* * * * * +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation in the original | | document have been preserved. Superscripted text is | | marked with a carot character, i. E. ^o. | | | | This e-book is full of lovely images and decorations, | | the reader might like to look at the html version, | | rather than the text version. | | | | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. For | | a complete list, please see the end of this document. | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * [Illustration: Painted by J. M. W. Turner, R. A. Engraved & Printed by Illman Brothers. THE PALACE OF THE CAESARS] * * * * * MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITY A DESCRIPTION OF _ANCIENT LIFE_: THE EMPLOYMENTS, AMUSEMENTS, CUSTOMS AND HABITS, THE CITIES, PALACES, MONUMENTS AND TOMBS, THE LITERATURE AND FINE ARTSOF 3, 000 YEARS AGO. BYL. W. YAGGY, M. S. , ANDT. L. HAINES, A. M. , _AUTHORS OF THE "ROYAL PATH OF LIFE, ""OUR HOME COUNSELOR, ""LITTLE GEMS. "_ ILLUSTRATED. MADISON, WIS. :J. B. FURMAN & CO. WESTERN PUBLISHING HOUSE, CHICAGO, ILL. 1884. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880 byL. W. YAGGY & T. L. HAINES, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. PREFACE. Egypt, Greece and Italy were the fountain heads of our civilizationand the source of our knowledge; to them we can trace, link by link, the origin of all that is ornamental, graceful and beautiful. It istherefore a matter of greatest interest to get an intimate knowledgeof the original state, and former perfection, the grandeur, magnificence and high civilization of these countries, as well as ofthe homes, the private and domestic life, the schools, churches, rites, ceremonies, &c. The many recent excavations in Troy, Nineveh, Babylon and theuncovering of the City of Pompeii, with its innumerable treasures, theunfolding of the long-hoarded secrets, have revealed information forvolumes of matter. But works that treat on the various subjects ofantiquity are, for the most part, not only costly and hard to procure, but also far too voluminous. The object of this work is to condenseinto the smallest possible compass the essence of information whichusually runs through many volumes, and place it into a practical formfor the common reader. We hope, however, that this work will give thereader a greater longing to extend his inquiries into these mostinteresting subjects, so rich in everything that can refine the taste, enlarge the understanding and improve the heart. It has been ourobject, so far as possible, to avoid every expression of opinion, whether our own or that of any school of thinkers, and to supplyfirst, facts, and secondly, careful references by which the citationsof those facts, may be verified, and the inferences from them tracedby the reader himself, to their legitimate result. Before we close, we would tender our greatest obligations to theEnglish and German authors, from whom we have drawn abundantly inpreparing this work; also to the Directors of the British Museum ofLondon, and the Society of Antiquarians of Berlin, and especially tothe authorities of the excavated City of Pompeii and its treasures inthe Museum of Naples, where we were furnished with an intelligentguide and permitted to spend days in our researches. To each and allof these, who have so kindly promoted our labor, our heartfelt thanksare cordially returned. Many of the engravings are from drawings made on the spot, but agreater number are from photographs, and executed with the greatestfidelity by German and French artists. Steel Plate Engravings. PAGE _The Palace of the Cæsars_, 1 _House of the Tragic Poet--Sallust_, 112 _Egyptian Feast_, 270 _Approach to Karnac_, 384 _Temple of Karnac_, 470 _The Philae Islands_, 656 _School of the Vestal Virgins_, 832 CONTENTS. TABLE OF CONTENTS. POMPEII. The Glory of the City--Destruction--Excavation--_Entering Pompeii_ (_Page 21-25_)--The Streets of the City--The Theatres of Pompeii--Villa of Julia Felix--Pavements and Sidewalks-- _Arrangement of Private Houses_ (_Page 26-53_)--Elegance of Domestic Architecture--Ground Plan of Roman House--Exterior Apartments--Interior Apartments--Dining Halls--The Triclinium--Materials and Construction--The Salve Lucru-- Paintings and Decorations--The Drunken Hercules--Wall Decoration--The Peristyle--The House of Siricus--Political Inscriptions--Electioneering Advertisements--The Graffiti-- Street of the Lupanar--Eighty Loaves of Bread Found--The House of the Balcony--Human Bodies Preserved--Discovered Bodies--_House of Diomedes_ (_Page 54-74_)--Location of the Villa--Ground Plan of the Villa--Detail of Ground Plan--The Caldarium--Galleries and Halls--Porticoes and Terraces--Tomb and Family Sepulchre--The Villa Destroyed--Conclusive Evidence-- Jewels and Ornaments--Pliny's Account of a Roman Garden--_Stores and Eating Houses_ (_Page 75-81_)--Restaurant--Pompeian Bill of Fare--Circe, Daughter of the Sun--_Houses of Pansa and Sallust_ (_Page 82-102_)--Curious Religious Painting--General View of House--Worship of the Lares--Domesticated Serpents--Discoveries Confirm Ancient Authors--Ornamentation and Draperies--Remarkable Mansions--House of the Vestals--Surgical and other Instruments-- Shop of an Apothecary--_House of Holconius_ (_Page 103-112_)-- Decorations of the Bed-Chambers--Perseus and Andromeda--Epigraphs and Inscriptions--Ariadne Discovered by Bacchus--_General Survey of the City_ (_Page 113-118_)--Wine Merchant's Sign--Sculptor's Laboratory-- House of Emperor Joseph II 17-119 AMUSEMENTS. The Amphitheatre--Coliseum--84, 000 Seats--The Bloody Entertainments--Examining the Wounded--Theatres--_Roman Baths_ (_Page 147-156_)--Description of the Baths--Cold Baths--Warm Chambers--The Vapor Baths--Hot-Air Baths--_Social Games and Sports_ (_Page 157-162_)--Domestic Games--Jugglers--Game of Cities--Gymnastic Arts--_Social Entertainments_ (_Page 163-180_)--Characteristics of the Dance--Grace and Dress of the Dancers--Position at the Table--Vases and Ornaments--Food and Vegetables--Mode of Eating--Reminders of Mortality--_Egyptian Music and Entertainments_ (_Page 181-188_)--Musical Instruments--Jewish Music--Beer, Palm Wine, Etc--_Games and Sports of the Egyptians_ (_Page 189-202_)--Games with Dice--Games of Ball--Wrestling--Intellectual Capabilities--Hunting 120-202 DOMESTIC LIFE. Occupation of Women--Bathing--Wedding Ceremonies--Children's Toys--Writing Materials--Families, Schools and Marriages--Duties of Children--_Dress, Toilet and Jewelry_ (_Page 219-232_)--The Chiton--Dress Materials--Styles of Wearing Hair--Head-Dress of Women--Hair-Pins--Sunshades--_Crimes and Punishments; Contracts, Deeds, Etc. _ (_Page 233-252_)--Punishments--Laws Respecting Debt--Contracts--Superstition--Cure of Diseases--_Houses, Villas, Farmyards, Orchards, Gardens, Etc. _ (_Page 253-270_)-- Character of the People--Construction of Houses--Plans of Villas-- Irrigation--Gardens--_Egyptian Wealth_ (_Page 271-280_)--Gold and Silver--Worth of Gold--Treasures--Total Value of Gold 203-280 DOMESTIC UTENSILS. Writing Materials--Literature--Curious Lamps--The Candelabrum-- Candelabra--Oil-Lamps--The Steelyard--Drinking Vessels--Colored Glass--Glass--Glass Vessels--Articles of Jewelry--Toilet-Boxes, Etc. --_Furniture_ (_Page 309-322_)--Chairs and Stools--Bed-Room Furniture--Tables, Etc. --Pottery--Drawings on Vases--_Vases_ (_Page 323-342_)--Greek Vases--Inscriptions on Vases--Historical Subjects on Vases--Uses of Vases--Vases Found in Tombs--Silver Vessels--Decorated Vases 281-342 EMPLOYMENT. Colored Glass Vessels--Imitation Jewels--Potters--Carpenter's Tools--Professions--Husbandry--Rise of the Nile--Agricultural Implements--Agriculture--_Baking, Dyeing and Painting_ (_Page 363-384_)--Flour Mills--Bread-Baking--Dyeing--Scouring and Dyeing--Coloring Substances--Mineral Used for Dyeing--Cost of Dyeing--Cloth Manufacture--Persian Costumes 343-384 TROY. Ruins at Hissarlik--Settlement of Troy--First Settlers--Scæan Gate--Call of Menelaus--Houses at Troy--Objects Found in Houses-- Silver Vases--Taking out the Treasure--Shield of the Treasure-- Contents of the Treasure--Ear-Rings and Chains--Gold Buttons, Studs, Etc. --Silver Goblet and Vases--Weapons of Troy--Terra Cotta Mugs--Condition of the Roads--Lack of Inscriptions 385-422 NINEVEH AND BABYLON. Explorations of Niebuhr and Rich--Excavations at Kouyunjik Palace--Sennacherib's Conquests--Highly-Finished Sculptures-- North Palace, Kouyunjik--Temple of Solomon--The Oracle-- Description of the Palace--Modern Houses of Persia--Chambers in the Palace--The Walls--Grandeur of Babylon--Building Materials--History of Babylon--_Karnac and Baalbec_ (_Page 461-473_)--Stupendous Remains--Temple of Luxor-- Chambers of the Great Pyramid--The Great Temple--The Pantheon at Rome--Egyptian Obelisks--Obelisks 423-484 RELIGION OR MYTHOLOGY. Mythology--Mythological Characters--The Pythian Apollo--Phœbus Apollo--Niobe and Leto--Daphne--Kyrene--Hermes--The Sorrow of Demeter--The Sleep of Endymion--Phaethon--Briareos--Dionysos-- Pentheus--Asklepios--Ixion--Tantalos--The Toils of Herakles-- Admetos--Epimetheus and Pandora--Io and Prometheus--Deukalion-- Poseidon and Athene--Medusa--Danae--Perseus--Andromeda-- Akrisios--Kephalos and Prokris--Skylla--Phrixos and Helle-- Medeia--Theseus--Ariadne--Arethusa--Tyro--Narkissos--Orpheus and Eurydike--Kadmos and Europa--Bellerophon--Althaia and the Burning Brand--Iamos 485-642 FINE ARTS. Egyptian Sculpture--Etruscan Painting--Renowned Painters-- Parrhasius--Colors Used--Sculpture Painting--Fresco Painting-- _Sculpturing_ (_Page 667-694_)--Sculpture in Greece and Egypt-- Sculptures of Ancient Kings--Animal Sculpture--Modeling of the Human Figure--"The Sculptor of the Gods"--Grandeur of Style-- Statues--Description of Statues--Work of Lysippus--The Macedonian Age--Roman Art--Copies of Ancient Gods--_Mosaic_ (_Page 695-702_)--Mosaic Subjects--Battle Represented in Mosaics-- Grandeur of Style 643-702 LITERATURE. Homer--Paris--Achilles--The Vengeance of Odysseus--Sophocles-- Herodotus--The Crocodile--Artabanus Dissuades Xerxes--Socrates-- Socrates and Aristodemus--Aristophanes--Plato--The Perfect Beauty--Last Hours of Socrates--Demosthenes--Philip and the Athenians--Measures to Resist Philip--Former Athenians Described-- Oration on the Crown--Invective against Catiline--Expulsion of Catiline from Rome--The Tyrant Prætor Denounced--Immortality of the Soul--Julius Cæsar--The Germans--Battle of Pharsalia--Virgil-- Employment of the Bee--Punishments in Hell--Horace--To Licinius-- Happiness Founded on Wisdom--The Equality of Man--Plutarch-- Proscription of Sylla--Demosthenes and Cicero Compared 703-832 TOMBS AND CATACOMBS. Extent of the Tombs--An Acre and a quarter in a Tomb-- Sculpturings--Painting--Burying According to Rank--Mummies-- Mummy Cases and Sarcophagi--Roman Tombs--Inscriptions--_The Catacombs_ (_Page 873-910_)--Inscriptions--Catacombs--Christian Inscriptions--Early Inscriptions--Catacombs, nearly 900 miles long--Utensils from the Catacombs--Paintings--S. Calixtus--Lord's Supper 833-910 TRUTH OF THE BIBLE. The Assyrian and Babylonian Discoveries--1100 Christian Inscriptions--The use of the Bible for Excavators--Accordance with Ancient Writings--Frieze from the Arch of Titus--No Book produced by Chance--God the Author--Its Great Antiquity--The Pentateuch--Preservation of the Scripture--Its Important Discoveries--Its Peculiar Style--Its Harmony--Its Impartiality-- Its Prophecies--Its Important Doctrines--Its Holy Tendency--Its Aims--Its Effects--Its General Reception--Persecuted but not Persecuting 911-944 [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] ILLUSTRATIONS BY GERMAN ARTISTS. DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII 17 VIEW OF POMPEII. (_From a Photograph_) 23 PLAN OF A ROMAN HOUSE 28 VESTIBULE OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE 30 TRICLINIUM OR DINING-ROOM 33 HERCULES DRUNK. (_From Pompeii_) 37 DISCOVERED BODY AT POMPEII 51 GROUND PLAN OF THE SUBURBAN VILLA OF DIOMEDES 57 WALL PAINTING AT POMPEII 69 HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS 72 RESTAURANT. (_From Wall Painting_) 77 BED AND TABLE AT POMPEII. (_From Wall Painting_) 78 PLAN OF A TRICLINIUM 79 HEAD OF CIRCE 81 KITCHEN FURNITURE AT POMPEII 84 BROOCHES OF GOLD FOUND AT POMPEII 98 SCALES FOUND AT POMPEII 100 WALL PAINTING FOUND AT POMPEII 105 GOLD BREASTPINS FOUND AT POMPEII 114 A LABORATORY, AS FOUND IN POMPEII 117 FIRST WALLS DISCOVERED IN POMPEII 118 VIEW OF THE AMPHITHEATRE AT POMPEII 121 COLISEUM OF ROME 128 EXAMINING THE WOUNDED 133 ASKING PARDON 135 NOT GRANTED 135 COMBATS WITH BEASTS 137 VIEW OF THE TEPIDARIUM 151 ANCIENT BATH ROOM. (_As Discovered_) 155 EGYPTIAN VASES 173 SOCIAL ENJOYMENT OF WOMEN. (_From an Ancient Painting_) 205 GOLD PINS 220 SHAWL OR TOGA PIN 220 PEARL SET PINS 221 STONE SET BROOCHES 224 HAIR DRESS. (_From Pompeii_) 227 TOILET ARTICLES FOUND AT POMPEII 231 WREATH OF OAK. (_Life Saving_) 247 TABULÆ, CALAMUS, AND PAPYRUS 283 TABULÆ, STYLUS, AND PAPYRUS 283 TABULÆ AND INK STAND 284 LIBRARIES AND MONEY 284 GOLD LAMP. (_Found at Pompeii_) 287 CANDELABRUM, OR LAMP STAND 289 CANDELABRA, OR LAMP STANDS 290 STANDING LAMP 293 ANCIENT LAMPS 293 SCALES AND WEIGHTS 295 VESSELS. (_From Pompeii_) 296 DRINKING VESSEL 297 GLASS VESSELS. (_From Pompeii_) 302 CUPS AND METALS 304 GOLD JEWELRY. (_From Pompeii_) 305 HEAVY GOLD PINS 306 BROOCHES INSET WITH STONE 307 SAFETY TOGA PINS 308 PLUNDERING CORINTH 317 GREEK VASE 321 ETRUSCAN VASE 324 ROMAN VASES 325 VASE REPRESENTING A MARRIAGE. (_Found at Pompeii_) 328 VASE REPRESENTING TROJAN WAR. (_Found at Pompeii_) 333 VASE. (_Found at Pompeii_) 334 VASE REPRESENTING GREEK SACRIFICE 336 VASE 2, 000 YEARS OLD 337 SILVER PLATTER 339 SILVER CUP. (_Found at Hildesheim_) 340 VASE OF THE FIRST CENTURY 341 DISH OF THE FIRST CENTURY 341 ANCIENT GLASS VESSELS 346 GLASS BROOCH 347 IMITATION OF REAL STONE 348 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN POTTERY 350 MILL AND BAKERY AT POMPEII 365 BREAD DISCOVERED IN POMPEII 371 METALS AND BEADS 389 TERRA-COTTA LAMPS 394 BRONZE LAMPS 394 GOLDEN CUPS OF PRIAM. (_Found at Troy_) 396 WONDERFUL VASES OF TERRA-COTTA FROM PALACE OF PRIAM 399 FROM PALACE OF PRIAM 400 LIDS AND METALS OF PRIAM 401 TREASURES OF PRIAM. (_Found at Troy_) 404 PART OF MACHINE OF PRIAM 406 JEWELRY OF GOLD AND STONES 406 VESSEL FOUND IN THE PALACE OF PRIAM 407 SHIELD OF THE PALACE OF PRIAM 408 GOLD NECKLACE OF TROY 409 GOLD TASSELS OF TROY 409 LAMPS FOUND AT TROY 409 STUDS AND BRACELETS OF PRIAM 411 GOLD PINS WITH SET GEMS 411 GOLD EAR-RINGS OF TROY 412 SPEARS, LANCES, AX AND CHAIN 415 SHEARS, KNIVES AND SPEARS 415 LANCES FOUND AT PALACE OF PRIAM, TROY 416 COINS OR METALS 418 ELEGANT BROOCH OF TROY 421 LAMP FOUND AT TROY 422 PALACE OF SENNACHERIB 427 DISCOVERED IN THE PALACE 435 VIEW OF A HALL 445 COLUMNS OF KARNAC 463 THE GREAT PYRAMIDS AND SPHINX 469 RUINS OF BAALBEC 473 VIEW OF THE PANTHEON AT ROME 475 PANTHEON AT ROME 477 HALF SECTION OF THE PANTHEON 478 OBELISK OF HELIOPOLIS 481 JUPITER. (_or Zeus_) 491 APOLLO. (_From an Ancient Sculpture_) 495 PLUTO AND HIS WIFE 503 CERES. (_or Demeter. From Pompeii Wall Painting_) 512 JUNO. (_or Here_) 516 DIANA. (_or Artemis_) 520 VULCAN. (_or Hephaistos_) 526 MINERVA. (_or Pallas Athene. Found at Pompeii_) 530 ANCIENT SCULPTURING ON TANTALOS 537 URANIA. (_Muse of Astronomy_) 538 JUPITER. (_or Zeus with his Thunderbolt_) 544 THALIA, THE MUSE 550 LAOCOON, THE FALSE PRIEST 555 GRECIAN ALTAR. (_3000 years old_) 563 THEMIS. (_Goddess of Law_) 565 EUTERPE. (_Muse of Pleasure_) 577 THALIA. (_Muse of Comedy_) 584 NUMA POMPILIUS VISITING THE NYMPH EGERIA 591 POLYHYMNIA. (_Muse of Rhetoric_) 603 SPHINX OF EGYPT 607 CALLIOPE. (_Muse of Heroic Verse_) 614 THE ORIGIN OF MAN 617 ERATE. (_Muse of the Lute_) 623 TERPSICHORE. (_Muse of Dancing_) 625 ANCIENT SACRIFICE. (_From Wall Painting of Pompeii_) 631 MELPOMENE. (_Muse of Tragedy_) 639 CLIO. (_Muse of History_) 642 ANCIENT ART AND LITERATURE 645 PAINTING. (_2600 years old_) 655 DYING GLADIATOR 689 MOSAIC FLOOR 696 MOSAIC DOVES 697 APOLLO CHARMING NATURE 701 ANCIENT AUTHORS 709 LIBRARY OF HERCULANEUM 723 TROJAN HEROES 735 ANCIENT METAL ENGRAVING 745 SOCRATES DRINKING THE POISON 762 FROM ANCIENT SCULPTURING 775 KING PHILIP. (_of Macedon_) 784 AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. (_Found at Pompeii_) 795 JULIUS CÆSAR. (_From an Ancient Sculpturing_) 805 VIRGIL AND HORACE 813 EUCLID 824 ALEXANDER SEVERUS 831 EGYPTIAN TOMB 835 SARCOPHAGUS, OR COFFIN. (_With Noah's Ark Cut in Relief on the Outside_) 841 COFFIN OF ALABASTER. (_Features of the Deceased Sculptured_) 843 DISCOVERED TOMB WITH ITS TREASURES. (_At Pompeii_) 847 ARTICLES FOUND IN A TOMB 852 HIEROGLYPHICS 857, 858, 859 EGYPTIAN PILLAR 862 EGYPTIAN COLUMN 867 SECTIONS OF THE CATACOMBS WITH CHAMBERS 874 PLAN OF THE CATACOMBS AT ROME 875 STONE COFFIN 878 STONE COFFIN WITH OPEN SIDE 879 INSIDE VIEW OF THE CATACOMBS 881 LAMPS FOUND IN THE CATACOMBS 884 TOMB INSCRIPTION 896 PAINTED CEILING 906 CHAMBER OF A CATACOMB 909 FRIEZE FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS 916 PENTATEUCH, WRITTEN 3200 YEARS AGO 921 SHISHAK AND HIS CAPTIVES ON SCULPTURED WALL AT KARNAC 935 PORTRAIT OF REHOBOAM 936 [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] ADDRESS TO THE MUMMY. "And thou hast walked about, (how strange a story!) In Thebes' streets three thousand years ago, When the Memnonium was in all its glory, And time had not begun to overthrow Those temples, palaces and piles stupendous, Of which the very ruins are tremendous. "Perhaps that very hand now pinioned flat, Has hob-a-nobbed with Pharaoh, glass to glass; Or dropped a half-penny in Homer's hat; Or doffed thine own to let Queen Dido pass; Or held, by Solomon's own invitation, A torch at the great Temple's dedication. "Thou couldst develop--if that withered tongue Could tell us what those sightless orbs have seen-- How the world looked when it was fresh and young And the great deluge still had left it green; Or was it then so old that history's pages Contained no record of its early ages? "Since first thy form was in this box extended We have, above ground, seen some strange mutations; The Roman Empire has begun and ended, New worlds have risen--we have lost old nations; And countless kings have into dust been humbled, While not a fragment of thy flesh has crumbled. "If the tomb's secrets may not be confessed, The nature of thy private life unfold: A heart has throbbed beneath that leathern breast, And tears adown that dusty cheek have rolled; Have children climbed those knees and kissed that face? What was thy name and station, age and race?" ANSWER. "Child of the later days! thy words have broken A spell that long has bound these lungs of clay, For since this smoke-dried tongue of mine hath spoken, Three thousand tedious years have rolled away. Unswathed at length, I 'stand at ease' before ye. List, then. O list, while I unfold my story. " * * * * * * * * * [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] POMPEII. [Illustration: DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII. ] Pompeii was in its full glory at the commencement of the Christianera. It was a city of wealth and refinement, with about 35, 000inhabitants, and beautifully located at the foot of Mount Vesuvius; itpossessed all local advantages that the most refined taste coulddesire. Upon the verge of the sea, at the entrance of a fertile plain, on the bank of a navigable river, it united the conveniences of acommercial town with the security of a military station, and theromantic beauty of a spot celebrated in all ages for its pre-eminentloveliness. Its environs, even to the heights of Vesuvius, werecovered with villas, and the coast, all the way to Naples, was soornamented with gardens and villages, that the shores of the wholegulf appeared as one city. What an enchanting picture must have presented itself to oneapproaching Pompeii by sea! He beheld the bright, cheerful Greciantemples spreading out on the slopes before him; the pillared Forum;the rounded marble Theatres. He saw the grand Palaces descending tothe very edge of the blue waves by noble flights of steps, surroundedwith green pines, laurels and cypresses, from amidst whose darkfoliage marble statues of gods gleamed whitely. The skillful architect, the sculptors, the painters, and the castersof bronze were all employed to make Pompeii an asylum of arts; alltrades and callings endeavored to grace and beautify the city. Theprodigious concourse of strangers who came here in search of healthand recreation added new charms and life to the scene. But behind all this, and encased as it were in a frame, the landscaperose in a gentle slope to the summit of the thundering mountain. Butindications were not wanting of the peril with which the city wasthreatened. The whole district is volcanic; and a few years before thefinal catastrophe, an earthquake had shaken Pompeii to itsfoundations; some of the buildings were much injured. On August 24, A. D. 79, the inhabitants were busily engaged in repairing the damagethus wrought, when suddenly and without any previous warning a vastcolumn of black smoke burst from the overhanging mountain. Rising to aprodigious height in the cloudless summer sky, it then graduallyspread out like the head of some mighty Italian pine, hiding the sun, and overshadowing the earth for miles in distance. The darkness grew into profound night, only broken by the blue andsulphurous flashes which darted from the pitchy cloud. Soon the thickrain of thin, light ashes, almost imperceptible to the touch, fellupon the land. Then quickly succeeded shower of small pumice stonesand heavier ashes, and emitting stifling eruptic fumes. After a timethe sounds of approaching torrent were heard, and soon streamingrivers of dense black mud poured slowly but irresistibly down themountain sides, and circled through the streets, insidiously creepinginto such recesses as even the subtle ashes had failed to penetrate. There was now no place of shelter left. No man could defend himselfagainst this double enemy. It was too late for flight for such as hadremained behind. Those who had taken refuge in the innermost parts ofthe houses, or in the subterranean passages, were closed up forever. Those who sought to flee through the streets were clogged by thesmall, loose pumice stones, which lay many feet deep, or wereentangled and overwhelmed in the mud-streams, or were struck down bythe rocks which fell from the heavens. If they escaped these dangers, blinded by the drifting ashes and groping in the dark, not knowingwhich way to go, they were overcome by the sulphurous vapors, andsinking on the highway were soon buried beneath the volcanic matter. Even many who had gained the open country, at the beginning of theeruption, were overtaken by the darkness and falling cinders, andperished miserably in the field or on the sea-shore, where they hadvainly sought the means of flight. In three days the doomed city had disappeared. It lay buried beneath avast mass of ashes, pumice stone and hardened mud, from twenty toseventy feet deep. Those of its terror-stricken inhabitants whoescaped destruction, abandoned forever its desolate site. Years, generations, centuries went by, and the existence of Pompeii--yea, even its very name--had ceased to be remembered. The rich volcanicsoil became covered with a profusion of vegetation. Vineyardsflourished and houses were built on the site of the buried city. Nearly eighteen hundred years had elapsed since the thunderer Vesuviushad thrown the black mantle of ashes over the fair city before theresuscitation arrived. Some antique bronzes and utensils, discoveredby a peasant, excited universal attention. Excavations were begun, and Pompeii, shaking off as it were her musty grave clothes, staredfrom the classic and poetical age of the first into the prosaic modernworld of the nineteenth century. The world was startled, and lookedwith wondering interest to see this ancient stranger arising from hertomb--to behold the awakening of the remote past from the womb of theearth which had so long hoarded it. The excavation has been assiduously prosecuted, until to-day threehundred and sixty houses, temples, theatres, schools, stores, factories, etc. , have been thrown open before us with their treasuredcontents. It is often, but erroneously, supposed that Pompeii, likeHerculaneum, was overwhelmed by a flood of lava. Had this been thecase, the work of excavation would have been immensely more difficult, and the result would have been far less important. The marbles musthave been calcined, the bronzes melted, the frescoes effaced, andsmaller articles destroyed by the fiery flood. The ruin was effectedby showers of dust and scoriæ, and by torrents of liquid mud, whichformed a mould, encasing the objects, thus preserving them from injuryor decay. We thus gain a perfect picture of what a Roman city waseighteen hundred years ago, as everything is laid bare to us in almosta perfect state. What wealth of splendid vessels and utensils was contained in thechests and closets! Gold and gilded ivory, pearls and precious stoneswere used to decorate tables, chairs and vessels for eating anddrinking. Elegant lamps hung from the ceiling, and candelabra andlittle lamps of most exquisite shapes illuminated the apartments atnight. To-day, looking at the walls, the eyes may feast on beautifulfresco paintings, with colors so vivid and fresh as if painted butyesterday; while gleaming everywhere on ceiling, wall and floor, aremarbles of rarest hue, sculptured into every conceivable form of graceand beauty, and inlaid in most artistic designs. ENTERING POMPEII. We will now proceed to describe the general aspect of the city, andfor this purpose it will be convenient to suppose that we have enteredit by the gate of Herculaneum, though in other respects the Portadella Marina is the more usual and, perhaps, the best entrance. On entering, the visitor finds himself in a street, running a littleeast of south, which leads to the Forum. To the right, stands a houseformerly owned by a musician; to the left, a thermopolium or shop forhot drinks; beyond is the house of the Vestals; beyond this thecustom-house; and a little further on, where another street runs intothis one from the north at a very acute angle, stands a publicfountain. In the last-named street is a surgeon's house; at least oneso named from the quantity of surgical instruments found in it, allmade of bronze. On the right or western side of the street, by whichwe entered, the houses, as we have said, are built on the declivity ofa rock, and are several stories high. The fountain is about one hundred and fifty yards from the city gate. About the same distance, further on, the street divides into two; theright-hand turning seems a by-street, the left-hand turning conductsyou to the Forum. The most important feature in this space is a housecalled the house of Sallust or of Actæon, from a painting in itrepresenting that hunter's death. It stands on an area about fortyyards square, and is encompassed on three sides by streets; by thatnamely which we have been describing, by another nearly parallel toit, and by a third, perpendicular to these two. The whole quarter atpresent excavated, as far as the Street of the Baths, continued by theStreet of Fortune, is divided, by six longitudinal and one transversestreet, into what the Romans called islands, or insulated masses ofhouses. Two of these are entirely occupied by the houses of Pansa andof the Faun, which, with their courts and gardens, are about onehundred yards long by forty wide. From the Street of the Baths and that of Fortune, which bound theseislands on the south, two streets lead to the two corners of theForum; between them are baths, occupying nearly the whole island. Among other buildings are a milk-shop and gladiatorial school. At thenortheast corner of the Forum was a triumphal arch. At the end of theStreet of the Baths and beginning of that of Fortune, anothertriumphal arch is still to be made out, spanning the street ofMercury, so that this was plainly the way of state into the city. TheForum is distant from the gate of Herculaneum about four hundredyards. Of it we shall give a full description in its place. Near thesouth-eastern corner two streets enter it, one running to the south, the other to the east. We will follow the former for about eightyyards, when it turns eastward for two hundred yards, and conducts usto the quarter of the theatres. The other street, which runs eastwardfrom the Forum, is of more importance, and is called the Street of theSilversmiths;[1] at the end of which a short street turns southwards, and meets the other route to the theatres. On both these routes thehouses immediately bordering on the streets are cleared; but betweenthem is a large rectangular plot of unexplored ground. Two veryelegant houses at the southwest corner of the Forum were uncovered bythe French general Championnet, while in command at Naples, and areknown by his name. On the western side of the Forum two streets leddown towards the sea; the excavations here consist almost entirely ofpublic buildings, which will be described hereafter. [Illustration: VIEW OF POMPEII. (_From a photograph. _)] The quarter of the theatres comprises a large temple, called theTemple of Neptune or Hercules, a temple of Isis, a temple ofÆsculapius, two theatres, the Triangular Forum, and the quarters ofthe soldiers or gladiators. On the north and east it is bounded bystreets; to the south and west it seems to have been enclosed partlyby the town walls, partly by its own. Here the continuous excavationends, and we must cross vineyards to the amphitheatre, about fivehundred and fifty yards distant from the theatre, in the southeastcorner of the city, close to the walls, and in an angle formed bythem. Close to the amphitheatre are traces of walls supposed to havebelonged to a Forum Boarium, or cattle market. Near at hand, aconsiderable building, called the villa of Julia Felix, has beenexcavated and filled up again. On the walls of it was discovered thefollowing inscription, which may serve to convey an idea of the wealthof some of the Pompeian proprietors: IN PRAEDIS JULLE SP F. FELICIS LOCANTUR BALNEUM VENERIUM ET NONGENTUM TABERNÆ PERGULÆ CŒNACULA EX IDIBUS AUG PRIMIS IN IDUS AUG. SEXTAS ANNOS CONTINUOS QUINQUE S. Q. D. L. E. N. C. That is: "On the estate of Julia Felix, daughter of Spurius, are to belet a bath, a venereum, nine hundred shops, with booths and garrets, for a term of five continuous years, from the first to the sixth ofthe Ides of August. " The formula, S. Q. D. L. E. N. C. , with which theadvertisement concludes, is thought to stand for--si quis domilenocinium exerceat ne conducito: "let no one apply who keeps abrothel. " A little to the south of the smaller theatre was discovered, in 1851, the Gate of Stabiæ. Hence a long straight street, which has beencalled the Street of Stabiæ, traversed the whole breadth of the city, till it issued out on the northern side at the gate of Vesuvius. Ithas been cleared to the point where it intersects the Streets ofFortune and of Nola, which, with the Street of the Baths, traverse thecity in its length. The Street of Stabiæ forms the boundary of theexcavations; all that part of Pompeii which lies to the east of it, with the exception of the amphitheatre, and the line forming theStreet of Nola, being still occupied by vineyards and cultivatedfields. On the other hand, that part of the city lying to the west ofit has been for the most part disinterred; though there are still someportions lying to the south and west of the Street of Abundance andthe Forum, and to the east of the Vico Storto, which remain to beexcavated. The streets of Pompeii are paved with large irregular pieces of lavajoined neatly together, in which the chariot wheels have worn ruts, still discernible; in some places they are an inch and a half deep, and in the narrow streets follow one track; where the streets arewider, the ruts are more numerous and irregular. The width of thestreets varies from eight or nine feet to about twenty-two, includingthe footpaths or trottoirs. In many places they are so narrow thatthey may be crossed at one stride; where they are wider, a raisedstepping-stone, and sometimes two or three, have been placed in thecentre of the crossing. These stones, though in the middle of thecarriage way, did not much inconvenience those who drove about in thebiga, or two-horsed chariot, as the wheels passed freely in the spacesleft, while the horses, being loosely harnessed, might either havestepped over the stones or passed by the sides. The curb-stones areelevated from one foot to eighteen inches, and separate thefoot-pavement from the road. Throughout the city there is hardly astreet unfurnished with this convenience. Where there is width toadmit of a broad foot-path, the interval between the curb and the lineof building is filled up with earth, which has then been covered overwith stucco, and sometimes with a coarse mosaic of brickwork. Here andthere traces of this sort of pavement still remain, especially inthose streets which were protected by porticoes. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] ARRANGEMENT OF PRIVATE HOUSES. We will now give an account of some of the most remarkable privatehouses which have been disinterred; of the paintings, domesticutensils, and other articles found in them; and such information uponthe domestic manners of the ancient Italians as may seem requisite tothe illustration of these remains. This branch of our subject is notless interesting, nor less extensive than the other. Temples andtheatres, in equal preservation, and of greater splendor than those atPompeii, may be seen in many places; but towards acquainting us withthe habitations, the private luxuries and elegancies of ancient life, not all the scattered fragments of domestic architecture which existelsewhere have done so much as this city, with its fellow-sufferer, Herculaneum. Towards the last years of the republic, the Romans naturalized thearts of Greece among themselves; and Grecian architecture came intofashion at Rome, as we may learn, among other sources, from theletters of Cicero to Atticus, which bear constant testimony to thestrong interest which he took in ornamenting his several houses, andmention Cyrus, his Greek architect. At this time immense fortunes wereeasily made from the spoils of new conquests, or by peculation andmaladministration of subject provinces, and the money thus ill andeasily acquired was squandered in the most lavish luxury. One favoritemode of indulgence was in splendor of building. Lucius Cassius was thefirst who ornamented his house with columns of foreign marble; theywere only six in number, and twelve feet high. He was soon surpassedby Scaurus, who placed in his house columns of the black marble calledLucullian, thirty-eight feet high, and of such vast and unusual weightthat the superintendent of sewers, as we are told by Pliny, [2] tooksecurity for any injury which might happen to the works under hischarge, before they were suffered to be conveyed along the streets. Another prodigal, by name Mamurra, set the example of lining his roomswith slabs of marble. The best estimate, however, of the growth ofarchitectural luxury about this time may be found in what we are toldby Pliny, that, in the year of Rome 676, the house of Lepidus was thefinest in the city, and thirty-five years later it was not thehundredth. [3] We may mention, as an example of the lavish expenditureof the Romans, that Domitius Ahenobarbus offered for the house ofCrassus a sum amounting to near $242, 500, which was refused by theowner. [4] Nor were they less extravagant in their country houses. Wemay again quote Cicero, whose attachment to his Tusculan and Formianvillas, and interest in ornamenting them, even in the most periloustimes, is well known. Still more celebrated are the villas of Lucullusand Pollio; of the latter some remains are still to be seen nearPausilipo. Augustus endeavored by his example to check this extravagant passion, but he produced little effect. And in the palaces of the emperors, andespecially the Aurea Domus, the Golden House of Nero, the domesticarchitecture of Rome, or, we might probably say, of the world, reachedits extreme. The arrangement of the houses, though varied, of course, by localcircumstances, and according to the rank and circumstances of themaster, was pretty generally the same in all. The principal rooms, differing only in size and ornament, recur everywhere; thosesupplemental ones, which were invented only for convenience or luxury, vary according to the tastes and circumstances of the master. [Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF A ROMAN HOUSE. ] The private part comprised the peristyle, bed-chambers, triclinium, œci, picture-gallery, library, baths, exedra, xystus, etc. We proceedto explain the meaning of these terms. Before great mansions there was generally a court or area, upon whichthe portico opened, either surrounding three sides of the area, ormerely running along the front of the house. In smaller houses theportico ranged even with the street. Within the portico, or if therewas no portico, opening directly to the street, was the vestibule, consisting of one or more spacious apartments. It was considered to bewithout the house, and was always open for the reception of those whocame to wait there until the doors should be opened. The prothyrum, inGreek architecture, was the same as the vestibule. In Romanarchitecture, it was a passage-room, between the outer or house-doorwhich opened to the vestibule, and an inner door which closed theentrance of the atrium. In the vestibule, or in an apartment openingupon it, the porter, _ostiarius_, usually had his seat. The atrium, or cavædium, for they appear to have signified the samething, was the most important, and usually the most splendid apartmentof the house. Here the owner received his crowd of morning visitors, who were not admitted to the inner apartments. The term is thusexplained by Varro: "The hollow of the house (cavum ædium) is acovered place within the walls, left open to the common use of all. Itis called Tuscan, from the Tuscans, after the Romans began to imitatetheir cavædium. The word atrium is derived from the Atriates, apeople of Tuscany, from whom the pattern of it was taken. " Originally, then, the atrium was the common room of resort for the whole family, the place of their domestic occupations; and such it probablycontinued in the humbler ranks of life. A general description of itmay easily be given. It was a large apartment, roofed over, but withan opening in the centre, called _compluvium_, towards which the roofsloped, so as to throw the rain-water into a cistern in the floorcalled _impluvium_. The roof around the compluvium was edged with a row of highlyornamented tiles, called antefixes, on which a mask or some otherfigure was moulded. At the corners there were usually spouts, in theform of lions' or dogs' heads, or any fantastical device which thearchitect might fancy, which carried the rain-water clear out into theimpluvium, whence it passed into cisterns; from which again it wasdrawn for household purposes. For drinking, river-water, and stillmore, well-water, was preferred. Often the atrium was adorned withfountains, supplied through leaden or earthenware pipes, fromaqueducts or other raised heads of water; for the Romans knew theproperty of fluids, which causes them to stand at the same height incommunicating vessels. This is distinctly recognized by Pliny, [5]though their common use of aqueducts, in preference to pipes, has ledto a supposition that this great hydrostatical principle was unknownto them. The breadth of the impluvium, according to Vitruvius, was notless than a quarter, nor greater than a third, of the whole breadth ofthe atrium; its length was regulated by the same standard. The openingabove it was often shaded by a colored veil, which diffused a softenedlight, and moderated the intense heat of an Italian sun. [6] Thesplendid columns of the house of Scaurus, at Rome, were placed, as welearn from Pliny, [7] in the atrium of his house. The walls werepainted with landscapes or arabesques--a practice introduced about thetime of Augustus--or lined with slabs of foreign and costly marbles, of which the Romans were passionately fond. The pavement was composedof the same precious material, or of still more valuable mosaics. [Illustration: VESTIBULE OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE. ] The tablinum was an appendage of the atrium, and usually entirely opento it. It contained, as its name imports, [8] the family archives, thestatues, pictures, genealogical tables, and other relics of a longline of ancestors. Alæ, wings, were similar but smaller apartments, or rather recesses, on each side of the further part of the atrium. Fauces, jaws, werepassages, more especially those which passed to the interior of thehouse from the atrium. In houses of small extent, strangers were lodged in chambers whichsurrounded and opened into the atrium. The great, whose connectionsspread into the provinces, and who were visited by numbers who, oncoming to Rome, expected to profit by their hospitality, had usually a_hospitium_, or place of reception for strangers, either separate, oramong the dependencies of their palaces. Of the private apartments the first to be mentioned is the peristyle, which usually lay behind the atrium, and communicated with it boththrough the tablinum and by fauces. In its general plan it resembledthe atrium, being in fact a court, open to the sky in the middle, andsurrounded by a colonnade, but it was larger in its dimensions, andthe centre court was often decorated with shrubs and flowers andfountains, and was then called _xystus_. It should be greater inextent when measured transversely than in length, [9] and theintercolumniations should not exceed four, nor fall short of threediameters of the columns. Of the arrangement of the bed-chambers we know little. They seem tohave been small and inconvenient. When there was room they had usuallya procœton, or ante-chamber. Vitruvius recommends that they shouldface the east, for the benefit of the early sun. One of the mostimportant apartments in the whole house was the triclinium, ordining-room, so named from the three beds, which encompassed the tableon three sides, leaving the fourth open to the attendants. Theprodigality of the Romans in matters of eating is well known, and itextended to all matters connected with the pleasures of the table. Intheir rooms, their couches, and all the furniture of theirentertainments, magnificence and extravagance were carried to theirhighest point. The rich had several of these apartments, to be used atdifferent seasons, or on various occasions. Lucullus, celebrated forhis wealth and profuse expenditure, had a certain standard ofexpenditure for each triclinium, so that when his servants were toldwhich hall he was to sup in, they knew exactly the style ofentertainment to be prepared; and there is a well-known story of theway in which he deceived Pompey and Cicero, when they insisted ongoing home with him to see his family supper, by merely sending wordhome that he would sup in the Apollo, one of the most splendid of hishalls, in which he never gave an entertainment for less than 50, 000denarii, about $8, 000. Sometimes the ceiling was contrived to open andlet down a second course of meats, with showers of flowers andperfumed waters, while rope-dancers performed their evolutions overthe heads of the company. The performances of these _funambuli_ arefrequently represented in paintings at Pompeii. Mazois, in his workentitled "Le Palais de Scaurus, " has given a fancy picture of thehabitation of a Roman noble of the highest class, in which he hasembodied all the scattered notices of domestic life, which a diligentperusal of the Latin writers has enabled him to collect. Hisdescription of the triclinium of Scaurus will give the reader the bestnotion of the style in which such an apartment was furnished andornamented. For each particular in the description he quotes someauthority. We shall not, however, encumber our pages with referencesto a long list of books not likely to be in the possession of mostreaders. "Bronze lamps, [10] dependent from chains of the same metal, or raisedon richly-wrought candelabra, threw around the room a brilliant light. Slaves set apart for this service watched them, trimmed the wicks, andfrom time to time supplied them with oil. "The triclinium is twice as long as it is broad, and divided, as itwere, into two parts--the upper occupied by the table and the couches, the lower left empty for the convenience of the attendants andspectators. Around the former the walls, up to a certain height, areornamented with valuable hangings. The decorations of the rest of theroom are noble, and yet appropriate to its destination; garlands, entwined with ivy and vine-branches, divide the walls intocompartments bordered with fanciful ornaments; in the centre of eachof which are painted with admirable elegance young Fauns, orhalf-naked Bacchantes, carrying thyrsi, vases and all the furniture offestive meetings. Above the columns is a large frieze, divided intotwelve compartments; each of these is surmounted by one of the signsof the Zodiac, and contains paintings of the meats which are inhighest season in each month; so that under Sagittary (December), wesee shrimps, shell-fish, and birds of passage; under Capricorn(January), lobsters, sea-fish, wild-boar and game; under Aquarius(February), ducks, plovers, pigeons, water-rails, etc. [Illustration: TRICLINIUM. ] "The table, made of citron wood[11] from the extremity of Mauritania, more precious than gold, rested upon ivory feet, and was covered by aplateau of massive silver, chased and carved, weighing five hundredpounds. The couches, which would contain thirty persons, were made ofbronze overlaid with ornaments in silver, gold and tortoise-shell; themattresses of Gallic wool, dyed purple; the valuable cushions, stuffed with feathers, were covered with stuffs woven and embroideredwith silk mixed with threads of gold. Chrysippus told us that theywere made at Babylon, and had cost four millions of sesterces. [12] "The mosaic pavement, by a singular caprice of the architect, represented all the fragments of a feast, as if they had fallen incommon course on the floor; so that at the first glance the roomseemed not to have been swept since the last meal, and it was calledfrom hence, _asarotos oikos_, the unswept saloon. At the bottom of thehall were set out vases of Corinthian brass. This triclinium, thelargest of four in the palace of Scaurus, would easily contain a tableof sixty covers;[13] but he seldom brings together so large a numberof guests, and when on great occasions he entertains four or fivehundred persons, it is usually in the atrium. This eating-room isreserved for summer; he has others for spring, autumn, and winter, forthe Romans turn the change of season into a source of luxury. Hisestablishment is so appointed that for each triclinium he has a greatnumber of tables of different sorts, and each table has its ownservice and its particular attendants. "While waiting for their masters, young slaves strewed over thepavement saw-dust dyed with saffron and vermilion, mixed with abrilliant powder made from the lapis specularis, or talc. " Pinacotheca, the picture-gallery, and Bibliotheca, the library, needno explanation. The latter was usually small, as a large number ofrolls (_volumina_) could be contained within a narrow space. Exedra bore a double signification. It is either a seat, intended tocontain a number of persons, like those before the Gate ofHerculaneum, or a spacious hall for conversation and the generalpurposes of society. In the public baths, the word is especiallyapplied to those apartments which were frequented by the philosophers. Such was the arrangement, such the chief apartments of a Roman house;they were on the ground-floor, the upper stories being for the mostpart left to the occupation of slaves, freedmen, and the lowerbranches of the family. We must except, however, the terrace upon thetop of all (solarium), a favorite place of resort, often adorned withrare flowers and shrubs, planted in huge cases of earth, and withfountains and trellises, under which the evening meal might atpleasure be taken. The reader will not, of course, suppose that in all houses all theseapartments were to be found, and in the same order. From the confineddwelling of the tradesman to the palace of the patrician, all degreesof accommodation and elegance were to be found. The only object ofthis long catalogue is to familiarize the reader with the general typeof those objects which we are about to present to him, and to explainat once, and collectively, those terms of art which will be of mostfrequent occurrence. The reader will gain a clear idea of a Roman house from theground-plan of that of Diomedes, given a little further on, which isone of the largest and most regularly constructed at Pompeii. We may here add a few observations, derived, as well as much of thepreceding matter, from the valuable work of Mazois, relative to thematerials and method of construction of the Pompeian houses. Everyspecies of masonry described by Vitruvius, it is said, may here be metwith; but the cheapest and most durable sorts have been generallypreferred. Copper, iron, lead, have been found employed for the same purposes asthose for which we now use them. Iron is more plentiful than copper, contrary to what is generally observed in ancient works. It isevident from articles of furniture, etc. , found in the ruins, that theItalians were highly skilled in the art of working metals, yet theyseem to have excelled in ornamental work, rather than in the solid andneat construction of useful articles. For instance, their lock-work iscoarse, hardly equal to that which is now executed in the samecountry; while the external ornaments of doors, bolts, handles, etc. , are elegantly wrought. The first private house that we will describe is found by passing downa street from the Street of Abundance. The visitor finds on the right, just beyond the back wall of the Thermæ Stabianæ, the entrance of ahandsome dwelling. An inscription in red letters on the outside wallcontaining the name of Siricus has occasioned the conjecture that thiswas the name of the owner of the house; while a mosaic inscription onthe floor of the prothyrum, having the words SALVE LUCRU, has givenrise to a second appellation for the dwelling. On the left of the prothyrum is an apartment with two doors, oneopening on a wooden staircase leading to an upper floor, the otherforming the entry to a room next the street, with a window like thatdescribed in the other room next the prothyrum. The walls of thischamber are white, divided by red and yellow zones into compartments, in which are depicted the symbols of the principal deities--as theeagle and globe of Jove, the peacock of Juno, the lance, helmet andshield of Minerva, the panther of Bacchus, a Sphinx, having near itthe mystical chest and sistrum of Isis, who was the Venus Physica ofthe Pompeians, the caduceus and other emblems of Mercury, etc. Thereare also two small landscapes. Next to this is a large and handsome exedra, decorated with goodpictures, a third of the size of life. That on the left representsNeptune and Apollo presiding at the building of Troy; the former, armed with his trident, is seated; the latter, crowned with laurel, is on foot, and leans with his right arm on a lyre. On the wallopposite to this is a picture of Vulcan presenting the arms ofAchilles to Thetis. The celebrated shield is supported by Vulcan onthe anvil, and displayed to Thetis, who is seated, whilst a wingedfemale figure standing at her side points out to her with a rod themarvels of its workmanship. Agreeably to the Homeric description theshield is encircled with the signs of the zodiac, and in the middleare the bear, the dragon, etc. On the ground are the breast-plate, thegreaves and the helmet. [Illustration: HERCULES DRUNK. (_From Pompeii. _)] In the third picture is seen Hercules crowned with ivy, inebriated, and lying on the ground at the foot of a cypress tree. He is clothedin a _sandyx_, or short transparent tunic, and has on his feet a sortof shoes, one of which he has kicked off. He supports himself on hisleft arm, while the right is raised in drunken ecstasy. A little Cupidplucks at his garland of ivy, another tries to drag away his amplegoblet. In the middle of the picture is an altar with festoons. On thetop of it three Cupids, assisted by another who has climbed up thetree, endeavor to bear on their shoulders the hero's quiver; while onthe ground, to the left of the altar, four other Cupids are sportingwith his club. A votive tablet with an image of Bacchus rests at thefoot of the altar, and indicates the god to whom Hercules has beensacrificing. On the left of the picture, on a little eminence, is a group of threefemales round a column having on its top a vase. The chief and centralfigure, which is naked to the waist, has in her hand a fan; she seemsto look with interest on the drunken hero, but whom she represents itis difficult to say. On the right, half way up a mountain, sitsBacchus, looking on the scene with a complacency not unmixed withsurprise. He is surrounded by his usual rout of attendants, one ofwhom bears a thyrsus. The annexed engraving will convey a clearer ideaof the picture, which for grace, grandeur of composition, and delicacyand freshness of coloring, is among the best discovered at Pompeii. The exedra is also adorned with many other paintings and ornamentswhich it would be too long to describe. On the same side of the atrium, beyond a passage leading to a kitchenwith an oven, is an elegant _triclinium fenestratum_ looking upon anadjacent garden. The walls are black, divided by red and yellow zones, with candelabra and architectural members intermixed with quadrupeds, birds, dolphins, Tritons, masks, etc. , and in the middle of eachcompartment is a Bacchante. In each wall are three small paintingsexecuted with greater care. The first, which has been removed, represented Æneas in his tent, who, accompanied by Mnestheus, Achates, and young Ascanius, presents his thigh to the surgeon, Iapis, in orderto extract from it the barb of an arrow. Æneas supports himself withthe lance in his right hand, and leans with the other on the shoulderof his son, who, overcome by his father's misfortune, wipes the tearsfrom his eyes with the hem of his robe; while Iapis, kneeling on oneleg before the hero, is intent on extracting the barb with hisforceps. But the wound is not to be healed without divineinterposition. In the background of the picture Venus is hastening toher son's relief, bearing in her hand the branch of dictamnus, whichis to restore him to his pristine vigor. The subject of the second picture, which is much damaged, is not easyto be explained. It represents a naked hero, armed with sword andspear, to whom a woman crowned with laurel and clothed in an ample_peplum_ is pointing out another female figure. The latter expressesby her gestures her grief and indignation at the warrior's departure, the imminence of which is signified by the chariot that awaits him. Signor Fiorelli thinks he recognizes in this picture Turnus, Lavinia, and Amata, when the queen supplicates Turnus not to fight with theTrojans. The third painting represents Hermaphroditus surrounded by six nymphs, variously employed. From the atrium a narrow _fauces_ or corridor led into the garden. Three steps on the left connected this part of the house with theother and more magnificent portion having its entrance from the StradaStabiana. The garden was surrounded on two sides with a portico, onthe right of which are some apartments which do not require particularnotice. The house entered at a higher level, by the three steps justmentioned, was at first considered as a separate house, and byFiorelli has been called the House of the Russian Princes, from someexcavations made here in 1851 in presence of the sons of the Emperorof Russia. The peculiarities observable in this house are that theatrium and peristyle are broader than they are deep, and that they arenot separated by a tablinum and other rooms, but simply by a wall. Inthe centre of the Tuscan atrium, entered from the Street of Stabiæ, isa handsome marble impluvium. At the top of it is a square cippus, coated with marble, and having a leaden pipe which flung the waterinto a square vase or basin supported by a little base of whitemarble, ornamented with acanthus leaves. Beside the fountain is atable of the same material, supported by two legs beautifullysculptured, of a chimæra and a griffin. On this table was a littlebronze group of Hercules armed with his club, and a young Phrygiankneeling before him. From the atrium the peristyle is entered by a large door. It is aboutforty-six feet broad and thirty-six deep, and has ten columns, one ofwhich still sustains a fragment of the entablature. The walls werepainted in red and yellow panels alternately, with figures of Latona, Diana, Bacchantes, etc. At the bottom of the peristyle, on the right, is a triclinium. In the middle is a small _œcus_, with two pillarsrichly ornamented with arabesques. A little apartment on the left hasseveral pictures. In this house, at a height of seventeen Neapolitan palms (nearlyfifteen feet) from the level of the ground, were discovered fourskeletons together in an almost vertical position. Twelve palms lowerwas another skeleton, with a hatchet near it. This man appears to havepierced the wall of one of the small chambers of the prothyrum, andwas about to enter it, when he was smothered, either by the falling inof the earth or by the mephitic exhalations. It has been thought thatthese persons perished while engaged in searching for valuables afterthe catastrophe. In the back room of a thermopolium not far from this spot wasdiscovered a _graffito_ of part of the first line of the Æneid, inwhich the _r_s were turned into _l_s: Alma vilumque cano Tlo. We will now return to the house of Siricus. Contiguous to it in theVia del Lupanare is a building having two doors separated withpilasters. By way of sign, an elephant was painted on the wall, enveloped by a large serpent and tended by a pigmy. Above was theinscription: Sittius restituit elephantum; and beneath the following: Hospitium hic locatur Triclinium cum tribus lectis Et comm. Both the painting and the inscription have now disappeared. Thediscovery is curious, as proving that the ancients used signs fortheir taverns. Orelli has given in his _Inscriptions_ in Gaul, one ofa Cock (a Gallo Gallinacio). In that at Pompeii the last word standsfor "commodis. " "Here is a triclinium with three beds and otherconveniences. " Just opposite the gate of Siricus was another house also supposed tobe a _caupona_, or tavern, from some chequers painted on the doorposts. On the wall are depicted two large serpents, the emblem sofrequently met with. They were the symbols of the Lares viales, orcompitales, and, as we have said, rendered the place sacred againstthe commission of any nuisance. The cross, which is sometimes seen onthe walls of houses in a modern Italian city, serves the same purpose. Above the serpents is the following inscription, in tolerably largewhite characters: Otiosis locus hic non est, discede morator. "Lingerer, depart; this is no place for idlers. " An injunction by theway which seems rather to militate against the idea of the househaving been a tavern. The inscription just mentioned suggests an opportunity for giving ashort account of similar ones; we speak not of inscriptions cut instone, and affixed to temples and other public buildings, but such aswere either painted, scrawled in charcoal and other substances, orscratched with a sharp point, such as a nail or knife, on the stuccoof walls and pillars. Such inscriptions afford us a peep both into thepublic and the domestic life of the Pompeians. Advertisements of apolitical character were commonly painted on the exterior walls inlarge letters in black and red paint; poetical effusions orpasquinades, etc. , with coal or chalk (Martial, _Epig. _ xii. 61, 9);while notices of a domestic kind are more usually found in theinterior of the houses, scratched, as we have said, on the stucco, whence they have been called _graffiti_. The numerous political inscriptions bear testimony to the activity ofpublic life in Pompeii. These advertisements, which for the most partturn on the election of ædiles, duumvirs, and other magistrates, showthat the Pompeians, at the time when their city was destroyed, were inall the excitement of the approaching comitia for the election of suchmagistrates. We shall here select a few of the more interestinginscriptions, both relating to public and domestic matters. It seems to have been customary to paint over old advertisements witha coat of white, and so to obtain a fresh surface for new ones, justas the bill-sticker remorselessly pastes his bill over that of somebrother of the brush. In some cases this new coating has beendetached, or has fallen off, thus revealing an older notice, belongingsometimes to a period antecedent to the Social War. Inscriptions ofthis kind are found only on the solid stone pillars of the moreancient buildings, and not on the stucco, with which at a later periodalmost everything was plastered. Their antiquity is further certifiedby some of them being in the Oscan dialect; while those in Latin aredistinguished from more recent ones in the same language by the formsof the letters, by the names which appear in them, and by archaisms ingrammar and orthography. Inscriptions in the Greek tongue are rare, though the letters of the Greek alphabet, scratched on walls at alittle height from the ground, and thus evidently the work ofschool-boys, show that Greek must have been extensively taught atPompeii. The normal form of electioneering advertisements contains the name ofthe person recommended, the office for which he is a candidate, andthe name of the person, or persons, who recommended him, accompaniedin general with the formula O. V. F. From examples written in full, recently discovered, it appears that these letters mean _orat_ (or_orant_) _vos faciatis_: "beseech you to create" (ædile and so forth). The letters in question were, before this discovery, very oftenthought to stand for _orat ut faveat_, "begs him to favor;" and thusthe meaning of the inscription was entirely reversed, and the personrecommending converted into the person recommended. In the followingexample for instance--_M. Holconium Priscum duumvirum juri dicundo O. V. F. Philippus_; the meaning, according to the older interpretation, will be: "Philippus beseeches M. Holconius Priscus, duumvir ofjustice, to favor or patronize him;" whereas the true sense is:"Philippus beseeches you to create M. Holconius Priscus a duumvir ofjustice. " From this misinterpretation wrong names have frequently beengiven to houses; as is probably the case, for instance, with the houseof Pansa, which, from the tenor of the inscription, more probablybelonged to Paratus, who posted on his own walls a request topassers-by to make his friend Pansa ædile. Had it been the house ofPansa, when a candidate for the ædileship, and if it was the customfor such candidates to post recommendatory notices on their doors, itmay be supposed that Pansa would have exhibited more than this singleone from a solitary friend. This is a more probable meaning than thatParatus solicited in this way the patronage of Pansa; for it wouldhave been a bad method to gain it by disfiguring his walls in soimpertinent a manner. We do not indeed mean to deny that adulatoryinscriptions were sometimes written on the houses or doors of powerfulor popular men or pretty women. A verse of Plautus bears testimony tosuch a custom (Impleantur meæ foreis elogiorum carbonibus. _Mercator_, act ii. Sc. 3). But first, the inscription on the so-called house ofPansa was evidently not of an adulatory, but of a recommendatorycharacter; and secondly, those of the former kind, as we learn fromthis same verse, seem to have been written by passing admirers, withsome material ready to the hand, such as charcoal or the like, and notpainted on the walls with care, and time, and expense; a proceedingwhich we can hardly think the owner of the house, if he was a modestand sensible man, would have tolerated. Recommendations of candidates were often accompanied with a word or twoin their praise; as _dignus_, or _dignissimus est_, _probissimus_, _juvenis integer_, _frugi_, _omni bono meritus_, and the like. Suchrecommendations are sometimes subscribed by guilds or corporations, aswell as by private persons, and show that there were a great many suchtrade unions at Pompeii. Thus we find mentioned the _offectores_(dyers), _pistores_ (bakers), _aurifices_ (goldsmiths), _pomarii_(fruiterers), _cæparii_ (green-grocers), _lignarii_ (wood merchants), _plostrarii_ (cart-wrights), _piscicapi_ (fishermen), _agricolæ_(husbandmen), _muliones_ (muleteers), _culinarii_ (cooks), _fullones_(fullers), and others. Advertisements of this sort appear to have beenlaid hold of as a vehicle for street wit, just as electioneering squibsare perpetrated among ourselves. Thus we find mentioned, as if amongthe companies, the _pilicrepi_ (ball-players), the _seribibi_ (latetopers), the _dormientes universi_ (all the worshipful company ofsleepers), and as a climax, _Pompeiani universi_ (all the Pompeians, toa man, vote for so and so). One of these recommendations, purporting toemanate from a "teacher" or "professor, " runs, _Valentius cum discentessuos_ (Valentius with his disciples); the bad grammar being probablyintended as a gibe upon one of the poor man's weak points. The inscriptions in chalk and coal, the _graffiti_, and occasionallypainted inscriptions, contain sometimes well-known verses from poetsstill extant. Some of these exhibit variations from the modern text, but being written by not very highly educated persons, they seldom ornever present any various readings that it would be desirable toadopt, and indeed contain now and then prosodical errors. Otherverses, some of them by no means contemptible, are either taken frompieces now lost, or are the invention of the writer himself. Many ofthese inscriptions are of course of an amatory character; some conveyintelligence of not much importance to anybody but the writer--as, that he is troubled with a cold--or was seventeen centuries ago--orthat he considers somebody who does not invite him to supper as nobetter than a brute and barbarian, or invokes blessings on the manthat does. Some are capped by another hand with a biting sarcasm onthe first writer, and many, as might be expected, are scurrilous andindecent. Some of the _graffiti_ on the interior walls and pillars ofhouses are memoranda of domestic transactions; as, how much lard wasbought, how many tunics sent to the wash, when a child or a donkey wasborn, and the like. One of this kind, scratched on the wall of theperistyle of the corner house in the _Strada della Fortuna_ and_Vicolo degli Scienziati_, appears to be an account of the_dispensator_ or overseer of the tasks in spinning allotted to thefemale slaves of the establishment, and is interesting as furnishingus with their names, which are Vitalis, Florentina, Amarullis, Januaria, Heracla, Maria (M_a_ria, feminine of Marius, not Mar_i_a), Lalagia (reminding us of Horace's Lalage), Damalis, and Doris. The_pensum_, or weight of wool delivered to each to be spun, is spelled_pesu_, the _n_ and final _m_ being omitted, just as we find _salvelucru_, for _lucrum_, written on the threshold of the house ofSiricus. In this form, _pesu_ is very close to the Italian word_peso_. We have already alluded now and then to the rude etchings andcaricatures of these wall-artists, but to enter fully into thesubject of the Pompeian inscriptions and _graffiti_ would almostdemand a separate volume, and we must therefore resume the thread ofour description. A little beyond the house of Siricus, a small street, running down atright angles from the direction of the Forum, enters the Via delLupanare. Just at their junction, and having an entrance into both, stands the Lupanar, from which the latter street derives its name. Wecan not venture upon a description of this resort of Pagan immorality. It is kept locked up, but the guide will procure the key for those whomay wish to see it. Next to it is the House of the Fuller, in whichwas found the elegant little bronze statuette of Narcissus, now in theMuseum. The house contained nothing else of interest. The Via del Lupanare terminates in the Street of the Augustals, or ofthe Dried Fruits. In this latter street, nearly opposite the end ofthe Via del Lupanare, but a little to the left, is the House ofNarcissus, or of the Mosaic Fountain. This house is one of recentexcavation. At the threshold is a Mosaic of a bear, with the word_Have_. The prothyrum is painted with figures on a yellow ground. Onthe left is a medallion of a satyr and nymph; the opposite medallionis destroyed. The atrium is paved with mosaic. The first room on the right-hand sideof it has a picture of Narcissus admiring himself in the water. Theopposite picture has a female figure seated, with a child in her arms, and a large chest open before her. The tablinum is handsomely pavedwith mosaic and marble. Behind this, in place of a peristyle, is acourt or garden, the wall of which is painted with a figure bearing abasin. At the bottom is a handsome mosaic fountain, from which thehouse derives one of its names, with a figure of Neptune surrounded byfishes and sea-fowl; above are depicted large wild boars. On the opposite side of the way, at the eastern angle of the Street ofthe Lupanar, is the House of the Rudder and Trident, also called theHouse of Mars and Venus. The first of these names is derived from themosaic pavement in the prothyrum, in which the objects mentioned arerepresented; while a medallion picture in the atrium, with heads ofMars and Venus, gave rise to the second appellation. The colors ofthis picture are still quite fresh, a result which Signor Fiorelliattributes to his having caused a varnish of wax to be laid over thepainting at the time of its discovery. Without some such protectionthe colors of these pictures soon decay; the cinnabar, or vermilion, especially, turns black after a few days' exposure to the light. The atrium, as usual, is surrounded with bed-chambers. A peculiaritynot yet found in any other house is a niche or closet on the left ofthe atrium, having on one side an opening only large enough tointroduce the hand, whence it has been conjectured that it served as areceptacle for some valuable objects. It is painted inside with a wallof quadrangular pieces of marble of various colors, terminated at topwith a cornice. In each of the squares is a fish, bird, or quadruped. This closet or niche stands at a door of the room in which is anentrance to a subterranean passage, having its exit in the Via delLupanare. There is nothing very remarkable in the other apartments ofthis house. Behind is a peristyle with twelve columns, in the gardenof which shrubs are said to have been discovered in a carbonizedstate. Further down the same Street of the Augustals, at the angle which itforms with the Street of Stabiæ, is the house of a baker, having onthe external wall the name Modestum in red letters. For a tradesman itseems to have been a comfortable house, having an atrium and fountain, and some painted chambers. Beyond the atrium is a spacious court withmills and an oven. The oven was charged with more than eighty loaves, the forms of which are still perfect, though they are reduced to acarbonaceous state. They are preserved in the Museum. The narrow street to which we have alluded, as entering the Via delLupanare nearly opposite to the house of Siricus, has been called theVia del Balcone, from a small house with a projecting balcony ormænianum. Indications of balconies have been found elsewhere, andindeed there were evidently some in the Via del Lupanare; but this isthe only instance of one restored to its pristine state, through thecare of Signor Fiorelli in substituting fresh timbers for those whichhad become carbonized. The visitor may ascend to the first floor ofthis house, from which the balcony projects several feet into thenarrow lane. In the atrium of this house is a very pretty fountain. The house next to that of the Balcony, facing the entrance of a smallstreet leading from the Via dell Abbondanza, and numbered 7 on thedoor post, has a few pictures in a tolerable state of preservation. Ina painting in the furthest room on the left of the atrium Theseus isseen departing in his ship; Ariadne, roused from sleep, gazes on himwith despair, while a little weeping Cupid stands by her side. In thesame apartment are two other well-preserved pictures, the subjects ofwhich it is not easy to explain. In one is a female displaying to aman two little figures in a nest, representing apparently the birth ofthe Dioscuri. The other is sometimes called the Rape of Helen. Thereare also several medallion heads around. In the small street which runs parallel with the eastern side of theForum, called the Vico di Eumachia, is a house named the _Casa nuovadella Caccia_, to distinguish it from one of the same name previouslydiscovered. As in the former instance, its appellation is derived froma large painting on the wall of the peristyle, of bears, lions, andother animals. On the right-hand wall of the tablinum is a picture ofBacchus discovering Ariadne. A satyr lifts her vest, while Silenus andother figures look on in admiration. The painting on the left-handwall is destroyed. On entering the peristyle a door on the right leadsdown some steps into a garden, on one side of which is a small altarbefore a wall, on which is a painting of shrubs. Proceeding from this street into the Vico Storto, which forms acontinuation of it on the north, we find on the right a recentlyexcavated house, which, from several slabs of variously coloredmarbles found in it, has been called the House of the Dealer inMarbles. Under a large court in the interior, surrounded with Doriccolumns, are some subterranean apartments, in one of which wasdiscovered a well more than eighty feet deep and still supplied withfresh water; almost the only instance of the kind at Pompeii. Thebeautiful statuette of Silenus, already described, was found in thishouse. Here also was made the rare discovery of the skeletons of twohorses, with the remains of a _biga_. This description might be extended, but it would be tedious to repeatdetails of smaller and less interesting houses, the features of whichpresent in general much uniformity; and we shall therefore concludethis account of the more recent discoveries with a notice of a groupof bodies found in this neighborhood, the forms of which have beenpreserved to us through the ingenuity of Signor Fiorelli. It has already been remarked that the showers of _lapillo_, or pumicestone, by which Pompeii was overwhelmed and buried, were followed bystreams of a thick, tenacious mud, which flowing over the deposit of_lapillo_, and filling up all the crannies and interstices into whichthat substance had not been able to penetrate, completed thedestruction of the city. The objects over which this mud flowed wereenveloped in it as in a plaster mould, and where these objectshappened to be human bodies, their decay left a cavity in which theirforms were as accurately preserved and rendered as in the mouldprepared for the casting of a bronze statue. Such cavities had oftenbeen observed. In some of them remnants of charred wood, accompaniedwith bronze or other ornaments, showed that the object inclosed hadbeen a piece of furniture; while in others, the remains of bones andof articles of apparel evinced but too plainly that the hollow hadbeen the living grave which had swallowed up some unfortunate humanbeing. In a happy moment the idea occurred to Signor Fiorelli offilling up these cavities with liquid plaster, and thus obtaining acast of the objects which had been inclosed in them. The experimentwas first made in a small street leading from the Via del BalconePensile towards the Forum. The bodies here found were on the _lapillo_at a height of about fifteen feet from the level of the ground. "Among the first casts thus obtained were those of four human beings. They are now preserved in a room at Pompeii, and more ghastly andpainful, yet deeply interesting and touching objects, it is difficultto conceive. We have death itself moulded and cast--the very laststruggle and final agony brought before us. They tell their story witha horrible dramatic truth that no sculptor could ever reach. Theywould have furnished a thrilling episode to the accomplished author ofthe 'Last Days of Pompeii. ' "These four persons had perished in a street. They had remained withinthe shelter of their homes until the thick black mud began to creepthrough every cranny and chink. Driven from their retreat they beganto flee when it was too late. The streets were already buried deep inthe loose pumice stones which had been falling for many hours inunremitting showers, and which reached almost to the windows of thefirst floor. These victims of the eruption were not found together, and they do not appear to have belonged to the same family orhousehold. The most interesting of the casts is that of two women, probably mother and daughter, lying feet to feet. They appear fromtheir garb to have been people of poor condition. The elder seems tolie tranquilly on her side. Overcome by the noxious gases, sheprobably fell and died without a struggle. Her limbs are extended, andher left arm drops loosely. On one finger is still seen her coarseiron ring. Her child was a girl of fifteen; she seems, poor thing, tohave struggled hard for life. Her legs are drawn up convulsively; herlittle hands are clenched in agony. In one she holds her veil, or apart of her dress, with which she had covered her head, burying herface in her arm, to shield herself from the falling ashes and from thefoul sulphurous smoke. The form of her head is perfectly preserved. The texture of her coarse linen garments may be traced, and even thefashion of her dress, with its long sleeves reaching to her wrists;here and there it is torn, and the smooth young skin appears in theplaster like polished marble. On her tiny feet may still be seen herembroidered sandals. [Illustration: DISCOVERED BODY AT POMPEII. ] "At some distance from this group lay a third woman. She appears tohave been about twenty-five years of age, and to have belonged to abetter class than the other two. On one of her fingers were two silverrings, and her garments were of a finer texture. Her linen head-dress, falling over her shoulders like that of a matron in a Roman statue, can still be distinguished. She had fallen on her side, overcome bythe heat and gases, but a terrible struggle seems to have preceded herlast agony. One arm is raised in despair; the hands are clenchedconvulsively; her garments are gathered up on one side, leavingexposed a limb of beautiful shape. So perfect a mould of it has beenformed by the soft and yielding mud, that the cast would seem to betaken from an exquisite work of Greek art. She had fled with herlittle treasure, which lay scattered around her--two silver cups, afew jewels, and some dozen silver coins; nor had she, like a goodhousewife, forgotten her keys, after having probably locked up herstores before seeking to escape. They were found by her side. "The fourth cast is that of a man of the people, perhaps a commonsoldier. As may be seen in the cut, he is of almost colossal size; helies on his left arm extended by his side, and his head rests on hisright hand, and his legs drawn up as if, finding escape impossible, he had laid himself down to meet death like a brave man. His dressconsists of a short coat or jerkin and tight-fitting breeches of somecoarse stuff, perhaps leather. On one finger is seen his iron ring. His features are strongly marked the mouth open, as in death. Some ofthe teeth still remain, and even part of the moustache adheres to theplaster. "The importance of Signor Fiorelli's discovery may be understood fromthe results we have described. It may furnish us with many curiousparticulars as to the dress and domestic habits of the Romans, andwith many an interesting episode of the last day of Pompeii. Had itbeen made at an earlier period we might perhaps have possessed theperfect cast of the Diomedes, as they clung together in their laststruggle, and of other victims whose remains are now mingled togetherin the bone-house. " [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] HOUSE OF DIOMEDES. This house, the most interesting, and by far the most extensive of theprivate buildings yet discovered, is the Suburban Villa, as it iscalled, from its position a little way without the gates, in theStreet of the Tombs, which led to, or formed part of, the suburbcalled Augustus Felix. It is worthy of remark that the plan of thisedifice is in close accord with the descriptions of country housesgiven us by Vitruvius and others--a circumstance which tends stronglyto confirm the belief already expressed, that the houses of the cityare built upon the Roman system of arrangement, although the Greektaste may predominate in their decoration. We will commence byextracting the most important passages in Pliny the Younger'sdescription of his Laurentine villa, that the reader may have somegeneral notion of the subject, some standard with which to comparethat which we are about to describe. "My villa is large enough for convenience, though not splendid. Thefirst apartment which presents itself is a plain, yet not mean, atrium; then comes a portico, in shape like the letter O, whichsurrounds a small, but pleasant area. This is an excellent retreat inbad weather, being sheltered by glazed windows, and still moreeffectually by an overhanging roof. Opposite the centre of thisportico is a pleasant cavædium, after which comes a handsometriclinium, which projects upon the beach, so that when the southwestwind urges the sea, the last broken waves just dash against itswalls. On every side of this room are folding doors, or windowsequally large, so that from the three sides there is a view, as itwere, of three seas at once, while backwards the eye wanders throughthe apartments already described, the cavædium, portico, and atrium, to woods and distant mountains. To the left are several apartments, including a bed-chamber, and room fitted up as a library, which jetsout in an elliptic form, and, by its several windows, admits the sunduring its whole course. These apartments I make my winter abode. Therest of this side of the house is allotted to my slaves and freedmen, yet it is for the most part neat enough to receive my friends. To theright of the triclinium is a very elegant chamber, and another, whichyou may call either a very large chamber (_cubiculum_), ormoderate-sized eating-room (_cœnatio_), which commands a full prospectboth of the sun and sea. Passing hence, through three or four otherchambers, you enter the _cella frigidaria_ of the baths, in whichthere are two basins projecting from opposite walls, abundantly largeenough to swim in, if you feel inclined to do so in the firstinstance. Then come the anointing-room, the hypocaust, or furnace, andtwo small rooms; next the warm bath, which commands an admirable viewof the sea. Not far off is the _sphæristerium_, a room devoted toin-door exercises and games, exposed to the hottest sun of thedeclining day. Beside it is a triclinium, where the noise of the seais never heard but in a storm, and then faintly, looking out upon thegarden and the _gestatio_, or place for taking the air in a carriageor litter, which encompasses it. The gestatio is hedged with box, andwith rosemary where the box is wanting; for box grows well where it issheltered by buildings, but withers when exposed in an open situationto the wind, and especially within reach of spray from the sea. To theinner circle of the gestatio is joined a shady walk of vines, soft andtender even to the naked feet. The garden is full of mulberries andfigs, the soil being especially suited to the former. Within thecircuit of the gestatio there is also a cryptoportico, for extentcomparable to public buildings, having windows on one side looking tothe sea, on the other to the garden. In front of it is a xystus, fragrant with violets, where the sun's heat is increased by reflectionfrom the cryptoportico, which, at the same time, breaks the northeastwind. At either end of it is a suite of apartments, in which, intruth, I place my chief delight. "[14] Such was one of several villasdescribed by Pliny. The directions given by Vitruvius for buildingcountry houses are very short. "The same principles, " he says, "are tobe observed in country houses as in town houses, except that in thelatter the atrium lies next to the door, but in pseudo-urban housesthe peristyles come first, then atria surrounded by paved porticoes, looking upon courts for gymnastic exercises and walking" (_palæstraset ambulationes_). [15] It will appear that the distribution of theSuburban Villa was entirely in accordance with these rules. The house is built upon the side of the hill, in such a manner thatthe ground falls away, not only in the line of the street, across thebreadth of the house, but also from the front to the back, so that thedoorway itself being elevated from five to six feet above the roadway, there is room at the back of the house for an extensive andmagnificent suite of rooms between the level of the peristyle and thesurface of the earth. These two levels are represented on the sameplan, being distinguished by a difference in the shading. The darkerparts show the walls of the upper floor, the lighter ones indicate thedistribution of the lower. A further distinction is made in thereferences, which are by figures to the upper floor, and by letters tothe lower. There are besides subterraneous vaults and galleries notexpressed in the plan. [Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF THE SUBURBAN VILLA OF DIOMEDES. ] 1. Broad foot pavement raised nine inches or a foot above the carriageway, running along the whole length of the Street of Tombs. 2. Inclined planes, leading up to the porch on each side. 3. Entrance. 4. Peristyle. This arrangement corresponds exactly with the directions ofVitruvius for the building of country houses just quoted. The orderof the peristyle is extremely elegant. The columns, their capitals, and entablatures, and the paintings on the walls are still in goodpreservation. The architectural decorations are worked in stucco; andit is observed by Mazois that both here and in other instances theartist has taken liberties, which he would not have indulged in had hebeen working in more valuable materials. On this ground that eminentarchitect hazards a conjecture that the plasterer had a distinct styleof ornamenting, different from that of architects, or of the masons intheir employ. The lower third of the columns, which is not fluted, ispainted red. The pavement was formed of _opus Signinum_. 5. Uncoveredcourt with an impluvium, which collected the rain water and fed acistern, whence the common household wants were supplied. 6. Descending staircase, which led to a court and building on a lowerlevel, appropriated to the offices, as the kitchen, bakehouse, etc. , and to the use of slaves. It will be recollected that the groundslopes with a rapid descent away from the city gate. This lower story, therefore, was not under ground, though near eight feet below thelevel of the peristyle. It communicates with the road by a back door. From the bottom of the stair there runs a long corridor, A, somewhatindistinct in our small plan, owing to its being crossed several timesby the lines of the upper floor, which leads down by a gentle slope tothe portico surrounding the garden. This was the back stair, as weshould call it, by which the servants communicated with that part ofthe house. There was another staircase, B, on the opposite side of thehouse, for the use of the family. 7. Door and passage to the uppergarden, marked 17, on the same level as the court. 8. Open hall, corresponding in position with a tablinum. Being thus placed betweenthe court and the gallery, 28, it must have been closed with foldingdoors of wood, which perhaps were glazed. 9, 10, 11, 12. Various roomscontaining nothing remarkable. 13. Two rooms situated in the mostagreeable manner at the two ends of a long gallery, 28, and lookingout upon the upper terraces of the garden, from which the eye took inthe whole gulf of Naples to the point of Sorrento, and the island ofCapreæ. 14. Procæton, or antechamber. 15. Lodge of the cubicularslave, or attendant upon the bed-room. 16. Bed-room, probably that ofthe master, or else the state-chamber. _b. _ Alcove. Several rings werefound here which had evidently belonged to a curtain to draw acrossthe front of it. _c. _ Hollow stand or counter of masonry, probablycoated with stucco or marble, which served for a toilet-table. Severalvases were found there, which must have contained perfumes or cosmeticoils. The form of this bed-room is very remarkable, and will not failto strike the reader from its exact correspondence with the ellipticchamber or library described by Pliny in his Laurentine villa. Thewindows in the semi-circular end are so placed that they receive therising, noontide, and setting sun. Bull's eyes, placed above thewindows, permitted them to be altogether closed without darkening theroom entirely. These windows opened on a garden, where, in Mazois'time, the care of the guardian had planted roses, which almostbeguiled him into the belief that he had found the genuine produce ofa Pompeian garden. This must have been a delightful room, from itsample size, elegance of ornament, and the quiet cheerful retirement ofits situation. 17. Upper garden upon the level of the court. 18. Entrance to the baths, which, though originally rare in privatehouses, had become so common, long before the destruction of Pompeii, that few wealthy persons were without them. The word _balneum_ waspeculiarly applied to domestic, _thermæ_ to public baths. Thisspecimen, which fortunately was almost perfect, small as it is, suffices to give an idea of the arrangement of private baths among theRomans. 19. Portico upon two sides of a small triangular court. Thereis as much skill in the disposition, as taste in the decoration, ofthis court, which presents a symmetrical plan, notwithstanding theirregular form of the space allotted to it. Its situation isconformable to the advice of Vitruvius; and as it could not front thewest, it has been placed to the south. The columns of the portico areoctagonal. At the extremity of the gallery, on the left of theentrance, there is a small furnace where was prepared some warmbeverage or restorative for the use of the bathers, who wereaccustomed to take wine or cordials before they went away. Here agridiron and two frying pans were found, still blackened with smoke. In the centre of the base, or third side of the court, is placed abath, 20, about six feet square, lined with stucco, the edge of whichis faced with marble. It was covered with a roof, the mark of which isstill visible on the walls, supported by two pillars placed on theprojecting angles. The holes in the walls to admit the three principalbeams are so contrived that each side is lined with a single brick. Under this covering the whole wall was painted to represent water, with fish and other aquatic animals swimming about. The water wasblue, and rather deep in color: the fish were represented in the mostvivid and varied tints. Some years ago this painting recovered, onbeing wetted, the original freshness and brilliancy of its coloring;but exposure to the weather has done its work, and now scarce a traceof it remains. In the middle of it there is a circular broken space towhich a mask was formerly attached, through which a stream gushed intothe basin below. Two or three steps led down to this _baptisterium_, where the cold bath was taken in the open air. This court and porticowere paved in mosaic. 21. Apodyterium. 22. Frigidarium. 23. Tepidarium. These two rooms, in neither of which was there a bathingvessel, show that frequently rooms thus named were not intended forbathing, but simply to preserve two intermediate gradations oftemperature, between the burning heat of the caldarium or laconicumand the open air. In fact, no trace of any contrivance for theintroduction or reception of water has been found in No. 22. It wassimply a cold chamber, cella frigidaria. Nor was the little chamber, 23, large enough to receive conveniently a bathing vessel; but seatsof wood were found there for the convenience of those who had quittedthe bath, and who came there to undergo the discipline of the strigil, and a minute process of purification and anointing. This room is notabove twelve feet by six: the bath, therefore, could not have beencalculated for the reception of more than one, or, at most, of twopersons at once. Here the great question relative to the use of glasswindows by the ancients was finally settled. This apartment waslighted by a window closed by a movable frame of wood, which, thoughconverted into charcoal, still held, when it was found, four panes ofglass about six inches square. A more elaborate and curious glasswindow was found at a later period in the public baths. 24. Caldarium. It might, however, be employed at pleasure as a tepid or cold bath, when the weather was too cold for bathing in the open air. Thesuspensura caldariorum, as Vitruvius calls the hollow walls and floorsraised upon pillars, are in remarkably good preservation. By means ofthese the whole apartment was entirely enveloped in flame, and mightbe easily raised to a most stifling temperature. We will, however, add that Vitruvius directs a bed of clay mixed withhair to be laid between the pillars and the pavement; and sometradition of this custom may be imagined to subsist, for the pottersof the country, in some cases, work up wool with their clay, apractice unknown elsewhere, as we believe, in the art of pottery. Theburning vapor passed out above the ceiling, gaining no entrance intothe apartment. Air and light were admitted by two windows, one higherthan the other. In one of these Mazois found a fragment of glass. Thebathing-vessel, _e_, lined with stucco, and coated on the outside withmarble, was fed by two cocks, which must have been very small, tojudge from the space which they occupied. Hence, hot and cold waterwere supplied at pleasure; and it was only to fill the vessel withboiling water, and the whole apartment would be converted into onegreat vapor bath. As it would have been difficult or impossible to have kept alive alamp or torch in so dense a steam, there is near the door a circularhole, closed formerly by a glass, which served to admit the light of alamp placed in the adjoining chamber. The hypocaust, or furnace andapparatus, 25, for heating the water, are so placed that they can notbe seen from the triangular court. They are small, but correspond withthe small quantity of boiling water which they were required tofurnish. _f. _ Stone table. _g. _ Cistern. _h. _ Mouth of hypocaust. _i. _A furnace, probably for boiling water when merely a tepid bath wasrequired, without heating the suspensura caldariorum. By the side ofthe hypocaust were placed the vases for hot and cold water, asdescribed in the chapter on Baths; their pedestals were observablebetween the mouth of the furnace and the letter _k. _ _l. _ Woodenstaircase, no longer in existence, which led to the apartments above. 26. Reservoir. Such was the distribution of this bath. Some paintings and mosaics, which are ordinary enough, formed its only decorations; yet, from thelittle that remains, we can discover that the good taste which reignedeverywhere, and the freshness of the colors, must have rendered theeffect of the whole most agreeable. 27. This chamber seems to have been used as a wardrobe, where thenumerous garments of the opulent masters of this dwelling were keptunder presses, to give them a lustre. This conjecture is founded uponthe remains of calcined stuffs, and the fragments of wardrobes andcarbonized plank found in the course of excavation. 28. Great gallery, lighted by windows which looked upon the twoterraces, 34, separated by the large hall, 33. This gallery furnishedan agreeable promenade, when the weather did not permit the enjoymentof the external porticoes or terraces. 29, 29. These two small apartments, which were open to the gallery, and probably were closed by glass, may very well have been, one alibrary, the other a reading-room, since the place in which books werekept was not usually the place in which they were read; being smalland confined, suitable to the comparatively small number of volumeswhich an ancient library generally contained, and also to the limitedspace within which a considerable number of rolls of papyrus might beplaced. A bust, painted on the wall of one of them, confirms this supposition, for it is known that the ancients were fond of keeping the portraitsof eminent men before their eyes, and especially of placing those ofliterary men in their libraries. 30. The form of this hall is suitable to a triclinium, and itssituation, protected from the immediate action of the sun's rays, would seem to mark it as a summer triclinium. Still the guests enjoyedthe view of the country and of the sea, by means of a door openingupon the terrace. In front of the little chamber, 31, is a squareopening for the staircase, which descends to the point B upon thefloor below. It is to be remarked, that at the entrance of eachdivision of the building there is a lodge for a slave. No doubt eachsuite of rooms had its peculiar keeper. The chamber, 10, seems to havebeen reserved for the keeper of the peristyle; the apartment, 15, belonged to the slave of the bed-chamber, who watched the apartment ofhis master; a recess under the staircase, 35, was, without doubt, theplace of the atriensis, or attendant on the atrium, when the hall, 8, was open, to give admission to the interior of the house; and whenthis hall was closed, he attended in the chamber, 12, which commandedthe entrance through the passage, or fauces. Lastly, the small lodge, 31, is so placed as to keep watch over allcommunication between the upper floor, where is the peristyle, andthe lower floor, in which the apartments of the family seem to havebeen chiefly situated. 32. Apartment, entirely ruined, to which it is difficult to assign aname. 33. Large cyzicene œcus, about thirty-six feet by twenty-six. All thewindows of this apartment opened almost to the level of the floor, andgave a view of the garden, the terraces and trellises which ornamentedthem, as well as of the vast and beautiful prospect towards the seaand Vesuvius. 34. Large terraces, perhaps formerly covered with trellises, whichcommunicate with the terraces over the gallery by which the garden issurrounded. 35. Staircase leading to the upper floor, on which may have been thegynæceum, or suite of apartments belonging to the women. So retired asituation, however, did not always suit the taste of the Roman ladies. Cornelius Nepos says that "they occupy for the most part the firstfloor in the front of the house. " Mazois was long impressed with theidea that there must have been an upper story here, but for a longtime he could not find the staircase. At last he discovered in this place marks in the plaster, which leftno doubt in his mind but that it had existed here, though being ofwood it disappeared with the other woodwork. He recognized theinclination and the height of the steps, and found that they were highand narrow, like those stone stairs which exist still in the samedwelling. 36. A sort of vestibule at the entrance of the building, appropriatedto the offices. This lower court probably contained the kitchen. 37. Bake-house, apartments of the inferior slaves, stables, and otheraccessories. These are separated from the main building by means of amesaulon, or small internal court, to diminish the danger in case of afire happening in the kitchen or bake-house. There were two ways ofcommunication from the level of the street to the level of the garden;on one side by the corridor, A, A, principally reserved for theservants, on the other by the staircase, B, C, C, C, Portico round thegarden. The side beneath the house and that at the right of the plan areperfectly preserved, but it has been found necessary to support theterrace on this side by inserting a modern pillar between each of theold ones, and to build two massive piers beneath the terrace on whichthe great cyzicene hall is situated. This portico was elegantlyornamented. If we may judge of the whole from a part, which is givenby Mazois, the interior entablature was ornamented with lightmouldings and running patterns, while there was a little picture overeach pillar. That in his plate represents a swan flying away with aserpent. The pillars were square, the lower part painted with flowersspringing from trellises, apparently of very delicate execution. Thesame style of painting occurs in the court of the baths. The ceilingof the portico beneath the terrace is, in respect of its construction, one of the most curious specimens of ancient building which havereached our time. It is a plane surface of masonry, hung in the air, supported neither on the principle of the arch, nor by iron cramps, but owing its existence entirely to the adherence of the mortar bywhich it is cemented. It is divided into compartments by false beams(caissons) of the same construction. The whole is of remarkablesolidity. D. Open hall at the end of the western portico. E. Fountain, supplied perhaps by the water of the cistern. There was formerly awell upon the terrace, 34, by which water might be drawn from thereservoir of this fountain, but it was effaced when the area of theterrace was restored. F, F, F. Different chambers, halls, triclinium, in which the remains of a carpet were found on the floor, and otherrooms, to which it is difficult to assign any particular destination. They are all decorated in the most elegant and refined manner, buttheir paintings are hastening to decay with a rapidity which isgrievous to behold. Fortunately, the Academy of Naples has published avolume of details, in which the greater part of the frescos of thisvilla are engraved. G. Passage, leading by the staircase B to theupper floor, and by the staircase H to the subterranean galleries. There is a similar staircase, H, on the other side of the portico. These galleries form a crypt beneath the portico, lighted and aired byloop-holes on the level of the ground. Amphoræ, placed in sand againstthe wall, are still to be seen there, and for this reason it has beenconjectured that the crypt served the purposes of a cellar; but eventhis crypt was coarsely painted. I. Mesaulon, or court, whichseparates the offices from the house. K. Small room at the extremityof the garden. L. An oratory; the niche served to receive a littlestatue. M. Xystus, or garden. N. Piscina, with a _jet d'eau_. O. Enclosure covered with a trellis. P. Door to the country and towardsthe sea. Q. This enclosure, about fifteen feet wide, appears to havebeen covered with a trellis, and must have been much frequented, sincethere is a noble flight of steps leading down to it from the uppergarden. It fronted the south, and must have been a delightful winterpromenade. The arch to the left is the end of the open hall, D, above theportico; on each side are the terraces, 34, 34, and in the centre arethe remains of the cyzicene hall. Beneath on the level of the portico, are the several rooms marked F, probably the chief summer abode of thefamily, being well adapted to that purpose by their refreshingcoolness. Their ceilings for the most part are semicircular vaults, richly painted, and the more valuable because few ceilings have beenfound in existence. We should attempt in vain to describe thecomplicated subjects, the intricate and varied patterns with which thefertile fancy of the arabesque painter has clothed the walls andceilings, without the aid of drawings, which we are unable to give;and, indeed, colored plates would be requisite to convey an adequatenotion of their effect. In the splendid work which Mr. Donaldson haspublished upon Pompeii, several subjects taken from these rooms willbe found, some of them colored, together with eight mosaics, some ofvery complicated, all of elegant design; and to this and similar workswe must refer the further gratification of the reader's curiosity. Such was this mansion, in which no doubt the owner took pride andpleasure, to judge from the expense lavished with unsparing hand onits decoration; and if he could be supposed to have any cognizance ofwhat is now passing on earth, his vanity might find some consolationfor having been prematurely deprived of it, in the posthumouscelebrity which it has obtained. But his taste and wealth have donenothing to perpetuate his name, for not a trace remains that canindicate to what person or to what family it belonged. It is indeedusually called the Villa of Marcus Arius Diomedes, on the strength ofa tomb discovered about the same period immediately opposite to it, bearing that name. No other tomb had then been discovered so near it, and on this coincidence of situation a conclusion was drawn that thismust have been a family sepulchre, attached to the house, and, byconsequence, that the house itself belonged to Diomedes. Theconjecture at the outset rested but on a sandy foundation, which hassince been entirely sapped by the discovery of numerous other tombsalmost equally near. All that we know of the owner or his family maybe comprised in one sentence, which, short as it is, speaks forciblyto our feelings. Their life was one of elegant luxury and enjoyment, in the midst of which death came on them by surprise, a death ofsingular and lingering agony. When Vesuvius first showed signs of the coming storm the air wasstill, as we learn from the description of Pliny, and the smoke of themountain rose up straight, until the atmosphere would bear it nohigher, and then spread on all sides into a canopy, suggesting to himthe idea of an enormous pine tree. After this a wind sprung up fromthe west, which was favorable to carry Pliny from Misenum to Stabiæ, but prevented his return. The next morning probably it veeredsomething to the north, when, in the younger Pliny's words, a cloudseemed to descend upon the earth, to cover the sea, and hide the Isleof Capreæ from his view. The ashes are said by Dion Cassius to havereached Egypt, and in fact a line drawn southeast from Vesuvius wouldpass very near Pompeii, and cut Egypt. It was probably at this momentthat the hail of fire fell thickest at Pompeii, at daybreak on thesecond morning, and if any had thus long survived the stifling air andtorrid earth which surrounded them, their misery probably was at thismoment brought to a close. The villa of which we speak lay exactlybetween the city and the mountain, and must have felt the first, and, if there were degrees of misery, where all perished alike, the worsteffects of this fearful visitation. Fearful is such a visitation inthe present day, even to those who crowd to see an eruption ofVesuvius as they would to a picture-gallery or an opera; how much moreterrible, accompanied by the certainty of impending death, to thosewhom neither history nor experience had familiarized with the mostawful phenomenon presented by nature. At this, or possibly an earliermoment, the love of life proved too strong for the social affectionsof the owner of the house. He fled, abandoning to their fate anumerous family, and a young and beautiful daughter, and bent his way, with his most precious movables, accompanied only by a single slave, to the sea, which he never reached alive. His daughter, two children, and other members of his family and household sought protection in thesubterranean vaults, which, by the help of the wine-jars alreadystored there, and the provisions which they brought down with them, they probably considered as sufficient refuge against an evil of whichthey could not guess the whole extent. It was a vain hope; the samefate awaited them all by different ways. The strong vaults andnarrow openings to the day protected them, indeed, from the fallingcinders; but the heat, sufficient to char wood, and volatilize themore subtle part of the ashes, could not be kept out by such means. The vital air was changed into a sulphurous vapor, charged withburning dust. In their despair, longing for the pure breath of heaven, they rushed to the door, already choked with scoriæ and ruins, andperished in agonies on which the imagination does not willingly dwell. [Illustration: WALL PAINTING AT POMPEII. ] This the reader will probably be inclined to think might do very wellfor the conclusion of a romance, but why invent such sentimentalstories to figure in a grave historical account? It is a remarkableinstance, perhaps the strongest which has yet occurred, of thepeculiar interest which the discoveries at Pompeii possess, asintroducing us to the homes, nay, to the very persons of along-forgotten age, that every circumstance of this tale can beverified by evidence little less than conclusive. Beside the gardengate, marked P, two skeletons were found; one presumed to be themaster, had in his hand the key of that gate, and near him were abouta hundred gold and silver coins; the other, stretched beside somesilver vases, was probably a slave charged with the transport of them. When the vaults beneath the room, D, were discovered, at the foot ofthe staircase, H, the skeletons of eighteen adult persons, a boy andan infant were found huddled up together, unmoved during seventeencenturies since they sank in death. They were covered by several feetof ashes of extreme fineness, evidently slowly borne in through thevent-holes, and afterwards consolidated by damp. The substance thusformed resembles the sand used by metal founders for castings, but isyet more delicate, and took perfect impressions of everything on whichit lay. Unfortunately this property was not observed until almost toolate, and little was preserved except the neck and breast of a girl, which are said to display extraordinary beauty of form. So exact isthe impression, that the very texture of the dress in which she wasclothed is apparent, which by its extraordinary fineness evidentlyshows that she had not been a slave, and may be taken for the finegauze which Seneca calls woven wind. On other fragments the impressionof jewels worn on the neck and arms is distinct, and marks thatseveral members of the family here perished. The jewels themselveswere found beside them, comprising, in gold, two necklaces, one setwith blue stones, and four rings, containing engraved gems. Two of theskeletons belonged to children, and some of their blonde hair wasstill existent; most of them are said to have been recognized asfemale. Each sex probably acted in conformity to its character, themen trusting to their own strength to escape, the women waiting withpatience the issue of a danger from which their own exertions couldnot save them. In the same vault bronze candelabra and other articles, jewels andcoins were found. Amphoræ were also found ranged against the wall, insome of which the contents, dried and hardened by time, were stillpreserved. Archæologists, it is said, pretend to recognize in thissubstance the flavor of the rich strong wine for which theneighborhood of Vesuvius is celebrated. Besides the interior garden within the portico, there must have beenanother garden extending along the southern side of the house. Thepassage from the peristyle, 7, the position of the elliptic chamber, 16, and the trellis work, Q, with its spacious steps, leave no doubton this subject. It has been stated in a German periodical that tracesof the plowshare have been distinguished in the fields adjoining thisvilla. This is the only authority we have for supposing that theprocess of excavation has been extended at all beyond the houseitself. The garden to the south is still, to the best of ourinformation, uncleared, nor is it likely that it contains objects ofsufficient interest to recompense the labor which would be consumed inlaying it open. Our limited knowledge of ancient horticulture is nottherefore likely to be increased by means of Pompeii; for such smallflower-pots as are attached to houses within the town can not containanything worth notice beyond a fountain or a summer triclinium. [Illustration: HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS. ] We will do our best, however, to complete the reader's notion of anItalian villa, and show what might have been, since we can not showwhat has been here, by borrowing Pliny's account of the gardenattached to his Tuscan villa, the only account of a Roman garden whichhas come down to us. "In front of the house lies a spacious hippodrome, entirely open inthe middle, by which means the eye, upon your first entrance, takes inits whole extent at one view. It is encompassed on every side withplane trees covered with ivy, so that while their heads flourish withtheir own green, their bodies enjoy a borrowed verdure; and thus theivy twining round the trunk and branches, spreads from tree to treeand connects them together. Between each plane tree are placed boxtrees, and behind these, bay trees, which blend their shade with thatof the planes. This plantation, forming a straight boundary on bothsides of the hippodrome, bends at the further end into a semi-circle, which, being set round and sheltered with cypresses, casts a deeperand more gloomy shade; while the inward circular walks (for there areseveral) enjoying an open exposure, are full of roses, and correct thecoolness of the shade by the warmth of the sun. "Having passed through these several winding alleys, you enter astraight walk, which breaks out into a variety of others, divided bybox edges. In one place you have a little meadow; in another the boxis cut into a thousand different forms, sometimes into letters; hereexpressing the name of the master, there that of the artificer; whilehere and there little obelisks rise, intermixed with fruit trees; whenon a sudden, in the midst of this elegant regularity, you aresurprised with an imitation of the negligent beauties of rural nature, in the centre of which lies a spot surrounded with a knot of dwarfplane trees. Beyond this is a walk, interspersed with the smooth andtwining acanthus, where the trees are also cut into a variety of namesand shapes. At the upper end is an alcove of white marble, shaded withvines, supported by four small columns of Carystian marble. Here is atriclinium, out of which the water, gushing through several littlepipes, as if it were pressed out by the weight of the persons whorepose upon it, falls into a stone cistern underneath, from whence itis received into a fine polished marble basin, so artfully contrivedthat it is always full without ever overflowing. When I sup here, this basin serves for a table, the larger sort of dishes being placedround the margin, while the smaller swim about in the form of littlevessels and water-fowl. "Corresponding to this is a fountain, which is incessantly emptyingand filling; for the water, which it throws up to a great height, falling back again into it, is returned as fast as it is received, bymeans of two openings. "Fronting the alcove stands a summer-house of exquisite marble, whosedoors project and open into a green enclosure, while from its upperand lower windows also the eye is presented with a variety ofdifferent verdures. Next to this is a little private closet, which, though it seems distinct, may be laid into the same room, furnishedwith a couch; and notwithstanding it has windows on every side, yet itenjoys a very agreeable gloominess, by means of a spreading vine, which climbs to the top and entirely overshades it. Here you may lieand fancy yourself in a wood, with this difference only, that you arenot exposed to the weather. In this place a fountain also rises, andinstantly disappears. In different quarters are disposed severalmarble seats, which serve, as well as the summer-house, as so manyreliefs after one is tired of walking. Near each seat is a littlefountain, and throughout the whole hippodrome several small rills runmurmuring along, wheresoever the hand of art thought proper to conductthem, watering here and there different spots of verdure, and in theirprogress refreshing the whole. " [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] STORES AND EATING HOUSES. To notice all the houses excavated at Pompeii, would be wearisome inthe extreme. We intend therefore merely to select some of the mostimportant, to be described at length, the arrangement of which mayserve, with variations according to place and circumstances, as a typeof the whole. Some, which offer no particularity in theirconstruction, are remarkable for the beauty of their paintings orother decorations; and, indeed, it is from the paintings on the wallsthat many of the houses have derived their names. Some again aredesignated from mosaics or inscriptions on the threshold, from thetrade or profession evidently exercised by the proprietors, or fromsome accident, as the presence of distinguished persons at theirexcavation--as, for instance, those called the House of the EmperorJoseph II. , del Gran Duca, degli Scienziati, etc. As it is the objectof this work to convey a general notion of the remains of Pompeii, andto exhibit, as far as our materials will permit, the private life ofthe first century in all its degrees, we shall begin with one or twoof the stores. These present great similarity in their arrangements, and indicate that the tribe of storekeepers was very inferior inwealth and comfort to that of our own time and country. They are forthe most part very small, and sometimes without any interior apartmenton the ground floor. The upper floor must have comprised one or twosleeping-rooms; but there is, as we believe, only one house in whichthe upper floor is in existence. It is rare at Pompeii to see a whole house set apart for purposes oftrade, a part being occupied by the store itself, the rest furnishinga comfortable dwelling for the owner. The houses of the richerclasses, instead of presenting a handsome elevation to the street, were usually surrounded with stores. They furnished considerablerevenue. Cicero, in a letter to Atticus, speaks of the ruinous state into whichsome of his stores had fallen, "insomuch that not only the men, butthe mice had quitted them, " and hints at the gain which he hoped toderive from this seemingly untoward circumstance. One Julia Felixpossessed nine hundred stores, as we learn from an inscription inPompeii. At night the whole front was closed with shutters, sliding in groovescut in the lintel and basement wall before the counter, and by thedoor, which is thrown far back, so as to be hardly visible. There is an oven at the end of the counter furthest from the street, and three steps have been presumed to support different sorts ofvessels or measures for liquids. From these indications it is supposedto have been a cook's shop; for the sale, perhaps, both of undressedand dressed provisions, as is indicated in the view. The oven probablyserved to prepare, and keep constantly hot, some popular dishes forthe service of any chance customer; the jars might hold oil, olives, or the fish-pickle called _garum_, an article of the highestimportance in a Roman kitchen, for the manufacture of which Pompeiiwas celebrated. [16] Fixed vessels appear inconvenient for such uses on account of thedifficulty of cleaning them out; but the practice, it is said, continues to this day at Rome, where the small shopkeepers keep theiroil in similar jars, fixed in a counter of masonry. All the ornamentsin the view are copied from Pompeii. In front of the store, whichstands opposite the passage leading behind the small theatre to theSoldiers' Quarters, are three stepping-stones, to enable persons tocross the road without wetting their feet in bad weather. In conjunction with a street view, we give the view of another shop, which has also a counter containing jars for the reception of someliquid commodity. By some it is called a Thermopolium, or store forthe sale of hot drinks, while others call it an oil store. In front isa fountain. It is situated at the angle of the street immediatelyadjoining the House of Pansa. The left-hand street leads to the Gateof Herculaneum; the right, skirting Pansa's house, is terminated bythe city walls. [Illustration: RESTAURANT. (_From Wall Painting. _)] Tracks of wheels are very visible on the pavement. The interior wasgaily painted in blue panels and red borders, as we learn from thecolored view in Mr. Donaldson's Pompeii, from which this is taken. Thecounter is faced and covered with marble. Numerous thermopolia havebeen discovered in Pompeii, many of them identified, or supposed tobe identified, by the stains left upon the counters by wet glasses. [Illustration: BED AND TABLE AT POMPEII. (_From Wall Painting. _)] In the centre is a small altar, placed before a niche, ornamented withthe painting of some goddess holding a cornucopia. She is reposing ona couch, closely resembling a modern French bed. The mattress iswhite, striped with violet, and spotted with gold; the cushion isviolet. The tunic of the goddess is blue, the bed, the table, and thecornucopia, gold. This house stands just by the gate of Herculaneum, adjoining the broad flight of steps which leads up to the ramparts. Bonucci supposes that it belonged to the officer appointed to takecharge of the gate and walls. We may take this opportunity to describe the nature and arrangement ofthe triclinium, of which such frequent mention has been made. In theearlier times of Rome, men sat at table--the habit of reclining wasintroduced from Carthage after the Punic wars. At first these bedswere clumsy in form, and covered with mattresses stuffed with rushesor straw. Hair and wool mattresses were introduced from Gaul at alater period, and were soon followed by cushions stuffed withfeathers. At first these tricliniary beds were small, low, and round, and made of wood; afterwards, in the time of Augustus, square andhighly ornamented couches came into fashion. In the reign of Tiberiusthey began to be veneered with costly woods or tortoiseshell, and werecovered with valuable embroideries, the richest of which came fromBabylon, and cost incredible sums. Each couch contained three persons, and, properly, the wholearrangement consisted of three couches, so that the number at tabledid not exceed the number of the Muses, and each person had his seataccording to his rank and dignity. The places were thus appropriated:1. The host. 2. His wife. 3. Guest. 