _, xxii, 43. 

[451] _2 Chronicles_, xviii, 1-2. 

[452] _1 Kings_, xxii and _2 Chronicles_, xviii. 

[453] _1 Kings_, xxii, 48-9. 

[454] _1 Kings_, viii. 

[455] _2 Kings_, ix and _2 Chronicles_, xxii. 

[456] _2 Kings_, viii, 1-15. 

[457] _The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records andLegends of Assyria and Babylonia_, pp. 337 _et seq. _

[458] _2 Kings_, x, 32-3. 

[459] _Ibid. _, 1-31. 

[460] _2 Kings_, xi, 1-3. 

[461] _2 Chronicles_, xxii, 10-12. 

[462] _2 Chronicles_, xxiii, 1-17. 

[463] _2 Kings_, xiii, 1-5. 

[464] _The Land of the Hittites_, J. Garstang, p. 354. 

[465] _The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records andLegends of Assyria and Babylonia, _ T. G. Pinches, p. 343. 

[466] _Nat. Hist_. , v, 19 and _Strabo_ xvi, 1-27. 

[467] _The Mahabharata: Adi Parva_, sections lxxi and lxxii (Roy'stranslation), pp. 213 216, and _Indian Myth and Legend_, pp. 157 _etseq. _

[468] That is, without ceremony but with consent. 

[469] _The Golden Bough_ (_The Scapegoat_), pp. 369 _et seq. _, (3rdedition). Perhaps the mythic Semiramis and legends connected were inexistence long before the historic Sammu-rammat, though the two gotmixed up. 

[470] _Herodotus_, i, 184. 

[471] _De dea Syria_, 9-14. 

[472] _Strabo_, xvi, 1, 2. 

[473] _Diodorus Siculus_, ii, 3. 

[474] _Herodotus_, i, 105. 

[475] _Diodorus Siculus_, ii, 4. 

[476] _De dea Syria_, 14. 

[477] This little bird allied to the woodpecker twists its neckstrangely when alarmed. It may have symbolized the coquettishness offair maidens. As love goddesses were "Fates", however, the wryneck mayhave been connected with the belief that the perpetrator of a murder, ora death spell, could be detected when he approached his victim's corpse. If there was no wound to "bleed afresh", the "death thraw" (thecontortions of death) might indicate who the criminal was. In a Scottishballad regarding a lady, who was murdered by her lover, the verseoccurs:

[478] Langdon's _Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms_, pp. 133, 135. 

[479] Introduction to Lane's _Manners and Customs of the ModernEgyptians. _

[480] Tammuz is referred to in a Sumerian psalm as "him of the dovelikevoice, yea, dovelike". He may have had a dove form. Angus, the Celticgod of spring, love, and fertility, had a swan form; he also had hisseasonal period of sleep like Tammuz. 

[481] Campbell's _Superstitions of the Scottish Highlands_, p. 288. 

[482] _Indian Myth and Legend_, p. 95. 

[483] _Ibid_. , pp. 329-30. 

[484] _Crete, the Forerunner of Greece_, C. H. And H. B. Hawes, p. 139

[485] _The Discoveries in Crete_, pp. 137-8. 

[486] _Religion of the Semites_, p. 294. 

[487] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, p. 59. 

[488] Including the goose, one of the forms of the harvest goddess. 

[489] _Brand's Popular Antiquities_, vol. Ii, 230-1 and vol. Iii, 232(1899 ed. ). 

[490] _Ibid_. , vol. Iii, 217. The myrtle was used for love charms. 

[491] _The Golden Bough_ (_Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_), vol. Ii, p. 293 (3rd ed. ). 

[492] _Herodotus_, ii, 69, 71, and 77. 

[493] _Brand's Popular Antiquities_, vol. Iii, p. 227. 

[494] Cited by Professor Burrows in _The Discoveries in Crete_, p. 134. 

[495] Like the Egyptian Horus, Nebo had many phases: he was connectedwith the sun and moon, the planet Mercury, water and crops; he was youngand yet old--a mystical god. 

[496] _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia andAssyria_, pp. 94 _et seq. _

[497] _Babylonian Magic and Sorcery_, L. W. King, pp. 6-7 and 26-7. 

[498] _2 Kings_, xiii, 3. 

[499] _2 Kings_, xiii, 14-25. 

[500] _3 Kings_, xiii, 5, 6. 

[501] The masses of the Urartian folk appear to have been of Hattistock--"broad heads", like their descendants, the modern Armenians. 

[502] It is uncertain whether this city or Kullani in north Syria it theBiblical Calno. _Isaiah_, x, 9. 