4. Consular place, or place ofhonor. This was the most convenient situation at table, because he whooccupied it, resting on his left arm, could easily with his rightreach any part of the table without inconvenience to his neighbors. Itwas, therefore, set apart for the person of highest rank. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Other guests. [Illustration: PLAN OF A TRICLINIUM. ] The entertainment itself usually comprised three services; the firstconsisting of fresh eggs, olives, oysters, salad, and other lightdelicacies; the second of made dishes, fish, and roast meats; thethird of pastry, confectionery, and fruits. A remarkable painting, discovered at Pompeii, gives a curious idea of a complete feast. Itrepresents a table set out with every requisite for a grand dinner. Inthe centre is a large dish, in which four peacocks are placed, one ateach corner, forming a magnificent dome with their tails. All roundare lobsters--one holding in his claws a blue egg, a second an oyster, a third a stuffed rat, a fourth a little basket full of grasshoppers. Four dishes of fish decorate the bottom, above which are severalpartridges, and hares, and squirrels, each holding its head betweenits paws. The whole is surrounded by something resembling a Germansausage; then comes a row of yolks of eggs; then a row of peaches, small melons, and cherries; and lastly, a row of vegetables ofdifferent sorts. The whole is covered with a sort of green-coloredsauce. Another house, also of the minor class, yet superior to any hithertodescribed, is recommended to our notice by the beauty of thepaintings found. That the proprietor was not rich is evident from itslimited extent and accommodation; yet he had some small property, aswe may infer from the shop communicating with the house, in which weresold such articles of agricultural produce as were not required forthe use of the family. This house was formerly decorated with paintings taken from theOdyssey, and from the elegant fictions of Grecian mythology. WhenMazois visited it in 1812, two paintings in the atrium were still inexistence, though in a very perishing state. Shortly after he hadcopied them they fell, owing to the plaster detaching itself from thewall. One of them is taken from the Odyssey, and represents Ulyssesand Circe, at the moment when the hero, having drunk the charmed cupwith impunity, by virtue of the antidote given him by Mercury, drawshis sword and advances to avenge his companions. [17] The goddess, terrified, makes her submission at once, as described by Homer, whileher two attendants fly in alarm; yet one of them, with a naturalcuriosity, can not resist the temptation to look back, and observe thetermination of so unexpected a scene. Circe uses the very gesture ofsupplication so constantly described by Homer and the tragedians, asshe sinks on her knees, extending one hand to clasp the knees ofUlysses, with the other endeavoring to touch his beard. [18] Thispicture is remarkable, as teaching us the origin of that ugly andunmeaning glory with which the heads of saints are often surrounded. The Italians borrowed it from the Greek artists of the lower empire, in whose paintings it generally has the appearance, as we believe, ofa solid plate of gold. The glory round Circe's head has the samecharacter, the outer limb or circle being strongly defined, not shadedoff and divining into rays, as we usually see it in the Italianschool. This glory was called nimbus, or aureola, and is defined byServius to be "the luminous fluid which encircles the heads of thegods. " It belongs with peculiar propriety to Circe, as the daughter ofthe sun. The emperors, with their usual modesty, assumed it as themark of their divinity; and, under this respectable patronage, itpassed, like many other Pagan superstitions and customs, in the use ofthe church. The other picture represents Achilles at Scyros, where Thetis hadhidden him among the daughters of Lycomedes, to prevent his engagingin the Trojan war. Ulysses discovered him by bringing for sale armsmixed with female trinkets, in the character of a merchant. The storyis well known. The painting represents the moment when the young herois seizing the arms. Deidamia seems not to know what to make of thematter, and tries to hold him back, while Ulysses is seen behind withhis finger on his lips, closely observing all that passes. [Illustration: HEAD OF CIRCE. ] [Page Decoration] HOUSES OF PANSA AND SALLUST. The two compartments marked 30 are houses of a very mean class, havingformerly an upper story. Behind the last of them is a court, whichgives light to one of the chambers of Pansa's house. On the other sideof the island or block are three houses (32), small, but of much morerespectable extent and accommodation, which probably were also meantto be let. In that nearest the garden were found the skeletons of fourwomen, with gold ear and finger rings having engraved stones, besidesother valuables; showing that such _inquilini_ or lodgers, were notalways of the lowest class. The best view of this house is from the front of the doorway. Itoffers to the eye, successively, the doorway, the prothyrum, theatrium, with its impluvium, the Ionic peristyle, and the garden wall, with Vesuvius in the distance. The entrance is decorated with twopilasters of the Corinthian order. Besides the outer door, there wasanother at the end of the prothyrum, to secure the atrium against tooearly intrusion. The latter apartment was paved with marble, with agentle inclination towards the impluvium. Through the tablinum theperistyle is seen, with two of its Ionic capitals still remaining. Thecolumns are sixteen in number, fluted, except for about one-third oftheir height from the bottom. They are made of a volcanic stone, and, with their capitals, are of good execution. But at some periodsubsequent to the erection of the house, probably after theearthquake, A. D. 63, they have been covered with hard stucco, andlarge leaves of the same material set under the volutes, so as totransform them into a sort of pseudo-Corinthian, or Composite order. It is not impossible that the exclusively Italian order, which we callComposite, may have originated in a similar caprice. Of thedisposition of the garden, which occupied the open part of theperistyle, we have little to say. Probably it was planted with choiceflowers. Slabs of marble were placed at the angles to receive thedrippings of the roof, which were conducted by metal conduits into thecentral basin, which is about six feet in depth, and was paintedgreen. In the centre of it there stood a jet d'eau, as there areindications enough to prove. This apartment, if such it may be called, was unusually spacious, measuring about sixty-five feet by fifty. Theheight of the columns was equal to the width of the colonnade, aboutsixteen feet. Their unfluted part is painted yellow, the rest iscoated with white stucco. The floor is elevated two steps above thelevel of the tablinum. A curious religious painting, now almost effaced, was found in thekitchen, representing the worship offered to the Lares, under whoseprotection and custody the provisions and all the cooking utensilswere placed. In the centre is a sacrifice in honor of those deities, who are represented below in the usual form of two huge serpentsbrooding over an altar. There is something remarkable in the upperfigures. The female figure in the centre holds a cornucopia, and eachof the male figures holds a small vase in the hand nearer to thealtar, and a horn in the other. All the faces are quite black, and theheads of the male figures are surrounded with something resembling aglory. Their dress in general, and especially their boots, which arejust like the Hungarian boots now worn on the stage, appear differentfrom anything which is to be met with elsewhere. Are these figuresmeant for the Lares themselves? On each side are represented differentsorts of eatables. On the left a bunch of small birds, a string offish, a boar with a girth about his body, and a magnificently curlingtail, and a few loaves, or rather cakes, of the precise pattern ofsome which have been found in Pompeii: on the right, an eel spitted ona wire, a ham, a boar's head, and a joint of meat, which, as pig-meatseems to have been in request here, we may conjecture to be a loin ofpork; at least it is as like that as anything else. It is suspended bya reed, as is still done at Rome. The execution of this painting iscoarse and careless in the extreme, yet there is a spirit and freedomof touch which has hit off the character of the objects represented, and forbids us to impute the negligence which is displayed toincapacity. Another object of interest in the kitchen is a stove forstews and similar preparations, very much like those charcoal stoveswhich are seen in extensive kitchens at the present day. Before it liea knife, strainers, and a strange-looking sort of a frying-pan, withfour spherical cavities, as if it were meant to cook eggs. A similarone, containing twenty-nine egg-holes, has been found, which iscircular, about fifteen inches in diameter, and without a handle. Another article of kitchen furniture is a sort of flat ladle piercedwith holes, said to belong to the class called _trua_. It was meantapparently to stir up vegetables, etc. , while boiling, and to strainthe water from them. [Illustration: KITCHEN FURNITURE AT POMPEII. ] This house has been long excavated, and perhaps that is the reasonthat, considering its extent and splendor, the notices of it areparticularly meagre. Of the decorations we have been able to procureno detailed accounts, though several paintings are said to have beenfound in it, and among them, one of Danae amid the golden shower, deserving of notice. Of the garden little can be said, for little isknown. According to the best indications which Mazois could observe, it consisted of a number of straight parallel beds, divided by narrowpaths, which gave access to them for horticultural purposes, but withno walk for air and exercise except the portico which adjoins thehouse. Inferior to the House of Pansa, and to some others in size, but secondto none in elegance of decoration and in the interest which itexcites, is a house in the street leading from the Gate of Herculaneumto the Forum, called by some the House of Actæon, from a paintingfound in it; by others the House of Caius Sallustius. It occupies thesouthernmost portion of an insula extending backwards to the citywalls. It is remarkable that the architects of Pompeii seem to have beencareless for the most part whether they built on a regular or anirregular area. The practice of surrounding the owner's abode withshops, enabled them to turn to advantage the sides and corners of anypiece of ground, however misshapen. Thus in another plan theapartments of the dwelling-houses are almost all well shaped andrectangular, though not one of the four angles of the area is a rightangle. The general view of this house is taken from the street in front, andruns completely through to the garden wall. One of the pilasters whichflank the doorway has its capital still in good preservation. It iscut out of gray lava, and represents a Silenus and Faun side by side, each holding one end of an empty leather bottle, thrown over theirshoulders. Ornaments of this character, which can be comprehendedunder none of the orders of architecture, are common in Pompeii, andfar from unpleasing in their effect, however contrary to establishedprinciples. On the right is the large opening into the vestibule. Inthe centre of the view is the atrium, easily recognized by theimpluvium, and beyond it through the tablinum are seen the pillars ofthe portico. Beyond the impluvium is the place of a small altar forthe worship of the Lares. A bronze hind, through the mouth of which astream of water flowed, formerly stood in the centre of the basin. Itbore a figure of Hercules upon its back. The walls of the atrium and tablinum are curiously stuccoed in largeraised panels, with deep channels between them, the panels beingpainted of different colors, strongly contrasted with each other. We find among them different shades of the same color, several reds, for instance, as sinopis, cinnabar, and others. This sort ofdecoration has caused some persons to call this the house of acolor-seller--a conjecture entirely at variance with the luxury andelegance which reign in it. The floor was of red cement, with bits ofwhite marble imbedded in it. The altar in the atrium and the little oratory in the left-hand alabelong to the worship of the Lares _domestici_ or _familiares_, as isindicated by the paintings found in the false doorway, but nowremoved. They consisted of a serpent below and a group of four figuresabove, employed in celebrating a sacrifice to these gods. In the centre is a tripod, into which a priest, his head covered, ispouring the contents of a patera. On each side are two young men, dressed alike, apparently in the prætexta; at least their robes arewhite, and there is a double red stripe down the front of theirtunics, and a red drapery is thrown over the shoulders of each. In onehand each holds a patera; in the other each holds aloft a cow's hornperforated at the small end, through which a stream is spouting intothe patera at a considerable distance. This, though an inconvenient, seems to have been a common drinking-vessel. The method of using ithas already been described. In the background is a man playing on thedouble flute. The worship of the Lares was thus publicly represented, and theirimages were exposed to view, that all persons might have anopportunity of saluting them and invoking prosperity on the house. Noble families had also a place of domestic worship (_adytum_ or_penetrale_) in the most retired part of their mansions, where theirmost valuable records and hereditary memorials were preserved. The worship of these little deities (_Dii minuti_, or _patellarii_)was universally popular, partly perhaps on account of its economicalnature, for they seem to have been satisfied with anything that cameto hand, partly perhaps from a sort of feeling of good fellowship inthem and towards them, like that connected with the Brownies andCluricaunes, and other household goblins of northern extraction. Like those goblins they were represented sometimes under verygrotesque forms. There is a bronze figure of one found at Herculaneum, and figured in the Antiquites d'Herculanum, plate xvii. Vol. Viii. , which represents a little old man sitting on the ground with his kneesup to his chin, a huge head, ass's ears, a long beard, and a roguishface, which would agree well with our notion of a Brownie. Theirstatues were often placed behind the door, as having power to keep outall things hurtful, especially evil genii. Respected as they were, they sometimes met with rough treatment, and were kicked or cuffed, orthrown out of window without ceremony, if any unlucky accident hadchanced through their neglect. Sometimes they were imaged under theform of dogs, the emblems of fidelity and watchfulness, sometimes, like their brethren of the highways (Lares compitales), in the shapeof serpents. The tutelary genii of men or places, a class of beings closely alliedto Lares, were supposed to manifest themselves in the same shape: as, for example, a sacred serpent was believed at Athens to keep watch inthe temple of Athene in the Acropolis. Hence paintings of theseanimals became in some sort the guardians of the spot in which theywere set up, like images of saints in Roman Catholic countries, andnot unfrequently were employed when it was wished to secure any placefrom irreverent treatment. From these associations the presence of serpents came to be consideredof good omen, and by a natural consequence they were kept (a harmlesssort of course) in the houses, where they nestled about the altars, and came out like dogs or cats to be patted by the visitors, and begfor something to eat. Nay, at table, if we may build upon insulatedpassages, they crept about the cups of the guests; and in hot weatherladies would use them as live boas, and twist them round their necksfor the sake of coolness. Martial, however, our authority for this, seems to consider it as anodd taste. Virgil, therefore, in a fine passage, in which he hasavailed himself of the divine nature attributed to serpents, is onlydescribing a scene which he may often have witnessed: Scarce had he finished, when with speckled pride, A serpent from the tomb began to glide; His hugy bulk on seven high volumes rolled; Blue was his breadth of back, but streaked with scaly gold; Thus, riding on his curls, he seemed to pass A rolling fire along, and singe the grass. More various colors through his body run, Than Iris, when her bow imbibes the sun. Betwixt the rising altars, and around, The rolling monster shot along the ground. With harmless play amidst the bowls he passed, And with his lolling tongue assayed the taste; Thus fed with holy food, the wondrous guest Within the hollow tomb retired to rest. The pious prince, surprised at what he viewed, The funeral honors with more zeal renewed; Doubtful if this the place's genius were, Or guardian of his father's sepulchre. We may conjecture from the paintings, which bear a marked resemblanceto one another, that these snakes were of considerable size, and ofthe same species, probably that called Æsculapius, which was broughtfrom Epidaurus to Rome with the worship of the god, and, as we aretold by Pliny, was commonly fed in the houses of Rome. These sacredanimals made war on the rats and mice, and thus kept down one speciesof vermin; but as they bore a charmed life, and no one laid violenthands on them, they multiplied so fast, that, like the monkeys ofBenares, they became an intolerable nuisance. The frequent fires atRome were the only things that kept them under. Passing through the tablinum, we enter the portico of the xystus, orgarden, a spot small in extent, but full of ornament and of beauty, though not that sort of beauty which the notion of a garden suggeststo us. It is not larger than a city garden, the object of ourcontinual ridicule; yet while the latter is ornamented only with oneor two scraggy poplars, and a few gooseberry-bushes with many morethorns than leaves, the former is elegantly decorated by the hand ofart, and set apart as the favorite retreat of festive pleasure. Trueit is that the climate of Italy suits out-of-door amusements betterthan our own, and that Pompeii was not exposed to that plague of sootwhich soon turns marble goddesses into chimney-sweepers. The porticois composed of columns, fluted and corded, the lower portion of thempainted blue, without pedestals, yet approaching to the Roman ratherthan to the Grecian Doric. The entablature is gone. From the porticowe ascend by three steps to the xystus. Its small extent, notexceeding in its greatest dimensions seventy feet by twenty, did notpermit trees, hardly even shrubs, to be planted in it. The centre, therefore, was occupied by a pavement, and on each side boxes filledwith earth were ranged for flowers; while, to make amends for the wantof real verdure, the whole wall opposite the portico is painted withtrellises and fountains, and birds drinking from them; and above, withthickets enriched and ornamented with numerous tribes of their wingedinhabitants. The most interesting discoveries at Pompeii are those which throwlight on, or confirm passages of ancient authors. Exactly the samestyle of ornament is described by Pliny the Younger as existing in hisTuscan villa. "Another cubiculum is adorned with sculptured marble forthe height of the podium; above which is a painting of trees, andbirds sitting on them, not inferior in elegance to the marble itself. Under it is a small fountain, and in the fountain a cup, round whichthe playing of several small water-pipes makes a most agreeablemurmur. " At the end of this branch of the garden, which is shaped likean L, we see an interesting monument of the customs of private life. It is a summer triclinium, in plan like that which has been mentionedin the preceding chapter, but much more elegantly decorated. Thecouches are of masonry, intended to be covered with mattresses andrich tapestry when the feast was to be held here: the round table inthe centre was of marble. Above it was a trellis, as is shown by thesquare pillars in front and the holes in the walls which enclose twosides of the triclinium. These walls are elegantly painted in panels, in the prevailing taste; but above the panelling there is a whimsicalfrieze, appropriate to the purpose of this little pavilion, consistingof all sorts of eatables which can be introduced at a feast. WhenMazois first saw it the colors were fresh and beautiful; but when hewrote, after a lapse of ten years, it was already in decay, and erenow it has probably disappeared, so perishable are all those beautieswhich can not be protected from the inclemency of the weather byremoval. In front a stream of water pours into a basin from the wall, on which, half painted, half raised in relief, is a mimic fountainsurmounted by a stag. Between the fountain and triclinium, in a linebetween the two pilasters which supported the trellis, was a smallaltar, on which the due libations might be poured by the festiveparty. In the other limb of the garden is a small furnace, probablyintended to keep water constantly hot for the use of those whopreferred warm potations. Usually the Romans drank their wine mixedwith snow, and clarified through a strainer, of which there are manyin the Museum of Naples, curiously pierced in intricate patterns; butthose who were under medical care were not always suffered to enjoythis luxury. Martial laments his being condemned by his physician todrink no cold wine, and concludes with wishing that his enviers mayhave nothing but warm water. At the other end of the garden, oppositethe front of the triclinium, was a cistern which collected the rainwaters, whence they were drawn for the use of the garden and of thehouse. There was also a cistern at the end of the portico, next thetriclinium. The several rooms to the left of the atrium offer nothing remarkable. On the right, however, as will be evident upon inspecting the plan, asuite of apartments existed, carefully detached from the remainder ofthe house, and communicating only with the atrium by a single passage. The disposition and the ornaments of this portion of the house provethat it was a private _venereum_, a place, if not consecrated to thegoddess from whom it derives its name, at least especially devoted toher service. The strictest privacy has been studied in itsarrangements; no building overlooks it; the only entrance is closed bytwo doors, both of which we may conjecture, were never suffered to beopen at once; and beside them was the apartment of a slave, whose dutywas to act as porter and prevent intrusion. Passing the second door, the visitor found himself under a portico supported by octagonalcolumns, with a court or open area in the centre, and in the middle ofit a small basin. At each end of the portico is a small cabinet, withappropriate paintings: in one of them a painting of Venus, Mars, andCupid is conspicuous. The apartments were paved with marble, and the walls lined breast-highwith the same material. A niche in the cabinet nearest the tricliniumcontained a small image, a gold vase, a gold coin, and twelve bronzemedals of the reign of Vespasian; and near this spot were found eightsmall bronze columns, which appear to have formed part of a bed. In the adjoining lane four skeletons were found, apparently a femaleattended by three slaves; the tenant perhaps of this elegantapartment. Beside her was a round plate of silver, which probably wasa mirror, together with several golden rings set with engraved stones, two ear-rings, and five bracelets of the same metal. Both cabinets had glazed windows, which commanded a view of the courtand of each other; it is conjectured that they were provided withcurtains. The court itself presents no trace of pavement, and, therefore, probably served as a garden. The ground of the wall is black, a color well calculated to set offdoubtful complexions to the best advantage, while its sombre aspect isredeemed by a profusion of gold-colored ornament, in the most eleganttaste. The columns were painted with the color called _sinopisPonticum_, a species of red ochre of brilliant tint. Nearly all thewall of the court between the cabinets is occupied by a large paintingof Actæon, from which the house derives one of its names; on eitherside it is flanked by the representation of a statue on a highpedestal. The centre piece comprises a double action. In one part wesee a rocky grotto, in which Diana was bathing when the unwary huntermade his appearance above: in the other he is torn by his own dogs, asevere punishment for an unintentional intrusion. The backgroundrepresents a wild and mountainous landscape. A painted frieze, andother paintings on the walls, complete the decorations of the portico. The large apartment was a triclinium for the use of this portion ofthe house, where the place of the table, and of the beds whichsurrounded it on three sides, was marked by a mosaic pavement. Overthe left-hand portico there was a terrace. The space marked 36contained the stair which gave access to it, a stove connectedprobably with the service of the triclinium and other conveniences. In the centre room is the opening into the tablinum, which probablywas only separated from the atrium by curtains (_parapetasmata_), which might be drawn or undrawn at pleasure. Through the tablinum thepillars of the peristyle and the fountain painted on the garden wallare seen. To the right of the tablinum is the fauces, and on each sideof the atrium the alæ are seen, partly shut off, like the tablinum, byhandsome draperies. The nearer doors belong to chambers which openinto the atrium. Above the colored courses of stucco blocks the wallsare painted in the light, almost Chinese style of architecture, whichis so common, and a row of scenic masks fills the place of a cornice. The ceiling is richly fretted. The compluvium also was ornamented with a row of triangular tilescalled antefixes, on which a mask or some other object was moulded inrelief. Below, lions' heads are placed along the cornice at intervals, forming spouts through which the water was discharged into theimpluvium beneath. Part of this cornice, found in the house of whichwe speak, is well deserving our notice, because it contains, withinitself, specimens of three different epochs of art, at which we mustsuppose the house was first built, and subsequently repaired. It is made of fine clay, with a lion's head moulded upon it, welldesigned, and carefully finished. It is plain, therefore, that it wasnot meant to be stuccoed, or the labor bestowed in its execution wouldhave been in great part wasted. At a later period it has been coatedover with the finest stucco, and additional enrichments and mouldingshave been introduced, yet without injury to the design or inferiorityin the workmanship; indicating that at the time of its execution theoriginal simplicity of art had given way to a more enriched andelaborate style of ornament, yet without any perceptible decay, either in the taste of the designer or the skill of the workman. Still later this elegant stucco cornice had been covered with a thirdcoating of the coarsest materials, and of design and execution mostbarbarous, when it is considered how fine a model the artists hadbefore their eyes. In the restoration, the impluvium is surrounded with a mosaic border. This has disappeared, if ever there was one; but mosaics arefrequently found in this situation, and it is, therefore, at allevents, an allowable liberty to place one here, in a house sodistinguished for the richness and elegance of its decorations. Beside the impluvium stood a machine, now in the National Museum, forheating water, and at the same time warming the room if requisite. Thehigh circular part, with the lid open, is a reservoir, communicatingwith the semi-circular piece, which is hollow, and had a spout todischarge the heated water. The three eagles placed on it are meant tosupport a kettle. The charcoal was contained in the square base. In the preceding pages we have taken indiscriminately, from allquarters of the town, houses of all classes, from the smallest to themost splendid, in the belief that such would be the best way ofshowing the gradations of wealth and comfort, the different styles ofdwelling adopted by different classes of citizens, in proportion totheir means. It would, however, be manifestly impossible so toclassify all the houses which contain something worthy of description, and we shall, therefore, adopt a topographical arrangement as thesimplest one, commencing at the Gate of Herculaneum, and proceeding inas regular order as circumstances will permit through the excavatedpart of the town. Most of the houses immediately about the gate appear to have beensmall inns or eating-houses, probably used chiefly by country people, who came into market, or by the lower order of travelers. Immediatelyto the right of it, however, at the beginning of the street calledthe Via Consularis, or Domitiana, there is a dwelling of a betterclass, called the House of the Musician, from paintings of musicalinstruments which ornamented the walls. Among these were the sistrum, trumpet, double flute, and others. Upon the right side of the street, however, the buildings soon improve, and in that quarter are situatedsome of the most remarkable mansions, in respect of extent andconstruction, which Pompeii affords. They stand in part upon the siteof the walls which have been demolished upon this, the side next theport, for what purpose it is not very easy to say; not to make roomfor the growth of the city, for these houses stand at the very limitof the available ground, being partly built upon a steep rock. Hence, besides the upper floors, which have perished, they consist each oftwo or three stories, one below another, so that the apartments nextthe street are always on the highest level. Those who are familiarwith the metropolis of Scotland will readily call to mind a similarmode of construction very observable on the north side of the HighStreet, where the ground-floor is sometimes situated about the middleof the house. One of the most remarkable of these houses contains three stories; thefirst, level with the street, contains the public part of the house, the vestibule, atrium, and tablinum, which opens upon a spaciousterrace. Beside these is the peristyle and other private apartments, at the back of which the terrace of which we have just spoken offersan agreeable walk for the whole breadth of the house, and forms theroof of a spacious set of apartments at a lower level, which areaccessible either by a sloping passage from the street, running underthe atrium, or by a staircase communicating with the peristyle. Thisfloor contains baths, a triclinium, a spacious saloon, and other roomsnecessary for the private use of a family. Behind these rooms isanother terrace, which overlooks a spacious court surrounded byporticoes, and containing a piscina or reservoir in the centre. Thepillars on the side next the house are somewhat higher than on theother three sides, so as to give the terrace there a greaterelevation. Below this second story there is yet a third, in part underground, which contains another set of baths, and, besides apartmentsfor other purposes, the lodging of the slaves. This was divided intolittle cells, scarcely the length of a man, dark and damp; and we cannot enter into it without a lively feeling of the wretched state towhich these beings were reduced. A few steps further on the same side, is another house somewhat of thesame description, which evidently belonged to some man of importance, probably to Julius Polybius, whose name has been found in severalinscriptions. Fragments of richly-gilt stucco-work enable us toestimate the richness of its decoration and the probable wealth of itsowner. It will be readily distinguished by its immense Corinthianatrium, or rather peristyle. It has the further peculiarity of havingtwo vestibules each communicating with the street and with the atrium. The portico of the atrium is formed by arcades and piers, ornamentedwith attached columns, the centre being occupied by a court andfountain. These arcades appear to be enclosed by windows. Squareholes, worked in the marble coping of a dwarf wall which surrounds thelittle court, were perfectly distinguishable, and it is concluded thatthey were meant to receive the window-frames. Pliny the Younger describes a similar glazed portico at his Laurentinevilla; and an antique painting, representing the baths of Faustina, gives the view of a portico, the apertures of which are entirelyglazed, as we suppose them to have been here. The portico, and threeapartments which communicate with it, were paved in mosaic. Attachedto one of the corner piers there is a fountain. The kitchen and otherapartments were below this floor. There was also an upper story, as isclear from the remains of stair-cases. This house extends to the pointat which a by-street turns away from the main road to the Forum. Wewill now return to the gate, to describe the triangular island ofhouses which bounds the main street on the eastern side. That close to the gate, called the House of the Triclinium, derivesits name from a large triclinium in the centre of the peristyle, whichis spacious and handsome, and bounded by the city walls. The House ofthe Vestals is a little further on. What claim it has to this title, except by the rule of contraries, we are at a loss to guess; seeingthat the style of its decorations is very far from corresponding withthat purity of thought and manners which we are accustomed toassociate with the title of vestal. The paintings are numerous andbeautiful, and the mosaics remarkably fine. Upon the threshold here, as in several other houses, we find the word "Salve" (Welcome), workedin mosaic. One may be seen in cut on page 30. We enter by a vestibule, divided into three compartments, andornamented with four attached columns, which introduces us to anatrium, fitted up in the usual manner, and surrounded by the usualapartments. The most remarkable of these is a triclinium, whichformerly was richly paved with glass mosaics. Hence we pass into theprivate apartments, which are thus described by Bonucci:--"This houseseems to have been originally two separate houses, afterwards, probably, bought by some rich man, and thrown into one. Aftertraversing a little court, around which are the sleeping chambers, andthat destined to business, we hastened to render our visit to thePenates. We entered the pantry, and rendered back to the proprietorsthe greeting that, from the threshold of this mansion, they stilldirect to strangers. We next passed through the kitchen and itsdependencies. The corn-mills seemed waiting for the accustomed handsto grind with them, after so many years of repose. Oil standing inglass vessels, chestnuts, dates, raisins, and figs, in the nextchamber, announce the provision for the approaching winter, and largeamphoræ of wine recall to us the consulates of Cæsar and of Cicero. [Illustration: BROOCHES OF GOLD FOUND AT POMPEII. ] "We entered the private apartment. Magnificent porticoes are to beseen around it. Numerous beautiful columns covered with stucco, andwith very fresh colors, surrounded a very agreeable garden, a pond, and a bath. Elegant paintings, delicate ornaments, stags, sphinxes, wild and fanciful flowers everywhere cover the walls. The cabinets ofyoung girls, and their toilets, with appropriate paintings, aredisposed along the sides. In this last were found a great quantity offemale ornaments, such as seen in the cut, and others, and theskeleton of a little dog. At the extremity is seen a semicircular roomadorned with niches, and formerly with statues, mosaics, and marbles. An altar, on which the sacred fire burned perpetually, rose in thecentre. This is the _sacrarium_. In this secret and sacred place themost solemn and memorable days of the family were spent in rejoicing;and here, on birthdays, sacrifices were offered to Juno, or theGenius, the protector of the new-born child. " The next house is called the House of a Surgeon, because a variety ofsurgical instruments were found in it. In number they amounted toforty; some resembled instruments still in use, others are differentfrom anything employed by modern surgeons. In many the description ofCelsus is realized, as, for instance, in the specillum, or probe, which is concave on one side and flat on the other; the scalperexcisorius, in the shape of a lancet-point on one side and of a malleton the other; a hook and forceps, used in obstetrical practice. Thelatter are said to equal in the convenience and ingenuity of theirconstruction the best efforts of modern cutlers. Needles, cuttingcompasses (circini excisorii), and other instruments were found, allof the purest brass with bronze handles, and usually enclosed in brassor boxwood cases. There is nothing remarkable in the house itself, which contains theusual apartments, atrium, peristyle, etc. , except the paintings. Theseconsist chiefly of architectural designs, combinations of golden andbronze-colored columns placed in perspective, surmounted by richarchitraves, elaborate friezes, and decorated cornices, one orderabove another. Intermixed are arabesque ornaments, grotesquepaintings, and compartments with figures, all apparently employed indomestic occupations. One of them represents a female figure carrying rolls of papyrus to aman who is seated and intently reading. The method of reading theserolls or volumes, which were written in transverse columns across thebreadth of the papyrus, is clearly shown here. Behind him a youngwoman is seated, playing on the harp. All these figures are placedunder the light architectural designs above described, which seemintended to surmount a terrace. It is a common practice at the presentday in Italy, especially near Naples, to construct light treillages onthe tops of the houses, where the inhabitants enjoy the eveningbreeze, _al fresco_, in the same way as is represented in thesepaintings. The peristyle is small, but in good preservation. Itsinter-columniations are filled up by a dwarf wall painted red, thelower part of the columns being painted blue. This house runs throughthe island from one street to the other. Adjoining it, on the south, is the custom-house, _telonium_. Here a wide entrance admits us intoan ample chamber, where many scales were found, and among them asteelyard, _statera_, much resembling those now in use, but morerichly and tastefully ornamented. [Illustration: SCALES FOUND AT POMPEII. ] Many weights of lead and marble were found here; one with theinscription, "Eme et habebis" (Buy and you shall have), also scales. Near the custom-house is a soap manufactory. In the first room wereheaps of lime, the admirable quality of which has excited the wonderof modern plasterers. In an inner room are the soap-vats, placed on alevel with the ground. Besides these, the block contains three houses which have beendistinguished by names, the House of Isis and Osiris, the House ofNarcissus, and the House of the Female Dancers. Of these the latter isremarkable for the beauty of the paintings which adorn its Tuscanatrium. Among them are four very elegant figures of female dancers, from whichthe name given to the house is taken. Another represents a figurereposing on the border of a clear lake, surrounded by villas andpalaces, on the bosom of which a flock of ducks and wild-fowl areswimming. The house of Narcissus is distinguished by the elegance ofits peristyle; the inter-columniations are filled up by a dwarf wall, which is hollowed at the top, probably to receive earth for thecultivation of select flowers. Our materials do not admit of a fullerdescription of the houses in this quarter. Passing onwards from the House of Sallust, the next island to thesouth, separated from it by a narrow lane, affords nothing remarkable, except the shop of a baker, to the details of which, in conjunctionwith the art of dyeing, we purpose to devote a separate chapter. It isterminated in a sharp point by the fountain before mentioned. Thedisposition of the streets and houses everywhere is mostunsymmetrical, but here it is remarkably so, even for Pompeii. Just bythe house with the double vestibule the main street divides into two, inclined to each other at a very acute angle, which form, togetherwith a third cross street of more importance, called the Strada delleTerme, or Street of the Baths, another small triangular island. The house of the apex was an apothecary's shop. A great many drugs, glasses, and vials of the most singular forms, were found here; insome of the latter fluids were yet remaining. In particular one largeglass vase is to be mentioned, capable of holding two gallons, inwhich was a gallon and a half of a reddish liquid, said to be balsam. On being opened, the contents began to evaporate very fast, and itwas, therefore, closed hermetically. About an inch in depth of thecontents has been thus lost, leaving on the sides of the vessel asediment, reaching up to the level to which it was formerly filled. The right-hand street leads to buildings entirely in ruins, theleft-hand one, which is a continuation of the Via Consularis, orDomitiana, conducts us towards the Forum. Immediately to the eastward of the district just described is theHouse of Pansa, which occupies a whole block. The block between it andthe city walls, on the north, offers nothing remarkable. Beyond, stillto the east, is a block separated from it by a narrow street, calledthe Via della Fullonica, and bounded on the other side by the Streetof Mercury, which runs in a straight line from the walls nearly to theForum. This block contains, besides several private houses of greatbeauty, the Fullonica, or establishment for the fulling and dyeing ofwoolen cloths. This, together with the bake-house above mentioned, will be described further on. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] HOUSE OF HOLCONIUS. Passing on the insula or block, bounded on the north by the Street ofHolconius, on the south by the Street of Isis, on the west by theStreet of the Theatres, and on the east by that of Stabiæ, we find tworemarkable houses excavated within the last few years. That at thenorthern corner of the street of the Theatres, numbered 4 on theentrance, is sometimes called the House of Holconius. The two storeswhich precede it, numbered 2 and 3, seem to have been the property ofthe master of the house, and communicate with each other. A thirdshop, numbered 1, at the angle of the street, appears to have beenoccupied by a dyer, and is called Taberna Offectoris. On the front ofthe house were some inscriptions for electioneering purposes. The pilasters on either side of the main entrance are painted red toabout the height of a man, beyond which they are of white plaster. Onentering the prothyrum may be observed a large hole in the wall, destined for the reception of the _repagulum_, or strong wooden barwith which the door was secured. The door appears, from the places forbolts on the threshold, to have been composed of two pieces (bifora). The walls of the prothyrum are painted black, with a red podium, divided into three compartments by green and yellow lines, in themiddle of which are an aquatic bird, perhaps an _ibis_, a swan withspread wings, and an ornament that can not be made out. Towards thetop the walls are painted with fantastic pieces of architecture on awhite ground; amidst which, on one side, is a nymph descendingapparently from heaven. She has a golden-colored vest, on hershoulders is a veil agitated by the breeze, and she bears in her handa large dish filled with fruits and herbs. On the other side was asimilar figure, playing on the lyre, with a sky-blue vest androse-colored veil that fluttered about her. The remainingarchitectural paintings contained little winged Cupids, one holding acornucopia, another a drum, and two with baskets of fruits andflowers. These were the good geniuses, which, by being depicted at theentrance of a house, repelled all evil influences and rendered it ajoyful abode. The pavement of the Tuscan atrium is variegated with small pieces ofwhite marble placed in rows. The impluvium in the middle appears tohave been under repair, as it is stripped of its marble lining. Thewalls of the atrium are painted red, with vertical black zones likepilasters, or _antæ_, besides lines and ornaments of various colors. On the wall to the left of the entrance is painted a recumbentSilenus, crowned with ivy, and pressing in his arms the littleBacchus, who in alarm is endeavoring to escape from his embraces. Nearit, on a yellow ground, is the bearded head of a man, with two clawsprojecting from his temples like horns, and a beard floating as if itwas in the water. It may probably be a mask of Oceanus, who isrepresented on coins of Agrigentum in a somewhat similar manner. Underthe head is the figure of a hippocampus. Many objects were found in this atrium, some at the height of four orfive yards from the floor, which must consequently have fallen in fromthe upper stories; and others on the pavement itself. But one of themost important discoveries was the skeleton of a woman, near theentrance of the tablinum. She appears to have been in the act offlight, and had with her a small box containing her valuables andnick-nacks. Among the most curious of these was a necklace composed ofamulets, or charms, which, it will be observed, are all attributes ofIsis and her attendant, Anubis, or of her husband Osiris, hereconsidered as Bacchus. The mystic articles kept in the Isiac cofferwere, says Eusebius, a ball, dice, (_turbo_) wheel, mirror, lock ofwool. The first bed-chamber on the right of the atrium communicated with thestore No. 3, and was probably occupied by the slave who conducted thebusiness of it. The first bed-chamber on the left had a similarcommunication with the store outside. [Illustration: WALL PAINTING DISCOVERED AT POMPEII. ] There are few houses in Pompeii in which the paintings are morenumerous or better preserved than in that which we are examining. Thesecond bed-chamber on the right has several. In this room may beobserved a space hollowed in the wall to receive the foot of a bed orcoutch. The walls are white, with a red podium, and are surmounted bya cornice from which springs the vault. The upper part is painted withlines, between which are depicted griffins in repose, baskets withthyrsi, branches of herbs, and other objects. The lower part of the walls is divided into larger compartments bycandelabra supporting little globes. In each compartment are eightsmall pictures, representing the heads and busts of Bacchicpersonages, in a very good state of preservation. On the left isBacchus, crowned with ivy, his head covered with the _mitra_, a sortof veil of fine texture which descends upon his left shoulder. Thisornament, as well as the cast of his features, reveals the halffeminine nature of the deity. Opposite to him is the picture ofAriadne, also crowned with ivy, clothed in a green _chiton_ and aviolet _himation_. She presses to her bosom the infant Iacchus, crowned with the eternal ivy, and bearing in his hand the thyrsus. Then follow Bacchic or Panic figures, some conversing, some drinkingtogether, some moving apparently in the mazes of the dance. Paris, with the Phrygian cap and crook, seems to preside over this voluptuousscene, and to listen to a little Cupid seated on his shoulder. In the chamber on the opposite side of the atrium, fronting that justdescribed, were also four pictures, two of which are destroyed, thewalls having apparently been broken through, not long after thedestruction of Pompeii, by persons in search of their buried property. Of the other two, which are almost effaced, one represents an agedFaun, holding in his hands a thyrsus and a vase; the other a youngwoman conversing with an African slave. A wooden chest seems to havestood close to the left-hand wall. The left _ala_, or wing, has its walls painted in yellow and redcompartments, with a black podium. In the middle of each was avaluable painting, but these, with the exception of the greater partof one fronting the entrance, have been almost destroyed. The onesaved represents Apollo, who has overtaken Daphne, and is clasping herin his arms, while the nymph, who has fallen on her knees, repels theembraces of the deity. A malicious little Cupid, standing on tiptoes, draws aside the golden-tissued veil which covered the nymph, anddisplays her naked form. On the left of the same apartment is apicture, almost effaced, of Perseus and Andromeda; and on the rightanother with three male figures, of which only the lower part remains. The right _ala_, which, however, from its capability of being closedwith a door, does not properly come under that denomination, seems, from various culinary utensils of metal and earthenware found in it, to have served as a kitchen, or rather perhaps as a store-closet. The tablinum, opposite the entrance, and, as usual, without anyenclosure on the side of the atrium, has a small marble threshold, andon its floor little squares of colored marbles surrounded with amosaic border. The yellow walls, divided into compartments by verticalstripes of red, white, and black, were beautifully ornamented with theusual architectural designs and flying figures. On each side were twolarger pictures, of which only that on the left of the spectatorremains. It represents Leda showing to Tyndareus a nest containing thetwo boys produced from the egg. A stucco cornice runs round the wall, above which a flying nymph is painted on a white ground, between twobalconies, from which a man and woman are looking down. There are alsofigures of sphinxes, goats, etc. A wooden staircase on the left of the tablinum, the first step beingof stone, led to the floor above. On the right is the passage called_fauces_, leading to the peristyle. On its left-hand side, near theground, was a rudely traced figure of a gladiator, with an inscriptionabove, of which only the first letters, PRIMI, remain. On the leftwall of the fauces, near the extremity, and level with the eye, isanother inscription, or _graffito_, in small characters, difficult tobe deciphered from the unusual _nexus_ of the letters, but which thelearned have supposed to express the design of an invalid to get ridof the pains in his limbs by bathing them in water. At the extremity of the _fauces_, on the right, there is an entranceto a room which has also another door leading into the portico of theperistyle. The walls are painted black and red, and in thecompartments are depicted birds, animals, fruits, etc. Two skeletonswere found in this room. In the apartment to the left, or east of thetablinum, of which the destination can not be certainly determined, the walls are also painted black, with architectural designs in themiddle, and figures of winged Cupids variously employed. On the largerwalls are two paintings, of which that on the right represents theoften-repeated subject of Ariadne, who, just awakened from sleep, andsupported by a female figure with wings, supposed to be Nemesis, viewswith an attitude of grief and stupor the departing ship of Theseus, already far from Naxos. On the left side is a picture of Phryxus, crossing the sea on the ram and stretching out his arms to Helle, whohas fallen over and appears on the point of drowning. The form of thischamber, twice as long as it is broad, its vicinity to the kitchen, and the window, through which the slaves might easily convey theviands, appear to show that it was a triclinium, or dining-room. The floor, which is lower by a step than the peristyle, is paved with_opus Signinum_, and ornamented only at one end with a mosaic. On oneof the walls, about ten feet from the floor, is the _graffito_, _Sodales Avete_ (Welcome Comrades), which could have been inscribedthere only by a person, probably a slave, mounted on a bench or aladder. The viridarium, or xystus, surrounded with spacious porticoes, wasonce filled with the choicest flowers, and refreshed by the gratefulmurmur of two fountains. One of these in the middle of the peristyleis square, having in its centre a sort of round table from which thewater gushed forth. The other fountain, which faces the tablinum, iscomposed of a little marble staircase, surmounted by the statue of aboy having in his right hand a vase from which the water spirted, andunder his left arm a goose. The statue is rather damaged. Many objects were found in the peristyle, mostly of the kind usuallydiscovered in Pompeian houses. Among them was an amphora, having thefollowing epigraph in black paint: COUM. GRAN. OF. ROMÆ. ATERIO. FELICI. which has been interpreted to mean that it contained Coan wineflavored with pomegranate, and that it came from Rome, from the storesof Aterius Felix. The portico is surrounded by strong columns, and seems to have had asecond order resting on the first, as may be inferred from someindications to the right of him who enters from the _fauces_. Thewalls are painted red and black, with architectural designs, candelabra, meanders, birds, winged Cupids, etc. There are alsofourteen small pictures enclosed in red lines, eight of whichrepresent landscapes and sea-shores, with fishermen, and the other sixfruits and eatables. On the wall on the right side is the following_graffito_, or inscription, scratched with some sharp instrument: IIX. ID. IVL. AXVNGIA. PCC. ALIV. MANVPLOS. CCL. That is: "On the 25th July, hog's lard, two hundred pounds, Garlic, two hundred bunches. " It seems, therefore, to be a domestic memorandumof articles either bought or sold. Around the portico are several rooms, all having marble thresholds, and closed by doors turning on bronze hinges. On the right hand ofthe peristyle, near the entrance, is a private door, or _posticum_, leading into the Street of the Theatres, by which the master of thehouse might escape his importunate clients. The rooms at the sides of the peristyle offer nothing remarkable, butthe three chambers opposite to the tablinum are of considerable size, and contain some good pictures. The first on the right has two figuresof Nereids traversing the sea, one on a sea-bull the other on ahippocampus. Both the monsters are guided by a Cupid with reins andwhip, and followed by dolphins. Another painting opposite the entranceis too much effaced to be made out. The same wall has a feature notobserved in any other Pompeian house, namely, a square aperture ofrather more than a foot reaching down to the floor, and opening uponan enclosed place with a canal or drain for carrying off the water ofthe adjoining houses. It seems also to have been a receptacle forlamps, several of which were found there. Adjoining this room is a large _exedra_ with a little _impluvium_ inthe middle, which seems to indicate an aperture in the roof, aconstruction hitherto found only in _atria_. The absence of anychannels in the floor for conducting water seems to show that it couldnot have been a fountain. This exedra is remarkable for its paintings. In the wall in front is depicted Narcissus with a javelin in his hand, leaning over a rock and admiring himself in the water, in which hisimage is reflected; but great part of the painting is destroyed. Alittle Cupid is extinguishing his torch in the stream. In thebackground is a building with an image of the bearded Bacchus; andnear it a terminal figure of Priapus Ithyphallicus, with grapes andother fruits. This picture was much damaged in the process ofexcavation. On the left wall is a painting of a naked Hermaphroditus. In his righthand is a little torch reversed; his left arm rests on the shouldersof Silenus, who appears to accompany his songs on the lyre, whilst awinged Cupid sounds the double flute. On the other side is aBacchante with a thyrsus and tambourine, and near her a little Satyr, who also holds a torch reversed. But the best picture in this apartment is that representing Ariadnediscovered by Bacchus. A youthful figure with wings, supposed torepresent Sleep, stands at Ariadne's head, and seems to indicate thatshe is under his influence. Meanwhile a little Faun lifts the veilthat covers her, and with an attitude indicating surprise at herbeauty, turns to Bacchus and seems to invite him to contemplate hercharms. The deity himself, crowned with ivy and berries, clothed in ashort tunic and a pallium agitated by the breeze, holds in his righthand the thyrsus, and lifts his left in token of admiration. In thebackground a Bacchante sounds her tympanum, and invites the followersof the god to descend from the mountains. These, preceded by Silenus, obey the summons; one is playing the double flute, another soundingthe cymbals, a third bears on her head a basket of fruit. A Faun and aBacchante, planted on a mountain on the left, survey the scene from adistance. The adjoining triclinium, entered by a door from the exedra, had alsothree paintings, one of which however is almost destroyed. Of theremaining two, that on the left represents Achilles discovered byUlysses among the damsels of Lycomedes. The subject of that on theright is the Judgment of Paris. It is more remarkable for its spiritand coloring than for the accuracy of its drawing. This apartment hasalso six medallions with heads of Bacchic personages. In the same block as the house just described, and having its entrancein the same street, stands the house of Cornelius Rufus. It is ahandsome dwelling, but as its plan and decorations have nothing todistinguish them from other Pompeian houses, we forbear to describethem. The only remarkable feature in this excavation was the discoveryof a Hermes at the bottom of the atrium on the left, on which was amarble bust of the owner, as large as life and well executed, havinghis name inscribed beneath. Not far from the houses just described, in the Street of Stabiæ, atthe angle formed by the street leading to the amphitheatre, stands theHouse of Apollo Citharœdus, excavated in 1864. It derives its namefrom a fine bronze statue, as large as life, of Apollo sounding thelyre, which was found there, but has now been placed in the Museum atNaples. In this house the tablinum and a peristyle beyond are on ahigher level than the atrium; consequently the _fauces_, or passageleading to the latter, ascends. In the peristyle is a semicircularfountain, on the margin of which were disposed several animals inbronze, representing a hunting scene. In the centre was a wild boar inflight attacked by two dogs; at the sides were placed a lion, a stag, and a serpent. These animals, arranged in the same way in which theywere found, are now preserved in the Museum. Adjoining the House of Lucretius are several stores. That next doorbut one appears to have belonged to a chemist or color-maker. On theright of the atrium is a triple furnace, constructed for the receptionof three large cauldrons at different levels, which were reached bysteps. The house contained a great quantity of carbonized drugs. Atthe sides of the entrance were two stores for the sale of themanufactured articles. In one of these stores was discovered, someyards below the old level of the soil, the skeleton of a woman withtwo bracelets of gold, two of silver, four ear-rings, five rings, forty-seven gold, and one hundred and ninety-seven silver coins, in apurse of netted gold. [Page Decoration] [Illustration: Painted by J. Coomans Engraved & Printed by Illman Brothers. HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET--SALLUST. FOR THE MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITY] [Page Decoration] GENERAL SURVEY OF THE CITY. Proceeding southward along the Street of Mercury, we pass under thetriumphal arch of Nero, and crossing the transverse street which leadstowards the Gate of Nola, enter the Street of the Forum, acontinuation of the Street of Mercury, leading straight to thetriumphal arch at the north end of the Forum, and bounding the islandof the Baths on the eastern side. This street is one of the mostspacious in Pompeii. A long list of articles was found here in thecourse of excavation. One of the houses about the centre of the streetnearly opposite the entrance to the Thermæ, is of more consequencethan the rest, and has been named the House of Bacchus, from a largepainting of that god on a door opposite to the entry. Channels for theintroduction of water were found in the atrium, which has beensurrounded by a small trough, formed to contain flowers, the outerside of which is painted blue, to imitate water, with boats floatingupon it. The wall behind this is painted with pillars, between whichare balustrades of various forms. Cranes and other birds perch uponthese, and there is a back ground of reeds and other vegetables, abovewhich the sky is visible. The greater portion of the eastern side ofthe street is occupied by a row of shops with a portico in front ofthem. It is flanked on either side by footpaths, and must havepresented a noble appearance when terminated by triumphal arches ateither end, and overlooked by the splendid Temple of Jupiter and thatof Fortune elevated on its lofty basis. It is to be noticed that the last-named edifice does not standsymmetrically either with the Street of the Forum or with the Streetof the Baths running past the House of the Pansa. "The portico, " wequote again from Gell, "is turned a little towards the Forum, and thefront of the temple is so contrived that a part of it might be seenalso from the other street. It is highly probable that thesecircumstances are the result of design rather than of chance. TheGreeks seem to have preferred the view of a magnificent building froma corner, and there is scarcely a right-angled plan to be found eitherin ancient or modern Italy. " In the Street of the Forum has beenestablished a temporary museum of articles found in Pompeii. Adjoiningit is a library containing all the best works that have been writtenon the city. [Illustration: GOLD BREASTPINS FOUND AT POMPEII. ] The street running westward between the baths and the Forum presentsnothing remarkable, except that in it are the signs of the milk-shopand school of gladiators. There is also an altar, probably dedicatedto Jupiter, placed against the wall of a house; above it is abass-relief in stucco, with an eagle in the tympanum. Eastward of theForum this street assumes the name of the Street of Dried Fruits, froman inscription showing that dried fruits were sold in it; and, indeed, a considerable quantity of figs, raisins, chestnuts, plums, hempseed, and similar articles were found. It is now, however, usually calledthe Street of the Augustals. Near the point at which this street is intersected by that ofEumachia, running at the back of the east side of the Forum, there isa remarkably graceful painting of a youthful Bacchus pressing thejuice of the grape into a vase placed upon a pillar, at the foot ofwhich is a rampant animal expecting the liquor, apparently meant for atiger or panther, but of very diminutive size. This picture is onefoot five inches high and one foot two inches wide. It probably servedfor the sign of a wine-merchant. Corresponding with it, on the otherside of the shop, is a painting of Mercury, to render that knavish godpropitious to the owner's trade. We will now proceed to the Street of Abundance, or of the Merchants, formerly called the Street of the Silversmiths. This is abouttwenty-eight feet wide, and bordered on each side by foot-paths aboutsix feet wide, which are described as made in several places of a hardplaster, probably analogous to _opus Signinum_. At the end next theForum it is blocked up by two steps, which deny access to wheelcarriages, and is in other parts so much encumbered by largestepping-stones that the passage of such vehicles, if not prohibited, must have been difficult and inconvenient. We may here take notice of a peculiarity in this street. It slopeswith a very gentle descent away from the Forum, and the courses ofmasonry, instead of being laid horizontally, run parallel to theslope of the ground, a unique instance, as we believe, of such aconstruction. The doors of several shops in this street have left perfectimpressions on the volcanic deposit, by which it appears that theplanks of which they were made lapped one over the other, like theplanks of a boat. Although the houses that line this street have now been cleared, therestill remains a large unexcavated space on its southern side. The onlyhouse requiring notice is that called the Casa del Cinghiale, or Houseof the Wild Boar, a little way down on the right-hand side in goingfrom the Forum. Its name is derived from the mosaic pavement of theprothyrum, representing a boar attacked by two dogs. The house isremarkable for its well-preserved peristyle of fourteen Ionic columns, with their capitals. On the right is a brick staircase leading to alarge garden. The atrium is bordered with a mosaic representing thewalls of a city with towers and battlements, supposed by some to bethe walls of Pompeii. Just beyond this house is a small street or lane, turning down to theright, called the _Vicolo dei Dodici Dei_, from a painting on theoutside wall of the corner house, in the manner of a frieze, representing the twelve greater divinities. Below is the usualpainting of serpents. At the corner of the quadrivium is theapothecary's shop, in which was a large collection of surgicalinstruments, mortars, drugs, and pills. The house is not otherwiseremarkable. Of the early excavations at the southern extremity of the town fewrecords are preserved. In the Quarter of the Theatres, besides thepublic buildings, there are but two houses of any interest. Theseoccupy the space between the Temple of Æsculapius and the smalltheatre. The easternmost of them is one of the most interesting yetdiscovered in Pompeii, not for the beauty or curiosity of the buildingitself, but for its contents, which prove it to have been the abodeof a sculptor. Here were found statues, some half finished, othersjust begun, with blocks of marble, and all the tools required by theartist. Among these were thirty-two mallets, many compasses, curvedand straight, a great quantity of chisels, three or four levers, jacksfor raising blocks, saws, etc. , etc. The house has the usualarrangement of atrium, tablinum, and peristyle, but, owing to theinclination of the ground, the peristyle is on a higher level than thepublic part of the house, and communicates with it by a flight ofsteps. A large reservoir for water extended under the peristyle, whichwas in good preservation when first found, but has been much injuredby the failure of the vault beneath. [Illustration: A LABORATORY, AS FOUND IN POMPEII. ] Returning by the southernmost of the two roads which lead to theForum, we find, beside the wall of the triangular Forum as it iscalled, one of the most remarkable houses in Pompeii, if not for itssize, at least for its construction. The excavations here made were begun in April, 1769, in the presenceof the Emperor Joseph II. , after whom this house has been named; butafter curiosity was satisfied, they were filled up again with rubbish, as was then usual, and vines and poplars covered them almost entirelyat the time when Mazois examined the place, insomuch that theunderground stories were all that he could personally observe. Theemperor was accompanied in his visit by his celebrated minister, CountKaunitz, the King and Queen of Naples, and one or two distinguishedantiquaries. This was one of the first private dwellings excavated atPompeii. It appears to have been a mansion of considerablemagnificence, and, from its elevated position, must have commanded afine view over the Bay of Naples towards Sorrento. The "find" was sogood on the occasion of the emperor's visit, as to excite hissuspicion of some deceit. The numerous articles turned up afforded SirW. Hamilton an opportunity to display his antiquarian knowledge. Joseph appears to have been rather disgusted on hearing that onlythirty men were employed on the excavations, and insisted that threethousand were necessary. We give a cut of the house, page 119. [Page Decoration] FOOTNOTES: [1] Now the Street of Abundance. [2] Nat. Hist. Xxxvi. 2. [3] Ib. Xxxvi. 15. [4] Sexagies sestertium. [5] Nat. Hist. Xxxi. 6, S. 31: Aqua in plumbo subit altitudinemexortus sui. [6] Rubent (vela scil. ) in cavis ædium, et museum a sole defendunt. Wemay conclude, then, that the impluvium was sometimes ornamented withmoss or flowers, unless the words cavis ædium may be extended to thecourt of the peristyle, which was commonly laid out as a garden. [Thelatter seems more likely. ] [7] xxxvi. 1. [8] From tabula, or tabella, a picture. Another derivation is, "quasie tabulis compactum, " because the large openings into it might beclosed by shutters. [9] This rule, however, is seldom observed in the Pompeian houses. [10] The best of these were made at Ægina. The more common ones costfrom $100 to $125; some sold for as much as $2000. Plin. Hist. Nat. Xxxiv. 3. [11] These citreæ mensæ have given rise to considerable discussion. Pliny says that they were made of the roots or knots of the wood, andesteemed on account of their veins and markings, which were like atiger's skin, or peacock's tail (xiii. 91. Sqq. ) Some copies read_cedri_ for citri; and it has been suggested that the cypress isreally meant, the roots and knots of which are large and veined;whereas the citron is never used for cabinet work, and is neitherveined nor knotted. [12] About $161, 000. [13] The common furniture of a triclinium was three couches, placed onthree sides of a square table, each containing three persons, inaccordance with the favorite maxim, that a party should not consist ofmore than the Muses nor of fewer than the Graces, not more than ninenor less than three. Where such numbers were entertained, couches musthave been placed along the sides of long tables. [14] Plin. Ep. Lib. Ii. 17. We have very much shortened the original, leaving out the description of, at least, one upper floor, and otherparticulars which did not appear necessary to the illustration of oursubject. [15] Vitruvius, vi. 8. [16] It was made of the entrails of fish macerated in brine. That madefrom the fish called scomber was the best. This word is sometimestranslated a herring, but the best authorities render it a mackerel. It was caught, according to Pliny, in the Straits of Gibraltar, entering from the ocean, and was used for no purpose but to makegarum. The best was called garum sociorum, a term of which we haveseen no satisfactory explanation, and sold for 1, 000 sesterces for twocongii, about $20 a gallon. An inferior kind, made from the anchovy(aphya), was called alec, a name also given to the dregs of garum. "Noliquid, except unguents, " Pliny says, "fetched a higher price. "--Hist. Nat. Xxxi. 43. [17] "Hence, seek the sty--there wallow with thy friends. " She spake. I drawing from beside my thigh My faulchion keen, with death-denouncing looks Rushed on her; she with a shrill scream of fear Ran under my raised arm, seized fast my knees, And in winged accents plaintive thus began: "Say, who art thou, " etc. --Cowper's Odyss. X. 320. [18] She sat before him, clasped with her left hand His knees; her right beneath his chin she placed, And thus the king, Saturnian Jove, implored. --Il. I. 500. [Illustration: FIRST WALLS DISCOVERED IN POMPEII. ] [Page Decoration] AMUSEMENTS. The amphitheatre stands some hundred yards from the theatres, in thesouth-eastern angle of the walls of the town. Although, perhaps, ofEtruscan origin, the exhibitions of the amphitheatre are so peculiarlyRoman, and Pompeii contains so many mementos of them, that a detailedaccount of them will not perhaps be misplaced. At an early period, B. C. 263, the practice of compelling human beings to fight for theamusement of spectators was introduced; and twelve years later thecapture of several elephants in the first Punic war proved the meansof introducing the chase, or rather the slaughter, of wild beasts intothe Roman circus. The taste for these spectacles increased of coursewith its indulgence, and their magnificence with the wealth of thecity and the increasing facility and inducement to practice briberywhich was offered by the increased extent of provinces subject toRome. It was not, however, until the last period of the republic, orrather until the domination of the emperors had collected into onechannel the tributary wealth which previously was divided among anumerous aristocracy, that buildings were erected solely for theaccommodation of gladiatorial shows; buildings entirely beyond thecompass of a subject's wealth, and in which perhaps the magnificenceof imperial Rome is most amply displayed. Numerous examples scatteredthroughout her empire, in a more or less advanced state of decay, still attest the luxury and solidity of their construction; while atRome the Coliseum (see frontispiece) asserts the pre-eminent splendorof the metropolis--a monument surpassed in magnitude by the Pyramidsalone, and as superior to them in skill and varied contrivance ofdesign as to other buildings in its gigantic magnitude. [Illustration: VIEW OF THE AMPHITHEATRE AT POMPEII. ] The Greek word, which by a slight alteration of its termination werender amphitheatre, signifies a theatre, or place of spectacles, forming a continuous inclosure, in opposition to the simple theatre, which, as we have said, was semicircular, but with the seats usuallycontinued somewhat in advance of the diameter of the semicircle. Thefirst amphitheatre seems to have been that of Curio, consisting of twomovable theatres, which could be placed face to face or back to back, according to the species of amusement for which they were required. Usually, gladiatorial shows were given in the Forum, and the chaseand combats of wild beasts exhibited in the Circus, where once, whenPompey was celebrating games, some enraged elephants broke through thebarrier which separated them from the spectators. This circumstance, together with the unsuitableness of the Circus for such sports, fromits being divided into two compartments by the spina, a low wallsurmounted by pillars, obelisks, and other ornamental erections, aswell as from its disproportionate length, which rendered it illadapted to afford a general view to all the spectators, determinedJulius Cæsar, in his dictatorship, to construct a wooden theatre inthe Campus Martius, built especially for hunting, "which was calledamphitheatre (apparently the first use of the word) because it wasencompassed by circular seats without a scene. " The first permanent amphitheatre was built partly of stone and partlyof wood, by Statilius Taurus, at the instigation of Augustus, who waspassionately fond of these sports, especially of the hunting of rarebeasts. This was burnt during the reign of Nero, and though restored, fell short of the wishes of Vespasian, who commenced the vaststructure completed by his son Titus--called the Flavian Amphitheatre, and subsequently the Coliseum. The expense of this building it is saidwould have sufficed to erect a capital city, and, if we may creditDion, 9, 000 wild beasts were destroyed in its dedication. Eutropiusrestricts the number to 5, 000. When the hunting was over the arena wasfilled with water, and a sea-fight ensued. The construction of these buildings so much resembles the constructionof theatres, that it will not be necessary to describe them at anygreat length. Without, they usually presented to the view an ovalwall, composed of two or more stories of arcades, supported by piersof different orders of architecture adorned with pilasters or attachedpillars. Within, an equal number of stories of galleries gave accessto the spectators at different elevations, and the inclined plane ofthe seats was also supported upon piers and vaults, so that theground plan presented a number of circular rows of piers, arranged inradii converging to the centre of the arena. A suitable number ofdoors opened upon the ground floor, and passages from thence, intersecting the circular passages between the piers, gave an easyaccess to every part of the building. Sometimes a gallery encompassedthe whole, and served as a common access to all the stairs which ledto the upper stories. This was the case in the amphitheatre at Nismes. Sometimes each staircase had its distinct communication from without:this was the case at Verona. The arrangement of the seats was the same as in theatres; they weredivided horizontally by præcinctiones, and vertically into cunei bystaircases. The scene and apparatus of the stage was of coursewanting, and its place occupied by an oval area, called arena, fromthe sand with which it was sprinkled, to absorb the blood shed, andgive a firmer footing than that afforded by a stone pavement. It wassunk twelve or fifteen feet below the lowest range of seats, to securethe spectators from injury, and was besides fenced with round woodenrollers turning in their sockets, placed horizontally against thewall, such as the reader may have observed placed on low gates toprevent dogs from climbing over, and with strong nets. In the time ofNero these nets were knotted with amber, and the Emperor Carinuscaused them to be made of golden cord or wire. Sometimes, for morecomplete security, ditches, called _euripi_, surrounded the arena. This was first done by Cæsar, as a protection to the people againstthe elephants which he exhibited, that animal being supposed to beparticularly afraid of water. The arena was sometimes spread withpounded stone. Caligula, in a fit of extravagance, used chrysocolla;and Nero, to surpass him, caused the brilliant red of cinnabar to bemixed with it. In the centre of the arena was an altar dedicated sometimes to Dianaor Pluto, more commonly to Jupiter Latiaris, the protector of Latium, in honor of whom human sacrifices were offered. Passages are to befound in ancient writers, from which it is inferred that the games ofthe amphitheatre were usually opened by sacrificing a _bestiarius_, one of those gladiators whose profession was to combat wild beasts, inhonor of this bloodthirsty deity. Beneath the arena dens are supposedto have been constructed to contain wild beasts. At the Coliseum numerous underground buildings are said by Fulvius tohave existed, which he supposed to be sewers constructed to drain andcleanse the building. Others with more probability have supposed themto be the dens of wild beasts. Immense accommodation was requisite tocontain the thousands of animals which were slaughtered upon solemnoccasions, but no great provision need have been made to carry off therain-water which fell upon the six acres comprised within the walls ofthe building. Others again have supposed them formed to introduce thevast bodies of water by which the arena was suddenly transformed intoa lake when imitations of naval battles were exhibited. Doors piercedin the wall which supported the podium communicated with these, orwith other places of confinement beneath the part allotted to theaudience, which being thrown open, vast numbers of animals could beintroduced at once. Vopiscus tells us that a thousand ostriches, athousand stags, and a thousand boars were thrown into the arena atonce by the Emperor Probus. Sometimes, to astonish, and attract bynovelty, the arena was converted into a wood. "Probus, " says the sameauthor, "exhibited a splendid hunting match, after the followingmanner: Large trees torn up by the roots were firmly connected bybeams, and fixed upright; then earth was spread over the roots, sothat the whole circus was planted to resemble a wood, and offered usthe gratification of a green scene. " The same order of precedence was observed as at the theatre--senators, knights, and commons having each their appropriate place. To theformer was set apart the podium, a broad precinction or platform whichran immediately round the arena. Hither they brought the curule seatsor bisellia, described in speaking of the theatres of Pompeii; andhere was the suggestus, a covered seat appropriated to the Emperor. Itis supposed that in this part of the building there were also seats ofhonor for the exhibitor of the games and the vestal virgins. If thepodium was insufficient for the accommodation of the senators, some ofthe adjoining seats were taken for their use. Next to the senators satthe knights, who seem here, as in the theatre, to have had fourteenrows set apart for them; and with them sat the civil and militarytribunes. Behind were the popularia, or seats of the plebeians. Different tribes had particular cunei allotted to them. There werealso some further internal arrangements, for Augustus separatedmarried from unmarried men, and assigned a separate cuneus to youths, near whom their tutors were stationed. Women were stationed in agallery, and attendants and servants in the highest gallery. Thegeneral direction of the amphitheatre was under the care of an officernamed _villicus amphitheatri_. Officers called _locarii_ attended tothe distribution of the people, and removed any person from a seatwhich he was not entitled to hold. We may notice, as a refinement ofluxury, that concealed conduits were carried throughout thesebuildings, from which scented liquids were scattered over theaudience. Sometimes the statues which ornamented them were applied tothis purpose, and seemed to sweat perfume through minute holes, withwhich the pipes that traversed them were pierced. It is this to whichLucan alludes in the following lines:-- ---- As when mighty Rome's spectators meet In the full theatre's capacious seat, At once, by secret pipes and channels fed, Rich tinctures gush from every antique head; At once ten thousand saffron currents flow, And rain their odors on the crowd below. Rowe's _Lucan_, book ix. Saffron was the material usually employed for these refreshingshowers. The dried herb was infused in wine, more especially in sweetwine. Balsams and the more costly unguents were sometimes employed forthe same purpose. Another contrivance, too remarkable to be omitted in a general accountof amphitheatres, is the awning by which spectators were protectedfrom the overpowering heat of an Italian sun. This was called Velum, or Velarium; and it has afforded matter for a good deal ofcontroversy, how a temporary covering could be extended over the vastareas of these buildings. Something of the kind was absolutelynecessary, for the spectacle often lasted for many hours, and whenanything extraordinary was expected the people went in crowds beforedaylight to obtain places, and some even at midnight. The Campanians first invented the means of stretching awnings overtheir theatres, by means of cords stretched across the cavea andattached to masts which passed through perforated blocks of stonedeeply bedded in the wall. Quintus Catulus introduced them at Romewhen he celebrated games at the dedication of the Capitol, B. C. 69. Lentulus Spinther, a contemporary of Cicero, first erected fine linenawnings (carbasina vela). Julius Cæsar covered over the whole ForumRomanum, and the Via Sacra, from his own house to the Capitol, whichwas esteemed even more wonderful than his gladiatorial exhibition. Diomentions a report that these awnings were of silk, but he speaksdoubtfully; and it is scarcely probable that even Cæsar's extravagancewould have carried him so far. Silk at that time was not manufacturedat Rome; and we learn from Vopiscus, that even in the time of Aurelianthe raw material was worth its weight in gold. Lucretius, speaking ofthe effect of colored bodies upon transmitted light, has a finepassage illustrative of the magnificence displayed in this branch oftheatrical decoration. This the crowd surveys Oft in the theatre, whose awnings broad, Bedecked with crimson, yellow, or the tint Of steel cerulean, from their fluted heights Wave tremulous; and o'er the scene beneath, Each marble statue, and the rising rows Of rank and beauty, fling their tint superb, While as the walls with ampler shade repel The garish noonbeam, every object round Laughs with a deeper dye, and wears profuse A lovelier lustre, ravished from the day. Wool, however, was the most common material, and the velaria made inApulia were most esteemed, on account of the whiteness of the wool. Those who are not acquainted by experience with the difficulty ofgiving stability to tents of large dimensions, and the greaterdifficulty of erecting awnings, when, on account of the purpose forwhich they are intended, no support can be applied in the centre, maynot fully estimate the difficulty of erecting and managing thesevelaria. Strength was necessary, both for the cloth itself and for thecords which strained and supported it, or the whole would have beenshivered by the first gust of wind, and strength could not be obtainedwithout great weight. Many of our readers probably are not aware, thathowever short and light a string may be, no amount of tension appliedhorizontally will stretch it into a line perfectly and mathematicallystraight. Practically the deviation is imperceptible where the powerapplied is very large in proportion to the weight and length of thestring. Still it exists; and to take a common example, the readerprobably never saw a clothes-line stretched out, though neither theweight nor length of the string are considerable, without the middlebeing visibly lower than the ends. When the line is at once long andheavy, an enormous power is required to suspend it even in a curvebetween two points; and the amount of tension, and difficulty offinding materials able to withstand it, are the only obstacles toconstructing chain bridges which should be thousands, instead ofhundreds of feet in length. In these erections the piers are raised to a considerable height, thata sufficient depth may be allowed for the curve of the chains withoutdepressing the roadway. Ten times--a hundred times the power which wasapplied to strain them into that shape would not suffice to bring themeven so near to a horizontal line but that the most inaccurate andunobservant eye should at once detect the inequality in their level;and the chains themselves would probably give way before such a forceas this could be applied to them. The least diameter of the Coliseumis nearly equal in length to the Menai bridge; and if the labor ofstretching cords over the one seems small in comparison with that ofraising the ponderous chains of the other, we may take intoconsideration the weight of cloth which those cords supported, and theincrease of difficulties arising from the action of the wind on soextensive a surface. In boisterous weather, as we learn from Martial and other authors, these difficulties were so great that the velum could not be spread. When this was the case the Romans used broad hats, or a sort ofparasol, which was called _umbella_ or _umbraculum_, from _umbra_, shade. We may add, in conclusion, that Suctonius mentions as one ofCaligula's tyrannical extravagances, that sometimes at a show ofgladiators, when the sun's heat was most intense, he would cause theawning to be drawn back, and, at the same time, forbid any person toleave the place. The difficulty of the undertaking has given rise to considerablediscussion as to the means by which the Romans contrived to extend thevelum at such a height over so great a surface, and to manage it atpleasure. Sailors were employed in the service, for the EmperorCommodus, who piqued himself on his gladiatorial skill, and used tofight in the arena, believing himself mocked by the servile crowd ofspectators, when once they hailed him with divine honors, gaveorder for their slaughter by the sailors who were managing the veils. [Illustration: COLISEUM OF ROME. ] Concerning the method of working them no information has been handeddown. It is evident, however, that they were supported by masts whichrose above the summit of the walls. Near the top of the outer wall ofthe Coliseum there are 240 consoles, or projecting blocks of stone, inwhich holes are cut to receive the ends of spars, which ran up throughholes cut in the cornice to some height above the greatest elevationof the building. A sufficient number of firm points of support atequal intervals was thus procured; and, this difficulty beingovercome, the next was to stretch as tight as possible the largerropes, upon which the whole covering depended for its stability. The games to which these buildings were especially devoted were, as wehave already hinted, two-fold--those in which wild beasts wereintroduced, to combat either with each other or with men, and those inwhich men fought with men. Under the general term of gladiators arecomprised all who fought in the arena, though those who pitted theirskill against the strength and ferocity of savage animals werepeculiarly distinguished by the name of _bestiarii_. In general theseunhappy persons were slaves or condemned criminals, who, by adoptingthis profession, purchased an uncertain prolongation of existence, butfreemen sometimes gained a desperate subsistence by thus hazardingtheir lives; and in the decline of Rome, knights, senators, and eventhe emperors sometimes appeared in the arena, at the instigation of avulgar and degrading thirst for popular applause. The origin of these bloody entertainments may be found in the earliestrecords of profane history and the earliest stages of society. Amonghalf-civilized or savage nations, both ancient and modern, we find itcustomary after a battle to sacrifice prisoners of war in honor ofthose chiefs who have been slain. Thus Achilles offers up twelve youngTrojans to the ghost of Patroclus. In course of time it became usualto sacrifice slaves at the funeral of all persons of condition; andeither for the amusement of the spectators, or because it appearedbarbarous to massacre defenceless men, arms were placed in theirhands, and they were incited to save their own lives by the death ofthose who were opposed to them. In later times, the furnishing these unhappy men became matter ofspeculation, and they were carefully trained to the profession ofarms, to increase the reputation and popularity of the contractor whoprovided them. This person was called _lanista_ by the Romans. Atfirst these sports were performed about the funeral pile of thedeceased, or near his sepulchre, in consonance with the idea ofsacrifice in which they originated; but as they became more splendid, and ceased to be peculiarly appropriated to such occasions, they wereremoved, originally to the Forum, and afterwards to the Circus andamphitheatres. Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome, B. C. 265, by M. And D. Brutus, on occasion of the death of their father. This show consistedonly of three pairs. B. C. 216, the three sons of M. Æmilius Lepidus, the augur, entertained the people in the Forum with eleven pair, andthe show lasted three days. B. C. 201, the three sons of M. ValeriusLævinus exhibited twenty-five pairs. And thus these shows increased innumber and frequency, and the taste for them strengthened with itsgratification, until not only the heir of any rich or eminent personlately deceased, but all the principal magistrates, and the candidatesfor magistracies, presented the people with shows of this nature togain their favor and support. This taste was not without its inconveniences and dangers. Men of rankand political importance kept _families_, as they were called, ofgladiators--desperadoes ready to execute any command of their master;and towards the fall of the republic, when party rage scrupled not tohave recourse to open violence, questions of the highest import weredebated in the streets of the city by the most despised of its slaves. In the conspiracy of Catiline so much danger was apprehended fromthem, that particular measures were taken to prevent their joining thedisaffected party; an event the more to be feared because of thedesperate war in which they had engaged the republic a few yearsbefore, under the command of the celebrated Spartacus. At a much laterperiod, at the triumph of Probus, A. D. 281, about fourscore gladiatorsexhibited a similar courage. Disdaining to shed their blood for theamusement of a cruel people, they killed their keepers, broke out fromthe place of their confinement, and filled the streets of Rome withblood and confusion. After an obstinate resistance they were cut topieces by the regular troops. The oath which they took upon entering the service is preserved byPetronius, and is couched in these terms: "We swear, after thedictation of Eumolpus, to suffer death by fire, bonds, stripes, andthe sword; and whatever else Eumolpus may command, as true gladiatorswe bind ourselves body and mind to our master's service. " From slaves and freedmen the inhuman sport at length spread to personsof rank and fortune, insomuch that Augustus was obliged to issue anedict, that none of senatorial rank should become gladiators; and soonafter he laid a similar restraint on the knights. Succeeding emperors, according to their characters, encouraged orendeavored to suppress this degrading taste. Nero is related to havebrought upwards of four hundred senators and six hundred knights uponthe arena; and in some of his exhibitions even women of qualitycontended publicly. The excellent Marcus Aurelius not only retrenchedthe enormous expenses of these amusements, but ordered that gladiatorsshould contend only with blunt weapons. But they were not abolisheduntil some time after the introduction of Christianity. Constantinepublished the first edict which condemned the shedding of human blood, and ordered that criminals condemned to death should rather be sent tothe mines than reserved for the service of the amphitheatre. In thereign of Honorius, when he was celebrating with magnificent games theretreat of the Goths and the deliverance of Rome, an Asiatic monk, byname Telemachus, had the boldness to descend into the arena to partthe combatants. "The Romans were provoked by this interruption oftheir pleasures, and the rash monk was overwhelmed under a shower ofstones. But the madness of the people soon subsided; they respectedthe memory of Telemachus, who had deserved the honors of martyrdom, and they submitted without a murmur to the laws of Honorius, whichabolished forever the human sacrifices of the amphitheatre. " Thisoccurred A. D. 404. It was not, however, until the year 500 that thepractice was finally and completely abolished by Theodoric. Some time before the day appointed for the spectacle, he who gave it(_editor_) published bills containing the name and ensigns of thegladiators, for each of them had his own distinctive badge, andstating also how many were to fight, and how long the show would last. It appears that like our itinerant showmen they sometimes exhibitedpaintings of what the sports were to contain. On the appointed day thegladiators marched in procession with much ceremony into theamphitheatre. They then separated into pairs, as they had beenpreviously matched. An engraving on the wall of the amphitheatre atPompeii seems to represent the beginning of a combat. In the middlestands the arbiter of the fight, marking out with a long stick thespace for the combatants. On his right stands a gladiator only halfarmed, to whom two others are bringing a sword and helmet. On the leftanother gladiator, also only partly armed, sounds the trumpet for thecommencement of the fight; whilst behind him two companions, at thefoot of one of the Victories which enclose the scene, are preparinghis helmet and shield. [Illustration: EXAMINING THE WOUNDED. ] At first, however, they contended only with staves, called _rudes_, orwith blunted weapons; but when warmed and inspirited by the pretenseof battle, they changed their weapons, and advanced at the sound oftrumpets to the real strife. The conquered looked to the people or tothe emperor for life; his antagonist had no power to grant or torefuse it; but if the spectators were dissatisfied and gave the signalof death, he was obliged to become the executioner of their will. Thissignal was the turning down the thumbs; as is well known. If anyshowed signs of fear, their death was certain; if on the other handthey waited the fatal stroke with intrepidity, the people generallyrelented. But fear and want of spirit were of very rare occurrence, insomuch that Cicero more than once proposed the principle of honorwhich actuated gladiators as an admirable model of constancy andcourage, by which he intended to animate himself and others to suffereverything in defence of the commonwealth. The bodies of the slain were dragged with a hook or on a cart througha gate called Libitinensis, the Gate of Death. The victor was rewardedwith a sum of money, contributed by the spectators or bestowed fromthe treasury, or a palm-branch, or a garland of palm ornamented withcolored ribbons--ensigns of frequent occurrence in ancient monuments. Those who survived three years were released from this service, andsometimes one who had given great satisfaction was enfranchised on thespot. This was done by presenting the staff (_rudis_) which was usedin preluding to the combat; on receiving which, the gladiator, if afreeman, recovered his liberty; if a slave, he was not made free, butwas released from the obligation of venturing his life any further inthe arena. Gladiators were divided, according to the fashion of their armor andoffensive weapons, into classes, known by the names of Thrax, Samnis, Myrmillo, and many others, of which a mere catalogue would be tedious, and it would be the work of a treatise to ascertain and describe theirdistinctive marks. Another group consists of four figures. Two are _secutores_, followers, the other two, _retiarii_, net men, armed only with atrident and net, with which they endeavored to entangle theiradversary, and then dispatch him. These classes, like the Thrax andMyrmillo, were usual antagonists, and had their name from the secutorfollowing the retiarius, who eluded the pursuit until he found anopportunity to throw his net to advantage. Nepimus, one of the latter, five times victorious, has fought against one of the former, whosename is lost, but who had triumphed six times in different combats. Hehas been less fortunate in this battle. Nepimus has struck him in theleg, the thigh, and the left arm; his blood runs, and in vain heimplores mercy from the spectators. As the trident with which Nepimusis armed is not a weapon calculated to inflict speedy and certaindeath, the secutor Hyppolitus performs this last office to hiscomrade. The condemned wretch bends the knee, presents his throat tothe sword, and throws himself forward to meet the blow, while Nepimus, his conqueror, pushes him, and seems to insult the last moments of hisvictim. In the distance is the retiarius, who must fight Hyppolitus inhis turn. The secutores have a very plain helmet, that their adversarymay have little or no opportunity of pulling it off with the net ortrident; the right arm is clothed in armor, the left bore a _clypeus_, or large round shield; a sandal tied with narrow bands forms thecovering for their feet. They wear no body armor, no covering but acloth round the waist, for by their lightness and activity alone couldthey hope to avoid death and gain the victory. The retiarii have thehead bare, except a fillet bound round the hair; they have no shield, but the left side is covered with a demi-cuiarass, and the left armprotected in the usual manner, except that the shoulder-piece is veryhigh. They wear the caliga, or low boot common to the Roman soldiery, and bear the trident; but the net with which they endeavored toenvelop their adversaries is nowhere visible. This bas-relief isterminated by the combat between a light-armed gladiator and aSamnite. This last beseeches the spectators to save him, but itappears from the action of the principal figure that this is notgranted. The conqueror looks towards the steps of the amphitheatre; hehas seen the fatal signal, and in reply prepares himself to strike. [Illustration: ASKING PARDON. ] [Illustration: NOT GRANTED. ] Between the pilasters of the door the frieze is continued. Two combatsare represented. In the first a Samnite has been conquered by aMyrmillo. This last wishes to become his comrade's executioner withoutwaiting the answer from the people, to whom the vanquished hasappealed; but the _lanista_ checks his arm, from which it would seemthat the Samnite obtained pardon. Another pair exhibits a similar combat, in which the Myrmillo fallsstabbed to death. The wounds, the blood, and the inside of thebucklers are painted of a very bright red color. The swords, with theexception of that of Hyppolitus, are omitted; it is possible that itwas intended to make them of metal. The bas-reliefs constituting the lower frieze are devoted to the chaseand to combats between men and animals. In the upper part are harespursued by a dog; beyond is a wounded stag pursued by dogs, to whom heis about to become the prey; below, a wild boar is seized by anenormous dog, which has already caused his blood to flow. In the middle of the composition a _bestiarius_ has transfixed a bearwith a stroke of his lance. This person wears a kind of short huntingboot, and is clothed as well as his comrade in a light tunic withoutsleeves, bound round the hips, and called _subucula_. It was the dressof the common people, as we learn from the sculptures on Trajan'scolumn. The companion of this man has transfixed a bull, which flies, carrying with him the heavy lance with which he is wounded. He turnshis head toward his assailant, and seems to wish to return to theattack; the man by his gestures appears astonished, beholding himselfdisarmed and at the mercy of the animal, whom he thought mortallystricken. Pliny (lib. Viii. Cap. 45) speaks of the ferocity shown bybulls in these combats, and of having seen them, when stretched fordead on the arena, lift themselves up and renew the combat. [Illustration: COMBATS WITH BEASTS. ] Another sort of amphitheatrical amusements consisted in witnessing thedeath of persons under sentence of the law, either by the hands of theexecutioner, or by being exposed to the fury of savage animals. Theearly Christians were especially subjected to this species of cruelty. Nero availed himself of the prejudice against them to turn asidepopular indignation after the great conflagration of Rome, which iscommonly ascribed to his own wanton love of mischief; and we learnfrom Tertullian, that, after great public misfortunes, the cry of thepopulace was, "To the lions with the Christians. " The Coliseum now owes its preservation to the Christian blood soprofusely shed within its walls. After serving during ages as a quarryof hewn stone for the use of all whose station and power entitled themto a share in public plunder, it was at last secured from furtherinjury by Pope Benedict XIV. , who consecrated the building about themiddle of the last century, and placed it under the protection of themartyrs, who had there borne testimony with their blood to thesincerity of their belief. There is nothing in the amphitheatre of Pompeii at variance with thegeneral description of this class of buildings, and our notice of itwill therefore necessarily be short. (See page 121. ) Its form, asusual, is oval: the extreme length, from outside to outside of theexterior arcade, is 430 feet, its greatest breadth is 335 feet. Thespectators gained admission by tickets, which had numbers or marks onthem, corresponding with similar signs on the arches through whichthey entered. Those who were entitled to occupy the lower ranges ofseats passed through the perforated arcades of the lower order; thosewhose place was in the upper portion of the cavea ascended bystaircases between the seats and the outer wall of the building. Fromhence the women again ascended to the upper tier, which was dividedinto boxes, and appropriated to them. The construction consists for the most part of the rough masonrycalled _opus incertum_, with quoins of squared stone, and sometrifling restorations of rubble. This rude mass was probably oncecovered with a more sumptuous facing of hewn stone: but there are nowno other traces of it than a few of the key-stones, on one of which achariot and two horses is sculptured, on another a head; besides whichthere are a few stars on the wedge-stones. At each end of the ellipse were entrances into the arena for thecombatants, through which the dead bodies were dragged out into thespoliarium. These were also the principal approaches to the lowerranges of seats, occupied by the senators, magistrates, and knights, by means of corridors to the right and left which ran round the arena. The ends of these passages were secured by metal gratings against theintrusion of wild beasts. In the northern one are nine places forpedestals to form a line of separation, dividing the entrance into twoparts of unequal breadth. The seats are elevated above the arena upona high podium or parapet, upon which, when the building was firstopened, there remained several inscriptions, containing the names ofduumvirs who had presided upon different occasions. There were alsopaintings in fresco, one representing a tigress fighting with a wildboar; another, a stag chased by a lioness; another, a battle between abull and bear. Other subjects comprised candelabra, a distribution ofpalms among the gladiators, winged genii, minstrels, and musicians;but all disappeared soon after their exposure to the atmosphere. Theamphitheatre comprises twenty-four rows of seats, and about 20, 000feet of sitting-room. It may be observed that the arena of the amphitheatre of Pompeiiappears to be formed of the natural surface of the earth, and has noneof those vast substructions observable at Pozzuoli and Capua. It doesnot, therefore, appear capable of being turned into a Naumachia, norindeed would it have been easy to find there water enough for such apurpose. In the Roman theatre the construction of the orchestra and stage wasdifferent from that of the Greeks. By the construction peculiar to theRoman theatre, the stage was brought nearer to the audience (the arcnot exceeding a semi-circle), and made considerably deeper than in theGreek theatre. The length of the stage was twice the diameter of theorchestra. The Roman orchestra contained no thymele. The back of thestage, or proscenium, was adorned with niches, and columns, andfriezes of great richness, as may be seen in some of the theatres ofAsia Minor, and in the larger theatre at Pompeii, which belong to theRoman period. On the whole, however, the construction of a Roman theatre resembledthat of a Greek one. The Senate, and other distinguished persons, occupied circular ranges of seats within the orchestra; the prætor hada somewhat higher seat. The space between the orchestra and the firstpræcinctio, usually consisting of fourteen seats, was reserved for theequestrian order, tribunes, etc. Above them were the seats of theplebeians. Soldiers were separated from the citizens. Women wereappointed by Augustus to sit in the portico, which encompassed thewhole. Behind the scenes were the postscenium, or retiring-room, andporticoes, to which, in case of sudden showers, the people retreatedfrom the theatre. The earliest theatres at Rome were temporary buildings of wood. Amagnificent wooden theatre, built by M. Æmilius Scaurus, in hisedileship, B. C. 58, is described by Pliny. In 55 B. C. , Cn. Pompeybuilt the first stone theatre at Rome, near the Campus Martius. Atemple of Venus Victrix, to whom he dedicated the whole building, waserected at the highest part of the cavea. The next permanent theatre was built by Augustus, and named after hisfavorite, the young Marcellus, son of his sister Octavia. Vitruvius isgenerally reported to have been the architect of this building, whichwould contain 30, 000 persons. The audience part was a semi-circle 410feet in diameter. Twelve arches of its external wall still remain. From marks still visible in the large theatre at Pompeii, the placereserved for each spectator was about 13 inches. This theatrecontained 5, 000. The theatre of Pompeii, at Rome, contained 40, 000. The theatre of Scaurus is said to have contained 80, 000. The Romanssurpassed the Greeks in the grandeur and magnificence of thesebuildings. They built them in almost all their towns. Remains of themare found in almost every country where the Romans carried their rule. One of the most striking Roman provincial theatres is that of Orange, in the south of France. Odeum was a building intended for the recitations of rhapsodists andthe performances of citharædists, before the theatre was in existence. In its general form and arrangements the odeum was very similar to thetheatre. There were, however, some characteristic differences. Theodeum was much smaller than the theatre, and it was roofed over. Theancient and original Odeum of Athens in the Agora was probablyerected in the time of Hipparchus, who, according to Plato, firstintroduced at Athens the poems of Homer, and caused rhapsodists torecite them during the Panathenæa. There were two others inAthens--the Odeum of Pericles, and that of Herodes Atticus. The Odeumof Pericles was built in imitation of the tent of Xerxes. It was burntby Sylla, but was restored in exact imitation of the originalbuilding. It lay at the east side of the theatre of Dionysus. TheOdeum of Herodes Atticus was built by him in memory of his departedwife Regilla, whose name it commonly bore. It lies under the southwestangle of the Acropolis. Its greatest diameter within the walls was 240feet, and it is calculated to have held about 8, 000 persons. Therewere odea in several of the towns of Greece, in Corinth, Patræ, and atSmyrna, Ephesus and other places of Asia Minor. There were odea alsoin Rome; one was built by Domitian, and a second by Trajan. There areruins of an Odeum in the villa of Adrian, at Tivoli and at Pompeii. Remains of amphitheatres are found in several cities of Etruria. Theamphitheatre of Sutri is considered to be peculiarly Etruscan in itsmode of construction. It is cut out of the tufa rock, and was no doubtused by that people for festal representations long before Romeattempted anything of the kind. The Romans copied these edifices fromthe Etruscans. We have historical evidence, also, that gladiatorialcombats had an Etruscan origin, and were borrowed by the Romans. Amphitheatres were peculiar to the Romans. The gladiatorial shows, andthe chase and combats of wild beasts with which the amphitheatre isalways connected, were at first given in the circus. Itsunsuitableness for such sports determined Julius Cæsar, in hisdictatorship, to construct a wooden theatre in the Campus Martius, built especially for hunting. Caius Scribonius Curio built the firstamphitheatre, for the celebration of his father's funeral games. Itwas composed of two theatres of wood, placed on pivots, so that theycould be turned round, spectators and all, and placed face to face, thus forming a double theatre, or amphitheatre, which ending suggestedits elliptical shape. Statilius Taurus, the friend of Augustus, B. C. 30, erected a more durable amphitheatre, partly of stone and partly ofwood, in the Campus Martius. Others were afterwards built by Caligulaand Nero. The amphitheatre of Nero was of wood, and in the CampusMartius. The assembled people in a crowded theatre must have been an imposingspectacle, in which the gorgeous colors of the dresses were blendedwith the azure of a southern sky. No antique rendering of this subjectremains. The spectators began to assemble at early dawn, for eachwished to secure a good seat, after paying his entrance fee. This, notexceeding two oboloi, was payable to the builder or manager of thetheatre. After the erection of stone theatres at Athens, this entrancefee was paid for the poorer classes by Government, and formed, indeed, one of the heaviest items of the budget. For not only at the Dionysianceremonies, but on many other festive occasions, the people clamoredfor free admission, confirmed in their demands by the demagogues. Frequently the money reserved for the emergency of a war had to bespent for this purpose. The seats in a theatre were, of course, notall equally good, and their prices varied accordingly. The police ofthe theatre had to take care that everybody took his seat in the rowmarked on his ticket. Most of the spectators were men. In older timeswomen were allowed only to attend at tragedies, the coarse jokes ofthe comedy being deemed unfit for the ears of Athenian ladies. Onlyhetairai made an exception to this rule. It is almost certain that theseats of men and women were separate. Boys were allowed to witnessboth tragedies and comedies. Whether slaves were admitted amongst thespectators seems doubtful. As pedagogues were not allowed to enterthe schoolroom, it seems likely that they had also to leave thetheatre after having shown their young masters to their seats. Neitherwere the slaves carrying the cushions for their masters' seatsadmitted amongst the spectators. It is, however, possible that whenthe seats became to be for sale, certain classes of slaves wereallowed to visit the theatre. Favorite poets and actors were rewardedwith applause and flowers; while bad performers had to submit towhistling, and, possibly, other worse signs of public indignation. Greek audiences resembled those of southern Europe at the present dayin the vivacity of their demonstrations, which were even extended topublic characters amongst the spectators on their clearing thetheatre. Vitruvius has given some minute directions, strongly illustrative ofthe importance of the subject, for choosing a proper situation for atheatre. "When the Forum is finished, a healthy situation must besought for, wherein the theatre may be erected to exhibit sports onthe festival days of the immortal gods. For the spectators aredetained in their seats by the entertainment of the games, andremaining quiet for a long time, their pores are opened, and imbibethe draughts of air, which, if they come from marshy or otherwiseunhealthy places, will pour injurious humors into the body. Neithermust it front the south; for when the sun fills the concavity, theinclosed air, unable to escape or circulate, is heated, and thenextracts and dries up the juices of the body. It is also to becarefully observed that the place be not unfitted to transmit sound, but one in which the voice may expand as clearly as possible. " The ancient scene was not, like that of the modern stage, capable ofbeing shifted. It consisted of a solid building (_scena stabilis_), representing the facade of a royal palace, and adorned with therichest architectural ornaments. It was built of stone, or brick casedwith marble, and had three doors, of which the middle one, called_porta regia_, larger and handsomer than the others, was supposed toform the entrance to the palace. This was used only in therepresentation of tragedies, and then only by the principal personagesof the drama. The door in the right wing was appropriated to inferiorpersonages, and that on the left to foreigners or persons coming fromabroad. In our plan, the five angles of the triangles not yet disposedof determine the disposition of the scene. Opposite the centre one arethe regal doors; on each side are those by which the secondarycharacters entered. Behind the scene, as in the Greek theatre, therewere apartments for the actors to retire into; and under it werevaults or cellars, which, as in the modern stage, served for theentrance of ghosts, or the appliance of any needful machinery. The_proscenium_, or space between the orchestra and the scene, answeringto our stage, though deeper than the Greek, was of no great depth, which was not required for the performance of ancient dramas, in whichonly a few personages appeared on the stage at once. Besides, in theabsence of any roof, the voice of the performers would have been lostif the stage had been too deep. That of Pompeii is only abouttwenty-one feet broad, though its length is one hundred and nine. Along the front of the stage, and between it and the orchestra, runs atolerably deep linear opening, the receptacle for the _aulæum_, orcurtain, the fashion of which was just the reverse of ours, as it hadto be depressed instead of elevated when the play began. Thisoperation, performed by machinery of which we have no clear account, was called _aulæum premere_, as in the well-known line of Horace:[19] Quatuor aut plures aulæa premuntur in horas. It should, however, be mentioned that the ancients seem also to havehad movable scenery (_scena ductilis_), to alter the appearance ofthe permanent scene when required. This must have consisted of paintedboard or canvas. Another method of illusion was by the use of masks. These wererendered necessary by the vastness of the ancient theatres, and thecustom of performing in the open air. In the eastern portico of the Triangular Forum are four entrances todifferent parts of the greater theatre. The first two, as you enter, lead into a large circular corridor surrounding the whole cavea; thethird opens on an area behind the scene, from which there is acommunication with the orchestra and privileged seats; the fourth leddown a long flight of steps, at the bottom of which you turn, on theright, into the soldiers' quarter, on the left, into the area alreadymentioned. The corridor is arched over. It has two other entrances, one by a large passage from the east side, another from a smallerpassage on the north. Six inner doors, called vomitoria, opened on anequal number of stair-cases which ran down to the first præcinctio. The theatre is formed upon the slope of a hill, the corridor being thehighest part, so that the audience upon entering descended at once totheir seats, and the vast staircases, which conducted to the upperseats of the theatres and amphitheatres at Rome, were saved. By theside of the first entrance is a staircase which led up to the women'sgallery above the corridor; here the seats were partitioned intocompartments, like our boxes. The benches were about one foot threeinches high and two feet four inches wide. One foot three inches and ahalf was allowed to each spectator, as may be ascertained in one part, where the divisions are marked off and numbered. There is space tocontain about five thousand persons. Here the middle classes sat, usually upon cushions which they brought with them; the men of ranksat in the orchestra below, on chairs of state carried thither bytheir slaves. Flanking the orchestra, and elevated considerably aboveit, are observable two divisions, appropriated, one perhaps to thepro-consul, or duumvirs and their officers, the other to the vestalvirgins, or to the use of the person who gave the entertainments. Thisis the more likely, because in the smaller theatre, where these boxes, if we may call them so, are also found, they have a communication withthe stage. This theatre appears to have been entirely covered with marble; thebenches of the cavea were of marble, the orchestra was of marble, thescene with all its ornaments was also of marble; and yet of thisprofusion of marble only a few fragments remain. It appears, from an inscription found in it, to have been erected, ormuch improved, by one Holconius Rufus. Upon the first step of theorchestra was another inscription, composed of bronze letters let intothe marble. The metal has been carried away, but the cavities in themarble still remain. They were placed so as partly to encompass astatue, and run thus: M. HOLCONIO. M. F. RVFO. II. V. I. D. QVINQVIENS. ITER. QVINQ. TRIB. MIL. A. P. FLAMEN. AVG. PATR. COLON. D. D. signifying, that the colony dedicated this to its patron, M. HolconiusRufus, son of Marcus: then follow his titles. In the middle of thisinscription is a vacant space, where probably stood the statue ofHolconius, as the cramps, by which something was fastened, stillremain. Or possibly it may have been an altar, as it was the customamong the ancients to sacrifice to Bacchus in the theatre. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] ROMAN BATHS. After the excavations at Pompeii had been carried on to a considerableextent, it was matter of surprise that no public baths werediscovered, particularly as they were sure almost to be placed in themost frequented situation, and therefore probably somewhere close tothe Forum. The wonder was increased by the small number of baths foundin private houses. That public baths existed, was long ago ascertainedfrom an inscription discovered in 1749, purporting that one Januarius, an enfranchised slave, supplied the baths of Marcus Crassus Frugi withwater, both fresh and salt. At length an excavation in the vicinity ofthe Forum brought to light a suite of public baths, admirablyarranged, spacious, highly decorated, and superior to any even in themost considerable of our modern cities. They are fortunately in goodpreservation, and throw much light on what the ancients, andespecially Vitruvius, have written on the subject. Inscription in the Court of the Baths. DEDICATIONE. THERMARUM. MUNERIS. CNÆI. ALLEI. NIGIDII. MAII. VENATIO. ATHLETÆ. SPARSIONES. VELA. ERUNT. MAIO. PRINCIPI. COLONIÆ. FELICITER. "On occasion of the dedication of the baths, at the expense of Cnæus Alleius Nigidius Maius, there will be the chase of wild beasts, athletic contests, sprinkling of perfumes, and an awning. Prosperity to Maius, chief of the colony. " This announcement of a public entertainment is written on a wall ofthe court of the baths, to the right hand on entering. The provincial towns, imitating the example of Rome, and equally fondof all sorts of theatrical and gladiatorial exhibitions, of which wehave spoken at length in describing the various theatres of Pompeii, usually solemnized the completion of any edifices or monuments erectedfor the public service by dedicating them. This ceremony was nothingmore than opening or exhibiting the building to the people in a solemnmanner, gratifying them at the same time with largesses and variousspectacles. When a private man had erected the building, he himselfwas usually the person who dedicated it. When undertaken by the publicorder and at the public cost, the citizens deputed some magistrate orrich and popular person to perform the ceremony. In the capital vastsums were expended in this manner; and a man who aspired to become apopular leader could scarcely lay out his money to better interestthan in courting favor by the prodigality of his expenses on these orsimilar occasions. It appears, then, that upon the completion of thebaths, the Pompeians committed the dedication to Cnæus AlleiusNigidius Maius, who entertained them with a sumptuous spectacle. There were combats (_venatio_) between wild beasts, or between beastsand men, a cruel sport, to which the Romans were passionatelyaddicted; athletic games (_athletæ_), sprinkling of perfumes(_sparsiones_), and it was further engaged that an awning should beraised over the amphitheatre. The convenience of such a covering willbe evident, no less as a protection against sun than rain under anItalian sky: the merit of the promise, which may seem but a trifle, will be understood by considering the difficulty of stretching acovering over the immense area of an ancient amphitheatre. We mayobserve, by the way, that representations of hunting and of combatsbetween wild beasts are common subjects of the paintings of Pompeii. Acombat between a lion and a horse, and another, between a bear and abull, have been found depicted in the amphitheatre. The velarium, orawning, is advertised in all the inscriptions yet found which givenotice of public games. Athletæ and sparsiones appear in no other. Welearn from Seneca that the perfumes were disseminated by being mixedwith boiling water, and then placed in the centre of the amphitheatre, so that the scents rose with the steam, and soon became diffusedthroughout the building. There is some reason to suppose that the completion and dedication ofthe baths preceded the destruction of the city but a short time, fromthe inscription being found perfect on the wall of the baths, for itwas the custom to write these notices in the most public places, andafter a very short season they were covered over by others, as onebillsticker defaces the labors of his predecessors. This is abundantlyevident even in the present ruined state of the town, especially atthe corners of the principal streets, where it is easy to discover oneinscription painted over another. But to return to the Baths. They occupy almost an entire block, forming an irregular quadrangle; the northern front, facing to theStreet of the Baths, being about 162 feet in length, the southernfront about 93 feet, and the average depth about 174 feet. They aredivided into three separate and distinct compartments, one of whichwas appropriated to the fireplaces and to the servants of theestablishment; the other two were occupied each by a set of baths, contiguous to each other, similar and adapted to the same purposes, and supplied with heat and water from the same furnace and from thesame reservoir. It is conjectured that the most spacious of them wasfor the use of the men, the lesser for that of the women. Theapartments and passages are paved with white marble in mosaic. Itappears, from Varro and Vitruvius, that baths for men and women wereoriginally united, as well for convenience as economy of fuel, butwere separated afterwards for the preservation of morals, and had nocommunication except that from the furnaces. We shall call these the_old_ Baths by way of distinction, and because they were firstdiscovered; but in reality, the more recently discovered Stabian Bathsmay probably be the more ancient. It should be observed here that the old Pompeian _thermæ_ are adaptedsolely to the original purposes of a bath, namely, a place for bathingand washing. They can not therefore for a moment be compared to thebaths constructed at Rome during the period of the empire, of whichsuch magnificent remains may still be seen at the baths of Diocletian, and especially at those of Caracalla. In these vast establishments thebath formed only a part of the entertainment provided. There were alsospacious porticoes for walking and conversing, halls and courts forathletic games and gladiatorial combats, apartments for the lecturesand recitations of philosophers, rhetoricians and poets. In short, they formed a sort of vast public club, in which almost every speciesof amusement was provided. In the more recently discovered baths, called the Thermæ Stabianæ, there is indeed a large quadrangularcourt, or palæstra, which may have served for gymnastic exercises, andamong others for the game of ball, as appears from some large balls ofstone having been found in it. Yet even this larger establishmentmakes but a very slight approach to the magnificence and luxury of aRoman bath. The tepidarium, or warm chamber, was so called from a warm, but softand mild temperature, which prepared the bodies of the bathers for themore intense heat which they were to undergo in the vapor and hotbaths; and, _vice versa_, softened the transition from the hot bath tothe external air. The wall is divided into a number of niches orcompartments by Telamones, two feet high, in high relief, andsupporting a rich cornice. These are male, as Caryatides are femalestatues placed to perform the office of pillars. By the Greeks theywere named Atlantes, from the well-known fable of Atlas supporting theheavens. Here they are made of terra-cotta, or baked clay, incrustedwith the finest marble stucco. Their only covering is a girdle roundthe loins; they have been painted flesh-color, with black hair andbeards; the moulding of the pedestal and the baskets on their headswere in imitation of gold; and the pedestal itself, as well as thewall behind them and the niches for the reception of the clothes ofthe bathers, were colored to resemble red porphyry. Six of theseniches are closed up without any apparent reason. [Illustration: RECEPTION TO THE BATHS (_at Pompeii_). ] The ceiling is worked in stucco, in low relief, with scattered figuresand ornaments of little flying genii, delicately relieved onmedallions, with foliage carved round them. The ground is painted, sometimes red and sometimes blue. The room is lighted by a window twofeet six inches high and three feet wide, in the bronze frame of whichwere found set four very beautiful panes of glass fastened by smallnuts and screws, very ingeniously contrived, with a view to remove theglass at pleasure. In this room was found a brazier, seven feet longand two feet six inches broad, made entirely of bronze, with theexception of an iron lining. The two front legs are winged sphinxes, terminating in lions' paws, the two other legs are plain, beingintended to stand against the wall. The bottom is formed with bronzebars, on which are laid bricks supporting pumice-stones for thereception of charcoal. There is a sort of false battlement worked onthe rim, and in the middle a cow is to be seen in high relief. Threebronze benches also were found, alike in form and pattern. They areone foot four inches high, one foot in width, and about six feet long, supported by four legs, terminating in the cloven hoofs of a cow, andornamented at the upper ends with the heads of the same animal. Uponthe seat is inscribed, M. NIGIDIUS, VACCULA. P. S. Varro, in his book upon rural affairs, tells us that many of thesurnames of the Roman families had their origin in pastoral life, andespecially are derived from the animals to whose breeding they paidmost attention. As, for instance, the Porcii took their name fromtheir occupation as swine-herds; the Ovini from their care of sheep;the Caprilli, of goats; the Equarii, of horses; the Tauri, of bulls, etc. We may conclude, therefore, that the family of this MarcusVaccula were originally cow-keepers, and that the figures of cows soplentifully impressed on all the articles which he presented to thebaths are a sort of _canting arms_, to borrow an expression fromheraldry, as in Rome the family Toria caused a bull to be stamped ontheir money. A doorway led from the tepidarium into the caldarium, or vapor-bath. It had on one side the laconicum, containing the vase called labrum. On the opposite side of the room was the hot bath called lavacrum. Here it is necessary to refer to the words of Vitruvius as explanatoryof the structure of the apartments (cap. Xi. Lib. V. ): "Here should beplaced the vaulted sweating-room, twice the length of its width, whichshould have at each extremity, on one end the _laconicum_, made asdescribed above, on the other end the hot bath. " This apartment isexactly as described, twice the length of its width, exclusively ofthe laconicum at one end and the hot bath at the other. The pavementand walls of the whole were hollowed to admit the heat. The labrum was a great basin or round vase of white marble, rathermore than five feet in diameter, into which the hot water bubbled upthrough a pipe in its centre, and served for the partial ablutions ofthose who took the vapor-bath. It was raised about three feet sixinches above the level of the pavement, on a round base built of smallpieces of stone or lava, stuccoed and colored red, five feet sixinches in diameter, and has within it a bronze inscription, which runsthus: CNÆO. MELISSÆO. CNÆL FILIO. APRO. MARCO. STAIO. MARCI. FILIO. RUFO. DUUMVIRIS. ITERUM. IURE. DICUNDO. LABRUM. EX DECURIONUM DECRETO. EX. PECUNIA. PUBLICA. FACIENDUM. CURARUNT CONSTAT. HS. D. C. C. L. Relating that "Cnæus Melissæus Aper, son of Cnæus Aper. Marcus StaiusRufus, son of M. Rufus, duumvirs of justice for the second time, caused the labrum to be made at the public expense, by order of theDecurions. It cost 5, 250 sesterces" (about $200). There is in theVatican a magnificent porphyry labrum found in one of the imperialbaths; and Baccius, a great modern authority on baths, speaks of labramade of glass. This apartment, like the others, is well stuccoed and painted yellow;a cornice, highly enriched with stucco ornaments, is supported byfluted pilasters placed at irregular intervals. These are red, as isalso the cornice and ceiling of the laconicum, which is worked instucco with little figures of boys and animals. The women's bath resembles very much that of the men, and differs onlyin being smaller and less ornamented. It is heated, as we have alreadymentioned, by the same fire, and supplied with water from the sameboilers. Near the entrance is an inscription painted in red letters. All the rooms yet retain in perfection their vaulted roofs. In thevestibule are seats similar to those which have been described in themen's baths as appropriated to slaves or servants of theestablishment. The robing-room contains a cold bath; it is paintedwith red and yellow pilasters alternating with one another on a blueor black ground, and has a light cornice of white stucco and a whitemosaic pavement with a narrow black border. There are accommodationsfor ten persons to undress at the same time. The cold bath is muchdamaged, the wall only remaining of the alveus, which is square, thewhole incrustation of marble being destroyed. From this room we passinto the tepidarium, about twenty feet square, painted yellow with redpilasters, lighted by a small window far from the ground. Thisapartment communicates with the warm bath, which, like the men's, isheated by flues formed in the floors and walls. There are in this room paintings of grotesque design upon a yellowground, but they are much damaged and scarcely visible. The pavementis of white marble laid in mosaic. The room in its general arrangementresembles the hot bath of the men; it has a labrum in the laconicum, and a hot bath contiguous to the furnace. The hollow pavement and theflues in the walls are almost entirely destroyed; and of the labrum, the foot, in the middle of which was a piece of the leaden conduitthat introduced the water, alone remains. On the right of the entranceinto these women's baths is a wall of stone of great thickness and ina good style of masonry. These baths are so well arranged, with so prudent an economy of roomand convenient distribution of their parts, and are adorned with suchappropriate elegance, as to show clearly the intellect and resourcesof an excellent architect. At the same time some errors of thegrossest kind have been committed, such as would be inexcusable in themost ignorant workman; as, for instance, the symmetry of parts hasbeen neglected where the parts correspond; a pilaster is cut off by adoor which passes through the middle of it; and other mistakes occurwhich might have been avoided without difficulty. This strange mixtureof good and bad taste, of skill and carelessness, is not very easilyaccounted for, but it is of constant recurrence in Pompeii. [Illustration: ANCIENT BATH-ROOM. (_As discovered_). ] Vitruvius recommends the selecting a situation for baths defended fromthe north and northwest winds, and forming windows opposite the south, or if the nature of the ground would not permit this, at least towardsthe south, because the hours of bathing used by the ancients beingfrom after mid-day till evening, those who bathed could, by thosewindows, have the advantage of the rays and of the heat of thedeclining sun. For this reason the Pompeian baths hitherto described have the greaterpart of their windows turned to the south, and are constructed in alow part of the city, where the adjoining buildings served as aprotection to them from the inconvenience of the northwest winds. Before concluding this account of the Stabian baths, we should mentionthat under the portico, near the entrance to the men's baths, wasfound a sun-dial, consisting as usual of a half circle inscribed in arectangle, and with the gnomon in perfect preservation. It wassupported by lion's feet and elegantly ornamented. On its base was anOscan inscription, which has been interpreted as follows by Minervini:Marius. Atinius, Marii filius, quæstor, ex multatitia pecuniaconventus decreto fieri mandavit. That is: the Quæstor M. Atinius, inaccordance with a decree of the assembly, caused it to be made out ofmoney levied by fines. The title of "Quæstor" seems to show that thisinscription must have been written after the occupation of Pompeii bythe Romans, but at the same time at a period when the Oscan tonguecontinued to be generally spoken. The fines alluded to were probablylevied for breaches of the rules to be observed in the palæstra. [Page Decoration] SOCIAL GAMES AND SPORTS. Jugglers of both sexes, either single or in gangs, were common allover Greece putting up their booths, as Xenophon says, wherever moneyand silly people could be found. These frequently amused the guests atdrinking feasts with their tricks. The reputation of this class ofpeople was anything but above suspicion, as is proved by the verse ofManetho ("Apotheles, " IV. , 276), in which they are described as the"birds of the country, the foulest brood of the city. " Their trickswere innumerable, and outvied in boldness and ingenuity those of ourconjurors, barring, of course such as are founded on the moderndiscoveries of natural science. Male and female jugglers jumpedforwards and backwards over swords or tables; girls threw up andcaught again a number of balls or hoops to the accompaniment of amusical instrument; others displayed an astounding skill with theirfeet and toes while standing on their hands. Rope-dancers performedthe most dangerous dances and _salti-mortali_. In Rome even elephantswere trained to mount the rope. Flying-machines of a constructionunknown to us are also mentioned, on which bold aeronauts traversedthe air. Alkiphron tells a story about a peasant who, on seeing ajuggler pulling little bullets from the noses, ears, and heads of thespectators, exclaimed: "Let such a beast never enter my yard, or elseeverything would soon disappear. " Descriptions of these tricks arefrequent in ancient writers, particularly in the indignant invectivesof the early fathers of the Church. Amongst the pictures of femalejugglers in all kinds of impossible postures, can be seen a girlperforming the dangerous sword-dance, described by Plato. It consistsin her turning somersaults forwards and backwards across the points ofthree swords stuck in the ground. A similar picture we see on a vaseof the Berlin Museum. Another vase shows a female juggler dressed inlong drawers standing on her hands, and filling with her feet akantharos from a krater placed in front of her. She holds the handleof the kantharos with the toes of her left foot, while the toes of herother foot cling round the stem of the kyathos used for drawing theliquor. A woman sitting in front of her performs a game with threeballs, in which the other artiste also seems to take a part. Inanother, a girl in a rather awkward position is shooting an arrow froma bow. Of social games played by the topers we mention, besides thecomplicated kottabos, the games played on a board or with dice. Homeralready mentions a game of the former class, and names Palamedes asits inventor; of the exact nature of this game we know little ornothing. Neither are we informed of the details of another kind ofpetteia played with five little stones on a board divided by fivelines. The so-called "game of cities" seems to have resembled our chess ordraughts. The board was divided into five parts. Each player tried tocheckmate the other by the skillful use of his men. Games of hazardwith dice and astragaloi were most likely greater favorites with thetopers than the intellectual ones hitherto described. The number ofdice was at first three, afterwards two; the figures on the parallelsides being 1 and 6, 2 and 5, 3 and 4. In order to prevent cheating, they were cast from conical beakers, the interior of which was formedinto different steps. Each cast had its name, sixty-four of which havebeen transmitted to us by the grammarians. The luckiest cast, each ofthe dice showing the figure 6, was called Aphrodite; the unluckiest, the three dice showing the figure 1, had the names of "dog" or "wine"applied to it. Another game of a similar nature was played with the so-calledastragaloi, dice of a lengthy shape made of the knuckles of animals. Two of the surfaces were flat, the third being raised, and the fourthindented slightly. The last-mentioned side was marked 1, and had, amongst many other names, that of "dog;" the opposite surface, marked6. The Latin names of the two other sides marked 3 and 4 were _suppus_and _planus_ respectively. The figures 2 and 5 were wanting on theastragaloi, the narrow end-surfaces not being counted. The number ofastragaloi used was always four, being the same as in the game ofdice. Here also the luckiest cast was called Aphrodite, with which atthe same time the honor of king-of-the-feast was connected. Young girls liked to play at a game with five astragaloi, or littlestones, which were thrown into the air and caught on the upper surfaceof the hand. This game is still in use in many countries. We possessmany antique representations of these various games. Two vase paintings show soldiers playing at draughts. Astragaloi anddice of different sizes, some with the figures as above described onthem, others evidently counterfeited, are preserved in severalmuseums. Of larger representations we mention the marble statue of agirl playing with astragaloi in the Berlin Museum, and a Pompeianwall-painting in which the children of Jason play the same game, whileMedea threatens their lives with a drawn sword. The celebratedmasterpiece of Polykletes, representing two boys playing withastragaloi, formerly in the palace of Titus in Rome, has unfortunatelybeen lost. Another wall-painting shows in the foreground Aglaia andHileaira, daughters of Niobe, kneeling and playing the same game. In connection with these social games we mention a few other favoriteamusements of the Greeks. The existence of cock-fights is proved byvase-paintings, gems, and written evidence. It was a favorite pastimewith both old and young. Themistokles, after his victory over thePersians, is said to have founded an annual entertainment ofcock-fights, which made both these and the fights of quails popularamong the Greeks. The breeding of fighting-cocks was a matter of greatimportance, Rhodes, Chalkis, and Media being particularly celebratedfor their strong and large cocks. In order to increase their fury, theanimals were fed with garlic previous to the fight. Sharp metal spurswere attached to their legs, after which they were placed on a tablewith a raised border. Very large sums were frequently staked on themby owners and spectators. Here, again, we see antique customs reproduced by various modernnations. The Italian game of _morra_ (_il giuco alla morra_ or _farealla morra_) was also known to the ancients. In it both players opentheir clenched right hands simultaneously with the speed of lightning, whereat each has to call out the number of fingers extended by theother. It is the same game which figured among Egyptian amusements. Mimetic dances were another favorite amusement at symposia. Theymostly represented mythological scenes. A few words about Greekdancing ought to be added. Homer mentions dancing as one of the chief delights of the feast; healso praises the artistic dances of the Phaiakian youths. This provesthe esteem in which this art was held even at that early period. Inthe dances of the Phaiakai, all the young men performed a circularmovement round a singer standing in the centre, or else two skilleddancers executed a _pas de deux_. Homer's words seem to indicate thatthe rhythmical motion was not limited to the legs, as in our moderndances, but extended to the upper part of the body and the arms. Perhaps the germs of mimetic art may be looked for in this dance. According to Lucian, the aim of the dance was to express sentiment, passion, and action by means of gestures. It soon developed intohighest artistic beauty, combined with the rhythmic grace peculiar tothe Greeks. Like the gymnastic and agonistic arts, the dance retainedits original purity as long as public morality prevailed in Greece:its connection with religious worship preserved it from neglect. Gradually, however, here also mechanical virtuosity began to supplanttrue artistic principles. The division of dances according to their warlike or religiouscharacter seems objectionable, because all of them were originallyconnected with religious worship. The distinction between warlike andpeaceful dances is more appropriate. Among the warlike dancesparticularly adapted to the Doric character, was the oldest and thatmost in favor. It dates from mythical times. Pyrrhichos, either aKretan or Spartan by birth, the Dioskuroi, also Pyrrhos, the son ofAchilles, are mentioned as its originators. The Pyrrhic dance, performed by several men in armor, imitated the movements of attack anddefence. The various positions were defined by rule; hands and armsplayed an important part in the mimetic action. It formed the chieffeature of the Doric gymnopaidia and of the greater and lesserPanathenaia at Athens. The value attached to it in the latter city isproved by the fact of the Athenians making Phrynichos commander-in-chiefowing to the skill displayed by him in the Pyrrhic dance. Later a Bacchic element was introduced into this dance, whichhenceforth illustrated the deeds of Dionysos. A fragment of a marblefrieze shows a satyr with a thyrsos and laurel crown performing a wildBacchic dance between two soldiers, also executing a dancing movement;it most likely illustrates the Pyrrhic dance of a later epoch. Of other warlike dances we mention the _karpeia_, which rendered thesurprise of a warrior plowing a field by robbers, and the scufflebetween them. It was accompanied on the flute. More numerous, although less complicated, were the peaceful choraldances performed at the feasts of different gods, according to theirindividualities. With the exception of the Bacchic dances, theyconsisted of measured movements round the altar. More lively incharacter were the gymnopaidic dances performed by men and boys. Theywere, like most Spartan choral dances, renowned for their gracefulrhythms. They consisted of an imitation of gymnastic exercises, particularly of the wrestling-match and the Pankration; in later timesit was generally succeeded by the warlike Pyrrhic dance. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. We will now give some of the more domestic entertainments, such asparties or dinners, given by the Egyptians. In their entertainmentsthey appear to have omitted nothing which could promote festivity andthe amusement of the guests. Music, songs, dancing, buffoonery, featsof agility, or games of chance, were generally introduced; and theywelcomed them with all the luxuries which the cellar and the tablecould afford. The party, when invited to dinner, met about midday, and they arrivedsuccessively in their chariots, in palanquins borne by their servants, or on foot. Sometimes their attendants screened them from the sun byholding up a shield (as is still done in Southern Africa), or by someother contrivance; but the chariot of the king or of a princess, wasoften furnished with a large parasol; and the flabella borne behindthe king, which belonged exclusively to royalty, answered the samepurpose. They were composed of feathers, and were not very unlikethose carried on state occasions behind the Pope in modern Rome. Parasols or umbrellas were also used in Assyria, Persia, and otherEastern countries. When a visitor came in his car, he was attended by a number ofservants, some of whom carried a stool, to enable him to alight, andothers his writing tablet, or whatever he might want during his stayat the house. The guests are assembled in a sitting room within, andare entertained with music during the interval preceding theannouncement of dinner; for, like the Greeks, they considered it awant of good breeding to sit down to table immediately on arriving, and, as Bdelycleon, in Aristophanes, recommended his father Philocleonto do, they praised the beauty of the rooms and the furniture, takingcare to show particular interest in those objects which were intendedfor admiration. As usual in all countries, some of the party arrivedearlier than others; and the consequence, or affectation of fashion, in the person who now drives up in his curricle, is shown by hiscoming some time after the rest of the company; one of his footmenruns forward to knock at the door, others, close behind the chariot, are ready to take the reins, and to perform their accustomed duties;and the one holding his sandals in his hand, that he may run withgreater ease, illustrates a custom, still common in Egypt, among theArabs and peasants of the country, who find the power of the footgreater when freed from the encumbrance of a shoe. To those who arrived from a journey, or who desired it, water wasbrought for their feet, previous to entering the festive chamber. Theyalso washed their hands before dinner, the water being brought in thesame manner as at the present day; and ewers, not unlike those used bythe modern Egyptians, are represented, with the basins belonging tothem, in the paintings of a Theban tomb. In the houses of the richthey were of gold, or other costly materials. Herodotus mentions thegolden foot-pan, in which Amasis and his guests used to wash theirfeet. The Greeks had the same custom of bringing water to the guests, numerous instances of which we find in Homer; as when Telemachus andthe son of Nestor were received at the house of Menelaus, and whenAsphalion poured it upon the hands of his master, and the same guests, on another occasion. Virgil also describes the servants bringing waterfor this purpose when Æneas was entertained by Dido. Nor was theceremony thought superfluous, or declined, even though they hadpreviously bathed and been anointed with oil. It is also probable that, like the Greeks, the Egyptians anointedthemselves before they left home; but still it was customary for aservant to attend every guest, as he seated himself, and to anoint hishead; which was one of the principal tokens of welcome. The ointmentwas sweet-scented, and was contained in an alabaster, or in an elegantglass or porcelain vase, some of which have been found in the tombs ofThebes. Servants took the sandals of the guests as they arrived, andeither put them by in a convenient place in the house, or held them ontheir arm while they waited upon them. After the ceremony of anointing was over, and in some cases at thetime of entering the saloon, a lotus flower was presented to eachguest, who held it in his hand during the entertainment. Servants thenbrought necklaces of flowers, composed chiefly of the lotus; a garlandwas also put round the head, and a single lotus bud, or a full-blownflower, was so attached as to hang over the forehead. Many of them, made up into wreaths and other devices, were suspended upon stands inthe room ready for immediate use; and servants were constantlyemployed to bring other fresh flowers from the garden, in order tosupply the guests as their bouquets faded. The Greeks and Romans had the same custom of presenting guests withflowers or garlands, which were brought in at the beginning of theirentertainments, or before the second course. They not only adornedtheir _heads_, _necks_, and _breasts_, like the Egyptians, but oftenbestrewed the couches on which they lay, and all parts of the room, with flowers; though the head was chiefly regarded, as appears fromHorace, Anacreon, Ovid, and other ancient authors. The wine-bowl, too, was crowned with flowers, as at an Egyptian banquet. They alsoperfumed the apartment with myrrh, frankincense and other choiceodors, which they obtained from Syria; and if the sculptures do notgive any direct representation of this practice among the Egyptians, we know it to have been adopted and deemed indispensable among them;and a striking instance is recorded by Plutarch, at the reception ofAgesilaus by Tachos. A sumptuous dinner was prepared for the Spartanprince, consisting, as usual, of beef, goose, and other Egyptiandishes; he was crowned with garlands of papyrus, and received withevery token of welcome; but when he refused "the sweatmeats, confections, and perfumes, " the Egyptians held him in great contempt, as a person unaccustomed to, and unworthy of, the manners of civilizedsociety. The Greeks, and other ancient people, usually put on a particulargarment at festive meetings, generally of a white color; but it doesnot appear to have been customary with the Egyptians to make any greatalteration in their attire, though they evidently abstained fromdresses of a gloomy hue. The guests being seated, and having received these tokens of welcome, wine was offered them by the servants. To the ladies it was generallybrought in a small vase, which, when emptied into the drinking-cup, was handed to an under servant, or slave, who followed; but to the menit was frequently presented in a one-handled goblet, without beingpoured into any cup, and sometimes in a larger or small vase of gold, silver, or other materials. Herodotus and Hellanicus both say that they drank wine out of brass orbronze goblets; and, indeed, the former affirms that this was the onlykind of drinking-cup known to the Egyptians; but Joseph had one ofsilver, and the sculptures represent them of glass and porcelain, aswell as of gold, silver and bronze. Those who could not afford themore costly kind were satisfied with a cheaper quality, and many werecontented with cups of common earthenware; but the wealthy Egyptiansused vases of glass, porcelain, and the precious metals, for numerouspurposes, both in their houses and in the temples of the gods. The practice of introducing wine at the commencement of anentertainment, or before dinner had been served up, was not peculiarto this people; and the Chinese, to the present day, offer it at theirparties to all the guests, as they arrive, in the same manner as theancient Egyptians. They also drank wine during the repast, perhaps tothe health of one another or of an absent friend, like the Romans; andno doubt the master of the house, or "the ruler of the feast, "recommended a choice wine, and pledged them to the cup. While dinner was preparing the party was enlivened by the sound ofmusic; and a band, consisting of the harp, lyre, _guitar_, tambourine, double and single pipe, flute and other instruments, played thefavorite airs and songs of the country. Nor was it deemed unbecomingthe gravity and dignity of a priest to admit musicians into his house, or to take pleasure in witnessing the dance; and seated with theirwives and family in the midst of their friends, the highestfunctionaries of the sacerdotal order enjoyed the lively scene. In thesame manner, at a Greek entertainment, diversions of all kinds wereintroduced; and Xenophon and Plato inform us that Socrates, the wisestof men, amused his friends with music, jugglers, mimics, buffoons, andwhatever could be desired for exciting cheerfulness and mirth. The dance consisted mostly of a succession of figures, in which theperformers endeavored to exhibit a great variety of gesture; men andwomen danced at the same time, or in separate parties, but the latterwere generally preferred, from their superior grace and elegance. Somedanced to slow airs, adapted to the style of their movement; theattitudes they assumed frequently partook of a grace not unworthy ofthe Greeks; and others preferred a lively step, regulated by anappropriate tune. Men sometimes danced with great spirit, boundingfrom the ground more in the manner of Europeans than of an Easternpeople; on which occasions the music was not always composed of manyinstruments, but consisted only of _crotala_ or maces, a man clappinghis hand, and a woman snapping her fingers to the time. Graceful attitudes and gesticulation were the general style of theirdance; but, as in other countries, the taste of the performance variedaccording to the rank of the person by whom they were employed, ortheir own skill; and the dance at the house of a priest differed fromthat among the uncouth peasantry, or the lower classes of townsmen. It was not customary for the upper orders of Egyptians to indulge inthis amusement, either in public or private assemblies, and noneappear to have practiced it but the lower ranks of society, and thosewho gained their livelihood by attending festive meetings. The Greeks, however, though they employed women who professed music and dancing, to entertain the guests, looked upon the dance as a recreation inwhich all classes might indulge, and an accomplishment becoming agentleman; and it was also a Jewish custom for young ladies to danceat private entertainments, as it still is at Damascus and otherEastern towns. The Romans, on the contrary, were far from considering it worthy of aman of rank, or of a sensible person; and Cicero says: "No man who issober dances, unless he is out of his mind, either _when alone_, or inany decent society; for dancing is the companion of wantonconviviality, dissoluteness, and luxury. " Nor did the Greeks indulge in it to excess; and effeminate dances, orextraordinary gesticulation, were deemed indecent in men of characterand wisdom. Indeed, Herodotus tells a story of Hippoclides, theAthenian, who had been preferred before all the nobles of Greece, as ahusband for the daughter of Clisthenes, king of Argos, having beenrejected on account of his extravagant gestures in the dance. Of all the Greeks, the Ionians were most noted for their fondness ofthis art; and, from the wanton and indecent tendency of their songsand gestures, dances of a voluptuous character (like those of themodern Almehs of the East) were styled by the Romans "Ionicmovements. " Moderate dancing was even deemed worthy of the godsthemselves. Jupiter, "the father of gods and men, " is representeddancing in the midst of the other deities; and Apollo is not onlyintroduced by Homer thus engaged, but received the title of "thedancer, " from his supposed excellence in the art. Grace in posture and movement was the chief object of those employedat the assemblies of the rich Egyptians; and the ridiculous gesturesof the buffoon were permitted there, so long as they did nottransgress the rules of decency and moderation. Music was alwaysindispensable, whether at the festive meetings of the rich or poor;and they danced to the sound of the harp, lyre, guitar, pipe, tambourine, and other instruments, and, in the streets, even to thedrum. Many of their postures resembled those of the modern ballet, and the_pirouette_ delighted an Egyptian party four thousand years ago. The dresses of the female dancers were light, and of the finesttexture, showing, by their transparent quality, the forms and movementof the limbs; they generally consisted of a loose flowing robe, reaching to the ankles, occasionally fastened tight at the waist; andround the hips was a small narrow girdle, adorned with beads, orornaments of various colors. Sometimes the dancing figures appear tohave been perfectly naked; but this is from the outline of thetransparent robe having been effaced; and, like the Greeks, theyrepresented the contour of the figure as if seen through the dress. Slaves were taught dancing as well as music; and in the houses of therich, besides their other occupations, that of dancing to entertainthe family, or a party of friends, was required of them; and freeEgyptians also gained a livelihood by their performances. While the party was amused with music and dancing, and the latearrivals were successively announced, refreshments continued to behanded round, and every attention was shown to the assembled guests. Wine was offered to each new comer, and chaplets of flowers werebrought by men servants to the gentlemen, and by women or white slavesto the ladies, as they took their seats. An upper servant, or slave, had the office of handing the wine, and a black woman sometimesfollowed, in an inferior capacity, to receive an empty cup when thewine had been poured into the goblet. The same black slave alsocarried the fruits and other refreshments; and the peculiar mode ofholding a plate with the hand reversed, so generally adopted by womenfrom Africa, is characteristically shown in the Theban paintings. To each person after drinking a napkin was presented for wiping themouth, answering to the _mahrama_ of the modern Egyptians; and thebearer of it uttered a complimentary sentiment, when she offered itand received back the goblet: as, "May it benefit you!" and nooriental at the present day drinks water without receiving a similarwish. But it was not considered rude to refuse wine when offered, eventhough it had been poured out; and a teetotaller might continuesmelling a lotus without any affront. Men and women either sat together, or separately, in a different partof the room; but no rigid mistrust prevented strangers, as well asmembers of the family, being received into the same society; whichshows how greatly the Egyptians were advanced in the habits of sociallife. In this they, like the Romans, differed widely from the Greeks, and might say with Cornelius Nepos, "Which of us is ashamed to bringhis wife to an entertainment? and what mistress of a family can beshown who does not inhabit the chief and most frequented part of thehouse? Whereas in Greece she never appears at any entertainments, except those to which relations alone are invited, and constantlylives in the women's apartments at the upper part of the house, intowhich no man has admission, unless he be a near relation. " Nor weremarried people afraid of sitting together, and no idea of their havinghad too much of each other's company made it necessary to divide them. In short, they were the most Darby and Joan people possible, and theyshared the same chair at home, at a party, and even in their tomb, where sculpture grouped them together. The master and mistress of the house accordingly sat side by side on alarge fauteuil, and each guest as he arrived walked up to receivetheir welcome. The musicians and dancers hired for the occasion alsodid obeisance to them, before they began their part. To the leg of thefauteuil was tied a favorite monkey, a dog, a gazelle, or some otherpet; and a young child was permitted to sit on the ground at the sideof its mother, or on its father's knee. In the meantime the conversation became animated, especially in thoseparts of the room where the ladies sat together, and the numeroussubjects that occurred to them were fluently discussed. Among thesethe question of dress was not forgotten, and the patterns, or thevalue of trinkets, were examined with proportionate interest. Themaker of an ear-ring, and the store where it was purchased, wereanxiously inquired; each compared the workmanship, the style, and thematerials of those she wore, coveted her neighbor's, or preferred herown; and women of every class vied with each other in the display of"jewels of silver and jewels of gold, " in the texture of their"raiment, " the neatness of their sandals, and the arrangement orbeauty of their plaited hair. It was considered a pretty compliment to offer each other a flowerfrom their own bouquet, and all the vivacity of the Egyptians wascalled forth as they sat together. The hosts omitted nothing thatcould make their party pass off pleasantly, and keep up agreeableconversation, which was with them the great charm of accomplishedsociety, as with the Greeks, who thought it "more requisite andbecoming to gratify the company by cheerful conversation, than withvariety of dishes. " The guests, too, neglected no opportunity ofshowing how much they enjoyed themselves; and as they drew eachother's attention to the many nick-nacks that adorned the rooms, paida well-turned compliment to the taste of the owner of the house. Theyadmired the vases, the carved boxes of wood or ivory, and the lighttables on which many a curious trinket was displayed; and commendedthe elegance and comfort of the luxurious fauteuils, the rich cushionsand coverings of the couches and ottomans, the carpets and the otherfurniture. Some, who were invited to see the sleeping apartments, found in the ornaments on the toilet-tables, and in the generalarrangements, fresh subjects for admiration; and their return to theguest-chamber gave an opportunity of declaring that good tasteprevailed throughout the whole house. On one occasion, while some ofthe delighted guests were in these raptures of admiration, and otherswere busied with the chitchat, perhaps the politics, or the scandal ofthe day, an awkward youth, either from inadvertence, or a little toomuch wine, reclined against a wooden column placed in the centre ofthe room to support some temporary ornament, and threw it down uponthose who sat beneath it. [20] The confusion was great: the womenscreamed; and some, with uplifted hands, endeavored to protect theirheads and escape its fall. No one, however, seems to have been hurt;and the harmony of the party being restored, the incident affordedfresh matter for conversation; to be related in full detail to theirfriends, when they returned home. The vases were very numerous, and varied in shape, size, andmaterials; being of hard stone, alabaster, glass, ivory, bone, porcelain, bronze, brass, silver, or gold; and those of the poorerclasses were of glazed pottery, or common earthenware. Many of theirornamental vases, as well as those in ordinary use, were of the mostelegant shape, which would do honor to the Greeks, the Egyptiansfrequently displaying in these objects of private _luxe_ the taste ofa highly refined people; and so strong a resemblance did they bear tothe productions of the best epochs of ancient Greece, both in theirshape and in the fancy devices upon them, that some might even supposethem borrowed from Greek patterns. But they were purely Egyptian, andhad been universally adopted in the valley of the Nile, long beforethe graceful forms we admire were known in Greece; a fact invariablyacknowledged by those who are acquainted with the remote age ofEgyptian monuments, and of the paintings that represent them. [Illustration: EGYPTIAN VASES. ] For some of the most elegant date in the early age of the thirdThothmes, who lived between 3, 300 and 3, 400 years before our time; andwe not only admire their forms, but the richness of the materials ofwhich they were made, their color, as well as the hieroglyphics, showing them to have been of gold and silver, or of this last, inlaidwith the more precious metal. Those of bronze, alabaster, glass, porcelain, and even of ordinarypottery, were also deserving of admiration, from the beauty of theirshapes, the designs which ornamented them, and the superior quality ofthe material; and gold and silver cups were often beautifullyengraved, and studded with precious stones. Among these we readilydistinguish the green emerald, the purple amethyst, and other gems;and when an animal's head adorned their handles, the eyes werefrequently composed of them, except when enamel, or some coloredcomposition, was employed as a substitute. While the guests were entertained with music and the dance dinner wasprepared; but as it consisted of a considerable number of dishes, andthe meat was killed for the occasion, as at the present day in Easternand tropical climates, some time elapsed before it was put upon table. An ox, kid, wild goat, gazelle or an oryx, and a quantity of geese, ducks, teal, quails and other birds, were generally selected; butmutton was excluded from a Theban table. Plutarch even states that "noEgyptians would eat the flesh of sheep, except the Lycopolites, " whodid so out of compliment to the wolves they venerated; and Straboconfines the sacrifice of them to the Nome of Nitriotis. But thoughsheep were not killed for the altar or the table, they abounded inEgypt and even at Thebes; and large flocks were kept for their wool, particularly in the neighborhood of Memphis. Sometimes a flockconsisted of more than 2, 000; and in a tomb below the Pyramids, datingupwards of 4, 000 years ago, 974 rams are brought to be registered byhis scribes, as part of the stock of the deceased; implying an equalnumber of ewes, independent of lambs. A considerable quantity of meat was served up at those repasts, towhich strangers were invited, as among people of the East at thepresent day; whose _azooma_, or feast, prides itself in the quantityand variety of dishes, in the unsparing profusion of viands, and, whenever wine is permitted, in the freedom of the bowl. An endlesssuccession of vegetables was also required on all occasions; and, whendining in private, dishes composed chiefly of them were in greaterrequest than joints, even at the tables of the rich, and consequentlythe Israelites, who, by their long residence there, had acquiredsimilar habits, regretted them equally with the meat and fish ofEgypt. Their mode of dining was very similar to that now adopted in Cairo andthroughout the East; each person sitting round a table, and dippinghis bread into a dish placed in the centre, removed on a sign made bythe host, and succeeded by others, whose rotation depends onestablished rule, and whose number is predetermined according to thesize of the party, or the quality of the guests. Among the lower orders, vegetables constituted a very great part oftheir ordinary food, and they gladly availed themselves of the varietyand abundance of esculent roots growing spontaneously, in the landsirrigated by the rising Nile, as soon as its waters had subsided; someof which were eaten in a crude state, and others roasted in the ashes, boiled or stewed: their chief aliment, and that of their children, consisting of milk and cheese, roots, leguminous, cucurbitaceous andother plants, and the ordinary fruits of the country. Herodotusdescribes the food of the workmen who built the Pyramids, to have beenthe "_raphanus_, onions and garlic;" the first of which, now called_figl_, is like a turnip-radish in flavor; but he has omitted one morevegetable, lentils, which were always, as at the present day, thechief article of their diet; and which Strabo very properly adds tothe number. The nummulite rock, in the vicinity of those monuments, frequentlypresents a conglomerate of testacea imbedded in it, which, in somepositions, resemble small seeds; and Strabo imagines they were thepetrified residue of the lentils brought there by the workmen, fromtheir having been the ordinary food of the laboring classes, and ofall the lower orders of Egyptians. Much attention was bestowed on the culture of this useful pulse, andcertain varieties became remarkable for their excellence, the lentilsof Pelusium being esteemed both in Egypt and in foreign countries. That dinner was served up at mid-day, may be inferred from theinvitation given by Joseph to his brethren; but it is probable that, like the Romans, they also ate supper in the evening, as is still thecustom in the East. The table was much the same as that of the presentday in Egypt: a small stool, supporting a round tray, on which thedishes are placed; but it differed from this in having its circularsummit fixed on a pillar, or leg, which was often in the form of aman, generally a captive, who supported the slab upon his head; thewhole being of stone, or some hard wood. On this the dishes wereplaced, together with loaves of bread, some of which were not unlikethose of the present day in Egypt, flat and round as our crumpets. Others had the form of rolls or cakes, sprinkled with seeds. It was not generally covered with any linen, but, like the Greektable, was washed with a sponge, or napkin, after the dishes wereremoved, and polished by the servants, when the company had retired;though an instance sometimes occurs of a napkin spread on it, at leaston those which bore offerings in honor of the dead. One or two guests generally sat at a table, though from the mention ofpersons seated in rows according to rank, it has been supposed thetables were occasionally of a long shape, as may have been the casewhen the brethren of Joseph "sat before him, the first born accordingto his birth-right, and the youngest according to his youth, " Josepheating alone at another table where "they set on for him by himself. "But even if round, they might still sit according to rank; one placebeing always the post of honor, even at the present day, at the roundtable of Egypt. In the houses of the rich, bread was made of wheat; the poorer classesbeing contented with bakes of barley, or of _doora_ (holcus sorghum), which last is still so commonly used by them; for Herodotus is aswrong in saying that they thought it "the greatest disgrace to liveon wheat and barley, " as that "no one drank out of any but bronze (orbrazen) cups. " The drinking cups of the Egyptians not only varied intheir materials, but also in their forms. Some were plain andunornamented; others, though of small dimensions, were made after themodels of larger vases; many were like our own cups without handles;and others may come under the denomination of beakers, and saucers. Ofthese the former were frequently made of alabaster, with a round base, so that they could not stand when filled, and were held in the hand, or, when empty, were turned downwards upon their rim: and the saucers, which were of glazed pottery, had sometimes lotus blossoms, or fish, represented on their concave surface. The tables, as at a Roman repast, were occasionally brought in, andremoved, with the dishes on them; sometimes each joint was served upseparately, and the fruit, deposited in a plate or trencher, succeededthe meat at the close of the dinner; but in less fashionable circles, particularly of the olden time, fruit was brought in baskets, whichstood beside the table. The dishes consisted of fish; meat boiled, roasted, and dressed in various ways; game, poultry, and a profusionof vegetables and fruit, particularly figs and grapes, during theseason; and a soup, or "pottage of lentils, " as with the modernEgyptians, was not an unusual dish. Of figs and grapes they were particularly fond, which is shown bytheir constant introduction, even among the choice offerings presentedto the gods; and figs of the sycamore must have been highly esteemed, since they were selected as the heavenly fruit, given by the goddessNetpe to those who were judged worthy of admission to the regions ofeternal happiness. Fresh dates during the season, and in a dried stateat other periods of the year, were also brought to table, as well as apreserve of the fruit, made into a cake of the same form as thetamarinds now brought from the interior of Africa, and sold in theCairo market. The guests sat on the ground, or on stools and chairs, and, havingneither knives and forks, nor any substitute for them answering to thechop-sticks of the Chinese, they ate with their fingers, like themodern Asiatics, and invariably with the right hand; nor did the Jewsand Etruscans, though they had forks for other purposes, use any attable. Spoons were introduced when required for soup, or other liquids; and, perhaps, even a knife was employed on some occasions, to facilitatethe carving of a large joint, which is sometimes done in the East atthe present day. The Egyptians washed after, as well as before, dinner; an invariablecustom throughout the East, as among the Greeks, Romans, Hebrews, andothers; and Herodotus speaks of a golden basin, belonging to Amasis, which was used by the King, and "the guests who were in the habit ofeating at his table. " An absorbent seems also to have been adopted for scouring the hands;and a powder of ground lupins, the _doqaq_ of modern Egypt, is nodoubt an old invention, handed down to the present inhabitants. Soap was not unknown to the ancients, and a small quantity has beenfound at Pompeii. Pliny, who mentions it as an invention of the Gauls, says it was made of fat and ashes; and Aretæus, the physician ofCappadocia, tells us that the Greeks borrowed their knowledge of itsmedicinal properties from the Romans. But there is no evidence of soaphaving been used by the Egyptians; and if by accident they discoveredsomething of the kind, while engaged with mixtures of natron orpotash, and other ingredients, it is probable that it was only anabsorbent, without oil or grease, and on a par with steatite, or theargillaceous earths, with which, no doubt, they were long acquainted. The Egyptians, a scrupulously religious people, were never remiss inexpressing their gratitude for the blessings they enjoyed, and inreturning thanks to the gods for that peculiar protection they werethought to extend to them and to their country, above all the nationsof the earth. They, therefore, never sat down to meals without saying grace; andJosephus says that when the seventy-two elders were invited by PtolemyPhiladelphus to sup at the palace, Nicanor requested Eleazer to saygrace for his countrymen, instead of those Egyptians to whom that dutywas committed on other occasions. It was also a custom of the Egyptians, during or after their repasts, to introduce a wooden image of Osiris, from one foot and a half tothree feet in height, in the form of a human mummy, standing erect, orlying on a bier, and to show it to each of the guests, warning him ofhis mortality, and the transitory nature of human pleasures. He wasreminded that some day he would be like that figure; that men ought"to love one another, and avoid those evils which tend to make themconsider life too long, when in reality it is too short;" and whileenjoying the blessings of this world, to bear in mind that theirexistence was precarious, and that death, which all ought to beprepared to meet, must eventually close their earthly career. Thus, while the guests were permitted, and even encouraged, to indulgein conviviality, the pleasures of the table, and the mirth socongenial to their lively disposition, they were exhorted to put acertain degree of restraint upon their conduct; and though thissentiment was perverted by other people, and used as an incentive topresent excesses, it was perfectly consistent with the ideas of theEgyptians to be reminded that this life was only a lodging, or "inn"on their way, and that their existence here was the preparation for afuture state. "The ungodly, " too, of Solomon's time, thus expressed themselves: "Ourlife is short and tedious, and in the death of a man there is noremedy; neither was there any man known to have returned from thegrave. For we are born at all adventure, and we shall be hereafter asthough we had never been, . .. Come on, therefore, let us enjoy thegood things that are present, . .. Let us fill ourselves with costlywine and ointments; and let no flower of the spring pass by us; let uscrown ourselves with rosebuds, before they be withered; let none of usgo without his part of our voluptuousness; let us leave tokens of ourjoyfulness in every place. " But even if the Egyptians, like other men, neglected a good warning, the original object of it was praiseworthy; and Plutarch expresslystates that it was intended to convey a moral lesson. The idea ofdeath had nothing revolting to them; and so little did the Egyptiansobject to have it brought before them, that they even introduced themummy of a deceased relative at their parties, and placed it at table, as one of the guests; a fact which is recorded by Lucian, in his"Essay on Grief, " and of which he declares himself to have been aneye-witness. After dinner, music and singing were resumed; hired men and womendisplayed feats of agility; swinging each other round by the hand;throwing up and catching the ball; or flinging themselves roundbackwards head-over-heels, in imitation of a wheel; which was usuallya performance of women. They also stood on each other's backs, andmade a somersault from that position; and a necklace, or other reward, was given to the most successful tumbler. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] EGYPTIAN MUSIC AND ENTERTAINMENTS. Though impossible for us now to form any notion of the character orstyle of Egyptian music, we may be allowed to conjecture that it wasstudied on scientific principles; and, whatever defects existed in theskill of ordinary performers, who gained their livelihood by playingin public, or for the entertainment of a private party, music waslooked upon as an important science, and diligently studied by thepriests themselves. According to Diodorus it was not customary to makemusic part of their education, being deemed useless and eveninjurious, as tending to render the minds of men effeminate; but thisremark can only apply to the custom of studying it as an amusement. Plato, who was well acquainted with the usages of the Egyptians, saysthat they considered music of the greatest consequence, from itsbeneficial effects upon the mind of youth; and according to Strabo, the children of the Egyptians were taught letters, the songs appointedby law, and a certain kind of music, established by government. That the Egyptians were particularly fond of music is abundantlyproved by the paintings in their tombs of the earliest times; and weeven find they introduced figures performing on the favoriteinstruments of the country, among the devices with which they adornedfancy boxes or trinkets. The skill of the Egyptians in the use ofmusical instruments is also noticed by Athenæus, who says that boththe Greeks and barbarians were taught by refugees from Egypt, andthat the Alexandrians were the most scientific and skillful players onpipes and other instruments. It is sufficiently evident, from the sculptures of the ancientEgyptians, that their hired musicians were acquainted with the triplesymphony: the harmony of instruments; of voices; and of voices andinstruments. Their band was variously composed, consisting either oftwo harps, with the single pipe and flute; of the harp and double pipe, frequently with the addition of the guitar; of a fourteen-stringedharp, a guitar, lyre, double pipe, and tambourine; of two harps, sometimes of different sizes, one of seven, the other of four, strings;of two harps of eight chords, and a seven-stringed lyre; of the guitarand the square or oblong tambourine; of the lyre, harp, guitar, doublepipe, and a sort of harp with four strings, which was held upon theshoulder; of the harp, guitar, double pipe, lyre, and squaretambourine; of the harp, two guitars, and the double pipe; of the harp, two flutes, and a guitar; of two harps and a flute; of aseventeen-stringed lyre, the double pipe, and a harp of fourteenchords; of the harp and two guitars; or of two seven-stringed harps andan instrument held in the hand, not unlike an eastern fan, to whichwere probably attached small bells, or pieces of metal that emitted ajingling sound when shaken, like the crescent-crowned _bells_ of ourmodern bands. There were many other combinations of these variousinstruments; and in the Bacchic festival of Ptolemy Philadelphus, described by Athenæus, more than 600 musicians were employed in thechorus, among whom were 300 performers on the _cithara_. Sometimes the harp was played alone, or as an accompaniment to thevoice; and a band of seven or more choristers frequently sang to it afavorite air, beating time with their hands between each stanza. Theyalso sang to other instruments, as the lyre, guitar or double pipe; orto several of them played together, as the flute and one or moreharps; or to these last with a lyre or a guitar. It was not unusualfor one man or one woman to perform a solo; and a chorus of manypersons occasionally sang at a private assembly without anyinstrument, two or three beating time at intervals with the hand. Sometimes the band of choristers consisted of more than twentypersons, only two of whom responded by clapping their hands; and inone instance we have seen a female represented holding what wasperhaps another kind of jingling instrument. The custom of beating time by clapping the hands between the stanzasis still usual in Egypt. On some occasions women beat the tambourine and _darabooka_ drum, without the addition of any other instrument; dancing or singing tothe sound; and bearing palm branches or green twigs in their hands, they proceeded to the tomb of a deceased friend, accompanied by thisspecies of music. The same custom may still be traced in the Fridayvisit to the cemetery, and in some other funeral ceremonies among theMoslem peasants of modern Egypt. If it was not customary for the higher classes of Egyptians to learnmusic for the purpose of playing in society, and if few amateurperformers could be found among persons of rank, still some generalknowledge of the art must have been acquired by a people so alive toits charms; and the attention paid to it by the priests regulated thetaste, and prevented the introduction of a vitiated style. Those who played at the houses of the rich, as well as the ambulantmusicians of the streets, were of the lower classes, and made thisemployment the means of obtaining their livelihood; and in manyinstances both the minstrels and the choristers were blind. It was not so necessary an accomplishment for the higher classes ofEgyptians as of the Greeks, who, as Cicero says, "considered the artsof singing and playing upon musical instruments a very principal partof learning; whence it is related of Epaminondas, who, in my judgment, was the first of all the Greeks, that he played very well upon theflute. And, some time before, Themistocles, upon refusing the harp atan entertainment, passed for an uninstructed and ill-bred person. Hence, Greece became celebrated for skillful musicians; and as allpersons there learned music, those who attained to no proficiency init were thought uneducated and unaccomplished. " Cornelius Nepos also states that Epaminondas "played the harp andflute, and perfectly understood the art of dancing, with other liberalsciences, " which, "though trivial things in the opinion of the Romans, were reckoned highly commendable in Greece. " The Israelites also delighted in music and the dance; and persons ofrank deemed them a necessary part of their education. Like theEgyptians with whom they had so long resided, the Jews carefullydistinguished sacred from profane music. They introduced it at publicand private rejoicings, at funerals, and in religious services; butthe character of the airs, like the words of their songs, variedaccording to the occasion; and they had canticles of mirth, of praise, of thanksgiving, and of lamentation. Some were _epithalamia_, or songscomposed to celebrate marriages; others to commemorate a victory, orthe accession of a prince; to return thanks to the Deity, or tocelebrate his praises; to lament a general calamity, or a privateaffliction; and others, again, were peculiar to their festivemeetings. On these occasions they introduced the harp, lute, tabret, and various instruments, together with songs and dancing, and theguests were entertained nearly in the same manner as at an Egyptianfeast. In the temple, and in the religious ceremonies, the Jews hadfemale as well as male performers, who were generally daughters of theLevites, as the Pallaces of Thebes were either of the royal family, orthe daughters of priests; and these musicians were attachedexclusively to the service of religion. David was not only remarkable for his taste and skill in music, buttook a delight in introducing it on every occasion. "And seeing thatthe Levites were numerous, and no longer employed as formerly incarrying the boards, veils, and vessels of the tabernacle, its abodebeing fixed at Jerusalem, he appointed a great part of them to singand play on instruments, at the religious festivals. " Solomon, again, at the dedication of the temple, employed "120priests, to sound with trumpets;" and Josephus pretends that no lessthan 200, 000 musicians were present at that ceremony, besides the samenumber of singers, who were Levites. When hired to attend at a private entertainment, the musicians eitherstood in the centre, or at one side, of the festive chamber, and somesat cross-legged on the ground, like the Turks and other Easternpeople of the present day. They were usually accompanied on theseoccasions by dancers, either men or women, sometimes both; whose artconsisted in assuming all the graceful or ludicrous gestures, whichcould obtain the applause, or tend to the amusement, of the assembledguests. For music and dancing were considered as essential at theirentertainments, as among the Greeks; but it is by no means certainthat these diversions counteracted the effect of wine, as Plutarchimagines; a sprightly air is more likely to have invited anotherglass; and sobriety at a feast was not one of the objects of thelively Egyptians. They indulged freely in whatever tended to increase their enjoyment, and wine flowed freely at their entertainments. Private individuals were under no particular restrictions with regardto its use, and it was not forbidden to women. In this they differedwidely from the Romans; for in early times no female at Rome enjoyedthe privilege, and it was unlawful for women, or, indeed, for youngmen below the age of thirty, to drink wine, except at sacrifices. Even at a later time the Romans considered it disgraceful for a womanto drink wine; and they sometimes saluted a female relation, whom theysuspected, in order to discover if she had secretly indulged in itsuse. It was afterwards allowed them on the plea of health. That Egyptian women were not forbidden the use of wine, is evidentfrom the frescoes which represent their feasts; and the painters, inillustrating this fact, have sometimes sacrificed their gallantry to alove of caricature. Some call the servants to support them as theysit, others with difficulty prevent themselves from falling on thosebehind them; a basin is brought too late by a reluctant servant, andthe faded flower, which is ready to drop from their heated hands, isintended to be characteristic of their own sensations. That the consumption of wine in Egypt was very great is evident fromthe sculptures, and from the accounts of ancient authors, some of whomhave censured the Egyptians for their excesses; and so much did thequantity used exceed that made in the country, that, in the time ofHerodotus, twice every year a large importation was received fromPhœnicia and Greece. Notwithstanding all the injunctions or exhortations of the priests infavor of temperance, the Egyptians of both sexes appear from thesculptures to have committed occasional excesses, and men weresometimes unable to walk from a feast, and were carried home byservants. These scenes, however, do not appear to refer to members ofthe higher, but of the lower, classes, some of whom indulged inextravagant buffoonery, dancing in a ludicrous manner, or standing ontheir heads, and frequently in amusements which terminated in a fight. At the tables of the rich, stimulants were sometimes introduced, toexcite the palate before drinking, and Athenæus mentions cabbages asone of the vegetables used by the Egyptians for this purpose. Besides beer, the Egyptians had what Pliny calls factitious, orartificial, wine, extracted from various fruits, as figs, _myxas_, pomegranates, as well as herbs, some of which were selected for theirmedicinal properties. The Greeks and Latins comprehended every kind ofbeverage made by the process of fermentation under the same generalname, and beer was designated as barley-_wine_; but, by the use of thename zythos, they show that the Egyptians distinguished it by its ownpeculiar appellation. Palm-wine was also made in Egypt, and used inthe process of embalming. The palm-wine now made in Egypt and the Oases is simply from anincision in the heart of the tree, immediately below the base of theupper branches, and a jar is attached to the part to catch the juicewhich exudes from it. But a palm thus tapped is rendered perfectlyuseless as a fruit-bearing tree, and generally dies in consequence;and it is reasonable to suppose that so great a sacrifice is seldommade except when date-trees are to be felled, or when they grow ingreat abundance. The modern name of this beverage in Egypt is _lowbgeh_; in flavor itresembles a very new light wine, and may be drunk in great quantitywhen taken from the tree; but, as soon as the fermentation hascommenced, its intoxicating qualities have a powerful and speedyeffect. Among the various fruit-trees cultivated by the ancient Egyptians, palms, of course, held the first rank, as well from their abundance asfrom their great utility. The fruit constituted a principal part oftheir food, both in the month of August, when it was gathered freshfrom the trees, and at other seasons of the year, when it was used ina preserved state. They had two different modes of keeping the dates; one was by thesimple process of drying them, the other was by making them into aconserve, like the _agweh_ of the present day; and of this, which waseaten either cooked or as a simple sweetmeat, there have been foundsome cakes, as well as the dried dates, in the sepulchres of Thebes. Pliny makes a just remark respecting the localities where the palmprospers, and the constant irrigation it requires; and though everyone in the East knows the tree will not grow except where water isabundant, we still read of "palm-trees of the desert, " as if itdelighted in an arid district. Wherever it is found it is a sureindication of water; and if it may be said to flourish in a sandysoil, this is only in situations where its roots can obtain a certainquantity of moisture. The numerous purposes for which its branches andother parts might be applied rendered the cultivation of this valuableand productive tree a matter of primary importance, for no portion ofit is without its peculiar use. The trunk serves for beams, either entire, or split in half; of the_gereet_, or branches, are made wicker baskets, bedsteads, coops, andceilings of rooms, answering every purpose for which laths or any thinwoodwork are required; the leaves are converted into mats, brooms, andbaskets; of the fibrous tegument as the base of the branches, strongropes and mats are made, and even the thick ends of the _gereet_ arebeaten flat and formed into brooms. Besides the _lowbgeh_ of the tree, brandy, wine, and vinegar are madefrom the fruit; and the quantity of saccharine matter in the datesmight be used in default of sugar or honey. In Upper Egypt another tree called the _Dom_, or Theban palm, was alsomuch cultivated, and its wood, more solid and compact than thedate-tree, is found to answer as well for rafts, and other purposesconnected with water, as for beams and rafters. [Page Decoration] GAMES AND SPORTS OF THE EGYPTIANS. The game of _morra_ was common in ancient as well as modern Italy, andwas played by two persons, who each simultaneously threw out thefingers of one hand, while one party guessed the sum of both. Theywere said in Latin, "micare digitis, " and this game, still so commonamong the lower order of Indians, existed in Egypt, about fourthousand years ago, in the reigns of the Osirtasens. The same, or even a greater, antiquity may be claimed for the game ofdraughts, or, as it has been called, chess. As in the two former, theplayers sat on the ground, or on chairs, and the pieces, or men, beingranged in line at either end of the tables, moved on a chequeredboard, as in our own chess. The pieces were all of the same size and form, though they varied ondifferent boards, some being small, others large with round summits:some were surmounted by human heads; and many were of a lighter andneater shape, like small nine-pins, probably the most fashionablekind, since they were used in the palace of king Remeses. These lastseem to have been about one inch and a half high, standing on acircular base of half an inch in diameter; but some are only one inchand a quarter in height, and little more than half an inch broad atthe lower end. Others have been found, of ivory, one inch and sixeighths high, and one and an eighth in diameter, with a small knob atthe top, exactly like those represented at Beni Hassan, and the tombsnear the Pyramids. They were about equal in size upon the same board, one set black, theother white or red; or one with round, the other with flat heads, standing on opposite sides; and each player, raising it with thefinger and thumb, advanced his piece towards those of his opponent;but though we are unable to say if this was done in a direct or adiagonal line, there is reason to believe they could not takebackwards as in the Polish game of chess, the men being mixed togetheron the board. It was an amusement common in the houses of the lower classes, as inthe mansions of the rich; and king Remeses is himself portrayed on thewalls of his palace at Thebes, engaged in the game of chess with theladies of his household. The modern Egyptians have a game of chess, very similar, in theappearance of the men, to that of their ancestors, which they call_dameh_, and play much in the same manner as our own. Analogous to the game of odd and even was one, in which two of theplayers held a number of shells, or dice, in their closed hands, overa third person who knelt between them, with his face towards theground, and who was obliged to guess the combined number ere he couldbe released from this position. Another game consisted in endeavoring to snatch from each other asmall hoop, by means of hooked rods, probably of metal; and thesuccess of a player seems to have depended on extricating his own froman adversary's rod, and then snatching up the hoop, before he had timeto stop it. There were also two games, of which the boards, with the men, are inthe possession of Dr. Abbott. One is eleven inches long by three and ahalf, and has ten spaces or squares in three rows; the other twelvesquares at the upper end (or four squares in three rows) and a longline of eight squares below, forming an approach to the upper part, like the arrangement of German tactics. The men in the drawer of theboard are of two shapes, one set ten, the other nine in number. Other games are represented in the paintings, but not in a manner torender them intelligible; and many, which were doubtless common inEgypt, are omitted both in the tombs, and in the writings of ancientauthors. The dice discovered at Thebes and other places, may not be of aPharaonic period, but, from the simplicity of their form, we maysuppose them similar to those of the earliest age, in which, too, theconventional number of six sides had probably always been adopted. They were marked with small circles, representing units, generallywith a dot in the centre; and were of bone or ivory, varying slightlyin size. Plutarch shows that dice were a very early invention in Egypt, andacknowledged to be so by the Egyptians themselves, since they wereintroduced into one of their oldest mythological fables; Mercury beingrepresented playing at dice with the Moon, previous to the birth ofOsiris, and winning from her the five days of the epact, which wereadded to complete the 365 days of the year. It is probable that several games of chance were known to theEgyptians, besides dice and _morra_, and, as with the Romans, thatmany a doubtful mind sought relief in the promise of success, byhaving recourse to fortuitous combinations of various kinds; and thecustom of drawing, or casting lots, was common, at least as early asthe period of the Hebrew Exodus. The games and amusements of children were such as tended to promotehealth by the exercise of the body, and to divert the mind bylaughable entertainments. Throwing and catching the ball, running, leaping, and similar feats, were encouraged, as soon as their ageenabled them to indulge in them; and a young child was amused withpainted dolls, whose hands and legs, moving on pins, were made toassume various positions by means of strings. Some of these were ofrude form, without legs, or with an imperfect representation of asingle arm on one side. Some had numerous beads, in imitation ofhair, hanging from the doubtful place of the head; others exhibited anearer approach to the form of a man; and some, made with considerableattention to proportion, were small models of the human figure. Theywere colored according to fancy; and the most shapeless had usuallythe most gaudy appearance, being intended to catch the eye of aninfant. Sometimes a man was figured washing, or kneading dough, whowas made to work by pulling a string; and a typhonian monster, or acrocodile, amused a child by its grimaces, or the motion of itsopening mouth. In the toy of the crocodile, we have sufficientevidence that the notion of this animal "not moving its lower jaw, andbeing the only creature which brings the upper one down to the lower, "is erroneous. Like other animals, it moves the lower jaw _only_; butwhen seizing its prey, it throws up its head, which gives anappearance of motion in the upper jaw, and has led to the mistake. The game of ball was of course generally played out of doors. It wasnot confined to children, nor to one sex, though the mere amusement ofthrowing and catching it appears to have been considered moreparticularly adapted to women. They had different modes of playing. Sometimes a person unsuccessful in catching the ball was obliged tosuffer another to ride on her back, who continued to enjoy this postuntil she also missed it; the ball being thrown by an opposite player, mounted in the same manner, and placed at a certain distance, according to the space previously agreed upon; and, from thebeast-of-burden office of the person who had failed, the same name wasprobably applied to her as to those in the Greek game, "who werecalled asses, and were obliged to submit to the commands of thevictor. " Sometimes they caught three or more balls in succession, the handsoccasionally crossed over the breast; they also threw it up to aheight and caught it, like our "sky-ball;" and the game described byHomer to have been played by Halius and Laodamus, in the presence ofAlcinous, was known to them; in which one party threw the ball as highas he could, and the other, leaping up, caught it on its fall, beforehis feet again touched the ground. When mounted on the backs of the losing party, the Egyptian women satsidewise. Their dress consisted merely of a short petticoat, without abody, the loose upper robe being laid aside on these occasions; it wasbound at the waist with a girdle, supported by a strap over theshoulder, and was nearly the same as the undress garb of mourners, worn during the funeral lamentation on the death of a friend. The balls were made of leather or skin, sewed with string, crosswise, in the same manner as our own, and stuffed with bran, or husks ofcorn; and those which have been found at Thebes are about three inchesin diameter. Others were made of string, or of the stalks of rushes, platted together so as to form a circular mass, and covered, like theformer, with leather. They appear also to have had a smaller kind ofball probably of the same materials, and covered, like many of ourown, with slips of leather of a rhomboidal shape, sewed togetherlongitudinally, and meeting in a common point at both ends, eachalternate slip being of a different color; but these have only beenmet with in pottery. In one of their performances of strength and dexterity, two men stoodtogether side by side, and, placing one arm forward and the otherbehind them, held the hands of two women, who reclined backwards, inopposite directions, with their whole weight pressed against eachother's feet, and in this position were whirled round; the hands ofthe men who held them being occasionally crossed, in order moreeffectually to guarantee the steadiness of the centre, on which theyturned. Sometimes two men, seated back to back on the ground, at a givensignal tried who should rise first from that position, withouttouching the ground with the hand. And in this, too, there wasprobably the trial who should first make good his seat upon theground, from a standing position. Another game consisted in throwing a knife, or pointed weapon, into ablock of wood, in which each player was required to strike hisadversary's, or more probably to fix his own in the centre, or at thecircumference, of a ring painted on the wood; and his success dependedon being able to ring his weapon most frequently, or approach mostclosely to the line. Conjuring appears also to have been known to them, at leastthimble-rig, or the game of cups, under which a ball was put, whilethe opposite party guessed under which of four it was concealed. The Egyptian grandees frequently admitted dwarfs, and deformed persons, into their household; originally, perhaps, from a humane motive, orfrom some superstitious regard for men who bore the external characterof one of their principal gods, Pthah-Sokari-Osiris, the misshapenDeity of Memphis; but, whatever may have given rise to the custom, itis a singular fact, that already as early as the age of Osirtasen, orabout 4, 000 years ago, the same fancy of attaching these persons totheir suite existed among the Egyptians, as at Rome, and even in modernEurope, till a late period. The games of the lower orders, and of those who sought to invigoratethe body by active exercises, consisted of feats of agility andstrength. Wrestling was a favorite amusement; and the paintings atBeni Hassan present all the varied attitudes and modes of attack anddefence of which it is susceptible. And, in order to enable thespectator more readily to perceive the position of the limbs of eachcombatant, the artist has availed himself of a dark and light color, and even ventured to introduce alternately a black and red figure. Thesubject covers a whole wall. It is probable that, like the Greeks, they anointed the body withoil, when preparing for these exercises, and they were entirely naked, with the exception of a girdle, apparently of leathern thongs. The two combatants generally approached each other, holding their armsin an inclined position before the body; and each endeavored to seizehis adversary in the manner best suited to his mode of attack. It wasallowable to take hold of any part of the body, the head, neck, orlegs; and the struggle was frequently continued on the ground, afterone or both had fallen; a mode of wrestling common also to the Greeks. They also fought with the single stick, the hand being apparentlyprotected by a basket, or guard projecting over the knuckles; and onthe left arm they wore a straight piece of wood, bound on with straps, serving as a shield to ward off their adversary's blow. They do not, however, appear to have used the _cestus_, nor to have known the artof boxing; though in one group, at Beni Hassan, the combatants appearto strike each other. Nor is there an instance, in any of thesecontests, of the Greek sign of acknowledging defeat, which was byholding up a finger in token of submission; and it was probably doneby the Egyptians with a word. It is also doubtful if throwing thediscus, or quoit, was an Egyptian game; but there appears to be oneinstance of it, in a king's tomb of the 19th dynasty. One of their feats of strength, or dexterity, was lifting weights; andbags full of sand were raised with one hand from the ground andcarried with a straight arm over the head, and held in that position. Mock fights were also an amusement, particularly among those of themilitary class, who were trained to the fatigues of war, by thesemanly recreations. One party attacked a temporary fort, and brought upthe battering ram, under cover of the testudo; another defended thewalls and endeavored to repel the enemy; others, in two parties ofequal numbers, engaged in single stick, or the more usual _neboot_, apole wielded with both hands; and the pugnacious spirit of the peopleis frequently alluded to in the scenes portrayed by their artists. The use of the _neboot_ seems to have been as common among theancient, as among the modern, Egyptians; and the quarrels of villageswere often decided or increased, as at present, by this efficientweapon. Crews of boats are also represented attacking each other with theearnestness of real strife. Some are desperately wounded, and, beingfelled by their more skillful opponents, are thrown headlong into thewater; and the truth of Herodotus' assertion, that the heads of theEgyptians were harder than those of other people, seems fullyjustified by the scenes described by their own draughtsmen. It is fortunate that their successors have inherited this peculiarity, in order to bear the violence of the Turks, and their own combats. Many singular encounters with sticks are mentioned by ancient authors;among which may be noticed one at Papremis, the city of Mars, described by Herodotus. When the votaries of the deity presentedthemselves at the gates of the temple, their entrance was obstructedby an opposing party; and all being armed with sticks, they commenceda rude combat, which ended, not merely in the infliction of a fewsevere wounds, but even, as the historian affirms, in the death ofmany persons on either side. Bull-fights were also among their sports; which were sometimesexhibited in the _dromos_, or avenue, leading to the temples, as atMemphis before the temple of Vulcan; and prizes were awarded to theowner of the victorious combatant. Great care was taken in trainingthem for this purpose; Strabo says as much as is usually bestowed onhorses; and herdsmen were not loth to allow, or encourage, anoccasional fight for the love of the exciting and popular amusement. They did not, however, condemn culprits, or captives taken in war, tofight with wild beasts, for the amusement of an unfeeling assembly;nor did they compel gladiators to kill each other, and gratify adepraved taste by exhibitions revolting to humanity. Their greatdelight was in amusements of a lively character, as music, dancing, buffoonery, and feats of agility; and those who excelled in gymnasticexercises were rewarded with prizes of various kinds; which in thecountry towns consisted, among other things, of cattle, dresses, andskins, as in the games celebrated in Chemmis. The lively amusements of the Egyptians show that they had not thegloomy character so often attributed to them; and it is satisfactoryto have these evidences by which to judge of it, in default of theirphysiognomy, so unbecomingly altered by death, bitumen, and bandages. The intellectual capabilities, however, of individuals may yet besubject to the decision of the phrenologist; and if they have escapedthe ordeal of the _supposed_ spontaneous rotation of a pendulum undera glass bell, their handwriting is still open to the criticisms of thewise, who discover by it the most minute secrets of character; andsome of the old scribes may even now be amenable to this kind ofscrutiny. But they are fortunately out of reach of the surprise, thatsome in modern days exhibit, at the exact likeness of themselves, believed to be presented to them from their own handwriting by a fewclever generalities; forgetting that the sick man, in each malady hereads of in a book of medicine, discovers his own symptoms, andfancies they correspond with his own particular case. For though acertain neatness, or precision, carelessness, or other habit, may bediscovered by handwriting, to describe from it all the minutiæ ofcharacter is only feeding the love of the marvelous, so much on theincrease in these days, when a reaction of credulity bids fair to makenothing too extravagant for our modern _gobe-mouches_. Among the various pastimes of the Egyptians, none was more popularthan the chase; and the wealthy aristocracy omitted nothing that couldpromote their favorite amusement. They hunted the numerous wildanimals in the desert; they had them caught with nets, to be turnedout on some future day; and some very keen sportsmen took longjourneys to spots noted for abundance of game. When a grand chase or hunt took place in the domain of some grandee, or in the extensive tracts of the desert, a retinue of huntsmen, beaters and others in his service, attended to manage the hounds, tocarry the game baskets and hunting poles, to set the nets, and to makeother preparations for a good day's sport. Some took a fresh supply ofarrows, a spare bow, and various requisites for remedying accidents;some were merely beaters, others were to assist in securing the largeanimals caught by the _lasso_, others had to mark or turn the game, and some carried a stock of provisions for the chasseur and hisfriends. These last were borne upon the usual wooden yoke, across theshoulders, and consisted of a skin of water, and jars of good wineplaced in wicker baskets, with bread, meats, and other eatables. Sometimes a portion of the desert of considerable extent, was enclosedby nets, into which the animals were driven by beaters; and the placechosen for fixing them was, if possible, across narrow valleys, ortorrent beds, lying between some rocky hills. Here a sportsman onhorseback, or in a chariot, could waylay them, or get within reachwith a bow; for many animals, particularly gazelles, when closelypressed by dogs, fear to take a steep ascent, and are easilyovertaken, or shot as they double back. The spots thus enclosed were usually in the vicinity of the waterbrooks, to which they were in the habit of repairing in the morningand evening; and having awaited the time when they went to drink, andascertained it by their recent tracks on the accustomed path, thehunters disposed the nets, occupied proper positions for observingthem unseen, and gradually closed in upon them. Such are the scenes partially portrayed in the Egyptian paintings, where long nets are represented surrounding the space they hunted in;and the hyænas, jackals, and various wild beasts unconnected with thesport, are intended to show that they have been accidentally enclosedwithin the same line of nets with the antelopes and other animals. In the same way Æneas and Dido repaired to a wood at break of day, after the attendants had surrounded it with a temporary fence, toenclose the game. The long net was furnished with several ropes, and was supported onforked poles, varying in length, to correspond with the inequalitiesof the ground, and was so contrived as to enclose any space, bycrossing hills, valleys or streams, and encircling woods, or whatevermight present itself; smaller nets for stopping gaps were also used;and a circular snare, set round with wooden or metal nails, andattached by a rope to a log of wood, which was used for catching deer, resembled one still made by the Arabs. The dresses of the attendants and huntsmen were generally of asuppressed color, "lest they should be seen at a distance by theanimals, " tight fitting, and reaching only a short way down the thigh;and the horses of the chariots were divested of the feathers and showyornaments used on other occasions. Besides the portions of the open desert and the valleys, which wereenclosed for hunting, the parks and covers on their own domains in thevalley of the Nile, though of comparatively limited dimensions, offered ample space and opportunity for indulging in the chase; and aquantity of game was kept there, principally the wild goat, oryx, andgazelle. They had also fish-ponds, and spacious poultry-yards, set apart forkeeping geese and other wild fowl, which they fattened for the table. It was the duty of the huntsmen, or the gamekeepers, to superintendthe preserves; and at proper periods of the year wild fawns wereobtained, to increase the herds of gazelles and other animals, whichalways formed part of the stock of a wealthy Egyptian. The Egyptians frequently coursed with dogs in the open plains, thechasseur following in his chariot, and the huntsmen on foot. Sometimeshe only drove to cover in his car, and having alighted, shared in thetoil of searching for the game, his attendants keeping the dogs inslips, ready to start them as soon as it appeared. The more usualcustom when the dogs threw off in a level plain of great extent, wasfor him to remain in his chariot, and, urging his horses to their fullspeed, endeavor to turn or intercept them as they doubled, discharginga well-directed arrow whenever they came within its range. The dogs were taken to the ground by persons expressly employed forthat purpose, and for all the duties connected with the kennel; andwere either started one by one or in pairs, in the narrow valleys oropen plains; and when coursing on foot, the chasseur and his attendanthuntsmen, acquainted with the direction and sinuosities of the torrentbeds, shortened the road as they followed across the interveninghills, and sought a favorable opportunity for using the bow; orenjoyed the course in the level space before them. Having pursued on foot, and arrived at the spot where the dogs hadcaught their prey, the huntsman, if alone, took up the game, tied itslegs together, and hanging it over his shoulders, once more led by hishand the coupled dogs, precisely in the same manner as the Arabs do atthe present day. But this was generally the office of persons whocarried the cages and baskets on the usual wooden yoke, and who tookcharge of the game as soon as it was caught; the supply of thesesubstitutes for our game cart being in proportion to the proposedrange of the chase, and the number of head they expected to kill. Sometimes an ibex, oryx, or wild ox, being closely pressed by thehounds, faced round and kept them at bay, with its formidable horns, and the spear of the huntsman as he came up, was required to decidethe success of the chase. It frequently happened, when the chasseur had many attendants and thedistrict to be hunted was extensive, that they divided into parties, each taking one or more dogs, and starting them on whatever animalbroke cover; sometimes they went without hounds, merely having a smalldog for searching the bushes, or laid in wait for the larger and moreformidable animals, and attacked them with the lance. The noose, or _lasso_, was also employed to catch the wild ox, theantelope and other animals; but this could only be thrown by lying inambush for the purpose, and was principally adopted when they wishedto secure them alive. Besides the bow, the hounds and the noose, they hunted with lions, which were trained expressly for the chase, like the _cheeta_, orhunting leopard of India, being brought up from cubs in a tame state;and many Egyptian monarchs were accompanied in battle by a favoritelion. But there is no instance of hawking. The bow used for the chase was very similar to that employed in war;the arrows were generally the same, with metal heads, though some wereonly tipped with stone. The mode of drawing the bow was also the same;and if the chasseurs sometimes pulled the string only to the breast, the more usual method was to raise it, and bring the arrow to the ear;and occasionally, one or more spare arrows were held in the hand, togive greater facility in discharging them with rapidity on theantelopes and oxen. The animals they chiefly hunted were the gazelle, wild goat or _ibex_, the oryx, wild ox, stag, _kebsh_ or wild sheep, hare and porcupine; ofall of which the meat was highly esteemed among the delicacies of thetable; the fox, jackal, wolf, hyæna, and leopard, and others, beingchased as an amusement, for the sake of their skins, or as enemies ofthe farm-yard. For though the fact of the hyæna being sometimes boughtwith the ibex and gazelle might seem to justify the belief that it wasalso eaten, there is no instance of its being slaughtered for thetable. The ostrich held out a great temptation to the hunter from thevalue of its plumes. These were in great request among the Egyptiansfor ornamental purposes; they were also the sacred symbol of truth;and the members of the court on grand occasions decked themselves withthe feathers of the ostrich. The labor endured during the chase ofthis swift-footed bird was amply repaid; even its eggs were requiredfor some ornamental or for some religious use (as with the modernCopts); and, with the plumes, formed part of the tribute imposed bythe Egyptians on the conquered countries where it abounded. Lionhunting was a favorite amusement of the kings, and the deserts ofEthiopia always afforded good sport, abounding as they did with lions;their success on those occasions was a triumph they often recorded;and Amunoph III. Boasted having brought down in one _battue_ no lessthan one hundred and two head, either with the bow or spear. For thechase of elephants they went still further south; and, in after times, the Ptolemies had hunting places in Abyssinia. [Page Decoration] FOOTNOTES: [19] Epp. Ii. 1, 189. [20] We regret having lost the copy of this amusing subject. It was ina tomb at Thebes. [Page Decoration] DOMESTIC LIFE. The life of married women, maidens, children while in the care ofwomen, and of female slaves, passed in the gynaikonitis, from whichthey issued only on rare occasions. The family life of Greek womenwidely differed from our Christian idea; neither did it resemble thelife in an Oriental harem, to which it was far superior. The idea ofthe family was held up by both law and custom, and althoughconcubinage and the intercourse with hetairai was suffered, nayfavored, by the state, still such impure elements never intruded ondomestic relations. Our following remarks refer, of course, only to the better classes, the struggle for existence by the poor being nearly the same in allages. In the seclusion of the gynaikonitis the maiden grew up incomparative ignorance. The care bestowed on domestic duties and on herdress was the only interest of her monotonous existence. Intellectualintercourse with the other sex was wanting entirely. Even wheremaidens appeared in public at religious ceremonies, they actedseparately from the youths. An intercourse of this kind, at any rate, could not have a lasting influence on their culture. Even marriage didnot change this state of things. The maiden only passed from thegynaikonitis of her father into that of her husband. In the latter, however, she was the absolute ruler. She did not share theintellectual life of her husband--one of the fundamental conditions ofour family life. It is true that the husband watched over her honorwith jealousy, assisted by the gynaikonomoi, sometimes even by meansof lock and key. It is also true that common custom protected awell-behaved woman against offence; still her position was only thatof the mother of the family. Indeed, her duties and achievements werehardly considered by the husband, in a much higher light than those ofa faithful domestic slave. In prehistoric times the position of women seems to have been, uponthe whole, a more dignified one. Still, even then, their duties wereessentially limited to the house, as is proved, for instance, by thewords in which Telemachus bids his mother mind her spindle and loom, instead of interfering with the debates of men. As the state becamemore developed, it took up the whole attention of the man, and stillmore separated him from his wife. Happy marriages, of course, were byno means impossible; still, as a rule, the opinion prevailed of thewoman being by nature inferior to the man, and holding a position of aminor with regard to civic rights. This principle has, indeed, beenrepeatedly pronounced by ancient philosophers and lawgivers. Ourremarks hitherto referred chiefly to the Ionic-Attic tribe, renownedfor the modesty of its women and maidens. The Doric principle, expressed in the constitution of Sparta, gave, on the contrary, fullliberty to maidens to show themselves in public, and to steel theirstrength by bodily exercise. This liberty, however, was not the resultof a philosophic idea of the equality of the two sexes, but wasfounded on the desire of producing strong children by means ofstrengthening the body of the female. The chief occupation of women, beyond the preparing of the meals, consisted in spinning and weaving. In Homer we see the wives of thenobles occupied in this way; and the custom of the women making thenecessary articles of dress continued to prevail even when the luxuryof later times, together with the degeneracy of the women themselves, had made the establishment of workshops and places of manufacture forthis purpose necessary. Antique art has frequently treated thesedomestic occupations. The Attic divinities, Athene Ergane andAphrodite Urania, as well as the Argive Here, Ilithyia, the protectinggoddess of child-bearing, Persephone, and Artemis, all these plasticart represents as goddesses of fate, weaving the thread of life, and, at the same time, protecting female endeavors; in which two-foldquality they have the emblem of domestic activity, the distaff, astheir attribute. Only a few representations of spinning goddesses nowremain; but many are the pictures of mortal spinning-maidens paintedon walls, chiefly for female use. For the spinning, a spindle wasused, as is still the case in places where the northernspinning-wheel has not supplanted the antique custom. Homer describesnoble ladies handling the distaff with the spindle belonging to it. Helen received a present of a golden spindle, with a silver basket tokeep the thread in. The distaff, with a bundle of wool or flaxfastened to its point, was held under the left arm, while the thumband first finger of the right hand, slightly wetted, spun the threadat the end of which hung the spindle, made of metal. The web was, fromthe spindle, wound round a reel, to be further prepared on the loom. [Illustration: SOCIAL ENJOYMENT OF WOMEN (_From an ancient painting. _)] Akin to spinning are the arts of weaving and embroidering. Wefrequently see in vase-paintings women with embroidering-frames intheir laps. The skill of Greek ladies in embroidery is sufficientlyproved by the tasteful embroidered patterns and borders on Greekdresses, both of men and women. The vase-paintings supply manyexamples. Our remarks about female duties in preparing the meal must be short. The heavy parts of the duty, like grinding the corn in hand-mills, were performed by servants. In the palace of Odysseus twelve femaleslaves were employed all day in grinding wheat and barley in an equalnumber of hand-mills, to supply the numerous guests. The hand-millconsisted (like those still used in some Greek islands) of two stones, each about two feet in diameter, the upper one of which was made torotate by means of a crooked handle, so as to crush the corn pouredthrough an opening in it. Baking and roasting meat on the spit were among the duties of femaleslaves. In every house of even moderate wealth, several of these werekept as cooks, chambermaids, and companions of the ladies on theirwalks, it being deemed improper for them to leave the houseunaccompanied by several slaves. How far ladies took immediate part inthe preparing of dainty dishes we can not say. In later times itbecame customary to buy or hire male slaves as cooks. Antique representations of women bathing, adorning themselves, playing, and dancing, are numerous. The Athenian maiden, unlike herSpartan sister, did not think it proper to publicly exhibit her bodilyskill and beauty in a short chiton, but taking a bath seems to havebeen among her every-day habits as is shown by the numerous bathingscenes on vases. In one of them, a slave pours the contents of ahydria over her nude mistress. Cowering on the floor in another we seean undressed woman catching in her hand the water-spout issuing from amask of Pan in the wall into a bath. An alabastron and comb are lyingon the floor. A picture on an amphora in the museum of Berlin offers amost interesting view of the interior of a Greek bath-chamber. We seea bathing establishment built in the Doric style. By a row of columnsthe inner space is divided into two bath-chambers, each for two women. The water is most likely carried by pressure to the tops of the hollowcolumns, the communication among which is effected by means of pipesabout six feet from the ground. The openings of the taps are formedinto neatly modeled heads of boars, lions, and panthers, from themouths of which a fine rain spray is thrown on the bathers. Their hairhas been tightly arranged into plaits. The above-mentioned pipes wereevidently used for hanging up the towels; perhaps they were evenfilled with hot water to warm the bathing linen. Whether our picturerepresents a public or private bath seems doubtful. The dressing afterthe bath has also been frequently depicted. We need not enter upon the subject here. We will mention the chiefutensils, as the comb, ointment-bottle, mirror, etc. , on a followingpage. The scenes thus depicted are undoubtedly borrowed from dailylife, although Aphrodite, with her attendance of Cupids and Graces, has taken the place of mortal women. For music, games, and dances, we mention only a game at ball, whichwas played in a dancing measure, and, therefore, considered as apractice of graceful movements. Homer mentions Nausikaa as a skilledplayer of this game. It is remarkable that wherever women playing atball appear in pictures they are represented in a sitting posture. (See cut, page 205. ) The swing was essentially a female amusement. In commemoration of thefate of Erigone, daughter of Ikarios, a festival had been ordained atAthens at which the maidens indulged in the joys of the swing. Illustrations of this pastime occur frequently on vases, free from anymythological symbolism, even in cases where Eros is made to move theswing. We now come to the point in the maiden's life when she is to presideover her own household as the legitimate mate of her husband. In mostcases Greek marriage was a matter of convenience, a man considering ithis duty to provide for the legitimate continuation of his family. TheDoric tribe did not attempt to disguise this principle in itsplain-spoken laws; the rest of Greece acknowledged it but in silence, owing to a more refined conception of the moral significance ofmarriage. The seclusion of female life, indeed, made the question of personalcharms appear of secondary importance. Equity of birth and wealth werethe chief considerations. The choice of the Athenian citizen waslimited to Athenian maidens; only in that case were the childrenentitled to full birthright, the issue of a marriage of an Athenianman or maiden with a stranger being considered illegitimate by thelaw. Such a marriage was, indeed, nothing but a form of concubinage. The laws referring to this point were, however, frequently evaded. Atthe solemn betrothal, always preceding the actual marriage, the dowryof the bride was settled; her position as a married woman greatlydepended upon its value. Frequently the daughter of poor, deservingcitizens were presented with a dowry by the state or by a number ofcitizens. In Homer's time the bridegroom wooed the bride with rich gifts;Iphidamas, for instance, offers a hundred heifers and a thousand goatsas a nuptial present. But afterwards this was entirely reversed, thefather of the bride having to provide the dowry, consisting partly incash, partly in clothes, jewelry, and slaves. In cases of separationthe dowry had, in most cases, to be returned to the wife's parents. The most appropriate age for contracting a marriage, Plato in hisRepublic fixes, for girls, at twenty, for men, at thirty. There was, however, no rule to this effect. Parents were naturally anxious todispose of their daughters as early as possible, without takingobjection to the advanced years of the wooer, as is tersely pointedout by Aristophanes. The actual marriage ceremony, or leading home, was preceded byofferings to Zeus Teleios, Hera Teleia, Artemis Eukleia and otherdeities protecting marriage. The bridal bath was the second ceremony, which both bride and bridegroom had to go through previous to theirunion. On the wedding day, towards dark, after the meal at her parental homewas over, [21] the bride left the festively adorned house, and wasconducted by the bridegroom in a chariot to his dwelling. She satbetween the bridegroom and the best man chosen from among hisrelatives or intimate friends. Accompanied by the sounds of thehymenæos, and the festive sounds of flutes and friendly acclamationsfrom all passers-by, the procession moved slowly towards thebridegroom's house, also adorned with wreaths of foliage. The motherof the bride walked behind the chariot, with the wedding torches, kindled at the parental hearth, according to custom immemorial. At thedoor of the bridegroom his mother was awaiting the young couple withburning torches in her hand. In case no wedding meal had been servedat the bride's house, the company now sat down to it. To prognosticatethe desired fertility of the union, cakes of sesame were distributed. The same symbolic meaning attached to the quince, which, according toSolon's law, the bride had to eat. After the meal the couple retiredto the thalamos, where for the first time the bride unveiled herselfto her husband. Before the door of the bridal chamber epithalamia weresung, a charming specimen of which we possess in the bridal hymn ofHelena by Theokritos. On the two first days after the wedding, wedding-presents were received by the pair. Not till after these daysdid the bride appear without her veil. Very different from the social position of chaste women was that ofthe hetairai. We are not speaking of the lowest class of unfortunates, worshiping Aphrodite Pandemos, but of those women who, owing to theirbeauty and grace of conversation, exerted great influence even oversuperior men. We only remind the reader of Aspasia. In the graces ofsociety the hetairai were naturally superior to respectable women, owing to their free intercourse with men. For the hetairai did notshun the light of day, and were not restrained by the law. Only thehouse of the married man was closed to them. Before passing from private to public life, we must cast a glance atthe early education of the child by the mother. We begin with theearliest days of infancy. After the first bath the new-born child wasput into swaddling-clothes, a custom not permitted by the rougherhabits of Sparta. On the fifth or seventh day the infant had to gothrough the ceremony of purification; the midwife, holding him in herarms, walked several times round the burning altar. A festive meal onthis day was given to the family, the doors being decorated with anolive crown for a boy, with wool for a girl. On the tenth day afterits birth, when the child was named, another feast took place. Thisceremony implied the acknowledgment, on the part of the father, of thechild's legitimacy. The name of the child was chosen by both parents, generally after the name of either of the grandparents, sometimes, also, after the name or attributes of a deity, under whose particularprotection the child was thus placed. A sacrifice, offered chiefly tothe goddess of child-bearing, Here Ilithyia, and a meal, concluded theceremony. At the latter, friends and relatives presented the infantwith toys of metal or clay, while the mother received painted vases. The antique cradle consisted of a flat swing of basket work, such asappears in a terra-cotta relief in the British Museum, of the infantBacchus being carried by a satyr brandishing a thyrsus, and atorch-bearing bacchante. Another kind of cradle, in the form of ashoe, is shown containing the infant Hermes, recognizable by hispetasos. It also is made of basket-work. The advantage of this cradleconsists in its having handles, and, therefore, being easily portable. It also might be suspended on ropes, and rocked without difficulty. Other cradles, similar to our modern ones, belong to a later period. The singing of lullabies, and the rocking of children to sleep, werecommon amongst the ancients. Wet-nurses were commonly employed amongstIonian tribes; wealthy Athenians chose Spartan nurses in preference, as being generally strong and healthy. After the child had been weanedit was fed by the dry nurse and the mother with pap, made chiefly ofhoney. The rattle, said to be invented by Archytas, was the first toy of theinfant. Other toys of various kinds were partly bought, partly made bythe children themselves on growing older. We mention painted claypuppets, representing human beings or animals, such as tortoises, hares, ducks, and mother apes with their offspring. Small stones wereput inside, so as to produce a rattling noise; which circumstance, together with the fact of small figures of this kind being frequentlyfound on children's graves, proves their being toys. Small woodencarts, houses and ships made of leather, and many other toys, made bythe children themselves, might be instanced. Up to their sixth yearboys and girls were brought up together under their mother's care;from that point their education became separate. The education properof the boy became a more public one, while the girl was brought up bythe mother at home, in a most simple way, according to their notions. From amongst the domestic slaves a trustworthy companion was chosenfor the boy. He was, however, not a tutor in our sense, but rather afaithful servant, who had to take care of the boy in his walks, particularly on his way to and from school. He also had to instructhis pupil in certain rules of good behavior. The boy had, forinstance, to walk in the street with his head bent, as a sign ofmodesty, and to make room for his elders meeting him. In the presenceof the latter he had to preserve a respectful silence. Proper behaviorat table, a graceful way of wearing his garments, etc. , might bementioned as kindred subjects of education. Boys were accompanied bypedagogues up to their sixteenth year. The latter appear frequently invase-paintings, and are easily recognizable by their dress, consistingof chiton and cloak, with high-laced boots; they also carry stickswith crooked handles, and their hair and beards give them a venerableaspect; while their pupils, according to Athenian custom, are cladmore lightly and gracefully. The pedagogue of the group of theNiobides is well known. Education was, at Athens, a matter of private enterprise. Schools werekept by private teachers, the government supervision