[503] _2 Kings_, xv, 19 and 29; _2 Chronicles_, xxviii, 20. 

[504] _2 Kings_, xviii, 34 and xix, 13. 

[505] _2 Kings_, xiv, 1-14. 

[506] _2 Kings_, xv, 1-14. 

[507] _2 Kings_, xv, 19, 20. 

[508] _2 Kings_, xv, 25. 

[509] _Amos_, v. 

[510] _Amos_, i. 

[511] _2 Kings_, xvi, 5. 

[512] _Isaiah_, vii, 3-7. 

[513] _2 Kings_, xv, 3. 

[514] _Isaiah_, vii, 18. 

[515] Kir was probably on the borders of Elam. 

[516] _2 Kings_, xvi, 7-9. 

[517] _2 Kings_, xv, 29, 30. 

[518] _2 Kings_, xvi, 10. 

[519] In the Hebrew text this monarch is called Sua, Seveh, and So, saysMaspero. The Assyrian texts refer to him as Sebek, Shibahi, Shabè, &c. He has been identified with Pharaoh Shabaka of the Twenty-fifth EgyptianDynasty; that monarch may have been a petty king before he founded hisDynasty. Another theory is that he was Seve, king of Mutsri, and stillanother that he was a petty king of an Egyptian state in the Delta andnot Shabaka. 

[520] _2 Kings_, xvii, 3-5. 

[521] _Isaiah_, xx, 1. 

[522] _2 Kings_, xvii, 6. 

[523] _2 Kings_, xvii, 16-41. 

[524] The people carried away would not be the whole of theinhabitants--only, one would suppose, the more important personages, enough to make up the number 27, 290 given above. 

[525] _Passing of the Empires_, pp. 200-1. 

[526] Those who, like Breasted, identify "Piru of Mutsri" with "Pharaohof Egypt" adopt the view that Bocchoris of Sais paid tribute to Sargon. Piru, however, is subsequently referred to with two Arabian kings astribute payers to Sargon apparently after Lower Egypt had come under thesway of Shabaka, the first king of the Ethiopian or Twenty-fifthDynasty. 

[527] _Isaiah_, xx, 2-5. 

[528] Commander-in-chief. 

[529] _Isaiah_, xx, 1. 

[530] _The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records andLegends of Assyria and Babylonia, _ T. G. Pinches, p. 372. 

[531] _Isaiah_, xxxvii, 9. 

[532] _Isaiah_, xxix, 1, 2. 

[533] _2 Chronicles_, xxxii, 9-17. 

[534] _2 Kings_, xix, 6, 7. 

[535] _2 Kings_, xix, 35, 36. 

[536] Smith-Sayce, _History of Sennacherib_, pp. 132-5. 

[537] _A History of Sumer and Akkad_, p. 37. 

[538] _Isaiah_, xxxvii, 8-13. 

[539] _2 Kings_, xxi, 3-7. 

[540] _2 Kings_, xxi, 16. 

[541] _Hebrews_, xi, 36, 37. 

[542] _2 Chronicles_, xxxiii, 11-3. It may be that Manasseh was taken toBabylon during Ashur-bani-pal's reign. See next chapter. 

[543] Pronounce _g_ as in _gem_. 

[544] _Nahum_, i, ii, and iii. 

[545] _Isaiah_, xlvi, 1; xlvii, 1-15. 

[546] _Nahum_, iii, 2, 3; ii, 3. 

[547] Goodspeed's _A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians_, p. 348. 

[548] _Nahum_, iii, 8-11. 

[549] Ptolemy's Kineladanus. 

[550] _Ezra_, iv, 10. 

[551] _Nahum_, iii and ii. 

[552] 2 _Kings_, xxiii, 29. 

[553] _Ibid. _, 33-5. 

[554] Nebuchadrezzar is more correct than Nebuchadnezzar. 

[555] _2 Kings_, xxiv, 7. 

[556] _2 Chronicles_, xxxvi, 6. 

[557] _2 Kings_, xxiv, 1. 

[558] _2 Kings_, xxiv, 8-15. 

[559] _Jeremiah_, lii, 3. 

[560] _Jeremiah_, lii, 4-11. 

[561] _The Laminations of Jeremiah_, i, 1-7. 

[562] _Jeremiah_, lii, 31-4. 

[563] _Daniel_, v, I et seq. 

[564] _Psalms_, cxxxvii, 1-6. 

[565] _Ezra_, i, 1-3. 

[566] _Herodotus_, i, 183; _Strabo_, xvi, 1, 5; and _Arrian_, vii, 17. 

[567] _Strabo_, xvi, 1-5. 

[568] _Isaiah_, xxiiv, 11-4.