extending only tothe moral not to the scientific qualification of the schoolmaster. Grammar, music and gymnastics, to which Aristotle adds drawing, as ameans of æsthetic cultivation, were the common subjects of educationat schools and gymnasia; also reading, writing and arithmetic. Themethod of teaching how to write consisted in the master's forming theletters, which the pupils had to imitate on their tablets, sometimeswith the master's assistance. The writing materials were small tabletscovered with wax, into which the letters were scratched by means of apencil made of metal or ivory. It was pointed at one end, andflattened or bent at the other, so as to extinguish the writing, ifrequired, and, at the same time, to smooth the surface again for otherletters. A young girl, in a charming Pompeian wall-painting, has inher hand a double tablet, while with her other hand she holds a pencilto her chin, as if pondering over a letter. Her nurse looking over hershoulder tries to decipher the contents of the love-letter. Besidesthese tablets, Herodotus mentions the use of paper made of the bark ofthe Egyptian papyrus-plant. The stalk (three or four feet in length)was cut longitudinally, after which the outer bark was first takenoff; the remaining layers of bark, about twenty in number, werecarefully severed with a pin; and, afterwards, the single stripesplaited crosswise; by means of pressing and perforating the whole withlime-water, the necessary consistency of the material was obtained. The lower layers of bark yielded the best writing-paper, while theouter layers were made into packing-paper (_emporetica_); theuppermost bark was used for making ropes. A case of this kind full ofparchment rolls, with a cover to it, stands by the side of Klio in awall-painting of Herculaneum. In her left hand the muse holds ahalf-opened roll on which are inscribed the words "Klio teacheshistory. " The ink was made of a black coloring substance; it was keptin an inkstand made of metal, with a cover to it. Double inkstands, frequently seen on monuments, were most likely destined for thekeeping of black and red inks, the latter of which was frequentlyused. To write on paper or parchment, the ancients used the Memphic, Gnidic, or Anaitic reeds, pointed and split like our pens. As wementioned before, it was the custom of adults to write eitherreclining on the kline, with the leaf resting on the bent leg, orsitting in a low arm-chair, in which case the writing apparatus wassupported by the knee of the writer. The latter posture is exemplifiedby a reading ephebos in a vase-painting; it was, undoubtedly, alsothat of the boys sitting on the rising steps used as forms at theschools. After his elementary education was completed, the boy wasmade acquainted with the works of national poetry, particularly withthe poems of Homer, the learning by heart and reciting of whichinspired him with patriotic pride. Of the marriage contracts of the Egyptians we are entirely ignorant, nor do we even find the ceremony represented in the paintings of theirtombs. We may, however, conclude that they were regulated by thecustoms usual among civilized nations; and, if the authority ofDiodorus can be credited, women were indulged with greater privilegesin Egypt than in any other country. He even affirms that part of theagreement entered into at the time of marriage was, that the wifeshould have control over her husband, and that no objection should bemade to her _commands_, whatever they might be; but, though we havesufficient to convince us of the superior treatment of women among theEgyptians, as well from ancient authors as from the sculptures thatremain, it may fairly be doubted if those indulgences were carried tothe extent mentioned by the historian, or that command extended beyondthe management of the house, and the regulation of domestic affairs. It is, however, remarkable that the royal authority and supremedirection of affairs were entrusted without reserve to women, as inthose states of modern Europe where the Salic law has not beenintroduced; and we not only find examples in Egyptian history ofqueens succeeding to the throne, but Manetho informs us that the law, according this important privilege to the other sex, dated as early asthe reign of Binothris, the third monarch of the second dynasty. In primitive ages the duties of women were very different from thoseof later and more civilized periods, and varied of course according tothe habits of each people. Among pastoral tribes they drew water, keptthe sheep, and superintended the herds as well as flocks. As with theArabs of the present day, they prepared both the furniture and thewoolen stuffs of which the tents themselves were made, ground thecorn, and performed other menial offices. They were also engaged, asin ancient Greece, in weaving, spinning, needlework, embroidery, andother sedentary occupations within doors. The Egyptian ladies in like manner employed much of their time withthe needle; and the sculptures represent many females weaving andusing the spindle. But they were not kept in the same secluded manneras those of ancient Greece, who, besides being confined to certainapartments in the house, most remote from the hall of entrance, andgenerally in the uppermost part of the building, were not even allowedto go out of doors without a veil, as in many Oriental countries atthe present day. The Egyptians treated their women very differently, as the accounts ofancient authors and the sculptures sufficiently prove. At some of thepublic festivals women were expected to attend--not alone, like theMoslem women at a mosque, but in company with their husbands orrelations; and Josephus states that on an occasion of this kind, "whenit was the custom for women to go to the public solemnity, the wife ofPotiphar, having pleaded ill health in order to be allowed to stay athome, was excused from attending, " and availed herself of the absenceof her husband to talk with Joseph. That it was the custom of the Egyptians to have only one wife, isshown by Herodotus and the monuments, which present so many scenesillustrative of their domestic life; and Diodorus is wrong insupposing that the laity were allowed to marry any number, while thepriests were limited to one. But a very objectionable custom, which is not only noticed byDiodorus, but is fully authenticated by the sculptures both of Upperand Lower Egypt, existed among them from the earliest times, theorigin and policy of which it is not easy to explain--the marriage ofbrother and sister--which Diodorus supposes to have been owing to, andsanctioned by, that of Isis and Osiris; but as this was purely anallegorical fable, and these ideal personages never lived on earth, his conjecture is of little weight; nor does any ancient writer offera satisfactory explanation of so strange a custom. Though the Egyptians confined themselves to one wife, they, like theJews and other Eastern nations, both of ancient and modern times, scrupled not to admit other inmates to their _hareem_, most of whomappear to have been foreigners, either taken in war, or brought toEgypt to be sold as slaves. They became members of the family, likethose in Moslem countries at the present day, and not only ranked nextto the wives and children of their lord, but probably enjoyed a shareof the property at his death. These women were white or black slaves, according to the countriesfrom which they were brought; but, generally speaking, the latter wereemployed merely as domestics, who were required to wait upon theirmistress and her female friends. The former, likewise, officiated asservants, though they of course held a rank above the black slaves. The same custom prevailed among the Egyptians regarding children, aswith the Moslems and other Eastern people; no distinction being madebetween their offspring by a wife or any other woman, and all equallyenjoying the rights of inheritance; for, since they considered a childindebted to the father for its existence, it seemed unjust to denyequal rights to all his progeny. In speaking of the duties of children in Egypt, Herodotus declares, that if a son was unwilling to maintain his parents he was at libertyto refuse, but that a daughter, on the contrary, was compelled toassist them, and, on refusal, was amenable to law. But we may questionthe truth of this statement; and, drawing an inference from themarked severity of filial duties among the Egyptians, some of which wefind distinctly alluded to in the sculptures of Thebes, we mayconclude that in Egypt much more was expected from a son than in anycivilized nation of the present day; and this was not confined to thelower orders, but extended to those of the highest ranks of society. And if the office of fan-bearer was an honorable post, and the sons ofthe monarch were preferred to fulfill it, no ordinary show of humilitywas required on their part; and they walked on foot behind hischariot, bearing certain insignia over their father during thetriumphal processions which took place in commemoration of hisvictories, and in the religious ceremonies over which he presided. It was equally a custom in the early times of European history, that ason should pay a marked deference to his parent; and no prince wasallowed to sit at table with his father, unless through his valor, having been invested with arms by a foreign sovereign, he had obtainedthat privilege; as was the case with Alboin, before he succeeded hisfather on the throne of the Lombards. The European nations were notlong in altering their early habits, and this custom soon becamedisregarded; but a respect for ancient institutions, and those ideas, so prevalent in the East, which reject all love of change, preventedthe Egyptians from discarding the usages of their ancestors; and wefind this and many other primitive customs retained, even at theperiod when they were most highly civilized. In the education of youth they were particularly strict; and "theyknew, " says Plato, "that children ought to be early accustomed to suchgestures, looks, and motions as are decent and proper, and not to besuffered either to hear or learn any verses and songs, than thosewhich are calculated to inspire them with virtue; and theyconsequently took care that every dance and ode introduced at theirfeasts or sacrifices should be subject to certain regulations. " They particularly inculcated respect for old age; and the fact of thisbeing required even towards strangers, argues a great regard for theperson of a parent; for we are informed that, like the Israelites andthe Lacedæmonians, they required every young man to give place to hissuperiors in years, and even, if seated, to rise on their approach. Nor were these honors limited to their lifetime; the memory of parentsand ancestors was revered through succeeding generations; their tombswere maintained with the greatest respect; liturgies were performed bytheir children, or by priests at their expense; and we have previouslyseen what advantage was taken of this feeling, in the laws concerningdebt. "For of all people" says Diodorus, "the Egyptians retain the highestsense of a favor conferred upon them, deeming it the greatest charm oflife to make a suitable return for benefits they have received;" andfrom the high estimation in which the feeling of gratitude was heldamong them, even strangers felt a reverence for the character of theEgyptians. Through this impulse, they were induced to solemnize the funeralobsequies of their kings with the enthusiasm described by thehistorian; and to this he partly attributes the unexampled duration ofthe Egyptian monarchy. It is only doing justice to the modern Egyptians to say that gratitudeis still a distinguishing trait of their character; and this is one ofthe many qualities inherited by them, for which their predecessorswere remarkable; confirming what we have before stated, that thegeneral peculiarities of a people are retained, though a country maybe conquered, and nominally peopled by a foreign race. [Page Decoration] DRESS, TOILET AND JEWELRY. We now come to the dress of the Ancients. We shall have to considerthose articles of dress used as a protection against the weather, andthose prescribed by decency or fashion, also the coverings of the headand the feet, the arrangement of the hair and the ornaments. Unfortunately, the terminology is, in many cases, uncertain. Manypoints, therefore, must remain undecided. Before entering upondetails, we must remark that the dress of the Greeks, compared withmodern fashion, was extremely simple and natural. Owing to the warmthof the climate and the taste of the inhabitants, both superfluous andtight articles of dress were dispensed with. Moreover, the body wasallowed to develop its natural beauty in vigorous exercise; and inthis harmony and beauty of the limbs the Greeks prided themselves, which, of course, reacted favorably on the character of the dress. Identical with this in form is the chiton worn by Doric women. It wassimple, short-skirted, and with a slit in the upper part at bothsides. It was fastened with clasps over both shoulders, and shortenedas far as the knees by means of pulling it through the girdle. In thisform it is worn by two maidens in the Louvre, destined for the serviceof the Lakonian Artemis at Karyæ. They carry kinds of baskets on theirheads, and are performing the festive dance in honor of the goddess. The exomis is worn by the female statue in the Vatican known as the"Springing Amazon, " and also by statues of Artemis, andrepresentations of that goddess on gems and coins. The long chiton forwomen reaching down to the feet, and only a little pulled up at thegirdle, we see in a vase painting, representing dancing youths andmaidens, the former wearing the short, the latter the long, chiton. Adevelopment of the long chiton is the double-chiton. It was a verylarge, oblong piece of woven cloth, left open on one side, like theDoric chiton for men. It was equal to about one and a half lengths ofthe body. The overhanging part of the cloth was folded round the chestand back, from the neck downwards, the upper edge being arranged roundthe neck, and the two open corners clasped together on one shoulder. On this open side, therefore, the naked body was visible. Over theother shoulder the upper edge of the chiton was also fastened with aclasp--these clasps, as seen in annexed cuts, were elaborateornaments, some being richly bejeweled, others being made of wroughtgold--the arm being put through the opening left between this claspand the corresponding corner of the cloth. [Illustration: GOLD PINS. ] [Illustration: SHAWL OR TOGA PIN. ] In the same way was arranged the half-open chiton, the open side ofwhich, from the girdle to the lower hem, was sewed up. A bronzestatuette illustrates this way of putting it on. A young girl is aboutto join together on her left shoulder the chiton, which is fastenedover the right shoulder by means of an agraffe. It appears clearlythat the whole chiton consists of one piece. Together with the openand half-open kinds of the chiton, we also find the closeddouble-chiton flowing down to the feet. It was a piece of clothconsiderably longer than the human body, and closed on both sides, inside of which the person putting it on stood as in a cylinder. Asin the chiton of the second form, the overhanging part of the clothwas turned outward, and the folded rim pulled up as far as theshoulders, across which (first on the right, and after it on the leftside) the front and back parts were fastened together by means ofclasps, the arms being put through the two openings affected in thismanner. Round the hips the chiton was fastened by means of a girdle, through which the bottom part of the dress trailing along the groundwas pulled up just far enough to let the toes be visible. Above thegirdle the chiton was arranged in shorter or longer picturesque folds. The chief alterations of varying fashion applied to the arrangement ofthe diploidion which reached either to the part under the bosom or wasprolonged as far as the hips; its front and back parts might either beclasped together across the shoulders, or the two rims might be pulledacross the upper arm as far as the elbow, and fastened in severalplaces by means of buttons or agraffes, so that the naked arm becamevisible in the intervals, by means of which the sleeveless chitonreceived the appearance of one with sleeves. Where the diploidion wasdetached from the chiton, it formed a kind of handsome cape, which, however, in its shape, strictly resembled the Diploidion proper. Itsshape was considerably modified by fashion, taking sometimes the formof a close-fitting jacket, at others (when the sides remained open)that of a kind of shawl, the ends of which sometimes equaled in lengththe chiton itself. In the latter case, the ampechonion was naturallyat least three times as long as it was wide. In antique pictures womensometimes wear a second shorter chiton over the other. A great manyvarieties of dress, more distinguishable in the vase-paintings, representing realistic scenes, than in the ideal costumes ofsculptural types, we must omit, particularly as, in most cases, theymay be reduced to the described general principles. [Illustration: PEARL SET PINS. ] From the chiton we now pass to the articles of dress of the nature ofcloaks. They also show throughout an oblong form, differing in thisessentially from the Roman toga. It, belonging to this class, wasarranged so that the one corner was thrown over the left shoulder infront, so as to be attached to the body by means of the left arm. Onthe back the dress was pulled toward the right side so as to cover itcompletely up to the right shoulder, or, at least, to the armpit, inwhich latter case the right shoulder remained uncovered. Finally, thehimation was again thrown over the left shoulder, so that the endsfell over the back. Concerning the materials of the described garments, we have mentionedbefore that linen was used principally by the Ionians, wool by theDorians; the latter material in the course of time became the rule formale garments all over Greece. The change of seasons naturallyrequired a corresponding modification in the thickness of these woolengarments; accordingly we notice the difference between summer andwinter dresses. For women's dresses, besides sheep's wool and linen, byssos, most likely a kind of cotton, was commonly used. Somethinglike the byssos, but much finer, was the material of which thecelebrated transparent dresses were woven in the Isle of Amorgos; theyconsisted of the fibre of a fine sort of flax, undoubtedly resemblingour muslins and cambrics. The introduction of silk into Greece is oflater date, while in Asia it was known at a very early period. Fromthe interior of Asia the silk was imported into Greece, partly in itsraw state, partly worked into dresses. Ready made dresses of this kinddiffered greatly from the dresses made in Greece of the imported rawsilk. The Isle of Kos was the first seat of silk manufacture, wheresilk dresses were produced rivaling in transparency theabove-mentioned. These diaphanous dresses, clinging close to the body, and allowing the color of the skin and the veins to be seen, have beenfrequently imitated with astonishing skill by Greek sculptors andpainters. We only remind the reader of the beautifully modeled foldsof the chiton covering the upper part of the body of Niobe's youngestdaughter, in a kneeling position, who seeks shelter in the lap of hermother; in painting, several wall-pictures of Pompeii may be cited. The antiquated notion of white having been the universal color ofGreek garments, a colored dress being considered immodest, has beenrefuted by Becker. It is, however, likely that, with the cloak-likeepiblememata, white was the usual color, as is still the case amongstOriental nations much exposed to the sun. Brown cloaks are, however, by no means unusual; neither were they amongst Greek men. Party-colored Oriental garments were also used, at least by thewealthy Greek classes, both for male and female dresses, while whitestill remained the favorite color with modest Greek women. This isproved, not to mention written evidence, by a number of small paintedstatuettes of burnt clay, as also by several pictures on lekythoi fromAttic graves. The original colors of the dresses, although(particularly the reds) slightly altered from the burning process, maystill be distinctly recognized. The dresses were frequently adorned with interwoven patterns, orattached borders and embroideries. From Babylon and Phrygia, theancient seats of the weaving and embroidering arts, these craftsspread over the occidental world, the name "Phrygiones, " used in Romeat a later period for artists of this kind, reminding one of thisorigin. As we learn from the monuments, the simplest border eitherwoven or sewed to the dresses, consisted of one or more dark stripes, either parallel with the seams of the chiton, himation, andampechonion, or running down to the hem of the chiton from the girdleat the sides or from the throat in front. The vertical ornamentscorrespond to the Roman _clavus_. Besides these ornaments in stripes, we also meet with others broader and more complicated; whether woveninto, or sewed on, the dress seems doubtful. They cover the chitonfrom the hem upwards to the knee, and above the girdle up to the neck, as is seen in the chiton worn by the spring goddess Opora, in avase-painting. The whole chiton is sometimes covered with star or dicepatterns, particularly on vases of the archaic style. Thevase-painters of the decaying period chiefly represent Phrygiandresses with gold fringes and sumptuous embroideries of palmetto and"meandering" patterns, such as were worn by the luxuriousSouth-Italian Greeks. Such a sumptuous dress is worn by Medea in apicture of the death of Talos on an Apulian amphora in the Jattacollection at Ruvo. In the same picture the chitones of Kastor andPolydeukes, and those of the Argonautai, are covered with palmettoembroideries, the edges at the bottom showing mythological scenes onthe dark ground. [Illustration: STONE SET BROOCHES. ] In the cities Greeks walked mostly bareheaded, owing most likely tothe more plentiful hair of southern nations, which, moreover, wascultivated by the Greeks with particular care. Travelers, hunters, andsuch artificers as were particularly exposed to the sun, used lightcoverings for their heads. The different forms of these may beclassified. They were made of the skins of dogs, weasels, or cows. The hair is considered in Homer as one of the greatest signs of malebeauty among the long-haired Achaioi; no less were the well-arrangedlocks of maidens and women praised by the tragic poets. Among theSpartans it became a sacred custom, derived from the laws of Lykurgos, to let the hair of the boy grow as soon as he reached the age of theephebos, while up to that time it was cut short. This custom prevailedamong the Spartans up to their being overpowered by the Achaicfederation. Altogether the Dorian character did not admit of muchattention being paid to the arrangement of the hair. Only on solemnoccasions, for instance on the eve of the battle of Thermopylæ, theSpartans arranged their hair with particular care. At Athens, about the time of the Persian wars, men used to wear theirhair long, tied on to the top of the head in a knot, which wasfastened by a hair-pin in the form of a cicada. Of this custom, however, the monuments offer no example. Only in the pictures of twoPankratiastai, on a monument dating most likely from Roman times, wediscover an analogy to this old Attic custom. After the Persian war, when the dress and manners of the Ionians had undergone a change, itbecame the custom to cut off the long hair of the boys on theirattaining the age of epheboi, and devote it as an offering to a god, for instance, to the Delphic Apollo or some local river-god. Atticcitizens, however, by no means wore their hair cropped short, liketheir slaves, but used to let it grow according to their own taste orthe common fashion. Only dandies, as, for instance, Alkibiades, lettheir hair fall down to their shoulders in long locks. Philosophersalso occasionally attempted to revive old customs by wearing theirhair long. The beard was carefully attended to by the Greeks. The barber's shop, with its talkative inmate, was not only frequented by those requiringthe services of the barber in cutting the hair, shaving, cutting thenails and corns, and tearing out small hairs, but it was also, asPlutarch says, a symposion without wine, where political and localnews were discussed. Alkiphron depicts a Greek barber in the followingwords: "You see how the d----d barber in yon street has treated me;the talker, who puts up the Brundisian looking-glass, and makes hisknives to clash harmoniously. I went to him to be shaved; he receivedme politely, put me in a high chair, enveloped me in a clean towel, and stroked the razor gently down my cheek, so as to remove the thickhair. But this was a malicious trick of his. He did it partly, not allover the chin; some places he left rough, others he made smoothwithout my noticing it. " After the time of Alexander the Great, abarber's business became lucrative, owing to the custom of wearing afull beard being abandoned, notwithstanding the remonstrances ofseveral states. [22] In works of art, particularly in portrait statues, the beard is always treated as an individual characteristic. It ismostly arranged in graceful locks, and covers the chin, lips andcheeks, without a separation being made between whiskers andmoustache. Only in archaic renderings the wedge-like beard is combedin long wavy lines, and the whiskers are strictly parted from themoustache. As an example we quote the nobly formed head of Zeuscrowned with the stephane in the Talleyrand collection. The usualcolor of the hair being dark, fair hair was considered a great beauty. Homer gives yellow locks to Menelaos, Achilles, and Meleagros; andEuripides describes Menelaos and Dionysos as fair-haired. The head-dress of women was in simple taste. Hats were not worn, as arule, because, at least in Athens, the appearance of women in thepublic street was considered improper, and therefore happened only onexceptional occasions. On journeys women wore a light broad-brimmedpetasos as a protection from the sun. With a Thessalian hat of thiskind Ismene appears in "[Œ]dipus in Kolonos. " The head-dress ofAthenian ladies at home and in the street consisted, beyond thecustomary veil, chiefly of different contrivances for holding togethertheir plentiful hair. We mentioned before, that the himation wassometimes pulled over the back of the head like a veil. But at a veryearly period Greek women wore much shorter or longer veils, whichcovered the face up to the eyes, and fell over the neck and back inlarge folds, so as to cover, if necessary, the whole upper part of thebody. The care bestowed on the hair was naturally still greateramongst women than amongst men. Cut shows a number of heads ofAthenian women, taken from an old painting of Pompeii. These, and thenumerous heads represented in sculptures and gems, give an idea of theexquisite taste of these head-dresses. At the same time, it must beconfessed that most modern fashions, even the ugly ones, have theirmodels, if not in Greek, at least in Roman antiquity. The combing ofthe hair over the back in wavy lines was undoubtedly much in favor. Asimple ribbon tied round the head, in that case, connected the frontwith the back hair. This arrangement we meet with in the maidens ofthe Parthenon frieze and in a bust of Niobe. On older monuments, forinstance, in the group of the Graces on the triangular altar in theLouvre, the front hair is arranged in small ringlets, while the backhair partly falls smoothly over the neck, and partly is made into longcurls hanging down to the shoulders. It was also not unusual to combback the front hair over the temples and ears, and tie it, togetherwith the back hair, into a graceful knot. Here, also, theabove-mentioned ribbon was used. It consisted of a stripe of cloth orleather, frequently adorned, where it rested on the forehead, with aplaque of metal formed like a frontal. This stephane appears onmonuments mostly in the hair of goddesses; the ribbon belonging to it, in that case, takes the form of a broad metal circle destined no moreto hold together, but to decorate the hair. This is the case in a bustof Here in the Villa Ludovisi, in the statue of the same goddess inthe Vatican, and in a statue of Aphrodite found at Capua. Besides thisanother ornamented tie of cloth or leather was used by the Greeks, broad in the centre and growing narrower towards both ends. Its shapehad great similarity to the sling. It was either put with its broaderside on the front of the head, the ends, with ribbons tied to them, being covered by the thick black hair, or _vice versa_; in whichlatter case the ends were tied on the forehead in an elaborate knot. The net, and after it the kerchief, were developed from the simpleribbon, in the same manner as straps on the feet gradually becameboots. [Illustration: HAIR-DRESS. (_From Pompeii. _)] The kekryphalos proper consists of a net-like combination of ribbonand gold thread, thrown over the back hair to prevent it fromdropping. The large tetradrachmai of Syrakuse, bearing the signatureof the engraver, Kimon, show a beautiful head of Arethusa adornedwith the kekryphalos. More frequent is the coif-like kekryphaloscovering the whole hair, or only the back hair, and tied into a knotat the top. The modifications of the sakkos, and the way of its being tied, arechiefly illustrated by vase-paintings. At the present day the Greekwomen of Thessaly and the Isle of Chios wear a head-dress exactlyresembling the antique sakkos. The acquaintance of the Greeks with thecurling-iron and cosmetic mysteries, such as oil and pomatum, can beproved both by written evidence and pictures. It quite tallied withthe æsthetical notions of the Greeks to shorten the forehead bydropping the hair over it, many examples of which, in pictures of bothmen and women, are preserved to us. We conclude our remarks about dress with the description of someornaments, the specimens of which in Greek graves and in sculpturalimitations are numerous. In Homer the wooers try to gain the favor ofPenelope with golden breastpins, agraffes, ear-rings, and chains. Hephaistos is, in the same work, mentioned as the artificer ofbeautiful rings and hair-pins. The same ornaments we meet with againat a later period as important articles of female dress. Many preserved specimens show the great skill of Greek goldsmiths'breastpins. Hair-pins, in our sense, and combs for parting and holdingup the hair were unknown to the Greeks. The double or simple comb ofGreek ladies, made of box-wood, ivory, or metal, was used only forcombing the hair. The back hair was prevented from dropping by meansof long hair-pins, the heads of which frequently consisted of agraceful piece of sculpture. Well known are the hair-pins adorned witha golden cicada which, in Solon's time, were used by both Athenian menand women for the fastening of the krobylos. It was the custom of the Greeks to adorn their heads on festiveoccasions with wreaths and garlands. Thus adorned the bridegroom ledhome the bride. Flowers full of symbolic meaning were offered on thealtars of the gods, and the topers at carousals were crowned withwreaths of myrtle, roses, and violets, the latter being the favoriteflower with the Athenians. The flower-market of Athens was alwayssupplied with garlands to twine round the head and the upper part ofthe body; for the latter also was adorned with garlands. Crownsconsisting of other flowers, and leaves of the ivy and silver-poplar, are frequently mentioned. Wreaths also found a place in the seriousbusiness of life. They were awarded to the victors in the games; thearchon wore a myrtle-wreath as the sign of his dignity, as did alsothe orator while speaking to the people from the tribune. The crowning with flowers was a high honor to Atheniancitizens--awarded, for instance, to Perikles, but refused toMiltiades. The head and bier of the dead were also crowned with freshwreaths of myrtle and ivy. The luxury of later times changed the wreaths of flowers for goldenones, with regard to the dead of the richer classes. Wreaths made ofthin gold have repeatedly been found in graves. The barrows of the oldPantikapaion have yielded several beautiful wreaths of ivy and ears ofcorn; a gold imitation of a crown of myrtle has been found in a gravein Ithaka. Other specimens from Greek and Roman graves are preservedin our museums. A golden crown of Greek workmanship, found at Armento, a village of the Basilicata (at present in Munich), is particularlyremarkable. A twig of oak forms the ground, from among the thin goldenleaves of which spring forth asters with chalices of blue enamel, convolvulus, narcissus, ivy, roses, and myrtle, gracefullyintertwined. On the upper bend of the crown is the image of a wingedgoddess, from the head of which, among pieces of grass, rises theslender stalk of a rose. Four naked male genii and two draped femaleones, floating over the flowers, point towards the goddess, who standson a pedestal bearing an inscription. Greek, particularly Athenian, women carried a sunshade, or employedslaves to hold it over them. In the Panathenaic procession even thedaughters of metoikoi had to perform this service. Such sunshades, which, like our own, could be shut by means of wires, we often seedepicted on vases and Etruscan mirrors. This form was undoubtedly themost common one. The cap-like sunshade painted on a skyphos, which aSilenus, instead of a servant, holds over a dignified lady walking infront of him, is undoubtedly intended as a parody, perhaps copied fromthe scene of a comedy. In vase paintings we also see frequently theleaf-like painted fan in the hands of women. [Illustration: TOILET ARTICLES FOUND AT POMPEII. ] The above articles were in good preservation when found. _a_, _l_, _n_, are hand-mirrors; _m_, is a wall-mirror; _c_, toilet-box, made ofivory and beautifully carved; _d_ and _k_, bronze combs; _i_, finecomb; _b_, ear and tooth-pick; _f_, pin-box, with glass and steelpins; _h_, salve-box; _g_, hair-pins made of ivory and gold; _e_, is apowder or paint-box. Of the secrets of Greek _toilette_ we will only disclose the fact thatladies knew the use of paint. The white they used consisted ofwhite-lead; their reds were made either of red minium or of a root. This unwholesome fashion of painting was even extended to theeyebrows, for which black color was used, made either of pulverizedantimony or of fine soot. The mirrors of the Greeks consisted of circular pieces of polishedbronze, either without a handle or with one richly adorned. Frequentlya cover, for the reflecting surface, was added. The Etruscan custom ofengraving figures on the back of the mirror or the cover seems to havebeen rare among the Greeks, to judge, at least, from the numerousspecimens of mirrors found in Greek graves. Characteristic of theseare, on the other hand, the tasteful handles, representing mostlyAphrodite, as in a manner the ideal of a beautifully adorned woman. These hand-mirrors frequently occur in vase paintings, particularly inthose containing bathing utensils. The carrying of a stick seems to have been a common custom. It ismostly of great length, with a crutched handle; young Athenian dandiesmay have used shorter walking-sticks. The first-mentioned sticks seemto have been used principally for leaning upon in standing still, asis indicated by frequent representations in pictures. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS; CONTRACTS, DEEDS, ETC. Truth or justice was thought to be the main cardinal virtue among theEgyptians, inasmuch as it relates more particularly to others;prudence, temperance, and fortitude being relative qualities, andtending chiefly to the immediate benefit of the individual whopossesses them. It was, therefore, with great earnestness that theyinculcated the necessity of fully appreciating it; and falsehood wasnot only considered disgraceful, but when it entailed an injury on anyother person was punishable by law. A calumniator of the dead was condemned to a severe punishment; and afalse accuser was doomed to the same sentence which would have beenawarded to the accused, if the offense had been proved against him;but to maintain a falsehood by an oath was deemed the blackest crime, and one which, from its complicated nature, could be punished bynothing short of death. For they considered that it involved twodistinct crimes--a contempt for the gods, and a violation of faithtowards man; the former the direct promoter of every sin, the latterdestructive of all those ties which are most essential for the welfareof society. The willful murder of a freeman, or even of a _slave_, was punishedwith death, from the conviction that men ought to be restrained fromthe commission of sin, not on account of any distinction of station inlife, but from the light in which they viewed the crime itself; whileat the same time it had the effect of showing that if the murder of aslave was deemed an offense deserving of so severe a punishment, theyought still more to shrink from the murder of one who was a compatriotand a free-born citizen. In this law we observe a scrupulous regard to justice and humanity, and have an unquestionable proof of the great advancement made by theEgyptians in the most essential points of civilization. Indeed, theEgyptians considered it so heinous a crime to deprive a man of life, that to be the accidental witness of an attempt to murder, withoutendeavoring to prevent it, was a capital offense, which could only bepalliated by bringing proofs of inability to act. With the same spirit they decided that to be present when any oneinflicted a personal injury on another, without interfering, wastantamount to being a party, and was punishable according to theextent of the assault; and every one who witnessed a robbery was boundeither to arrest, or, if that was out of his power, to lay aninformation, and to prosecute the offenders; and any neglect on thisscore being proved against him, the delinquent was condemned toreceive a stated number of stripes, and to be kept without food forthree whole days. Although, in the case of murder, the Egyptian law was inexorable andsevere, the royal prerogative might be exerted in favor of a culprit, and the punishment was sometimes commuted by a mandate from the king. Sabaco, indeed, during the fifty years of his reign, "made it a rulenot to punish his subjects with death, " whether guilty of murder orany other capital offence, but, "according to the magnitude of theircrimes, he condemned the culprits to raise the ground about the townto which they belonged. By these means the situation of the differentcities became greatly elevated above the reach of the inundation, evenmore than in the time of Sesostris;" and either on account of agreater proportion of criminals, or from some other cause, the moundsof Bubastis were raised considerably higher than those of any othercity. The same laws that forbade a master to punish a slave with death tookfrom a father every right over the life of his offspring; and theEgyptians deemed the murder of a child an odious crime, that calledfor the direct interposition of justice. They did not, however, punishit as a capital offence, since it appeared inconsistent to take awaylife from one who had given it to the child, but preferred inflictingsuch a punishment as would induce grief and repentance. With this viewthey ordained that the corpse of the deceased should be fastened tothe neck of its parent, and that he should be obliged to pass threewhole days and nights in its embrace, under the surveillance of apublic guard. But parricide was visited with the most cruel of chastisements; andconceiving, as they did, that the murder of a parent was the mostunnatural of crimes, they endeavored to prevent its occurrence by themarked severity with which it was avenged. The criminal was, therefore, sentenced to be lacerated with sharpened reeds, and, afterbeing thrown on thorns, he was burned to death. When a woman was guilty of a capital offence, and judgment had beenpassed upon her, they were particularly careful to ascertain if thecondemned was in a state of pregnancy; in which case her punishmentwas deferred till after the birth of the child, in order that theinnocent might not suffer with the guilty, and thus the father bedeprived of that child to which he had at least an equal right. But some of their laws regarding the female sex were cruel andunjustifiable; and even if, which is highly improbable, they succeededby their severity in enforcing chastity, and in putting an effectualstop to crime, yet the punishment rather reminds us of the laws of abarbarous people than of a wise and civilized state. A woman who hadcommitted adultery was sentenced to lose her nose, upon the principlethat, being the most conspicuous feature, and the chief, or, at least, an indispensable, ornament of the face, its loss would be mostseverely felt, and be the greatest detriment to her personal charms;and the man was condemned to receive a bastinado of one thousandblows. But if it was proved that force had been used against a freewoman, he was doomed to a cruel mutilation. The object of the Egyptian laws was to preserve life, and to reclaiman offender. Death took away every chance of repentance, it deprivedthe country of his services, and he was hurried out of the world whenleast prepared to meet the ordeal of a future state. They, therefore, preferred severe punishments, and, except in the case of murder, andsome crimes which appeared highly injurious to the community, it wasdeemed unnecessary to sacrifice the life of an offender. In military as well as civil cases, minor offences were generallypunished with the stick; a mode of chastisement still greatly in vogueamong the modern inhabitants of the valley of the Nile, and held insuch esteem by them, that convinced of (or perhaps by) its efficacy, they relate "its descent from heaven as a blessing to mankind. " If an Egyptian of the present day has a government debt or tax to pay, he stoutly persists in his inability to obtain the money, till he haswithstood a certain number of blows, and considers himself compelledto produce it; and the ancient inhabitants, if not under the rule oftheir native princes, at least in the time of the Roman emperors, gloried equally in the obstinacy they evinced, and the difficulty thegovernors of the country experienced in extorting from them what theywere bound to pay; whence Ammianus Marcellinus tells us, "an Egyptianblushes if he can not show numerous marks on his body that evince hisendeavors to evade the duties. " The bastinado was inflicted on both sexes, as with the Jews. Men andboys were laid prostrate on the ground, and frequently held by thehands and feet while the chastisement was administered; but women, asthey sat, received the stripes on their back, which was also inflictedby the hand of a man. Nor was it unusual for the superintendents tostimulate laborers to their work by the persuasive powers of thestick, whether engaged in the field or in handicraft employments; andboys were sometimes beaten without the ceremony of prostration, thehands being tied behind their back while the punishment was applied. The character of some of the Egyptian laws was quite consonant withthe notions of a primitive age. The punishment was directed moreparticularly against the offending member; and adulterators of money, falsifiers of weights and measures, forgers of seals or signatures, and scribes who altered any signed document by erasures or additions, without the authority of the parties, were condemned to lose boththeir hands. But their laws do not seem to have sanctioned the gibbet, or theexposure of the body of an offender; for the conduct of Rhampsinitus, in the case of the robbery of his treasure, is mentioned by Herodotusas a singular mode of discovering an accomplice, and not as anordinary punishment; if, indeed, the whole story be not the inventionof a Greek _cicerone_. Thefts, breach of trust, and petty frauds were punished with thebastinado; but robbery and house-breaking were sometimes consideredcapital crimes, and deserving of death; as is evident from the conductof the thief when caught by the trap in the treasury of Rhampsinitus, and from what Diodorus states respecting Actisanes. This monarch, instead of putting robbers to death, instituted a novelmode of punishing them, by cutting off their noses and banishing themto the confines of the desert, where a town was built, calledRhinocolura, from the peculiar nature of their punishment; and thus, by removing the bad, and preventing their corrupting the good, hebenefited society, without depriving the criminals of life; at thesame time that he punished them severely for their crimes, byobliging them to live by their labors, and derive a precarioussustenance from quails, or whatever they could catch, in that barrenregion. Commutation of punishment was the foundation of this part ofthe convict system of Egypt, and Rhinocolura was their Norfolk Island, where a sea of sand separated the worst felons from those guilty ofsmaller crimes; who were transported to the mines in the desert, andcondemned to work for various terms, according to their offence. The Egyptians had a singular custom respecting theft and burglary. Those who followed the _profession_ of thief gave in their names tothe chief of the robbers; and agreed that he should be informed ofevery thing they might thenceforward steal, the moment it was in theirpossession. In consequence of this the owner of the lost goods alwaysapplied by letter to the chief for their recovery; and having statedtheir quality and quantity, the day and hour when they were stolen, and other requisite particulars, the goods were identified, and, onpayment of one quarter of their value, they were restored to theapplicant in the same state as when taken from his house. For being fully persuaded of the impracticability of putting an entirecheck to robbery, either by the dread of punishment, or by any methodthat could be adopted by the most vigilant police, they considered itmore for the advantage of the community that a certain sacrificeshould be made in order to secure the restitution of the remainder, than that the law, by taking on itself to protect the citizen, anddiscover the offender, should be the indirect cause of greater loss. And that the Egyptians, like the Indians, and we may say the moderninhabitants of the Nile, were very expert in the art of stealing, wehave abundant testimony from ancient authors. It may be asked, what redress could be obtained, if goods were stolenby thieves who failed to enter their names on the books of the chief;but it is evident that there could be few of those privatespeculators, since by their interfering with the interests of all the_profession_, the detection of such egotistical persons would havebeen certain; and thus all others were effectually prevented fromrobbing, save those of the privileged class. The salary of the chief was not merely derived from his own demandsupon the goods stolen, or from any voluntary contribution of therobbers themselves, but was probably a fixed remuneration granted bythe government, as one of the chiefs of the police; nor is it to besupposed that he was any other than a respectable citizen, and a manof integrity and honor. The same may be said of the modern "_shekh_ ofthe thieves, " at Cairo, where this very ancient office is stillretained. The great confidence reposed in the public weighers rendered itnecessary to enact suitable laws in order to bind them to their duty;and considering how much public property was at their mercy, and howeasily bribes might be taken from a dishonest tradesman, the Egyptiansinflicted a severe punishment as well on the weighers as on theshopkeepers, who were found to have false weights and measures, or tohave defrauded the customer in any other way; and these, as well asthe scribes who kept false accounts, were punished (as before stated)with the loss of both their hands; on the principle, says Diodorus, that the offending member should suffer; while the culprit wasseverely punished, that others might be deterred from the commissionof a similar offence. As in other countries, their laws respecting debt and usury underwentsome changes, according as society advanced, and as pecuniarytransactions became more complicated. Bocchoris (who reigned in Egypt about the year 800 B. C. , and who, fromhis learning, obtained the surname of Wise), finding that in cases ofdebt many causes of dispute had arisen, and instances of greatoppression were of frequent occurrence, enacted, that no agreementshould be binding unless it were acknowledged by a written contract;and if any one took oath that the money had not been lent him, that nodebt should be recognized, and the claims of the suing party shouldimmediately cease. This was done, that great regard might always behad for the name and nature of an oath, at the same time that, bysubstituting the unquestionable proof of a written document, thenecessity of having frequent recourse to an oath was avoided, and itssanctity was not diminished by constant repetition. Usury was in all cases condemned by the Egyptian legislature; and whenmoney was borrowed, even with a written agreement, it was forbidden toallow the interest to increase to more than double the original sum. Nor could the creditors seize the debtor's person: their claims andright were confined to the goods in his possession, and such as werereally his own; which were comprehended under the produce of hislabor, or what he had received from another individual to whom theylawfully belonged. For the person of every citizen was looked upon asthe property of the state, and might be required for some publicservice, connected either with war or peace; and, independent of theinjustice of subjecting any one to the momentary caprice of hiscreditor, the safety of the country might be endangered through theavarice of a few interested individuals. This law, which was borrowed by Solon from the Egyptian code, existedalso at Athens; and was, as Diodorus observes, much more consistentwith justice and common sense than that which allowed the creditor toseize the person, while it forbade him to take the plows and otherimplements of industry. For if, continues the historian, it is unjustthus to deprive men of the means of obtaining subsistence, and ofproviding for their families, how much more unreasonable must it be toimprison those by whom the implements were used! To prevent the accumulation of debt, and to protect the interests ofthe creditor, another remarkable law was enacted by Asychis, which, while it shows how greatly they endeavored to check the increasingevil, proves the high respect paid by the Egyptians to the memory oftheir parents, and to the sanctity of their religious ceremonies. Bythis it was pronounced illegal for any one to borrow money withoutgiving in pledge the body of his father, or the tomb of his ancestors;and, if he failed to redeem so sacred a deposit, he was consideredinfamous; and, at his death, the celebration of the accustomed funeralobsequies was denied him, and he could not enjoy the right of burialeither in that tomb or in any other place of sepulture; nor could heinter his children, or any of his family, as long as the debt wasunpaid, the creditor being put in actual possession of the familytomb. In the large cities of Egypt, a fondness for display, and the usualallurements of luxury, were rapidly introduced; and considerable sumswere expended in furnishing houses, and in many artificial caprices. Rich jewels and costly works of art were in great request, as wellamong the inhabitants of the provincial capitals, as at Thebes andMemphis; they delighted in splendid equipages, elegant and commodiousboats, numerous attendants, horses, dogs, and other requisites for thechase; and, besides, their houses, their villas and their gardens, were laid out with no ordinary expense. But while the funds arisingfrom extensive farms, and the abundant produce of a fertile soil, enabled the rich to indulge extravagant habits, many of the lesswealthy envied the enjoyment of those luxuries which fortune haddenied to them; and, prompted by vanity, and a silly desire ofimitation, so common in civilized communities, they pursued a careerwhich speedily led to the accumulation of debt, and demanded theinterference of the legislature; and it is probable that a law, sosevere as this must have appeared to the Egyptians, was only adoptedas a measure of absolute necessity, in order to put a check to theincreasing evil. The necessary expenses of the Egyptians were remarkably small, less, indeed, than of any people; and the food of the poorer classes was ofthe cheapest and most simple kind. Owing to the warmth of the climate, they required few clothes, and young children were in the habit ofgoing without shoes, and with little or no covering to their bodies. It was, therefore, luxury, and the increasing wants of an artificialkind, which corrupted the manners of the Egyptians, and rendered sucha law necessary for their restraint; and we may conclude that it wasmainly directed against those who contracted debts for thegratification of pleasure, or with the premeditated intent ofdefrauding an unsuspecting creditor. In the mode of executing deeds, conveyances, and other civilcontracts, the Egyptians were peculiarly circumstantial and minute;and the great number of witnesses is a singular feature in thosedocuments. In the time of the Ptolemies, sales of property commencedwith a preamble, containing the date of the king in whose reign theywere executed; the name of the president of the court, and of theclerk by whom they were written, being also specified. The body of thecontract then followed. It stated the name of the individual who sold the land, thedescription of his person, an account of his parentage, profession, and place of abode, the extent and nature of the land, its situationand boundaries, and concluded with the name of the purchaser, whoseparentage and description were also added, and the sum for which itwas bought. The seller then vouched for his undisturbed possession ofit; and, becoming security against any attempt to dispute his title, the name of the other party was inserted as having accepted it, andacknowledged the purchase. The names of witnesses were then affixed;and, the president of the court having added his signature, the deedwas valid. Sometimes the seller formally recognized the sale in thefollowing manner: "All these things have I sold thee: they are thine, I have receivedtheir price from thee, and will make no demand upon thee for them fromthis day; and if any person disturb thee in the possession of them, Iwill withstand the attempt; and, if I do not otherwise repel it, Iwill use compulsory means, or, I will indemnify thee. " But, in order to give a more accurate notion of the form of thesecontracts, we shall introduce a copy of the whole of one of them, asgiven by Dr. Young, and refer the reader to others occurring in thesame work. "Translation of the enchorial papyrus of Paris, containingthe original deed relating to the mummies:--'This writing dated in theyear 36, Athyr 20, in the reign of our sovereigns Ptolemy andCleopatra his sister, the children of Ptolemy and Cleopatra thedivine, the gods Illustrious: and the priest of Alexander, and of theSaviour gods, of the Brother gods, of the Beneficent gods, of theFather-loving gods, of the Illustrious gods, of the Paternal god, andof the Mother-loving gods, being (as by law appointed): and theprize-bearer of Berenice the Beneficent, and the basket-bearer ofArsinoe the Brother-loving, and the priestess of Arsinoe theFather-loving, being as appointed in the metropolis (of Alexandria);and in (Ptolemais) the royal city of the Thebaid? the guardian priestfor the year? of Ptolemy Soter, and the priest of king Ptolemy theFather-loving, and the priest of Ptolemy the Brother-loving, and thepriest of Ptolemy the Beneficent, and the priest of Ptolemy theMother-loving; and the priestess of queen Cleopatra, and the priestessof the princess Cleopatra, and the priestess of Cleopatra, the (queen)mother, deceased, the Illustrious; and the basket-bearer of Arsinoethe Brother-loving (being as appointed): declares: The Dresser? in thetemple of the Goddess Onnophris, the son of Horus, and of Senpoeris, daughter of Spotus? ("aged about forty, lively, ") tall ("of a sallowcomplexion, hollow-eyed, and bald"); in the temple of the goddess to(Horus) his brother? the son of Horus and of Senpoeris, has sold, fora price in money, half of one-third of the collections for the dead"priests of Osiris?" lying in Thynabunum . .. In the Libyan suburbs ofThebes, in the Memnonia . .. Likewise half of one-third of theliturgies: their names being, Muthes, the son of Spotus, with hischildren and his household; Chapocrates, the son of Nechthmonthes, with his children and his household; Arsiesis, the son ofNechthmonthes, with his children and his household; Petemestus, theson of Nechthmonthes; Arsiesis, the son of Zminis, with his childrenand his household; Osoroeris, the son of Horus, with his children andhis household; Spotus, the son of Chapochonsis, surnamed? Zoglyphus(the sculptor), with his children and his household; while therebelonged also to Asos, the son of Horus and of Senpoeris, daughter ofSpotus? in the same manner one-half of a third of the collections forthe dead, and of the fruits and so forth . .. He sold it on the 20th ofAthyr, in the reign of the King ever-living, to (complete) the thirdpart: likewise the half of one-third of the collections relating toPeteutemis, with his household, and . .. Likewise the half ofone-third? of the collections and fruits for Petechonsis, the bearerof milk, and of the . .. Place on the Asian side, called Phrecages, and. .. The dead bodies in it: there having belonged to Asos, the son ofHorus, one-half of the same: he has sold to him in the month of . .. The half of one-third of the collections for the priests of Osiris?lying in Thynabunum, with their children and their households:likewise the half of one-third of the collections for Peteutemis, andalso for Petechonsis, the bearer of milk, in the place Phrecages onthe Asian side: I have received for them their price in silver . .. Andgold; and I make no further demand on thee for them from the presentday . .. Before the authorities . .. (and if any one shall disturb theein the possession of them, I will resist him, and, if I do notsucceed, I will indemnify thee?). .. . Executed and confirmed. Writtenby Horus, the son of Phabis, clerk to the chief priests ofAmonrasonther, and of the contemplar? Gods, of the Beneficent gods, ofthe Father-loving gods, of the Paternal god, and of the Mother-lovinggods. Amen. "'Names of the witnesses present: ERIEUS, the son of Phanres Erieus. PETEARTRES, the son of Peteutemis. PETEARPOCRATES, the son of Horus. SNACHOMNEUS, the son of Peteuris. SNACHOMES, the son of Psenchonsis. TOTOES, the son of Phibis. PORTIS, the son of Appollonius. ZMINIS, the son of Petemestus. PETEUTEMIS, the son of Arsiesis. AMONORYTIUS, the son of Pacemis. HORUS, the son of Chimnaraus. ARMENIS (rather Arbais), the son of Zthenaetis. MAESIS, the son of Mirsis. ANTIMACHUS, the son of Antigenes. PETOPHOIS, the son of Phibis. PANAS, the son of Petosiris. '" In this, as in many other documents, the testimony required is veryremarkable, sixteen witnesses being thought necessary for the sale ofa moiety of the sums collected on account of a few tombs, and forservices performed to the dead, the total value of which was only 400pieces of brass; and the name of each person is introduced, in thetrue Oriental style, with that of his father. Nor is it unreasonableto suppose that the same precautions and minute formulas were observedin similar transactions during the reigns of the Pharaonic kings, however great may have been the change introduced by the Ptolemies andRomans into the laws and local government of Egypt. The Egyptians paid great attention to health, and "so wisely, " saysHerodotus, "was medicine managed by them, that no doctor was permittedto practice any but his own peculiar branch. Some were oculists, whoonly studied diseases of the eye; others attended solely tocomplaints of the head; others to those of the teeth; some againconfined themselves to complaints of the intestines; and others tosecret and internal maladies; accoucheurs being usually, if notalways, women. " And it is a singular fact, that their dentists adopteda method, not very long practiced in Europe, of stopping teeth withgold, proofs of which have been obtained from some mummies of Thebes. They received certain salaries from the public treasury; and afterthey had studied those precepts which had been laid down from theexperience of their predecessors, they were permitted to practice;and, in order to prevent dangerous experiments being made uponpatients, they might be punished if their treatment was contrary tothe established system; and the death of a person entrusted to theircare, under such circumstances, was adjudged to them as a capitaloffence. If, however, every remedy had been administered according to thesanitary law, they were absolved from blame; and if the patient wasnot better, the physician was allowed to alter the treatment after thethird day, or even before, if he took upon himself the responsibility. Though paid by Government as a body, it was not illegal to receivefees for their advice and attendance; and demands could be made inevery instance except on a foreign journey, and on military service;when patients were visited free of expense. The principal mode adopted by the Egyptians for preventing illness wasattention to regimen and diet; "being persuaded that the majority ofdiseases proceed from indigestion and excess of eating;" and they hadfrequent recourse to abstinence, emetics, slight doses of medicine, and other simple means of relieving the system, which some personswere in the habit of repeating every two or three days. [Illustration: WREATH OF OAK. (_Life Saving. _)] "Those who lived in the corn country, " as Herodotus terms it, wereparticular for their attention to health. "During three successivedays, every month, they submitted to a regular course of treatment;from the conviction that illness was wont to proceed from someirregularity in diet;" and if preventives were ineffectual they hadrecourse to suitable remedies, adopting a mode of treatment verysimilar to that mentioned by Diodorus. The employment of numerous drugs in Egypt has been mentioned by sacredand profane writers; and the medicinal properties of many herbs whichgrow in the deserts, particularly between the Nile and Red Sea, arestill known to the Arabs; though their application has been butimperfectly recorded and preserved. "O virgin, daughter of Egypt, " says Jeremiah, "in vain shalt thou usemany medicines, for thou shalt not be cured;" and Homer, in theOdyssey, describes the many valuable medicines given by Polydamna, thewife of Thonis, to Helen while in Egypt, "a country whose fertile soilproduces an infinity of drugs, some salutary and some pernicious;where each physician possesses knowledge above all other men. " Pliny makes frequent mention of the productions of that country, andtheir use in medicine; he also notices the physicians of Egypt; and asif their number were indicative of the many maladies to which theinhabitants were subject, he observes, that it was a countryproductive of numerous diseases. In this, however, he does not agreewith Herodotus, who affirms that, "after the Libyans, there are nopeople so healthy as the Egyptians, which may be attributed to theinvariable nature of the seasons in their country. " Pliny even says that the Egyptians examined the bodies after death, toascertain the nature of the diseases of which they had died; and wecan readily believe that a people so far advanced in civilization andthe principles of medicine as to assign to each physician his peculiarbranch, would have resorted to this effectual method of acquiringknowledge and experience. It is evident that the medical science of the Egyptians was sought andappreciated even in foreign countries; and we learn from Herodotus, that Cyrus and Darius both sent to Egypt for medical men. In latertimes, too, they continued to be celebrated for their skill; Ammianussays it was enough for a doctor to say he had studied in Egypt torecommend him; and Pliny mentions medical men going from Egypt toRome. But though their physicians are often noticed by ancientwriters, the only indication of medical attendance appears to be inthe paintings of Beni Hassan; and even there it is uncertain whether adoctor, or a barber, be represented. Their doctors probably felt the pulse; as Plutarch shows they did atRome, from this saying of Tiberius, "a man after he has passed histhirtieth year, who _puts forth his hand_ to a physician, isridiculous;" whence our proverb of "a fool or a physician afterforty. " Diodorus tells us, that dreams were regarded in Egypt with religiousreverence, and the prayers of the devout were often rewarded by thegods, with an indication of the remedy their sufferings required; andmagic, charms, and various supernatural agencies, were often resortedto by the credulous; who "sought to the idols, and to the charmers, and to them that had familiar spirits, and to the wizards. " Origen also says, that when any part of the body was afflicted withdisease, they invoked the demon to whom it was supposed to belong, inorder to obtain a cure. In cases of great moment oracles were consulted; and a Greek papyrusfound in Egypt mentions divination "through a boy with a lamp, a bowl, and a pit;" which resembles the pretended power of the modernmagicians of Egypt. The same also notices the mode of discoveringtheft, and obtaining any wish; and though it is supposed to be of the2d century, the practices it alludes to are doubtless from an oldEgyptian source; and other similar papyri contain recipes forobtaining good fortune and various benefits, or for causingmisfortunes to an enemy. Some suppose the Egyptians had even recourse to animal magnetism, andthat dreams indicating cures were the result of this influence; and(though the subjects erroneously supposed to represent it apply to avery different act) it is not impossible that they may have discoveredthe mode of exercising this art, and that it may have been connectedwith the strange scenes recorded at the initiation into the mysteries. If really known, such a power would scarcely have been neglected; andit would have been easy to obtain thereby an ascendency over the mindsof a superstitious people. Indeed, the readiness of man at all times to astonish on the one hand, and to court the marvelous on the other, is abundantly proved bypresent and past experience. That the nervous system may be workedupon by it to such a degree that a state either of extremeirritability, or of sleep and coma, may be induced, in the latter caseparalyzing the senses so as to become deadened to pain, is certain;and a highly sensitive temperament may exhibit phenomena beyond thereach of explanation; but it requires very little experience to knowthat we are wonderfully affected by far more ordinary causes; for thenerves may be acted upon to such an extent by having as we commonlyterm it "our teeth set on edge, " that the mere filing a saw wouldsuffice to drive any one mad, if unable to escape from its unceasingdiscord. What is this but an effect upon the nerves? and what morecould be desired to prove the power of any agency? And the world wouldowe a debt of gratitude to the professors of animal magnetism, if, instead of making it, as some do, a mere exhibition to display apower, and astonish the beholders, they would continue the effortsalready begun, for discovering all the beneficial uses to which it iscapable of being applied. We might then rejoice that, as astrology led to the more usefulknowledge of astronomy, this influence enabled us to comprehend ournervous system, on which so many conditions of health depend, and withwhich we are so imperfectly acquainted. The cure of diseases was also attributed by the Egyptians to _Exvotos_offered in the temples. They consisted of various kinds. Some personspromised a certain sum for the maintenance of the sacred animals; orwhatever might propitiate the deity; and after the cure had beeneffected, they frequently suspended a model of the restored part inthe temple; and ears, eyes, distorted arms, and other members, werededicated as memorials of their gratitude and superstition. Sometimes travelers, who happened to pass by a temple, inscribed avotive sentence on the walls, to indicate their respect for the deity, and solicit his protection during their journey; the complete formulaof which contained the adoration of the writer, with the assurancethat he had been mindful of his wife, his family, and friends; and thereader of the inscription was sometimes included in a share of theblessings it solicited. The date of the king's reign and the day ofthe month were also added, with the profession and parentage of thewriter. The complete formula of one adoration was as follows: "The adoration of Caius Capitolinus, son of Flavius Julius, of thefifth troop of Theban horse, to the goddess Isis, with ten thousandnames. And I have been mindful of (or have made an adoration for) allthose who love me, and my consort, and children, and all my household, and for him who reads this. In the year 12 of the emperor TiberiusCæsar, the 15 of Pauni. " The Egyptians, according to Pliny, claimed the honor of havinginvented the art of curing diseases. Indeed, the study of medicine andsurgery appears to have commenced at a very early period in Egypt, since Athothes, the second king of the country, is stated to havewritten upon the subject of anatomy; and the schools of Alexandriacontinued till a late period to enjoy the reputation, and display theskill, they had inherited from their predecessors. Hermes was said tohave written six books on medicine, the first of which related toanatomy; and the various recipes, known to have been beneficial, wererecorded, with their peculiar cases, in the memoirs of physicinscribed among the laws deposited in the principal temples. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] HOUSES, VILLAS, FARMYARDS, ORCHARDS, GARDENS, ETC. The monumental records and various works of art, and, above all, thewritings, of the Greeks and Romans, have made us acquainted with theircustoms and their very thoughts; and though the literature of theEgyptians is almost unknown, their monuments, especially the paintingsin the tombs, have afforded us an insight into their mode of lifescarcely to be obtained from those of any other people. The influencethat Egypt had in early times on Greece gives to every inquiryrespecting it an additional interest; and the frequent mention of theEgyptians in the Bible connects them with the Hebrew Records, of whichmany satisfactory illustrations occur in the sculptures of Pharaonictimes. Their great antiquity also enables us to understand thecondition of the world long before the era of written history; allexisting monuments left by other people are comparatively modern; andthe paintings in Egypt are the earliest descriptive illustrations ofthe manners and customs of any nation. It is from these that we are enabled to form an opinion of thecharacter of the Egyptians. They have been pronounced a serious, gloomy people, saddened by the habit of abstruse speculation; but howfar this conclusion agrees with fact will be seen in the sequel. Theywere, no doubt, less lively than the Greeks; but if a comparativelylate writer, Ammianus Marcellinus, may have remarked a "rather sad"expression, after they had been for ages under successive foreignyokes, this can scarcely be admitted as a testimony of their characterin the early times of their prosperity; and though a sadness ofexpression might be observed in the present oppressed population, theycan not be considered a grave or melancholy people. Much, indeed, maybe learned from the character of the modern Egyptians; andnotwithstanding the infusion of foreign blood, particularly of theArab invaders, every one must perceive the strong resemblance theybear to their ancient predecessors. It is a common error to supposethat the conquest of a country gives an entirely new character to theinhabitants. The immigration of a whole nation taking possession of athinly-peopled country, will have this effect, when the originalinhabitants are nearly all driven out by the new-comers; butimmigration has not always, and conquest never has, for its object thedestruction or expulsion of the native population; they are founduseful to the victors, and as necessary for them as the cattle or theproductions of the soil. Invaders are always numerically inferior tothe conquered nation--even to the male population; and, when the womenare added to the number, the majority is greatly in favor of theoriginal race, and they must exercise immense influence on thecharacter of the rising generation. The customs, too, of the oldinhabitants are very readily adopted by the new-comers, especiallywhen they are found to suit the climate and the peculiarities of thecountry they have been formed in; and the habits of a small mass ofsettlers living in contact with them fade away more and more with eachsuccessive generation. So it has been in Egypt; and, as usual, theconquered people bear the stamp of the ancient inhabitants rather thanthat of the Arab conquerors. Of the various institutions of the ancient Egyptians, none are moreinteresting than those which relate to their social life; and when weconsider the condition of other countries in the early ages when theyflourished, from the 10th to the 20th century before our era, we maylook with respect on the advancement they had then made incivilization, and acknowledge the benefits they conferred upon mankindduring their career. For like other people, they have had their partin the great scheme of the world's development, and their share ofusefulness in the destined progress of the human race; for countries, like individuals, have certain qualities given them, which, differingfrom those of their predecessors and contemporaries are intended indue season to perform their requisite duties. The interest felt in theEgyptians is from their having led the way, or having been the firstpeople we know of who made any great progress, in the arts and mannersof civilization; which, for the period when they lived, was verycreditable, and far beyond that of other kingdoms of the world. Norcan we fail to remark the difference between them and their Asiaticrivals, the Assyrians, who, even at a much later period, had the greatdefects of Asiatic cruelty--flaying alive, impaling, and torturingtheir prisoners, as the Persians, Turks, and other Orientals have doneto the present century, the reproach of which can not be extended tothe ancient Egyptians. Being the dominant race of that age, theynecessarily had an influence on others with whom they came in contact;and it is by these means that civilization is advanced through itsvarious stages; each people striving to improve on the lessons derivedfrom a neighbor whose institutions they appreciate, or considerbeneficial to themselves. It was thus that the active mind of thetalented Greeks sought and improved on the lessons derived from othercountries, especially from Egypt; and though the latter, at the lateperiod of the 7th century B. C. , had lost its greatness and theprestige of superiority among the nations of the world, it was stillthe seat of learning and the resort of studious philosophers; and theabuses consequent on the fall of an empire had not yet brought aboutthe demoralization of after times. The early part of Egyptian monumental history is coeval with thearrivals of Abraham and of Joseph, and the Exodus of the Israelites;and we know from the Bible what was the state of the world at thattime. But then, and apparently long before, the habits of social lifein Egypt were already what we find them to have been during the mostglorious period of their career; and as the people had already laidaside their arms, and military men only carried them when on service, some notion may be had of the very remote date of Egyptiancivilization. In the treatment of women they seem to have been veryfar advanced beyond other wealthy communities of the same era, havingusages very similar to those of the modern world; and such was therespect shown to women that precedence was given to them over men, andthe wives and daughters of kings succeeded to the throne like the malebranches of the royal family. Nor was this privilege rescinded, eventhough it had more than once entailed upon them the trouble of acontested succession; foreign kings often having claimed a right tothe throne through marriage with an Egyptian princess. It was not amere influence that they possessed, which women often acquire in themost arbitrary Eastern communities; nor a political importanceaccorded to a particular individual, like that of the Sultana Valideh, the Queen Mother, at Constantinople; it was a right acknowledged bylaw, both in private and public life. They knew that unless women weretreated with respect, and made to exercise an influence over society, the standard of public opinion would soon be lowered, and the mannersand morals of men would suffer; and in acknowledging this, theypointed out to women the very responsible duties they had to performto the community. From their private life great insight is obtained into their characterand customs: and their household arrangements, the style of theirdwellings, their amusements and their occupations, explain theirhabits; as their institutions, mode of government, arts and militaryknowledge illustrate their history, and their relative positions amongthe nations of antiquity. In their form and arrangement, the houseswere made to suit the climate, modified according to their advancementin civilization; and we are often enabled to trace in their abodessome of the primitive habits of a people, long after they have beensettled in towns, and have adopted the manners of wealthy communities;as the tent may still be traced in the houses of the Turks, and thesmall original wooden chamber in the mansions and temples of ancientGreece. As in all warm climates, the poorer classes of Egyptians lived much inthe open air; and the houses of the rich were constructed to be coolthroughout the summer; currents of refreshing air being made tocirculate freely through them by the judicious arrangement of thepassages and courts. Corridors, supported on columns, gave access tothe different apartments through a succession of shady avenues andareas, with one side open to the air, as in cloisters; and even smalldetached houses had an open court in the centre, planted as a gardenwith palms and other trees. _Mulkufs_, or wooden wind-sails, were alsofixed over the terraces of the upper story, facing the prevalent andcool N. W. Wind, which was conducted down their sloping boards into theinterior of the house. They were exactly similar to those in themodern houses of Cairo; and some few were double, facing in oppositedirections. The houses were built of crude brick, stuccoed and painted, with allthe combinations of bright color in which the Egyptians delighted; anda highly decorated mansion had numerous courts, and architecturaldetails derived from the temples. Over the door was sometimes asentence, as "the good house;" or the name of a king, under whom theowner probably held some office; many other symbols of good omen werealso put up, as at the entrances of modern Egyptian houses; and avisit to some temple gave as good a claim to a record as thepilgrimage to Mecca, at the present day. Poor people were satisfiedwith very simple tenements; their wants being easily supplied, both asto lodging and food; and their house consisted of four walls, with aflat roof of palm-branches laid across a split date-tree as a beam, and covered with mats plastered over with a thick coating of mud. Ithad one door and a few small windows closed by wooden shutters. As itscarcely ever rained, the mud roof was not washed into the sittingroom; and this cottage rather answered as a shelter from the sun, andas a closet for their goods, than for the ordinary purpose of a housein other countries. Indeed at night the owners slept on the roof, during the greater part of the year; and as most of their work wasdone out of doors, they might easily be persuaded that a house was farless necessary for them than a tomb. To convince the rich of thisultra-philosophical sentiment was not so easy; at least the practicediffered from the theory; and though it was promulgated among all theEgyptians, it did not prevent the priests and other grandees fromliving in very luxurious abodes, or enjoying the good things of thisworld; and a display of wealth was found to be useful in maintainingtheir power, and in securing the obedience of a credulous people. Theworldly possessions of the priests were therefore very extensive, andif they imposed on themselves occasional habits of abstemiousness, avoided certain kinds of unwholesome food, and performed manymysterious observances, they were amply repaid by the improvement oftheir health, and by the influence they thereby acquired. Superiorintelligence enabled them to put their own construction on regulationsemanating from their sacred body, with the convenient persuasion thatwhat suited them did not suit others; and the profane vulgar wereexpected to do, not as the priests did, but as they taught them to do. In their plans the houses of towns, like the villas in the country, varied according to the caprice of the builders. The ground-plan, insome of the former, consisted of a number of chambers on three sidesof a court, which was often planted with trees. Others consisted oftwo rows of rooms on either side of a long passage, with anentrance-court from the street; and others were laid out in chambersround a central area, similar to the Roman _Impluvium_, and paved withstone, or containing a few trees, a tank or a fountain in its centre. Sometimes, though rarely, a flight of steps led to the front door fromthe street. Houses of small size were often connected together and formed thecontinuous sides of streets; and a court-yard was common to severaldwellings. Others of a humbler kind consisted merely of rooms openingon a narrow passage, or directly on the street. These had only abasement story, or ground-floor; and few houses exceeded two storiesabove it. They mostly consisted of one upper floor; and thoughDiodorus speaks of the lofty houses in Thebes four and five storieshigh, the paintings show that few had three, and the largest seldomfour, including, as he does, the basement-story. Even the greaterportion of the house was confined to a first floor, with an additionalstory in one part, on which was a terrace covered by an awning, or alight roof supported on columns. This served for the ladies of thefamily to sit at work in during the day, and here the master of thehouse often slept at night during the summer, or took his _siesta_ inthe afternoon. Some had a tower which rose even above the terrace. The first-floor was what the Italians call the "_piano nobile_;" theground rooms being chiefly used for stores, or as offices, of whichone was set apart for the porter, and another for visitors coming onbusiness. Sometimes besides the parlor were receiving apartments onthe basement-story, but guests were generally entertained on thefirst-floor; and on this were the sleeping-rooms also, except wherethe house was of two or three stories. The houses of wealthy citizensoften covered a considerable space, and either stood directly upon thestreet, or a short way back, within an open court; and some largemansions were detached, and had several entrances on two or threesides. Before the door was a porch supported on two columns, deckedwith banners or ribbons, and larger porticoes had a double row ofcolumns, with statues between them. In the distribution of the apartments numerous and different modeswere adopted, according to circumstances; in general, however, thelarge mansions seem to have consisted of a court and severalcorridors, with rooms leading from them, not unlike many of those nowbuilt in Oriental and tropical countries. The houses in most of theEgyptian towns are quite destroyed, leaving few traces of their plans, or even of their sites; but sufficient remains of some at Thebes, atTel el Amarna, and other places, to enable us, with the help of thesculptures, to ascertain their form and appearance. Granaries were also laid out in a very regular manner, and varied ofcourse in plan as much as the houses, to which there is reason tobelieve they were frequently attached, even in the towns; and theywere sometimes only separated from the house by an avenue of trees. Some small houses consisted merely of a court, and three or fourstore-rooms on the ground-floor, with a single chamber above, to whicha flight of steps led from the court; but they were probably only metwith in the country, and resembled some still found in the _fellah_villages of modern Egypt. Very similar to these was the model of ahouse now in the British Museum, which solely consisted of acourt-yard and three small store-rooms on the ground-floor, with astaircase leading to a room belonging to the storekeeper, which wasfurnished with a narrow window or aperture opposite the door, ratherintended for the purposes of ventilation than to admit the light. Inthe court a woman was represented making bread, as is sometimes doneat the present day in Egypt, in the open air; and the store-rooms werefull of grain. Other small houses in towns consisted of two or three stories abovethe ground-floor. They had no court, and stood close together, covering a small space, and high in proportion to their base, likemany of those at Karnak. The lower part had merely the door ofentrance and some store-rooms, over which were a first and secondfloor, each with three windows on the front and side, and above thesean attic without windows, and a staircase leading to a terrace on theflat roof. The floors were laid on rafters, the end of which projectedslightly from the walls like dentils; and the courses of brick were inwaving or concave lines, as in the walls of an enclosure at Dayr elMedeeneh in Thebes. The windows of the first-floor had a sort ofmullion dividing them into two lights each, with a transom above; andthe upper windows were filled with trellis-work, or cross bars ofwood, as in many Turkish harems. A model of a house of this kind isalso in the British Museum. But the generality of Egyptian houses werefar less regular in their plan and elevation; and the usual disregardfor symmetry is generally observable in the houses even of towns. The doors, both of the entrances and of the inner apartments, werefrequently stained to imitate foreign and rare woods. They were eitherof one or two valves, turning on pins of metal, and were securedwithin by a bar or bolts. Some of these bronze pins have beendiscovered in the tombs of Thebes. They were fastened to the wood withnails of the same metal, whose round heads served also as an ornament, and the upper one had a projection at the back, in order to preventthe door striking against the wall. We also find in the stone lintelsand floor, behind the thresholds of the tombs and temples, the holesin which they turned, as well as those of the bolts and bars, and therecess for receiving the opened valves. The folding doors had bolts inthe centre, sometimes above as well as below; a bar was placed acrossfrom one wall to the other; and in many instances wooden lockssecured them by passing over the centre, at the junction of the twofolds. For greater security they were occasionally sealed with a massof clay, as is proved by some tombs found closed at Thebes, by thesculptures, and in the account given by Herodotus of Rhampsinitus'treasury. Keys were made of bronze or iron, and consisted of a long straightshank, about five inches in length, with three or more projectingteeth; others had a nearer resemblance to the wards of modern keys, with a short shank about an inch long; and some resembled a commonring with the wards at its back. These are probably of Roman date. Theearliest mention of a key is in Judges (iii. 23-25), when Ehud havinggone "through the porch, and shut the doors of the parlor upon him andlocked them, " Eglon's "servants took a key and opened them. " The doorways, like those in the temples, were often surmounted by theEgyptian cornice; others were variously decorated, and some, represented in the tombs, were surrounded with a variety of ornaments, as usual richly painted. These last, though sometimes found at Thebes, were more general about Memphis and the Delta; and two good instancesof them are preserved at the British Museum, brought from a tomb nearthe Pyramids. Even at the early period when the Pyramids were built, the doors wereof one or two valves: and both those of the rooms and the entrancedoors opened inwards, contrary to the custom of the Greeks, who wereconsequently obliged to strike on the inside of the street door beforethey opened it, in order to warn persons passing by; and the Romanswere forbidden to make it open outward without a special permission. The floors were of stone, or a composition made of lime or othermaterials; but in humbler abodes they were formed of split date-treebeams, arranged close together or at intervals, with planks ortransverse layers of palm branches over them, covered with mats and acoating of mud. Many roofs were vaulted, and built like the rest ofthe house of crude brick; and not only have arches been found of thatmaterial dating in the 16th century before our era, but vaultedgranaries appear to be represented of much earlier date. Bricks, indeed, led to the invention of the arch; the want of timber in Egypthaving pointed out the necessity of some substitute for it. Wood was imported in great quantities; deal and cedar were broughtfrom Syria; and rare woods were part of the tribute imposed on foreignnations conquered by the Pharaohs. And so highly were theseappreciated for ornamental purposes, that painted imitations were madefor poorer persons who could not afford them; and the panels, windows, doors, boxes, and various kinds of woodwork, were frequently of cheapdeal or sycamore, stained to resemble the rarest foreign woods. Andthe remnants of them found at Thebes show that these imitations wereclever substitutes for the reality. Even coffins were sometimes madeof foreign wood; and many are found of cedar of Lebanon. The value offoreign woods also suggested to the Egyptians the process ofveneering; and this was one of the arts of their skillful cabinetmakers. The ceilings were of stucco, richly painted with various devices, tasteful both in their form and the arrangement of the colors; amongthe oldest of which is the Guilloche, often miscalled the Tuscan orGreek border. Both in the interior and exterior of their houses the walls weresometimes portioned out into large panels of one uniform color, flushwith the surface, or recessed, not very unlike those at Pompeii; andthey were red, yellow, or stained to resemble stone or wood. It seemsto have been the introduction of this mode of ornament into Romanhouses that excited the indignation of Vitruvius; who says that in oldtimes they used red paint sparingly, like physic, though now wholewalls are covered over with it. Figures were also introduced on the blank walls in the sitting-rooms, or scenes from domestic life, surrounded by ornamental borders, andsurmounted by deep cornices of flowers and various devices richlypainted; and no people appear to have been more fond of using flowerson every occasion. In their domestic architecture they formed thechief ornament of the mouldings; and every visitor received a bouquetof real flowers, as a token of welcome on entering a house. It was thepipe and coffee of the modern Egyptians; and a guest at a party wasnot only presented with a lotus, or some other flower, but had achaplet placed round his head, and another round his neck; which ledthe Roman poet to remark the "many chaplets on the foreheads" of theEgyptians at their banquets. Everywhere flowers abounded; they wereformed into wreaths and festoons, they decked the stands thatsupported the vases in the convivial chamber, and crowned thewine-bowl as well as the servants who bore the cup from it to theassembled guests. The villas of the Egyptians were of great extent, and containedspacious gardens, watered by canals communicating with the Nile. Theyhad large tanks of water in different parts of the garden, whichserved for ornament, as well as for irrigation, when the Nile was low;and on these the master of the house occasionally amused himself andhis friends by an excursion in a pleasure-boat towed by his servants. They also enjoyed the diversion of angling and spearing fish in theponds within their grounds, and on these occasions they were generallyaccompanied by a friend, or one or more members of their family. Particular care was always bestowed upon the garden, and their greatfondness for flowers is shown by the number they always cultivated, aswell as by the women of the family or the attendants presentingbouquets to the master of the house and his friends when they walkedthere. The house itself was sometimes ornamented with propylæ and obelisks, like the temples themselves; it is even possible that part of thebuilding may have been consecrated to religious purposes, as thechapels of other countries, since we find a priest engaged inpresenting offerings at the door of the inner chambers; and, indeed, were it not for the presence of the women, the form of the garden, andthe style of the porch, we should feel disposed to consider it atemple rather than a place of abode. The entrances of large villaswere generally through folding gates, standing between lofty towers, as at the courts of temples, with a small door at each side; andothers had merely folding-gates, with the jambs surmounted by acornice. One general wall of circuit extended round the premises, butthe courts of the house, the garden, the offices, and all the otherparts of the villa had each their separate enclosure. The walls wereusually built of crude brick, and, in damp places, or when withinreach of the inundation, the lower part was strengthened by a basementof stone. They were sometimes ornamented with panels and groovedlines, generally stuccoed, and the summit was crowned either withEgyptian battlements, the usual cornice, a row of spikes in imitationof spear-heads, or with some fancy ornament. The plans of the villas varied according to circumstances, but theirgeneral arrangement is sufficiently explained by the paintings. Theywere surrounded by a high wall, about the middle of which was the mainor front entrance, with one central and two side gates, leading to anopen walk shaded by rows of trees. Here were spacious tanks of water, facing the doors of the right and left wings of the house, betweenwhich an avenue led from the main entrance to what may be called thecentre of the mansion. After passing the outer door of the right wing, you entered an open court with trees, extending quite round a nucleusof inner apartments, and having a back entrance communicating with thegarden. On the right and left of this court were six or morestore-rooms, a small receiving or waiting room at two of the corners, and at the other end the staircases which led to the upper stories. Both of the inner facades were furnished with a corridor, supported oncolumns, with similar towers and gateways. The interior of this wingconsisted of twelve rooms, two outer and one center court, communicating by folding gates; and on either side of this last wasthe main entrance to the rooms on the ground-floor, and to thestaircases leading to the upper story. At the back were three longrooms, and a gateway opening on the garden, which, besides flowers, contained a variety of trees, a summer-house, and a large tank ofwater. The arrangement of the left wing was different. The front gate led toan open court, extending the whole breadth of the facade of thebuilding, and backed by the wall of the inner part. Central andlateral doors thence communicated with another court, surrounded onthree sides by a set of rooms, and behind it was a corridor, uponwhich several other chambers opened. This wing had no back entrance, and standing isolated, the outer courtextended entirely around it; and a succession of doorways communicatedfrom the court with different sections of the centre of the house, where the rooms, disposed like those already described, aroundpassages and corridors, served partly as sitting apartments, andpartly as store-rooms. The stables for the horses and the coach-houses for the travelingchariots and carts, were in the centre, or inner part of the building;but the farm-yard where the cattle were kept stood at some distancefrom the house, and corresponded to the department known by the Romansunder the name of _rustica_. Though enclosed separately, it was withinthe general wall of circuit, which surrounded the land attached to thevilla; and a canal, bringing water from the river, skirted it, andextended along the back of the grounds. It consisted of two parts; thesheds for housing the cattle, which stood at the upper end, and theyard, where rows of rings were fixed, in order to tie them whilefeeding in the day-time; and men always attended, and frequently fedthem with the hand. The granaries were also apart from the house, and were enclosed withina separate wall; and some of the rooms in which they housed the grainappear to have had vaulted roofs. These were filled through anaperture near the top, to which the men ascended by steps, and thegrain when wanted was taken out from a door at the base. The superintendence of the house and grounds was intrusted tostewards, who regulated the tillage of the land, received whatever wasderived from the sale of the produce, overlooked the returns of thequantity of cattle or stock upon the estate, settled all the accounts, and condemned the delinquent peasants to the bastinado, or anypunishment they might deserve. To one were intrusted the affairs ofthe house, answering to "the ruler, " "overseer, " or "steward ofJoseph's house;" others "superintended the granaries, " the vineyard, or the culture of the fields; and the extent of their duties, or thenumber of those employed, depended on the quantity of land, or thewill of its owner. The mode of laying out their gardens was as varied as that of thehouses; but in all cases they appear to have taken particular care tocommand a plentiful supply of water, by means of reservoirs andcanals. Indeed, in no country is artificial irrigation more requiredthan in the valley of the Nile; and, from the circumstance of thewater of the inundation not being admitted into the gardens, theydepend throughout the year on the supply obtained from wells andtanks, or a neighboring canal. The mode of irrigation adopted by the ancient Egyptians wasexceedingly simple, being merely the _shadoof_, or pole and bucket ofthe present day; and, in many instances, men were employed to carrythe water in pails, suspended by a wooden yoke they bore upon theirshoulders. The same yoke was employed for carrying other things, asboxes, baskets containing game and poultry, or whatever was taken tomarket; and every trade seems to have used it for this purpose, fromthe potter and the brick-maker, to the carpenter and the shipwright. Part of the garden was laid out in walks shaded with trees, usuallyplanted in rows, and surrounded, at the base of the stem, with acircular ridge of earth, which, being lower at the centre than at thecircumference, retained the water, and directed it more immediatelytowards the roots. It is difficult to say if trees were trimmed intoany particular shape, or if their formal appearance in the sculptureis merely owing to a conventional mode of representing them; but, since the pomegranate, and some other fruit trees, are drawn withspreading and irregular branches, it is possible that sycamores, andothers, which presented large masses of foliage, were really trainedin that formal manner, though, from the hieroglyphic signifying"_tree_" having the same shape, we may conclude it was only a generalcharacter for all trees. Some, as the pomegranates, date-trees, and _dom_-palms, are easilyrecognized in the sculptures, but the rest are doubtful, as are theflowering plants, with the exception of the lotus and a few others. To the garden department belonged the care of the bees, which werekept in hives very like our own. In Egypt they required greatattention; and so few are its plants at the present day, that theowners of hives often take the bees in boats to various spots upon theNile, in quest of flowers. They are a smaller kind than our own; andthough found wild in the country, they are far less numerous thanwasps, hornets, and ichneumons. The wild bees live mostly understones, or in clefts of the rock, as in many other countries; and theexpression of Moses, as of the Psalmist, "honey out of the rock, "shows that in Palestine their habits were the same. Honey was thoughtof great importance in Egypt, both for household purposes, and for anoffering to the gods; that of Benha (thence surnamed _El assal_), orAthribis, in the Delta, retained its reputation to a late time; and ajar of honey from that place was one of the four presents sent by JohnMekaukes, the governor of Egypt, to Mohammed. Large gardens were usually divided into different parts; the principalsections being appropriated to the date and sycamore trees, and to thevineyard. The former may be called the orchard. The flower and kitchengardens also occupied a considerable space, laid out in beds; anddwarf trees, herbs, and flowers, were grown in red earthen pots, exactly like our own, arranged in long rows by the walks and borders. Besides the orchard and gardens, some of the large villas had a parkor paradise, with its fish-ponds and preserves for game, as well aspoultry-yards for keeping hens and geese, stalls for fattening cattle, wild goats, gazelles, and other animals originally from the desert, whose meat was reckoned among the dainties of the table. It was in these extensive preserves that the rich amused themselveswith the chase; and they also enclosed a considerable space in thedesert itself with net-fences, into which the animals were driven, andshot with arrows, or hunted with dogs. Gardens are frequently represented in the tombs of Thebes and otherparts of Egypt, many of which are remarkable for their extent. The onehere introduced is shown to have been surrounded by an embattled wall, with a canal of water passing in front of it, connected with theriver. Between the canal and the wall, and parallel to them both, wasa shady avenue of various trees; and about the centre was theentrance, through a lofty door, whose lintel and jambs were decoratedwith hieroglyphic inscriptions, containing the name of the owner ofthe grounds, who in this instance was the king himself. In the gatewaywere rooms for the porter, and other persons employed about thegarden, and, probably, the receiving room for visitors, whose abruptadmission might be unwelcome; and at the back a gate opened into thevineyard. The vines were trained on a trellis-work, supported bytransverse rafters resting on pillars; and a wall, extending round it, separated this part from the rest of the garden. At the upper end weresuites of rooms on three different stories, looking upon green trees, and affording a pleasant retreat in the heat of summer. On the outsideof the vineyard wall were placed rows of palms, which occurred againwith the _dom_ and other trees, along the whole length of the exteriorwall; four tanks of water, bordered by a grass plot, where geese werekept, and the delicate flower of the lotus was encouraged to grow, served for the irrigation of the grounds; and small _kiosks_ orsummer-houses, shaded with trees, stood near the water, and overlookedbeds of flowers. The spaces containing the tanks, and the adjoiningportions of the garden, were each enclosed by their respective walls, and a small subdivision on either side, between the large and smalltanks, seems to have been reserved for the growth of particular trees, which either required peculiar care, or bore a fruit of superiorquality. [Page Decoration] [Illustration: Painted by Edwin Long, A. R. A. Engraved & Printed by Illman Brothers EGYPTIAN FEAST. FOR THE MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITY] [Page Decoration] EGYPTIAN WEALTH. That the riches of the country were immense is proved by theappearance of the furniture and domestic utensils, and by the greatquantity of jewels of gold and silver, precious stones, and otherobjects of luxury in use among them in the earliest times; theirtreasures became proverbial throughout the neighboring states, and alove of pomp and splendor continued to be the ruling passion of theEgyptians till the latest period of their existence as an independentstate. The wealth of Egypt was principally derived from taxes, foreigntribute, monopolies, commerce, mines, and above all from theproductions of a fruitful soil. The wants of the poorer classes wereeasily satisfied; the abundance of grain, herbs and esculent plants, afforded an ample supply to the inhabitants of the valley of the Nile, at a trifling expense, and with little labor; and so much corn wasproduced in this fertile country, that after sufficing for theconsumption of a very extensive population, it offered a great surplusfor the foreign market; and afforded considerable profit to thegovernment, being exported to other countries, or sold to the traderswho visited Egypt for commercial purposes. The gold mines of the Bisharee desert were in those times veryproductive; and, though we have no positive notice of their firstdiscovery, there is reason to believe they were worked at the earliestperiods of the Egyptian monarchy. The total of the annual produce ofthe gold and silver mines (which Diodorus, on the authority ofHecatæus, says, was recorded in the tomb of Osymandyas at Thebes, apparently a king of the 19th dynasty) is stated to have been 3, 200myriads, or 32 millions of _minæ_--a weight of that country, called bythe Egyptians _mn_ or _mna_, 60 of which were equal to one talent. Thewhole sum amounted to 665 millions of our money; but it was evidentlyexaggerated. The position of the silver mines is unknown; but the gold mines ofAllaga, and other quartz "diggings, " have been discovered, as well asthose of copper, lead, iron and emeralds, all of which are in thedesert near the Red Sea; and the sulphur, which abounds in the samedistricts, was not neglected by the ancient Egyptians. The abundance of gold and silver in Egypt and other ancient countries, and the sums reported to have been spent, accord well with the reputedproductiveness of the mines in those days; and, as the subject hasbecome one of peculiar interest, it may be well to inquire respectingthe quantity and the use of the precious metals in ancient times. Theywere then mostly confined to the treasures of princes, and of somerich individuals; the proportion employed for commercial purposes wassmall, copper sufficing for most purchases in the home market; andnearly all the gold and silver money (as yet uncoined) was in thehands of the wealthy few. The manufacture of jewelry, and otherornamental objects took up a small portion of the great mass; but itrequired the wealth and privilege of royalty to indulge in a granddisplay of gold and silver vases, or similar objects of size andvalue. The mines of those days, from which was derived the wealth of Egypt, Lydia, Persia, and other countries, afforded a large supply of theprecious metals; and if most of them are now exhausted or barelyretain evidences of the treasures they once gave forth, there can beno doubt of their former productiveness; and it is reasonable tosuppose that gold and silver abounded in early times in those partsof the world which were first inhabited, as they did in countries morerecently peopled. They may never have afforded at any period theimmense riches of a California or an Australia, yet there is evidenceof their having been sufficiently distributed over various parts ofthe old world. For though Herodotus (iii. , 106) says that the extremities of theearth possess the greatest treasures; these extremities may approachor become the centre, _i. E. _, of civilization, when they arrive atthat eminence which all great countries in their turn seem to have achance of reaching; and Britain, the country of the greatly covetedtin, once looked upon as separated from the rest of mankind, is nowone of the commercial centres of the world. The day, too, has comewhen Australia and California are rivals for a similar distinction;and England, the rendezvous of America in her contests with Europe, has yielded its turn to younger competitors. The greatest quantity of gold and silver in early times was derivedfrom the East; and Asia and Egypt possessed abundance of those metals. The trade of Colchis, and the treasures of the Arimaspes andMassagetæ, coming from the Ural (or from the Altai) mountains, supplied much gold at a very early period, and Indian commerce sent alarge supply to western Asia. Spain, the Isle of Thasos, and otherplaces, were resorted to by the Phœnicians, particularly for silver;and Spain, for its mines, became the "El Dorado" of those adventuroustraders. The mines of the Eastern desert, the tributes from Ethiopia andCentral Africa, as well as from Asia, enriched Egypt with gold andsilver; but it was long before Greece (where in heroic times theprecious metals were scarcely known) obtained a moderate supply ofsilver from her own mines; and gold only became abundant there afterthe Persian war. Thrace and Macedonia produced gold, as well as other countries, butconfined it to their own use, as Ireland employed the produce of itsmines; and as early Italy did, when its various small states werestill free from the Roman yoke; and though the localities from whichsilver was obtained in more ancient times are less known, it iscertain that it was used at a very remote period; and (as beforestated) it was commonly employed in Abraham's time for mercantiletransactions. Gold is mentioned on the Egyptian monuments of the 4th dynasty, andsilver was probably of the same early time; but gold was evidentlyknown in Egypt before silver, which is consistent with reason, goldbeing more easily obtained than silver, and frequently near thesurface or in streams. The relative value and quantity of the precious metals in the earliesttimes, in Egypt and Western Asia, are not known; and even if a greateramount of gold were found mentioned in a tribute, this could be noproof of the silver being more rare, as it might merely be intended toshow the richness of the gifts. In the tribute brought to ThothmesIII. By the Southern Ethiopians and three Asiatic people, the formerpresent scarcely any silver, but great quantities of gold in rings, ingots, and dust. The Asiatic people of Pount bring two baskets ofgold rings, and one of gold dust in bags, a much smaller amount ofgold than the Ethiopians, and no silver; those of Kufa, or Kaf, moresilver than gold, and a considerable quantity of both made into vasesof handsome and varied shapes; and the Rot-n̄-n (apparently livingon the Euphrates) present rather more gold than silver, a large basketof gold and a smaller one of silver rings, two small silver andseveral large gold vases, which are of the most elegant shape, as wellas colored glass or porcelain cups, and much incense and bitumen. Thegreat Asiatic tribute to the same king at Karnak, speaks in one placeof 100 ingots (or pounds weight?) of gold and silver, and afterwardsof 401 of silver; but the imperfect preservation of that recordprevents our ascertaining how much gold was brought, or the relativeproportions of the two metals. M. Leon Faucher, indeed, suggested that the value of silver in somecountries originally equaled, if it did not exceed, that of gold . .. And the laws of Menes state that gold was worth two and a half timesmore than silver. .. . Everywhere, except in India, between the fifthand sixth century B. C. , the relative value of gold and silver was 6 or8 to 1, as it was in China and Japan at the end of the last century. In Greece it was, according to Herodotus, as 13 to 1; afterwards, inPlato's and Xenophon's time, and more than 100 years after the deathof Alexander, as 10 to 1, owing to the quantity of gold brought inthrough the Persian war; when the value of both fell so much, that inthe time of Demosthenes it was five times less than at the death ofSolon. Though it may not be possible to arrive at any satisfactory conclusionrespecting the quantity of gold and silver taken from the mines, employed in objects of art and luxury, or in circulation as money inEgypt and other countries, we shall introduce a few facts derived fromthe accounts of ancient authors, relating to the amount of wealthamassed, and the purposes to which those precious metals were applied. We shall also show some of the fluctuations that have taken place inthe supply of them at various periods; and shall endeavor to establisha comparison between the quantity said to have been in use in ancientand modern times. When we read of the enormous wealth amassed by the Egyptian andAsiatic kings, or the plunder by Alexander and the Romans, we wonderhow so much could have been obtained; for, even allowing forconsiderable exaggeration in the accounts of early times, there is noreason to disbelieve the private fortunes of individuals at Rome, andthe sums squandered by them, or even the amount of some of thetributes levied in the East. Of ancient cities, Babylon isparticularly cited by Herodotus and others for its immense wealth. Diodorus (ii. 9) mentions a golden statue of Jupiter at Babylon 40feet high, weighing 1, 000 Babylonian talents; another of Rhea, ofequal weight, having two lions on its knees, and near it silverserpents of 300 talents each; a standing statue of Juno weighing 800talents, holding a snake, and a sceptre set with gems; as well as agolden table of 500 talents weight on which were two cups weighing 300talents, and two censers each of 300 talents weight, with three goldenbowls, one of which, belonging to Jupiter, weighed 1, 200 talents, theothers each 600; making a total of at least 6, 900 talents, reckonedequal to $55, 000, 000. And the golden image of Nebuchadnezzar, 60cubits, or 90 feet high, at the same ratio would weigh 2, 250 talents, or $17, 934, 820. David, who had not the Indian and Arabian trade afterwards obtained bySolomon, left for the building of the temple 100, 000 talents of goldand 1, 000, 000 of silver; and the sum given by him of his "own propergood, " "over and above all prepared for the holy house, " was "3, 000talents of gold" and "7, 000 of refined silver;" besides the chiefmen's contributions of 500 talents and 10, 000 drachms of gold, 10, 000talents of silver, and an abundance of brass, iron, and preciousstones. The annual tribute of Solomon was 666 talents of gold, besides thatbrought by the merchants, and the present from the Queen of Sheba of120 talents; and the quantity of gold and silver used in the templeand his house was extraordinary. Mr. Jacob, in his valuable work onthe precious metals, has noticed many of these immense sums, collectedin old times. Among them are the tribute of Darius, amounting to 9, 880talents of silver and 4, 680 of gold, making a total of 14, 560, estimated at about $37, 250, 000; the sums taken by Xerxes to Greece;the wealth of Crœsus; the riches of Pytheus, king of a small territoryin Phrygia, possessing gold and silver mines, who entertained the armyof Xerxes, and gave him 2, 000 talents of silver and 4, 093, 000 statersof gold (equal to 23, 850, 000 dollars of our money); the treasuresacquired by Alexander, in Susa and Persia, exclusive of that found inthe Persian camp and in Babylon, said to have amounted to 40, 000 or50, 000 talents; the treasure of Persepolis rated at 120, 000 talents;that of Pasagarda at 6, 000; and the 180, 000 talents collected at thecapture of Ecbatana; besides 6, 000 which Darius had with him, and weretaken by his murderers. "Ptolemy Philadelphus is stated by Appian tohave possessed treasure to the enormous amount of 740, 000 talents;"either "890 million dollars, or at least a quarter of that sum;" andfortunes of private individuals at Rome show the enormous wealth theypossessed. "Crassus had in lands $8, 072, 915, besides as much more inmoney, furniture, and slaves; Seneca, $12, 109, 375; Pallas, thefreedman of Claudius, an equal sum; Lentulus, the augur, $16, 145, 805;Cæc. Cl. Isidorus, though he had lost a great part of his fortune inthe civil war, left by his will 4, 116 slaves, 3, 600 yoke of oxen, 257, 000 other cattle, and in ready money $2, 421, 875. Augustus receivedby the testaments of his friends $161, 458, 330. Tiberius left at hisdeath $108, 984, 375, which Caligula lavished away in less than oneyear; and Vespasian, at his succession, said that to support the statehe required _quadrigenties millies_, or $1, 614, 083, 330. The debts ofMilo amounted to $2, 825, 520. J. Cæsar, before he held any office, owed1, 300 talents, $1, 279, 375; and when he set out for Spain after hisprætorship, he is reported to have said, that 'Bis millies etquingenties sibi deesse, ut nihil haberet, ' or 'that he was$10, 091, 145 worse than nothing. ' When he first entered Rome, in thebeginning of the civil war, he took out of the treasury $5, 479, 895, and brought into it at the end of it $24, 218, 750; he purchased thefriendship of Curio, at the commencement of the civil war, by a bribeof $2, 421, 856, and that of the consul, L. Paulus, by 1, 500 talents, about $1, 397, 500; Apicius wasted on luxurious living $2, 421, 875;Caligula laid out on a supper $403, 625; and the ordinary expense ofLucullus for a supper in the Hall of Apollo was 50, 000 drachms, or$8, 070. The house of Marius, bought of Cornelia for $12, 105, was soldto Lucullus for $80, 760; the burning of his villa was a loss to M. Scaurus of $4, 036, 455; and Nero's golden house must have cost animmense sum, since Otho laid out in furnishing a part of it$2, 017, 225. " But though Rome was greatly enriched by conquest, shenever obtained possession of the chief wealth of Asia; and the largestquantity of the precious metals was always excluded from thecalculations of ancient writers. The whole revenue of the Roman Empire under Augustus is "supposed tohave been equal to 200 millions of our money;" and at the time of hisdeath (A. D. 14) the gold and silver in circulation throughout theempire is supposed to have amounted to $1, 790, 000, 000; which at areduction of 1 grain in 360 every year for wear, would have beenreduced by the year A. D. 482 to $435, 165, 495; and when the mines ofHungary and Germany began to be worked, during the seventh and ninthcenturies, the entire amount of coined money was not more than about42 at the former, and 165 or 170 million dollars at the latter, period; so that if no other supply had been obtained, the quantitythen circulating would long since have been exhausted. "The loss by wear on silver" is shown by Mr. Jacob "to be four timesthat of gold;" that on our money is estimated at more than one part ina hundred annually; and "the smaller the pieces, the greater loss dothey suffer by abrasion. " "The maximum of durability of gold coinsseems to be fixed at 22 parts, in 24, of pure gold with theappropriate alloys. When the fineness ascends or descends from thatpoint, the consumption by abrasion is increased. " It is from its ductility that gold wears so much less than silver; andmany ancient gold coins (as those of Alexander and others), thoughevidently worn by use, nearly retain their true weight, from thesurface being partly transferred into the adjacent hollows, and notentirely rubbed off as in silver. The quantity of the precious metals, formerly used for the purposes ofluxury, greatly diminished after the decline of the Roman empire, andin the middle ages they were sparingly employed except for coinage;ornamental work in gold and silver, mostly executed by first-rateartists, being confined to men of rank, till the opening of new minesadded to the supply; which was afterwards increased by the abundanttreasures of America; and the quantity applied to ornamental purposesthen began to vie with that of olden times. M. Leon Faucher even calculates the annual abstraction of the preciousmetals from circulation by use for luxury, disasters at sea, andexport, at 25 million dollars, in Europe and the United States. The silver from the American mines exported to Europe in 100 years, to1630, gave an addition to the currency of 5 million dollars annually, besides that used for other purposes, or re-exported; and from 1630 to1830 from 7-1/2 to 10 millions annually; an increase in the quantityused for currency having taken place, as well as in that exported toIndia, and employed for purposes of luxury. Humboldt states the whole quantity of gold from the American mines, upto 1803, to be 162 millions of pounds in weight, and of silver 7, 178millions, or 44 of silver to 1 of gold. Again, the total value of gold produced during three centuries to1848, including that from Russia, has been estimated at$2, 825, 000, 000; and the total annual quantity of gold, before thediscovery of the Californian fields, has been reckoned at about$50, 000, 000. That from California and Australia already amounts yearlyto $170, 000, 000 (or 3-2/5 times as much as previously obtained), andis still increasing; but though far beyond the supply afforded by thediscovery of America, the demand made upon it by the modern industryof man, together with the effect of rapid communication, and of theextension of trade, as well as by the great deficiency of gold in theworld, will prevent its action being felt in the same way as when theAmerican supply was first obtained; and still less will be the effectnow, than it would have been in ancient times, if so large and suddena discovery had then been made. For, as Chevalier says, "Vast as isthe whole amount of gold in the world, it sinks into insignificancewhen contrasted with the aggregate product of other branches of humanindustry. If they increase as fast as the gold, little or noalteration will take place in its value; which depends on the relationbetween it and the annual production of other wealth. " According to another calculation, all the gold now in the world issupposed to be equal to about $3, 410, 000, 000; but the whole amount ofeither of the two precious metals in old times is not easilyascertained, nor can any definite comparison be established betweentheir former and present value. And still less in Egypt, than inGreece and Rome, no standard of calculation being obtainable from theprices of commodities there, or from any other means of determining, the value of gold and silver. [Page Decoration] FOOTNOTES: [21] At this meal, contrary to the usual custom, women were present. [22] According to tradition, many Makedonians were killed by thePersians taking hold of their long beards, and pulling them to theground. Alexander, in consequence, had his troops shaved during thebattle. [Page Decoration] DOMESTIC UTENSILS. The immense number and variety of statues, lamps, urns, articles ofdomestic use, in metal or earthenware, etc. , discovered at Herculaneumand Pompeii, have rendered the Museum at Naples an inexhaustibletreasury of information relative to the private life of the ancients. To give an adequate description of the richness and variety of itscontents would far exceed the whole extent of this work, much more thesmall space which it can have; but that space can not be betteroccupied than in describing some few articles which possess aninterest from the ingenuity of their construction, the beauty of theirworkmanship, or their power to illustrate ancient usages or ancientauthors. Writing implements are among the most important of the latter class, on account of the constant mention of them, as well as of theinfluence which the comparative ease or difficulty of producing copiesof writing is always found to exert over society. On this head thereis no want of information. The implements used are frequentlymentioned, especially in familiar writings, as the letters of Cicero, and their forms have been tolerably ascertained from various fragmentsof ancient paintings. It is hardly necessary to state that for manuscripts of any length, and such as were meant to be preserved, parchment or vellum, and avegetable tissue manufactured from the rush _papyrus_, were in use. The stalk of this plant consists of a number of thin concentric coats, which, being carefully detached, were pasted crossways one over theother, like the warp and woof in woven manufactures, so that thefibres ran longitudinally in each direction, and opposed in each anequal resistance to violence. The surface was then polished with ashell, or some hard smooth substance. The ink used was a simple blackliquid, containing no mordant to give it durability, so that thewriting was easily effaced by the application of a sponge. The lengthof the Greek papyri is said to vary from eight to twelve inches; theLatin often reach sixteen; the writing is in columns, placed at rightangles to the length of the roll. To each of them is appended a sort of ticket, which served as a title. Hence the end of the roll, or volume, was called _frons_, a term offrequent recurrence in Ovid and Martial, and not always rightlyunderstood. Hence, also, when we meet with the expression, _geminafrons_, we must understand that the volume had a ticket at each end. These books were also composed of two tables or pages, and served formemoranda, letters, and other writings, not intended to be preserved. They were composed of leaves of wood or metal coated over with wax, upon which the ancients wrote with a _stylus_, or iron pen, or pointrather, for it was a solid sharp-pointed instrument, some 6 to 8inches in length, like a lady's stiletto upon a large scale. In themiddle of each leaf there appears to have been a button, called_umbilicus_, intended to prevent the pages touching when closed, andobliterating the letters traced on the yielding wax. The tablets here represented would be called twofold, as consistingonly of two leaves; in the following cut may be seen another sort, consisting of several leaves, united at the back with hinges or rings. In Latin they were called _tabulæ_, or _tabellæ_, and the epithets, duplices, triplices, quintuplices, served to mark the number of theleaves. Beside them stands a double inkstand, intended probably to containboth black and red ink. The former was made either of lampblack orsome other sort of charcoal, or from the cuttlefish, and was calledatramentum. As it contained no mordant, and was readily obliterated bymoisture, it could be used for writing upon ivory tablets; and it hasbeen conjectured that some sorts of paper were covered with a wash, orvarnish, to facilitate the discharge of the old writing, and renderthe paper serviceable a second time. Red ink was prepared fromcinnabar. The reed, cut to a point, which lies beside the inkstand, isthe instrument used in writing with ink before the application ofquills. It was called _calamus_. The open papyrus explains howmanuscripts were read, rolled up at each end, so as to show only thecolumn of writing upon which the student was intent. At the other sideis a purse, or bag, to hold the reed, penknife, and other writinginstruments. [Illustration: TABULÆ, CALAMUS, AND PAPYRUS. ] The next cut represents, besides a set of tablets bound up, a singleone hanging from a nail. Such, probably, were those suspended atEpidaurus, containing remedies by which the sick had been cured, bythe perusal of which Hippocrates is said to have profited in thecompilation of his medical works. It also contains, besides a papyrussimilar to those described, a hexagonal inkstand, with a ring to passthe finger through, upon which there lies an instrument resembling areed, but the absence of the knots, or joints, marks it to be astylus. Another of these instruments leans against the open book. [Illustration: TABULÆ, STYLUS, AND PAPYRUS. ] These were made of every sort of material; sometimes with the preciousmetals, but usually of iron, and on occasion might be turned intoformidable weapons. It was with his stylus that Cæsar stabbed Casca inthe arm, when attacked in the senate by his murderers; and Caligulaemployed some person to put to death a senator with the sameinstruments. In the reign of Claudius women and boys were searched to ascertainwhether there were styluses in their pen-cases. Stabbing with the pen, therefore, is not merely a metaphorical expression. Tablets such asthose here represented, were the day-books, or account-books. Whenthey were full, or when the writing on them was no longer useful, thewax was smoothed, and they were ready again for other service. [Illustration: TABULÆ AND INK STAND. ] The cut above, besides an inkstand, represents an open book. Thethinness and yellowish color of the leaves, which are tied togetherwith ribbon, denotes that it was made of parchment or vellum. [Illustration: LIBRARIES AND MONEY. ] Below is a cylindrical box, called _scrinium_ and _capsa_, or_capsula_, in which the manuscripts were placed vertically, the titlesat the top. Catullus excuses himself to Manlius for not having senthim the required verses, because he had with him only one box of hisbooks. It is evident that a great number of volumes might be comprisedin this way within a small space; and this may tend to explain thesmallness of the ancient libraries--at least of the rooms which areconsidered to have been such. Beside the box are two tablets, which, from the money-bag and coins scattered about, had probably been usedin reckoning accounts. No perfect papyri, but only fragments, have been found at Pompeii. AtHerculaneum, up to the year 1825, 1, 756 had been obtained, besidesmany others destroyed by the workmen, who imagined them to be meresticks of charcoal. Most of them were found in a suburban villa, in aroom of small dimensions, ranged in presses round the sides of theroom, in the centre of which stood a sort of rectangular book-case. Sir Humphry Davy, after investigating their chemical nature, arrivedat the conclusion that they had not been carbonized by heat, butchanged by the long action of air and moisture; and he visited Naplesin hopes of rendering the resources of chemistry available towardsdeciphering these long-lost literary treasures. His expectations, however, were not fully crowned with success, although the partialefficacy of his methods was established; and he relinquished thepursuit at the end of six months, partly from disappointment, partlyfrom a belief that vexatious obstacles were thrown in his way by thejealousy of the persons to whom the task of unrolling had beenintrusted. About five hundred volumes have been well and neatlyunrolled. It is rather remarkable that, as far as we are acquainted, no manuscript of any known standard work has been found, nor, indeed, any production of any of the great luminaries of the ancient world. The most celebrated person, of whom any work has been found, isEpicurus, whose treatise, _De Natura_, has been successfully unrolled. This and a few other treatises have been published. The library inwhich this was found appears to have been rich in treatises on theEpicurean philosophy. The only Latin work which it contained was apoem, attributed to Rabirius, on the war of Cæsar and Antony. A curious literary monument has been found in the shape of acalendar. It is cut on a square block of marble, upon each side ofwhich three months are registered in perpendicular columns, eachheaded by the proper sign of the zodiac. The information given may beclassed under three heads, astronomical, agricultural, and religious. The first begins with the name of the month; then follows the numberof days; then the nones, which in eight months of the year fall on thefifth day, and were thence called quintanæ--in the others on theseventh, and were, therefore, called septimanæ. The ides are notmentioned, because seven days always elapsed between them and thenones. The number of hours in the day and night is also given, theintegral part being given by the usual numerals, the fractional by anS for semissis, the half, and by small horizontal lines for thequarters. Lastly, the sign of the zodiac in which the sun is to befound is named, and the days of the equinoxes and of the summersolstice are determined; for the winter solstice we read, _Hiemisinitium_, the beginning of winter. Next the calendar proceeds to theagricultural portion, in which the farmer is reminded of the principaloperations which are to be done within the month. It concludes withthe religious part, in which, besides indicating the god under whoseguardianship the month is placed, it notes the religious festivalswhich fall within it, and warns the cultivator against neglecting theworship of those deities upon whose favor and protection the successof his labors is supposed mainly to depend. [Illustration: GOLD LAMP. (_Found at Pompeii. _)] No articles of ancient manufacture are more common than lamps. Theyare found in every variety of form and size, in clay and in metal, from the cheapest to the most costly description. A large and handsomegold lamp found at Pompeii in 1863 may be seen in the Pompeian room atthe museum in Naples. We have the testimony of the celebratedantiquary, Winkleman, to the interest of this subject. "I place amongthe most curious utensils found at Herculaneum, the lamps, in whichthe ancients sought to display elegance and even magnificence. Lampsof every sort will be found in the museum at Portici, both in clayand bronze, but especially the latter; and as the ornaments of theancients have generally some reference to some particular things, weoften meet with rather remarkable subjects. A considerable number ofthese articles will be found in the British Museum, but they arechiefly of the commoner sort. All the works, however, descriptive ofHerculaneum and Pompeii, present us with specimens of the richer andmore remarkable class which attract admiration both by the beauty ofthe workmanship and the whimsical variety of their designs. We mayenumerate a few which occur in a work now before us, 'Antiquitesd'Herculanum, ' in which we find a Silenus, with the usualpeculiarities of figure ascribed to the jolly god rather exaggerated, and an owl sitting on his head between two huge horns, which supportstands for lamps. Another represents a flower-stalk growing out of acircular plinth, with snail-shells hanging from it by small chains, which held the oil and wick; the trunk of a tree, with lamps suspendedfrom the branches; another, a naked boy, beautifully wrought, with alamp hanging from one hand, and an instrument for trimming it from theother, the lamp itself representing a theatrical mask. Beside him is atwisted column surmounted by the head of a Faun or Bacchanal, whichhas a lid in its crown, and seems intended as a reservoir of oil. Theboy and pillar are both placed on a square plateau raised upon lions'claws. But beautiful as these lamps are, the light which they gavemust have been weak and unsteady, and little superior to that of theold-fashioned common lamps, with which they are identical inprinciple. The wick was merely a few twisted threads drawn through ahole in the upper surface of the oil vessel, and there was no glass tosteady the light and prevent its varying with every breeze that blew. "Still, though the Romans had not advanced so far in art as to applyglass chimneys and hollow circular wicks to their lamps, they hadexperienced the inconvenience of going home at night through a citypoorly paved, watched and lighted, and accordingly soon inventedlanterns to meet the want. These, we learn from Martial, who hasseveral epigrams upon this subject, were made of horn or bladder: nomention, we believe, occurs of glass being thus employed. The richwere preceded by a slave bearing their lantern. This Cicero mentionsas being the habit of Catiline upon his midnight expeditions; and whenM. Antony was accused of a disgraceful intrigue, his lantern-bearerwas tortured to extort a confession whither he had conducted hismaster. One of these machines, of considerable ingenuity and beauty ofworkmanship, was found in Herculaneum, and another almost exactly thesame, at Pompeii a few years after. In form it is cylindrical, with ahemispherical top, and it is made of sheet-copper, except the two mainpieces, which are cast. The bottom consists of a flat, circular copperplate, supported by three balls, and turned up all around the rim, from which rise the rectangular supports, which support the upper partof the frame. The top and bottom were further connected by theinterior uprights, between which the laminæ of horn or glass wereplaced, and secured at the top and bottom by the doublings of thecopper. Horn was the most common substance used to transmit the light, but bladder and other membranes were also employed. In the centre ofthe lantern is seen the small lamp. The cover is hemispherical, andlifts up and down: it is pierced with holes for the admission of air, and has besides the characters NBVRTI-CATIS pricked upon it. Thesehave been interpreted, Tiburti Cati Sum, or Tiburti Cati S. (ervus), indicating, the one that it belonged to Catus, or that it was to becarried by his slave. " [Illustration: CANDELABRUM, OR LAMP STAND. ] One of the most elegant articles of furniture in ancient use was thecandelabrum, by which we mean those tall and slender stands whichserved to support a lamp, but were independent of, and unconnectedwith, it. These, in their original and simple form, were mere reeds orstraight sticks, fixed upon a foot by peasants to raise their light toa convenient height; at least such a theory of their origin isagreeable to what we are told of the rustic manners of the earlyRomans, and it is in some degree countenanced by the fashion in whichmany of the ancient candelabra are made. Sometimes the stem isrepresented as throwing out buds; sometimes it is a stick, the sidebranches of which have been roughly lopped, leaving projections wherethey grew; sometimes it is in the likeness of a reed or cane, thestalk being divided into joints. Most of those which have been foundin the buried cities are of bronze, some few of iron. In their generalplan and appearance there is a great resemblance, though the detailsof the ornaments admit of infinite variety. All stand on three feet, usually griffins' or lions' claws, which support a light shaft, plainor fluted according to the fancy of the maker. The whole supportseither a plinth large enough for a lamp to stand on, or a socket toreceive a wax candle, which the Romans used sometimes instead of oilin lighting their rooms. Some of them have a sliding shaft, like thatof a music stand, by which the light might be raised or lowered atpleasure. [Illustration: CANDELABRA, OR LAMP STANDS. ] One of those elegant table lamps, by the praise of which the presentdiscussion was introduced, is represented in the accompanying plate. Including the stand it is three feet high. On a rectangular plinthrises a rectangular pillar, crowned by a capricious capital. On thefront of the pillar is a mask of a Bacchante, with fine features andlong flowing hair; and on the opposite side, the head of a bull, withthe Greek word Bucranion. From the extreme points of the abacus, fourornamental branches, beautifully chased, project; the lamps which nowhang from them, though ancient, also, are not those which belong tothe stand, and were not found with it. They are nearly alike infigure, but differ in size. Three of them are ornamented with variousanimals, the fourth is plain. One of them has each of its ends wroughtinto the form of a shell. Above are two eagles in high relief, withthe thunderbolt of Jupiter in their talons. Another has two bulls'heads, a third two elephants' heads projecting from the sides. Thelatter is suspended by two dolphins, instead of the chains generallyin use, whose tails are united, and attached to a small ball and ring. The pillar is not placed in the center, but at one end of the plinth, which is the case in almost every lamp of this description yet found. The space thus obtained may have served as a stand for the oil vaseused in trimming the lamps. The plinth is beautifully damasked, orinlaid, in imitation of a vine, the leaves of which are of silver, thestem and fruit of bright brass. On one side is an altar with wood andfire upon it; on the other a Bacchus, naked, with his thick hairplaited and bound with ivy. He rides a tiger, and has his left hand inthe attitude of holding reins, which time probably has destroyed; withthe right he raises a drinking-horn. The workmanship of this lamp isexquisitely delicate in all its parts. Before we quit this subject we have still one candelabrum to notice, which for simplicity of design and delicacy of execution is hardly tobe surpassed by any in the Neapolitan collection. The stem is formedof a liliaceous plant, divided into two branches, each of whichsupports a flat disc, which may represent the flower, upon which alamp was placed. At the base is a mass of bronze which gives stabilityto the whole, upon which a Silenus is seated, earnestly engaged intrying to pour wine from a skin which he holds in his left hand into acup in his right. In this figure all the distinctive marks of thecompanion and tutor of Bacchus are expressed with great skill; thepointed ears, the goat's tail, the shaggy skin, the flat nose, and theample rotundity of body, leave no doubt on our minds as to the personintended to be represented. The head, especially, is admirable, bothin respect of workmanship and expression. Amongst Greek domestic utensils we also count articles made ofbasket-work, which frequently occur in antique pictures. Thekalathos, the basket for keeping wool (used for weaving andembroidering), and also flowers and fruit, is frequently met with invase paintings illustrating the life of Greek women. As early asHomer's time baskets, probably round or oval, were used at meals, tokeep bread and pastry in. They had a low rim and handles. The kaneonwas also used at offerings, where it is filled with pomegranates, holly boughs and ribbons. At the Panathenaia noble Athenian maidenscarried such baskets, filled with holy cakes, incense, and knives ontheir heads. These graceful figures were a favorite subject of antiquesculpture. Both Polyklete and Skopas had done a celebratedkanephore--the former in bronze, the latter in marble. There was alsoa flat basket, chiefly used for carrying fish, similar to that used atthe present day by fishermen in the south. Other baskets used bypeasants appear frequently in antique pictures, in the originalcarried by a peasant on a stick over his shoulder, together withanother basket of the same pear-like shape, taken from a bas-reliefrepresenting a vintage, in which the former appears filled withgrapes, while the latter is being filled with must by a boy. Thisproves, at the same time, the knowledge amongst the Greeks of the artof making the basket-work dense enough to hold fluids. The same factis shown by a passage in Homer, in which Polyphemos lets the milkcoagulate to cheese in baskets, which cheese was afterwards placed ona hurdle through which the whey trickled slowly. Of plaited rushes, ortwigs, consisted also a peculiar kind of net, a specimen of which isseen on the reverse of a medal coined under the Emperor Macrinus, asthe emblem of the maritime city of Byzantium. To light and heat the room, in Homer's time, fire-baskets, orfire-basins were used, standing on high poles, and fed with dry logsof wood or splinters. The cinders were, at intervals, removed byserving-maids, and the flames replenished. Such fire-baskets on polesare still used by night-travelers in Southern Russia, and at nightlyceremonies in India. The use of pine-torches is of equal antiquity. They consisted of long, thin sticks of pine-wood, tied together withbark, rushes or papyrus. The bark of the vine was also used fortorches, called lophis. The golden statues on pedestals, in the hallof Alkinoos, undoubtedly held such torches in their hands. In vasepaintings we also see a different form of the torch, carried chieflyby Demeter and Persephone, which consists of two pieces of woodfastened crosswise to a staff. An imitation of this wooden torch wasundoubtedly the torch-case made of clay or metal in the shape of asalpinx. Its surface was either smooth or formed in imitation of thebundles of sticks and the bark of the wooden torch, the inside beingfilled with resinous substances. [Illustration: STANDING LAMP. ] [Illustration: ANCIENT LAMPS. ] The date of oil-lamps in Greece can not be stated with accuracy; theywere known at the time of Aristophanes. They were made of terra-cottaor metal, and their construction resembles those used by the Romans. They are mostly closed semi-globes with two openings, one, in thecentre, to pour the oil in, the other in the nose-shaped prolongationdestined to receive the wick. Amongst the small numbers of Greek lampspreserved to us we have chosen a few of the most graceful specimens, one of them showing the ordinary form of the lamp. Some are made ofclay, the latter being painted in various colors. The Athenians alsoused lanterns made of transparent horn, and lit up with oil-lamps. They were carried at night in the streets like the torches. Sparks, carefully preserved under the ashes, served both Greeks and Romans tolight the fire. The ancients had, however, a lighting apparatusconsisting of two pieces of wood, of which the one was driven into theother, like a gimlet, the friction effecting a flame. According toTheophrast, the wood of nut or chestnut trees was generally used forthe purpose. The street running from the Temple of Fortune to the Forum, called theStreet of the Forum, in Pompeii, and forming a continuation of that ofMercury, has furnished an unusually rich harvest of various utensils. A long list of these is given by Sir W. Gell, according to which therewere found no less than two hundred and fifty small bottles ofinferior glass, with numerous other articles of the same material, which it would be tedious to particularize. A marble statue of a laughing faun, two bronze figures of Mercury, theone three inches and the other four inches high, and a statue of afemale nine inches high, were also found, together with many bronzelamps and stands. We may add vases, basins with handles, pateræ, bells, elastic springs, hinges, buckles for harness, a lock, aninkstand, and a strigil; gold ear-rings and a silver spoon; an ovalcauldron, a saucepan, a mould for pastry, and a weight of alabasterused in spinning, with its ivory axis remaining. The cataloguefinishes with a leaden weight, forty-nine lamps of common clayornamented with masks and animals, forty-five lamps for two wicks, three boxes with a slit to keep money in, in one of which were foundthirteen coins of Titus, Vespasian, and Domitian. Among the mostcurious things discovered, were seven glazed plates found packed instraw. There were also seventeen unvarnished vases of terra-cotta andseven clay dishes, and a large pestle and mortar. The scales andsteelyard which we have given are said to have been found at the sametime. On the beam of the steelyard are Roman numerals from X. ToXXXX. ; a V was placed for division between each X. ; smaller divisionsare also marked. The inscription is IMP. VESP. AVG. IIX. T. IMP. AVG. F. VI. C. EXACTA. IN. CAPITO. which is translated thus: "In the eighth consulate of VespasianEmperor Augustus, and in the sixth of Titus, Emperor and son ofAugustus. Proved in the Capitol. " This shows the great care taken toenforce a strict uniformity in the weights and measures usedthroughout the empire; the date corresponds with the year 77 of ourera, only two years previous to the great eruption. The steelyardfound was also furnished with chains and hooks, and with numbers up toXXX. Another pair of scales had two cups, with a weight on the sideopposite to the material weighed, to mark more accurately thefractional weight; this weight was called by the ancients ligula, andexamen. [Illustration: SCALES AND WEIGHTS. ] Gell tells us that the skeleton of a Pompeian was found here, "whoapparently, for the sake of sixty coins, a small plate and a saucepanof silver, had remained in his house till the street was already halffilled with volcanic matter. " He was found as if in the act ofescaping from his window. Two others were found in the same street. The shops in the street on the north side of the Temple of Augustusmost probably supplied those who feasted with dainties; and it hasbeen called the Street of Dried Fruits, from the quantity of raisins, figs, plums, and chestnuts, fruit of several sorts preserved in vasesof glass, hempseed, and lentils. It is now, however, more generallyknown as the Street of the Augustals. Scales, money, moulds for pastryand bread, were discovered in the shops; and a bronze statue of Fame, small, and delicately executed, having golden bracelets round thearms. In the northern entrance to the building the name CELSVM was writtenon a pilaster; near it was found in a box a gold ring with an engravedstone set in it, forty-one silver, and a thousand and thirty-six brasscoins. The next group of vessels, though nearly destitute of ornament, andprobably of a very ordinary class, will serve to give us some idea ofthe cooking vessels of the Romans. One of the most celebrated vases inthe Neapolitan collection was found with a bronze simpulum in it; andupon the vase itself there was a sacrificial painting, representing apriest in the act of pouring out a libation from a vase with thesimpulum. Pottery in ancient times was usually much more ornamental than atpresent, although it was often the case that their ornaments wererather an inconvenience, and would simply encumber the vessels; in ourpractical age more importance is placed in the convenience and utilitythan in beauty. Even their common vessels are not without a certaindegree of elegance, both in form and workmanship. [Illustration: VESSELS. (_From Pompeii. _)] Great numbers of clay vases have been found, of which the following isa very beautiful specimen. The lip and base have the favorite ovolomoulding; the body has two rows of fluting separated by a transverseband, charged with leaves, and with a swan in the centre. The neck ofthe vase is painted, and the same subject is given on each side. Itrepresents a chariot, drawn by four animals at full gallop, whichappear to be intermediate between tigers and panthers. A winged geniusdirects them with his left hand, while with his right he goads themwith a javelin. Another winged figure preceding the quadriga, with a thyrsus in hisleft hand, is in the act of seizing the bridle of one of the animals. The whole is painted in white on a black ground, except some few ofthe details, which are yellow, and the car and mantle of the genius, which are red. The handles represent knotted cords, or flexiblebranches interlaced, which terminate in the heads of animals. Thisvase is much cracked, probably in consequence of the violence of thefire. Some drinking vessels of peculiar construction have been found, whichmerit a particular description. These were in the shape of a horn, theprimitive drinking-vessel, and had commonly a hole at the point, to beclosed with the finger, until the drinker, raising it above his mouth, suffered the liquor to flow in a stream from the orifice. [Illustration: DRINKING VESSEL. ] This method of drinking, which is still practiced in some parts of theMediterranean, must require great skill in order to hit the markexactly. Sometimes the hole at the tip was closed, and one or twohandles fitted to the side, and then the base formed the mouth; andsometimes the whimsical fancy of the potter fashioned it into the headof a pig, a stag, or any other animal. One in the Neapolitan Museumhas the head of an eagle with the ears of a man. These vases are usually of clay, but cheap as is the material, it isevident by their good workmanship that they were not made by thelowest artists. The learned seem to have been generally mistaken on the subject ofglass-making among the ancients, who appear to have been far moreskillful than had been imagined. The vast collection of bottles, vases, glasses, and other utensils, discovered at Pompeii, issufficient to show that the ancients were well acquainted with the artof glass-blowing. There is no doubt but that the Romans possessed glass in sufficientplenty to apply it to purposes of household ornament. The raw materialappears from Pliny's account to have undergone two fusions; the firstconverted it into a rough mass called ammonitrum, which was meltedagain and became pure glass. We are also told of a dark-colored glassresembling obsidian, plentiful enough to be cast into solid statues. Pliny mentions having seen images of Augustus cast in this substance. It probably was some coarse kind of glass resembling the ammonitrum, or such as that in which the scoriæ of our iron furnaces abound. Glasswas worked either by blowing it with a pipe, as is now practiced, byturning in a lathe, by engraving and carving it, or, as we havenoticed, by casting it in a mould. The ancients had certainly acquired great skill in the manufacture, asappears both from the accounts which have been preserved by ancientauthors, and by the specimens which still exist--among which we maynotice, as pre-eminently beautiful, that torment of antiquaries, thePortland vase, preserved in the British Museum. We have alreadyadverted to another vase of the same kind, and of almost equal beauty, found in one of the tombs near the Gate of Herculaneum. A remarkable story is told by Dion Cassius, of a man who, in the timeof the Emperor Tiberius, brought a glass cup into the imperialpresence and dashed it on the ground. To the wonder of the spectators, the vessel bent under the blow without breaking, and the ingeniousartist immediately hammered out the bruise, and restored it whole andsound to its original form; in return for which display of his skill, Tiberius, it is said, ordered him to be immediately put to death. The story is a strange one, yet it is confirmed by Pliny, who bothmentions the discovery itself, and gives a clue to the motives whichmay have urged the emperor to a cruelty apparently so unprovoked. Hespeaks of an artificer who had invented a method of making flexibleglass, and adds that Tiberius banished him, lest this new fashionshould injure the workers in metal, of whose trade the manufacture ofgold, silver, and other drinking-cups, and furniture for the table, formed an extensive and important branch. The Romans were also well acquainted with the art of coloring glass, as appears, among other proofs, from the glass mosaics, of whichmention has been made. Pliny speaks of a blood-red sort, calledhæmatinum, from blood, of white glass, blue glass, etc. The mostvaluable sort, however, was the colorless crystal glass, for two cupsof which, with handles on each side, Nero gave 6, 000 sesterces, about$240. Under this head we may speak of the vases called _murrhina_, since onetheory respecting them is, that they were made of variegated glass. Their nature, however, is doubtful; not so their value. Pliny speaksof 70 talents being given for one holding three sextarii, about fourand a half pints. Titus Petronius on his death-bed defrauded theavarice of Nero, who had compelled him, by a common piece of tyranny, to appoint the crown his heir by breaking a murrhine trulla, or flatbowl, worth 300 talents. Nero himself, as became a prince, outdid allby giving 100 talents for a single capis, or drinking-cup, "amemorable circumstance, that an emperor, and father of his country, should have drunk at so dear a rate. " Pliny's description of thissubstance runs thus: "It is to be noticed that we have these rich cassidoin vessels (calledin Latin murrhina) from the East, and that from places otherwise notgreatly renowned, but most within the kingdom of Parthia; howbeit theprincipal come from Carmania. The stone whereof these vessels are madeis thought to be a certain humor, thickened as it were in the earth byheat. In no place are these stones found larger than small tablementsof pillars or the like, and seldom were they so thick as to serve forsuch a drinking-cup as I have spoken of already. Resplendent are theyin some sort, but it may rather be termed a gloss than a radiant andtransparent clearness; but that which maketh them so much esteemed isthe variety of colors, for in these stones a man shall perceivecertain veins or spots, which, as they be turned about, resembledivers colors, inclining partly to purple and partly to white: heshall see them also of a third color composed of them both, resemblingthe flame of fire. Thus they pass from one to another as a man holdeththem, insomuch as their purple seemeth near akin to white, and theirmilky white to bear as much on the purple. Some esteem those cassidoinor murrhine stones, the richest, which present as it were certainreverberations of certain colors meeting altogether about their edgesand extremities, such as we observe in rainbows; others are delightedwith certain fatty spots appearing in them; and no account is made ofthem which show either pale or transparent in any part of them, forthese be reckoned great faults and blemishes; in like manner if therebe seen in the cassidoin any spots like corns of salts or warts, forthen are they considered apt to split. Finally, the cassidoin stonesare commended in some sort also for the smell that they do yield. " On these words of Pliny a great dispute has arisen. Some think thatonyx is the material described, a conjecture founded on the variety ofcolors which that stone presents. To this it is objected, that onyxand murrha, onyx vases and murrhine vases are alike mentioned by Latinwriters, and never with any hint as to their identity; nay, there is apassage in which Heliogabalus is said to have onyx and murrhine vasesin constant use. Others, as we have said, think that they werevariegated glass; others that they were the true Chinese porcelain, aconjecture in some degree strengthened by a line of Propertius: "Murrheaq. In Parthis pocula cocta focis. " At the same time this quotation is not so conclusive as it might havebeen, since Pliny speaks of murrha as "hardened in the earth by heat, "and the poet may only have meant the same thing, though the expressionin that case would be somewhat strained. To us, Pliny's descriptionappears to clearly point to some opaline substance; the precious opalhas never in modern times been found in masses approaching to the sizenecessary to make vessels such as we have spoken of. The question isnot likely to be settled, and it is not improbable that the materialof these murrhine vases is entirely unknown to us, as the quarries ofmany marbles used by the ancients have hitherto eluded our research, and the marbles themselves are only known by their recurrence amongancient buildings. We may here notice one or two facts connected with glass, which showthat the ancients were on the verge of making one or two veryimportant discoveries in physical science. They were acquainted withthe power of transparent spherical bodies to produce heat by thetransmission of light, though not with the manner in which that heatwas generated by the concentration of the solar rays. Pliny mentionsthe fact that hollow glass balls filled with water would, when heldopposite to the sun, grow hot enough to burn any cloth they touched;but the turn of his expression evidently leads to the conclusion thathe believed the heat to become accumulated in the glass itself, notmerely to be transmitted through it. Seneca speaks of similar glassballs, which magnified minute objects to the view. Nay, he had nearlystumbled on a more remarkable discovery, the composition of light, forhe mentions the possibility of producing an artificial rainbow by theuse of an angular glass rod. At a far earlier period Aristophanesspeaks of "a transparent substance used to light fires with, " usuallytranslated glass. The passage is curious, as it shows a perfectacquaintance with the use of the burning glass. With the laws of reflection the ancients, as we know from theperformances ascribed to Archimedes, were well acquainted. It issingular that being in possession of such remarkable facts connectedwith refraction, they should never have proceeded to investigate thelaws by which it is governed. [Illustration: GLASS VESSELS (_of Pompeii_). ] The first object figured _h_, in the annexed block, is a glass funnel, _infundibulum_; _g_, is described as a wine-strainer, but the methodof its use is not altogether clear. The bottom is slightly concave, and pierced with holes. It is supposed to have been used as a sort oftap, the larger part being placed within the barrel, and the winedrawn off through the neck or spout, which is broken. Fig. _n_, is awine-taster, something on the principle of a siphon. It is hollow, andthe air being exhausted by the mouth at the small end, the liquid tobe tasted was drawn up into the cavity. _a_ and _b_, wine-jars; _c_, two small wine-jars in a glass casket; _d_, _e_, _f_ and _q_, gobletsor drinking-glasses of toned and beautiful colored glass; _i_ and _m_, glass dishes, the first with a saucer. Another sort of glass strainer, of which there are several in theNeapolitan Museum, is made of bronze, pierced in elegant and intricatepatterns as seen on page 84. The Romans used strainers filled withsnow to cool their wines, and such may have been the destination ofthe one here represented. These were called _cola vinaria_, or_nivaria_. The poor used a linen cloth for the same purpose. With respect to the details of dress, the excavations, whether atPompeii or Herculaneum, enable us to clear up no difficulties, and toadd little to that which is already known on this subject. Still ashort notice of the principal articles of dress, and explanation oftheir Latin names, may be expedient for the full understanding of someparts of our subject. The male costume will detain us a very shorttime. The proper Roman dress, for it would be tiresome and unprofitable toenter upon the variety of garments introduced in later times fromforeign nations, consisted merely of the toga and tunica, the latterbeing itself an innovation on the simple and hardy habit of ancienttimes. It was a woolen vest, for it was late before the use of linenwas introduced, reaching to the knees, and at first made withoutsleeves, which were considered effeminate; but, as luxury crept in, not only were sleeves used, but the number of tunics was increased tothree or four. The toga was an ample semi-circular garment, alsowithout sleeves. It is described as having an opening large enough toadmit the head and the right arm and shoulder, which were leftexposed, having a sort of lappet, or flap (lacinia), which was broughtunder the right arm and thrown over the left shoulder, forming the_sinus_, or bosom, the deep folds of which served as a sort of pocket. This is the common description, which, we confess, conveys no veryclear notion of the construction or appearance of the dress. The leftarm was entirely covered, or if exposed, it was by gathering up thelower edge of the ample garment. The female dress consisted of one or more tunics, with an uppergarment, called _stola_, which superseded the toga, originally worn bywomen as well as men. The stola is said to have been a more ample andornamented sort of tunic. The tunic worn by women does not seem tohave differed from that worn by men, except that it reached to thefeet. Above the stola, women wore a mantle called palla or pallium. This is said to have been thrown across the shoulders, the right endbeing gathered up and thrown over the left shoulder, leaving nothingbut the right hand visible. [Illustration: CUPS AND METALS. ] Some minute speculations relative to one article in female dress havebeen based on a statue from Herculaneum, in which a Neapolitanantiquary thinks that he has discovered the nature and construction ofthat compound garment called the tunico-pallium, in which theappearance and uses of the tunic and mantle were united. It is thestatue of a woman employed in buckling her dress over the rightshoulder, having already fastened it on the left, in such a manner asto leave the arm bare. Numerous articles of female ornament have been found, of which we havecollected a few into one block. They are drawn of the same size as theoriginals. The lower corners of the cut represent ear-rings, seen infront and sideways. It is a portion of a plain gold spheroid, verythick, with a metal hook at the back to pass through the ear. The nextis of simpler construction, having pearl pendants. Both these patternsseem to have been very common. The upper right-hand corner of the cutrepresents a breast-pin, attached to a Bacchanalian figure, with apatera in one hand and a glass in the other. He is provided with bat'swings, and two belts, or bands of grapes, pass across his body. Thebat's wings symbolize the drowsiness consequent upon hard drinking. There are also represented gold rings with serpent's heads, the eyesof which are inlaid with beautiful stones and diamonds; also braceletsof this pattern were very common. [Illustration: GOLD JEWELRY (_From Pompeii_)] A beautiful gold necklace was also found, of which a cut isrepresented in the above plate. It was very elaborate and exquisite. Ornamental safety-pins were also found, as shown in following cuts. Lockets were also found, indicating religious subjects of later date. Small toilet-boxes, made of wood or ivory, were also numerous; and, like the vases, of many different forms; and some, which containedcosmetics of divers kinds, served to deck the dressing table, or alady's boudoir. They were carved in various ways, and loaded withornamental devices in relief; sometimes representing the favoritelotus flower, with its buds and stalks, a goose, gazelle, fox, orother animal. Many were of considerable length, terminating in ahollow shell, not unlike a spoon in shape and depth, covered with alid turning on a pin; and to this, which may properly be styled thebox, the remaining part was merely an accessory, intended forornament, or serving as a handle. [Illustration: HEAVY GOLD PINS. ] They were generally of sycamore wood, sometimes of tamarisk, or ofacacia; and occasionally ivory, and inlaid work, were substituted forwood. To many, a handle of less disproportionate length was attached, representing the usual lotus flower, a figure, a Typhonian monster, ananimal, a bird, a fish, or a reptile; and the box itself, whethercovered with a lid or open, was in character with the remaining part. Some shallow ones were probably intended to contain small portions ofointment, taken from a large vase at the time it was wanted, or forother purposes connected with the toilet, where greater depth was notrequired; and in many instances they rather resembled spoons thanboxes. [Illustration: BROOCHES INSET WITH STONE. ] Many were made in the form of a royal oval, with and without a handle;and the body of a wooden fish was scooped out, and closed with a coverimitating the scales, to deceive the eye by the appearance of a solidmass. Sometimes a goose was represented, ready for table, or swimmingon the water, and pluming itself; the head being the handle of a boxformed of its hollow body; some consisted of an open part or cup, attached to a covered box; others of different shapes offered theusual variety of fancy devices, and some were without covers, whichmay come under the denomination of saucers. Others bore the preciseform and character of a box, being deeper and more capacious; andthese were probably used for holding trinkets, or occasionally asrepositories for the small pots of ointment, or scented oils, andbottles containing the collyrium, which women applied to their eyes. Some were divided into separate compartments, covered by a common lid, either sliding in a groove, or turning on a pin at one end; and manyof still larger dimensions sufficed to contain a mirror, combs, and, perhaps, even some articles of dress. These boxes were frequently of costly materials, veneered with rarewoods, or made of ebony, inlaid with ivory, painted with variousdevices, or stained to imitate materials of a valuable nature; and themode of fastening the lid, and the curious substitute for a hingegiven to some of them, show the former was entirely removed, and thatthe box remained open, while used. Knobs of ebony, or other hard wood, were very common. They werecovered with great care, and inlaid with ivory and silver. [Illustration: SAFETY TOGA PINS. ] Some boxes were made with a pointed summit, divided into two parts, one of which alone opened, turning on small pivots at the base, andthe two ends of the box resembled in form the gable ends, as the top, the shelving roof, of a house. The sides were, as usual, secured byglue and nails, generally of wood, and dove-tailed, a method ofjoining adopted in Egypt at the most remote period; but thedescription of these belongs more properly to cabinet work, as thoseemployed for holding the combs, and similar objects, to the toilet. Some vases have been found in boxes, made of wicker-work, closed withstoppers of wood, reed, or other materials, supposed to belong eitherto a lady's toilet or to a medical man; one of which, now in theBerlin Museum, has been already noticed. [Page Decoration] FURNITURE. In the furniture of the houses the Egyptians displayed considerabletaste; and there, as elsewhere, they studiously avoided too muchregularity, justly considering that its monotonous effect fatigued theeye. They preferred variety both in the arrangement of the rooms andin the character of their furniture, and neither the windows, doors, nor wings of the house, exactly corresponded with each other. AnEgyptian would, therefore, have been more pleased with the form of ourElizabethan, than of the box-shaped rooms of later times. In their mode of sitting on chairs they resembled the modern Europeansrather than Asiatics, neither using, like the latter, soft _divans_, nor sitting cross-legged on carpets. Nor did they recline at meals, asthe Romans, on a _triclinium_, though couches and ottomans formed partof the furniture of an Egyptian. When Joseph entertained his brethren, he ordered them to _sit_ according to their ages. Egyptians sometimessat cross-legged on the ground, on mats and carpets, or knelt on oneor both knees; these were rather the customs for certain occasions, and of the poorer classes. To sit on their heels was also customary asa token of respect in the presence of a superior, as in modern Egypt;and when a priest bore a shrine before the deity he assumed thisposition of humility; a still greater respect being shown byprostration, or by kneeling and kissing the ground. But the house of awealthy person was always furnished with chairs and couches. Stoolsand low seats were also used, the seat being only from 8 to 14 incheshigh, and of wood, or interlaced with thongs; these, however, may beconsidered equivalent to our rush-bottomed chairs, and probablybelonged to persons of humbler means. They varied in their quality, and some were inlaid with ivory and various woods. Those most common in the houses of the rich were the single and doublechair (answering to the Greek _thronos_ and _diphros_), the lattersometimes kept as a family seat, and occupied by the master andmistress of the house, or a married couple. It was not, however, always reserved exclusively for them, nor did they invariably occupythe same seat; they sometimes sat like their guests on separatechairs, and a _diphros_ was occasionally offered to visitors, both menand women. Many of the fauteuils were of the most elegant form. They were made ofebony and other rare woods, inlaid with ivory, and very similar tosome now used in Europe. The legs were mostly in imitation of those ofan animal; and lions' heads, or the entire body, formed the arms oflarge fauteuils, as in the throne of Solomon (I Kings, x. 19). Some, again, had folding legs, like our camp-stools; the seat was oftenslightly concave; and those in the royal palace were ornamented withthe figures of captives, or emblems of dominion over Egypt and othercountries. The back was light and strong, and consisted of a singleset of upright and cross bars, or of a frame receding gradually andterminating at its summit in a graceful curve, supported from withoutby perpendicular bars; and over this was thrown a handsome pillow ofcolored cotton, painted leather, or gold and silver tissue, like thebeds at the feast of Abasuerus, mentioned in Esther, or like thefeathered cushions covered with stuffs and embroidered with silk andthreads of gold in the palace of Scaurus. Seats on the principle of our camp-stools seem to have been much invogue. They were furnished with a cushion, or were covered with theskin of a leopard, or some other animal, which was removed when theseat was folded up; and it was not unusual to make even head-stools, or wooden pillows on the same principle. They were also adorned invarious ways, bound with metal plates, and inlaid with ivory, orforeign woods; and the wood of common chairs was often painted toresemble that of a rarer and more valuable kind. The seats of chairs were frequently of leather, painted with flowersand fancy devices; of interlaced work made of string or thongs, carefully and neatly arranged, which, like our Indian cane chairs, were particularly adapted for a hot climate; but over this theyoccasionally placed a leather cushion, painted in the manner alreadymentioned. The forms of the chairs varied very much; the larger ones generallyhad light backs, and some few had arms. They were mostly about theheight of those now used in Europe, the seat nearly in a line with thebend of the knee; but some were very low, and others offered thatvariety of position which we seek in the kangaroo chairs of our owndrawing-room. The ordinary fashion of the legs was in imitation ofthose of some wild animal, as the lion or the goat, but more usuallythe former, the foot raised and supported on a short pin; and, what isremarkable, the skill of their cabinet-makers, even before the time ofJoseph, had already done away with the necessity of uniting the legswith bars. Stools, however, and more rarely chairs, were occasionallymade with these strengthening members, as is still the case in our owncountry; but the drawing-room fauteuil and couch were not disfiguredby so unseemly and so unskillful a support. The stools used in the saloon were of the same style and elegance asthe chairs, frequently differing from them only in the absence of aback; and those of more delicate workmanship were made of ebony, andinlaid, as already stated, with ivory or rare woods. Some of anordinary kind had solid sides, and were generally very low; andothers, with three legs, belonged to persons of inferior rank. The ottomans were simple square sofas, without backs, raised from theground nearly to the same level as the chairs. The upper part was ofleather, or a cotton stuff, richly colored, like the cushions of thefauteuils; the base was of wood painted with various devices; andthose in the royal palace were ornamented with the figures ofcaptives, the conquest of whose country was designated by their havingthis humiliating position. The same idea gave them a place on thesoles of sandals, on the footstools of a royal throne, and on thewalls of the palace at Medeenet Haboo, in Thebes, where their headssupport some of the ornamental details of the building. Footstools also constituted part of the furniture of the sitting-room;they were made with solid or open sides, covered at the top withleather or interlaced work, and varied in height according tocircumstances, some being of the usual size now adopted by us, othersof inconsiderable thickness, and rather resembling a small rug. Carpets, indeed, were a very early invention, and they are oftenrepresented sitting upon them, as well as on mats, which are commonlyused in their sitting-rooms, as at the present day, and remnants ofthem have been found in the Theban tombs. Their couches evinced no less taste than the fauteuils. They were ofwood, with one end raised, and receding in a graceful curve; and thefeet, as in many of the chairs, already described, were fashioned toresemble those of some wild animal. Egyptian tables were round, square, or oblong; the former weregenerally used during their repasts, and consisted of a circular flatsummit, supported like the _monopodium_ of the Romans, on a singleshaft, or leg, in the centre, or by the figure of a man, intended torepresent a captive. Large tables had usually three or four legs, butsome were made with solid sides; and though generally of wood, manywere of metal or stone; and they varied in size, according to thepurposes for which they were intended. Of the furniture of their bed-rooms we know little or nothing; butthat they universally employed the wooden pillow above alluded to isevident, though Porphyry would lead us to suppose its use was confinedto the priests, when, in noticing their mode of life, he mentions ahalf cylinder of well polished wood "sufficing to support their head, "as an instance of their simplicity and self-denial. For the rich theywere made of Oriental alabaster, with an elegant grooved or flutedshaft, ornamented with hieroglyphics, carved in intaglio, of sycamore, tamarisk, and other woods of the country; the poor classes beingcontented with a cheaper sort, of pottery or stone. Porphyry mentionsa kind of wicker bedstead of _palm branches_, hence called _bais_, evidently the species of framework called _kaffass_, still employed bythe modern Egyptians as a support to the _divans_ of sitting rooms, and to their beds. Wooden, and perhaps also bronze, bedsteads (likethe iron one of Og, King of Bashan), were used by the wealthierclasses of the ancient Egyptians; and it is at least probable that thecouches they slept upon were as elegant as those on which their bodiesreposed after death; and the more so, as these last, in their generalstyle, are very similar to the furniture of the sitting-room. The oldest specimen of a bedstead is that mentioned by Homer as joinedtogether by Odysseus in his own house. He had cut off the stem of anolive-tree a few feet from the ground, and joined to it the boards ofthe bed, so that the trunk supported the bed at the head. It thereforewas immovable. The antique bed must be considered as the prolongationof the diphros. The cross-legged diphros prolonged became the foldingbed; that with perpendicular legs the couch. The former could easilybe moved and replaced; they are perhaps identical with the bedsfrequently mentioned in the "Odyssey, " which were put into the outerhall for guests. One of them is shown as the notorious bed ofProkrustes in a picture on a vase. The diphros corresponds to thecouch resting on four legs, at first without head and foot-board, which were afterwards added at both ends. By the further addition of aback on one of the long sides, it became what we now call a _chaiselongue_ or sofa. This sleeping kline was no doubt essentially the sameas that used at meals. The materials were, besides the ordinary woods, maple or box, either massive or veneered. The legs and backs, andother parts not covered by the bed clothes, were carefully worked. Sometimes the legs are neatly carved or turned, sometimes the framesare inlaid with gold, silver, and ivory, as is testified in the"Odyssey, " and elsewhere. The bedding mentioned in Homer did not consist of sumptuous bolstersand cushions, as in later times. It consisted, even amongst the richerclasses, first of all of the blankets of a long-haired woolenmaterial, or perhaps a kind of mattress. Hides, as spread by the pooron the hard floor, were sometimes put under the blankets, and otheradditional blankets, so as to soften the couch. The whole was coveredwith linen sheets. The light blankets served to cover the sleeper, whosometimes used his own dress for this purpose; sometimes theyconsisted of woolen blankets woven for the purpose. After Homer'stime, when Asiatic luxury had been introduced into Greece, a mattresswas placed immediately on the bed-straps. It was stuffed with pluckedwool or feathers, and covered with some linen or woolen material. Pillows, like the mattresses stuffed with wool or feathers, were addedto complete the bedding, at least in more luxurious times. (The cut onpage 78 gives a good idea of the looks of an ancient Roman and Grecianbed. ) Of a similar kind were the klinai placed in the sitting-rooms, lying on which, in a half-reclining position, people used to read, write and take their meals. They were covered with soft blankets ofgorgeous colors, while one or more cushions served to support the bodyin its half-sitting position, or to prop the left arm. Tables were used by the ancients chiefly at meals, not for reading andwriting. The antique tables, either square with four legs, or circularor oval with three connected legs, afterwards with one leg, resembleour modern ones, but for their being lower. Mostly their slabs did notreach higher than the kline; higher tables would have beeninconvenient for the reclining person. In Homeric and even in latertimes, a small table stood before each thronos. The use of separatedishes for each guest is comparatively new. Originally the meats werebrought in on large platters, divided by the steward, and each portionput on the bare table. In want of knives and forks the fingers wereused. The pastry was put in baskets by the tables. Whether the Homerictables were as low as the later ones, when lying instead of sittinghad become the custom, we must leave undecided, in want of sculpturalevidence. The legs of the tables were carefully finished, particularlythose of the tripods, which frequently imitated the legs of animals, or at least had claws at their ends. The four-legged tables were moresimple in design. The material was wood, particularly maple; later on, bronze, precious metals, and ivory were introduced. For the keeping of articles of dress, valuable utensils, ornaments, bottles of ointment, and documents, larger or smaller drawers andboxes were used. Chests of drawers and upright cupboards with doorsseem to have been unknown in earlier times; only in few monuments oflater date (for instance in the wall-painting of a shoemaker'sworkshop at Herculaneum) we see something resembling our wardrobe. Thewardrobes mentioned by Homer doubtless resembled our old-fashionedtrunks. The surfaces showed ornaments of various kinds, either cutfrom the wood in relief or inlaid with precious metal and ivory. Somesmaller boxes with inlaid figures or painted arabesques are shown frompictures on vases. The ornamentation with polished nails seem to havebeen very much in favor--a fashion re-introduced in modern times. Themost celebrated example of such ornamentation was the box of Kypselos, in the opisthodomos of the temple of Hera at Olympia. It datesprobably from the time when the counting by Olympiads was introduced, and served, according to Botticher, for the keeping of votive tapestryand the like. According to Pausanias, it was made of cedar-wood, andelliptic in shape. It was adorned with mythological representations, partly carved in wood, partly inlaid with gold and ivory, encirclingthe whole box in five stripes, one over the other. Locks, keys and bolts, known at an early period for the closing ofdoors, were later applied to boxes, as is sufficiently proved by thestill-existing small keys fastened to finger-rings, which, althoughall of Roman make, were most likely not unknown to the Greeks. Fordoors these would have been too small. The furniture of Greek houses was simple, but full of artistic beauty. This was particularly displayed in vessels for the keeping of both dryand fluid stores, as were found in temples, dwellings and even graves. Only the last-mentioned have been preserved to us. Earthen vessels arethe most numerous. The invention of the potter's wheel is of greatantiquity, and was ascribed by the Greeks in different places todifferent mythical persons. The Corinthians named Hyperbion as itsinventor. In the Kerameikos, the potters' quarter of Athens, Keramos, the son of Dionysos and Ariadne, was worshiped as such. The name ofthe locality itself was derived from this "heros eponymos. " Next toCorinth and Athens (which latter became celebrated for earthenmanufactures, owing to the excellent clay of the promontory ofKolias), Ægina, Lakedæmon, Aulis, Tenedos, Samos and Knidos werefamous for their earthenware. In these places the manufacture ofpainted earthenware was concentrated; thence they were exported to theports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea for the markets of theadjoining countries. Owing to the beautiful custom of the ancients ofleaving in the graves of the dead the utensils of their daily life, agreat many beautiful vessels have been preserved which otherwise wouldhave shared the destruction of the dwellings with much less fragileimplements. From the pictures on these vases we derive, moreover, valuable information as to the public and private habits of theGreeks. The greatest number of graves in their original condition, andfilled with vessels, are found in Italy. [Illustration: PLUNDERING CORINTH. ] Good, particularly red, clay was in demand for superior goods, and ofthis the promontory of Kolias, near Athens, furnished an unlimitedsupply. The potter's wheel was in use at a very early period. On itwere formed both large and small vessels, with the difference, however, that of the former the foot, neck, and handles were formedseparately, and afterwards attached, as was also the case in smallvessels with widely curved handles. In order to intensify the red color the vessel was frequently glazedand afterwards dried and burnt on the oven. The outlines of thefigures to be painted on the vase were either cut into the red clayand filled up with a brilliant black varnish, or the surface itselfwas covered with the black varnish up to the contours, in which casethese stood out in the natural red color of the clay. The first mentioned process was the older of the two, and greaterantiquity is, therefore, to be assigned to vessels with black figureson a red ground. In both kinds of paintings draperies or the musclesof nude figures were further indicated by the incision of additionallines of the color of the surface into the figures. Other colors, like dark red, violet, or white, which on close investigation havebeen recognized as dissolvable, were put on after the second burningof the vessel. About the historic development of pottery we know nothing beyond whatmay be guessed from the differences of style. As we said before, figures of a black or dark-brown color painted on the natural pale redor yellowish color of the clay indicate greater antiquity. The blackfigures were occasionally painted over in white or violet. Thesevessels are mostly small and somewhat compressed in form; they aresurrounded with parallel stripes of pictures of animals, plants, fabulous beings, or arabesques. The drawings show an antiquated stifftype, similar to those on the vessels recently discovered at Ninevehand Babylon, whence the influence of Oriental on Greek art may beinferred. This archaic style, like the strictly hieratic style insculpture, was retained together with a freer treatment at a moreadvanced period. As a first step of development we notice thecombination of animals and arabesques, at first with half-human, half-animal figures, soon followed by compositions belonging mostly toa certain limited circle of myths. The treatment of figures showsrigidity in the calm, and violence in the active, positions. The Doricforms of letters and words on many vases of this style, whether foundin Greece or Italy, no less than the uniformity of their _technique_, indicate _one_ place of manufacture, most likely the Doric Corinth, celebrated for her potteries; on the other hand, the inscriptions inIonian characters and written in the Ionian dialect on vessels provetheir origin in the manufactures of the Ionian Eubœa and her colonies. The pictures on these vases, also painted in stripes, extend themythological subject-matter beyond the Trojan cycle to the oldestepical myths, each story being represented in its consecutive phases. The latter vases form the transition to the second period. The shapesnow become more varied, graceful, and slender. The figures arepainted in black, and covered with a brilliant varnish; the_technique_ of the painting, however, does not differ from that of thefirst period. The outlines have been neatly incised and covered upwith black paint; the details also of draperies and single parts ofthe body are done by incision, and sometimes painted over in white ordark red. The principle seems to be that of polychrome painting, alsoapplied in sculpture. Single parts of the armor, embroideries, andpatterns of dresses, hair, and beards of men, the manes of animals, etc. , are indicated by means of dark red lines. This variety of colorwas required particularly for the draperies, which are stiff andclumsily attached to the body. The same stiffness is shown in thetreatment of faces and other nude parts of the body, as also in therendering of movements. The faces are always in profile, the nose andchin pointed and protruding, and the lips of the compressed mouthindicated only by a line. Shoulders, hips, thighs, and calves bulgeout, the body being singularly pinched. The grouping is equallyimperfect. The single figures of compositions are loosely connected bythe general idea of the story. They have, as it were, a narrativecharacter; an attempt at truth to nature is, however, undeniable. The subjects are taken partly from the twelve-gods cycle (like thefrequently-occurring birth of Athene, Dionysian processions, etc. ), orfrom Trojan and Theban myths; partly also from daily life, such aschases, wrestlings, sacrifices, symposia and the like. To this classbelong most of those large Panathenaic prize-vases, which are of suchimportance for our knowledge of gymnastic competitions. In our third class the figures appear in the natural color of thesurface, which itself has been painted black. The character of thefigures in consequence appears gay and lively. Both styles seem at onetime to have existed together, for we find them used severally on twosides of one and the same vessel, till at last the painting of blackfigures was disused entirely. The drawings now become more individual, and are freed from the fetters of conventional tradition--a proof ofthe free development of both political and artistic feelings, evenamong the lower classes of artificers. The specimens of the thirdclass show the different stages of this process of liberation. Atfirst the figures are somewhat hard, and the drapery, althoughfollowing the lines of the body more freely than previously, showsstill traces of archaic severity of treatment; the details, indicatedby black lines, are still carefully worked out. For smaller folds andmuscles, a darker shade of the red color is used; wreaths and flowersappear dark; red white is used only in few cases--for instance, forthe hair of an old man. The composition shows greater concentrationand symmetry in the grouping, according to the conditions of the spaceat disposal. The figures show a solemn dignity, with signs, however, of an attempted freer treatment. [Illustration: GREEK VASE. ] Kramer justly calls this period that of the "severe style, " andcompares it with the well-known "Æginetic" style in sculpture. Thefurther development of the "severe style" is what Kramer calls the"beautiful style, " in which grace and beauty of motion and drapery, verging on the soft, have taken the place of severe dignity. In highart this transition might be compared to that from Perugino's schoolto that of Raphael, or, if we may believe the ancient writers, fromthe school of Polygnotos to that of Zeuxis and Parrhasios. The form of the vessels themselves next calls for our attention. Thevases, two-handled amphorai and krateres, found most frequently duringthis period, are slender and graceful. Together with them we meet withbeautifully modeled drinking-horns, and heads or whole figures, usedto put vessels upon. The variety of forms, and the largeness of somevessels, overloaded as they were with figures, soon led to want ofcare in the composition. The moderation characteristic of the"beautiful style" was soon relinquished for exaggerated ornamentation, combined with a preference for representing sumptuous dresses and theimmoderate use of white, yellow, and other colors. This led graduallyto the decadence of pottery. In some Etruscan cities earthenware was manufactured by local artistsworking after Greek patterns. The figures are distinguished fromgenuine Greek work by the contours being incised very deeply andfilled up with red color. The clay also is coarser. The compositionsshow an admixture of local myths and usages, not to mention Etruscaninscriptions. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] VASES. Painted vases may be considered as the most curious, the mostgraceful, and the most instructive remains that have come down to usfrom ancient times. The beauty of the forms, the fineness of thematerial, the perfection of the varnish, the variety of the subjects, and their interest in an historical point of view give painted vases avery important place among the productions of the arts of theancients. Painted vases have been collected with great eagerness eversince they have been known, and the most remarkable have been engravedby celebrated artists, and explained by profound archæologists. Modernart and archæology have obtained from them beautiful models andimportant information. They were known for the first time in theseventeenth century. Painted vases were, to a considerable extent, objects of traffic andof export from one country to another. They may be generally traced toAthens as the original place of exportation. Corinth also exportedvases, for the products of Corinthian potters have been found inSicily and Italy, and there can be no doubt that Corinth hadestablished an active trade in works of art with the Greek coloniesall over the Mediterranean. Athenian vases were carried by thePhœnicians, the commercial traders of the ancient world, as objects oftraffic to the remotest parts of the then known world. In the Periplusof Scylax, the Phœnicians are mentioned as exchanging the pottery ofAthens for the ivory of Africa. They were, in fact, the ornamentalchina of the ancient world. [Illustration: ETRUSCAN VASE. ] _Etruscan. _--The potter's art was introduced into Etruria by Demaratusof Corinth, who, flying from that city, took up his abode atTarquinii, the modern Corneto, where vases in the most archaic style, resembling those of Corinth, or those called Doric, have been found. Vases, the Etruscan origin of which can not be disputed, have beenfound at Volterra, Tarquinii (Corneto), Perugia, Orvieto, Viterbo, Aquapendente, and other towns of ancient Etruria. The clay of whichthey are made is of a pale or reddish yellow, the varnish is dull, theworkmanship rather rude, the ornaments are devoid of taste andelegance, and the style of the figures possesses all thosecharacteristics already assigned to that of the Etruscans. The figuresare drawn in black on the natural color of the clay; sometimes alittle red is introduced on the black ground of the drapery. It is bythe subject chiefly that the Etruscan vases are distinguished from theGreek vases. On the former, the figures are in the costume peculiar toancient Italy; the men and the heroes are represented with theirbeards and hair very thick; the gods and genii have large wings;monstrous combinations not capable of explanation by Hellenic myths;we may also observe divinities, religious customs, attributes, manners, arms, and symbols, different from those of Greece. Etruscandeities, such as Charun with his mace, denote their Etruscan origin;the subjects of the vases are, however, generally derived from Greekmythology, treated in a manner consonant to the Etruscan taste, and totheir local religion, while their drawing is of the coarsest kind. Ifan inscription in Etruscan characters, traced invariably from right toleft, accompanies the painting, certainty with regard to their originmay be considered as complete. It is true that the greater number ofthe letters of the ancient Greek alphabet are of the same form asthose of the Etruscan alphabet; but there are in the latter someparticular characters which will prevent any confusion. The names ofthe personages on the vases are spelt differently from those on theGreek, as Ainas for Ajax, Atreste for Adrastus, Akle for Achilles, Alesti for Alcestis, etc. We must also observe, that Etruscan paintedvases are very rare, and are but few in number, compared with thosefor which we are indebted to the arts of Greece. [Illustration: ROMAN VASES. ] _Greek. _--The paste of these vases is tender, easily scratched or cutwith a knife, remarkably fine and homogeneous, but of loose texture. When broken, it exhibits a dull opaque color, more or less yellow, redor grey. It is composed of silica, alumina, carbonate of lime, magnesia and oxide of iron. The color depends on the proportions inwhich these elements are mixed; the paler parts containing more lime, the red more iron. The exterior coating is composed of a particularkind of clay, which seems to be a kind of yellow or red ochre, reducedto a very fine paste, mixed with some glutinous or oily substance, andlaid on with a brush; great difference is observable in the pastes ofvases coming from widely separated localities, owing either to theircomposition or baking. The paste of the early vases of Athens andMelos is of a very pale red; that of vases of the Doric or Corinthianstyle is of a pale lemon color. At the best period of the art, thepaste is of a warm orange red; but Lucanian and Apulian vases are of apaler tone. The Etruscan painted vases of all ages are of a pale redtone, with a much greater proportion of white, which appears to beowing to the greater proportion of chalk used in preparing the paste. The earliest vases were made with the hand, while those of a laterperiod were made with the wheel; the wheel, however, is a very earlyinvention. Among the Egyptians and Greeks it was a low, circulartable, turned with the foot. Representations of a potter turning thewheel with his foot, occur on painted vases of an early date. Withthis simple wheel the Greeks effected wonders, producing shapes stillunrivalled in beauty. After the vases had been made on the wheel, Dr. Birch writes, theywere duly dried in the sun, and then painted; for it is evident thatthey could not have been painted while wet. The simplest and probablythe most common, process was to color the entire vase black. The underpart of the foot was left plain. When a pattern was added, theoutline, faintly traced with a round point on the moist clay, wascarefully followed by the painter. It was necessary for the artist tofollow his sketch with great rapidity, since the clay rapidly absorbedthe coloring matter, and the outline was required to be bold andcontinuous, each time that it was joined detracting from its merit. Afinely-ground slip was next laid upon a brush, and the figures andornaments were painted in. The whole was then covered with a very finesiliceous glaze, probably formed of soda and well-levigated sand. Thevase was next sent to the furnace, and carefully baked. It was thenreturned to the workshop, where a workman or painter scratched in allthe details with a pointed tool. The faces of female figures werecolored white, with a thick coat of lime or chalk, and the eyes red. Parts of the drapery, the crests of helmets, and the _antyges_, orborders of shields, were colored with a crimson coat, consisting of anoxide of iron and lime, like a body color. In the second style of vases the figures are painted in a dark brownor black, of an unequal tone, on yellow ground, formed of a siliceouscoating over the pale red clay of the vase. An improvement upon thisstyle was the changing of the color of the figures by painting, orstopping out, all the ground of the vase in black, thus leaving thefigures of the natural red of the clay, and the marking of the musclesand finer portions, as an outline, of bright brown. After the painthad dried, the slip, or the siliceous glaze, was laid over the vase, except the under part of the foot and the inside. The colors used werefew and simple, and were evidently ground excessively fine, and madeinto a kind of slip. Of these colors the black was the most importantand the most extensively used. Great difference has always existed asto the nature of this color. Vauquelin takes it to be a carbonaceousmatter, such as plumbagine or black lead. The Duc de Luynes asserts itto be an oxide of iron. Of opaque colors, the most important andextensively used is the white, said by Brongniart to be a carbonate oflime or fine clay. Red and yellow are sparingly used. Blue and greenare rarely found, and only on vases of the latest styles. The liquidemployed for mixing the colors is supposed to have been water. The glaze with which these vases were covered is described by M. Brongniart as lustrous (_lustre_), and only one kind was used, therecipe for making which is now lost. It appears to have been composedof one of the principal alkalies, either potash or soda. The vases ofNola and Vulci are remarkable for the beauty and brilliancy of theirglaze. According to d'Hancarville the vases were baked in a naked furnace. Representations of ancient furnaces occur on painted vases. Thefurnaces were of simple construction, in shape like tall ovens, fed byfires from beneath, into which the vases were placed with a longshovel resembling the baker's peel. [Illustration: VASE REPRESENTING A MARRIAGE. (_Found at Pompeii. _)] The colors being laid on in a different manner in the earlier andlater vases has caused them to be distinguished into two generalclasses. In the earlier the ground is yellow or red, and the figuresare traced on it in black, so as to form kinds of silhouettes. Theseare called the black or archaic vases; they are generally in anancient style; their subjects belong to the most ancient mythologicaltraditions, and their inscriptions to the most ancient forms of theGreek alphabet, written from right to left, or in boustrophedon. Thedraperies, the accessories, the harness of the horses, and the wheelsof the chariots, are touched with white. At a later period, the wholevase was painted black, with the exception of the figures, which werethen of the color of the clay of the vase; the contours of thefigures, the hair, drapery, etc. , being previously traced in black. There are then two general classes of Greek vases, distinguished bythe figures, which are black or yellow. They are in general remarkablefor the beauty and elegance of their forms. There is a great varietyin their sizes; some being several feet high, and broad in proportion;others being not higher than an inch. The subject is on one side ofthe vase; sometimes it occupies the entire circumference, but moregenerally it is on one side alone, and then there is on the reversesome insignificant subject, generally two or three old men leaning ona stick, instructing a young man, or presenting him with someinstrument or utensil; a bacchanalian scene is sometimes representedon the reverse. Some vases have been found with two subjects on thesides of the vase. On some of the finest vases, the subject goes roundthe entire circumference of the vase. On the foot, neck and otherparts are the usual Greek ornaments, the Vitruvian scroll, theMeander, Palmetto, the honeysuckle. A garland sometimes adorns theneck, or, in its stead, a woman's head issuing from a flower. Theseornaments are in general treated with the greatest taste and elegance. Besides the obvious difference in the style of the vases, there is aremarkable difference in the execution of the paintings. They are notall of the highest merit, but the boldness of the outlines isgenerally remarkable on them. They could be executed only with thegreatest rapidity, the clay absorbing the colors very quickly, so thatif a line was interrupted the joining would be perceptible. Somethought that the figures were executed by the means of patterns cutout, which being laid on the vase, preserved on the black ground theprincipal masses in yellow, which were finished afterwards with abrush. But this opinion of Sir William Hamilton has been abandoned byhimself, particularly since the traces of a point have beenrecognized, with which the artist had at first sketched on the softclay the principal outlines, which he afterwards finished with a brushdipped in the black pigment, without, however, strictly following thelines traced by the point. The traces of the point are rarelyobserved; all depended on the skill and talent of the artists. Theymust have been very numerous, as these vases are found in suchnumbers, and the greater number may be considered as models for theexcellence of their design and the taste of their composition. Notunfrequently, the artists by whom the designs have been painted, haveplaced their names on them; the principal names known are those ofClitias, Doris who painted the celebrated Francois vase, Asteas, andEpictetos. Clitias is the most ancient; his designs evince the infancyof art, those of the other artists display greater progress in theart; the name can be recognized from the word _painted_, which followsit immediately. Some vases have the potter's name inscribed on them. One of the earliest makers was Taleides. Nearly fifty names of pottershave been found, but they only occur on choice specimens of art. Onmany vases the name of the artist appears along with that of thepotter, which much enhances the value of the vase. On the celebratedFrancois vase appear the name of the artist Clitias, and the name ofthe potter Ergotimos. Some potters, such as Amasis and Euphronius, painted as well as made vases. Other inscriptions are sometimes foundon vases which enhance their value greatly. They are generally thenames of gods, heroes, and other mythological personages, which arerepresented in the paintings. These inscriptions are of great interest for two reasons: in the firstplace, from the form of the letters and the order according to whichthey are traced, the greater or lesser antiquity of the vase can berecognized, these inscriptions necessarily following all the changesof the Greek alphabet; care must be taken to examine whether theinscription goes from right to left, whether the long vowels, thedouble letters are replaced by the silent vowels, or single letters;these are in general signs of relative antiquity which prove that ofthe vase itself; secondly, because the names invariably explain thesubject of the painting, and even indicate by a name hitherto unknown, either some personage who sometimes bore another name, or a personwhose real name was unknown, in fine, some mythic being of whomancient writers give us no information. The information derived from vases is of great importance for thestudy of Greek mythology viewed in its different epochs, and for theinterpretation and understanding of ancient tragic or lyric poets. Moral or historical inscriptions, in prose and in verse, have alsobeen found on vases. The letters of these inscriptions are capital orcursive; they are very delicately traced, and often require a greatdeal of attention to perceive. They are traced in black or white witha brush, sometimes they are incised with a very sharp point. On some which had been gifts to some "beautiful youths, " we find theinscription, "the handsome boy, " and also the form, "the handsomeOnetorides, " "the handsome Stroibos. " One youth is called "the mosthandsome Hippocritus. " The names of females, whether brides, beauties, or hetairæ, are found accompanied with the expression, "the lovelyŒnanthe, " "the fair Rodon. " On others, salutatory expressions aresometimes found, such as "Hail to thee;" "Happy as possible. " The subjects represented on painted vases, although of infinitevariety, may be reduced to three classes, which include them all: 1. Mythological subjects; 2. Heroic subjects; 3. Historical subjects. The_Mythological_ subjects relate to the history of all the gods, andtheir adventures in human form are reproduced on them in a thousandshapes. It requires a deep and intimate knowledge of Greek mythology, in order to explain the different subjects. One of the oldest and mostpopular subjects in Greece was the Gigantomachia, which is foundrepresented as a whole upon many vases, while others containindividual incidents from it. Among the Olympic deities represented, Zeus takes a prominent part. The father of the gods, the great thunderer, seldom appears alone, butis chiefly seen in scenes from the Heracleid and the Trojan war. Onthe black vases, and on those of the finest style with red figures, his amorous adventures are also frequently depicted. The goddess Herararely appears. Athene, the great female deity of the Ionic race, plays an importantpart in many scenes. As Pallas Athene she frequently appears;generally on foot, but sometimes in her quadriga. Poseidon, the seagod, appears as a subordinate in many scenes, and as a protagonist inothers. Apollo, Artemis, Hephæstos, Ares, Aphrodite, and Hermes, frequently appear in various scenes in the vases. The greater part ofthe paintings of the vases are relative to Dionysus, his festivals andmysteries. On them we see depicted his birth, childhood, education, all his exploits, his banquets, and his games; his habitualcompanions, his religious ceremonies, the lampadephori brandishing thelong torches, the dendrophori raising branches of trees, adorned withgarlands and tablets; the initiated preparing for the mysteries;lastly, the ceremonies peculiar to those great institutions, and thecircumstances relative to their dogmas and their aim. The inferiordeities also appear on the vases. The _Historical_ subjects begin with the war of Troy. Painters, aswell as poets, found in this event a vast field to exercise theirtalents and their imagination. The principal actors in this memorabledrama appear on the vases. The principal scenes of the Trojan war aredepicted; but we must remark, that the historical subjects do notextend to a later period than that of the Heracleidæ. Among the incidents represented are the opening scenes of the Iliad, the quarrel of Agamemnon and Achilles, Briseis led away by theheralds, Paris and Helen, the death of Patroclus, the grief ofAchilles, the arming of Achilles, the death of Hector, Priamentreating for the corpse of Hector, the terrible scene of the lastnight of Troy. Many subjects from the Odyssey also occur. Incidentsfrom the Greek drama are of common occurrence, such as the death ofAgamemnon, Orestes and Pylades meeting Electra, the death ofClytemnestra, the Furies pursuing Orestes. [Illustration: VASE REPRESENTING TROJAN WAR (_Found at Pompeii. _)] We may consider, as belonging to the class of historical vases, thosewith paintings relative to public and private customs; thoserepresenting games, repasts, scenic representations of combats ofanimals, hunting and funeral subjects. Millingen remarks that the subjects of the paintings vary according tothe period and the places in which they have been executed; on themost ancient vases Dionysiac scenes are frequently seen. As, originally, the greater number were destined to contain wine, theywere adorned with analogous subjects. Those of the beautiful period ofthe art, especially of the manufacture of Nola, a town in which Greekinstitutions were observed with extreme care, present the ancienttraditions of mythological episodes in all their purity. Those of alater period represent subjects taken from the tragic writers. Lastly, on those of the decline, we see depicted the new ceremonies andsuperstitions which were mingled with the ancient and simple religionof the Greek. Painted vases are, therefore, of the greatest interestfor the study of the manners and customs of ancient Greece, and ofthose which the Romans adopted from her in imitation. [Illustration: VASE. (_Found at Pompeii. _)] As to the uses of these vases, there have been a variety of opinions;but a careful examination of a great number of vases would lead us tosuppose that many were, doubtless, articles of household furniture, for use and adornment, such as the larger vases, destined, by theirsize, weight, and form, to remain in the same place, while others, ofdifferent sizes and shapes, were made to hold wine and other liquids, unguents, and perfumes. It is evident that they were more for ornamentthan use, and that they were considered as objects of art, for thepaintings seem to have been executed by the best artists of theperiod. They were chiefly employed for entertainments, and thebanquets of the wealthy. They are seen in use in scenes painted on thevases themselves. Many, especially those of the later style, weresolely used for decorative purposes, as is evident from the fact ofone side only being executed with care, while the other has beenneglected, both in the drawing and in the subject. Those withPanathenaic subjects were probably given full of oil, as prizes at thenational games. These were called _Athla_. Certain vases bearing theinscription, "From Athens, " or "Prize from Athens, " seem to have beengiven to the victors in the pentathlon, or courses of athleticexercises in the Panathenæa. Others may have been given at thepalæstric festivals, or as nuptial presents, or as pledges of love andfriendship; and these are marked by some appropriate inscription. We find that they were also used in the ceremonies of the Mysteries, for we see their forms represented on the vases themselves: Bacchusfrequently holds a cantharus, Satyrs carry a diota. A few seem to havebeen expressly for sepulchral purposes. Some have supposed that thesevases were intended to hold the ashes of the dead; but this could nothave been their use, for they are only found in tombs in which thebodies have been buried without being burnt. The piety of therelations adorned the tomb of the deceased with those vases, togetherwith his armor and jewelry, which they had prized most in life, whichwere associated with their habits, or recalled circumstances thememory of which they cherished. We could not but feel astonished at the perfect preservation of suchfragile objects, did we not know that they were found in tombs. Thosein which they are found, are placed near the walls, but outside thetown, at a slight depth, except those of Nola, where the eruptions ofVesuvius have considerably raised the soil since the period when thetombs were made, so that some of the tombs of Nola are abouttwenty-one feet under ground. In Greece, the graves are generally small, being designed for singlecorpses, which accounts for the comparatively small size of the vasesdiscovered in that country. At Athens the earlier graves are sunkdeepest in the soil, and those at Corinth, especially such as containthe early Corinthian vases, are found by boring to a depth of severalfeet beneath the surface. [Illustration: A GREEK SACRIFICE. ] The early tombs of Civita Vecchia, and Cære, or Cervetri, in Italy, are tunneled in the earth; and those at Vulci, and in the Etruscanterritory, from which the finest and largest vases have beenextracted, are chambers hewn in the rocks. In southern Italy, especially in Campania, the common tombs are constructed of rudestones or tiles, and are exactly of sufficient size to contain acorpse and five or six vases; a small one is placed near the head, andthe others between the legs of the body, or they are ranged on eachside, frequently on the left side alone. The number and beauty of the vases vary, probably, according to therank and fortune of the owner of the tomb. The tombs of the firstclass are larger, and have been built with large cut stones, andrarely connected with cement; the walls inside are coated with stucco, and adorned with paintings; these tombs resemble a small chamber; thecorpse is laid out in the middle, the vases are placed round it, frequently some others are hung up to the walls on nails of bronze. The number of vases is always greater in these tombs; they are also ofa more elegant form. Several other articles are sometimes found in the tombs, such as goldand silver fibulæ, swords, spears, armor, and several ornaments. Theobjects buried with the corpse generally bespeak the tastes andoccupation of the deceased. Warriors are found with their armor, womenwith ornaments for the toilet, priests with their sacerdotalornaments, as in the tomb at Cervetri. When the vases are taken out ofthe excavations, they are covered with a coating of whitish earth, something like tartar, and of a calcareous nature; it disappears onthe application of aqua fortis. This operation ought to be done withgreat caution; for though the aqua fortis does not injure the blackvarnish, it might destroy some of the other colors. [Illustration: 2000 YEARS OLD. ] Some of these vases are as well preserved as if they had just beenissued from the hands of the potter; others have been greatly injuredby the earthy salts with which they have come in contact; many arefound broken--these have been put together and restored with greatskill. But this work of restoration, especially if the artist adds anydetails which are not visible on the original, might alter ormetamorphose a subject, and the archæologist ought to set little valueon these modern additions, in the study of a painted vase. Several collections have been formed of these vases. The BritishMuseum contains the finest collections, purchased by government fromSir William Hamilton and others. The Museum at Naples, and theGregorian Museum in the Vatican, also contain many beautiful specimensfrom Magna Græcia and Etruria. The British Museum has about 2, 600vases of all kinds. The Museum at Naples contains about 2, 100, and theGregorian Museum at Rome about 1, 000. Several amateurs have alsoformed collections in England, France, and Italy. We may mention thoseof Roger, Hope, Sir Harry Englefield, in England; those of the Duc deBlacas, the Comte Pourtales, in France; and that of the MarquisCampana, in Rome. The total number of vases in public and privatecollections probably amounts to 15, 000 of all kinds. Some of thesecollections have been published, such as the first collection of SirWilliam Hamilton, explained by d'Hancarville; the second by Tischbein. Several works have also been published, giving detailed accounts ofpainted vases in general. [Illustration: FOUND AT HILDESHEIM. ] We have mentioned before the luxurious custom, common amongst theRomans after the conquest of Greece and Asia, of having their utensilsof the table, and even of the kitchen, made of solid silver. Valuableplate was of common occurrence in the houses of the rich. According toPliny, common soldiers had the handles of their swords and their beltsstudded with silver; the baths of women were covered with the samevaluable material, which was even used for the common implements ofkitchen and scullery. Large manufactories of silver utensils werestarted, in which each part of the work was assigned to a specialartificer; here the orders of the silver-merchants were executed. Amongst the special workmen of these manufactories were the modelers, founders, turners or polishers, chiselers, the workmen who attachedthe bas-reliefs to the surface of the vessel, and the gilders. Manyvaluable vessels have been recovered in the present century; others(for instance, several hundred silver vessels found near the oldFalerii) have tracelessly disappeared. Amongst the discoveries whichhappily have escaped the hands of the melter, we mention the treasureof more than one hundred silver vessels, weighing together about 50pounds, found by Berney in Normandy (1830). According to theirinscriptions, these vessels belonged to the treasury of a temple ofMercury; they are at present in the late imperial library at Paris. Inthe south of Russia the excavations carried on in 1831, 1862, and1863, amongst the graves of the kings of the Bosphoric empire, haveyielded an astonishing number of gold and silver vessels and ornamentsbelonging to the third century of our era. At Pompeii fourteen silvervases were discovered in 1835; at Cære (1836) a number of silver vases(now in the Museo Gregoriano) were found in a grave. One of the mostinteresting discoveries was made near Hildesheim, 7th October, 1868, consisting of seventy-four eating and drinking vessels, mostly wellpreserved; not to speak of numerous fragments which seem to prove thatonly part of the original treasure has been recovered; the weight ofall the vessels (now in the Antiquarium of the Royal Museum, Berlin)amounts to 107, 144 lbs. , some over 53 tons, of silver. The style andtechnical finish of the vases prove them to have been manufactured inRome; the form of the letters of the inscriptions found ontwenty-four vessels indicates the first half of the first centuryafter Christ. The surfaces of many of them are covered withalto-relievos of beaten silver--a circumstance which traces back theirorigin to imperial times, distinguishing them, at the same time, fromthe bas-relief ornamentations of the acme of Greek art. The gilding ofthe draperies and weapons, and the silver color of the naked parts, inimitation, as it were, of the gold-and-ivory statues of Greek art, also indicate Roman workmanship. The annexed cuts show some of thefinest pieces of this treasure. The composition of the figures on thesurface of the vase in cut on page 340 shows true artistic genius;naked children are balancing themselves on water-plants growing inwinding curves from a pair of griffins; some of the children attackcrabs and eels with harpoons, while others drag the killed animalsfrom the water. The graceful groups on the drinking-vessels in theabove cuts are mostly taken from the Bacchic cycle of myths. [Illustration: FOUND AT HILDESHEIM. (_Of the first century_)] [Illustration: VASE OF THE FIRST CENTURY. ] [Illustration: VASE OF THE FIRST CENTURY. ] Besides vessels of precious metals and stones, those of glass were infavorite use among the Romans. The manufactory of glass, originatingin Sidon, had reached its climax of perfection, both with regard tocolor and form, in Alexandria about the time of the Ptolemies. Manyof these Alexandrine glasses have been preserved to us, and theirbeauty fully explains their superiority in the opinion of the ancientsto those manufactured in Italy. Here also, after the discovery ofexcellent sand at Cumæ and Linternum, glass works had beenestablished. Most of our museums possess some specimens of antiqueglass manufacture, in the shape of balsam or medicine bottles of whiteor colored glass. We also possess goblets and drinking-bottles ofvarious shapes and sizes, made of white or common green glass; theygenerally taper toward the bottom, and frequently show grooves orraised points on their outer surfaces, so as to prevent the glass fromslipping from the hand; urns, oinochoai, and dishes of various sizesmade of glass, are of frequent occurrence. Some of these are dark blueor green, others party-colored with stripes winding round them inzigzag or in spiral lines, reminding one of mosaic patterns. Pieces ofglittering glass, being most likely fragments of so-called_allassontes versicolores_ (not to be mistaken for originally whiteglass which has been discolored by exposure to the weather), are notunfrequently found. We propose to name in the following pages a few ofthe more important specimens of antique glass-fabrication. One of thefirst amongst these is the vessel known as the Barberini or PortlandVase, which was found in the sixteenth century in the sarcophagus ofthe so-called tomb of Severus Alexander and of his mother JuliaMammæa. It was kept in the Barberini Palace for several centuries, till it was purchased by the Duke of Portland, after whose death itwas placed in the British Museum. After having been broken by the handof a barbarian, it has fortunately been restored satisfactorily. Manyreproductions of this vase in china and terra-cotta have made it knownin wide circles. The mythological bas-reliefs have not as yet beensufficiently explained. Similar glass vases with bas-reliefornamentation occur occasionally either whole or in fragments. [Page Decoration] EMPLOYMENT. Many arts and inventions were in common use in Egypt for centuriesbefore they are generally supposed to have been known; and we are nowand then as much surprised to find that certain things were old 3, 000years ago, as the Egyptians would be if they could hear us talk ofthem as late discoveries. One of them is the use of glass, with whichthey were acquainted at least as early as the reign of the firstOsirtasen, more than 3, 800 years ago; and the process of glass-blowingis represented during his reign, in the paintings of Beni Hassan, inthe same manner as it is on later monuments, in different parts ofEgypt, to the time of the Persian conquest. The form of the bottle and the use of the blow-pipe are unequivocallyindicated in those subjects; and the green hue of the fused material, taken from the fire at the point of the pipe, sufficiently proves theintention of the artist. But, even if we had not this evidence of theuse of glass, it would be shown by those well-known images of glazedpottery, which were common at the same period; the vitrified substancethat covers them being of the same quality as glass, and containingthe same ingredients fused in the same manner. And besides the manyglass ornaments known to be of an earlier period is a bead, found atThebes, bearing the name of a Pharaoh who lived about 1450 B. C. , thespecific gravity of which, 25° 23', is precisely the same as of crownglass, now manufactured in England. Glass bottles are even met with on monuments of the 4th dynasty, dating long before the Osirtasens, or more than 4, 000 years ago; thetransparent substance shows the red wine they contained; and this kindof bottle is represented in the same manner among the offerings to thegods, and at the fetes of individuals, wherever wine was introduced, from the earliest to the latest times. Bottles, and other objects ofglass, are commonly found in the tombs; and though they have no kings'names or dates inscribed upon them (glass being seldom used for such apurpose), no doubt exists of their great antiquity; and we mayconsider it a fortunate chance that has preserved _one_ bead with thename of a sovereign of the 18th dynasty. Nor is it necessary to pointout how illogical is the inference that, because other kinds of glasshave not been found bearing a king's name, they were not made inEgypt, at, or even before, the same early period. Pliny ascribes the discovery of glass to some Phœnician sailorsaccidently lighting a fire on the sea-shore; but if an effect ofchance, the secret is more likely to have been arrived at in Egypt, where natron (or subcarbonate of soda) abounded, than by the sea side;and if the Phœnicians really were the first to discover it on the_Syrian_ coast, this would prove their migration from the Persian Gulfto have happened at a very remote period. Glass was certainly one ofthe great exports of the Phœnicians; who traded in beads, bottles, andother objects of that material, as well as various manufactures, madeeither in their own or in other countries: but Egypt was always famedfor its manufacture; a peculiar kind of earth was found nearAlexandria, without which, Strabo says, "it was impossible to makecertain kinds of glass of many colors, and of a brilliant quality, "and some vases, presented by an Egyptian priest to the EmperorHadrian, were considered so curious and valuable that they were onlyused on grand occasions. Glass bottles, of various colors, were eagerly bought from Egypt, andexported into other countries; and the manufacture as well as thepatterns of many of those found in Greece, Etruria, and Rome, showthat they were of Egyptian work; and though imitated in Italy andGreece, the original art was borrowed from the workmen of the Nile. Such, too, was their skill in making glass, and in the mode ofstaining it of various hues, that they counterfeited with success theemerald, the amethyst, and other precious stones; and even arrived atan excellence in the art of introducing numerous colors into the samevase, to which our European workmen, in spite of their improvements inmany branches of this manufacture, are still unable to attain. A fewyears ago the glass-makers of Venice made several attempts to imitatethe variety of colors found in antique cups; but as the componentparts were of different densities, they did not all cool, or set, atthe same rapidity, and the vase was unsound. And it is only by makingan inner foundation of one color, to which those of the outer surfaceare afterwards added, that they have been able to produce theirmany-colored vases; some of which were sent to the Great Exhibition of1851. Not so the Egyptians, who combined all the colors they required in thesame cup, without the interior lining: those which had it being ofinferior and cheaper quality. They had even the secret of introducinggold between two surfaces of glass; and in their bottles, a gold bandalternates within a set of blue, green, and other colors. Anothercurious process was also common in Egypt in early times, more than3, 000 years ago, which has only just been attempted at Venice; wherebythe pattern on the surface was made to pass in right lines directlythrough the substance; so that if any number of horizontal sectionswere made through it, each one would have the same device on its upperand under surface. It is in fact a Mosaic in glass; made by fusingtogether as many delicate rods of an opaque glass of the colorrequired for the picture, in the same manner as the woods inTunbridge-ware are glued together, to form a larger and coarserpattern. The skill required in this exquisite work is not only shownby the art itself, but the fineness of the design; for some of thefeathers of birds, and other details, are only to be made out with alens; which means of magnifying was evidently used in Egypt, when thisMosaic glass was manufactured. Indeed, the discovery of a lens ofcrystal by Mr. Layard, at Nimroud, satisfactorily proves its use at anearly period in Assyria; and we may conclude that it was neither arecent discovery there, nor confined to that country. [Illustration: ANCIENT GLASS VESSELS. ] Winkleman is of opinion that "the ancients carried the art ofglass-making to a higher degree of perfection than ourselves, thoughit may appear a paradox to those who have not seen their works in thismaterial;" and we may even add that they used it for more purposes, excepting of course windows, the inconvenience of which in the hot sunof Egypt would have been unbearable, or even in Italy, and only onepane of glass has been found at Pompeii, in a place not exposed to theouter light. [Illustration: GLASS BROACH. ] That the Egyptians, more than 3, 000 years ago, were well acquaintednot only with the manufacture of common glass, for beads and bottlesof ordinary quality, but with the art of staining it with diverscolors, is sufficiently proved by the fragments found in the tombs ofThebes; and so skillful were they in this complicated process, thatthey imitated the most fanciful devices, and succeeded incounterfeiting the rich hues, and brilliancy, of precious stones. Thegreen emerald, the purple amethyst, and other expensive gems, weresuccessfully imitated; a necklace of false stones could be purchasedat an Egyptian jeweler's, to please the wearer, or deceive a stranger, by the appearance of reality; and some mock pearls (found lately atThebes) have been so well counterfeited, that even now it is difficultwith a strong lens to detect the imposition. Pliny says the emerald was more easily counterfeited than any othergem, and considers the art of imitating precious stones a far morelucrative piece of deceit than any devised by the ingenuity of man;Egypt was, as usual, the country most noted for this manufacture; andwe can readily believe that in Pliny's time they succeeded socompletely in the imitation as to render it difficult to distinguishfalse from real stones. Many, in the form of beads, have been met with in different parts ofEgypt, particularly at Thebes; and so far did the Egyptians carry thisspirit of imitation, that even small figures, scarabæi, and objectsmade of ordinary porcelain, were counterfeited, being composed ofstill cheaper materials. A figure, which was entirely of earthenware, with a glazed exterior, underwent a somewhat more complicated processthan when cut out of stone and simply covered with a vitrifiedcoating; this last could, therefore, be sold at a low price; itoffered all the brilliancy of the former, and its weight alonebetrayed its inferiority; by which means, whatever was novel, orpleasing from its external appearance, was placed within reach of allclasses, or, at least, the possessor had the satisfaction of seemingto partake in each fashionable novelty. [Illustration: IMITATION OF REAL STONES. ] Such inventions, and successful endeavors to imitate costly ornamentsby humbler materials, not only show the progress of art among theEgyptians, but strongly argue the great advancement they had made inthe customs of civilized life; since it is certain, that until societyhas arrived at a high degree of luxury and refinement, artificialwants of this nature are not created, and the poorer classes do notyet feel the desire of imitating the rich, in the adoption of objectsdependent on taste or accidental caprice. Glass bugles and beads were much used by the Egyptians for necklaces, and for a sort of network, with which they covered the wrappers andcartonage of mummies. They were arranged so as to form, by theirvaried hues, numerous devices or figures, in the manner of our beadpurses; and women sometimes amused themselves by stringing them forornamental purposes, as at the present day. A far more numerous class were the potters; and all the processes ofmixing the clay, and of turning, baking and polishing the vases arerepresented in the tombs of Thebes and Beni Hassan, of which we havealready spoken. They frequently kneaded the clay with their feet, and after it hadbeen properly worked up, they formed it into a mass of convenient sizewith the hand, and placed it on the wheel, which was of very simpleconstruction, and generally turned with the hand. The various forms ofthe vases were made out by the finger during the revolution; thehandles, if they had any, were afterwards affixed to them; and thedevices and other ornamental parts were traced with a wooden or metalinstrument, previous to their being baked. They were then suffered todry, and for this purpose were placed on planks of wood; they wereafterwards arranged with great care in trays, and carried, by means ofthe usual yoke, borne on men's shoulders, to the oven. The Egyptians displayed much taste in their gold, silver, porcelain, and glass vases, but when made of earthenware, for ordinary purposes, they were frequently devoid of elegance, and scarcely superior tothose of England before the taste of Wedgewood substituted thegraceful forms of Greek models, for some of the unseemly productionsof our old potteries. Though the clay of Upper Egypt was particularlysuited to porous bottles, it could be obtained of a sufficiently finequality for the manufacture of vases like those of Greece and Italy;in Egypt, too, good taste did not extend to all classes, as in Greece;and vases used for fetching water from a well, or from the Nile, wereof a very ordinary kind, far inferior to those carried by the Athenianwomen to the fountain of Kallirhoe. The Greeks, it is true, were indebted to Egypt for much usefulknowledge, and for many early hints in art, but they speedilysurpassed their instructors; and in nothing, perhaps, is this morestrikingly manifested than in the productions of the potter. Samplesof the more common are seen below. Carpenters and cabinet-makers were a very numerous class of workmen;and their occupations form one of the most important subjects in thepaintings which represent the Egyptian trades. [Illustration: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN POTTERY. ] For ornamental purposes, and sometimes even for coffins, doors andboxes, foreign woods were employed; deal and cedar were imported fromSyria; and part of the contributions, exacted from the conqueredtribes of Ethiopia, and Asia, consisted in ebony and other rare woods, which were annually brought by the chiefs, deputed to present theircountry's tribute to the Egyptian Pharaohs. Boxes, chairs, tables, sofas, and other pieces of furniture werefrequently made of ebony, inlaid with ivory, sycamore and acacia, wereveneered with thin layers, or ornamented with carved devices of rarewood, applied or let into them; and a fondness for this displaysuggested to the Egyptians the art of painting common boards, toimitate foreign varieties, so generally adopted in other countries atthe present day. The colors were usually applied on a thin coating of stucco, laidsmoothly upon the previously prepared wood, and the various knots andgrains painted upon this ground indicated the quality of the wood theyintended to counterfeit. The usual tools of the carpenter were the ax, adze, handsaw, chiselsof various kinds (which were struck with a wooden mallet), the drill, and two sorts of planes (one resembling a chisel, the other apparentlyof stone, acting as a rasp on the surface of the wood, which wasafterwards polished by a smooth body, probably also of stone); andthese, with the ruler, plummet, and right angle, a leather bagcontaining nails, the hone, and the horn of oil, constituted theprincipal, and perhaps the only, implements he used. Many adzes, saws and chisels, have been found at Thebes. The bladesare all of bronze, the handles of the acacia or the tamarisk; and thegeneral mode of fastening the blade to the handle appears to have beenby thongs of hide. It is probable that some of those discovered in thetombs are only models, or unfinished specimens, and it may have beenthought sufficient to show their external appearance, without thenecessity of nailing them, beneath the thongs, for those they workedwith were bound in the same manner, though we believe them to havebeen also secured with nails. Some, however, evidently belonged to theindividuals in whose tombs they were buried, and appear to have beenused; and the chisels often bear signs of having been beaten with themallet. The drill is frequently represented in the sculptures. Like all theother tools, it was of the earliest date, and precisely similar tothat of modern Egypt, even to the nut of the _dom_ in which it turned, and the form of its bow with a leathern thong. The chisel was employed for the same purposes, and in the same manner, as at the present day, and was struck with a wooden mallet, sometimesflat at the two ends, sometimes of circular or oval form; several ofwhich last have been found at Thebes, and are in European museums. Thehandles of the chisel were of acacia, tamarisk, or other compact wood, the blades of bronze, and the form of the points varied in breadth, according to the work for which they were intended. The hatchet was principally used by boat-builders, and those who madelarge pieces of frame-work; and trees were felled with the sameinstrument. With the carpenters may be mentioned the wheelwrights, the makers ofcoffins, and the coopers, and this sub-division of one class ofartisans shows that they had systematically adopted the partition oflabor. The makers of chariots and traveling carriages were of the same class;but both carpenters and workers of leather were employed in theirmanufacture; and chariots either passed through the hands of both, or, which is more probable, chariot makers constituted a distinct trade. The tanning and preparation of leather was also a branch of art inwhich the Egyptians evinced considerable skill; the leather cuttersconstituted one of the principal sub-divisions of the fourth-class, and a district of the city was exclusively appropriated to them, inthe Libyan part of Thebes, where they were known as "theleather-cutters of the Memnonia. " Many of the occupations of their trade are portrayed on the paintedwalls of the tombs at Thebes. They made shoes, sandals, the coveringsand seats of chairs or sofas, bow-cases, and most of the ornamentalfurniture of the chariot; harps were also adorned with coloredleather, and shields and numerous other things were covered with skinprepared in various ways. They also make skins for carrying water, wine, and other liquids, coated within with a resinous substance, asis still the custom in Egypt. The stores of an Egyptian town were probably similar to those of Cairoand other Eastern cities, which consist of a square room, open infront, with falling or sliding shutters to close it at night, and thegoods, ranged on shelves or suspended against the walls, are exposedto the view of those who pass. In front is generally a raised seat, where the owner of the shop and his customers sit during the longprocess of concluding a bargain previous to the sale and purchase ofthe smallest article, and here an idle lounger frequently passes wholehours, less intent on benefiting the merchant than in amusing himselfwith the busy scene of the passing crowd. It is probable that, as at the present day, they ate in the open frontof their shops, exposed to the view of every one who passed, and tothis custom Herodotus may allude, when he says, "the Egyptians eat inthe street. " There is no direct evidence that the ancient Egyptians affixed thename and trade of the owner of the shop, though the presence ofhieroglyphics, denoting this last, together with the emblem whichindicated it, may seem to argue in favor of the question; and theabsence of many individuals' names in the sculpture is readilyaccounted for by the fact that these scenes refer to the occupation ofthe whole trade, and not to any particular person. The high estimation in which the priestly and military professionswere held in Egypt placed them far above the rest of the community;but the other classes had also their degrees of consequence, andindividuals enjoyed a position and importance in proportion to theirrespectability, their talents, or their wealth. According to Herodotus, the whole Egyptian community was divided intoseven tribes, one of which was the sacerdotal, another of thesoldiers, and the remaining five of the herdsmen, swineherds, merchants, interpreters, and boatmen. Diodorus states that, like theAthenians, they were distributed into three classes--the priests, thepeasants, or husbandmen, from whom the soldiers were levied, and theartisans, who were employed in handicraft and other similaroccupations, and in common offices among the people--but in anotherplace he extends the number to five, and reckons the pastors, husbandmen, and artificers independent of the soldiers and priests. Strabo limits them to three, the military, husbandmen, and priests;and Plato divides them into six bodies, the priests, artificers, shepherds, huntsmen, husbandmen, and soldiers; each peculiar art oroccupation he observes being confined to a certain sub-division of thecaste, and every one being engaged in his own branch withoutinterfering with the occupation of another. Hence it appears that thefirst class consisted of the priests, the second of the soldiers, thethird of the husbandmen, gardeners, huntsmen, boatmen of the Nile, andothers; the fourth of artificers, tradesmen and merchants, carpenters, boat-builders, masons, and probably potters, public weighers, andnotaries; and in the fifth may be reckoned pastors, poulterers, fowlers, fishermen, laborers, and, generally speaking, the commonpeople. Many of these were again sub-divided, as the artificers andtradesmen, according to their peculiar trade or occupation; and as thepastors, into oxherds, shepherds, goatherds, and swineherds, whichlast were, according to Herodotus, the lowest grade, not only of theclass, but of the whole community, since no one would either marrytheir daughters or establish any family connection with them. Sodegrading was the occupation of tending swine, that they were lookedupon as impure, and were even forbidden to enter a temple withoutpreviously undergoing a purification; and the prejudices of theIndians against this class of persons almost justify our belief in thestatement of the historian. Without stopping to inquire into the relative rank of the differentsub-divisions of the third class, the importance of agriculture in acountry like Egypt, where the richness and productiveness of the soilhave always been proverbial, suffices to claim the first place for thehusbandmen. The abundant supply of grain and other produce gave to Egyptadvantages which no other country possessed. Not only was her densepopulation supplied with a profusion of the necessaries of life, butthe sale of the surplus conferred considerable benefits on thepeasant in addition to the profits which thence accrued to the state, for Egypt was a granary, where, from the earliest times, all peoplefelt sure of finding a plenteous store of corn, and some idea may beformed of the immense quantity produced there from the circumstance of"seven plenteous years" affording, from the superabundance of thecrops, a sufficiency of corn to supply the whole population duringseven years of dearth, as well as "all countries" which sent to Egypt"to buy" it, when Pharaoh, by the advice of Joseph, laid up the annualsurplus for that purpose. The right of exportation, and the sale of superfluous produce toforeigners, belonged exclusively to the government, as is distinctlyshown by the sale of corn to the Israelites from the royal stores, andthe collection having been made by Pharaoh only; and it is probablethat even the rich landowners were in the habit of selling togovernment whatever quantity remained on hand at the approach of eachsuccessive harvest, while the agricultural laborers, from their frugalmode of living, required very little wheat and barley, and weregenerally contented, as at the present day, with bread made of the_Doora_ flour; children and even grown persons, according to Diodorus, often living on roots and esculent herbs, as the papyrus, lotus, andothers, either raw, toasted, or boiled. The government did not interfere directly with the peasants respectingthe nature of the produce they intended to cultivate; and thevexations of later times were unknown under the Pharaohs. They werethought to have the best opportunities of obtaining, from actualobservation, an accurate knowledge on all subjects connected withhusbandry, and, as Diodorus observes, "being from their infancybrought up to agricultural pursuits, they far excelled the husbandmenof other countries, and had become acquainted with the capabilities ofthe land, the mode of irrigation, the exact season for sowing andreaping, as well as all the most useful secrets connected with theharvest, which they had derived from their ancestors, and had improvedby their own experience. " "They rented, " says the same historian, "thearable lands belonging to the kings, the priests, and the militaryclass, for a small sum, and employed their whole time in the tillageof their farms, " and the laborers who cultivated land for the richpeasant, or other landed proprietors, were superintended by thesteward or owner of the estate, who had authority over them, and thepower of condemning delinquents to the bastinado. This is shown by thepaintings of the tombs, which frequently represent a person ofconsequence inspecting the tillage of the field, either seated in achariot, walking, or leaning on his staff, accompanied by a favoritedog. Their mode of irrigation was the same in the field of the peasant asin the garden of the villa; and the principal difference in the modeof tilling the former consisted in the use of the plow. The usual contrivance for raising water from the Nile for watering thecrops was the _shadoof_, or pole and bucket, so common still in Egypt, and even the water-wheel appears to have been employed in more recenttimes. The sculptures of the tombs frequently represent canals conveying thewater of the inundation into the fields, and the proprietor of theestate is seen, as described by Virgil, plying in a light paintedskiff or papyrus punt, and superintending the maintenance of thedykes, or other important matters connected with the land. Boats carrythe grain to the granary, or remove the flocks from the lowlands; asthe water subsides the husbandman plows the soft earth with a pair ofoxen, and the same subjects introduce the offering of first-fruits ofthe gods in acknowledgment of the benefits conferred by "a favorableNile. " The main canal was usually carried to the upper or southernside of the land, and small branches, leading from it at intervals, traversed the fields in straight or curving lines, according to thenature or elevation of the soil. Guards were placed to watch the dykes which protected the lowlands, and the utmost care was taken to prevent any sudden influx of waterwhich might endanger the produce still growing there, the cattle, orthe villages. And of such importance was the preservation of the dykesthat a strong guard of cavalry and infantry was always in attendancefor their protection; certain officers of responsibility wereappointed to superintend them, being furnished with large sums ofmoney for their maintenance and repairs, and in the time of Romans anyperson found destroying a dyke was condemned to hard labor in thepublic works or in the mines, or was branded and transported to theOasis. According to Strabo, the system was so admirably managed, "thatart contrived sometimes to supply what nature denied, and, by means ofcanals and embankments, there was little difference in the quantity ofland irrigated, whether the inundation was deficient or abundant. ""If, " continues the geographer, "it rose only to the height of eightcubits, the usual idea was that a famine would ensue, fourteen beingrequired for a plentiful harvest; but when Petronius was præfect ofEgypt twelve cubits gave the same abundance, nor did they suffer fromwant even at eight;" and it may be supposed that long experience hadtaught the ancient Egyptians to obtain similar results from the samemeans, which, neglected at a subsequent period, were revived, ratherthan, as Strabo thinks, first introduced, by the Romans. In some parts of Egypt the villages were liable to be overflowed whenthe Nile rose to more than an ordinary height, by which the lives andproperty of the inhabitants were endangered, and when their crudebrick houses had been long exposed to the damp the foundations gaveway, and the fallen walls, saturated with water, were once more mixedwith the mud from which they had been extracted. On these occasionsthe blessings of the Nile entailed heavy losses on the inhabitants, for, according to Pliny, "if the rise of water exceeded sixteencubits famine was the result, as when it only reached the height oftwelve. " In another place he says, "a proper inundation is of sixteencubits * * * * in twelve cubits the country suffers from famine, andfeels a deficiency even in thirteen; fourteen cause joy, fifteensecurity, sixteen delight; the greatest rise of the river to thisperiod being of eighteen cubits, in the reign of Claudius; the leastduring the Pharsalic war. " The land being cleared of the water, and presenting in some places asurface of liquid mud, in others nearly dried by the sun and thestrong northwest winds (that continue at intervals to the end ofAutumn and commencement of Winter), the husbandman prepared the groundto receive the seed, which was either done by the plow and hoe, or bymore simple means, according to the nature of the soil, the quality ofthe produce they intended to cultivate, or the time the land hadremained under water. When the levels were low and the water had continued long upon theland they often dispensed with the plow, and, like their successors, broke up the ground with hoes, or simply dragged the moist mud withbushes after the seed had been thrown upon the surface, and thenmerely drove a number of cattle, asses, pigs, sheep, or goats into thefield to tread in the grain. "In no country, " says Herodotus, "do theygather their seed with so little labor. They are not obliged to tracedeep furrows with the plow and break the clods, nor to partition outtheir fields into numerous forms as other people do, but when theriver of itself overflows the land, and the water retires again, theysow their fields, driving the pigs over them to tread in the seed, andthis being done every one patiently awaits the harvest. " On otheroccasions they used to plow, but were contented, as we are told byDiodorus and Columella, with "tracing slight furrows with light plowson the surface of the land, " and others followed with wooden hoes tobreak the clods of the rich and tenacious soil. The modern Egyptians sometimes substitute for the hoe a machine called_khonfud_, "hedgehog, " which consists of a cylinder studded withprojecting iron pins, to break the clods after the land has beenplowed, but this is only used when great care is required in thetillage of the land, and they frequently dispense with the hoe, contenting themselves, also, with the same slight furrows as theirpredecessors, which do not exceed the depth of a few inches, measuringfrom the lowest part to the summit of the ridge. It is difficult tosay if the modern Egyptians derived the hint of the "_hedgehog_" fromtheir predecessors, but it is a curious fact that a clod-crushingmachine, not very unlike that of Egypt, has only lately been inventedin England, which was shown at the Great Exhibition. The ancient plow was entirely of wood, and of as simple a form as thatof modern Egypt. It consisted of a share, two handles, and the pole orbeam, which last was inserted into the lower end of the stilt, or thebase of the handles, and was strengthened by a rope connecting it withthe heel. It had no coulter, nor were wheels applied to any Egyptianplow, but it is probable that the point was shod with a metal sock, either of bronze or iron. It was drawn by two oxen, and the plowmanguided and drove them with a long goad, without the assistance ofreins, which are used by modern Egyptians. He was sometimesaccompanied by another man, who drove the animals, while he managedthe two handles of the plow, and sometimes the whip was substitutedfor the more usual goad. Cows were occasionally put to the plow, and it may not have beenunknown to them that the cow plows quicker than the ox. The mode of yoking the beasts was exceedingly simple. Across theextremity of the pole, a wooden yoke or cross-bar, about fifty-fiveinches, or five feet, in length was fastened by a strap lashedbackwards and forwards over a prominence projecting from the centre ofthe yoke, which corresponded to a similar peg, or knob, at the end ofthe pole, and, occasionally, in addition to these, was a ring passingover them as in some Greek chariots. At either end of the yoke was aflat or slightly concave projection, of semi-circular form, whichrested on a pad placed upon the withers of the animal, and through ahole on either side of it passed a thong for suspending theshoulder-pieces which formed the collar. These were two wooden bars, forked at about half their length, padded so as to protect theshoulder from friction, and connected at the lower end by a strongbroad band passing under the throat. Sometimes the draught, instead of being from the withers, was from thehead, the yoke being tied to the base of the horns, and in religiousceremonies oxen frequently drew the bier, or the sacred shrine, by arope fastened to the upper part of the horns, without either yoke orpole. From a passage in Deuteronomy, "Thou shalt not plow with an ox and anass together, " it might be inferred that the custom of yoking twodifferent animals to the plow was common in Egypt; but it wasevidently not so, and the Hebrew lawgiver had probably in view apractice adopted by some of the people of Syria, whose country theIsraelites were about to occupy. The hoe was of wood, like the fork, and many other implements ofhusbandry, and in form was not unlike the letter A, with one limbshorter than the other, and curving inwards. The longer limb, orhandle, was of uniform thickness, round and smooth, sometimes with aknob at the end, and the lower extremity of the blade was of increasedbreadth, and either terminated in a sharp point, or was rounded at theend. The blade was frequently inserted into the handle, and they werebound together, about the centre, with twisted rope. Being the mostcommon tool, answering for hoe, spade, and pick, it is frequentlyrepresented in the sculptures, and several, which were found in thetombs of Thebes, are preserved in the museums of Europe. The hoe in hieroglyphics stands for the letter M, though the name ofthis instrument was in Egyptian, as in Arabic, _Tore_. It forms thecommencement of the word _Mai_, "_beloved_, " and enters into numerousother combinations. There are no instances of hoes with metal blades, except of very latetime, nor is there any proof of the plowshare having been sheathedwith metal. The ax had a metal blade, either bronze or iron, and the peasants aresometimes represented felling trees with this implement, while othersare employed in hoeing the field preparatory to its beingsown--confirming what we have observed, that the ancient, as well asthe modern, Egyptians frequently dispensed with the use of the plow. The admission of swine into the fields, mentioned by Herodotus, shouldrather have been before than after they had sown the land, since theirhabits would do little good to the farmer, and other animals wouldanswer as well for "treading in the grain;" but they may have beenused before for clearing the fields of the roots and weeds encouragedby the inundation; and this seems to be confirmed by the herd of pigswith water plants represented in the tombs. They sometimes used a top dressing of nitrous soil, which was spreadover the surface; a custom continued to the present day; but this wasconfined to certain crops, and principally to those reared late in theyear, the fertilizing properties of the alluvial deposit answering allthe purposes of the richest manure. Besides the admixture of nitrous earth the Egyptians made use of otherkinds of dressing, and sought for different productions the soils bestsuited to them. They even took advantage of the edge of the desert forgrowing the vine and some other plants, which, being composed of clayand sand, was peculiarly adapted to such as required a light soil, andthe cultivation of this additional tract, which only stood in need ofproper irrigation to become highly productive, had the advantage ofincreasing considerably the extent of the arable land of Egypt. Inmany places we still find evidence of its having been tilled by theancient inhabitants, even to the late time of the Roman empire; and insome parts of the Fyoom the vestiges of beds and channels forirrigation, as well as the roots of vines, are found in sites lyingfar above the level of the rest of the country. The occupation of the husbandman depended much on the produce he haddetermined on rearing. Those who solely cultivated corn had littlemore to do than to await the time of harvest, but many crops requiredconstant attention, and some stood in need of frequent artificialirrigation. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] BAKING, DYEING AND PAINTING. The fame of an actor has been justly said to be of all fame the mostperishable, because he leaves no memorial of his powers, except in thefading memories of the generation which has beheld him. An analogousproposition might be made with respect to the mechanical arts: of allsorts of knowledge they are the most perishable, because the knowledgeof them can not be transmitted by mere description. Let any greatconvulsion of nature put an end to their practice for a generation ortwo, and though the scientific part of them may be preserved in books, the skill in manipulation, acquired by a long series of improvements, is lost. If the United States be destined to relapse into such a stateof barbarism as Italy passed through in the period which dividesancient and modern history, its inhabitants a thousand years hencewill know little more of the manual process of printing, dyeing, andthe other arts which minister to our daily comfort, in spite of allthe books which have been and shall be written, than we know of themanual processes of ancient Italy. We reckon, therefore, among themost interesting discoveries of Pompeii, those which relate to themanner of conducting handicrafts, of which it is not too much to saythat we know nothing except through this medium. It is to beregretted, that as far as our information goes, there are but twotrades on which any light has yet been thrown, those, namely, of thebaker and the dyer. We shall devote this chapter to collecting what isknown upon these subjects, and probably also speak some on painting. Several bakers' shops have been found, all in a tolerable state ofpreservation. The mills, the oven, the kneading-troughs, the vesselsfor containing flour, water, leaven, have all been discovered, andseem to leave nothing wanting to our knowledge; in some of the vesselsthe very flour remained, still capable of being identified, thoughreduced almost to a cinder. But in the centre some lumps of whitishmatter resembling chalk remained, which, when wetted and placed on ared-hot iron, gave out the peculiar color which flour thus treatedemits. Even the very bread, in a perfect though carbonized form, hasin some instances been found in the oven. One of these bakers' shopswas attached to the House of Sallust, another to the House of Pansa:probably they were worth a handsome rent. A third, which we select fordescription, for one will serve perfectly as a type for the whole, seems to have belonged to a man of higher class, a sort of capitalist;for, instead of renting a mere dependency of another man's house, helived in a tolerably good house of his own, of which the bakery formsa part. It stands next to the House of Sallust, on the south side, being divided from it only by a narrow street. Its front is in themain street or Via Consularis, leading from the gate of Herculaneum tothe Forum. Entering by a small vestibule, the visitor finds himself ina tetrastyle atrium (a thing not common at Pompeii), of ampledimensions, considering the character of the house, being aboutthirty-six feet by thirty. The pillars which supported the ceiling aresquare and solid, and their size, combined with indications observedin a fragment of the entablature, led Mazois to suppose that, insteadof a roof, they had been surmounted by a terrace. The impluvium ismarble. At the end of the atrium is what would be called a tablinum inthe house of a man of family, through which we enter the bake-house, which is at the back of the house, and opens into the smaller street, which, diverging from the main street at the fountain by Pansa'shouse, runs up straight to the city walls. The atrium is surroundedby different apartments, offering abundant accommodation, but such aswe need not stop to describe. [Illustration: MILL AND BAKERY AT POMPEII. ] The work-room is about thirty-three feet long by twenty-six. Thecentre is occupied by four stone mills, exactly like those found inthe other two stores, for all the bakers ground their own flour. Togive more room they are placed diagonally, so as to form, not asquare, but a lozenge. Mazois was present at the excavation of thishouse, and saw the mills at the moment of their discovery, when theiron-work, though entirely rust-eaten, was yet perfect enough toexplain satisfactorily the method of construction. This will be bestunderstood from the following representation, one half of which is anelevation, the other half a section. The cut on page 365 gives someidea of them. The base is a cylindrical stone, about five feet in diameter and twofeet high. Upon this, forming part of the same block, or else firmlyfixed into it, is a conical projection about two feet high, the sidesslightly curving inwards. Upon this there rests another block, externally resembling a dice-box, internally an hour-glass, beingshaped into two hollow cones with their vertices towards each other, the lower one fitting the conical surface on which it rests, thoughnot with any degree of accuracy. To diminish friction, however, astrong iron pivot was inserted in the top of the solid cone, and acorresponding socket let into the narrow part of the hour-glass. Fourholes were cut through the stone parallel to this pivot. The narrowpart was hooped on the outside with iron, into which wooden bars wereinserted, by means of which the upper stone was turned upon its pivot, by the labor of men or asses. The upper hollow cone served as ahopper, and was filled with corn, which fell by degrees through thefour holes upon the solid cone, and was reduced to powder by frictionbetween the two rough surfaces. Of course it worked its way to thebottom by degrees, and fell out on the cylindrical base, round which achannel was cut to facilitate the collection. These machines areabout six feet high in the whole, made of a rough gray volcanic stone, full of large crystals of leucite. Thus rude, in a period of highrefinement and luxury, was one of the commonest and most necessarymachines--thus careless were the Romans of the amount of labor wastedin preparing an article of daily and universal consumption. This, probably, arose in chief from the employment of slaves, the hardnessof whose task was little cared for; while the profit and encouragementto enterprise on the part of the professional baker wasproportionately diminished, since every family of wealth probablyprepared its bread at home. But the same inattention to the usefularts runs through everything that they did. Their skill in workingmetals was equal to ours; nothing can be more beautiful than theexecution of tripods, lamps, and vases, nothing coarser than theirlocks; while at the same time the door-handles, bolts, etc. , whichwere seen, are often exquisitely wrought. To what cause can thissluggishness be referred? At present we see that a materialimprovement in any article, though so trifling as a corkscrew orpencil-case, is pretty sure to make the fortune of some man, thoughunfortunately that man is very often not the inventor. Had theencouragement to industry been the same, the result would have beenthe same. Articles of luxury were in high request, and of them thesupply was first-rate. But the demands of a luxurious nobility wouldnever have repaid any man for devoting his attention to theimprovement of mills or perfecting smith's work, and there was littlegeneral commerce to set ingenuity at work. Italy imported largely bothagricultural produce and manufactures in the shape of tribute from aconquered world, and probably exported part of her peculiarproductions; but we are not aware that there is any ground forsupposing that she manufactured goods for exportation to any extent. Originally mills were turned by hand, (many establishments may stillbe seen in the streets of Naples for grinding corn by means of ahand-mill, turned by a man. Such flour-shops have always a picture ofthe Madonna inside, ) and this severe labor seems, in all half-savagetimes, to have been conducted by women. It was so in Egypt; it was soin Greece in the time of Homer, who employs fifty females in the houseof Alcinous upon this service. It was so in Palestine in the time ofthe Evangelists, and in England in the fourteenth and sixteenthcenturies. We find a passage of St. Matthew thus rendered by Wicliffe:"Two wymmen schulen (shall) be grinding in one querne, " or hand-mill;and Harrison the historian, two centuries later, says that his wifeground her malt at home upon her quern. Among the Romans poor freemenused sometimes to hire themselves out to the service of the mill whenall other resources failed; and Plautus is said to have done so, beingreduced to the extreme of poverty, and to have composed his comedieswhile thus employed. This labor, however, fell chiefly upon slaves, and is represented as being the severest drudgery which they had toundergo. Those who had been guilty of any offense were sent to themill as a punishment, and sometimes forced to work in chains. Asses, however, were used by those who could afford it. That useful animalseems to have been employed in the establishment we are describing, for the fragment of a jaw-bone, with several teeth in it, was found ina room which seems to have been the stable; and the floor about themill is paved with rough pieces of stone, while in the rest of therooms it is made of stucco or compost. The use of water-mills, however, was not unknown to the Romans. Vitruvius describes theirconstruction in terms not inapplicable to the mechanism of a commonmill of the present day, and other ancient authors refer to them. "Setnot your hands to the mill, O women that turn the millstone! sleepsound though the cock's crow announce the dawn, for Ceres has chargedthe nymphs with the labors which employed your arms. These, dashingfrom the summit of a wheel, make its axle revolve, which, by the helpof moving radii, sets in action the weight of four hollow mills. Wetaste anew the life of the first men, since we have learnt to enjoy, without fatigue, the produce of Ceres. " In the centre of the pier, at the back, is the aperture to the cisternby which the water used in making bread was supplied. On each side arevessels to hold the water. On the pier above is a painting, dividedhorizontally into two compartments. The figures in the upper ones aresaid to represent the worship of the goddess Fornax, the goddess ofthe oven, which seems to have been deified solely for the advantageswhich it possessed over the old method of baking on the hearth. Below, two guardian serpents roll towards an altar crowned with a fruit verymuch like a pine-apple; while above, two little birds are in chase oflarge flies. These birds, thus placed in a symbolical picture, may beconsidered, in perfect accordance with the spirit of ancientmythology, as emblems of the genii of the place, employed in drivingthose troublesome insects from the bread. The oven is on the left. It is made with considerable attention toeconomy of heat. The real oven is enclosed in a sort of ante-oven, which had an aperture in the top for the smoke to escape. The hole inthe side is for the introduction of dough, which was prepared in theadjoining room, and deposited through that hole upon the shovel withwhich the man in front placed it in the oven. The bread, when baked, was conveyed to cool in a room the other side of the oven, by asimilar aperture. Beneath the oven is an ash-pit. To the right is alarge room which is conjectured to have been a stable. The jaw-boneabove mentioned and some other fragments of a skeleton were found init. There is a reservoir for water at the further end, which passesthrough the wall, and is common both to this room and the next, sothat it could be filled without going into the stable. The furtherroom is fitted up with stone basins, which seem to have been thekneading-troughs. It contains also a narrow and inconvenientstaircase. Though corn-bread formed the principal article of nourishment amongthe Italians, the use of bread itself was not of early date. For along time the Romans used their corn sodden into pap, and there wereno bakers in Rome antecedent to the war against Perseus, king ofMacedonia, about B. C. 580. Before this every house made its own bread, and this was the task of the women, except in great houses, wherethere were men-cooks. And even after the invention of bread it waslong before the use of mills was known, but the grain was bruised inmortars. Hence the names _pistor_ and _pistrinum_, a baker and baker'sshop, which are derived from _pinsere_, to pound. The oven also was oflate introduction, as we have hinted in speaking of the goddessFornax, nor did it ever come into exclusive use. We hear of breadbaked under the ashes; baked in the bread-pan, which was probably ofthe nature of a Dutch oven; and other sorts, named either from thenature of their preparation or the purpose to which they were to beapplied. The finest sort was called _siligineus_, and was preparedfrom the best and whitest sort of wheaten flour. A bushel of the bestwheat of Campania, which was of the first quality, containing sixteensextarii, yielded four sextarii of siligo, here seemingly used for thefinest flour; half a bushel of _flos_, bolted flour; four sextarii of_cibarium_, seconds; and four sextarii of bran; thus giving an excessof four sextarii. Their loaves appear to have been very often baked inmoulds, several of which have been found; these may possibly beartoptæ, and the loaves thus baked, artopticii. Several of theseloaves have been found entire. They are flat, and about eight inchesin diameter. One in the Neapolitan Museum has a stamp on the top:-- SILIGO . CRANII E . CICER This has been interpreted to mean that cicer (vetch) was mixed withthe flour. We know from Pliny that the Romans used several sorts ofgrain. The cut below gives an idea of their form. [Illustration: BREAD DISCOVERED IN POMPEII. ] In front of the house, one on each side the doorway, there are twoshops. Neither of these has any communication with the house; it isinferred, therefore, that they were let out to others, like the shopsbelonging to more distinguished persons. This supposition is the moreprobable because none of the bakeries found have shops attached tothem, and there is a painting in the grand work on Herculaneum, LePitture d'Ercolano, which represents a bread-seller established in theForum, with his goods on a little table in the open air. There is only one trade, so far as we are aware, with respect to thepractices of which any knowledge has been gained from the excavationsat Pompeii--that of fulling and scouring cloth. This art, owing to thedifference of ancient and modern habits, was of much greaterimportance formerly than it now is. Wool was almost the only materialused for dresses in the earlier times of Rome, silk being unknown tilla late period, and linen garments being very little used. Woolendresses, however, especially in the hot climate of Italy, must oftenhave required a thorough purification, and on the manner in which thiswas done of course their beauty very much depended. And since thetoga, the chief article of Roman costume, was woven in one piece, andwas of course expensive, to make it look and wear as well as possiblewas very necessary to persons of small fortune. The method pursued hasbeen described by Pliny and others, and is well illustrated in somepaintings found upon the wall of a building, which evidently was a_fullonica_, or scouring-house. The building in question is enteredfrom the Street of Mercury, and is situated in the same island as theHouse of the Tragic Poet. The first operation was that of washing, which was done with watermixed with some detergent clay, or fuller's earth; soap does notappear to have been used. This was done in vats, where the clotheswere trodden and well worked by the feet of the scourer. The paintingon the walls of the Fullonica represents four persons thus employed. Their dress is tucked up, leaving their legs bare; it consists of twotunics, the under one being yellow and the upper green. Three of themseem to have done their work, and to be wringing the articles on whichthey have been employed; the other, his hands resting on the wall oneach side, is jumping, and busily working about the contents of hisvat. When dry, the cloth was brushed and carded, to raise the nap--atfirst with metal cards, afterwards with thistles. A plant calledteazle is now largely cultivated in England for the same purpose. Thecloth was then fumigated with sulphur, and bleached in the sun bythrowing water repeatedly upon it while spread out on gratings. In thepainting the workman is represented as brushing or carding a tunicsuspended over a rope. Another man carries a frame and pot, meantprobably for fumigation and bleaching; the pot containing live coalsand sulphur, and being placed under the frame, so that the clothsspread upon the latter would be fully exposed to the action of thepent-up vapor. The person who carries these things wears something onhis head, which is said to be an olive garland. If so, that, and theowl sitting upon the frame, probably indicate that the establishmentwas under the patronage of Minerva, the tutelary goddess of the loom. Another is a female examining the work which a young girl has doneupon a piece of yellow cloth. A golden net upon her head, and anecklace and bracelets, denote a person of higher rank than one of themere workpeople of the establishment; it probably is either themistress herself, or a customer inquiring into the quality of the workwhich has been done for her. These pictures, with others illustrative of the various processes ofthe art, were found upon a pier in the peristyle of the Fullonica. Among them we may mention one that represents a press, similar inconstruction to those now in use, except that there is an unusualdistance between the threads of the screw. The ancients, therefore, were acquainted with the practical application of this mechanicalpower. In another is to be seen a youth delivering some pieces ofcloth to a female, to whom, perhaps, the task of ticketing, andpreserving distinct the different property of different persons, wasallotted. It is rather a curious proof of the importance attached tothis trade, that the due regulation of it was a subject thought notunworthy of legislative enactments. B. C. 354, the censors laid downrules for regulating the manner of washing dresses, and we learn fromthe digests of the Roman law that scourers were compelled to use thegreatest care not to lose or to confound property. Another female, seated on a stool, seems occupied in cleaning one of the cards. Bothof the figures last described wear green tunics; the first of them hasa yellow under-tunic, the latter a white one. The resemblance incolors between these dresses and those of the male fullers abovedescribed may perhaps warrant a conjecture that there was some kind oflivery or described dress belonging to the establishment, or else thecontents of the painter's color-box must have been very limited. The whole pier on which these paintings were found has been removed tothe museum at Naples. In the peristyle was a large earthenware jar, which had been broken across the middle and the pieces then sewedcarefully and laboriously together with wire. The value of thesevessels, therefore, can not have been very small, though they weremade of the most common clay. At the eastern end of the peristylethere was a pretty fountain, with a jet d'eau. The western end isoccupied by four large vats in masonry, lined with stucco, about sevenfeet deep, which seem to have received the water in succession, onefrom another. Dyeing and painting in ancient times was rather more perfect than atpresent, at least the colors were stronger and more durable. TheEgyptians had the most durable colors. The Henna is a plant which isabundant in Egypt, Arabia, and Palestine, and was used by theancients, as it is by the moderns, for dyeing. The leaves were driedand pulverized, and then made into a paste. It is a powerfulastringent dye, and is applied to desiccate and dye the palms of thehands and soles of the feet and nails of both, and gives a sort of dunor rust color to animal tissues, which is very permanent. It is stated that when sal-ammoniac and lime were put upon the coloredparts they changed to a dark greenish-blue color, and passed on toblack, probably from the sal-ammoniac containing iron which would givethis result. The Tyrian ladies dyed rings and stars upon their persons. Men gave ablack dye to the hair of their heads and beards. The dyeing of thenails with henna is a very ancient custom. Some of the old Egyptianmummies are so dyed. It is supposed that the Jewish women alsofollowed this custom. Reference is made to it in Deuteronomy, wherethe newly-married wife is desired to stain her nails. Also, in theSong of Solomon, _Camphire_, in the authorized version, is said tomean henna, which has finely-scented flowers growing in bunches, andthe leaves of the plant are used by women to impart a reddish stain totheir nails. Speaking of the Arabian women at the present day, Dr. Thomson, in "TheLand and the Book, " says: "They paint their cheeks, putting tahlaround their eyes, arching their eyebrows with the same, and staintheir hands and feet with henna thus to deck themselves, and should anunmarried woman do so, an impression is conveyed highly injurious tothe girl's character. " GALLS are named among the substances known to the ancients, but we cannot find whether they were used as a dyeing agent. Wilkinson says thattanning was in Egypt a subdivision of dyeing, and it is mentioned thatcopperas with galls dyed leather black; and there can be little doubtthat galls were used for a similar purpose in ordinary dyeing. The_Myrobollans_ and several sorts of barks and pods of the _Acacianilotica_ were also used for tanning, from their astringentproperties, and may have been similarly used for dyeing. These are a few of the principal coloring matters used by dyers inancient times. There is a little confusion with respect to some of thesalts mentioned as having been used by them, especially the alkalinesalts--a circumstance, however, not to be wondered at. In more moderntimes there is a similar confusion on this same head. When nitre, for instance, is burned with carbonaceous matter, theproduct is carbonate of potash. The ashes left by burning wood containthe same salt. The ashes left by burning sea-weed produce carbonate ofsoda. When nitre is burned with sulphur, the product is sulphate ofpotash, etc. These have all been called generically, even in moderntimes, nitre, having each a certain prefix well understood by theadept, or chemist, of the day. We think it probable that all these processes for making the differentsalts were practiced in ancient times, but now having only the genericname _nitre_ given us by historians, we can not understand exactlywhen nitre is mentioned which of the nitres is meant. When Solomon speaks of the action of vinegar upon nitre, the chemistunderstands that the salt referred to is a carbonate, but when thenature of the action or application is not given, we have no idea whatparticular salt is meant. There is no doubt, however, that theancients were well acquainted with the alkaline salts of potash andsoda, and applied them in the arts. The metallic salts of iron, copper, and alumina were well known, and their application to dyeingwas generally the same as at the present day. That they were used bothas mordants and alterants is evident from several references. A very suggestive statement is made by Pliny about the ancientEgyptians. "They began, " says he, "by painting or drawing on whitecloths with certain drugs, which in themselves possessed no color, buthad the property of attracting or absorbing coloring matter, afterwhich these cloths were immersed in a heated dyeing liquor; andalthough they were colorless before, and although this dyeing liquorwas of one equable and uniform color, yet when taken out of it soonafterwards, the cloth was found to be wonderfully tinged of differentcolors according to the peculiar nature of the several drugs which hadbeen applied to their respective parts, and these colors could not beafterwards discharged by washing. " Herodotus states that certain people who lived near the Caspian Seacould, by means of leaves of trees which they bruised and steeped inwater, form on cloth the figures of animals, flowers, etc. , which wereas lasting as the cloth itself. This statement is more suggestive thaninstructive. Persia was much famed for dyeing at a very early period, and dyeing isstill held in great esteem in that country. Persian dyers have chosenChrist as their patron; and Bischoff says that they at present call adye-house Christ's workshop, from a tradition they have that He was ofthat profession. They have a legend, probably founded upon what Plinytells of the Egyptian dyers, "that Christ being put apprentice to adyer, His master desired Him to dye some pieces of cloth of differentcolors; He put them all into a boiler, and when the dyer took them outhe was terribly frightened on finding that each had its proper color. " This or a similar legend occurs in the apocryphal book entitled "TheFirst Gospel of the Infancy of Jesus Christ. " The following is thepassage: "On a certain day also, when the Lord Jesus was playing with the boys, and running about, He passed by a dyer's shop whose name was Salem, and there were in his shop many pieces of cloth belonging to the people of that city, which they designed to dye of several colors. Then the Lord Jesus, going into the dyer's shop, took all the cloths and threw them into the furnace. When Salem came home and saw the cloth spoiled, he began to make a great noise and to chide the Lord Jesus, saying: "What hast Thou done unto me, O thou son of Mary? Thou hast injured both me and my neighbors; they all desired their cloths of a proper color, but Thou hast come and spoiled them all. " The Lord Jesus replied: "I will change the color of every cloth to what color thou desirest, " and then He presently began to take the cloths out of the furnace; and they were all dyed of those same colors which the dyer desired. And when the Jews saw this surprising miracle they praised God. " TIN. --We have no positive evidence as to whether the ancients usedoxide, or the salts of tin, in their dyeing operations. A modern dyercould hardly produce permanent tints with some of the dye drugs namedwithout tin salts. We know that the ancients used the oxides of tinfor glazing pottery and painting; they may therefore have used saltsof tin in their dyeing operations. However, they had anothersalt--sulphate of alumina--which produces similar results, althoughthe moderns in most cases prefer tin, as it makes a more brilliant andpermanent tint. ALUM. --This is what is termed a double salt, and is composed ofsulphate of alumina and sulphate of potash. The process ofmanufacturing it in this country is by subjecting clay slatecontaining iron pyrites to a calcination, when the sulphur with theiron is oxidized, becoming sulphuric acid, which, combining with thealumina of the clay, and also with the iron, becomes sulphate ofalumina and iron; to this is added a salt of potash, which, combiningwith the sulphate of alumina, forms the double salt alum. Soda orammonia may be substituted for potash with similar results; the alumis crystallized from the solution. That the ancients were acquaintedwith this double salt has been disputed, but we think there can be nodoubt of its existence and use at a very early period. A very purealum is produced in volcanic districts by the action of sulphurousacid and oxygen on felspathic rocks, and used by the ancients fordifferent purposes. Pliny mentions _Alumine_, which he describes aswhite, and used for whitening wool, also for dyeing wool of brightcolors. Occasionally he confounds this salt with a mixture of sulphateof alumina and iron, which, in all probability, was alum containingiron, the process of separation not being perfect; and he mentionsthat this kind of alumen blackens on the application of nut-galls, showing that iron was in it. Pliny says of alumen, that it is"understood to be a sort of brine which exudes from the earth; ofthis, too, there are several kinds. In Cyprus there is a white alumen, and another kind of a darker color; the uses of these are verydissimilar, the white liquid alumen being employed for dyeing a wholebright color, and the darker, on the other hand, for giving wool atawny or sombre tint. " This is very characteristic of a pure aluminousmordant, and of one containing iron. He also mentions that this darkalumen was used for purifying gold. He must be referring here to itsquality of giving gold a rich color. The liquid of this iron alumen, if put upon light-colored gold, and heated over a fire, gives it avery rich tint; a process practiced still for the same purpose. Sofar, however, as the application to dyeing is concerned, it isunnecessary to prove that the ancients used our double salt alum. Probably the alumen referred to by Pliny, as exuding from the earth, was sulphate of alumina, without potash or soda, a salt not easilycrystallized, but as effective, in many cases more effective, in theoperations of dyeing, as alum, which is attested by the preferencegiven to this salt over alum for many purposes at the present day. Pliny says that alumen was a product of Spain, Egypt, Armenia, Macedonia, Pontus, Africa, and the Islands of Sardinia, Melos, Lipara, and Strangyle, and that the most esteemed is that of Egypt. AndHerodotus mentions that King Amasis of Egypt sent the people of Delphia thousand talents of this substance, as his contribution toward therebuilding of their temple. Notwithstanding considerable confusion inPliny's account of this substance, our belief is, that it refers todifferent salts of alumina, and whether or not they were all used inthe processes of dyeing, they were used for manufacturing purposes, and thus gives us some insight to the advanced state of the arts inthose times. Respecting the cost and durability of the Tyrian purple, it is relatedthat Alexander the Great found in the treasury of the Persian monarch5, 000 quintals of Hermione purple of great beauty, and 180 years old, and that it was worth $125 of our money per pound weight. The price ofdyeing a pound of wool in the time of Augustus is given by Pliny, andthis price is equal to about $160 of our money. It is probable thathis remarks refer to some particular tint or quality of color easilydistinguished, although not at all clearly defined by Pliny. Hementions a sort of purple, or hyacinth, which was worth, in the timeof Julius Cæsar, 100 denarii (about $15 of our money) per pound. Since, according to our modern researches into this dye, one fish, thecommon _Purpura lapillus_, produces only about one drop of the liquor, then it would take about 10, 000 fish to dye 1 lb. Of wool, so that$160 is not extravagant. Spinning and weaving in ancient times were principally performed bywomen; indeed, the words _woof_, _weaving_, and _web_ are allied tothe word _wife_. However, in ancient Egypt and in India men alsowrought at the loom. Probably nothing could be simpler or ruder thanthe looms used by ancient weavers. Were we to compare these with thelooms and other weaving apparatus of the present day, and reasontherefrom that as the loom so must have been the cloth producedthereon, we would make a very great mistake. There are few arts whichillustrate with equal force our argument in favor of the perfection ofancient art so well as this of weaving. It would appear that ouradvancement is not so much in the direction of quality as in that ofquantity. There are few things we can do which were not done by theancients equally perfect. Rude as were their looms in ancient Egypt, they produced the far-famed linen so often mentioned in Scripture andthe writings of other nations. In order to show that this is not to beregarded as a merely comparative term applicable to a former age, wewill here quote from G. Wilkinson respecting some mummy-clothsexamined by the late Mr. Thomson, of Clithero:--"My first impressionon seeing these cloths was, that the first kinds were muslins, and ofIndian manufacture; but this suspicion of their being cotton was soonremoved by the microscope. Some were thin and transparent, and ofdelicate texture, and the finest had 140 threads to the inch in thewarp. " Some cloth Mr. Wilkinson found in Thebes had 152 threads to theinch in the warp, but this is coarse when compared with a piece oflinen cloth found in Memphis, which had 540 threads to the inch of thewarp. How fine must these threads have been! In quoting this extractfrom Wilkinson to an old weaver, he flatly said it was impossible, asno reed could be made so fine. However, there would be more threadsthan one in the split, and by adopting this we can make cloth in ourday having between 400 and 500 in the inch. However, the ancientcloths are much finer in the warp than woof, probably from want ofappliance for driving the threads of the weft close enough, as they donot appear to have _lays_ as we have for this purpose. Pliny refers tothe remains of a linen corselet, presented by Amasis, king of Egypt, to the Rhodians, each thread of which was composed of 365 fibres:"Herodotus mentions this corselet, and another presented by Amasis tothe Lacedæmonians, which had been carried off by the Samians. It wasof linen, ornamented with numerous figures of animals worked in goldand cotton. Each thread of the corselet was worthy of admiration, forthough very fine, every one was composed of 360 other threads alldistinct. " No doubt this kind of thread was symbolical. It wasprobably something of this sort that Moses refers to when he mentionsthe material of which the corselet or girdle of the high priest wasmade--the fine twined linen. Jewish women are represented in the OldTestament as being expert in the art of spinning. Ancient Babylon was also celebrated for her cloth manufacture andembroidery work, and to be the possessor of one of these costlygarments was no ordinary ambition. It is not to be wondered at thatwhen Achan saw amongst the spoils of Jericho a goodly Babylonishgarment he "coveted it and took it. " The figure represented on theancient seal of Urukh has, says Rawlinson, fringed garments delicatelystriped, indicating an advanced condition of this kind of manufacturefive or six centuries before Joshua. It may be mentioned, however, that such manufactures were in ancient times, especially in Egypt, national. Time was of little importance, labor was plentiful, and nocraftsman was allowed to scheme, or plan, or introduce any change, butwas expected to aim at the perfection of the operation he was engagedin, and this led to perfection every branch. Every trade had its ownquarters in the city or nation, and the locality was named after thetrade, such as goldsmiths' quarters, weavers' quarters, etc. This samerule seems to have been practised by the Hebrews after theirsettlement in Palestine, for we find such names in Scripture as theValley of Craftsmen. We also find that certain trades continued infamilies; passages such as the following are frequent--"The father ofthose who were craftsmen, " and "The father of Mereshah, a city, and ofthe house of those who wrought fine linen;" and again, "The men ofChozeba, and Joash, and Saraph, who had the dominion of Moab andJashubalahem, these were potters, and those that dwelt among plantsand hedges, and did the king's work. " In ancient Egypt every son wasobliged to follow the same trade as his father. Thus caste was formed. Whether this same was carried out in Babylon, Persia, and Greece, wedo not know; but certainly, in these nations there were in all casesofficers directing the operations, and overseers, to whom these againwere responsible, so that every manufacturing art was carried on understrict surveillance, and to the highest state of perfection. As thepossession of artistic work was an object of ambition amongst thewealthy or favored portion of the community, it led to emulation amongthe workers. Professor Rawlinson, in his "Five Ancient Monarchies, "speaks of the Persians emulating with each other in the show theycould make of their riches and variety of artistic products. Thisemulation led both to private and public exhibitions. One of thoseexhibitions, which lasted over a period of six months, is referred toin the Old Testament; so when we opened our Great Exhibition in 1876we were only resuscitating a system common in ancient times, the eventrecorded in the Book of Esther having happened at least 2, 200 yearsbefore: "In those days, when the King Ahasuerus sat on the throne of his kingdom, which was in Shushan the palace, in the third year of his reign, he made a feast unto all his princes and his servants; the power of Persia and Media, the nobles and princes of the provinces, being before him: when he showed the riches of his glorious kingdom, and the honor of his excellent majesty, many days, even an hundred and fourscore days. And when these days were expired, the king made a feast unto all the people that were present in Shushan the palace, both unto great and unto small, seven days, in the court of the garden of the king's palace; where were white green and blue hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble; the beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black marble. And they gave them drink in vessels of gold (the vessels being diverse one from another), and royal wine in abundance, according to the state of the king. " This must have been a magnificent exhibition. The number attendingthis feast is not ascertainable; but, if the princes and nobles of theprovinces (the provinces were 127 in number), and all the officers andgreat men of Persia and Media, and the servants of the palace, greatand small, were there, it must have formed an immense company. Now, asevery one drank out of a golden cup of a different pattern, we obtainan idea of profusion in art of which we can form but a very limitedconception. This fact indicates that variety of pattern was an objectsought after--a fashion fostering and favoring the development of artand design, and worthy of being emulated in the present day. Speaking of the Persians, Professor Rawlinson says that the richerclasses seem to have followed the court in their practices. In theircostume they wore long purple or flowered robes, with loose-hangingsleeves, flowered tunics reaching to the knee, also sleeved, embroidered trowsers, tiaras, and shoes of a more elegant shape thanthe ordinary Persian. Under their trowsers they wore drawers, andunder their tunics shirts, and under their shoes stockings or socks. In their houses their couches were spread with gorgeous coverlets, andtheir floors with rich carpets--habits that must have necessitated animmense labor and skill, and indicate great knowledge in themanufacture of textile fabrics. Among the great historic nations of antiquity, the chief consumptionof copper and tin was in the manufacture of bronze; and the quantitiesof these metals necessary for the purpose must have been very great, for bronze seems to have been the principal metallic substance ofwhich articles both of utility and art were formed. Wilkinson, Layard, and others, found bronze articles in abundance amongst the _debris_ ofall the ancient civilizations to which their researches extend, proving that the manufacture of this alloy was widely known at a veryearly period; and strange to say, when we consider the applications ofsome of the tools found, we are forced to the conclusion that thebronze of which they were made must originally have been in certainimportant particulars superior to any which we can produce at thepresent day. In these researches were found carpenters' and masons'tools, such as saws, chisels, hammers, etc. , and also knives, daggers, swords, and other instruments which require both a fine hard edge andelasticity. Were we to make such tools now, they would be useless forthe purpose to which the ancients applied them. Wilkinson says: "Noone who has tried to perforate or cut a block of Egyptian granite willscruple to acknowledge that our best steel tools are turned in a veryshort time, and require to be re-tempered; and the labor experiencedby the French engineers who removed the obelisk of Luxor from Thebes, in cutting a space less than two feet deep along the face of itspartially decomposed pedestal, suffices to show that, even with ourexcellent modern implements, we find considerable difficulty in doingwhat to the Egyptians would have been one of the least arduous tasks. " But Wilkinson believes that bronze chisels were used for cuttinggranite, as he found one at Thebes, of which he says, "Its point isinstantly turned by striking it against the very stone it was used tocut; and yet, when found, the summit was turned over by blows it hadreceived from the mallet, while the point was intact, as if it hadrecently left the hands of the smith who made it. " "Another remarkable feature in their bronze, " says the same author, "is the resistance it offers to the effects of the atmosphere--somecontinuing smooth and bright though buried for ages, and since exposedto the damp European climate. They had also the secret of covering thesurface with a rich patina of dark or light green, or other color, byapplying acids to it. " [Illustration: Engraved & Printed by Illman Brothers APPROACH TO KARNAC. FOR THE MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITY] [Page Decoration] TROY. AS EXCAVATED BY DR. SCHLIEMANN. No words can describe the interest which belongs to such acontribution to the history of the world as the discovery of Troy byDr. Schliemann. The belief of a large part of the classic world forcenturies has been embodied in a saying quite common among the Greeks:"I know of but one Ilion, and that is the Ilion as sung by Homer, which is not to be found except among the muses who dwell on Olympus. "To-day is given to the world a description of the fire-scathed ruinsof that city whose fate inspired the immortal first-fruits of Greekpoetry, and from these remains are brought to light thousands of factsbearing upon the origin and history of the inhabitants, andillustrating their religion and language, their wealth andcivilization. He has supplied the missing link, long testified bytradition as well as poetry, between the famous Greeks and theirkindred in the East. The satisfaction which the discovery of Troy gives to the Greeksespecially is, perhaps, nearly commensurate with the joy that adiscovery would bring to the Christian which would so confirm thetruth of the Bible as to forever silence its critics and theskepticism of the day. The Iliad was the Greek Bible, and every pageof it was full of accounts of Troy, its people and its heroes. It wasthe ultimate standard of appeal on all matters of religious doctrineand early history. It was learned by the boys at school. It was thestudy of men in their riper years, and even in the time of Socratesthere were Athenian gentlemen who could repeat both the Iliad andOdyssey by heart. In whatever part of the ancient world a Greeksettled he carried with him a love for the great poet, just as much asthe Christian family takes the Bible to its new frontier home. No workof profane literature has exercised so wide and long-continued aninfluence. The site of Troy is upon a plateau on the eastern shore of the ÆgeanSea, about 4 miles from the coast and 4-1/2 miles southeast from theport of Sigeum. The plateau lies on an average about 80 feet above theplain, and descending very abruptly on the north side. Itsnorthwestern corner is formed by a hill about 26 feet higher still, which is about 705 feet in breadth and 984 in length, and from itsimposing situation and natural fortifications this hill of _Hissarlik_seems specially suited to be the Acropolis of the town. Like the other great Oriental capitals of the Old World, the presentcondition of Troy is that of a mound, such as those in the plain ofthe Tigris and Euphrates, offering for ages the invitation toresearch, which has only been accepted and rewarded in our own day. The resemblance is so striking as to raise a strong presumption that, as the mounds of Nimrud and Hillah have been found to contain thepalaces of the Assyrian and Babylonian kings, so we may accept theruins found in the mound of Hissarlik as those of the capital of thatprimeval empire in Asia Minor. As the mounds opened by Layard and his fellow laborers contained onlythe "royal quarters, " which towered above the rude buildings ofcities, the magnitude of which is attested by abundant proofs, so itis reasonable to believe that the ruins at Hissarlik are those of theroyal quarter, the only really _permanent_ part of the city built onthe hill capping the lower plateau which lifted the huts of the commonpeople above the marshes and inundations of the Scamander and theSimois. In both cases the fragile dwellings of the multitude haveperished, and the pottery and other remains, which were left in thesurface of the plateau of Ilium, would naturally be cleared away bythe succeeding settlers. Homer's poetical exaggeration exalted themean dwellings that clustered about the acropolis into the "well-builtcity" with her "wide streets. " The erroneous theory which assigns Troy to the heights of Bunarbashicould, in fact, never have gained ground, had its advocates employedthe few hours which they spent on the heights, and in Bunarbashiitself, in making small holes, with the aid of even a single workman. No one can conceive how it is possible that the solution of the greatproblem, "ubi Troja fait"--which is surely one of the greatestinterest to the whole civilized world--should have been treated sosuperficially that, after a few hours' visit to the Plain of Troy, menhave sat down at home and written voluminous works to defend a theory, the worthlessness of which they would have perceived had they but madeexcavations for a single hour. The view from the hill of Hissarlik is extremely magnificent. Beforeit lies the glorious Plain of Troy, which is covered with grass andyellow buttercups; on the north northwest, at about an hour'sdistance, it is bounded by the Hellespont. The peninsula of Gallipolihere runs out to a point, upon which stands a lighthouse. To the leftof it is the island of Imbros, above which rises Mount Ida of theisland of Samothrace, at present covered with snow; a little more tothe west, on the Macedonian peninsula, lies the celebrated MountAthos, or Monte Santo, with its monasteries, at the northwestern sideof which there are still to be seen traces of that great canal, which, according to Herodotus (vii. 22, 23), was made by Xerxes, in order toavoid sailing round the stormy Cape Athos. Returning to the Plain of Troy we see to the right of it, upon a spurof the promontory of Rhœteum, the sepulchral mound of Ajax, at thefoot of the opposite Cape of Sigeum that of Patroclus, and upon a spurof the same cape the sepulchre of Achilles; to the left of the latter, on the promontory itself, is the Village of Yenishehr. The Plain, which is about two hours' journey in breadth, is thence bounded on thewest by the shores of the Ægean, which are, on an average, about 131feet high, and upon which we see first the sepulchral mound of Festus, the confidential friend of Caracalla, whom the Emperor (according toHerodian IV. ) caused to be poisoned on his visit to Ilium, that hemight be able to imitate the funeral rites which Achilles celebratedin honor of his friend Patroclus, as described by Homer. Then upon thesame coast there is another sepulchral mound, called _Udjek-Tepe_, rather more than 78-1/2 feet in height, which most archæologistsconsider to be that of the old man Æsyetes, from which Polites, trusting to the swiftness of his feet, watched to see when the Greekarmy would set forth from the ships. "Swift Iris stood amidst them, and the voice Assuming of Polites, Priam's son, The Trojan scout, who, trusting to his speed, Was posted on the summit of the mound Of ancient Æsyetes, there to watch Till from their ships the Grecian troops should march--" Between the last-named mounds we see projecting above the high shoresof the Ægean Sea the island of Tenedos, to which the crafty Greekswithdrew their fleet when they pretended to abandon the siege. To thesouth we see the Plain of Troy, extending again to a distance of twohours, as far as the heights of Bunarbashi, above which risesmajestically the snow-capped Gargarus of Mt. Ida, from which Jupiterwitnessed the battles between the Trojans and the Greeks. One of the greatest difficulties has been to make the enormousaccumulation of _debris_ at Troy agree with chronology; and in thisDr. Schliemann only partially succeeded. According to Herodotus (vii. 43): "Xerxes in his march through the Troad, before invading Greece(B. C. 480) arrived at the Scamander and went up to Priam's Pergamus, as he wished to see that citadel; and, after having seen it, andinquired into its past fortunes, he sacrificed 1, 000 oxen to the IlianAthena, and the Magi poured libations to the manes of the heroes. " [Illustration: METALS AND BEADS. ] This passage tacitly implies that at that time a Greek colony had longsince held possession of the town, and according to Strabo's testimony(XIII. I. 42), such a colony built Ilium during the dominion of theLydians. Now, as the commencement of the Lydian dominion dates fromthe year 797 B. C. , and as the Ilians seem to have been completelyestablished there long before the arrival of Xerxes in 480 B. C. , wemay fairly assume that their first settlement in Troy took place about700 B. C. Now, there are found no inscriptions later than thosebelonging to the second century after Christ, and no coins of laterdate than Constantine II. , but very many belonging to Constantine theGreat, who, as is well known, intended to build Constantinople on thatsite, but it remained an uninhabited place till about the end of thereign of Constans II. , that is till about A. D. 361. Since theaccumulation of _debris_ during this long period of 1061 years amountsonly to six and one-half feet, whereas we have still to dig to a depthof forty feet, and in places to forty-six and one-half below this, before reaching the native soil, how many years did it require to forma layer of forty to forty-six and one-half feet? The formation of theuppermost one, the Greek layer of six and one-half feet required 1061. The time required to cover the foundations of Troy to a depth offorty-six and one-half feet of _debris_ must have been very long. Thefirst layer of from thirteen to twenty feet on this hill of Hissarlikbelonged to the Aryan race, of whom very little can be said. Thesecond layer was formed by the Trojans of Homer, and are supposed, byDr. Schliemann and others to have flourished here about 1400 yearsbefore Christ. We have only the general supposition of antiquity thatthe Trojan war occurred about B. C. 1200, and Homer's statement thatDardanus, the first Trojan King, founded Dardania, which town Virgiland Euripides consider identical with Ilium, and that after him it wasgoverned by his son Erichthonius, and then by his grandson Tros, byhis great-grandson Ilus, and then by his son Laomedon, and by hisgrandson Priam. Even if we allow every one of these six kings a longreign of thirty-three years, we nevertheless scarcely carry thefoundation of the town beyond 1400 B. C. , that is 700 years before theGreek colony. During Dr. Schliemann's three-year excavations in the depths of Troy, he has had daily and hourly opportunities of convincing himself that, from the standard of our own or of the ancient Greek mode of life, wecan form no idea of the life and doings of the four nations whichsuccessively inhabited this hill before the time of the Greeksettlement. They must have had a terrible time of it, otherwise weshould not find the walls of one house upon the ruined remains ofanother, in continuous but _irregular_ succession; and it is justbecause we can form no idea of the way in which these nations livedand what calamities they had to endure, that it is impossible tocalculate the duration of their existence, even approximately, fromthe thickness of their ruins. It is extremely remarkable, butperfectly intelligible from the continual calamities which befel thetown, that the civilization of all the four nations constantlydeclined; the terra-cottas, which show continuous _decadence_, leaveno doubt of this. The first settlement on this hill of _Hissarlik_ seems to have been ofthe longest duration, for its ruins cover the rock to a height of fromthirteen to twenty feet. Its houses and walls of fortification werebuilt of stones, large and small, joined with earth, and manifoldremains of these may be seen in the excavations. It was supposed thatthese settlers were identical with the Trojans of whom Homer sang, which is not the case. All that can be said of the first settlers is that they belonged tothe Aryan race, as is sufficiently proved by the Aryan religioussymbols met with in the strata of their ruins, both upon the pieces ofpottery and upon the small curious terra-cottas with a hole in thecentre, which have the form of the crater of a volcano or of a_carrousel_, _i. E. _, a top. The excavations made have sufficiently proved that the second nationwhich built a town on this hill, upon the _debris_ of the firstsettlers (which is from 13 to 20 feet deep), are the Trojans of whomHomer sings. Their _debris_ lies from 23 to 33 feet below the surface. This Trojan stratum, which, without exception, bears marks of greatheat, consists mainly of red ashes of wood, which rise from 5 to 10feet above the Great Tower of Ilium, the double Scæan Gate, and thegreat enclosing Wall, the construction of which Homer ascribes toPoseidon and Apollo, and they show that the town was destroyed by afearful conflagration. How great the heat must have been is clear alsofrom the large slabs of stone upon the road leading from the doubleScæan Gate down to the Plain; for when the road was laid open all theslabs appeared as uninjured as if they had been put down quiterecently; but after they had been exposed to the air for a few days, the slabs of the upper part of the road, to the extent of some 10feet, which had been exposed to the heat, began to crumble away, andthey have now almost disappeared, while those of the lower portion ofthe road, which had not been touched by the fire, have remaineduninjured, and seem to be indestructible. A further proof of theterrible catastrophe is furnished by a stratum of scoriæ of meltedlead and copper, from one fifth to one and one fifth of an inch thick, which extends nearly through the whole hill at a depth of from 28 to29-1/2 feet. That Troy was destroyed by enemies after a bloody war isfurther attested by the many human bones which were found in theseheaps of _debris_, and above all the skeletons with helmets, found inthe depths of the Temple of Athena, for, as we know from Homer, allcorpses were burned and the ashes were preserved in urns. Of such urnswere found an immense number in all the pre-Hellenic strata on thehill. Lastly, the Treasure, which some member of the royal family hadprobably endeavored to save during the destruction of the city, butwas forced to abandon, leaves no doubt that the city was destroyed bythe hands of enemies. This Treasure was found on the large enclosingwall by the side of the royal palace, at a depth of 27-1/2 feet, andcovered with red Trojan ashes from 5 to 6-1/2 feet in depth, abovewhich was a post-Trojan wall of fortification 19-1/2 feet high. As Homer is so well informed about the topography and the climaticconditions of the Troad, there can surely be no doubt that he hadhimself visited Troy. But, as he was there long after its destruction, and its site had moreover been buried deep in the _debris_ of theruined town, and had for centuries been built over by a new town, Homer could neither have seen the Great Tower of Ilium nor the ScæanGate, nor the great enclosing Wall, nor the palace of Priam; for, asevery visitor to the Troad may convince himself by the excavations, the ruins and red ashes of Troy alone--forming a layer of from five toten feet thick--covered all these remains of immortal fame, and thisaccumulation of _debris_ must have been much more considerable at thetime of Homer's visit. Homer made no excavations so as to bring thoseremains to light, but he knew of them from tradition; for the tragicfate of Troy had for centuries been in the mouths of all minstrels, and the interest attached to it was so great that tradition itselfgave the exact truth in many details. "Say now, ye Nine, who on Olympus dwell, Muses--for ye are Goddesses, and ye Were _present_ and know all things; _we ourselves_ _But hear from Rumor's voice_, and nothing know-- Who were the chiefs and mighty lords of Greece. " Such, for instance, is the memory of the Scæan Gate in the Great Towerof Ilium, and the constant use of the name Scæan Gate in the plural, because it had to be described as double, and in fact it has beenproved to be a double gate. According to the lines of the Iliad, itnow seems extremely probable that, at the time of Homer's visit, theKing of Troy declared that his race was descended in a direct linefrom Æneas. "But o'er the Trojans shall Æneas reign, And his sons' sons, through ages yet unborn. " Now, as Homer never saw Ilium's Great Tower, nor the Scæan Gate, andcould not imagine that these buildings lay buried deep beneath hisfeet, and as he probably imagined Troy to have been verylarge--according to the then existing poetical legends--and perhapswished to describe it as still larger, we can not be surprised that hemakes Hector descend from the palace in the Pergamus and hurry throughthe town in order to arrive at the Scæan Gate; whereas that gate andIlium's Great Tower, in which it stands, are in reality directly infront of the royal house. That this house is really the king's palaceseems evident from its size, from the thickness of its stone walls, incontrast to those of the other houses of the town, which are builtalmost exclusively of unburned bricks, and from its imposingsituation upon an artificial hill directly in front of or beside theScæan Gate, the Great Tower, and the great surrounding Wall. This isconfirmed by the many splendid objects found in its ruins, especiallythe enormous royally ornamented vase with the picture of theowl-headed goddess Athena, the tutelary divinity of Ilium; and lastly, above all other things, the rich Treasure found close by it. It cannot, of course, be proved that the name of this king, the owner ofthis Treasure, was really PRIAM; but he is so called by Homer and inall the traditions. All that can be proved is, that the palace of theowner of this Treasure, this last Trojan king, perished in the greatcatastrophe, which destroyed the Scæan Gate, the great surroundingWall, and the Great Tower, and which desolated the whole city. It canbe proved, by the enormous quantities of red and yellow calcinedTrojan ruins, from five to ten feet in height, which covered andenveloped these edifices, and by the many post-Trojan buildings, whichwere again erected upon these calcined heaps of ruins, that neitherthe palace of the owner of the Treasure, nor the Scæan Gate, nor thegreat surrounding Wall, nor Ilium's Great Tower, were ever againbrought to light. A city, whose king possessed such a Treasure, wasimmensely wealthy, considering the circumstances of these times; andbecause Troy was rich it was powerful, had many subjects, and obtainedauxiliaries from all quarters. [Illustration: TERRA-COTTA LAMPS. ] [Illustration: BRONZE LAMPS. ] This Treasure of the supposed mythical king Priam, of the mythicalheroic age, is, at all events, a discovery which stands alone inarchæology, revealing great wealth, great civilization and great tastefor art, in an age preceding the discovery of bronze, when weapons andimplements of pure copper were employed contemporaneously withenormous quantities of stone weapons and implements. This Treasurefurther leaves no doubt that Homer must have actually seen gold andsilver articles, such as he continually describes; it is, in everyrespect, of inestimable value to science, and will for centuriesremain the object of careful investigation. While the Trojan war was the last it was also the greatest of all theachievements of the heroic age, and was immortalized by the genius ofHomer. Paris, son of Priam, king of Ilium or Troy, abused thehospitality of Menelaus, king of Sparta, by carrying off his wifeHelen, the most beautiful woman of the age. All the Grecian princeslooked upon the outrage as committed upon themselves. Responding tothe call of Menelaus, they assemble in arms, elect his brotherAgamemnon, king of Mycenæ, leader of the expedition, and sail acrossthe Ægean in nearly 1, 200 ships to recover the faithless fair one. Some, however, excelled Agamemnon in fame. Among them Achilles standspre-eminent in strength, beauty and value, while Ulysses surpasses allthe rest in the mental qualities of counsel, subtility and eloquence. Thus, by the opposite endowments, these two heroes form the centre ofthe group. Among the Trojans, Hector, one of the sons of Priam, is mostdistinguished for heroic qualities, and forms a striking contrast tohis handsome, but effeminate brother, Paris. It is said that even thegods took part in the contest, encouraging their favorite heroes, andsometimes fighting by their side or in their stead. It was not untilthe tenth year that Troy yielded to the inevitable fate. It wasdelivered over to the sword and its glory sank in ashes. The houses of Troy were all very high, and had several stories, as isobvious from the thickness of the walls, the construction and colossalheaps of _debris_. The city was immensely rich, and as it was wealthy, so was it powerful and its buildings large. The ruins are found in abadly decayed state, because of the great fires that occurred there, and the neighboring towns were largely built with stone from the ruinsof Troy; Archæanax is said to have built a long wall around Sigeumwith its stones. [Illustration: GOLDEN CUPS OF PRIAM. ] A portion of a large building was laid bare, the walls of which are6-1/4 feet thick, and consist for the most part of hewn blocks oflimestone joined with clay. None of the stones seem to be more than 1foot 9 inches long, and they are so skillfully put together, that thewalls form a smooth surface. This house is built upon a layer ofyellow and brown ashes and ruins, at a depth of 20 feet, and theportion of the walls preserved reaches up to within 10 feet below thesurface of the hill. In the house, as far as has been excavated, onlyone vase, with two breasts in front and one breast at the side, hasbeen found. This is the first house that Dr. Schliemann excavated, which is quiteevident by what he writes about it: "It is with a feeling of greatinterest that, from this great platform, that is, at a perpendicularheight of from thirty-three to forty-two feet, I see this veryancient building (which may have been erected 1000 years beforeChrist) standing as it were in mid air. " A room was excavated which is ten feet high and eleven and one-fourthwide; it was at one time much higher; its length has not beenascertained. One of the compartments of the uppermost houses, below the Temple ofAthena and belonging to the pre-Hellenic period, appears to have beenused as a wine-merchant's cellar or as a magazine, for in it there arenine enormous earthen jars of various forms, about five andthree-fourths feet high and four and three-fourths feet across, theirmouths being from twenty-nine and one-half to thirty-five andone-fourth inches broad. Each of these earthen jars has four handles, three and three-fourths inches broad, and the clay of which they aremade has the enormous thickness of two and one-fourth inches. A house of eight rooms was also brought to light at a depth oftwenty-six feet. It stands upon the great Tower, directly below theGreek Temple of Athena. Its walls consist of small stones cementedwith earth, and they appear to belong to different epochs; for, whilesome of them rest directly upon the stones of the Tower, others werenot built till the Tower was covered with eight inches, and in severalcases even with three and one-fourth feet, of _debris_. These wallsalso show differences in thickness; one of them is four and one-halffeet, others are only twenty-five and one-half inches, and othersagain not more than nineteen and two-thirds inches thick. Several ofthese walls are ten feet high, and on some of them may be seen largeremnants of the coatings of clay, painted yellow or white. Blackmarks, the result of fire, upon the lower portion of the walls of theother rooms which have been excavated, leave no doubt that theirfloors were of wood, and were destroyed by fire. In one room there isa wall in the form of a semicircle, which has been burnt as black ascoal. All the rooms as yet laid open, and not resting directly uponthe Tower, have been excavated down to the same level; and, withoutexception, the _debris_ below them consists of red or yellow ashes andburnt ruins. Above these, even in the rooms themselves, were foundnothing but either red or yellow wood-ashes, mixed with bricks thathad been dried in the sun and subsequently burnt by the conflagration, or black _debris_, the remains of furniture, mixed with masses ofsmall shells: in proof of this there are the many remains which arestill hanging on the walls. A very large ancient building was found standing upon the wall orbuttress. At this place the wall appears to be about seventy-nine feetwide, or thick. The site of this building, upon an elevation, togetherwith its solid structure, leave no doubt that it was the grandestbuilding in Troy; nay, that it must have been the Palace of Priam. This edifice, now first laid open from beneath the ashes which coveredit in the burning of the city, was found by Dr. Schliemann in the verystate to which, in Homer, Agamemnon threatens to reduce it: "The houseof Priam _blackened with fire_. " Upon this house, by the side of the double gate, upon Ilium's GreatTower, at the edge of the western slope of the Acropolis, sat Priam, the seven elders of the city, and Helen; and this is the scene of themost splendid passage in the Iliad: "Attending there on aged Priam, sat The Elders of the city; . .. All these were gathered at the Scæan Gates. . .. So on Ilion's Tower Sat the sage chiefs and counselors of Troy. Helen they saw, as to the Tower she came. " From this spot the company surveyed the whole plain, and saw at thefoot of the Acropolis the Trojan and the Achæan armies face to face, about to settle their agreement to let the war be decided by a singlecombat between Paris and Menelaus. "Upon _Seamander's flowery mead_ they stood Unnumbered as _the vernal leaves and flowers_. " The description which Homer gives of the Tower of Ilium, and theincidents connected with it, corresponds so closely to the tower whichDr. Schliemann found that it leaves no doubt that the two areidentical. [Illustration: WONDERFUL VASES OF TERRA-COTTA. (_From the Palace of Priam, at 24-1/4 feet. _)] "Now, with regard to the objects found in these houses, I must firstof all mention having discovered, at a depth of twenty-six feet, inthe Palace of Priam, a splendid and brilliant brown vase, twenty-fourand one-fourth inches high, with a figure of the tutelar goddess ofTroy, that is, with her owl's head, two breasts, a splendid necklace, indicated by an engraved pattern, a very broad and beautifullyengraved girdle, and other very artistic decorations; there are noarms, nor are there any indications of them. Unfortunately thisexquisite vase has suffered from the weight of stones which lay uponit. No. 4 resembles an owl's beak, and especially as this is seenbetween the ear-shaped ornaments, it was doubtless intended torepresent the image of the owl with upraised wings on each side of thevases, which image received a noble appearance from the splendid lidwith a coronet. I give a drawing of the largest vase of this type, which was found a few days ago in the royal palace at a depth of fromtwenty-eight to twenty-nine and one-half feet; on the top of it I haveplaced the bell-shaped lid with a coronet, which was discovered closeby and appears to have belonged to it. [Illustration: FROM PALACE OF PRIAM. ] "I also found in the Treasure three great silver vases, the largest ofwhich is above eight and one-fourth inches high and nearly eightinches in diameter, and has a handle five and one-half inches inlength and three and one-half in breadth. (No. 23. ) The second vase is6. 9 inches high and nearly six inches in diameter; another silver vaseis welded to the upper part of it (No. 22), of which, however, onlyportions have been preserved. No. 19 is a splendid Terra-cotta vasefrom the Palace of Priam. It is the largest vase of the type frequentin the ruins, with two small handles and two great upright wings. Thecover was found near it. [Illustration: LIDS AND METALS OF PRIAM. ] "On the south side of the hill, where, on account of the slightnatural slope, I had to make my great trench with an inclination offourteen degrees, I discovered, at a distance of 197 feet from thedeclivity, a Tower, forty feet thick, which I have uncovered on thenorth and south sides along the whole breadth of my trench, and haveconvinced myself that it is built on the rock at a depth of forty-sixand a half feet. "The Tower is at present only twenty feet high, but the nature of itssurface, and the masses of stones lying on both sides, seem to provethat it was at one time much higher. For the preservation of whatremains we have only to thank the ruins of Troy, which entirelycovered the Tower as it now stands. It is probable that after thedestruction of Troy much more of it remained standing, and that thepart which rose above the ruins of the town was destroyed by thesuccessors of the Trojans, who possessed neither walls norfortifications. The western part of the Tower, so far as it is yetuncovered, is only from 121 to 124 feet distant from the steep westernslope of the hill; and, considering the enormous accumulation of_debris_, I believe that the Tower once stood on the western edge ofthe Acropolis, where its situation would be most interesting andimposing, for its top would have commanded, not only a view of thewhole Plain of Troy, but of the sea with the Islands of Tenedos, Imbros and Samothrace. There is not a more sublime situation in thearea of Troy than this, and I therefore presume that it is the 'GreatTower of Ilium' which Andromache ascended because 'she had heard thatthe Trojans were hard pressed and that the power of the Achæans wasgreat. ' "'But to the height of Ilion's topmost tower Andromache is gone; since tidings came The Trojan force was overmatched, and great The Grecian strength. ' "After having been buried for thirty-one centuries, and aftersuccessive nations have built their houses and palaces high above itssummit during thousands of years, this Tower has now again beenbrought to light, and commands a view, if not of the whole Plain, atleast of the northern part and of the Hellespont. May this sacred andsublime monument of Greek heroism forever attract the eyes of thosewho sail through the Hellespont! May it become a place to which theinquiring youth of all future generations shall make pilgrimage to fantheir enthusiasms for knowledge, and above all for the noble languageand literature of Greece! "Directly by the side of the Palace of King Priam I came upon a largecopper article of the most remarkable form, which attracted myattention all the more as I thought I saw gold behind it. On the topof this copper article lay a stratum of red and calcined ruins, fromfour and three-quarters to five and one-quarter feet thick, as hard asstone, and above this again lay a wall of fortification (six feetbroad and twenty feet high) which was built of large stones and earth, and must have belonged to an early date after the destruction of Troy. In order to withdraw the Treasure from the greed of my workmen, and tosave it for archæology, I had to be most expeditious, and although itwas not yet time for breakfast, I immediately had breakfast called. While the men were eating and resting I cut out the Treasure with alarge knife, which it was impossible to do without the very greatestexertion and the most fearful risk of my life, for the greatfortification wall, beneath which I had to dig, threatened everymoment to fall down upon me. But the sight of so many objects, everyone of which is of inestimable value to archæology, made me foolhardy, and I never thought of any danger. It would, however, have beenimpossible for me to have removed the Treasure without the help of mydear wife, who stood by me ready to pack the things which I cut out inher shawl and to carry them away. [Illustration: TREASURES OF PRIAM. ] "The first thing I found was a large copper shield, in the form of anoval salver, in the middle of which is a knob or boss encircled by asmall furrow. It is a little less than twenty inches in length, isquite flat, and surrounded by a rim one and one-half inches high; theboss is two and one-third inches high and four and one-third inchesin diameter; the furrow encircling it is seven inches in diameter andtwo-fifths of an inch deep. This round shield of copper (or bronze?)with its central boss, and the furrow and rim so suitable for holdingtogether a covering of ox-hides, reminds one irresistibly of theseven-fold shield of Ajax (_Iliad_ vii. 219-223): "'Ajax approached; before him, as a tower, His mighty shield he bore, seven-fold, brass-bound, The work of Tychius, best artificer That wrought in leather; he in Hyla dwelt. Of seven-fold hides the ponderous shield was wrought Of lusty bulls; the eighth was glittering brass. ' "It is equally striking to compare the shield of the Treasure with thedescription of Sarpedon's shield, with its round plate of hammeredcopper (or bronze), and its covering of ox-hides, fastened to theinner edge of the rim by gold wires or rivets (_Iliad_ xii. 294-297): "'His shield's broad _orb_ before his breast he bore, Well wrought, _of beaten brass_, which the armorer's hand Had beaten out, and lined with stout bull's hide With golden rods, continuous, all around. ' "The second object which I got out was a copper caldron with twohorizontal handles. It is sixteen and one-half inches in diameter andfive and one-half inches high; the bottom is flat, and is nearly eightinches in diameter. In the Iliad this vessel is used almost always asa caldron, and is often given as a prize at games; in the Odyssey itis always used for washing the hands or feet. This one shows the marksof a fearful conflagration, and near the left handle are seen twofragments of copper weapons (a lance and a battle-ax) firmly moltenon. (See No. 25. ) "The third object was a copper plate two-fifths of an inch thick, sixand one-third inches broad, and seventeen and one-third inches long;it has a rim about one-twelfth of an inch high; at one end of it thereare two immovable wheels with an axle-tree. This plate is very muchbent in two places, but I believe that these curvatures have beenproduced by the heat to which the article was exposed in theconflagration; a silver vase four and three-fourths inches high andbroad has been fused to it; I suppose, however, that this alsohappened by accident in the heat of the fire. (See No. 14. ) "This remarkable object lay at the top of the whole mass, and Isuppose it to have formed a hasp to the lid of the wooden chest inwhich the Treasure was packed. The fourth article I brought out was acopper vase five and one-half inches high and four and one-thirdinches in diameter. Thereupon followed a globular bottle of the purestgold, weighing 6, 220 grains, or above one pound troy; it is nearly sixinches high and five and one-half inches in diameter, and has thecommencement of a zigzag decoration on the neck, which, however, isnot continued all round. Then came a cup, likewise of the purest gold, weighing seven and one-fourth oz. Troy; it is three and one-halfinches high and three inches broad. (See Nos. 4 and 12. ) [Illustration: PART OF MACHINE OF PRIAM. ] [Illustration: JEWELRY OF GOLD AND STONES. ] "Next came another cup of purest gold, weighing about one pound andsix oz. Troy; it is three and one-half inches high, seven andone-fourth inches long, and seven and one-fifth inches broad; it is inthe form of a ship, with two large handles; on one side there is amouth one and one-fifth inches broad, for drinking out of, and anotherat the other side two and three-fourths inches broad. Prof. StephanosKumanudes, of Athens, remarks, the person who presented the filled cupmay have first drank from the small mouth as a mark of respect, to letthe guest drink from the larger mouth. (See No. 10. ) [Illustration: FOUND IN THE PALACE OF PRIAM. ] "The Treasure further contained a small cup of gold weighing two andone-fourth oz. Troy; also six pieces of the purest silver in the formof large knife blades; they have all been wrought with a hammer. "I also found in the Treasure three great silver vases, the largestof which is above eight and one-fourth inches high and nearly eightinches in diameter, and has a handle five and one-half inches inlength and three and one-half in breadth; I found besides a number ofsilver goblets and cups. Upon and beside the gold and silver articlesI found thirteen copper lances; also fourteen copper weapons, whichare frequently met with here, and seven large double-edged copperdaggers. "As I found all these articles together, forming a rectangular mass, or packed into one another, it seems to be certain that they wereplaced on the city wall in a wooden chest, such as those mentioned byHomer as being in the Palace of King Priam. This appears to be themore certain, as close by the side of these articles I found a copperkey above four inches long, the head of which (about two inches longand broad) greatly resembles a large safe-key of a bank. Curiouslyenough this key has had a wooden handle. [Illustration] "That the Treasure was packed together at terrible risk of life, andin the greatest anxiety, is proved among other things also by thecontents of a large silver vase, at the bottom of which I found twogold diadems, a fillet and four beautiful ear-rings of most exquisiteworkmanship; upon these lay fifty-six gold ear-rings of exceedinglycurious form, and 8, 750 small gold rings, perforated prisms and dice, gold buttons and similar jewels; then followed six gold bracelets, and, on the top of all, the two small gold goblets. Some of these arementioned by Homer: "'Far off were flung the adornments of her head; The net, the fillet, and the woven band, The nuptial-veil by golden Venus given. ' [Illustration: GOLD NECKLACE OF TROY. ] [Illustration: GOLD TASSELS OF TROY. ] [Illustration: LAMPS FOUND AT TROY. ] "The one diadem consists of a gold fillet, twenty-one and two-thirdsinches long and nearly half an inch broad, from which there hang oneither side seven little chains to cover the temples, each of whichhas eleven square leaves with a groove; these chains are joined to oneanother by four little cross chains, at the end of which hangs aglittering golden idol of the tutelar goddess of Troy, nearly an inchlong. The entire length of each of these chains, with the idols, amounts to ten and one-quarter inches. Almost all these idols havesomething of the human form, but the owl's head with the two largeeyes can not be mistaken; their breadth at the lower end is aboutnine-tenths of an inch. Between these ornaments for the temples thereare forty-seven little pendant chains adorned with square leaves; atthe end of each little chain is an idol of the tutelar goddess ofIlium, about three-quarters of an inch long; the length of theselittle chains with the idols is not quite four inches. The fillet isabove eighteen inches long and two-fifths of an inch broad, and hasthree perforations at each end. Eight quadruple rows of dots divide itinto nine compartments, in each of which there are two large dots, andan uninterrupted row of dots adorns the whole edge. (See Fig. 1. ) Ofthe four ear-rings only two are exactly alike; from the upper part, which is almost in the shape of a basket, and is ornamented with tworows of decorations in the form of beads, there hang six small chainson which are three little cylinders; attached to the end of the chainsare small idols of the tutelar goddess of Troy. The length of eachear-ring is three and one-half inches. The upper part of the other twoear-rings is larger and thicker, but likewise almost in the shape of abasket; from it are suspended five little chains entirely covered withsmall round leaves, on which are likewise fastened small but moreimposing idols of the Ilian tutelar divinity; the length of one ofthese pendants is three and one-half inches, that of the other alittle over three inches. (See Fig. 17. ) "Homer, in the Iliad, sings of 'beautifully twined tassels of solidgold' which adorned Athene: "'All around A hundred tassels hung, rare works of art, All gold, each one a hundred oxen's price. ' "Again, when Hera adorns herself to captivate Jove, her zone isfringed with a hundred tassels, and her ear-rings are described interms corresponding exactly to the triple leaves above described: "'Her zone, from which a hundred tassels hung, She girt above her; and, in three bright drops, Her glittering gems suspended from her ears, And all around her grace and beauty shone. ' "Of the six gold bracelets two are quite simple, and closed, butconsist of an ornamented band one-twenty-fifth of an inch thick andone-fourth of an inch broad. The other three are double, and the endsare turned round and furnished with a head. The princess who worethese bracelets must have had unusually small hands, for they are sosmall that a girl of ten would have difficulty in putting them on. "The fifty-six other gold ear-rings are of various sizes, and threeof them appear to have also been used by the princesses of the royalfamily as finger-rings. Also gold buttons were found, or studs, one-sixth of an inch high, in the cavity of which is a ring aboveone-tenth of an inch broad for sewing them on; gold double buttons, exactly like our shirt studs, three-tenths of an inch long, which, however, are not soldered, but simply stuck together, for from thecavity of the button there projects a tube, nearly one-fourth of aninch long, and from the other a pin of the same length, and the pin ismerely stuck into the tube to form a double stud. (See Fig. No. 16. )These double buttons or studs can only have been used, probably, asornament upon leather articles, for instance upon the handle-straps ofswords, shields, or knives. I found in the vase also two goldcylinders above one-tenth of an inch long; also a small peg abovefour-fifths of an inch in length, and from six one-hundreths to eightone-hundreths of an inch thick; it has at one end a perforated holefor hanging it up, and on the other side six encircling incisions, which give the article the appearance of a screw; it is only by meansof a magnifying glass that it is found not to be really a screw. Ialso found in the same vase two pieces of gold, one of which isone-seventh of an inch, the other above two inches long; each of themhas twenty-one perforations. [Illustration: SIX GOLDEN BRACELETS WELDED TOGETHER BY THE CONFLAGRATION. ] [Illustration: GOLD PINS WITH SET GEMS. ] "The persons who endeavored to save the Treasure had fortunately thepresence of mind to stand the silver vase, containing the valuablearticles described above, upright in the chest, so that not so much asa bead could fall out, and everything has been preserved uninjured. "M. Landerer, of Athens, a chemist well known through his discoveriesand writings, who has most carefully examined all the copper articlesof the Treasure, and analyzed the fragments, finds that all of themconsist of pure copper without any admixture of tin or zinc, and that, in order to make them more durable, they have been wrought with thehammer. [Illustration: GOLD EAR-RINGS OF TROY. ] "As I hoped to find other treasures here, and also wished to bring tolight the wall surrounding Troy, the erection of which Homer ascribesto Poseidon and Apollo, as far as the Scæan Gate, I have entirely cutaway the upper wall, which rested partly upon the gate, to an extentof fifty-six feet. Visitors to the Troad can, however, still see partof it in the northwest earth-wall opposite the Scæan Gate. I have alsobroken down the enormous block of earth which separated my western andnorthwestern cutting from the Great Tower. The result of this newexcavation is very important to archæology, for I have been able touncover several walls, and also a room of the Royal Palace, twentyfeet in length and breadth, upon which no buildings of a later periodrest. "Of the objects discovered there I have only to mention an excellentlyengraved inscription found upon a square piece of red slate, which hastwo holes not bored through it and an encircling incision, but neithercan my learned friend Emile Burnouf nor I tell in what language theinscription is written. Further, there were some interestingterra-cottas, among which is a vessel, quite the form of a moderncask, and with a tube in the centre for pouring in and drawing off theliquid. There were also found upon the walls of Troy, one andthree-fourths feet below the place where the Treasure was discovered, three silver dishes, two of which were broken to pieces in diggingdown the _debris_, they can, however, be repaired, as I have all thepieces. These dishes seem to have belonged to the Treasure, and thefact of the latter having otherwise escaped our pickaxes is due to theabove mentioned large copper vessels which projected, so that I couldcut everything out of the hard _debris_ with a knife. "I found, further, a silver goblet above three and one-third incheshigh, the mouth of which is nearly four inches in diameter; also asilver flat cup or dish five and one-half inches in diameter, and twobeautiful small silver vases of most exquisite workmanship. The largerone, which has two rings on either side for hanging up by strings, isnearly eight inches high with its hat-shaped lid, and three andone-half inches in diameter across the bulge. The smaller silver vase, with a ring on either side for suspension by a string, is about sixand three-fourths inches high, with its lid, and above three inchesbroad. "I now perceive that the cutting which I made in April was exactly atthe proper point, and that if I had only continued it I should in afew weeks have uncovered the most remarkable buildings in Troy, namely, the Palace of King Priam, the Scæan Gate, the GreatSurrounding Wall, and the Great Tower of Ilium; whereas, inconsequence of abandoning this cutting, I had to make colossalexcavations from east to west and from north to south through theentire hill in order to find those most interesting buildings. "In the upper strata of the north western and western excavations wecame upon another great quantity of heads of beautiful terra-cottafigures of the best Hellenic period, and at a depth of twenty-threefeet upon some idols, as well as the upper portion of a vase with theowl's face and a lid in the form of a helmet. Lids of this kind, uponthe edge of which female hair is indicated by incisions, arefrequently found in all the strata between thirteen and thirty-threefeet deep, and as they belong to vases with owls' faces, the number oflids gives us an idea of the number of the vases with the figure ofthe owl-headed Athene, which existed here in Troy. "Homer rarely mentions temples, and, although he speaks of the Templeof Athene, yet, considering the smallness of the city, it is verydoubtful whether it actually existed. It is probable that the tutelargoddess at that time possessed only the sacrificial altar which Idiscovered, and the crescent form of which greatly resembles the upperportion of the ivory idol found in the lowest strata as well as theone end of the six talents contained among the Treasure. "Valuable stones, such as those large flags which cover the roadleading from the Scæan Gate to the Plain, as well as the stones of theenclosing wall and of the Great Tower, have been left untouched, andnot a single stone of the Scæan Gate is wanting. Nay, with theexception of the houses which I myself destroyed, it would be quitepossible to uncover the 'carcasses' of all the houses, as in the caseof Pompeii. The houses must have been very high, and a great deal ofwood must have been used in their construction, for otherwise theconflagration could not have produced such an enormous quantity ofashes and rubbish. "Upon and beside the gold and silver articles, I found thirteen copperlances, from nearly seven to above twelve and one-half inches inlength, and from above one and one-half to two and one-third inchesbroad at the broadest point; at the lower end of each is a hole, inwhich, in most cases, the nail or peg which fastened the lance to thewooden handle is still sticking. The pin-hole is clearly visible in alance-head which the conflagration has welded to a battle-ax. TheTrojan lances were therefore quite different from those of the Greeksand Romans. [Illustration: SPEARS, LANCES, AX AND CHAIN. ] [Illustration: SHEARS, KNIVES AND SPEARS. ] "I also found fourteen of those copper weapons, which are frequentlymet with here, but which have never been discovered elsewhere; at oneend they are pointed but blunt, and at the other they end in a broadedge. I formerly considered them to be a species of lance, but now, after mature consideration, I am convinced that they could have beenused only as battle-axes. They are from above six to above twelveinches in length, from nearly one-half to above three-fourths of aninch thick, and from above one to nearly three inches broad; thelargest of them weighs about three pounds avoirdupois. [Illustration: LANCES FOUND AT PALACE OF PRIAM, TROY. ] "There were also seven large double-edged copper daggers, with ahandle from about two to two and three-fourths inches long, the end ofwhich is bent round at a right angle. These handles must at one timehave been encased in wood, for if the cases had been made of bone theywould still have been wholly or partially preserved. The pointedhandle was inserted into a piece of wood, so that the end projectedabout half an inch beyond it, and this end was simply bent round. Thelargest of these daggers is ten and two-thirds inches in length andabove two inches broad at the broadest part; a second dagger, which isabove one and three-fourths inches broad, has the point broken off, and is now less than nine inches long, but appears to have been eleveninches; a third dagger is eight and two-thirds inches long, andmeasures above one and one-fourth inches at the broadest point. "On the north side of the hill I have now also uncovered severalhouse-walls at a depth of forty-two and one-half feet, and also thebeginning of a remarkable wall of fortification, the continuation ofwhich may be seen in the labyrinth of the house-walls in the depths ofthe Temple of Athene. On the north side, above the primary soil, Ihave also brought to light a portion of the pavement alreadymentioned, composed of small, round, white sea-pebbles, below whichare the calcined ruins of a building which formerly stood there. "Among some very remarkable terra-cottas discovered since my lastreport I must mention two jugs found on the north side, at a depth offrom twenty-three to twenty-six feet, each of which has two uprightnecks standing side by side, but their handles are united. One of themhas also beside the mouths two small elevations, which may probablyindicate eyes. Of a third jug of this kind I only found the upperportion. I must also mention an exceedingly curious cup, discovered ata depth of thirteen feet, which consists of a tube resting upon threefeet and ending in one large and two small goblets; the larger gobletis connected with the opposite side of the tube by a handle. At thesame depth I met with a large vase, from which projects a separatesmall vase; it is ornamented with incisions, and has three feet andtwo very pretty handles and rings for hanging it up. I found likewise, at the depth of thirteen feet, a vase with two female breasts, twolarge handles and engravings resembling letters. Among other extremelycurious terra-cottas I must also mention three pots with three rows ofperforations; they have the usual handle on one side and three feet onthe other; also three large vases with perforations right round, onall sides, from the bottom to the top; their use is a riddle to me;can they have served as bee-hives? Also a vessel in the form of a pig, with four feet, which are, however, shorter than the belly, so thatthe vessel can not stand upon them; the neck of the vessel, which isattached to the back of the pig, is connected with the hinder part bya handle. I further found a pot in the form of a basket with a handlecrossing the mouth, and a tube in the bulge for drawing off theliquid. Also two terra-cotta funnels, at a depth of ten feet, with aletter which I have repeatedly met with on some of the terra-cottas. At a depth of five feet I found one of those round twice-perforatedterra-cottas with a stamp, in which there are Egyptian hieroglyphics;also a dozen of the same articles in the stamps of which are a crownedhead, a bird, a dog's head, a flying man or an eagle and a stag. At adepth of sixteen and one-half feet I found the handle of a cup withthe beautifully modeled head of a bull. "Neither can I prove that the terra-cottas here frequently met with, in the form of horses' heads, represent the mother of Hera, Cybele orRhea, but it is very likely, for, as it is well known, in Phrygia shewas represented with a horse's head. Terra-cotta idols of the IlianAthene are rarely met with, but we daily find marble idols of thisgoddess, most of which have almost a human form. We also frequentlycome upon oblong flat pieces of rough marble upon which the owl's faceof the goddess is more or less deeply engraved. It is often so finelyscratched that the aid of a magnifying glass is required to convinceone that it actually exists; we found several such pieces of marblewhere the owl's head was painted in a black color. Since I have cometo the conclusion that they are idols of the tutelar divinity of TroyI have carefully collected them. [Illustration: COINS OR METALS. ] "In excavating the ground upon which my wooden house had stood wefound, at a depth of from nine to nineteen inches, eighteen copper andtwo silver medals; one of the latter is of Marcus Aurelius. The otheris a tetra-drachm of the island of Tenedos; on the obverse, to theright, is the head of Jupiter, to the left that of Juno, both havingone neck in common, like the heads of Janus. The head of Jupiter iscrowned with laurels, that of Juno has a wreath or crown. Upon thereverse of the coin there is a laurel wreath round the edge, and inthe centre a large double ax, above which stands the word Teneelion, below and to the right of the handle of the double ax there is awinged Eros, who is holding up an object which it is difficult todistinguish, to the left is a bunch of grapes and a monogram, whichlooks like the letter A. "Of the copper coins five are of Alexandria Troas, two of Ophrynium, one of Tenedos, two of Abydos, and one of Dardania. "When I uncovered the road paved with large flags of stone, whichleads from the Scæan Gate to the Plain, the stones looked as new as ifthey had just been hewn. But since then, under the influence of theburning sun, the flags of the upper portion of the road, which havespecially suffered from the conflagration that destroyed the city, arerapidly crumbling away, and will probably have quite disappeared in afew years. However, the flags of stone on the northwestern half of theroad, which have been less exposed to the heat, may still last manycenturies. "In this day, closing the excavations at Ilium forever, I can not butfervently thank God for His great mercy, in that, notwithstanding theterrible danger to which we have been exposed owing to the continualhurricanes, during the last three years' gigantic excavations, nomisfortune has happened, no one has been killed, and no one has beenseriously hurt. "In my last report I did not state the exact number of springs infront of the Ilium. I have now visited all the springs myself, andmeasured their distance from my excavations, and I can give thefollowing account of them. The first spring, which is situateddirectly below the ruins of the ancient town-wall, is exactly 399yards from my excavations; its water has a temperature of 60. 8°Fahrenheit. It is enclosed to a height of six and-one-half feet by awall of large stones joined with cement, nine and one-quarter feet inbreadth, and in front of it there are two stone troughs for wateringcattle. The second spring, which is likewise still below the ruins ofthe ancient town-wall, is exactly 793 yards distant from myexcavations. It has a similar enclosure of large stones, seven feethigh and five feet broad, and has the same temperature. But it is outof repair, and the water no longer runs through the stone pipe in theenclosure, but along the ground before it reaches the pipe. The doublespring spoken of in my last report is exactly 1, 033 yards from myexcavations. It consists of two distinct springs, which run outthrough two stone pipes lying beside each other in the enclosurecomposed of large stones joined with earth, which rises to a height ofseven feet and is twenty-three feet broad; its temperature is 62. 6°Fahrenheit. In front of these two springs there are six stone troughs, which are placed in such a manner that the superfluous water alwaysruns from the first trough through all the others. It is extremelyprobable that these are the two springs mentioned by Homer, besidewhich Hector was killed. "'They (Hector and Achilles) in flight and pursuit, They by the watch-tower, and beneath the wall Where stood the wind-beat fig-tree, raced amain Along the public road, until they reached The fairly-flowing founts, whence issued forth, From double source, Scamander's eddying streams. One with hot current flows, and from beneath, As from a furnace, clouds of steam arise; 'Mid Summer's heat the other rises cold As hail, or snow, or water crystallized; Beside the fountains stood the washing-troughs Of well-wrought stone, where erst the wives of Troy And daughters fair their choicest garments washed, In peaceful times, ere came the sons of Greece. ' "In this new excavation I find four earthen pipes, from eighteen andthree-quarters to twenty-two and one-quarter inches long, and fromsix and one-half to eleven and three-quarters inches thick, laidtogether for conducting water, which was brought from a distance ofabout seven miles from the upper Thymbrius. This river is now calledthe Kemar, from the Greek word kamara (vault), because an aqueduct ofthe Roman period crosses its lower course by a large arch. Thisaqueduct formerly supplied Ilium with drinking water from the upperportion of the river. But the Pergamus required special aqueducts, forit lies higher than the city. [Illustration: ELEGANT BROOCH OF TROY. ] "Unfortunately upon none of the articles of the Treasure of Priam arethere found any inscriptions or any religious symbols except 100 idolsof the Homeric 'owl-faced goddess Athene. ' (Thea glaukopis Athene)which glitter upon the two diadems and the four ear-rings. These are, however, an undeniable proof that the Treasure belongs to the city andto the age of which Homer sings. " The question asked is: Has Schliemann found any inscriptions whichthrow the certain light of written testimony on the language, thehistory and social condition, the religion, science and literature ofthe old inhabitants of the hill, whose records form as yet no part ofancient history? Upon this point very little satisfaction can begiven, yet the people of ancient Troy did have a written language. Ata depth of twenty-six feet, in the royal palace, a vase with aninscription was found. One of the letters resembles the Greek P. Thissame letter occurs on a seal found at a depth of twenty-three feet;two other letters of this inscription occurred on one otherterra-cotta, likewise found at a depth of twenty-three feet. To Dr. Martin Haug belongs the honor of first deciphering the Trojaninscriptions on the above-mentioned vase. He, not without muchresearch, interpreted it as a dedication "To the divine Sigo, " a deitywhose name was found in Sigeum. The transmutation, however, seemedforced; and, while Haug was right in his method, his results werepronounced at best, "Fragments of broken words and thoughts, Yet glimpses of the true. " Prof. T. Gomperz, of Vienna, after making one correction in Haug'sreading, still found it unsatisfactory, till the thought struck him ofreading it from right to left round the vase, instead of from left toright, when the confused syllables flashed, as by suddencrystallization, into the pure Greek, and read: "To the divinePrince. " Another inscription was found which Prof. Max Muller read as the veryname of ILION. Others were found which are not as yet interpreted. [Illustration: LAMP FOUND AT TROY. ] [Page Decoration] NINEVEH AND BABYLON. Far away from the highways of modern commerce and the tracks ofordinary travel lay a city buried in the sandy earth of a half-desertTurkish province, with no trace of its place of sepulture. Vaguetradition said it was hidden somewhere near the river Tigris; but fora long series of ages its existence in the world was a mere name--aword. That name suggested the idea of an ancient capital of fabuloussplendor and magnitude; a congregation of palaces and temples, encompassed by vast walls and ramparts--of "the rejoicing city thatdwelt carelessly; that said in her heart, I am, and there is nonebeside me, " and which was to become "a desolation and dry like awilderness. " More than two thousand years had it lain in its unknown grave, when aFrench _savant_ and a wandering scholar sought the seat of the oncepowerful empire, and searching till they found the dead city, threwoff its shroud of sand and ruin, and revealed once more to anastonished and curious world the temples, the palaces, and the idols;the representations of war and the chase, of the cruelties andluxuries of the ancient Assyrians. The Nineveh of Scripture, theNineveh of the oldest historians; the Nineveh--twin sister ofBabylon--glorying in pomp and power, all traces of which were believedto be gone; the Nineveh in which the captive tribes of Israel hadlabored and wept, and against which the words of prophecy had goneforth, was, after a sleep of twenty centuries, again brought tolight. The proofs of ancient splendor were again beheld by livingeyes, and by the skill of draftsmen and the pen of antiquariantravelers made known and preserved to the world. In the history of Jonah's visit, Nineveh is twice described as "thatgreat city, " and again as an "exceedingly great city of three days'journey. " The measurement assigned to Nineveh by the sacred writer applies, without doubt, to its circuit, and gives a circumference of aboutsixty miles. None of the historical books of the Old Testament give any detailsrespecting Nineveh. The prophets, however, make frequent incidentalallusion to its magnificence, to the "fenced place, " the "stronghold, "the "valiant men and chariots, " the "silver and gold, " the "pleasantfurniture, " "carved lintels and cedar work. " Zephaniah, who wroteabout twenty-four years before the fall of Nineveh, says of it: "This is the rejoicing city that dwelt carelessly; That said in her heart, 'I am, and there is none beside me. '" The ruins of Nineveh were virtually unknown to the ancient classicalwriters, though we gather from all of them that it was one of theoldest, most powerful and most splendid cities in the world; that itperished utterly many hundred years before the Christian Era; and thatafter its fall Babylon became the capital of the Assyrian empire, which finally grew still greater and mightier. On examining theirdetails, we find names confounded, incidents transposed, andchronology by turns confused, extended or inverted. Difficulties ofanother and more peculiar kind beset this path of inquiry, of which itwill suffice to instance one illustration--proper names, those fixedpoints in history around which the achievements or sufferings of itsheroes cluster, are constantly shifting in the Assyrian nomenclature;both men and gods being designated, not by a word composed of certainfixed sounds or signs, but by all the various expressions equivalentto it in meaning, whether consisting of a synonym or a phrase. Hencewe find that the names furnished by classic authors generally havelittle or no analogy with the Assyrian, as the Greeks generallyconstrued the proper names of other countries according to the geniusof their own language, and not unfrequently translated the originalname into it. Herodotus, however, though he mentions but one Assyrianking, gives his true name, Sennacherib. The immense mounds of brick and rubbish which marked the presumedsites of Babylon and Nineveh had been used as quarries by theinhabitants of the surrounding country, from time immemorial, withoutdisclosing to other eyes than those of the wild occupier of the soilthe monuments they must have served to support or cover. Thoughcarefully explored by Niebuhr and Claudius James Rich, no other tracesof buildings than a few portions of walls, of which they could notunderstand the plan, had been presented; if, however, theinvestigations of these travelers produced few immediate results, thefirst-named certainly has the merit of being the first to break theground, and by his intelligence, to have awakened the enterprise ofothers. Rich, who was the East India Company's resident at Baghdad, employed his leisure in the investigation of the antiquities ofAssyria. He gave his first attention to Babylon, on which he wrote apaper, originally published in Germany--his countrymen apparentlytaking less interest in such matters than did the scholars of Vienna. In a note to a second memoir on Babylon, printed in London in 1818, wefind Nineveh thus alluded to by Rich. He says: "Opposite the town ofMosul is an enclosure of rectangular form, corresponding with thecardinal points of the compass; the eastern and western sides beingthe longest, the latter facing the river. The area, which is nowcultivated, and offers no vestiges of building, is too small to havecontained a town larger than Mosul, but it may be supposed to answerto the palace of Nineveh. The boundary, which may be perfectly tracedall round, now looks like an embankment of earth or rubbish, of smallelevation; and has attached to it, and in its line, at several places, mounds of greater size and solidity. The first of these forms thesouthwest angle, and on it is built the village of Nebbi Younis, theprophet's tomb (described and delineated by Niebuhr as Nurica), wherethey show the tomb of the prophet Jonah, much revered by theMohammedans. The next, and largest of all, is the one which may besupposed to be the monument of Ninus. It is situated near the centreof the western face of the enclosure, and is joined like the others bythe boundary wall;--the natives call it Kouyunjik Tepe. Its form isthat of a truncated pyramid, with regular steep sides and a flat top;it is composed, as I ascertained from some excavations, of stones andearth, the latter predominating sufficiently to admit of the summitbeing cultivated by the inhabitants of the village of Kouyunjik, whichis built on it at the northeast extremity. The only means I had, atthe time I visited it, of ascertaining its dimensions, was by a cordwhich I procured from Mosul. This gave 178 feet for the greatestheight, 1, 850 feet for the length of the summit east and west, and1, 147 for its breadth north and south. This mound has revealed the grandest and most stupendous remains ofancient Neneveh. Within the boundaries of ancient walls there are manymounds and elevations. All of them are artificial and are caused bythe remains of the ancient structures. Mound Nimroud is about fourmiles in circumference at its base, on the top of which is a greatpyramid mound 777 feet in circumference and 144-1/2 feet high. M. Botta distinctly traced the walls of an enclosure forming nearly aperfect square, two sides of which are 5, 750 feet, the other 5, 400, orrather more than a mile each way, all the four angles being rightangles, which face the cardinal points. M. Botta commenced researchesin the mound of Kouyunjik in 1842, and, meeting with little success, he abandoned his excavations in the following year. [Illustration: PALACE OF SENNACHERIB. _Discovered in a mound 1850 feet long, 1145 feet wide, and 178 feet high. _] Layard, in 1846, opened some trenches in the southern face of themound, but, at that time, without any important results. At asubsequent period he made some inquiries respecting the bas-reliefdescribed by Rich, and the spot where it was discovered having beenpointed out to him in the northern group of ruins, he opened trenches, but, not finding any traces of sculptures, discontinued hisoperations. Upon completing his labors at Nimroud, in 1847, Layard determined onmaking some farther researches at Kouyunjik. He commenced at thesouthwestern corner, and not only discovered the remains of a palace, which had been destroyed by fire, but, within the short space of amonth, had explored nine of its chambers. All the chambers were longand narrow, and the walls lined with bas-reliefs of larger size thanmost of those he had found at Nimroud. The slabs were not divided bybands of inscription, but were covered with figures scatteredpromiscuously over the entire surface, all the details being carefullyand delicately executed. The winged human-headed bulls at theentrances resembled those found at Khorsabad and Persepolis in theforms of the head-dress, and feathered cap; and the costumes of thefigures in general were also like those found at Khorsabad. The periodof the palace was conjectured to be between those of Khorsabad andNimroud. After Mr. Layard had left Mosul, Mr. Ross continued theexcavations, and discovered several additional bas-reliefs--anentrance, which had been formed of four sphinxes, and a very largesquare slab, which he conjectured to be a dais or altar, like thatfound at Nimroud. Here he found a chamber lined with sculptured slabs, divided, likethose of Khorsabad and Nimroud, by bands of inscription. He alsofound, at the foot of the mound, a monument about three feet high, androunded at the top, containing a figure with a long cuneiforminscription, and above it various sacred emblems. When discovered itwas supported by brickwork, and near it was a sarcophagus in bakedclay. On the departure of Mr. Ross from Mosul the excavations were placedunder the charge of Mr. Rassam, the English consul, with power toemploy a small body of men, so as not to entirely abandon possessionof the spot. Layard says: "During a short period several discoveries of thegreatest interest and importance were made, both at Kouyunjik andNimroud. I will first describe the results of the excavations in theruins opposite Mosul. "Shortly before my departure for Europe, in 1848, the forepart of ahuman-headed bull of colossal dimensions had been uncovered on theeast side of the Kouyunjik Palace. This sculpture then appeared toform one side of an entrance or doorway. The excavations had, however, been abandoned before any attempt could be made to ascertain the fact. On my return a tunnel, nearly 100 feet in length, was opened at rightangles to the winged bull, but without coming upon any other remainsbut a pavement of square limestone slabs, which continued as far asthe excavation was carried. "On uncovering the bull, which was still partly buried in the rubbish, it was found that adjoining it were other sculptures, and that itformed part of an exterior facade. The upper half of the slab had beendestroyed; upon the lower was part of the figure of the AssyrianHercules strangling the lion, similar to that discovered between thebulls in the propylæa of Khorsabad, and now in the Louvre. The hinderpart of the lion was still preserved. The legs, feet, and drapery ofthe god were in the boldest relief, and designed with great truth andvigor. Beyond this figure, in the same line, was a second bull. Thencame a wide portal, guarded by a pair of winged bulls twenty feetlong, and probably, when entire, more than twenty feet high, and twogigantic winged figures in low relief. Flanking them were two smallerfigures, one above the other. Beyond this entrance the facade wascontinued by a group similar to that on the opposite side by a smallerentrance into the palace and by a wall of sculptured slabs; then alltraces of building and sculpture ceased near the edge of a water-wornravine. "Thus, part of the facade of the southeast side of the palace, formingapparently the grand entrance to the edifice, had been discovered. Tencolossal bulls, with six human figures of gigantic proportions, altogether 180 feet in length, were here grouped together. Althoughthe bas-reliefs to the right of the entrance had apparently beenpurposely destroyed with a sharp instrument, enough remained to allowme to trace their subject. They had represented the conquest of adistrict, probably part of Babylonia, watered by a broad river andwooded with palms, spearmen on foot in combat with Assyrian horsemen, castles besieged, long lines of prisoners, and beasts of burdencarrying away the spoil. Amongst various animals brought as tribute tothe conquerors could be distinguished a lion led by a chain. Therewere no remains whatever of the superstructure which once rose abovethe colossi, guarding this magnificent entrance. "Although the upper part of the winged bulls was destroyed, fortunately the lower part, and, consequently, the inscriptions, hadbeen more or less preserved. To this fact we owe the recovery of someof the most precious records of the ancient world. "On the two great bulls forming the center entrance was one continuousinscription, injured in parts, but still so far preserved as to belegible almost throughout. It contained 152 lines. On the four bullsof the facade were two inscriptions, one inscription being carriedover each pair, and the two being precisely of the same import. Thesetwo different inscriptions complete the annals of six years of thereign of Sennacherib, and contain numerous particulars connected withthe religion of the Assyrians, their gods, their temples, and theerection of their palaces. We gather from them that, in the third yearof his reign, Sennacherib turned his arms against Merodach-Baladan, king of Babylon, whom he entirely defeated, capturing his cities and alarge amount of spoil. The fourth year appears to have been chieflytaken up with expeditions against the inhabitants of the mountainousregions to the north and east of Assyria. In the fifth he crossed theEuphrates into Syria, the inhabitants of which country are called bytheir familiar Biblical name of Hittites. He first took possession ofPhœnicia, which was abandoned by its King Luliya (the Eululæus of theGreeks). He then restored to his throne Padiya, or Padi, king ofEkron, and a tributary of Assyria, who had been deposed by hissubjects and given over to Hezekiah, king of Jerusalem. The king ofEthiopia and Egypt sent a powerful army to the assistance of thepeople of Ekron, but it was entirely defeated by Sennacherib, whoafterwards marched against Hezekiah, probably to punish him for havingimprisoned Padiya. The inscriptions record this expedition, accordingto the translation of the late Dr. Hincks, in the followingterm:--'Hezekiah, king of Judah, who had not submitted to myauthority, forty-six of his principal cities, and fortresses andvillages depending upon them, of which I took no account, I capturedand carried away their spoil. I _shut up_ (?) himself withinJerusalem, his capital city. The fortified towns, and the rest of histowns, which I spoiled, I severed from his country, and gave to thekings of Ascalon, Ekron, and Gaza, so as to make his country small. Inaddition to the former tribute imposed upon their countries, I added atribute, the nature of which I fixed. ' The next passage is somewhatillegible, but the substance of it appears to be, that he took fromHezekiah the treasure he had collected in Jerusalem, thirty talents ofgold and eight hundred talents of silver, the treasures of hispalace, besides his sons and his daughters, and his male and femaleservants or slaves, and brought them all to Nineveh. This city itself, however, he does not pretend to have taken. "The translation of this passage by Sir H. Rawlinson varies in someparticulars from that given in the text. It is as follows: 'BecauseHezekiah, king of Judah, would not submit to my yoke I came up againsthim, and by force of arms, and by the might of my power I tookforty-six of his fenced cities; and of the smaller towns which werescattered about I took and plundered a countless number. And fromthese places I captured and carried off, as spoil, 200, 150 people, oldand young, male and female, together with horses and mares, asses andcamels, oxen and sheep, a countless multitude. And Hezekiah himself Ishut up in Jerusalem, his capital city, like a bird in a cage, building towers around the city to hem him in, and raising banks ofearth against the gates, so as to prevent escape. * * * * Then uponthis Hezekiah there fell the fear of the power of my arms, and he sentout to me the chiefs and the elders of Jerusalem with thirty talentsof gold and eight hundred talents of silver, and divers treasures, arich and immense booty. * * * * All these things were brought to me atNineveh, the seat of my government, Hezekiah having sent them by wayof tribute, and as a token of his submission to my power. ' "There can be no doubt that the campaign against the cities ofPalestine, recorded in the inscriptions of Sennacherib in this palace, is that described in the Old Testament; and it is of great interest, therefore, to compare the two accounts, which will be found to agreein the principal incidents mentioned to a very remarkable extent. Inthe Second Book of Kings it is said--'Now, in the fourteenth year ofking Hezekiah did Sennacherib, king of Assyria, come up against allthe fenced cities of Judah, and took them. And Hezekiah, king ofJudah, sent to the king of Assyria, to Lachish, saying, I haveoffended; return from me; that which thou puttest on me will I bear. And the king of Assyria appointed unto Hezekiah three hundred talentsof silver and thirty talents of gold. And Hezekiah gave him all thesilver that was found in the house of the Lord and in the treasures ofthe king's house. At that time did Hezekiah cut off [_the gold from_]the doors of the temple of the Lord, and [_from_] the pillars whichHezekiah, king of Judah, had overlaid, and gave it to the king ofAssyria. '" When Mr. Layard revisited Kouyunjik in 1849, there were no vestiges ofthe sculptured walls discovered two years previously. The more recenttrenches, however, dug under the superintendence of Mr. Ross, werestill open; and the workmen employed by direction of the BritishMuseum had run tunnels along the walls within the mound, to save thetrouble of clearing away the soil, which had accumulated to a depth ofthirty feet above the ruins. Under the direction of Layard, theexcavations were resumed with great spirit, and before the lapse ofmany weeks, several chambers had been entered, and numerousbas-reliefs discovered. One hall, 124 feet by 90 feet, appears, saysLayard, "to have formed a center, around which the principal chambersin this part of the palace were grouped. Its walls had been completelycovered with the most elaborate and highly-finished sculptures. Unfortunately, all the bas-reliefs, as well as the gigantic monstersat the entrances, had suffered more or less from the fire which haddestroyed the edifice; but enough of them still remained to show thesubject, and even to enable him, in many places, to restore itentirely. " Continuing his discoveries in the mound, Layard "opened no less thanseventy-one halls and chambers, also passages, whose walls, almostwithout an exception, had been paneled with slabs of sculpturedalabaster, recording the wars, the triumphs, and the great deeds ofthe Assyrian king. By a rough calculation, about 9, 880 feet, ornearly two miles of bas-reliefs, with twenty-seven portals formed bycolossal winged bulls and lion sphinxes, were uncovered in that partalone of the building explored during his researches. The cut on page435 shows some of them. The greatest length of the excavations wasabout 720 feet, the greatest breadth about 600 feet. The pavement ofthe chambers was from twenty to thirty-five feet below the surface ofthe mound. The measurements merely include that part of the palaceactually excavated. " [Illustration: DISCOVERED IN THE PALACE. EXPLANATION OF CUT. 1. } Figures from the portal of the palace of Sennacherib, having 2. } the forms of winged bulls with human heads, bearing crowns. 3. King Sennacherib on his throne. A sculpture found at Nimroud, dating from the 7th century Before Christ. 4. A king on the hunt. 5. The storming of a fortress. In the foreground are two warriors clad in armor, helmeted and heavily armed with swords and spears. 6. } Vases of glass and alabaster engraved with the word Sargon. 7. } From Nimroud. 8. Vessel of glazed earthenware--, found at Babel. 9. Bronze drinking cup ornamented with the head of an animal. 10. Lamp of earthenware. 11. Stuff woven in patterns of Assyrian style. From relief at Nimroud. 12. Table formed of fragments of sculptures found at Nimroud. 13. } 14. } Swords. 15. } 16. Bent sword. 17. Double edged ax. 18. Spear. 19. Quiver filled with arrows and elaborately sculptured. 20. Bow. 21. } 22. } Daggers and knife in one case. 23. } 24. Helmet. 25. Round shield such as was borne by foot soldiers. 26. Breastplate of a knight of high degree. 27. Parasol found at Nimroud. (Now in British Museum. ) 28. Ear-ring of gold. 29. } 30. } 31. } Bracelets of gold. 32. } 33. { 34. { Diadems. 35. Wall painting representing lions. ] Most of the sculptures discovered in this hall and group of chambershave been deposited in the British Museum. For the more recent collection of sculptures which have been broughtto light, we are indebted to Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, a native of Mosul, and a friend and colleague of Layard; and to Mr. William KennetLoftus, the agent of the Assyrian excavation fund. In 1852, Mr. Rassamwas appointed by the Trustees of the British Museum to take charge ofthe excavations at Nineveh. For more than a year his researches werenearly fruitless, when, at length, just as his appointment was aboutto terminate, he turned again to a previously-abandoned trench in thenorth side of the mound, and was almost immediately rewarded by thediscovery of numerous chambers and passages, covered with a variety ofbas-reliefs in an excellent state of preservation, having sufferedless injury from fire than those of the other palaces. In one room wasa lion hunt, in a continuous series of twenty-three slabs, with butone interval. The other slabs represented exteriors of palaces, gardens, battles, sieges, processions, etc. , the whole forming thedecorations of what must have been a splendid palace. Subsequently, in 1854, at the instance of Sir Henry Rawlinson, Mr. Loftus and his coadjutor, Mr. Boutcher, transferred their operationsfrom South Babylonia to Nineveh. At first Mr. Loftus' excavations wereunsuccessful, but about the beginning of August he discovered theremains of a building on a level twenty feet lower than the palacethat Mr. Rassam was exploring, and which proved to be a lower terraceof the same building, even more highly elaborated and in betterpreservation than those previously discovered in the ruins. At theentrance of an ascending passage there was also found a "mass ofsolid masonry--apparently the pier of an arch--the springing of whichis formed by projecting horizontal layers of limestone. " Mr. Loftus, in his Report of the 9th of October, observes: "Theexcavations carried on at the western angle of the North Palace, Kouyunjik, continue to reveal many interesting and important facts, and to determine several points which were previously doubtful. "1. The existence of an outer basement wall of roughly cut stoneblocks, supporting a mud wall, upon which white plaster still remains, and from which painted bricks have fallen. 2. At the corner of thepalace, and at a considerable distance from the principal chambers, isan entrance hall, with column bases, precisely as we see themrepresented in the sculptures. 3. Above this entrance hall and itsadjoining chambers, there was formerly another story, the first upperrooms yet discovered in Assyria. This, with its sculptured slabs, hasfallen into the rooms below. 4. The various sculptures heredisinterred are the works of four, if not five, different artists, whose styles are distinctly visible. It is evident that this portionof the edifice has been willfully destroyed, the woodwork burned, andthe slabs broken to pieces. The faces of all the principal figures areslightly injured by blows of the ax. " This highly interesting series of bas-reliefs, which has now beenplaced in a lower chamber in the British Museum, consequentlyrepresents the siege and capture of Lachish, as described in theSecond Book of Kings, and in the inscriptions on the human-headedbulls. Sennacherib himself is seen seated on his throne, and receivingthe submission of the inhabitants of the city, whilst he had sent hisgenerals to demand the tribute of payment from Hezekiah. The defendersof the castle walls and the prisoners tortured and crouching at theconqueror's feet are Jews, and the sculptor has evidently endeavoredto indicate the peculiar physiognomy of the race, and the dress of thepeople. The value of this discovery can scarcely be overrated. Whilst we havethus the representations of an event recorded in the Old Testament, ofwhich consequently these bas-reliefs furnish a most interesting andimportant illustration, they serve to a certain extent to test theaccuracy of the interpretation of the cuneiform inscriptions, and toremove any doubt that might still exist as to the identification ofthe King who built the palace on the mound of Kouyunjik with theSennacherib of Scripture. Had these bas-reliefs been the only remainsdug up from the ruins of Nineveh, the labor of the explorer would havebeen amply rewarded, and the sum expended by the nation on theexcavations more than justified. They furnish, together with theinscriptions which they illustrate, and which are also now depositedin the national collection, the most valuable cotemporary historicalrecord possessed by any museum in the world. They may be said to bethe actual manuscript, caused to be written or carved by the principalactor in the events which it relates. Who would have believed itprobable or possible, before these discoveries were made, that beneaththe heap of earth and rubbish which marked the site of Nineveh, therewould be found the history of the wars between Hezekiah andSennacherib, written at the very time when they took place bySennacherib himself and confirming even in minute details the Biblicalrecord? He who would have ventured to predict such a discovery wouldhave been treated as a dreamer or an impostor. Had it been known thatsuch a monument really existed, what sum would have been consideredtoo great for the precious record? A few remarks are necessary on the architecture and architecturaldecorations, external and internal of the Assyrian palaces. Theinscriptions on their walls, especially on those of Kouyunjik andKhorsabad, appear to contain important and even minute details notonly as to their general plan and mode of construction, but even as tothe materials employed for their different parts, and for the objectsof sculpture and ornaments placed in them. (Capt. Jones calculatedthat the mound of Kouyunjik contains 14, 500, 000 tons of earth, andthat its construction would have taken 10, 000 men for twelve years. )This fact furnishes another remarkable analogy between the records ofthe Jewish and Assyrian kings. To the history of their monarchs and oftheir nation, the Hebrew chroniclers have added a full account of thebuilding and ornaments of the temple and palaces of Solomon. In bothcases, from the use of technical words, we can scarcely hope tounderstand, with any degree of certainty, all the details. It isimpossible to comprehend, by the help of the description alone, theplan or appearance of the temple of Solomon. This arises not only fromour being unacquainted with the exact meaning of various Hebrewarchitectural terms, but also from the difficulty experienced even inordinary cases, of restoring from mere description an edifice of anykind. In the Assyrian inscriptions we labor, of course, under stillgreater disadvantages. The language in which they were written is asyet but very imperfectly known, and although we may be able to explainwith some confidence the general meaning of the historical paragraphs, yet when we come to technical words relating to architecture, evenwith a very intimate acquaintance with the Assyrian tongue, we couldscarcely hope to ascertain their precise signification. On the otherhand, the materials, and the general plan of the Assyrian palaces arestill preserved, whilst of the great edifices of the Jews, not afragment of masonry, nor the smallest traces, are probably left toguide us. But, as Mr. Fergusson has shown, the architecture of the onepeople may be illustrated by that of the other. With the help of thesacred books, and of the ruins of the palaces of Nineveh, togetherwith those of cotemporary and after remains, as well as from customsstill existing in the East, we may, to a certain extent, ascertain theprincipal architectural features of the buildings of both nations. Before suggesting a general restoration of the royal edifices ofNineveh, we shall endeavor to point out the analogies which appear toexist between their actual remains and what is recorded of the templeand palaces of Solomon. In the first place, as Sennacherib in hisinscriptions declares himself to have done, the Jewish king sent thebearers of burdens and the hewers into the mountains to bring greatstones, costly stones, and hewed stones, to lay the foundations, whichwere probably artificial platforms, resembling the Assyrian mounds, though constructed of more solid materials. We have the remains ofsuch a terrace or stage of stone masonry, perhaps built by KingSolomon himself, at Baalbec. The enormous size of some of the hewnstones in that structure, and of those still remaining in thequarries, some of which are more than sixty feet long, has excited thewonder of modern travelers. The dimensions of the temple of Jerusalem, threescore cubits long, twenty broad, and thirty high, were muchsmaller than those of the great edifices explored in Assyria. Solomon's own palace, however, appears to have been considerablylarger, and to have more nearly approached in its proportions those ofthe kings of Nineveh, for it was one hundred cubits long, fifty broadand thirty high. "The porch before the temple, " twenty cubits by ten, may have been a propylæum, such as was discovered at Khorsabad infront of the palace. The chambers, with the exception of the oracle, were exceedingly small, the largest being only seven cubits broad, "for without, _in the wall_ of the house, he made numerous rests roundabout, that _the beams_ should not be fastened in the walls of thehouse. " The words in italics are inserted in our version to make goodthe sense, and may consequently not convey the exact meaning, whichmay be, that these apartments were thus narrow in order that the beamsmight be supported without the use of pillars, a reason alreadysuggested for the narrowness of the greater number of chambers in theAssyrian palaces. These smaller rooms appear to have been built rounda large central hall called the oracle, the whole arrangement thuscorresponding with the courts, halls, and surrounding rooms atNimroud, Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik. The oracle was twenty cubitssquare, smaller far in dimensions than the Nineveh halls; but it wastwenty cubits _high_--an important fact, illustrative of Assyrianarchitecture, for as the building itself was thirty cubits in heightthe oracle must not only have been much loftier than the adjoiningchambers, but must have had an upper structure of ten cubits. Withinit were the two cherubim of olive wood ten cubits high, with wingseach five cubits long--"and he carved all the house around with carvedfigures of cherubim and palm trees, and open flowers, within andwithout. " The cherubim have been described by Biblical commentators asmythic figures, uniting the human head with the body of a lion, or anox, and the wings of an eagle. If for the palm trees we substitute thesacred trees of the Nineveh sculptures, and for the open flowers theAssyrian tulip-shaped ornament--objects most probably very nearlyresembling each other--we find that the oracle of the temple wasalmost identical, in the general form of its ornaments, with some ofthe chambers of Nimroud and Khorsabad. In the Assyrian halls, too, thewinged human-headed bulls were on the side of the wall, and theirwings, like those of the cherubim, "touched one another in the midstof the house. " The dimensions of these figures were in some casesnearly the same in the Jewish and Assyrian temples, namely, fifteenfeet square. The doors were also carved with cherubim and palm trees, and open flowers; and thus, with the other parts of the building, corresponded with those of the Assyrian palaces. On the walls atNineveh the only addition appears to have been the introduction of thehuman form and the image of the king, which were an abomination to theJews. The pomegranates and lilies of Solomon's temple must have beennearly identical with the usual Assyrian ornament, in which, andparticularly at Khorsabad, the promegranate frequently takes the placeof the tulip and the cune. But the description given by Josephus of the interior of one ofSolomon's houses still more completely corresponds with andillustrates the chambers in the palaces of Nineveh. "Solomon builtsome of these (houses) with stones of ten cubits, and wainscoted thewalls with other stones that were sawed, and were of great value, suchas were dug out of the bowels of the earth, for ornaments of temples, "etc. The arrangement of the curious workmanship of these stones was inthree rows; but the fourth was pre-eminent for the beauty of itssculpture, for on it were represented trees and all sorts of plants, with the shadows caused by their branches and the leaves that hungdown from them. These trees and plants covered the stone that wasbeneath them, and their leaves were wrought so wonderfully thin andsubtle that they appeared almost in motion; but the rest of the wall, up to the roof, was plastered over, and, as it were, wrought over withvarious colors and pictures. To complete the analogy between the two edifices, it would appear thatSolomon was seven years building his temple, and Sennacherib about thesame time in erecting his great palace at Kouyunjik. The ceiling, roof, and beams of the Jewish temple were of cedar wood. The discoveries of the ruins at Nimroud show that the same preciouswood was used in Assyrian edifices; and the king of Nineveh, as welearn from the inscriptions, sent men, precisely as Solomon had done, to cut it in Mount Lebanon. Fir was also employed in the Jewishbuildings, and probably in those of Assyria. In order to understand the proposed restoration of the palace atKouyunjik from the existing remains, the reader must refer to the cut, on page 427, of the excavated ruins. It will be remembered that thebuilding does not face the cardinal points of the compass. We will, however, assume, for convenience sake that it stands due north andsouth. To the south, therefore, it immediately overlooked the Tigris;and on that side rose one of the principal facades. The edifice musthave stood on the very edge of the platform, the foot of which was atthat time washed by the river, which had five massive staircasesleading to the river. Although from the fact of there having been agrand entrance to the palace on the east side, it is highly probablethat some such approach once existed on the west side, yet no remainswhatever of it have been discovered. The northern facade, like thesouthern, was formed by five pairs of human-headed bulls, and numerouscolossal figures, forming three distinct gateways. The principal approach to the palace appears, however, to have been onthe eastern side, where the great bulls bearing the annals ofSennacherib were discovered. In the cut we have been able, by theassistance of Mr. Fergusson, to give a restoration of this magnificentpalace and entrances. Inclined ways, or broad flights of steps, appearto have led up to it from the foot of the platform, and the remains ofthem, consisting of huge squared stones, are still in the ravines, which are but ancient ascents, deepened by the winter rains ofcenturies. From this grand entrance direct access could be had to allthe principal halls and chambers in the palace; that on the westernface, as appears from the ruins, only opened into a set of eightrooms. The chambers hitherto explored appear to have been grouped round threegreat courts or halls. It must be borne in mind, however, that thepalace extends considerably to the northeast of the grand entrance, and that there may have been another hall, and similar dependentchambers in that part of the edifice. Only a part of the palace hasbeen hitherto excavated, and we are not, consequently, in possessionof a perfect ground-plan of it. The general arrangement of the chambers at Kouyunjik is similar tothat at Khorsabad, though the extent of the building is very muchgreater. The Khorsabad mound falls gradually to the level of theplain, and there are the remains of a succession of broad terraces orstages. Parts of the palace, such as the propylæa, were actuallybeneath the platform, and stood at some distance from it in the midstof the walled enclosure. At Kouyunjik, however, the whole of the royaledifice, with its dependent buildings, appears to have stood on thesummit of the artificial mound, whose lofty perpendicular sides couldonly have been accessible by steps, or inclined ways. No propylæa, orother edifices connected with the palace, have as yet been discoveredbelow the platform. The inscriptions, it is said, refer to four distinct parts of thepalace, three of which, inhabited by the women, seem subsequently tohave been reduced to one. It is not clear whether they were all on theground-floor, or whether they formed different stories. Mr. Fergusson, in his ingenious work on the restoration of the palaces of Nineveh, inwhich he has, with great learning and research, fully examined thesubject of the architecture of the Assyrians and ancient Persians, endeavors to divide the Khorsabad palace, after the manner of modernMussulman houses, into the Salamlik or apartments of the men, and theHarem, or those of the women. The division he suggests must, ofcourse, depend upon analogy and conjecture; but it may, we think, beaccepted as highly probable, until fuller and more accuratetranslations of the inscriptions than can yet be made may furnish uswith some positive data on the subject. In the ruins of Kouyunjikthere is nothing, as far as we are aware, to mark the distinctionbetween the male and female apartments. Of a temple no remains have asyet been found at Kouyunjik, nor is there any high conical mound as atNimroud and Khorsabad. [Illustration: VIEW OF A HALL. (_Of which 71 were discovered in the Palace. _)] In all the Assyrian edifices hitherto explored we find the samegeneral plan. On the four sides of the great courts or halls are twoor three narrow parallel chambers opening one into the other. Most ofthem have doorways at each end leading into smaller rooms, which haveno other outlet. It seems highly probable that this uniform plan wasadopted with reference to the peculiar architectural arrangementsrequired by the building, and we agree with Mr. Fergusson inattributing it to the mode resorted to for lighting the apartments. Early excavators expressed a belief that the chambers received lightfrom the top. Although this may have been the case in some instances, yet recent discoveries now prove that the Assyrian palaces had morethan one story. Such being the case, it is evident that other meansmust have been adopted to admit light to the inner rooms on theground-floor. Mr. Fergusson's suggestion, that the upper part of thehalls and principal chambers was formed by a row of pillars supportingthe ceiling and admitting a free circulation of light and air, appearsto us to meet, to a certain extent, the difficulty. It has, moreover, been borne out by subsequent discoveries, and by the representation ofa large building, apparently a palace, on one side of the bas-reliefsfrom Kouyunjik. Although the larger halls may have been lighted in this manner, yetthe inner chambers must have remained in almost entire darkness. Andit is not improbable that such was the case, to judge from modernEastern houses, in which the rooms are purposely kept dark to mitigatethe great heat. The sculptures and decorations in them could then onlybe properly seen by torchlight. The great courts were probably open tothe sky, like the courts of the modern houses of Mosul, whose wallsare also adorned with sculptured alabaster. The roofs of the largehalls must have been supported by pillars of wood or brick work. Itmay be conjectured that there were two or three stories of chambersopening into them, either by columns or by windows. Such appears tohave been the case in Solomon's temple; for Josephus tells us that thegreat inner sanctuary was surrounded by small rooms, "over these roomswere other rooms, and others above them, equal both in their measureand numbers, and these reached to a height equal to the _lower part_of the house, for the upper had no buildings about it. " We have also asimilar arrangement of chambers in the modern houses of Persia, inwhich a lofty central hall, called the Iwan, of the entire height ofthe building, has small rooms in two or three separate stories openingby windows into it, whilst the inner chambers have no windows at all, and only receive light through the door. Sometimes these side chambersopen into a center court, as we have suggested may have been the casein the Nineveh palaces, and then a projecting roof of woodworkprotects the carved and painted walls from injury by the weather. Curtains and awnings were no doubt suspended above the windows andentrances in the Assyrian palaces to ward off the rays of the sun. Although the remains of pillars have hitherto been discovered in theAssyrian ruins, we now think it highly probable, as suggested by Mr. Fergusson, that they were used to support the roof. The modern Yezidihouse, in the Sinjar, is a good illustration not only of this mode ofsupporting the ceiling, but of the manner in which light may have beenadmitted into the side chambers. It is curious, however, that no stonepedestals, upon which wooden columns may have rested, have been foundin the ruins; nor have marks of them been found on the pavement. Wecan scarcely account for the entire absence of all such traces. However, unless some support of this kind were resorted to, it isimpossible that the larger halls at Kouyunjik could have been coveredin. The great hall, or house, as it is rendered in the Bible, of theforest of Lebanon was thirty cubits high, upon four rows of cedarpillars with cedar beams upon the pillars. The Assyrian kings, as wehave seen, cut wood in the same forests as King Solomon; and probablyused it for the same purpose, namely, for pillars, beams and ceilings. The dimensions of this hall, 100 cubits (about 150 feet) by 50 cubits(75 feet), very much resemble those of the center halls of the palacesof Nineveh. "The porch of pillars" was fifty cubits in length; equal, therefore, to the breadth of the hall, of which, we presume, it was akind of inclosed space at the upper end, whilst "the porch for thethrone where he might judge, even the porch of judgment * * * *covered with cedar wood from one side of the floor to the other, " wasprobably a raised place within it, corresponding with a similarplatform where the host and guests of honor are seated in a modernEastern house. Supposing the three parts of the building to have beenarranged as we have suggested, we should have an exact counterpart ofthem in the hall of audience of the Persian palaces. The upper part ofthe magnificent hall in which we have frequently seen the governor ofIsfahan, was divided from the lower part by columns, and his thronewas a raised place of carved headwork adorned with rich stuffs, ivory, and other precious materials. Suppliants and attendants stood outsidethe line of pillars, and the officers of the court within. Such alsomay have been the interior arrangements of the great halls in theAssyrian edifices. We have already described the interior decorations of the Assyrianpalaces, and have little more to add upon the subject. The walls ofKouyunjik were more elaborately decorated than those of Nimroud andKhorsabad. Almost every chamber explored there, and they amounted toabout seventy, was paneled with alabaster slabs carved with numerousfigures and with the minutest details. Each room appears to have beendedicated to some particular event, and in each, apparently, was theimage of the king himself. In fact, the walls recorded in sculpturewhat the inscriptions did in writing--the great deeds of Sennacheribin peace as well as in war. It will be remarked that, whilst in otherAssyrian edifices the king is frequently represented taking an activepart in war, slaying his enemies, and fighting beneath a besiegedcity, Sennacherib is never represented at Kouyunjik otherwise than inan attitude of triumph, in his chariot or on his throne, receiving thecaptives and the spoil. Nor is he ever seen torturing his prisoners, or putting them to death with his own hand. There were chambers, however, in the palace of Sennacherib, as well asin those at Nimroud and Khorsabad, whose walls were simply coated withplaster, like the walls of Belshazzar's palace at Babylon. Some wereprobably richly ornamented in color with figures of men and animals, as well as with elegant designs; or others may have been paneled withcedar wainscoting, as the chambers in the temple and palaces ofSolomon, and in the royal edifices of Babylon. Gilding, too, appearsto have been extensively used in decoration, and some of the greatsphinxes may have been overlaid with gold, like the cherubim inSolomon's temple. The cut on page 445 gives a beautiful representationof the interior of the palaces. It is taken from the halls of thepalace of Sennacherib. At Kouyunjik, the pavement slabs were not inscribed as at Nimroud; butthose between the winged bulls, at some of the entrances, were carvedwith an elaborate and very elegant pattern. The doors were probably ofwood, gilt, and adorned with precious materials, like the gates of thetemple of Jerusalem, and their hinges appear to have turned in stonesockets, some of which were found in the ruins. To ward off the glareof an Eastern sun, hangings or curtains, of gay colors and of richmaterials, were probably suspended to the pillars supporting theceiling, or to wooden poles raised for the purpose, as in the palacesof Babylon and Shushan. Layard's researches have satisfied him that a very considerableperiod elapsed between the earliest and latest buildings discoveredamong the mounds of Nimroud. We incline to this opinion, but differfrom the surmise that the ruins of Nimroud and the site of Ninevehitself are identical. The dimensions of Nineveh, as given by DiodorusSiculus, were 150 stadia on the two longest sides of the quadrangle, and 90 on the opposite; the square being 480 stadia, 60 miles; or, according to some, 74 miles. Layard thinks, that by taking the fourgreat mounds of Nimroud, Kouyunjik, Khorsabad and Karamles, as thecorners of a square, the four sides will correspond pretty accuratelywith the 60 miles of the geographer, and the three days' journey ofthe prophet Jonah. The parallelogram, or line of boundary, being thus completed, we havenow to ascertain how far it accords with the localities of theresearches; and we find that it not only comprehends the principalmounds which have already been examined, but many others, in whichruins are either actually, or almost certainly, known to exist. Another important object of remark connected with this subject, is thethickness of the wall surrounding the palace of Khorsabad, which Bottastates to be fifteen metres, _i. E. _, forty-eight feet, nine inches, avery close approximation to the width of the wall of the city itself, which was "so broad as that three chariots might be driven upon itabreast. " This is about half the thickness of the wall of Babylon, upon which "six chariots could be driven together, " and whichHerodotus tells were eighty-seven feet broad, or nearly double that ofKhorsabad. The extraordinary dimensions of the walls of cities issupported by these remains at Khorsabad. The Median wall, stillexisting, in part nearly entire, and which crosses obliquely the plainof Mesopotamia from the Tigris to the banks of the Euphrates, adistance of forty miles, is another example. The great wall of China, also, of like antiquity, we are told, "traverses high mountains, deepvalleys, and, by means of arches, wide rivers, extending from theprovince of Shen Si to Wanghay, or the Yellow Sea, a distance of 1, 500miles. In some places, to protect exposed passages, it is double andtreble. The foundation and corner stones are of granite, but theprincipal part is of blue bricks, cemented with pure white mortar. Atdistances of about 200 paces are distributed square towers or strongbulwarks. " In less ancient times, the Roman walls in our own countrysupply additional proof of the universality of this mode of enclosinga district or guarding a boundary before society was established on afirm basis. It may be objected against the foregoing speculations onthe boundary of Nineveh, that the river runs within the walls insteadof on the outside. In reply, we submit that when the walls weredestroyed, as described by the historian, the flooded river wouldforce for itself another channel, which in process of time wouldbecome more and more devious from the obstructions offered by theaccumulated ruins, until it eventually took the channel in which itnow flows. Babylon was the most beautiful and the richest city in the world. Evento our age, it stands as a marvel. It was built about 3, 000 years ago, but did not reach the summit of its magnificence until about 570 yearsBefore Christ, when Nebuchadnezzar lavished almost an endless amountof wealth upon it. Its magnitude was 480 furlongs, or sixty miles, in compass. It wasbuilt in an exact square of fifteen miles on each side, and wassurrounded by a brick wall eighty-seven feet thick and 350 feet high, on which were 250 towers, or, according to some writers, 316. The topof the wall was wide enough to allow six chariots to drive abreast. The materials for building the wall were dug from a vast ditch ormoat, which was also walled up with brickwork and then filled withwater from the River Euphrates. This moat was just outside of thewalls, and surrounded the city as another strong defence. The city had 100 brass gates, one at the end of each of its fiftystreets. The streets were 150 feet wide and ran at right anglesthrough the city, thus forming 676 great squares. Herodotus saysbesides this there was yet another wall which ran around within, notmuch inferior to the other, yet narrower, and the city was dividedinto two equal parts by the River Euphrates, over which was a bridge, and at each end of the bridge was a palace. These palaces hadcommunication with each other by a subterranean passage. To prevent the city from suffering from an overflow of the riverduring the summer months, immense embankments were raised on eitherside, with canals to turn the flood waters of the Tigris. On thewestern side of the city an artificial lake was excavated forty milessquare, or 160 miles in circumference, and dug out, according toMegasthenes, seventy-five feet deep, into which the river was turnedwhen any repairs were to be made, or for a surplus of water, in casethe river should be cut off from them. Near to the old palace stood the Tower of Babel. This prodigious pileconsisted of eight towers, each seventy-five feet high, rising oneupon another, with an outside winding staircase to its summit, which, with its chapel on the top, reached a height of 660 feet. On thissummit is where the chapel of Belus was erected, which containedprobably the most expensive furniture of any in the world. One goldenimage forty feet high was valued at $17, 500, 000, and the whole of thesacred utensils were reckoned to be worth $200, 000, 000. There arestill other wonderful things mentioned. One, the subterraneousbanqueting rooms, which were made under the River Euphrates and wereconstructed entirely of brass; and then, as one of the seven wondersof the world, were the famous hanging gardens; they were 400 feetsquare and were raised 350 feet high, one terrace above the other, andwere ascended by a staircase ten feet wide. The terraces weresupported by large vaultings resting upon curb-shaped pillars andwere hollow and filled with earth, to allow trees of the largest sizeto be planted, the whole being constructed of baked bricks andasphalt. The entire structure was strengthened and bound together by awall twenty-two feet in thickness. The level of the terrace wascovered with large stones, over which was a bed of rushes, then athick layer of asphalt, next two courses of bricks likewise cementedwith asphalt, and finally plates of lead to prevent leakage, the earthbeing heaped on the platform and terrace and large trees planted. Thewhole had the appearance from a distance of woods overhangingmountains. The great work is affirmed to have been effected by Nebuchadnezzar togratify his wife, Anytis, daughter of Astyages, who retained strongpredilection for the hills and groves which abounded in her nativeMedia. Babylon flourished for nearly 200 years in this scale of grandeur, during which idolatry, pride, cruelty, and every abomination prevailedamong all ranks of the people, when God, by His prophet, pronouncedits utter ruin, which was accordingly accomplished, commencing withCyrus taking the city, after a siege of two years, in the year 588Before Christ, to emancipate the Jews, as foretold by the prophets. Bysuccessive overthrows this once "Glory of the Chaldees' Excellency, "this "Lady of Kingdoms, " has become a "desolation" without aninhabitant, and its temple a vast heap of rubbish. The ancient Tower of Babel is now a mound of oblong form, the totalcircumference of which is 2, 286 feet. At the eastern side it is clovenby a deep furrow and is not more than fifty or sixty feet high, but onthe western side it rises in a conical figure to the elevation of 198feet, and on its summit is a solid pile of brick thirty-seven feet inheight and twenty-eight in breadth, diminishing in thickness to thetop, which is broken and irregular and rent by large fissuresextending through a third of its height; it is perforated with smallholes. The fire-burnt bricks of which it is built have inscriptions on them, and so excellent is the cement, which appears to be lime mortar, thatit is nearly impossible to extract one whole. The other parts of thesummit of this hill are occupied by immense fragments of brickwork ofno determinate figure, tumbled together and converted into solidvitrified masses, as if they had undergone the action of the fiercestfire, or had been blown up by gunpowder, the layers of brick beingperfectly discernible. These ruins surely proclaim the divinity of theScriptures. Layard says the discoveries amongst the ruins of ancientBabylon were far less numerous and important than could have beenanticipated. No sculptures or inscribed slabs, the paneling of thewalls of palaces, appear to exist beneath them, as in those ofNineveh. Scarcely a detached figure in stone, or a solitary tablet, has been dug out of the vast heaps of rubbish. "Babylon is fallen, isfallen; and all the graven images of her gods he hath broken unto theground. " (Isaiah xxi. 9. ) The complete absence of such remains is to be explained by the natureof the materials used in the erection of even the most costly edificesof Babylon. In the vicinity there were no quarries of alabaster, or oflimestone, such as existed near Nineveh. The city was built in themidst of an alluvial country, far removed from the hills. The depositsof the mighty rivers which have gradually formed the Mesopotamianplains consist of a rich clay. Consequently stone for buildingpurposes could only be obtained from a distance. The black basalt, afavorite material amongst the Babylonians for carving detachedfigures, and for architectural ornaments, as appears from fragmentsfound amongst the ruins, came from the Kurdish Mountains, or from thenorth of Mesopotamia. The Babylonians were content to avail themselves of the buildingmaterials which they found on the spot. With the tenacious mud oftheir alluvial plains, mixed with chopped straw, they made bricks, whilst bitumen and other substances collected from the immediateneighborhood furnished them with an excellent cement. A knowledge ofthe art of manufacturing glaze, and colors, enabled them to covertheir bricks with a rich enamel, thereby rendering them equallyornamental for the exterior and interior of their edifices. The wallsof their palaces and temples were also coated, as we learn fromseveral passages in the Bible, with mortar and plaster, which, judgingfrom their cement, must have been of very fine quality. The fingers ofa man's hand wrote the words of condemnation of the Babylonian empire"upon the plaster of the king's palace. " Upon those walls were paintedhistorical and religious subjects, and various ornaments, and, according to Diodorus Siculus, the bricks were enameled with thefigures of men and animals. Images of stone were no doubt introducedinto the buildings. We learn from the Bible that figures of the godsin this material, as well as in metal, were kept in the Babyloniantemples. But such sculptures were not common, otherwise more remainsof them must have been discovered in the ruins. The great inscriptionof Nebuchadnezzar, engraved on a black stone, and divided into tencolumns, in the museum formed by the East India Company, appears tocontain some interesting details as to the mode of construction andarchitecture of the Babylonian palaces and temples. It may be conjectured that, in their general plan, the Babylonianpalaces and temples resembled those of Assyria. We know that the arts, the religion, the customs, and the laws of the two kindred people werenearly identical. They spoke, also, the same language, and used, verynearly, the same written characters. One appears to have borrowed fromthe other; and, without attempting to decide the question of thepriority of the independent existence as a nation and of thecivilization of either people, it can be admitted that they had acertain extent of common origin, and that they maintained for manycenturies an intimate connection. We find no remains of columns atBabylon, as none have been found at Nineveh. If such architecturalornaments were used, they must have been either of wood or of brick. Although the building materials used in the great edifices of Babylonmay seem extremely mean when compared with those employed in thestupendous palace-temples of Egypt, and even in the less massiveedifices of Assyria, yet the Babylonians appear to have raised, withthem alone, structures which excited the wonder and admiration of themost famous travelers of antiquity. The profuse use of color, and thetaste displayed in its combination, and in the ornamental designs, together with the solidity and vastness of the immense structure uponwhich the buildings proudly stood, may have chiefly contributed toproduce this effect upon the minds of strangers. The palaces andtemples, like those of Nineveh, were erected upon lofty platforms ofbrickwork. The bricks, as in Assyria, were either simply baked in thesun, or were burned in the kiln. The latter are of more than one shapeand quality. Some are square, others are oblong. Those from the BirsNimroud are generally of a dark red color, while those from theMujelibe are mostly of a light yellow. A large number of them haveinscriptions in a complex cuneiform character peculiar to Babylon. These superscriptions have been impressed upon them by a stamp, onwhich the whole inscription was cut in relief. Each character was notmade singly, as on the Assyrian bricks, and this is the distinctionbetween them. Almost all the bricks brought from the ruins of Babylonbear the same inscription, with the exception of one or twounimportant words, and record the building of the city byNebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabubaluchun. We owe the interpretation ofthese names to the late Dr. Hincks. It may not be out of place to add a few remarks upon the history ofBabylon. The time of the foundation of this celebrated city is still aquestion which does not admit of a satisfactory determination, andinto which we will not enter. Some believe it to have taken place at acomparatively recent date; but if, as the Egyptian scholars assert, the name of Babylon is found on monuments of the eighteenth Egyptiandynasty, we have positive evidence of its existence at least in thefifteenth century Before Christ. After the rise of the Assyrianempire, it appears to have been sometimes under the direct rule of thekings of Nineveh, and at other times to have been governed by its ownindependent chiefs. Expeditions against Babylon are recorded in theearliest inscriptions yet discovered in Assyria; and as it has beenseen, even in the time of Sennacherib and his immediate predecessors, large armies were still frequently sent against its rebelliousinhabitants. The Babylonian kingdom was, however, almost absorbed inthat of Assyria, the dominant power of the East. When this greatempire began to decline Babylon rose for the last time. Media andPersia were equally ready to throw off the Assyrian yoke, and atlength the allied armies of Cyaxares and the father of Nebuchadnezzarcaptured and destroyed the capital of the Eastern world. Babylon now rapidly succeeded to that proud position so long held byNineveh. Under Nebuchadnezzar she acquired the power forfeited by herrival. The bounds of the city were extended; buildings ofextraordinary size and magnificence were erected; her victoriousarmies conquered Syria and Palestine, and penetrated into Egypt. Hercommerce, too, had now spread far and wide, from the east to the west, and she became "a land of traffic and a city of merchants. " But her greatness as an independent nation was short-lived. Theneighboring kingdoms of Media and Persia, united under one monarch, had profited no less than Babylon, by the ruin of the Assyrian empire, and were ready to dispute with her the dominion of Asia. Scarcelyhalf a century had elapsed from the fall of Nineveh, when "Belshazzar, the king of the Chaldæans, was slain, and Darius, the Median, took thekingdom. " From that time Babylonia sank into a mere province ofPersia. It still, however, retained much of its former power andtrade, and as we learn from the inscriptions of Bisutun, as well asfrom ancient authors, struggled more than once to regain its ancientindependence. After the defeat of Darius and the overthrow of the Persian supremacy, Babylon opened its gates to Alexander, who deemed the city notunworthy to become the capital of his mighty empire. On his returnfrom India, he wished to rebuild the temple of Belus, which had falleninto ruins, and in that great work he had intended to employ his army, now no longer needed for war. The priests, however, who hadappropriated the revenues of this sacred shrine, and feared lest theywould have again to apply them to their rightful purposes, appear tohave prevented him from carrying out his design. This last blow to the prosperity and even existence of Babylon wasgiven by Seleucus when he laid the foundation of his new capital onthe banks of the Tigris (B. C. 322). Already Patrocles, his general, had compelled a large number of the inhabitants to abandon theirhomes, and to take refuge in the desert, and in the province ofSusiana. The city, exhausted by the neighborhood of Seleucia, returnedto its ancient solitude. According to some authors, neither the wallsnor the temple of Belus existed any longer, and only a few of theChaldæans continued to dwell around the ruins of their sacrededifices. Still, however, a part of the population appear to have returned totheir former seats, for, in the early part of the second century ofthe Christian era, we find the Parthian king, Evemerus, sendingnumerous families from Babylon into Media to be sold as slaves, andburning many great and beautiful edifices still standing in the city. In the time of Augustus, the city is said to have been entirelydeserted, except by a few Jews who still lingered amongst the ruins. St. Cyril, of Alexandria, declares, that in his day, about thebeginning of the fifth century, in consequence of the choking up ofthe great canals derived from the Euphrates, Babylon had become a vastmarsh; and fifty years later the river is described as having changedits course, leaving only a small channel to mark its ancient bed. Thenwere verified the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah, that the mightyBabylon should be but "pools of water, " that the sea should come uponher, and that she should be covered with the multitude of the wavesthereof. In the beginning of the seventh century, at the time of the Arabinvasion, the ancient cities of Babylonia were "a desolation, a dryland and a wilderness. " Amidst the heaps that alone marked the site ofBabylon there rose the small town of Hillah. Long before Babylon had overcome her rival Nineveh, she was famous forthe extent and importance of her commerce. No position could have beenmore favorable than hers for carrying on a trade with all the regionsof the known world. She stood upon a navigable stream that brought toher quays the produce of the temperate highlands of Armenia, approached in one part of its course within almost one hundred milesof the Mediterranean Sea, and emptied its waters into a gulf of theIndian Ocean. Parallel with this great river was one scarcely inferiorin size and importance. The Tigris, too, came from the Armenian hills, flowed through the fertile districts of Assyria, and carried thevaried produce to the Babylonian cities. Moderate skill and enterprisecould scarcely fail to make Babylon, not only the emporium of theEastern world, but the main link of commercial intercourse between theEast and the West. The inhabitants did not neglect the advantages bestowed upon them bynature. A system of navigable canals that may excite the admirationof even the modern engineer, connected together the Euphrates andTigris, those great arteries of her commerce. The vast trade that rendered Babylon the gathering-place of men fromall parts of the known world, and supplied her with luxuries from theremotest clime, had the effect of corrupting the manners of herpeople, and producing that general profligacy and those effiminatecustoms which mainly contributed to her fall. The description given byHerodotus of the state of the population of the city when under thedominion of the Persian kings, is sufficient to explain the cause ofher speedy decay and ultimate ruin. The account of the Greek historianfully tallies with the denunciation of the Hebrew prophets against thesin and wickedness of Babylon. Her inhabitants had gradually losttheir warlike character. When the Persian broke into their city theywere reveling in debauchery and lust; and when the Macedonianconqueror appeared at their gates, they received with indifference theyoke of a new master. Such were the causes of the fall of Babylon. Her career was equallyshort and splendid; and although she has thus perished from the faceof the earth, her ruins are still classic, indeed sacred, ground. Thetraveler visits, with no common emotion, those shapeless heaps, thescene of so many great and solemn events. In this plain, according totradition, the primitive families of our race first found a restingplace. Here Nebuchadnezzar boasted of the glories of his city, and waspunished for his pride. To these deserted halls were brought thecaptives of Judæa. In them Daniel, undazzled by the glories aroundhim, remained steadfast to his faith, rose to be a governor amongsthis rulers, and prophesied the downfall of the kingdom. There was heldBelshazzar's feast, and was seen the writing on the wall. Betweenthose crumbling mounds Cyrus entered the neglected gates. Thosemassive ruins cover the spot where Alexander died. [Page Decoration] KARNAC AND BAALBEC. The city of Thebes is, perhaps, the most astonishing work executed bythe hand of man. Its ruins are the most unequivocal proof of theancient civilization of Egypt, and of the high degree of power whichthe Egyptians had reached by the extent of their knowledge. Its originis lost in the obscurity of time, it being coeval with the nationwhich first took possession of Egypt; and it is sufficient to give aproper idea of its antiquity to say that the building of Memphis wasthe first attempt made to rival the prosperity of Thebes. Its extent was immense; it filled the whole valley which was permeatedby the Nile. D'Anville and Denon state its circumference to have beenthirty-six miles; its diameter not less than ten and a half. Thenumber of its inhabitants was in proportion to these vast dimensions. Diodorus says that the houses were four and five stories high. Although Thebes had greatly fallen off from its ancient splendor atthe time of Cambyses, yet it was the fury of this merciless conquerorthat gave the last blow to its grandeur. This prince pillaged thetemples, carried away all the ornaments of gold, silver, and ivory, which decorated its magnificent buildings, and ruined both its templesand its buildings. Before this unfortunate epoch, no city in the worldcould be compared with it in extent, splendor, and riches; and, according to the expression of Diodorus, the sun had never seen somagnificent a city. Previous to the establishment of the monarchical government, Thebeswas the residence of the principal college of the priesthood, whoruled over the country. It is to this epoch that all writers refer theelevation of its most ancient edifices. The enumeration of them allwould require more time than we have. Here was the temple, or palace of Karnac, of Luxor; the Memnonium; andthe Medineh-Tabou, or, as some other travelers spell it, Medinet-habou. The temple, or the palace of Karnac was, without doubt, the mostconsiderable monument of ancient Thebes. It was not less than a mileand a half in circumference, and enclosed about ten acres. M. Denonemployed nearly twenty minutes on horseback in going round it, at fullgallop. The principal entrance of the grand temple is on the northwestside, or that facing the river. From a raised platform commences anavenue of Crio-sphinxes leading to the front propyla, before whichstood two granite statues of a Pharaoh. One of these towers retains agreat part of its original height, but has lost its summit andcornice. Passing through the pylon of these towers you arrive at alarge open court, or area, 275 feet by 329 feet, with a coveredcorridor on either side, and a double line of columns down the centre. Other propylæa terminate this area, with a small vestibule before thepylon, and form the front of the grand hall of assembly, the lintelstones of whose doorway were forty feet ten inches in length. Thegrand hall, or hypostyle hall, measures 170 feet by 329 feet, supported by a central avenue of twelve massive columns, 62 feet high(without the plinth or abacus), and 36 feet in circumference; besides122 of smaller, or, rather less gigantic dimensions, 42 feet 5 inchesin height, and 28 feet in circumference, distributed in seven lines, on either side of the former. It had in front two immense courts, adorned by ranges of columns, some of which were sixty feet high, andothers eighty; and at their respective entrances there were twocolossal statues on the same scale. In the middle of the secondcourt there were four obelisks of granite of a finished workmanship, three of which are still standing. They stood before the sanctuary, built all of granite, and covered with sculptures representingsymbolical attributes of the god to whom the temple was consecrated. This was the Maker of the universe, the Creator of all things, theZeus of the Greeks, the Jupiter of the Latins, but the Ammon of theEgyptians. By the side of the sanctuary there were smaller buildings, probably the apartments of those attached to the service of thetemple; and behind it other habitations, adorned with columns andporticos, which led into another immense court, having on each sideclosed passages, or corridors, and at the top a covered portico, orgallery, supported by a great number of columns and pilasters. In thisway the sanctuary was entirety surrounded by these vast and splendidbuildings, and the whole was enclosed by a wall, covered internallyand externally with symbols and hieroglyphics, which went round themagnificent edifice. [Illustration: COLUMNS OF KARNAC. ] Beyond this wall there were other buildings, and other courts, filledwith colossal statues of grey and white marble. These buildings, ortemples, communicated with each other by means of galleries andpassages, adorned with columns and statues. The most strikingcircumstance, however, is, that attached to this palace are theremains of a much more considerable edifice, of higher antiquity, which had been introduced into the general plan when this magnificentbuilding was restored by the Pharaoh Amenophis, the third king of theeighteenth dynasty, nearly 4, 000 years ago. This more ancient edifice, or rather its ruins, are considered to be more than 4, 000 years old, or 2, 272 years Before Christ. A second wall enclosed the whole mass ofthese immense and splendid buildings, the approach to which was bymeans of avenues, having on their right and left colossal figures ofsphinxes. In one avenue they had the head of a bull; in another theywere represented with a human head; in a third with a ram's head. Thislast was a mile and a half in length, began at the southern gate, andled to the temple of Luxor. Dr. Manning says: "We now enter the most stupendous pile of remains(we can hardly call them ruins) in the world. Every writer who hasattempted to describe them avows his inability to convey any adequateidea of their extent and grandeur. The long covered avenues ofsphinxes, the sculptured corridors, the columned aisles, the gates andobelisks, and colossal statues, all silent in their desolation, fillthe beholder with awe. " (See cut on page 463. ) There is no exaggeration in Champollion's words: "The imagination, which, in Europe, rises far above our porticos, sinks abashed at thefoot of the 140 columns of the hypostyle hall at Karnac. The area ofthis hall is 70, 629 feet; the central columns are thirty-six feet incircumference and sixty-two feet high, without reckoning the plinthand abacus. They are covered with paintings and sculptures, the colorsof which are wonderfully fresh and vivid. If, as seems probable, thegreat design of Egyptian architecture was to impress man with afeeling of his own littleness, to inspire a sense of overwhelming awein the presence of the Deity, and at the same time to show that themonarch was a being of superhuman greatness, these edifices were welladapted to accomplish their purpose. The Egyptian beholder andworshiper was not to be attracted and charmed, but overwhelmed. Hisown nothingness and the terribleness of the power and the will of Godwas what he was to feel. But, if the awfulness of Deity was thusinculcated, the divine power of the Pharaoh was not less strikinglyset forth. He is seen seated amongst them, nourished from theirbreasts, folded in their arms, admitted to familiar intercourse withthem. He is represented on the walls of the temple as of colossalstature, while the noblest of his subjects are but pigmies in hispresence; with one hand he crushes hosts of his enemies, with theother he grasps that of his patron deity. "The Pharaoh was the earthly manifestation and avatar of the unseenand mysterious power which oppressed the souls of man with terror. 'Iam Pharaoh, ' 'By the life of Pharaoh, ' 'Say unto Pharaoh whom art thoulike in thy greatness. ' These familiar phrases of Scripture gain a newemphasis of meaning as we remember them amongst these temple palaces. " Speaking of this magnificent temple, and of the avenue of sphinxes wehave just mentioned, Belzoni exclaims, that "on approaching it thevisitor is inspired with devotion and piety; their enormous sizestrikes him with wonder and respect to the gods to whom they werededicated. The immense colossal statues, which are seated at each sideof the gate, seems guarding the entrance to the holy ground; stillfarther on was the majestic temple, dedicated to the great God of thecreation. " And a little after, "I was lost, " says he, "in a mass ofcolossal objects, every one of which was more than sufficient ofitself alone to attract my whole attention. I seemed alone in themidst of all that is most sacred in the world; a forest of enormouscolumns, adorned all round with beautiful figures and variousornaments from top to bottom. The graceful shape of the lotus, whichforms their capitals, and is so well-proportioned to the columns, thatit gives to the view the most pleasing effect; the gates, the walls, the pedestals, and the architraves also adorned in every part withsymbolical figures in _basso relievo_ and _intaglio_, representingbattles, processions, triumphs, feasts, offerings, and sacrifices, allrelating to the ancient history of the country; the sanctuary, whollyformed of fine red granite, with the various obelisks standing beforeit, proclaiming to the distant passenger, 'Here is the seat ofholiness;' the high portals, seen at a distance from the openings ofthe vast labyrinth of edifices; the various groups of ruins of theother temples within sight; these altogether had such an effect uponmy soul as to separate me, in imagination, from the rest of mortals, exalt me on high over all, and cause me to forget entirely the triflesand follies of life. I was happy for a whole day, which escaped like aflash of lightning. " Such is the language of Belzoni in describing these majestic ruins, and the effect they had upon him. Strong and enthusiastic as hisexpressions may, perhaps, appear, they are perfectly similar, weassure you, to those of other travelers. They all seem to have lostthe power of expressing their wonder and astonishment, and frequentlyborrow the words and phrases of foreign nations to describe theirfeelings at the sight of these venerable and gigantic efforts of theold Egyptians. We have said that this avenue of sphinxes led to the temple of Luxor. This second temple, though not equal to that of Karnac in regard toits colossal proportions, was its equal in magnificence, and muchsuperior to it in beauty and style of execution. At its entrance there still stand two obelisks 100 feet high, and ofone single block covered with hieroglyphics executed in a masterlystyle. It is at the feet of these obelisks that one may judge of thehigh degree of perfection to which the Egyptians had carried theirknowledge in mechanics. We have seen that it costs fortunes to movethem from their place. They were followed by two colossal statuesforty feet high. After passing through three different large courts, filled with columns of great dimensions, the traveler reached thesanctuary, surrounded by spacious halls supported by columns, andexhibiting the most beautiful mass of sculpture in the best style ofexecution. "It is absolutely impossible, " again exclaims Belzoni, "to imagine thescene displayed, without seeing it. The most sublime ideas that canbe formed from the most magnificent specimens of our presentarchitecture, would give a very incorrect picture of these ruins. Itappeared to me like entering a city of giants, who, after a longconflict, were all destroyed, leaving ruins of their various temples, as the only proofs of their former existence. The temple of Luxor, " headds, "presents to the traveler at once one of the most splendidgroups of Egyptian grandeur. The extensive propylæon, with the twoobelisks, and colossal statues in the front; the thick groups ofenormous columns, the variety of apartments, and the sanctuary itcontains. The beautiful ornaments which adorn every part of the wallsand columns, cause in the astonished traveler an oblivion of all thathe has seen before. " So far Belzoni; and in this he is borne out by Champollion, who speaksof Thebes in terms of equal admiration. "All that I had seen, all thatI had admired on the left bank, " says this learned Frenchman, "appeared miserable in comparison with the gigantic conceptions bywhich I was surrounded at Karnac. I shall take care not to attempt todescribe any thing; for either my description would not express thethousandth part of what ought to be said, or, if I drew a faintsketch, I should be taken for an enthusiast, or, perhaps, for amadman. It will suffice to add, that no people, either ancient ormodern, ever conceived the art of architecture on so sublime and sogrand a scale as the ancient Egyptians. " The Great Pyramid, which is yet an enigma, stands for ourastonishment. Herodotus tells us, when speaking of the Labyrinth ofEgypt, that it had 3, 000 chambers, half of them above and half belowground. He says, "The upper chambers I myself passed through and saw, and what I say concerning them is from my own observation. Of theunderground chambers I can only speak from the report, for the keepersof the building could not be got to show them, since they contained, as they said, the sepulchres of the kings who built the labyrinth, and also those of the sacred crocodiles; thus it is from hearsay onlythat I can speak of the lower chambers. The upper chambers, however, Isaw with my own eyes, and found them to excel all other humanproductions. The passage through the houses, and the various windingsof the path across the courts, excited in me infinite admiration, as Ipassed from the courts into the chambers, and from chambers intocolonnades, and from colonnades into fresh houses, and again fromthese into courts unseen before. The roof was throughout of stone likethe walls, and the walls were carved all over with figures. Everycourt was surrounded with a colonnade, which was built of white stoneexquisitely fitted together. At the corner of the labyrinth stands apyramid forty fathoms high, with large figures engraved on it, whichis entered by a subterranean passage. " No one who has read an accountof the Great Pyramid of Egypt, the building of Solomon's Temple, andof the ruins of ancient stone buildings still remaining, will doubtthe ability of the ancients in the art of building with stones. Baalbec has probably the largest stones ever used. [Illustration: THE GREAT PYRAMID AND SPHINX. ] Baalbec is situated on a plain now called Bukaa, at the northern endof a low range of black hills, about one mile from the base ofAnti-Lebanon. It is unknown just how old it is, or by whom it was built. Dr. Kitto, in his "History of the Bible, " ascribes the building of it to Solomon. But the present remains are mostly of a later period, probably about3, 000 years old. Some of the material and some of the originalfoundations were used again for the second structures. Baalbec has justly received a world-wide celebrity, owing to themagnificence of its ruins, which have excited the wonder andadmiration of travelers who have enjoyed the privilege of seeing them. Its temples are among the most magnificent of Grecian architecture. The temples of Athens no doubt excel them in taste and purity ofstyle, but they are vastly inferior in dimensions. While the edifices of Thebes exceed them in magnitude, they bear nocomparison with the symmetry of the columns, with the richness of thedoorways, and the friezes, which abound at Baalbec. The foundations ofthe great temple are themselves entitled to rank with the pyramidsamong the wonders of the world, being raised twenty feet above thelevel of the ground, and have in them stones of one solid mass ninetyfeet long, eighteen feet wide, and thirteen feet thick. The main attractions, however, are the three temples or main chambers. The first, which may be called the great temple, consists of aperistyle, of which only six columns remain, two courts and a porticoare standing on an artificial platform, nearly thirty feet high, andhaving vaults underneath. Beneath the whole platform is an immensecourt of two hundred feet across; it is a hexagon or nearly roundshape. It is accessible by a vaulted passage, which leads to a tripletgateway, with deep mouldings, which opens into the first court. The great court is 440 feet long by 370 feet wide, and has on each ofits sides niches and columns, which, even in their ruins, aremagnificent. The two sides exactly correspond with each other, but the south is inbetter condition than the other. These niches have columns in front ofthem in the style of the hexagon, with chambers at the angles of thegreat court or square. The visitor entering through the portico, and passing into the great court, has before him on the opposite side(the west) of the court, the Great Temple originally dedicated toBaal. This was a magnificent peristyle measuring 290 feet by 160 feet, with nineteen huge columns on each side, and ten on each end, makingfifty-eight in all. The circumference of these columns at the base istwenty-three feet and two inches, and at the top twenty feet; andtheir height, including base and capital, was seventy-five feet, whileover this was the entablature fourteen feet more. In the walls of thefoundation are seen those enormous stones, some ninety feet in length;others, sixty-four, sixty-three, sixty-two, etc. , and all fromthirteen to eighteen feet wide, and very frequently thirteen feetthick. These stones mark the extent of a platform of unknownantiquity, but far older than the peristyle temple, and it is fromthis that the temple took its early date and name. It is probable thatthe great stones lying in the adjoining quarry were intended for it, as the temple at that date seems to have been left unfinished. [Illustration: Engraved & Printed by Illman Brothers TEMPLE OF KARNAC. FOR THE MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITY] The second temple has not quite the dimensions that the first has, butit is one of the grandest monuments of the ancient art in Syria. It is227 feet by 117. Its peristyle is composed of forty-two columns, fifteen on each side and eight on each end. At the portico was animmense row of six fluted columns, and within these, and opposite tothe ends of the antæ, were two others. The height of these columns issixty-five feet, and their circumference nineteen feet and two inches, while the entablature, richly ornamented above the columns, was abouttwelve feet high. The portico is destroyed, only a few pieces of the shafts remaining, and the steps by which it was approached are also destroyed. Thecolumns of the peristyle have mostly fallen; but four remain withtheir entablatures on the south side near the portico; on the west endthere are six remaining, and on the north there are nine. The cut onpage 473 gives somewhat of an idea of this temple. In 1759 an earthquake threw down three columns of the great temple andnine of the peristyle of the Temple of the Sun. It would appear asthough nothing but an earthquake could destroy these remains, and theyeven seem to withstand this with wonderful resistance. At the westernend is the _cella_, or innermost sacred part of the edifice, it is 160feet by 85. A modern wall was built across the vestibule and the onlyentrance is through a low hole broken in the wall. Entering throughthis aperture the spectator has before him the gem of the structure, the _great portal_. It was twenty-one feet high and forty-two feetlong and gorgeously ornamented. The sides are each of a single stone, and the lintels are composed of three huge blocks. Borders of fruit, flowers and leaves are profuse on the architrave, and on the soffit ofthe door is the celebrated figure of the eagle with a caduceus in histalons, and in his beak strings of long twisted garlands, which areextended on each side and have the opposite ends borne by flyinggenii. In 1751 the portal was perfect. When Wood sketched it, but eight yearsafterwards, the shock of an earthquake rent the wall and permitted thecentral stone to sink about two feet. Yet, even in this state, it isone of the most striking and beautiful gateways in the world. Thefirst compartment measures ninety-eight feet by sixty-seven, havingfluted columns on each side, and the sanctum, or place for the altarand statue, occupies a space of twenty-nine feet deep at the westernend and considerably raised above the floor of the nave. Such were thearrangements of this vast magnificent edifice. It may be well to mention here another building although not so oldnor large, but we wish to speak of it because it is so remarkable inwithstanding time. [Illustration: RUINS OF BAALBEC. ] We are speaking of the Pantheon, the splendid building erected by M. Agrippa, the friend of Augustus, in immediate connection with theThermæ, built and dedicated to Jupiter Ultor by him. This building, which embodied, as it were, the highest aspirations of Roman nationalpride and power, was completed, according to the original inscriptionpreserved on it, B. C. 25, in which year Agrippa was consul for thethird time. According to the statement of Pliny ("His. Nat. , " 36, 24, I), which however, has been disputed, it was originally dedicated toJupiter Ultor, whose statue, therefore, undoubtedly stood in the chiefniche opposite the entrance. The other six niches contained thestatues of as many gods; those of the chief deities of the Julianfamily, Mars and Venus, and of the greatest son of that family, thedivine Cæsar, being the only ones amongst the number of which we havecertain knowledge. Was it that the statues of Mars and Venus showedthe attributes of the other principal gods, or that the statues of thelatter stood in the small chapels (_ædiculæ_) between the niches, orthat the unequaled enormous cupola was supposed to represent heaven, that is, the house of all the gods? Certain it is that, together withthe old appellation the new name of the Pantheon, _i. E. _, temple ofall the gods, was soon applied to the building. The latter name hasbeen unanimously adopted by posterity, and has even originated theChristian destination of the edifice as church of all the martyrs (S. Maria ad Martyres). Without entering into the consecutive changes thebuilding has undergone in the course of time, we will now attempt adescription of its principal features. The temple consists of twoparts, the round edifice and the portico. The former was 132 feet indiameter, exclusive of the thickness of the wall, which amounts to 19feet. The wall is perfectly circular, and contains eight apertures, one of which serves as entrance, while the others form, in a certainorder, either semicircular or quadrangular niches; the former arecovered by semi-cupolas, the latter by barrel-vaults. Only the nicheopposite the entrance is, at the present time, uninterrupted, andopen up to its full height, thus corresponding with the formation ofthe entrance section; in front of each of the others, two columns havebeen erected, the beams of which close the opening of the semicircularvault. To this chief portion of the building is attached the splendidportico which, in the manner of the above-mentioned temples, projectsby three columns, besides a massive wall-structure. The frontageshows eight columns. As a rule, the whole space of the pronaos waswithout columns; contrary to the rule we here see it divided intothree naves by means of two pairs of columns. The center nave, whichwas also the widest, led to the entrance-door, each of the two othersbeing terminated by an enormous niche. Not to mention æstheticalconsiderations, these columns were required as props of the roofcovering the vast space (the portico is about 100 feet long). [Illustration: INSIDE VIEW OF PANTHEON. ] The columns of the portico carried beams, on the frieze of which thefollowing inscription in large letters has been placed:M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIUM·FECIT. Another inscription below this one, in smaller characters, states the building to have been restored bySeptimius Severus and Caracalla. The beams carry a large pediment, originally adorned with groups of statues representing Jupiter'svictories over the Gigantes. Behind and above this gable rises asecond one of the same proportions, serving as an ornament of theprojecting wall which connects the round building with the portico. The roof of the portico was supported by beams made of brass. According to the drawing of Serlio, these beams were not massive, butconsisted of brass plates riveted together into square pipes--aprinciple frequently applied by modern engineers on a larger scale inbuilding bridges, etc. Unfortunately, the material of the roof, barring some of the large rivets, has been used by Pope Urban VIII. For guns and various ornaments of doubtful taste in St. Peter'sCathedral. The large columns carrying the ugly tabernacle on the graveof St. Peter are one of the results of this barbarous spoliation. Theold door, also made of brass, which leads from the portico into theinterior has, on the contrary, been preserved. The outer appearance ofthe round building is simple and dignified. It most likely wasoriginally covered with stucco and terra-cotta ornaments, of which, however, little remains at present; but the simple bricks, particularly in the upper stripes, where the insertion of the vaultbecomes visible, look, perhaps, quite as beautiful as the originalcoating. The whole cylinder of masonry is divided into three stripesby means of cornices, which break the heaviness of the outline, thedivisions of the inner space corresponding to those of the outersurface. The first of these stripes is about forty feet high, andrests on a base of Travertine freestone. It consists of simplehorizontal slabs of stone, broken only by doors which lead to chambersbuilt in the thickness of the wall between the niches. It correspondsto the columns forming the first story of the interior, the twocornices, in and outside, being on a level. The second stripe, aboutthirty feet in height, answers to the second story of the interior, where the semicircular arches of the niches are situated. Thehorizontal stone layers outside are accordingly broken by large doublearches, destined to balance the vaults in the interior. They alternatewith smaller arches, thus forming a decoration of the exterior at oncedignified and in harmony with the general design of the building. Thetwo cornices in and outside are again on a level. The third stripecorresponds to the cupola, the tension of which is equal to 140 feet. The outer masonry reaches up to about a third of its height, fromwhich point the cupola proper begins to rise in seven mighty steps. [Illustration: THE PANTHEON AT ROME. ] [Illustration: HALF-SECTION OF THE PANTHEON. ] The height of the dome is equal to the diameter of the cylindricalbuilding, 132 feet, which adds to the sober and harmonious impressionof the whole building. The lower of the above-mentioned interiorstories is adorned with columns and pilasters, the latter of whichenclosed the niches. Eight of these columns, over thirty-two feet inheight, are monoliths of _giallo antico_--a yellow kind of marblebeautifully veined, and belonging to the most valuable materials usedby ancient architects. Six other columns are made of a kind of marbleknown as _pavonazzetto_; by an ingenious mode of coloring thesecolumns are made to harmonize with those consisting of the rarermaterial. Above the first lies a second lower story, the architecturalarrangements of which may be recognized from Adler's ingenious attemptat reconstruction. Its original decoration consisted of tablets ofcolored marble, the effect being similar to that of a sequence ofnarrow pilasters. This original decoration has later been changed foranother. Above the chief cornice which crowns this story, and at thesame time terminates the circular walls, rises the cupola, dividedinto five stripes, each of which contains twenty-five "caskets"beautifully worked and in excellent perspective. In the center at thetop is an opening, forty feet in diameter, through which the lightenters the building. Near this opening a fragment has been preservedof the bronze ornamentation which once seems to have covered the wholecupola. Even without these elegant decorations the building stillexcites the spectator's admiration, as one of the masterpieces ofRoman genius. Obelisks were in Egypt commemorative pillars recording the style andthe title of the king who erected them, his piety, and the proof hegave of it in dedicating those monoliths to the deity whom heespecially wished to honor. They are made of a single block of stone, cut into a quadrilateral form, the width diminishing gradually fromthe base to the top of the shaft, which terminates in a small pyramid(pyramidion). They were placed on a plain square pedestal, but largerthan the obelisk itself. Obelisks are of Egyptian origin. The Romansand the moderns have imitated them, but they never equaled theirmodels. Egyptian obelisks are generally made of red granite of Syene. Thereare some, however, of smaller dimensions made of sandstone and basalt. They were generally placed in pairs at the entrances of temples, oneach side of the propyla. The shaft was commonly ten diameters inheight, and a fourth narrower at the top than at the base. Of the twowhich were before the palace of Luxor at Thebes, one is seventy-twofeet high, and six feet, two inches wide at the base; the other isseventy-seven feet high, and seven feet, eight inches wide. Each faceis adorned with hieroglyphical inscriptions in _intaglio_, and thesummit is terminated by a pyramid, the four sides of which representreligious scenes, also accompanied by inscriptions. The corners of theobelisks are sharp and well cut, but their faces are not perfectlyplane, and their slight convexity is a proof of the attention theEgyptians paid to the construction of their monuments. If their faceswere plane they would appear concave to the eye; the convexitycompensates for this optical illusion. The hieroglyphical inscriptionsare in a perpendicular line, sometimes there is but one in the middleof the breadth of the face, and often there are three. The inscriptionwas a commemoration by the king who had the temple or palace builtbefore which the obelisk was placed. It contained a record stating thehouses and titles which the king who erected, enlarged, or gave richpresents to a temple, had received in return from the priesthood, andsetting forth, for instance, that Rameses was the lord of an obedientpeople, and the beloved of Ammon. Such is the subject of theinscription which is in the middle of each face of the obelisks; andthough the name of the same king and the same events are repeated onthe four sides, there exists in the four texts, when compared, somedifference, either in the invocation to the particular divinities orin the titles of the king. Every obelisk had, in its original form, but a single inscription on each face, and of the same period of theking who had erected it; but a king who came after him, adding acourt, a portico, or colonnade to the temple or palace, had anotherinscription relative to his addition, with his name engraved on theoriginal obelisk; thus, every obelisk adorned with many inscriptionsis of several periods. The pyramidion which terminates them generallyrepresents in its sculptures the king who erected the obelisk makingdifferent offerings to the principal deity of the temple, and to otherdivinities. Sometimes also the offering is of the obelisk itself. Theshort inscriptions of the pyramidion bear the oval of the king and thename of the divinity. By these ovals can be known the names of thekings who erected the obelisks still existing, whether in Egypt orelsewhere. The largest obelisk known is that of St. John Lateran, Rome. It was brought from Heliopolis to Alexandria by the emperorConstantine, and was conveyed to Rome by Constantius, who erected itin the Circus Maximus. The height of the shaft is 105 feet, 7 inches. The sides are of unequal breadth at the base, two measure nine feet, eight and one-half inches, the other two only nine feet. It bears thename of Thohtmes III. In the central, and that of Thohtmes IV. In thelateral lines, kings of the eighteenth dynasty, in the fifteenthcentury B. C. The two obelisks at Luxor were erected by the kingRameses II. , of the nineteenth dynasty, 1311 B. C. (Wilkinson). One ofthese has been taken to Paris. The obelisk of Heliopolis bears thename of Osirtasen I. , 2020 B. C. (Wilkinson), and is consequently themost ancient. It is about sixty-seven feet high. The obelisks atAlexandria were brought from Heliopolis about 2, 000 years ago. The onethat was lying in the sand, and the smaller of the two, was removed toLondon some years ago, and the other, which was still standing, waspresented to the United States by Ismail Pasha, father of the presentKhedive. This monument of antiquity is an inestimable treasure to ourcountry. It bears the name of Thohtmes III. In the lateral lines arethe ovals of Rameses the Great. It is of red granite of Syene. Itbears the name of Cleopatra's Needle, is about seventy feet high, witha diameter at its base of seven feet, seven inches. We can hardlyappreciate that we should have standing in New York a relic soancient--a column upon which Moses and Aaron looked, and doubtlessread its hieroglyphic inscription; that Rameses the Great (Sesostris)had his knightly banner carved upon it; that Darius, Cambyses, Alexander the Great, the Ptolemies, Julius Cæsar, Cleopatra, MarkAntony and Augustus knew it; that it was equally known and beheld ofPythagoras, Herodotus and Strabo; that a long procession of the mostillustrious characters of the middle ages have passed before it, fromthe days of Clement and Anastasius to those of Don John of Austria;and, finally, that it was the first herald of Egypt to Napoleon andMohammed Ali. A monument like this will truly be cherished by everycitizen. The obelisk of the Piazza del Popolo claims great interest, as it also stood before the Temple of the Sun at Heliopolis. Lepsiusattributes it to Meneptha. It was removed to Rome by Augustus, B. C. 19, to ornament the Circus Maximus. The obelisk in front of St. Peter's was brought to Rome by Caligula, and placed on the Vatican inthe Circus of Caligula. It is about eighty-three feet high. There areseveral other Egyptian obelisks in Rome. Nothing can afford a greateridea of the skill of the Egyptians, and of their wonderful knowledgeof mechanism, than the erection of these monoliths. [Illustration: OBELISK OF HELIOPOLIS. (_Over 4000 years old_). The following is a translation of the hieroglyphic writing which is set into it: "The Horus; the living from his birth; the king of Upper and Lower Egypt; Ra Kheper Ka; Lord of the two diadems; Son of the sun; Osirtasen; the loved of the God of Heliopolis from his birth; Ever-living; The golden Horus; the Good God; Ra Kheper Ka to the first celebration of the panegyry. He (has) made (this obelisk) the eternal generator. "] The Greeks never made obelisks outside of Egypt. The Macedonian kings, or Ptolemies, who reigned in that country, from Alexander to Augustus, erected, terminated, or enlarged many monuments, but always accordingto Egyptian rules. Egyptian artists executed obelisks for their Greekprinces, but they did not depart, any more than in the othermonuments, from their ancient customs. The Egyptian style andproportions are always to be recognized, and the inscriptions are alsotraced in hieroglyphics. The obelisk found at Philæ was erected inhonor of Ptolemy Evergetes II. And of Cleopatra, his sister, orCleopatra, his wife, and placed on a base bearing a Greek inscriptionrelating the reason and occasion of this monument. It was removed fromPhilæ by Belzoni, and has been now erected at Kingston Hall, Dorset, by Mr. Bankes. It is very far from equaling the Pharaonic obelisks indimensions, it being only twenty-two feet high. After the Romans had made Egypt a Roman province they carried awaysome of its obelisks. Augustus was the first who conceived the idea oftransporting these immense blocks to Rome; he was imitated byCaligula, Constantine, and others. They were generally erected in somecircus. Thirteen remain at the present day at Rome, some of which areof the time of the Roman domination in Egypt. The Romans had obelisksmade in honor of their princes, but the material and the workmanshipof the inscriptions cause them to be easily distinguished from themore ancient obelisks. The Barberini obelisk, on the Monte Pincio, isof this number; it bears the names of Adrian, of Sabina, his wife, andof Antinous, his favorite. The obelisk of the Piazza Navona, from thestyle of its hieroglyphics, is supposed to be a Roman work of the timeof Domitian. The name of Santus Rufus can be read on the Albaniobelisk, now at Munich, and as there are two Roman prefects of Egyptknown of that name, it was, therefore, one of those magistrates whohad executed in that country these monuments in honor of the reigningemperors, and then had them sent to Rome. The Romans also attempted tomake obelisks at Rome; such is the obelisk of the Trinita de' Monti, which formerly stood in the Circus of Sallust. It is a bad copy ofthat of the Porta del Popolo. The Roman emperors in the east had alsosome Egyptian obelisks transported to Constantinople. Fragments of twoof these monuments have been found in Sicily, at Catania; one of themhas eight sides, but it is probably not a genuine Egyptian work. Theuse of the obelisk as a gnomon, and the erection of it on a high basein the center of an open space, were only introduced on the removal ofsingle obelisks to Rome. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] RELIGION OR MYTHOLOGY. Mythology is from the word myth, meaning fable, it is therefore asystem of fabulous opinions and doctrines respecting the deities whichthe heathen nations have supposed to preside over the world or toinfluence its affairs. They had twelve gods, Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Mercury, Mars, Vulcan, Apollo, Diana, Minerva, Juno, Ceres and Vesta. Besides these therewere other lesser gods, Bacchus, Isis, Hebe, the Muses and the Fates, etc. ; also Sleep, Dreams and Death; and there were still others whohad free will and intelligence, and having mixed forms, such as thePegasus, or winged horse, the Centaur, half man and half horse, Hydra, etc. The Greek theory of the origin of things was that the beginning waschaos laden with the seed of all nature, then came the Earth and theHeavens, or Uranus; these two were married and from this union came anumerous and powerful brood. First were the six Titans, all males, andthen the six females, and the Cyclops, three in number; these latterwere of gigantic size, having but one eye, and that in the center ofthe forehead. They represented Thunder, Lightning and Fire, or therapid flame. The Titans made war upon their father and wounded him, and from thedrops of blood which flowed from the wound and fell upon the earthsprang the Furies, whose names signified "Unceasing, " "Envier, " and"Blood-Avenger;" and the Giants and melian Nymphs, and from the blooddrops which fell into the sea sprang Venus, the goddess of love andbeauty. The youngest and bravest son, Saturn, who wounded and dethroned hisfather, was, by the consent of his brethren, permitted to reign withan understanding that his male children should all be destroyed. Buthis wife, Rhea, hid from him three of her sons, Jupiter, Neptune andPluto, who, waging a ten-year war against their father, finallydethroned him and divided the kingdom among themselves. The oldest, Jupiter, had the heavens, and reigned over all gods, Neptune over thesea, and Pluto the lower regions. Jupiter then built his courts on Mount Olympos, reigned supreme godover heaven and earth; he was called the father of man and gods, andis placed at the head of the entire creation. He is generally represented as majestic in appearance, seated on athrone with a sceptre in one hand and thunderbolts in the other. Jupiter had a number of wives; he also married his sister Juno, whowas the queen goddess. Besides Jupiter, Juno, Neptune and Pluto theother eight gods were the children of Jupiter. Neptune was second to Jupiter in power. He is represented as carryinga trident or three-tined fork, with which he strikes the earth andshakes it; he is therefore often called the "earth-shaker. " He isusually represented like Jupiter, of a serene and majestic aspect, seated in a chariot made of shells and drawn by dolphins andsea-horses, while the Tritons and the Nymphs gambol about him. Pluto is represented as the grim, stern ruler over hell. He is alsocalled Hades and Orcus. He has a throne of sulphur, from beneath whichflows the Rivers Lethe, or "Oblivion, " Phlegethon, Cocytus andAcheron. In one hand he holds his fork and in the other the keys ofhell, and beside him is the dog with three heads. He is described asbeing well qualified for his position, being inexorable and deaf tosupplications, and an object of aversion and hatred to both gods andmen. From his realms there is no return, and all mankind, sooner orlater, are sure to be gathered into his kingdom. As none of the goddesses would marry the stern and gloomy god, heseized Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, while she was gatheringflowers, and opened the earth and carried her through into hisdominion. Mercury was the messenger and ambassador of the gods. He wasrepresented by wings on his hat, and sandals, and usually carrying awand, or staff, with two serpents twined around it. He himself was agod of eloquence and the patron of orators, merchants, thieves, robbers, travelers and shepherds. Mars was the god of war. Sorrow and fear accompanied him, disorder anddiscord in tattered garments go before him and anger and clamorfollow. He is of huge size and gigantic strength, and his voice waslouder than those of ten thousand mortals. Vulcan was the forger, and is generally represented at an anvil in ashort tunic, with a hammer in his right hand. He was lame when he wasborn, and his mother, Juno, was so shocked that she flung him headlongfrom the Mt. Olympos. Apollo was the god of archery, prophecy and music, and is usually seenwith a harp in his hand and of beautiful figure. Diana was the goddess of chase, and appears with a bow in her hand anda quiver of arrows at her back, and on her side is a hound. Shedevoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and her chief joy was to speedlike a Dorian maid over the hills, followed by a train of nymphs inpursuit of the flying game. Minerva is the goddess of wisdom and skill, and the teacher inwarfare. She has a serious and thoughtful countenance, a spear in onehand and a shield in the other, while a helmet covers her head. She issaid to have sprung from the brains of Jupiter. Juno, the wife of Jupiter, was haughty, jealous and inexorable; agoddess of dignified and matronly air, often found with a peacock ather feet. Ceres is the goddess of grain and harvest. She is represented ridingon a chariot drawn by dragons, and distributing grain to the differentregions of the earth. She holds in one hand corn and wheat, in theother a lighted torch, and wears on her head a garland of wheat heads. After Pluto stole her daughter, Proserpine, she searched for herthroughout the whole world. Vesta, the goddess of the household and domestic hearths, isrepresented in a long-flowing robe, with a veil on her head, a lamp inone hand, and a spear or javelin in the other. In her temple at Rome, the sacred fire was guarded by six priestesses, called the VestalVirgins. Among the lesser gods there were many, but the most common wasBacchus, who was the god of lust, wine, and the patron of drunkennessand debauchery. He is represented as an effeminate young man, withlong flowing hair. In one hand he holds a goblet, in the other a bunchof grapes and a short dagger. The Muses were goddesses who presided over music and poetry, and allthe liberal arts and sciences. They were nine in number. The Graces were three in number, and personified Splendor, Joy andPleasure. They were three beautiful sisters, standing with their armsentwined. The Fates were also three goddesses, who presided over the destiny ofmortals. The first was the staff of life, the second spun the cord, and the third cut it off. This is a brief outline of the origin and nature of the gods andgoddesses: and the legends are numerous, and some of them are ofexceeding interest and beauty, while others shock and disgust us bythe gross impossibilities and hideous deformities which they reveal. We have concluded to give a direct translation of them from the Greek, so that the reader may have them in the pure original form, andthereby have not only the beauty and interest retained, but at thesame time an idea of the style of the ancient writings; only a fewstories have been modified to bring them nearer to the level of therest. We will, however, be obliged to use the Greek names instead ofthe Latin in this translation, as it is from the Greek, and willtherefore give the names translated below: _Greek. _ _Latin. _ ZEUS, JUPITER. HERE, JUNO. POSEIDON, NEPTUNE. PLOUTON, PLUTO. DEMETER, CERES. APOLLO, APOLO. ARTEMIS, DIANA. HEPHAISTOS, VULCAN. ATHENE, MINERVA. ARES, MARS. APHRODITE, VENUS. HERMES, MERCURY. HESTIA, VESTA. The most of the Greek people appear to have believed that theirdivinities were real persons, but their philosophers explained thelegends concerning them as allegorical representations of generalphysical and moral truths. The Greeks, therefore, instead of favoringnature, worshiped the powers of nature personified. THE DELPHIAN APOLLO. From land to land the lady Leto wandered in fear and sorrow, for nocity or country would give her a home where she might abide in peace. From Crete to Athens, from Athens to Ægina, from Ægina to the heightsof Pelion and Athos, through all the islands of the wide Ægæan Sea, Skyros and Imbros and Lemnos, and Chios the fairest of all, shepassed, seeking a home. But in vain she prayed each land to receiveher, until she came to the Island of Delos, and promised to raise itto great glory if only there she might rest in peace. And she liftedup her voice and said, "Listen to me, O island of the dark sea. Ifthou wilt grant me a home, all nations shall come unto thee, and greatwealth shall flow in upon thee; for here shall Phœbus Apollo, the lordof light and life, be born, and men shall come hither to know his willand win his favor. " Then answered Delos, and said, "Lady, thoupromisest great things; but they say that the power of Phœbus Apollowill be such as nothing on the wide earth may withstand; and mine isbut a poor and stony soil, where there is little to please the eye ofthose who look upon me. Wherefore I fear that he will despise my hardand barren land, and go to some other country where he will build amore glorious temple, and grant richer gifts to the people who come toworship him. " But Leto swore by the dark water of Styx, and the wideheaven above, and the broad earth around her, that in Delos should bethe shrine of Phœbus, and that there should the rich offerings burn onhis altar the whole year round. So Leto rested in the Island of Delos, and there was Phœbus Apolloborn. And there was joy among the undying gods who dwell in Olympos, and the earth laughed beneath the smile of heaven. Then was his templebuilt in Delos, and men came to it from all lands to learn his willand offer rich sacrifices on his altar. THE PYTHIAN APOLLO. Long time Apollo abode in Delos; and every year all the children ofIon were gathered to the feast which was held before his temple. Butat length it came to pass that Apollo went through many lands, journeying towards Pytho. With harp in hand he drew nigh to the gatesof Olympos, where Zeus and the gods dwell in their glory; andstraightway all rejoiced for the sweetness of his harping. The Musessang the undying gifts of the gods, and the griefs and woes of mortalmen who can not flee from old age and death. The bright Horai joinedhands together with Hebe and Harmonia; and Ares stood by the side ofAphrodite with Hermes the slayer of Argos, gazing on the face ofPhœbus Apollo, which glistened as with the light of the new-risen sun. Then from Olympos he went down into the Pierian land, to Iolkos andthe Lelantian plain; but it pleased him not there to build himself ahome. Thence he wandered on to Mykalessos, and, traversing the grassyplains of Teumessos, came to the sacred Thebes; but neither would hedwell there, for no man had yet come hither, neither was there roadnor path, but only wild forests in all the land. [Illustration: JUPITER. (_Zeus_)] Further and further he roamed, across the stream of Kephisos andbeyond Okalea and Haliartos, until he came to Telphusa. There hethought to build himself a temple, for the land was rich and fair, sohe said, "Beautiful Telphusa, here would I rest in thy happy vale, andhere shall men come to ask my will and seek for aid in the hour offear; and great glory shall come to thee while I abide in thy land. "But Telphusa was moved with anger as she saw Phœbus marking out theplace for his shrine and laying its foundations; and she spakecraftily to him, and said, "Listen to me, Phœbus Apollo. Thou seekesthere to have a home, but here thou canst never rest in peace; for mybroad plain will tempt men to the strife of battle, and the tramp ofwar-horses shall vex the stillness of thy holy temple. Nay, even inthe time of peace, the lowing cattle shall come in crowds to myfountain, and the tumult will grieve thine heart. But go thou toKrisa, and make for thyself a home in the hidden clefts of Parnassos, and thither shall men hasten with their gifts from the utmost boundsof the earth. " So Apollo believed her words, and he went on throughthe land of the Phlegyes until he came to Krisa. There he laid thefoundations of his shrine in the deep cleft of Parnassos; andTrophonios and Agamedes, the children of Erginos, raised the wall. There also he found the mighty dragon who nursed Typhaon, the child ofHere, and he smote him, and said, "Rot there upon the ground, and vexnot more the children of men. The clays of thy life are ended, neithercan Typhoeus himself aid thee now, nor Chimæra of the evil name. Butthe earth and the burning sun shall consume and scorch thy body. " Sothe dragon died, and his body rotted on the ground; wherefore the nameof the place is called Pytho, and they worship Phœbus Apollo as thegreat Pythian king. But Phœbus knew now that Telphusa had deceived him, because she saidnothing of the great dragon of Krisa, or of the roughness of the land. So he hastened back in his anger and said, "Thou hast beguiled me, Telphusa, with thy crafty words; but no more shall thy fountain sendforth its sweet water, and the glory shall be mine alone. " Then Apollohurled great crags down and choked the stream near the beautifulfountain, and the glory departed from Telphusa. Then he thought within himself what men he should choose to be hispriests at Pytho; and far away, as he stood on the high hill, he saw aship sailing on the wine-faced sea, and the men who were in it wereCretans, sailing from the land of King Minos to barter their goodswith the men of Pylos. So Phœbus leaped into the sea, and changed hisform to the form of a dolphin, and hastened to meet the ship. Noneknew whence the great fish came which smote the side of their vesselwith its mighty fins; but all marveled at the sight, as the dolphinguided the ship through the dark waters, and they sat trembling withfear, as they sped on without a sail by the force of the strong southwind. From the headland of Malea and the land of the Lakonians theypassed to Helos and to Tænaron where Helios dwells, in whom the sonsof men take delight, and where his cattle feed in the rich pastures. There the sailors would have ended their wanderings; but they soughtin vain to land, for the ship would not obey its helm. Onward it wentalong the coast of the Island of Pelops, for the mighty dolphin guidedit. So from Arene and Arguphea it came to the sandy Pylos, by Chalkisand Dyme to the land of the Epeians, to Pheræ and to Ithaka. There themen saw spread out before them the waters which wash the shores ofKrisa; and the strong west wind came with its fierce breath, and drovethem off to the east and towards the sunrising until they came toKrisa. Then Phœbus Apollo came forth from the sea, like a star, and thebrightness of his glory reached up to the high heaven. Into his shrinehe hastened, and on the altar he kindled the undying fire, and hisbright arrows were hurled abroad, till all Krisa was filled with theblaze of his lightnings, so that fear came upon all, and the cries ofthe women rose shrill on the sultry air. Then, swift as a thought ofthe heart, he hastened back to the ship; but his form was now the formof a man in his beauty, and his golden locks flowed over his broadshoulders. From the shore he called out to the men in the Cretan ship, and said "Who are ye, strangers? and do ye come as thieves androbbers, bringing terror and sorrow whithersoever ye may go? Why stayye thus, tarrying in your ships, and seek not to come out on the land?Surely ye must know that all who sail on the wide sea rejoice whentheir ship comes to the shore, that they may come forth and feast withthe people of the land?" So spake Phœbus Apollo; and the leader of theCretans took courage and said, "Stranger, sure I am that thou art nomortal man, but one of the bright heroes or the undying gods. Wherefore tell us now the name of this land and of the people whodwell in it. Hither we never sought to come, for we were sailing fromthe land of Minos to barter our wares at Pylos; but some one of thegods hath brought us hither against our will. " Then spake the mighty Apollo, and said to them, "O, strangers, whohave dwelt in Knossos of the Cretan land, think not to return to yourancient home, to your wives or to your children. Here ye must guardand keep my shrine, and ye shall be honored of all the children ofmen. For I am the son of Zeus, and my name is Phœbus Apollo. It was Iwho brought you hither across the wide sea, not in guile or anger, butthat in all time to come ye may have great power and glory, that yemay learn the counsel of the undying gods and make known their will tomen. Hasten then to do my bidding; let down your sails, and bring yourship to the shore. Then bring out your goods, and build an altar onthe beach, and kindle a fire, and offer white barley as an offering;and because I led you hither under the form of a dolphin, so worshipme as the Delphian god. Then eat bread and drink wine, as much as yoursoul may lust after; and after that come with me to the holy place, where ye shall guard my temple. " So they obeyed the words of Phœbus; and when they had offered thewhite barley, and feasted richly on the sea-shore, they arose to go, and Apollo led them on their way. His harp was in his hand, and hemade sweet music, such as no mortal ear had heard before; and theyraised the chant Io Pæan, for a new power was breathed into theirhearts, as they went along. They thought not now of toil or sorrow;but with feet unwearied they went up the hill until they reached theclefts of Parnassos, where Phœbus would have them dwell. Then out spake the leader of the Cretans, and said, boldly, "O king, thou hast brought us far away from our homes to a strange land; whenceare we to get food here? No harvest will grow on these bare rocks, nomeadows are spread out before our eyes. The whole land is bare anddesolate. " But the son of Zeus smiled and said, "O foolish men, andeasy to be cast down, if ye had your wish ye would gain nothing butcare and toil. But listen to me and ponder well my words. Stretchforth your hands and slay each day the rich offerings, for they shallcome to you without stint and sparing, seeing that the sons of menshall hasten hither from all lands, to learn my will and ask for aidin the hour of fear. Only guard ye my temple well, and keep your handsclean and your hearts pure; for if ye deal rightly no man shall takeaway your glory; but if ye speak lies and do iniquity, if ye hurt thepeople who come to my altar, and make them to go astray, then shallother men rise up in your place, and ye yourselves shall be thrust outforever, because ye would not obey my words. " [Illustration: APOLLO. (_From an ancient Sculpture. _)] NIOBE AND LETO. In the little Island of Delos there lived a long time ago a lady whowas called Niobe. She had many sons and many daughters, and she wasvery proud of them, for she thought that in all the Island of Delos, and even in all the world, there were no children so beautiful as herown. And as they walked, and leaped, and ran among the hills andvalleys of that rocky island, all the people looked at them, and said, "Surely there are no other children like the children of the ladyNiobe. " And Niobe was so pleased at hearing this, that she began toboast to every one how strong and beautiful her sons and daughterswere. Now in this Island of Delos there lived also the lady named Leto. Shehad only two children, and their names were Artemis and Phœbus Apollo;but they were very strong and fair, indeed. And whenever the ladyNiobe saw them, she tried to think that her own children were stillmore beautiful, although she could hardly help feeling that she hadnever seen any so glorious as Artemis and Apollo. So one day the ladyLeto and the lady Niobe were together, and their children were playingbefore them; and Phœbus Apollo played on his golden harp, and then heshot from his golden bow the arrows which never missed their mark. ButNiobe never thought of Apollo's bow, and the arrows which he had inhis quiver; and she began to boast to the lady Leto of the beauty ofher children, and said, "See, Leto; look at my seven sons and my sevendaughters, and see how strong and fair they are. Apollo and Artemisare beautiful, I know, but my children are fairer still; and you haveonly two children while I have seven sons and seven daughters. " SoNiobe went on boasting, and never thought whether she should make Letoangry. But Leto said nothing until Niobe and her children were gone, and then she called Apollo, and said to him, "I do not love the ladyNiobe. She is always boasting that her sons and daughters are morebeautiful than you and your sister; and I wish you to show her that noone else is so strong as my children, or so beautiful. " Then PhœbusApollo was angry, and a dark frown came upon his fair young face, andhis eyes were like the flaming fire. But he said nothing, and he tookhis golden bow in his hand, and put his quiver with his terriblearrows across his shoulder, and went away to the hills where he knewthat the lady Niobe and her children were. And when he saw them hewent and stood on a bare high rock, and stretched the string of hisgolden bow, and took an arrow from his quiver. Then he held out thebow, and drew the string to his breast, until the point of the arrowtouched the bow; and then he let the arrow fly. Straight to its markit went, and one of the lady Niobe's sons fell dead. Then anotherarrow flew swiftly from the bow, and another, and another, andanother, till all the sons and all the daughters of Niobe lay dead onthe hillside. Then Apollo called out to Niobe, and said, "Go and boastnow of your beautiful children!" It had all passed so quickly that Niobe scarcely knew whether it wasnot a dream. She could not believe that her children were reallygone--all her sons and all her daughters, whom she had just now seenso happy and strong around her. But there they lay, still and cold, upon the ground. Their eyes were closed as if they were asleep, andtheir faces had still a happy smile, which made them look morebeautiful than ever. And Niobe went to them all one by one, andtouched their cold hands, and kissed their pale cheeks; and then sheknew that the arrows of Phœbus Apollo had killed them. Then she satdown on a stone which was close to them, and the tears flowed from hereyes, and they streamed down her face, as she sat there as still asher children who lay dead before her. She never raised her head tolook at the blue sky--she never moved hand or foot, but she satweeping on the cold rock until she became as cold as the rock itself. And still her tears flowed on, and still her body grew colder andcolder, until her heart beat no more, and the lady Niobe was dead. Butthere she still seemed to sit and weep, for her great grief had turnedher into a stone; and all the people, whenever they came near thatplace, said, "See, there sits the lady Niobe, who was turned intostone, when Phœbus Apollo killed all her children because she boastedthat no one was so beautiful as they were. " And long after, when thestone was grown old and covered with moss, the people still thoughtthey could see the form of the lady Niobe; for the stone, which didnot look much like the form of a woman when they came near to it, seemed at a distance just as though Niobe still sat there, weeping forher beautiful children whom Phœbus Apollo slew. DAPHNE. In the vale of Tempe, where the stream of Peneios flows beneath theheights of Olympos towards the sea, the beautiful Daphne passed thedays of her happy childhood. Fresh as the earliest morning, sheclimbed the crags to greet the first rays of the rising sun; and whenhe had driven his fiery horses over the sky, she watched his chariotsink behind the western mountains. Over hill and dale she roamed, freeand light as the breeze of spring. Other maidens round her spoke eachof her love, but Daphne cared not to listen to the voice of man, though many a one sought her to be his wife. One day as she stood on the slopes of Ossa in the glow of earlymorning, she saw before her a glorious form. The light of thenew-risen sun fell on his face with a golden splendor, and she knewthat it was Phœbus Apollo. Hastily he ran towards her, and said, "Ihave found thee, Child of the Morning. Others thou hast cast aside, but from me thou canst not escape. I have sought thee long, and nowwill I make thee mine. " But the heart of Daphne was bold and strong;and her cheek flushed and her eye sparkled with anger, as she said, "Iknow neither love nor bondage. I live free among the streams andhills; and to none will I yield my freedom. " Then the face of Apollogrew dark with anger, and he drew near to seize the maiden; but swiftas the wind she fled away. Over hill and dale, over crag and river, the feet of Daphne fell lightly as falling leaves in autumn; butnearer yet came Phœbus Apollo, till at last the strength of the maidenbegan to fail. Then she stretched out her hands, and cried for help tothe lady Demeter; but she came not to her aid. Her head was dizzy, andher limbs trembled in utter feebleness as she drew near the broadriver which gladdens the plains of Thessaly, till she almost felt thebreath of Phœbus, and her robe was almost in his grasp. Then, with awild cry, she said, "Father Peneios, receive thy child, " and sherushed into the stream, whose waters closed gently over her. She was gone; Apollo mourned for his madness in chasing thus the freemaiden. And he said, "I have punished myself by my folly; the light ofthe morning is taken out of the day. I must go on alone till myjourney shall draw towards its end. " Then he spake the word, and alaurel came up on the bank where Daphne had plunged into the stream;and the green bush with its thick clustering leaves keeps her nameforever. KYRENE. Among the valleys and hills of Thessaly, Kyrene, the fair-armeddaughter of Hypseus, wandered free as the deer upon the mountain side. Of all the maidens of the land, there was none to vie her in beauty;neither was there any that could be matched with her for strength ofarm and speed of foot. She touched not the loom or the spindle; shecared not for banquets with those who revel under houses. Her feastswere spread on the green grass, beneath the branching tree; and withher spear and dagger she went fearless among the beasts of the field, or sought them out in their dens. One day she was roaming along the winding banks of Peneios, when alion sprang from a thicket across her path. Neither spear nor daggerwas in her hand, but the heart of Kyrene knew no fear, and shegrappled with him until the beast sank wearied at her feet. She hadconquered, but not unseen, for Phœbus Apollo had watched the maiden asshe battled with the angry lion; and straightway he called the wisecentaur Cheiron, who had taught him in the days of his youth. "Comeforth, " he said, "from thy dark cave, and teach me once again, for Ihave a question to ask thee. Look at yonder maiden, and the beastwhich lies beaten at her feet; and tell me (for thou art wise) whenceshe comes, and what name she bears. Who is she, that thus she wandersin these lonely valleys without fear and without hurt? Tell me if shemay be wooed and won. " Then Cheiron looked steadfastly at the face ofPhœbus, and a smile passed over his countenance as he answered, "Thereare hidden keys to unlock the prison-house of love; but why askestthou me of the maiden's name and race--thou who knowest the end of allthings, and all the paths along which the sons of men are journeying?Thou hast counted the leaves which burst forth in the spring-time, andthe grains of sand which the wind tosses on the river bank, or by thesea shore. But if I must needs match thee in suitable wisdom, thenlisten to my words. The maiden is wooed and won already; and thou artgoing to bear her as thy bride over the dark sea, and place her ingolden halls on the far-off Libyan land. There she shall have a homerich in every fruit that may grow up from the earth; and there shallthy son Aristaios be born, on whose lips the bright Horai shall shednectar and ambrosia, so that he may not come under the doom of mortalmen. " Then Phœbus Apollo smiled as he answered, "Of a truth, Cheiron, thoudeservest thy fame, for there are none to match with thee for wisdom;and now I go with Kyrene to the land which shall be called by hername, and where, in time to come, her children shall build great andmighty cities, and their name shall be spread abroad throughout allthe earth for strength and wisdom. " So the maiden Kyrene came to the Libyan land, and there Aristaios, herchild, was born. And Hermes carried the babe to the bright Horai, whogranted him an endless life; and he dwelt in the broad Libyan plains, tending his flocks, and bringing forth rich harvests from the earth. For him the bees wrought their sweetest honey; for him the sheep gavetheir softest wool; for him the cornfields waved with their fullestgrain. No blight touched the grapes which his hand had tended; nosickness vexed the herds which fed in his pastures. And they who dweltin the land said, "Strife and war bring no such gifts as these to thesons of men; therefore let us live in peace. " HERMES. Early in the morning, long ago, in a cave of the great Kyllenian hill, lay the new-born Hermes, the son of Zeus and Maia. The cradle-clotheswere scarcely stirred by his soft breathing, while he slept aspeacefully as the children of mortal mothers. But the sun had notdriven his fiery chariot half over the heaven, when the babe arosefrom his sacred cradle and stepped forth from the dark cavern. Beforethe threshold a tortoise fed lazily on the grass; and when the childsaw it he laughed merrily. "Ah! this is luck, indeed, " he said;"whence hast thou come, pretty creature, with thy bright speckledshell? Thou art mine now, and I must take thee into my cave. It isbetter to be under shelter than out of doors; and though there may besome use in thee while thou livest, it will comfort thee to think thatthou wilt sing sweetly when thou art dead. " So the child Hermes tookup his treasure in both arms, and carried it into the cavern. There hetook an iron probe, and pierced out the life of the tortoise; andquick as thought, he drilled holes in its shell, and fixed in themreed-canes. Then across the shell he fastened a piece of ox-hide, andwith seven sheep-gut cords he finished the making of his lyre. Presently he struck it with the bow, and a wave of sweet music swelledout upon the air. Like the merry songs of youths and maidens, as theysport in village feasts, rose the song of the child Hermes; and hiseyes laughed slyly as he sang of the loves of Zeus and Maia, and howhe himself was born of the mighty race of the gods. Still he sang on, telling of all that he saw around him in the home of the nymph, hismother, but all the while, as he sang, his mind was pondering on otherthings; and when the song was ended, he went forth from the cave, likea thief in the night, on his wily errand. The sun was hastening down the slope of heaven, with his chariot andhorses to the slow-rolling stream of Ocean, as Hermes came to theshadowy hills of Pieria, where the cattle of the gods fed in theirlarge pastures. There he took fifty from the herd, and made ready todrive them to the Kyllenian hill. But before him lay vast plains ofsand; and, therefore, lest the track of the cattle should tell thetale of his thieving, he drove the beasts round about by crookedpaths, until it seemed as though they had gone to the place fromwhence he had stolen them. He had taken good care that his ownfootsteps should not betray him, for with branches of tamarisk andmyrtle, well twisted with their leaves, he hastily made sandals, andsped away from Pieria. One man alone saw him, a very old man, who wasworking in his vineyard on the sunny plain of Onchestos. To him Hermeswent quickly, and said, "Old man, thou wilt have plenty of wine whenthese roots come all into bearing trim. Meanwhile keep a wise head onthy crumpled shoulders, and take heed not to remember more than may beconvenient. " [Illustration: PLUTO AND HIS WIFE. ] Onwards, over dark hills, and through sounding dells, and acrossflowery plains, hastened the child Hermes, driving his flock beforehim. The night waxed and waned, and the moon had climbed to herwatchtower in the heaven, when, in the flush of early morning, Hermesreached the banks of the great Alpheian stream. Then he turned hisherd to feed on the grassy plain, while he gathered logs of wood, and, rubbing two sticks together, kindled the first flame that burned uponthe earth where dwell the sons of men. The smoke went up to theheaven, and the flame crackled fiercely beneath it, as Hermes broughtforth two of the herd, and, tumbling them on their back, pierced outthe life of both. Their hides he placed on the hard rock; their fleshhe cut up into twelve portions; and so Hermes hath the right ofordering all sacrifices which the children of men offer to the undyinggods. But he ate not of the flesh or fat, although hunger sorelypressed him; and he burnt the bones in the fire, and tossed histamarisk sandals into the swift stream of Alpheios. Then he quenchedthe fire, and with all his might trampled down the ashes, until thepale moon rose up again in the sky. So he sped on his way to Kyllene. Neither god nor man saw him as he went, nor did the dogs bark. Earlyin the morning he reached his mother's cave, and darted through thekeyhole of the door, softly as a summer breeze. Without a sound hislittle feet paced the stony floor, till he reached his cradle and laydown, playing like a babe among the clothes with his left hand, whilethe right held the tortoise-lyre hidden underneath them. But, wily as he was, he could not cheat his mother. To his cradle shecame, and said, "Whither hast thou wandered in the dark night? Craftyrogue, mischief will be thy ruin. The son of Leto will soon be here, and bear thee away bound in chains not easily shaken off. Out of mysight, little wretch, born to worry the blessed gods and plague therace of men!" "Mother, " said Hermes, gently, "why talk thus to me, asthough I were like mortal babes, a poor cowering thing, to cry for alittle scolding? I know thy interest and mine: why should we stay herein this wretched cave, with never a gift nor a feast to cheer ourhearts? I shall not stay. It is pleasanter to banquet with the godsthan to dwell in a cavern in draughts of whistling wind. I shall trymy luck against Apollo, for I mean to be his peer; and if he will notsuffer me, and if Zeus, my father, take not up my cause, I will seewhat I can do for myself, by going to the shrine of Pytho and stealingthence the tripods and caldrons, the iron vessels and glitteringrobes. If I may not have honor in Olympos, I can at least be theprince of thieves. " Meanwhile, as they talked together, Eos rose up from the deep oceanstream, and her tender light flushed across the sky, while Apollohastened to Onchestos and the holy grove of Poseidon. There the oldman was at work in his vineyard, and to him Phœbus went quickly, andsaid, "Friend hedger, I am come from Pieria looking for my cows. Fiftyof them have been driven away, and the bull has been left behind withthe four dogs who guarded them. Tell me, old man, hast thou seen anyone with these cows, on the road?" But the old man said that it wouldbe a hard matter to tell of all that he might chance to see. "Manytravelers journey on this road, some with evil thoughts, some withgood; I can not well remember all. This only I know, that yesterday, from the rising of the sun to its setting, I was digging in myvineyard, and I think, but I am not sure, that I saw a child with aherd of cattle. A babe he was, and he held a staff in his hand, and, as he went, he wandered strangely from the path on either side. " Then Phœbus stayed not to hear more, for now he knew of a surety thatthe new-born son of Zeus had done him the mischief. Wrapped in apurple mist, he hastened to beautiful Pylos, and came on the track ofthe cattle. "O Zeus!" he cried, "this is indeed a marvel. I see thefootprints of cattle, but they are marked as though the cattle weregoing to the asphodel meadow, not away from it. Of man or woman, ofwolf, bear, or lion, I spy not a single trace. Only here and there Ibehold the footprints of some strange monster, who has left his markat random on either side of the road. " So on he sped to the woodyheights of Kyllene, and stood on the doorstep of Maia's cave. Straightway the child Hermes nestled under the cradle-clothes in fear, like a new-born babe asleep. But, seeing through all his craft, Phœbuslooked steadily through all the cave and opened three secret placesfull of the food and drink of the gods, and full also of gold andsilver and raiment; but not a cow was in any of them. At last he fixedhis eyes sternly on the child, and said, "Wily babe, where are mycows? If thou wilt not tell me, there will be strife between us; andthen I will hurl thee down to the gloomy Tartaros, to the land ofdarkness, whence neither thy father nor thy mother can bring theeback, and where thy kingdom shall be only over the ghosts of men. ""Ah!" said Hermes, "these are dreadful words, indeed; but why dostthou chide me thus, or come here to look for cows? I have not seen orheard of them, nor has any one told me of them. I can not tell wherethey are, or get the reward, if any were promised, for discoveringthem. This is no work of mine; what do I care for but for sleeping andsucking, and playing with my cradle-clothes, and being washed in warmwater? My friend, it will be much better that no one should hear ofsuch a silly quarrel. The undying gods would laugh at the very thoughtof a little babe leaving its cradle to run after cows. I was born butyesterday. My feet are soft, and the ground is hard. But if it be anycomfort to thee, I will swear by my father's head (and that is a verygreat oath) that I have not done this deed, nor seen any one elsesteal your cows, and that I do not know what cows are. " As he spoke he looked stealthily from one side to the other, while hiseyes winked slyly, and he made a long soft whistling sound, as if thewords of Phœbus had amused him mightily. "Well, friend, " said Apollo, with a smile, "thou wilt break into many a house, I see, and thyfollowers after thee; and thy fancy for beef will set many a herdsmangrieving. But come down from the cradle, or this sleep will be thylast. Only this honor can I promise thee, to be called the prince ofthieves forever. " So without more ado Phœbus caught up the babe in hisarms; but Hermes gave so mighty a sneeze that he quickly let him fall, and Phœbus said to him, gravely, "This is the sign that I shall findmy cows; show me, then, the way. " In great fear Hermes started up andpulled the cradle-clothes over his ears, as he said, "Cruel god, whatdost thou seek to do with me? Why worry me thus about cows? I wouldthere were not a cow in all the earth. I stole them not, nor have Iseen any one steal the cows, whatever things cows may be. I knownothing but their name. But come; Zeus must decide the quarrel betweenus. " Thus each with his own purpose spake to the other, and their mindsgrew all the darker, for Phœbus sought only to know where his cowsmight be, while Hermes strove only to cheat him. So they went quicklyand sulkily on, the babe first, and Phœbus following after him, tillthey came to the heights of Olympos and the home of the mighty Zeus. There Zeus sat on the throne of judgment, and all the undying godsstood around him. Before them in the midst stood Phœbus and the childHermes, and Zeus said, "Thou hast brought a fine booty after thy huntto-day, Phœbus--a child of a day old. A fine matter is this to putbefore the gods. " "My father, " said Apollo, quickly, "I have a tale to tell which willshow that I am not the only plunderer. After a weary search I foundthis babe in the cave of Kyllene; and a thief he is such as I havenever seen whether among gods or men. Yester eve he stole my cattlefrom the meadow, and drove them straight towards Pylos to the shore ofthe sounding sea. The tracks left were such that gods and men mightwell marvel at them. The footprints of the cows on the sand were asthough they were going to my meadows, and not away from them; his ownfootmarks beggar all words, as if he had gone neither on his feet noron his hands, and as if the oak tops had suddenly taken to walking. Sowas it on the sandy soil; and after this was passed, there remained nomarks at all. But an old man saw him driving them on the road toPylos. There he shut up the cattle at his leisure, and, going to hismother's cave, lay down in his cradle like a spark in a mass ofcinders, which an eagle could scarcely spy out. When I taxed him withthe theft he boldly denied it, and told me that he had not seen thecows or heard naught of them, and could not get the reward if one wereoffered for restoring them. " So the words of Phœbus were ended, and the child Hermes made obeisanceto Zeus, the lord of all the gods, and said, "Father Zeus, I shalltell thee the truth, for I am a very truthful being, and I know nothow to tell a lie. This morning, when the sun was but newly risen, Phœbus came to my mother's cave, looking for cows. He brought nowitnesses; but urged me by force to confess; he threatened to hurl meinto the abyss of Tartaros. Yet he has all the strength of earlymanhood, while I, as he knows, was born but yesterday, and am not inthe least like a cattle-reiver. Believe me (by thy love for me, thychild) that I have not brought these cows home, or passed beyond mymother's threshold. This is strict truth. Nay, by Helios and the othergods, I swear that I love thee and have respect for Phœbus. Thouknowest that I am guiltless, and, if thou wilt, I will also swear it. But, spite of all his strength, I will avenge myself some day onPhœbus for his unkindness; and then help thou the weaker. " So spake Hermes, winking his eyes and holding the clothes to hisshoulders; and Zeus laughed aloud at the wiliness of the babe, andbade Phœbus and the child be friends. Then he bowed his head andcharged Hermes to show the spot where he had hidden the cattle, andthe child obeyed, for none may despise that sign and live. To Pylosthey hastened and to the broad stream of Alpheios, and from the foldHermes drove forth the cattle. But as he stood apart, Apollo beheldthe hides flung on the rock, and he asked Hermes, "How wast thou able, cunning rogue, to flay two cows, thou a child but one day old? I fearthy might in time to come, and I can not let thee live. " Again heseized the child, and bound him fast with willow bands; but the childtore them from his body like flax, so that Phœbus marveled greatly. Invain Hermes sought a place wherein to hide himself, and great fearcame upon him till he thought of his tortoise-lyre. With his bow hetouched the strings, and the wave of song swelled out upon the airmore full and sweet than ever. He sang of the undying gods and thedark earth, how it was made at the first, and how to each of the godshis own appointed portion was given, till the heart of Apollo wasfilled with a mighty longing, and he spake to Hermes, and said, "Cattle-reiver, wily rogue, thy song is worth fifty head of cattle. We will settle our strife by and by. Meanwhile, tell me, was thiswondrous gift of song born with thee, or hast thou it as a gift fromany god or mortal man? Never on Olympos, from those who can not die, have I heard such strains as these. They who hear thee may have whatthey will, be it mirth, or love, or sleep. Great is thy power, andgreat shall be thy renown, and by my cornel staff I swear that I willnot stand in the way of thy honor or deceive thee in anywise. " Then said Hermes, "I grudge thee not my skill, son of Leto, for I seekbut thy friendship. Yet thy gifts from Zeus are great. Thou knowesthis mind, thou canst declare his will, and reveal what is stored up intime to come for undying gods or mortal men. This knowledge I fainwould have. But my power of song shall this day be thine. Take mylyre, the soother of the wearied, the sweet companion in hours ofsorrow or of feasting. To those who come skilled in its language, itcan discourse sweetly of all things, and drive away all thoughts thatannoy and cares that vex the soul. To those who touch it, not knowinghow to draw forth its speech, it will babble strange nonsense, andrave with uncertain moanings. But thy knowledge is born with thee, andso my lyre is thine. Wherefore now let us feed the herds together, andwith our care they shall thrive and multiply. There is no more causefor anger. " So saying the babe held out the lyre, and Phœbus Apollo took it. Inhis turn he gave to the child Hermes a glittering scourge, with chargeover his flocks and herds. Then, touching the chords of the lyre, hefilled the air with sweet music, and they both took their way toOlympos, and Zeus was glad at heart to see that the wrath of Apollohad passed away. But Phœbus dreaded yet the wiles of Hermes, and said, "I fear me much, child of Maia, that in time to come thou mayest stealboth my harp and my bow, and take away my honor among men. Come now, and swear to me by the dark water of Styx that thou wilt never do mewrong. " Then Hermes bowed his head, and swore never to steal anythingfrom Apollo, and never to lay hands on his holy shrine; and Phœbusswore that of all the undying gods there should be none so dear to himas Hermes. "And of this love, " he said, "I will give thee a pledge. Mygolden rod shall guard thee, and teach thee all that Zeus may say tome for the well or ill-doing of gods or men. But the higher knowledgefor which thou didst pray may not be thine; for that is hidden in themind of Zeus, and I have sworn a great oath that none shall learn itfrom me. But the man who comes to me with true signs, I will neverdeceive; and he who puts trust in false omens and then comes toinquire at my shrine, shall be answered according to his folly, buthis offering shall go into my treasure-house. Yet further, son ofMaia, in the clefts of Parnassos far away dwell the winged Thriai, whotaught me long ago the secret things of times to come. Go thou, then, to the three sisters, and thus shalt thou test them. If they haveeaten of the honeycomb before they speak, they will answer thee truly;but if they lack the sweet food of the gods, they will seek to leadastray those who come to them. These I give thee for thy counselors;only follow them warily; and have thou dominion over all flocks andherds, and over all living things that feed on the wide earth; and bethou the guide to lead the souls of mortal men to the dark kingdom ofHades. " So was the love of Apollo for Hermes made sure; and Hermes hath hisplace amongst all the deathless gods and dying men. Nevertheless, thesons of men have from him no great gain, for all night long he vexesthem with his treacherous wiles. THE SORROW OF DEMETER. In the fields of Enna, in the happy Island of Sicily, the beautifulPersephone was playing with the girls who lived there with her. Shewas the daughter of the lady Demeter, and every one loved them both, for Demeter was good and kind to all, and no one could be more gentleand merry than Persephone. She and her companions were gatheringflowers from the field, to make crowns for their long flowing hair. They had picked many roses and lilies and hyacinths, which grew inclusters around them, when Persephone thought she saw a splendidflower far off; and away she ran, as fast as she could, to get it. Itwas a beautiful narcissus, with a hundred heads springing from onestem; and the perfume which came from its flowers gladdened the broadheaven above, and the earth and sea around it. Eagerly Persephonestretched out her hand to take this splendid prize, when the earthopened, and a chariot stood before her, drawn by four coal-blackhorses; and in the chariot there was a man with a dark and solemnface, which looked as though he could never smile, and as though hehad never been happy. In a moment he got out of his chariot, seizedPersephone round the waist, and put her on the seat by his side. Thenhe touched the horses with his whip, and they drew the chariot downinto the great gulf, and the earth closed over them again. Presently the girls who had been playing with Persephone came up tothe place where the beautiful narcissus was growing; but they couldnot see her anywhere. And they said, "Here is the very flower whichshe ran to pick, and there is no place here where she can be hiding. "Still for a long time they searched through the fields of Enna; andwhen the evening was come they went home to tell the lady Demeter thatthey could not tell what had become of Persephone. Very terrible was the sorrow of Demeter when she was told that herchild was lost. She put a dark robe on her shoulders, and took aflaming torch in her hand, and went over land and sea to look forPersephone. But no one could tell her where she was gone. When tendays were passed she met Hekate, and asked her about her child; butHekate said, "I heard her voice, as she cried out when some one seizedher; but I did not see it with my eyes, and so I know not where she isgone. " Then she went to Helios, and said to him, "O Helios, tell meabout my child. Thou seest everything on the earth, sitting in thebright sun. " Then Helios said to Demeter, "I pity thee for thy greatsorrow, and I will tell thee the truth. It is Hades who has takenaway Persephone to be his wife in the dark and gloomy land which liesbeneath the earth. " [Illustration: CERES. (_or Demeter, from Pompeii Wall Painting_)] Then the rage of Demeter was more terrible than her sorrow had been;and she would not stay in the palace of Zeus, on the great Thessalianhill, because it was Zeus who had allowed Hades to take awayPersephone. So she went down from Olympos, and wandered on a long wayuntil she came to Eleusis, just as the sun was going down into hisgolden cup behind the dark blue hills. There Demeter sat down close toa fountain, where the water bubbled out from the green turf and fellinto a clear basin, over which some dark olive trees spread theirbranches. Just then the daughters of Keleos, the king of Eleusis, cameto the fountain with pitchers on their heads to draw water; and whenthey saw Demeter, they knew from her face that she must have somegreat grief; and they spoke kindly to her, and asked if they could doanything to help her. Then she told them how she had lost and wassearching for her child; and they said, "Come home and live with us;and our father and mother will give you everything that you can want, and do all that they can to soothe your sorrow. " So Demeter went downto the house of Keleos, and she stayed there for a whole year. And allthis time, although the daughters of Keleos were very gentle and kindto her, she went on mourning and weeping for Persephone. She neverlaughed or smiled, and scarcely ever did she speak to any one, becauseof her great grief. And even the earth, and the things which grow onthe earth, mourned for the sorrow which had come upon Demeter. Therewas no fruit upon the trees, no corn came up in the fields, and noflowers blossomed in the gardens. And Zeus looked down from his highThessalian hill, and saw that everything must die unless he couldsoothe the grief and anger of Demeter. So he sent Hermes down toHades, the dark and stern king, to bid him send Persephone to see hermother, Demeter. But before Hades let her go he gave her apomegranate to eat, because he did not wish her to stay away from himalways, and he knew that she must come back if she tasted but one ofhis pomegranate seeds. Then the great chariot was brought before thedoor of the palace, and Hermes touched with his whip the coal-blackhorses, and away they went as swiftly as the wind, until they cameclose to Eleusis. Then Hermes left Persephone, and the coal-blackhorses drew the chariot away again to the dark home of King Hades. The sun was sinking down in the sky when Hermes left Persephone, andas she came near to the fountain she saw some one sitting near it in along black robe, and she knew that it must be her mother who stillwept and mourned for her child. And as Demeter heard the rustling ofher dress, she lifted up her face, and Persephone stood before her. Then the joy of Demeter was greater, as she clasped her daughter toher breast, than her grief and her sorrow had been. Again and againshe held Persephone in her arms, and asked her about all that hadhappened to her. And she said, "Now that you are come back to me, Ishall never let you go away again; Hades shall not have my child tolive with him in his dreary kingdom, " But Persephone said, "It may notbe so, my mother; I can not stay with you always; for before Hermesbrought me away to see you, Hades gave me a pomegranate, and I haveeaten some of the seeds; and after tasting the seed I must go back tohim again when six months have passed by. And, indeed, I am not afraidto go, for although Hades never smiles or laughs, and everything inhis palace is dark and gloomy, still he is very kind to me, and Ithink that he feels almost happy since I have been his wife. But donot be sorry, my mother, for he has promised to let me come up andstay with you for six months in every year, and the other six months Imust spend with him in the land which lies beneath the earth. " So Demeter was comforted for her daughter Persephone, and the earthand all the things that grew in it felt that her anger and sorrow hadpassed away. Once more the trees bore their fruits, the flowers spreadout their sweet blossoms in the garden, and the golden corn waved likethe sea under the soft summer breeze. So the six months passed happilyaway, and then Hermes came with his coal-black horses to takePersephone to the dark land. And she said to her mother, "Do not weepmuch; the gloomy king whose wife I am is so kind to me that I can notbe really unhappy, and in six months more he will let me come to youagain. " But still, whenever the time came round for Persephone to goback to Hades, Demeter thought of the happy days when her child was amerry girl playing with her companions and gathering the brightflowers in the beautiful plains of Enna. THE SLEEP OF ENDYMION. One beautiful evening, when the sun was sinking down in the West, Selene was wandering on the banks of the River Meander; and shethought that of all the places which she had ever seen there was nonemore lovely than the quiet valley through which that gentle river wasflowing. On her right hand rose a hill, whose sides were covered withtrees and flowers, where the vine clambered over the elm, and thepurple grapes shone out from amongst the dark leaves. Then Seleneasked some people who were passing by to tell her the name of thehill, and they told her that it was called the hill of Latmos. On shewent, under the tall trees, whose branches waved over her in the clearevening light, till at last she reached the top, and looked down onthe valley which lay beneath her. Then Selene was indeed astonished, for she had never seen anything so beautiful before, even in a dream. She had fancied that nothing could be more lovely than the vale of theMeander, and now she saw something far more beautiful than the rocksand stones and clear bright water of that winding river. It was asmall valley, at the bottom of which a lake shone like silver in thelight of the setting sun. All around it beautiful trees covered thesloping banks; and their long branches drooped down over the water. Not a breath of wind was stirring the dark leaves--not a bird wasflying in the air. Only the large green dragon-fly floated lazily onthe lake, while the swan lay half asleep on the silvery waters. On oneside, in the loveliest corner of the valley, there was a marbletemple, whose pillars shone like the white snow; and, leading down tothe lake, there were steps of marble, over which the palm trees spreadtheir branches, and everywhere were clusters of all beautiful flowers, amongst which mosses, and ferns, and the green ivy were tangled. Therewas the white narcissus and the purple tulip--the dark hyacinth andthe soft red rose. But more beautiful than all the trees and flowers, a man lay sleeping on the marble steps of the temple. It was Endymion, who lived in this quiet valley, where the storms never came, and wherethe dark rain-clouds never covered the sides of the mountain. There helay in the still evening hour; and at first Selene thought that itcould scarcely be a living man whom she saw, for he lay as still asif he were made of marble himself. And as she looked upon him, Selenedrew in her breath for wonder; and she went gently down the valleytill she came to the steps where Endymion lay asleep. Presently thesun sank behind the hill, and the rich glow of the evening made thesilvery lake gleam like gold; and Endymion awoke and saw Selenestanding near him. Then Selene said, "I am wandering over the earth;and I may not stay here. Come away, and I will show you larger lakesand more glorious valleys than these. " But Endymion said, "Lady, I cannot go. There may be lakes which are larger, and valleys more splendidthan this, but I love this still and quiet place, where the stormsnever come, and the sky is never black with clouds. You must not askme to leave the cool shade of these sleeping trees, and the myrtlesand roses which twine under the tall elms, and these waters, where theswans rest in the hot hours of the day and the dragon-fly spreads hisgreen and golden wings to the sun. " [Illustration: JUNO (_or Here_). ] Many times did Selene ask him, but Endymion would not leave hispleasant home; and at last she said, "I can stay no more, but if youwill not come with me, then you shall sleep on these marble steps andnever wake up again. " So Selene left him, and presently a deep sleepcame over Endymion, and his hands dropped down by his side, and he laywithout moving on the steps of the temple, while the evening breezebegan to stir gently the broad leaves of the palm trees, and thelilies which bowed their heads over the calm water. There he lay allthrough the still and happy night; and there he lay when the sun roseup from the sea, and mounted up with its fiery horses into the sky. There was a charm now on this beautiful valley, which made the breezemore gentle and the lake more still than ever. The green dragon-fliescame floating lazily in the air near Endymion, but he never opened hiseyes; and the swans looked up from the lake, to see if he was comingto feed them; but he stirred not in his deep and dreamless sleep. There he lay day and night, for weeks, and months, and years; and manytimes, when the sun went down into the sea, Selene came and stood onthe Latmian hill, and watched Endymion as he lay asleep on the marblesteps beneath the drooping palm trees; and she said, "I have punishedhim because he would not leave his home; and Endymion sleeps foreverin the land of Latmos. " PHAETHON. In the golden house which Hephaistos had wrought for him with hiswondrous skill, Helios saw nothing fairer than his son Phaethon; andhe said to his mother, Klymene, that no mortal child might be matchedwith him for beauty. And Phaethon heard the words, and his heart wasfilled with an evil pride. So he stood before the throne of Helios, and said, "O father, who dwellest in the dazzling light, they say thatI am thy child; but how shall I know it while I live in thy housewithout name and glory? Give me a token, that men may know me to bethy son. " Then Helios bade him speak, and swear to grant his prayer;and Phaethon said, "I will guide thy chariot for one day through thehigh heaven; bid the Horai make ready the horses for me, when Eosspreads her quivering light in the sky. " But the heart of Helios wasfilled with fear, and he besought his son with many tears to call backhis words. "O Phaethon, bright child of Klymene, for all thy beautythou art mortal still; and the horses of Helios obey no earthlymaster. " But Phaethon harkened not to his words, and hastened away tothe dwelling of the Horai, who guard the fiery horses. "Make ready forme, " he said, "the chariot of Helios, for this day I go through thehigh heaven in the stead of my father. " The fair-haired Eos spread her faint light in the pale sky, andLampetie was driving the cattle of Helios to their bright pastures, when the Horai brought forth his horses and harnessed them to thefiery chariot. With eager hand Phaethon seized the reins, and thehorses sped upon their way up the heights of the blue heaven, untilthe heart of Phaethon was full of fear and the reins quivered in hisgrasp. Wildly and more madly sped the steeds, till at last theyhurried from the track which led to the Hesperian land. Down fromtheir path they plunged, and drew near to the broad plains of earth. Fiercer and fiercer flashed the scorching flames; the trees bowed downtheir withered heads; the green grass shriveled on the hillsides; therivers vanished from their slimy beds, and the black vapors rose withsmoke and fire from the hidden depths of the mighty hills. Then inevery land the sons of men lay dying on the scorched and gapingground. They looked up to the yellow sky, but the clouds came not;they sought the rivers and fountains, but no water glistened on theirseething beds; and young and old, all lay down in madness of heart tosleep the sleep of death. So sped the horses of Helios on their fiery wanderings, and Zeuslooked down from his Thessalian hill and saw that all living things onthe earth must die unless Phaethon should be smitten down from hisfather's chariot. Then the mighty thunders woke in the hot sky whichmourned for the clouds that were dead; and the streams of lightningrushed forth upon Phaethon, and bore him from the blazing heaven fardown beneath the waters of the green sea. But his sisters wept sore for the death of the bright Phaethon, andthe daughters of Hesperos built his tomb on the sea-shore, that allmen might remember the name of the son of Helios and say, "Phaethonfell from his father's chariot, but he lost not his glory, for hisheart was set upon great things. " BRIAREOS. There was strife in the halls of Olympos, for Zeus had conquered theancient gods, and sat on the throne of his father Kronos. In his handhe held the thunderbolts; the lightning slumbered at his feet, andaround him all the gods trembled for the greatness of his power. Forhe laid hard tasks on all, and spoke hard words, and he thought torule harshly over the gods who dwell on the earth and in the broadsea. All the day long Hermes toiled on weary errands to do his will;for Zeus sought to crush all alike, and remembered not the time whenhe, too, was weak and powerless. [Illustration: DIANA (_or Artemis_). ] Then were there secret whisperings, as the gods of earth and sea tookcounsel together; and Poseidon, the lord of the dark waters, spoke infierce anger, and said, "Hearken to me, Here and Athene, and let usrise up against Zeus, and teach him that he has not power over all. See how he bears himself in his new majesty--how he thinks not of theaid which we gave him in the war with his father Kronos--how he hassmitten down even the mightiest of his friends. For Prometheus, whogave fire to mortal men and saved them from biting cold and gnawinghunger, lies chained on the crags of Caucasus; and if he shrink not tobind the Titan, see that he smite not thee also in his wrath, O ladyHere. " And Athene said, "The wisdom of Zeus is departed from him, andall his deeds are done now in craft and falsehood; let us bind himfast, lest all the heaven and earth be filled with strife and war. " Sothey vowed a vow that they would no more bear the tyranny of Zeus; andHephaistos forged strong chains at their bidding to cast around himwhen sleep lay heavy on his eyelids. But Thetis heard the words of Poseidon and Athene, as she sat beneaththe waters in her coral cave, and she rose up like a white mist fromthe sea, and knelt before the throne of Zeus. Then she clasped herarms round his knees, and said, "O Zeus, the gods tremble at thymight, but they love not thy hard words, and they say that thy wisdomhath departed from thee, and that thou doest all things in craft andfalsehood. Hearken to me, O Zeus, for Hephaistos hath forged the chainand the lady Here, and Poseidon, the lord of the sea, and the pureAthene have vowed a vow to bind thee fast when sleep lies heavy onthine eyes. Let me therefore go, that I may bring Briareos to aid theewith his hundred hands, and when he sits by thy side, then shalt thouneed no more to fear the wrath of Here and Poseidon. And when theperil is past, then, O Zeus, remember that thou must rule gently andjustly, for that power shall not stand which fights with truth andlove; and forget not those who aid thee, nor reward them as thou hastrewarded Prometheus on the crags of Caucasus, for it may be that, intime to come, I may ask a boon from thee for Achilleus, my child, whodwells now in the house of his father, Peleus; and when that hourshall come, then call to mind how in time past I saved thee from thechains of Hephaistos. " Then Zeus spoke gently, and said, "Hasten, Thetis, and bring hitherthe mighty Briareos, that he may guard me with his hundred hands, andfear not for the words that thou hast spoken, for Zeus will not castaside good counsel, and the gods shall hate me no more for hard andunkindly words. " So from the depths of the inmost earth Thetis summoned Briareos to theaid of Zeus, and presently his giant form was seen in the hall ofOlympos; and the gods trembled as he sat down by the side of Zeus, exulting in the greatness of his strength. And Zeus spoke, and said, "Hearken to me, O lady Here, and Poseidon, and Athene. I know yourcounsels, and how ye purposed to bind me for my evil deeds; but fearnot. Only do my bidding in time to come, and ye shall no more havecause to say that Zeus is a hard and cruel master. " DIONYSOS. In the dark land beneath the earth, where wander the ghosts of men, lay Semele, the daughter of Kadmos, while her child Dionysos grew upfull of strength and beauty on the flowery plain of Orchomenos. Butthe wrath of the lady Here still burned alike against the mother andthe child. No pity felt she for the helpless maiden whom the fierylightning of Zeus had slain; and so in the prison-house of HadesSemele mourned for the love which she had lost, waiting till her childshould lead her forth to the banquet of the gods. But for him thewiles of Here boded long toil and grievous peril. On the land and onthe sea strange things befel him; but from all dangers his own strongarm and the love of Zeus, his father, rescued him. Thus throughout theland men spake of his beauty and his strength, and said that he wasworthy to be the child of the maiden who had dared to look on themajesty of Zeus. At length the days of his youth were ended, and agreat yearning filled his heart to wander through the earth andbehold the cities and the ways of men. So from Orchomenos Dionysosjourneyed to the sea-shore, and he stood on a jutting rock to gaze onthe tumbling waters. The glad music of the waves fell upon his ear andfilled his soul with a wild joy. His dark locks streamed gloriouslyover his shoulders, and his purple robe rustled in the soft summerbreeze. Before him on the blue waters the ships danced merrily in thesparkling sunlight, as they hastened from shore to shore on theerrands of war and peace. Presently a ship drew near to the beach. Herwhite sail was lowered hastily to the deck, and five of her crewleaped out and plunged through the sea-foam to the shore, near therock on which stood Dionysos. "Come with us, " they said, with roughvoices, as they seized him in their brawny arms; "it is not every daythat Tyrrhenian mariners fall in with youths like thee. " With rudejests they dragged him into the ship, and there made ready to bindhim. "A brave youth and fair he is, " they said; "we shall not lackbidders when we put forth our goods for sale. " So round his limbs theyfastened stout withy bands, but they fell from off him as witheredleaves fall from off trees in autumn, and a careless smile played onhis face as he sat down and looked calmly on the robbers who stoodbefore him. Then on a sudden the voice of the helmsman was heard, ashe shouted, "Fools, what do ye? The wrath of Zeus is hurrying you toyour doom. This youth is not of mortal race; and who can tell which ofthe undying gods has put on this beautiful form? Send him straightwayfrom the ship in peace, if ye fear not a deadly storm as we cross theopen sea. " Loud laughed the crew, as their chief answered, jeeringly, "Look out for the breeze, wise helmsman, and draw up the sail to thewind. That is more thy task than to busy thyself with our doings. Fearnot for the boy. The withy bands were but weak; it is no great marvelthat he shook them off. He shall go with us, and before we reach Egyptor Cyprus or the land of the Hyperboreans, doubtless he will tell ushis name and the name of his father and mother. Fear not, we havefound a godsend. " So the sail was drawn up to the mast, and it swelled proudly beforethe breeze as the ship dashed through the crested waves. And still thesun shone brightly down on the water, and the soft white cloudsfloated lazily in the heavens, as the mighty Dionysos began to showsigns and wonders before the robbers who had seized him. Over the deckran a stream of purple wine, and a fragrance as of a heavenly banquetfilled the air. Over mast and sailyard clambered the clustering vine, and dark masses of grapes hung from the branches. The ivy twined intangled masses round the tackling, and bright garlands shone, likejeweled crowns, on every oar-pin. Then a great terror fell on all, asthey cried to the old helmsman, "Quick, turn the ship to the shore;there is no hope for us here. " But there followed a mightier wonderstill. A loud roar broke upon the air, and a tawny lion stood beforethem, with a grim and grizzly bear by his side. Cowering like pitifulslaves, the Tyrrhenians crowded to the stern, and crouched round thegood helmsman. Then the lion sprang and seized the chief, and the menleaped in their agony over the ship's side. But the power of Dionysosfollowed them still; and a change came over their bodies as they hearda voice, which said, "In the form of dolphins shall ye wander throughthe sea for many generations. No rest shall ye have by night or byday, while ye fly from the ravenous sharks that shall chase youthrough the seas. " But before the old helmsman again stood Dionysos, the young and fair, in all the glory of undying beauty. Again his dark locks flowed gentlyover his shoulders, and the purple robe rustled softly in the breeze. "Fear not, " he said, "good friend and true, because thou hast aidedone who is sprung from the deathless race of the gods. I am Dionysos, the child of Zeus, the lord of the wine-cup and the revel. Thou haststood by me in the hour of peril; wherefore my power shall shield theefrom the violence of evil men and soothe thee in a green old age, tillthine eyes close in the sleep of death and thou goest forth to dwellamong brave heroes and good men in the asphodel meadows of Elysium. " Then at the bidding of Dionysos, the north wind came and wafted theship to the land of Egypt, where Proteus was King. And so began thelong wanderings of the son of Semele, through the regions of theEthiopians and the Indians, towards the rising of the sun. Whithersoever he went, the women of the land gathered round him withwild cries and songs, and he showed them of his secret things, punishing grievously all who set at naught the laws which he ordained. So, at his word, Lykurgos, the Edonian chieftain, was slain by hispeople, and none dared any more to speak against Dionysos, until hecame back to the city where Semele, his mother, had been smitten bythe lightnings of Zeus. PENTHEUS. For many years Dionysos wandered far away from the land of his birth;and wherever he went he taught the people of the country to worshiphim as a god, and showed them strange rites. Far away he roamed, tothe regions where the Ganges rolls his mighty stream into the IndianSea, and where the Nile brings every year rich gifts from the southernmountains. And in all the lands to which he came he made the womengather round him and honor him with wild cries and screams andmarvelous customs such as they had never known before. As he wentonwards the face of the land was changed. The women grouped themselvesin companies far away from the sight of men, and, high up on thebarren hills or down in the narrow valleys, with wild movements andfierce shoutings, paid honor to Dionysos, the lord of the wine-cup andthe feast. At length, through the Thracian highlands and the softplains of Thessaly, Dionysos came back to Thebes, where he had beenborn amid the roar of the thunder and the blaze of the fierylightning. Kadmos, the King, who had built the city, was now old andweak, and he had made Pentheus, the child of his daughter Agave, Kingin his stead. So Pentheus sought to rule the people well, as hisfather Kadmos had done, and to train them in the old laws, that theymight be quiet in the days of peace, and orderly and brave in war. [Illustration: VULCAN (_or Hephaistos_). ] Thus it came to pass that when Dionysos came near to Thebes, andcommanded all the people to receive the new rites, which he sought toteach them, it grieved Pentheus at the heart; and when he saw how thewomen seemed smitten with madness, and that they wandered away ingroups to desert places, where they lurked for many days and nights, far from the sight of men, he mourned for the evils which his kinsman, Dionysos, was bringing upon the land. So King Pentheus made a law thatnone should follow these new customs, and that the women should stayquietly doing their own work in their homes. But when they heard this, they were all full of fury, for Dionysos had deceived them by histreacherous words, and even Kadmos himself, in his weakness and oldage, had been led astray by them. In crowds they thronged around thehouse of Pentheus, raising loud shouts in honor of Dionysos, andbesought him to follow the new way, but he would not hearken to them. Thus it was for many days; and when all the city was shaken by themadness of the new worship, Pentheus thought that he would see withhis own eyes the strange rites by which the women, in theirlurking-places, did honor to Dionysos. So he went secretly to somehidden dells, whither he knew that the women had gone; but Dionysossaw him and laid his hands upon him, and straightway the mind of KingPentheus himself was darkened, and the madness of the worshipers wasupon him, also. Then in his folly he climbed a tall pine-tree, to seewhat the women did in their revelry; but on a sudden one of them sawhim, and they shrieked wildly and rooted up the tree in their fury. With one accord they seized Pentheus and tore him in pieces; and hisown mother, Agave, was among the first to lay hands on her son. SoDionysos, the wine god, triumphed; and this was the way in which thenew worship was set up in the Hellenic land. ASKLEPIOS. On the shores of the Lake Boibeis, the golden-haired Apollo saw andloved Koronis, the beautiful daughter of Phlegyas. Many a time theywandered beneath the branching elms while the dew-drops glistened likejewels on the leaves, or sat beneath the ivy bowers as the light ofevening faded from the sky and the blue veil of mist fell upon thesleeping hills. But at length the day came when Apollo must journey tothe western land, and as he held Koronis in his arms, his voice fellsoftly and sadly on her ear. "I go, " he said, "to a land that is veryfar off, but surely I will return. More precious to me than aught elseon the wide earth is thy love, Koronis. Let not its flower fade, butkeep it fresh and pure as now, till I come to thee again. The dancingHorai trip quickly by, Koronis, and when they bring the day on which Imay clasp thee in mine arms once more, it may be that I shall findthee watching proudly over the child of our love. " He was gone, and for Koronis it seemed as though the sun had ceased toshine in the heaven. For many a day she cared not to wander by thewinding shore in the light of early morning, or to rest in the myrtlebowers as the flush of evening faded from the sky. Her thoughts wentback to the days that were passed, when Apollo, the golden-haired, made her glad with the music of his voice. But at length a strangercame to the Boibean land, and dwelt in the house of Phlegyas, and thespell of his glorious beauty fell upon Koronis, and dimmed the lovewhich she had borne for Apollo, who was far away. Again for her thesun shone brightly in the heaven, and the birds filled the air with ajoyous music, but the tale went swiftly through the land, and Apolloheard the evil tidings as he journeyed back with his sister, Artemis, to the house of Phlegyas. A look of sorrow that may not be told passedover his fair face; but Artemis stretched forth her hand towards theflashing sun and swore that the maiden should rue her fickleness. Soon, on the shore of the Lake Boibeis, Koronis lay smitten by thespear which may never miss its mark, and her child, Asklepios, lay ahelpless babe by her side. Then the voice of Apollo was heard saying, "Slay not the child with the mother, he is born to do great things, but bear him to the wise centaur, Cheiron, and bid him train the boyin all his wisdom, and teach him to do brave deeds, that men maypraise his name in the generations that shall be hereafter. " So in the deep glens of Pelion the child, Asklepios, grew up tomanhood under the teaching of Cheiron, the wise and good. In all theland there was none that might vie with him in strength of body; butthe people marveled yet more at his wisdom, which passed the wisdom ofthe sons of men, for he had learned the power of every herb and leafto stay the pangs of sickness and bring back health to the wastedform. Day by day the fame of his doings was spread abroad more widelythrough the land, so that all who were sick hastened to Asklepios andbesought his help. But soon there went forth a rumor that the strengthof death had been conquered by him, and that Athene, the mightydaughter of Zeus, had taught Asklepios how to bring back the dead fromthe dark kingdom of Hades. Then, as the number of those whom hebrought from the gloomy Stygian land increased more and more, Hadeswent in hot anger to Olympos, and spoke bitter words against the sonof Koronis, so that the heart of Zeus was stirred with a great fearlest the children of men should be delivered from death and defy thepower of the gods. Then Zeus bowed his head, and the lightningsflashed from heaven, and Asklepios was smitten down by the scathingthunderbolt. Mighty and terrible was the grief that stirred the soul of thegolden-haired Apollo when his son was slain. The sun shone dimly fromthe heaven; the birds were silent in the darkened groves; the treesbowed down their heads in sorrow, and the hearts of all the sons ofmen fainted within them, because the healer of their pains andsickness lived no more upon the earth. But the wrath of Apollo wasmightier than his grief, and he smote the giant Cyclopes, who shapedthe fiery lightnings far down in the depths of the burning mountain. Then the anger of Zeus was kindled against his own child, thegolden-haired Apollo, and he spake the word that he should be banishedfrom the home of the gods to the dark Stygian land. But the lady Letofell at his knees and besought him for her child, and the doom wasgiven that a whole year long he should serve as a bondsman in thehouse of Admetos, who ruled in Pherai. IXION. Fair as the blushing clouds which float in early morning across theblue heaven, the beautiful Dia gladdened the hearts of all who dweltin the house of her father Hesioneus. There was no guile in her softclear eye, for the light of Eos was not more pure than the light ofthe maiden's countenance. There was no craft in her smile, for on herrested the love and the wisdom of Athene. Many a chieftain sought towin her for his bride; but her heart beat with love only for Ixion thebeautiful and mighty, who came to the halls of Hesioneus with horseswhich can not grow old or die. The golden hair flashed a glory fromhis head dazzling as the rays which stream from Helios when he driveshis chariot up the heights of heaven, and his flowing robe glistenedas he moved like the vesture which the sun-god gave to the wise maidenMedeia, who dwelt in Kolchis. [Illustration: MINERVA, OR PALLAS ATHENE. (_Found in Pompeii. _)] Long time Ixion abode in the house of Hesioneus, for Hesioneus wasloth to part with his child. But at the last Ixion sware to give forher a ransom precious as the golden fruits which Helios wins from theteeming earth. So the word was spoken, and Dia the fair became thewife of the son of Amythaon, and the undying horses bare her away inhis gleaming chariot. Many a day and month and year the fiery steedsof Helios sped on their burning path, and sank down hot and wearied inthe western sea; but no gifts came from Ixion, and Hesioneus waited invain for the wealth which had tempted him to barter away his child. Messenger after messenger went and came, and always the tidings werethat Ixion had better things to do than to waste his wealth on themean and greedy. "Tell him, " he said, "that every day I journey acrossthe wide earth, gladdening the hearts of the children of men, and thathis child has now a more glorious home than that of the mighty godswho dwell on the high Olympos. What would he have more?" Then day byday Hesioneus held converse with himself, and his people heard thewords which came sadly from his lips. "What would I more?" he said; "Iwould have the love of my child. I let her depart, when not the wealthof Phœbus himself could recompense me for her loss. I bartered her forgifts, and Ixion withholds the wealth which he sware to give. Yet wereall the riches of his treasure-house lying now before me, one lovingglance from the eyes of Dia would be more than worth them all. " But when his messengers went yet again to plead with Ixion, and theirwords were all spoken in vain, Hesioneus resolved to deal craftily, and he sent his servants by night and stole the undying horses whichbare his gleaming chariot. Then the heart of Ixion was humbled withinhim, for he said, "My people look for me daily throughout the wideearth. If they see not my face their souls will faint with fear; theywill not care to sow their fields, and the golden harvests of Demeterwill wave no more in the summer breeze. " So there came messengersfrom Ixion, who said, "If thou wouldst have the wealth which thouseekest, come to the house of Ixion, and the gifts shall be thine, andthine eyes shall once more look upon thy child. " In haste Hesioneuswent forth from his home, like a dark and lonely cloud stealing acrossthe broad heaven. All night long he sped upon his way, and, as thelight of Eos flushed the eastern sky he saw afar off the form of afair woman who beckoned to him with her long white arms. Then theheart of the old man revived, and he said, "It is Dia, my child. It isenough if I can but hear her voice and clasp her in mine arms anddie. " But his limbs trembled for joy, and he waited until presentlyhis daughter came and stood beside him. On her face there rested asofter beauty than in former days, and the sound of her voice was moretender and loving, as she said, "My father, Zeus has made clear to memany dark things, for he has given me power to search out the secrettreasures of the earth, and to learn from the wise beings who lurk inits hidden places the things that shall be hereafter. And now I seethat thy life is well-nigh done, if thou seekest to look upon thetreasures of Ixion, for no man may gaze upon them and live. Go back, then, to thy home if thou wouldst not die. I would that I might comewith thee, but so it may not be. Each day I must welcome Ixion whenhis fiery horses come back from their long journey, and every morningI must harness them to his gleaming chariot before he speeds upon hisway. Yet thou hast seen my face and thou knowest that I love thee noweven as in the days of my childhood. " But the old greed filled againthe heart of Hesioneus, and he said, "The faith of Ixion is pledged. If he withhold still the treasures which he sware to give, he shallnever more see the deathless horses. I will go myself into histreasure-house, and see whether in very truth he has the wealth ofwhich he makes such proud boasting. " Then Dia clasped her arms onceagain around her father, and she kissed his face, and said, sadly, "Farewell, then, my father; I go to my home, for even the eyes of Diamay not gaze on the secret treasures of Ixion. " So Dia left him, andwhen the old man turned to look on her departing form it faded fromhis sight as the clouds melt away before the sun at noon-day. Yet, once again he toiled on his way, until before his glorious home he sawIxion, radiant as Phœbus Apollo in his beauty; but there was anger inhis kindling eye, for he was wroth for the theft of his undyinghorses. Then the voice of Ixion smote the ear of Hesioneus, harsh asthe flapping of the wings of Erinys when she wanders through the air. "So thou wilt see my secret treasures. Take heed that thy sight bestrong. " But Hesioneus spake in haste, and said, "Thy faith ispledged, not only to let me see them, but to bestow them on me as myown, for therefore didst thou win Dia my child to be thy wife. " ThenIxion opened the door of his treasure-house and thrust in Hesioneus, and the everlasting fire devoured him. But far above, in the pure heaven, Zeus beheld the deed of Ixion, andthe tidings were sent abroad to all the gods of Olympos, and to allthe sons of men, that Ixion had slain Hesioneus by craft and guile. Ahorror of great blackness fell on the heaven above and the earthbeneath for the sin of which Zeus alone can purge away the guilt. Oncemore Dia made ready her husband's chariot, and once more he sped onhis fiery journey; but all men turned away their faces, and the treesbowed their scorched and withered heads to the ground. The flowersdrooped sick on their stalks and died, the corn was kindled like driedstubble on the earth, and Ixion said within himself, "My sin is great;men will not look upon my face as in the old time, and the gods ofOlympos will not cleanse my hands from the guilt of my treacherousdeed. " So he went straightway and fell down humbly before the throneof Zeus, and said, "O thou that dwellest in the pure æther far abovethe dark cloud, my hands are foul with blood, and thou alone canstcleanse them; therefore purge mine iniquity, lest all living thingsdie throughout the wide earth. " Then the undying gods were summoned to the judgment seat of Zeus. Bythe side of the son of Kronos stood Hermes, ever bright and fair, themessenger who flies on his golden sandals more swiftly than a dream;but fairer and more glorious than all who stood near his throne wasthe lady Here, the queen of the blue heaven. On her brow rested themajesty of Zeus and the glory of a boundless love which sheds gladnesson the teeming earth and the broad sea. And even as he stood beforethe judgment-seat, the eyes of Ixion rested with a strange yearning onher undying beauty, and he scarce heard the words which cleansed himfrom blood-guiltiness. So Ixion tarried in the house of Zeus, far above in the pure æther, where only the light clouds weave a fairy net-work at the rising andsetting of the sun. Day by day his glance rested more warm and lovingon the countenance of the lady Here, and Zeus saw that her heart, too, was kindled by a strange love, so that a fierce wrath was stirredwithin him. Presently he called Hermes, the messenger, and said, "Bring up fromamong the children of Nephele one who shall wear the semblance of thelady Here, and place her in the path of Ixion when he wanders forth onthe morrow. " So Hermes sped away on his errand, and on that day Ixionspake secretly with Here, and tempted her to fly from the house ofZeus. "Come with me, " he said; "the winds of heaven can not vie inspeed with my deathless horses, and the palace of Zeus is but as thehouse of the dead by the side of my glorious home. " Then the heart ofIxion bounded with a mighty delight, as he heard the words of Here. "To-morrow I will meet thee in the land of the children of Nephele. "So on the morrow when the light clouds had spread their fairy net-workover the heaven, Ixion stole away from the house of Zeus to meet thelady Here. As he went, the fairy web faded from the sky, and it seemedto him that the lady Here stood before him in all her beauty. "Here, great queen of the unstained heaven, " he said, "come with me, for I amworthy of thy love, and I quail not for all the majesty of Zeus. " Buteven as he stretched forth his arms, the bright form vanished away. The crashing thunder rolled through the sky, and he heard the voice ofZeus saying, "I cleansed thee from thy guilt, I sheltered thee in myhome, and thou hast dealt with me treacherously, as thou didst beforewith Hesioneus. Thou hast sought the love of Here, but the maidenwhich stood before thee was but a child of Nephele, whom Hermesbrought hither to cheat thee with the semblance of the wife of Zeus. Wherefore hear thy doom. No more shall thy deathless horses speed withthy glistening chariot over the earth, but high in the heaven ablazing wheel shall bear thee through the rolling years, and the doomshall be on thee for ever and ever. " So was Ixion bound on the fiery wheel, and the sons of men see theflashing spokes day by day as it whirls in the high heaven. TANTALOS. Beneath the mighty rocks of Sipylos stood the palace of Tantalos, thePhrygian King, gleaming with the blaze of gold and jewels. Itsburnished roofs glistened from afar like the rays which dance onruffled waters. Its marble columns flashed with hues rich as the huesof purple clouds which gather round the sun as he sinks down in thesky. And far and wide was known the name of the mighty chieftain, whowas wiser than all the sons of mortal men; for his wife, Euryanassa, they said, came of the race of the undying gods, and to Tantalos Zeushad given the power of Helios, that he might know his secret counselsand see into the hidden things of earth and air and sea. Many a time, so the people said, he held converse with Zeus himself in his home, onthe high Olympos, and day by day his wealth increased, his flocks andherds multiplied exceedingly, and in his fields the golden corn wavedlike a sunlit sea. But, as the years rolled round, there were dark sayings spread abroad, that the wisdom of Tantalos was turned to craft, and that his wealthand power were used for evil ends. Men said that he had sinned likePrometheus, the Titan, and had stolen from the banquet-hall of Zeusthe food and drink of the gods, and given them to mortal men. Andtales yet more strange were told, how that Panderos brought to him thehound which Rhea placed in the cave of Dikte to guard the child, Zeus, and how, when Hermes bade him yield up the dog, Tantalos laughed himto scorn, and said, "Dost thou ask me for the hound which guarded Zeusin the days of his childhood? It were as well to ask me for the unseenbreeze which sounds through the groves of Sipylos. " Then, last of all, men spake in whispers of a sin yet more fearful, which Tantalos had sinned, and the tale was told that Zeus and all thegods came down from Olympos to feast in his banquet-hall, and how, when the red wine sparkled in the golden goblets, Tantalos placedsavory meat before Zeus, and bade him eat of a costly food, and, whenthe feast was ended, told him that in the dish had lain the limbs ofthe child Pelops, whose sunny smile had gladdened the hearts of mortalmen. Then came the day of vengeance, for Zeus bade Hermes bring backPelops again from the kingdom of Hades to the land of living men, andon Tantalos was passed a doom which should torment him for ever andever. In the shadowy region where wander the ghosts of men, Tantalos, they said, lay prisoned in a beautiful garden, gazing on brightflowers and glistening fruits and laughing waters, but for all thathis tongue was parched, and his limbs were faint with hunger. No dropof water might cool his lips, no luscious fruit might soothe hisagony. If he bowed his head to drink, the water fled away; if hestretched forth his hand to pluck the golden apples, they would vanishlike mists before the face of the rising sun, and in place of ripefruits glistening among green leaves, a mighty rock beetled above hishead, as though it must fall and grind him to powder. Wherefore mensay, when the cup of pleasure is dashed from the lips of those whowould drink of it, that on them has fallen the doom of the PhrygianTantalos. [Illustration: ANCIENT SCULPTURING ON TANTALOS. ] THE TOILS OF HERAKLES. By the doom of his father Zeus, Herakles served in Argos the false andcruel Eurystheus. For so it was that Zeus spake of the birth ofHerakles to Here, the Queen, and said, "This day shall a child be bornof the race of Perseus, who shall be the mightiest of the sons ofmen. " Even so he spake, because Ate had deceived him by her evilcounsel. And Here asked whether this should be so in very deed, andZeus bowed his head, and the word went forth which could not berecalled. Then Here went to the mighty Eileithyiai, and by their aidshe brought it about that Eurystheus was born before Herakles the sonof Zeus. [Illustration: URANIA (_Muse of Astronomy_). ] So the lot was fixed that all his life long Herakles should toil atthe will of a weak and crafty master. Brave in heart and stout ofbody, so that no man might be matched with him for strength or beauty, yet was he to have no profit of all his labor till he should come tothe land of the undying gods. But it grieved Zeus that the craft ofHere, the Queen, had brought grievous wrong on his child, and he castforth Ate from the halls of Olympos, that she might no more dwellamong the gods. Then he spake the word that Herakles should dwell withthe gods in Olympos, as soon as the days of his toil on earth shouldbe ended. Thus the child grew in the house of Amphitryon, full of beauty andmight, so that men marveled at his great strength; for as he lay oneday sleeping, there came two serpents into the chamber, and twistedtheir long coils round the cradle, and peered upon him with theircold glassy eyes, till the sound of their hissing woke him from hisslumber. But Herakles trembled not for fear, but he stretched forthhis arms and placed his hands on the serpents' necks, and tightenedhis grasp more and more till they fell dead on the ground. Then allknew by this sign that Herakles must do great things and suffer manysorrows, but that in the end he should win the victory. So the childwaxed great and strong, and none could be matched with him forstrength of arm and swiftness of foot and in taming of horses and inwrestling. The best men in Argos were his teachers, and the wisecentaur Cheiron was his friend, and taught him ever to help the weakand take their part against any who oppressed them. So, for all hisgreat strength, none were more gentle than Herakles, none more full ofpity for those who were bowed down by pain and labor. But it was a sore grief to Herakles that all his life long he musttoil for Eurystheus, while others were full of joy and pleasure andfeasted at tables laden with good things. And so it came to pass thatone day, as he thought of these things, he sat down by the wayside, where two paths met, in a lonely valley far away from the dwellings ofmen. Suddenly, as he lifted up his eyes, he saw two women comingtowards him, each from a different road. They were both fair to lookupon; but the one had a soft and gentle face, and she was clad in aseemly robe of pure white. The other looked boldly at Herakles, andher face was more ruddy, and her eyes shone with a hot and restlessglare. From her shoulders streamed the long folds of her softembroidered robe, which scantily hid the beauty of her form beneath. With a quick and eager step she hastened to Herakles, that she mightbe the first to speak. And she said, "I know, O man of much toil andsorrow, that thy heart is sad within thee, and that thou knowest notwhich way thou shalt turn. Come then with me, and I will lead thee ona soft and pleasant road, where no storms shall vex thee and nosorrows shall trouble thee. Thou shalt never hear of wars and battles, and sickness and pain shall not come nigh to thee; but all day longshalt thou feast at rich banquets and listen to the songs ofminstrels. Thou shalt not want for sparkling wine, and soft robes, andpleasant couches; thou shalt not lack the delights of love, for thebright eyes of maidens shall look gently upon thee, and their songsshall lull thee to sleep in the soft evening hour, when the stars comeout in the sky. " And Herakles said, "Thou promisest to me pleasantthings, lady, and I am sorely pressed down by a hard master. What isthy name?" "My friends, " said she, "call me the happy and joyous one;and they who look not upon me with love have given me an evil name, but they speak falsely. " Then the other spake, and said, "O Herakles, I, too, know whence thouart, and the doom which is laid upon thee, and how thou hast lived andtoiled even from the days of thy childhood; and therefore I think thatthou wilt give me thy love, and if thou dost, then men shall speak ofthy good deeds in time to come, and my name shall be yet more exalted. But I have no fair words wherewith to cheat thee. Nothing good is everreached without labor; nothing great is ever won without toil. If thouseek for fruit from the earth thou must tend and till it; if thouwouldst have the favor of the undying gods thou must come before themwith prayers and offerings; if thou longest for the love of men thoumust do them good. " Then the other brake in upon her words, and said, "Thou seest, Herakles, that Arete seeks to lead thee on a long andweary path, but my broad and easy road leads thee quickly tohappiness. " Then Arete answered her (and her eye flashed with anger), "O wretched one, what good thing hast thou to give, and what pleasurecanst thou feel, who knowest not what it is to toil? Thy lusts arepampered, thy taste is dull. Thou quaffest the rich wine before thouart thirsty, and fillest thyself with dainties before thou arthungry. Though thou art numbered amongst the undying ones the godshave cast thee forth out of heaven, and good men scorn thee. Thesweetest of all sounds, when a man's heart praises him, thou hastnever heard; the sweetest of all sights, when a man looks on his gooddeeds, thou has never seen. They who bow down to thee are weak andfeeble in youth, and wretched and loathsome in old age. But I dwellwith the gods in heaven and with good men on earth; and without menothing good and pure may be thought and done. More than all others amI honored by the gods, more than all others am I cherished by the menwho love me. In peace and in war, in health and in sickness, I am theaid of all who seek me; and my help never fails. My children know thepurest of all pleasures, when the hour of rest comes after the toil ofday. In youth they are strong, and their limbs are quick with health;in old age they look back upon a happy life; and when they lie down tothe sleep of death their name is cherished among men for their braveand good deeds. Love me, therefore, Herakles, and obey my words, andthou shalt dwell with me, when thy toil is ended, in the home of theundying gods. " Then Herakles bowed down his head and sware to follow her counsels;and when the two maidens passed away from his sight he went forth witha good courage to his labor and suffering. In many a land he sojournedand toiled to do the will of the false Eurystheus. Good deeds he didfor the sons of men; but he had no profit of all his labor, save thelove of the gentle Iole. Far away in Œchalia, where the sun rises fromthe eastern sea, he saw the maiden in the halls of Eurytos, and soughtto win her love. But the word which Zeus spake to Here, the Queen, gave him no rest; and Eurystheus sent him forth to other lands, and hesaw the maiden no more. But Herakles toiled on with a good heart, and soon the glory of hisgreat deeds were spread abroad throughout all the earth. Minstrelssang how he slew the monsters and savage beasts who vexed the sons ofmen, how he smote the Hydra in the land of Lernai, and the wild boar, which haunted the groves of Erymanthos, and the Harpies, who lurked inthe swamps of Stymphalos. They told how he wandered far away to theland of the setting sun, when Eurystheus bade him pluck the goldenapples from the garden of the Hesperides--how, over hill and dale, across marsh and river, through thicket and forest, he came to thewestern sea, and crossed to the African land, where Atlas lifts up hiswhite head to the high heaven--how he smote the dragon which guardedthe brazen gates, and brought the apples to King Eurystheus. They sangof his weary journey, when he roamed through the land of theEthiopians and came to the wild and desolate heights of Caucasus--howhe saw a giant form high on the naked rock, and the vulture whichgnawed the Titan's heart with its beak. They told how he slew thebird, and smote off the cruel chains, and set Prometheus free. Theysang how Eurystheus laid on him a fruitless task, and sent him down tothe dark land of King Hades to bring up the monster, Kerberos; how, upon the shore of the gloomy Acheron, he found the mighty hound whoguards the home of Hades and Persephone; how he seized him in hisstrong right hand and bore him to King Eurystheus. They sang of thedays when he toiled in the land of Queen Omphale, beneath the Libyansun; how he destroyed the walls of Ilion when Laomedon was King, andhow he went to Kalydon and wooed and won Deianeira, the daughter ofthe chieftain, Oineus. Long time he abode in Kalydon, and the people of the land loved himfor his kindly deeds. But one day his spear smote the boy, Eunomos, and his father was not angry, because he knew that Herakles sought notto slay him. Yet Herakles would go forth from the land, for his heartwas grieved for the death of the child. So he journeyed to the banksof the Evenos, where he smote the centaur, Nessos, because he soughtto lay hands on Deianeira. Swiftly the poison from the barb of thespear ran through the centaur's veins; but Nessos knew how to avengehimself on Herakles, and with a faint voice he besought Deianeira tofill a shell with his blood, so that, if ever she lost the love ofHerakles, she might win it again by spreading it on a robe for him towear. So Nessos died, and Herakles went to the land of Trachis, and thereDeianeira abode while he journeyed to the eastern sea. Many times themoon waxed and waned in the heaven, and the corn sprang up from theground and gave its golden harvest, but Herakles came not back. Atlast the tidings came how he had done great deeds in distant lands, how Eurytos, the King of Œchalia, was slain, and how, among thecaptives, was the daughter of the King, the fairest of all the maidensof the land. Then the words of Nessos came back to Deianeira, and she hastened toanoint a broidered robe, for she thought only that the love ofHerakles had passed away from her, and that she must win it to herselfagain. So with words of love and honor, she sent the gift for Heraklesto put on, and the messenger found him on the Keneian shore, where hewas offering rich sacrifice to Zeus, his father, and gave him thebroidered robe in token of the love of Deianeira. Then Herakles wraptit closely round him, and he stood by the altar while the dark smokewent up in a thick cloud to the heaven. Presently the vengeance ofNessos was accomplished. Through the veins of Herakles the poisonspread like devouring fire. Fiercer and fiercer grew the burning pain, and Herakles vainly strove to tear the robe and cast it from him. Itate into the flesh, and as he struggled in his agony, the dark bloodgushed from his body in streams. Then came the maiden Iole to hisside. With her gentle hands she sought to soothe his pain, and withpitying words to cheer him in his woe. Then once more the face ofHerakles flushed with a deep joy, and his eye glanced with a purelight, as in the days of his might and strength, and he said, "Ah, Iole, brightest of maidens, thy voice shall cheer me as I sink down inthe sleep of death. I loved thee in the bright morning time, when myhand was strong and my foot swift, but Zeus willed not that thoushouldst be with me in my long wanderings. Yet I grieve not now, foragain thou hast come, fair as the soft clouds which gather round thedying sun. " Then Herakles bade them bear him to the high crest of Oitaand gather wood. So when all was ready, he lay down to rest, and theykindled the great pile. The black mists were spreading over the sky, but still Herakles sought to gaze on the fair face of Iole and tocomfort her in her sorrow. "Weep not, Iole, " he said, "my toil isdone, and now is the time for rest. I shall see thee again in thebright land which is never trodden by the feet of night. " [Illustration: JUPITER (_or Zeus with his Thunderbolt_). ] Blacker and blacker grew the evening shades, and only the long line oflight broke the darkness which gathered round the blazing pile. Thenfrom the high heaven came down the thick cloud, and the din of itsthunder crashed through the air. So Zeus carried his child home, andthe halls of Olympos were opened to welcome the bright hero who restedfrom his mighty toil. There the fair maiden, Arete, placed a crownupon his head, and Hebe clothed him in a white robe for the banquet ofthe gods. ADMETOS. There was high feasting in the halls of Pheres, because Admetos, hisson, had brought home Alkestis, the fairest of all the daughters ofPelias, to be his bride. The minstrels sang of the glories of thehouse of Pherai, and of the brave deeds of Admetos--how, by the aid ofthe golden-haired Apollo, he had yoked the lion and the boar, and madethem drag his chariot to Iolkos, for Pelias had said that only to onewho came thus would he give his daughter, Alkestis, to be his wife. Sothe sound of mirth and revelry echoed through the hall, and the redwine was poured forth in honor of Zeus and all the gods, each by hisname, but the name of Artemis was forgotten, and her wrath burned soreagainst the house of Admetos. But one, mightier yet than Artemis, was nigh at hand to aid him, forApollo, the son of Leto, served as a bondman in the house of Pheres, because he had slain the Cyclopes, who forged the thunderbolts ofZeus. No mortal blood flowed in his veins, but, though he couldneither grow old nor die, nor could any of the sons of men do himhurt, yet all loved him for his gentle dealing, for all things hadprospered in the land from the day when he came to the house ofAdmetos. And so it came to pass that when the sacrifice of themarriage feast was ended, he spake to Admetos, and said, "The anger ofArtemis, my sister, is kindled against thee, and it may be that shewill smite thee with her spear, which can never miss its mark. Butthou hast been to me a kind task-master, and though I am here as thybond-servant, yet have I power still with my father, Zeus, and I haveobtained for thee this boon, that, if thou art smitten by the spear ofArtemis, thou shalt not die, if thou canst find one who in thy steadwill go down to the dark kingdom of Hades. " Many a time the sun rose up into the heaven and sank down to sleepbeneath the western waters, and still the hours went by full of deepjoy to Admetos and his wife, Alkestis, for their hearts were knittogether in a pure love, and no cloud of strife spread its dark shadowover their souls. Once only Admetos spake to her of the words ofApollo, and Alkestis answered with a smile, "Where is the pain ofdeath, my husband, for those who love truly? Without thee I care notto live; wherefore, to die for thee will be a boon. " Once again there was high feasting in the house of Admetos, forHerakles, the mighty son of Alkmene, had come thither as he journeyedthrough many lands, doing the will of the false Eurystheus. But, evenas the minstrels sang the praises of the chieftains of Pherai, theflush of life faded from the face of Admetos, and he felt that thehour of which Apollo had warned him was come. But soon the blood cameback tingling through his veins, when he thought of the sacrificewhich alone could save him from the sleep of death. Yet what will nota man do for his life? and how shall he withstand when the voice oflove pleads on his side? So once again the fair Alkestis lookedlovingly upon him, as she said, "There is no darkness for me in theland of Hades, if only I die for thee, " and even as she spake thespell passed from Admetos, and the strength of the daughter of Peliasebbed slowly away. The sound of mirth and feasting was hushed. The harps of the minstrelshung silent on the wall, and men spake in whispering voices, for theawful Moirai were at hand to bear Alkestis to the shadowy kingdom. Onthe couch lay her fair form, pale as the white lily which floats onthe blue water, and beautiful as Eos when her light dies out of thesky in the evening. Yet a little while, and the strife was ended, andAdmetos mourned in bitterness and shame for the love which he hadlost. Then the soul of the brave Herakles was stirred within him, and hesware that the Moirai should not win the victory. So he departed inhaste, and far away in the unseen land he did battle with the powersof death, and rescued Alkestis from Hades, the stern and rugged King. So once more she stood before Admetos, more radiant in her beauty thanin former days, and once more in the halls of Pherai echoed the soundof high rejoicing, and the minstrels sang of the mighty deeds of thegood and brave Herakles, as he went on his way from the home ofAdmetos to do in other lands the bidding of the fair mean Eurystheus. EPIMETHEUS AND PANDORA. There was strife between Zeus and men, for Prometheus stood forth ontheir side and taught them how they might withstand the new god whosat on the throne of Kronos; and he said, "O men, Zeus is greedy ofriches and honor, and your flocks and herds will be wasted withburnt-offerings if ye offer up to Zeus the whole victim. Come and letus make a covenant with him, that there may be a fair portion for himand for men. " So Prometheus chose out a large ox, and slew him anddivided the body. Under the skin he placed the entrails and theflesh, and under the fat he placed the bones. Then he said, "Choosethy portion, O Zeus, and let that on which thou layest thine hands bethy share forever. " So Zeus stretched forth his hand in haste, andplaced it upon the fat, and fierce was his wrath when he found onlythe bare bones underneath it. Wherefore men offer up to the undyinggods only the bones and fat of the victims that are slain. Then in his anger Zeus sought how he might avenge himself on the raceof men, and he took away from them the gift of fire, so that they werevexed by cold and darkness and hunger, until Prometheus brought themdown fire which he had stolen from heaven. Then was the rage of Zeusstill more cruel, and he smote Prometheus with his thunderbolts, andat his bidding Hermes bare him to the crags of Caucasus, and bound himwith iron chains to the hard rock, where the vulture gnawed his heartwith its beak. But the wrath of Zeus was not appeased, and he sought how he might yetmore vex the race of men; and he remembered how the Titan Prometheushad warned them to accept no gift from the gods, and how he left hisbrother Epimetheus to guard them against the wiles of the son ofKronos. And he said within himself, "The race of men knows neithersickness nor pain, strife or war, theft or falsehood; for all theseevil things are sealed up in the great cask which is guarded byEpimetheus. I will let loose the evils, and the whole earth shall befilled with woe and misery. " So he called Hephaistos, the lord of fire, and he said, "Make ready agift which all the undying gods shall give to the race of men. Takethe earth, and fashion it into the shape of woman. Very fair let it beto look upon, but give her an evil nature, that the race of men maysuffer for all the deeds that they have done to me. " Then Hephaistostook the clay and moulded from it the image of a fair woman, andAthene clothed her in a beautiful robe, and placed a crown upon herhead, from which a veil fell over her snowy shoulders. And Hermes, themessenger of Zeus, gave her the power of words, and a greedy mind, tocheat and deceive the race of men. Then Hephaistos brought her beforethe assembly of the gods, and they marveled at the greatness of herbeauty; and Zeus took her by the hand and gave her to Epimetheus, andsaid, "Ye toil hard, ye children of men; behold one who shall sootheand cheer you when the hours of toil are ended. The undying gods havetaken pity on you, because ye have none to comfort you; and woman istheir gift to men, therefore is her name called Pandora. " Then Epimetheus forgot the warning of his brother, and the race of mendid obeisance to Zeus, and received Pandora at his hands, for thegreatness of her beauty enslaved the hearts of all who looked uponher. But they rejoiced not long in the gift of the gods, for Pandorasaw a great cask on the threshold of the house of Epimetheus, and shelifted the lid, and from it came strife and war, plague and sickness, theft and violence, grief and sorrow. Then in her terror she set downthe lid again upon the cask, and Hope was shut up within it, so thatshe could not comfort the race of men for the grievous evil whichPandora had brought upon them. IO AND PROMETHEUS. In the halls of Inachos, King of Argos, Zeus beheld and loved the fairmaiden Io, but when Here, the Queen, knew it, she was very wroth, andsought to slay her. Then Zeus changed the maiden into a heifer, tosave her from the anger of Here, but presently Here learned that theheifer was the maiden whom she hated, and she went to Zeus, and said, "Give me that which I shall desire, " and Zeus answered, "Say on. " ThenHere said, "Give me the beautiful heifer which I see feeding in thepastures of King Inachos. " So Zeus granted her prayer, for he likednot to confess what he had done to Io to save her from the wrath ofHere, and Here took the heifer and bade Argos, with the hundred eyes, watch over it by night and by day. [Illustration: THALIA. ] Long time Zeus sought how he might deliver the maiden from thevengeance of Here, but he strove in vain, for Argos never slept, andhis hundred eyes saw everything around him, and none could approachwithout being seen and slain. At the last Zeus sent Hermes, the brightmessenger of the gods, who stole gently towards Argos, playing softmusic on his lute. Soothingly the sweet sounds fell upon his ear, anda deep sleep began to weigh down his eyelids, until Argos, with thehundred eyes, lay powerless before Hermes. Then Hermes drew his sharpsword, and with a single stroke he smote off his head, wherefore mencall him the slayer of Argos, with the hundred eyes. But the wrath ofHere was fiercer than ever when she learned that her watchman wasslain, and she sware that the heifer should have no rest, but wanderin terror and pain from land to land. So she sent a gad-fly to goadthe heifer with its fiery sting over hill and valley, across sea andriver, to torment her if she lay down to rest, and madden her withpain when she sought to sleep. In grief and madness she fled from thepastures of Inachos, past the city of Erechtheus into the land ofKadmos, the Theban. On and on still she went, resting not by night orday, through the Dorian and Thessalian plains, until at last she cameto the wild Thrakian land. Her feet bled on the sharp stones, her bodywas torn by the thorns and brambles, and tortured by the stings of thefearful gad-fly. Still she fled on and on, while the tears streamedoften down her cheeks, and her moaning showed the greatness of heragony. "O Zeus, " she said, "dost thou not see me in my misery? Thoudidst tell me once of thy love, and dost thou suffer me now to bedriven thus wildly from land to land, without hope of comfort or rest?Slay me at once, I pray thee, or suffer me to sink into the deep sea, that so I may put off the sore burden of my woe. " But Io knew not that, while she spake, one heard her who had sufferedeven harder things from Zeus. Far above her head, towards the desolatecrags of Caucasus, the wild eagle soared shrieking in the sky, and thevulture hovered near, as though waiting close to some dying man tilldeath should leave him for its prey. Dark snow-clouds brooded heavilyon the mountain, the icy wind crept lazily through the frozen air, andIo thought that the hour of her death was come. Then, as she raisedher head, she saw far off a giant form, which seemed fastened by nailsto the naked rock, and a low groan reached her ear, as of one inmortal pain, and she heard a voice which said, "Whence comest thou, daughter of Inachos, into this savage wilderness? Hath the love ofZeus driven thee thus to the icy corners of the earth?" Then Io gazedat him in wonder and awe, and said, "How dost thou know my name and mysorrows? and what is thine own wrong? Tell me (if it is given to theeto know) what awaits thee and me in the time to come, for sure I amthat thou art no mortal man. Thy giant form is as the form of gods orheroes, who come down sometimes to mingle with the sons of men, andgreat must be the wrath of Zeus, that thou shouldst be thus tormentedhere. " Then he said, "Maiden, thou seest the Titan Prometheus, whobrought down fire for the children of men, and taught them how tobuild themselves houses and till the earth, and how to win forthemselves food and clothing. I gave them wise thoughts and good lawsand prudent counsel, and raised them from the life of beasts to a lifewhich was fit for speaking men. But the son of Kronos was afraid atmy doings, lest, with the aid of men, I might hurl him from his placeand set up new gods upon his throne. So he forgot all my good deeds intimes past, how I had aided him when the earth-born giants sought todestroy his power and heaped rock on rock and crag on crag to smitehim on his throne, and he caught me by craft, telling me in smoothwords how that he was my friend, and that my honor should not fail inthe halls of Olympos. So he took me unawares and bound me with ironchains, and bade Hephaistos take and fasten me to this mountain-side, where the frost and wind and heat scorch and torment me by day andnight, and the vulture gnaws my heart with its merciless beak. But myspirit is not wholly cast down, for I know that I have done good tothe sons of men, and that they honor the Titan Prometheus, who hassaved them from cold and hunger and sickness. And well I know, also, that the reign of Zeus shall one day come to an end, and that anothershall sit at length upon his throne, even as now he sits on the throneof his father, Kronos. Hither come, also, those who seek to comfortme, and thou seest before thee the daughters of Okeanos, who have butnow left the green halls of their father to talk with me. Listen, then, to me, daughter of Inachos, and I will tell thee what shallbefall thee in time to come. Hence from the ice-bound chain ofCaucasus thou shalt roam into the Scythian land and the regions ofChalybes. Thence thou shalt come to the dwelling-place of the Amazons, on the banks of the river Thermodon; these shall guide thee on thyway, until at length thou shalt come to a strait, which thou wiltcross, and which shall tell by its name forever where the heiferpassed from Europe into Asia. But the end of thy wanderings is notyet. " Then Io could no longer repress her grief, and her tears burst forthafresh; and Prometheus said, "Daughter of Inachos, if thou sorrowestthus at what I have told thee, how wilt thou bear to hear what beyondthese things there remains for thee to do?" But Io said, "Of what useis it, O Titan, to tell me of these woeful wanderings? Better were itnow to die and be at rest from all this misery and sorrow. " "Nay, notso, O maiden of Argos, " said Prometheus, "for if thou livest, the dayswill come when Zeus shall be cast down from his throne, and the end ofhis reign shall also be the end of my sufferings. For when thou hastpassed by the Thrakian Bosporos into the land of Asia, thou wiltwander on through many regions, where the Gorgons dwell, and theArimaspians and Ethiopians, until at last thou shalt come to thethree-cornered land where the mighty Nile goes out by its many armsinto the sea. There shall be thy resting-place, and there shallEpaphos, thy son, be born, from whom, in times yet far away, shallspring the great Herakles, who shall break my chain and set me freefrom my long torments. And if in this thou doubtest my words, I cantell thee of every land through which thou hast passed on thy journeyhither; but it is enough if I tell thee how the speaking oaks ofDodona hailed thee as one day to be the wife of Zeus and the mother ofthe mighty Epaphos. Hasten, then, on thy way, daughter of Inachos. Long years of pain and sorrow await thee still, but my griefs shallendure for many generations. It avails not now to weep, but thiscomfort thou hast, that thy lot is happier than mine, and for both ofus remains the surety that the right shall at last conquer, and thepower of Zeus shall be brought low, even as the power of Kronos, whomhe hurled from his ancient throne. Depart hence quickly, for I seeHermes, the messenger, drawing nigh, and perchance he comes with freshtorments for thee and me. " So Io went on her weary road, and Hermes drew nigh to Prometheus, andbade him once again yield himself to the will of the mighty Zeus. ButPrometheus laughed him to scorn, and as Hermes turned to go away, theicy wind came shrieking through the air, and the dark cloud sanklower and lower down the hillside, until it covered the rock on whichthe body of the Titan was nailed, and the great mountain heaved withthe earthquake, and the blazing thunderbolts darted fearfully throughthe sky. Brighter and brighter flashed the lightning, and louderpealed the thunder in the ears of Prometheus, but he quailed not forall the fiery majesty of Zeus, and still, as the storm grew fiercerand the curls of fire were wreathed around his form, his voice washeard amid the din and roar, and it spake of the day when the goodshall triumph and unjust power shall be crushed and destroyed forever. DEUKALION. From his throne on the high Olympos, Zeus looked down on the childrenof men, and saw that everywhere they followed only their lusts, andcared nothing for right or for law. And ever, as their hearts waxedgrosser in their wickedness, they devised for themselves new rites toappease the anger of the gods, till the whole earth was filled withblood. Far away in the hidden glens of the Arcadian hills the sons ofLykaon feasted and spake proud words against the majesty of Zeus, andZeus himself came down from his throne to see their way and theirdoings. The sun was sinking down in the sky when an old man drew nigh to thegate of Lykosoura. His gray locks streamed in the breeze, and hisbeard fell in tangled masses over his tattered mantle. With staff inhand he plodded wearily on his way, listening to the sound of revelrywhich struck upon his ear. At last he came to the Agora, and the sonsof Lykaon crowded round him. "So the wise seer is come, " they said;"what tale hast thou to tell us, old man? Canst thou sing of the dayswhen the earth came forth from Chaos? Thou art old enough to have beenthere to see. " Then with rude jeering they seized him and placed himon the ground near the place where they were feasting. "We have donea great sacrifice to Zeus this day, and thy coming is timely, for thoushalt share the banquet. " So they placed before him a dish, and thefood that was in it was the flesh of man, for with the blood of menthey thought to turn aside the anger of the gods. But the old manthrust aside the dish, and, as he rose up, the weariness of age passedaway from his face, and the sons of Lykaon were scorched by the gloryof his countenance, for Zeus stood before them and scathed them allwith his lightnings, and their ashes cumbered the ground. [Illustration: LAOCOON, THE FALSE PRIEST. (_Sculptured 3000 years ago. _)] Then Zeus returned to his home on Olympos, and he gave the word that aflood of waters should be let loose upon the earth, that the sons ofmen might die for their great wickedness. So the west wind rose in hismight, and the dark rain-clouds veiled the whole heaven, for the windsof the north which drive away the mists and vapors were shut up intheir prison-house. On the hill and valley burst the merciless rain, and the rivers, loosened from their courses, rushed over the wideplains and up the mountain-side. From his home on the highlands ofPhthia, Deukalion looked forth on the angry sky, and, when he saw thewaters swelling in the valleys beneath, he called Pyrrha, his wife, the daughter of Epimetheus, and said to her, "The time is come ofwhich my father, the wise Prometheus, forewarned me. Make ready, therefore, the ark which I have built, and place in it all that we mayneed for food while the flood of waters is out upon the earth. Faraway on the crags of Caucasus the iron nails rend the flesh ofPrometheus, and the vulture gnaws his heart, but the words which hespake are being fulfilled, that for the wickedness of men the flood ofwaters would come upon the earth, for Zeus himself is but the servantof one that is mightier than he, and must do his bidding. " Then Pyrrha hastened to make all things ready, and they waited untilthe waters rose up to the highlands of Phthia and floated away the arkof Deukalion. The fishes swam amidst the old elm groves, and twinedamongst the gnarled boughs of the oaks, while on the face of thewaters were tossed the bodies of men, and Deukalion looked on the deadfaces of stalwart warriors, of maidens, and of babes, as they rose andfell upon the heaving waves. Eight days the ark was borne on theflood, while the waters covered the hills, and all the children of mendied save a few who found a place of shelter on the summit of themountains. On the ninth day the ark rested on the heights ofParnassos, and Deukalion, with his wife Pyrrha, stepped forth upon thedesolate earth. Hour by hour the waters fled down the valleys, anddead fishes and sea-monsters lay caught in the tangled branches of theforest. But, far as the eye could reach, there was no sign of livingthing, save of the vultures who wheeled in circles through the heavento swoop upon their prey, and Deukalion looked on Pyrrha, and theirhearts were filled with a grief which can not be told. "We know not, "he said, "whether there live any one of all the sons of men, or inwhat hour the sleep of death may fall upon us. But the mighty beingwho sent the flood has saved us from its waters; to him let us buildan altar and bring our thankoffering. " So the altar was built and Zeushad respect to the prayer of Deukalion, and presently Hermes, themessenger, stood before him. "Ask what thou wilt, " he said, "and itshall be granted thee, for in thee alone of all the sons of men hathZeus found a clean hand and a pure heart. " Then Deukalion bowedhimself before Hermes, and said, "The whole earth lies desolate; Ipray thee, let men be seen upon it once more. " "Even so shall it cometo pass, " said Hermes, "if ye will cover your faces with your mantlesand cast the bones of your mother behind you as ye go upon your way. " So Hermes departed to the home of Zeus, and Deukalion pondered hiswords, till the wisdom of his father, Prometheus, showed him that hismother was the earth, and that they were to cast the stones behindthem as they went down from Parnassos. Then they did each as they werebidden, and the stones which Deukalion threw were turned into men, butthose which were thrown by Pyrrha became women, and the people whichknew neither father nor mother went forth to their toil throughout thewide earth. The sun shone brightly in the heaven and dried up theslime beneath them; yet was their toil but a weary labor, and so hathit been until this day--a struggle hard as the stones from which theyhave been taken. But as the years passed on, there were children born to Pyrrha andDeukalion, and the old race of men still lived on the heights ofPhthia. From Helen their son, sprang the mighty tribes of theHellenes, and from Protogeneia, their daughter, was born Aethlios, theman of toil and suffering, the father of Endymion, the fair, whosleeps on the hill of Latmos. POSEIDON AND ATHENE. Near the banks of the stream Kephisos, Erechtheus had built a city ina rocky and thin-soiled land. He was the father of a free and bravepeople, and though his city was small and humble, yet Zeus, by hiswisdom, foresaw that one day it would become the noblest of all citiesthroughout the wide earth. And there was a strife between Poseidon, the lord of the sea, and Athene, the virgin child of Zeus, to see bywhose name the city of Erechtheus should be called. So Zeus appointeda day in which he would judge between them in presence of the greatgods who dwell on high Olympos. When the day was come, the gods sat each on his golden throne, on thebanks of the stream Kephisos. High above all was the throne of Zeus, the great father of gods and men, and by his side sat Here, theQueen. This day even the sons of men might gaze upon them, for Zeushad laid aside his lightnings, and all the gods had come down in peaceto listen to his judgment between Poseidon and Athene. There satPhœbus Apollo with his golden harp in his hand. His face glistened forthe brightness of his beauty, but there was no anger in his gleamingeye, and idle by his side lay the unerring spear, with which he smitesall who deal falsely and speak lies. There, beside him, sat Artemis, his sister, whose days were spent in chasing the beasts of the earthand in sporting with the nymphs on the reedy banks of Eurotas. There, by the side of Zeus, sat Hermes, ever bright and youthful, thespokesman of the gods, with staff in hand, to do the will of the greatfather. There sat Hephaistos, the lord of fire, and Hestia, who guardsthe hearth. There, too, was Ares, who delights in war, and Dionysos, who loves the banquet and the wine-cup, and Aphrodite, who rose fromthe sea-foam, to fill the earth with laughter and woe. Before them all stood the great rivals, awaiting the judgment of Zeus. High in her left hand, Athene held the invincible spear, and on herægis, hidden from mortal sight, was the face on which no man may gazeand live. Close beside her, proud in the greatness of his power, Poseidon waited the issue of the contest. In his right hand gleamedthe trident, with which he shakes the earth and cleaves the waters ofthe sea. Then, from his golden seat, rose the spokesman, Hermes, and his clearvoice sounded over all the great council. "Listen, " he said, "to thewill of Zeus, who judges now between Poseidon and Athene. The city ofErechtheus shall bear the name of that god who shall bring forth outof the earth the best gift for the sons of men. If Poseidon do this, the city shall be called Poseidonia, but if Athene brings the highergift it shall be called Athens. " Then King Poseidon rose up in the greatness of his majesty, and withhis trident he smote the earth where he stood. Straightway the hillwas shaken to its depths, and the earth clave asunder, and forth fromthe chasm leaped a horse, such as never shall be seen again forstrength and beauty. His body shone white all over as the driven snow, his mane streamed proudly in the wind as he stamped on the ground andscoured in very wantonness over hill and valley. "Behold my gift, "said Poseidon, "and call the city after my name. Who shall give aughtbetter than the horse to the sons of men?" But Athene looked steadfastly at the gods with her keen gray eye, andshe stooped slowly down to the ground, and planted in it a littleseed, which she held in her right hand. She spoke no word, but stillgazed calmly on that great council. Presently they saw springing fromthe earth a little germ, which grew up and threw out its boughs andleaves. Higher and higher it rose, with all its thick green foliage, and put forth fruit on its clustering branches. "My gift is better, OZeus, " she said, "than that of King Poseidon. The horse which he hasgiven shall bring war and strife and anguish to the children of men;my olive-tree is the sign of peace and plenty, of health and strength, and the pledge of happiness and freedom. Shall not, then, the city ofErechtheus be called after my name?" Then with one accord rose the voices of the gods in the air, as theycried out, "The gift of Athene is the best which may be given to thesons of men; it is the token that the city of Erechtheus shall begreater in peace than in war, and nobler in its freedom than itspower. Let the city be called Athens. " Then Zeus, the mighty son of Kronos, bowed his head in sign ofjudgment that the city should be called by the name of Athene. Fromhis head the immortal locks streamed down, and the earth trembledbeneath his feet as he rose from his golden throne to return to thehalls of Olympos. But still Athene stood gazing over the land whichwas now her own; and she stretched out her spear towards the city ofErechtheus, and said: "I have won the victory, and here shall be myhome. Here shall my children grow up in happiness and freedom, andhither shall the sons of men come to learn of law and order. Hereshall they see what great things may be done by mortal hands whenaided by the gods who dwell on Olympos, and when the torch of freedomhas gone out at Athens, its light shall be handed on to other lands, and men shall learn that my gift is still the best, and they shall saythat reverence for law and freedom of thought and deed has come tothem from the city of Erechtheus, which bears the name of Athene. " MEDUSA. In the far western land, where the Hesperides guard the golden appleswhich Gaia gave to the lady Here, dwelt the maiden Medusa, with hersisters Stheino and Euryale, in their lonely and dismal home. Betweenthem and the land of living men flowed the gentle stream of ocean, sothat only the name of the Gorgon sisters was known to the sons of men, and the heart of Medusa yearned in vain to see some face which mightlook on her with love and pity, for on her lay the doom of death, buther sisters could neither grow old nor die. For them there was nothingfearful in the stillness of their gloomy home, as they sat with stern, unpitying faces, gazing on the silent land beyond the ocean stream. But Medusa wandered to and fro, longing to see something new in a hometo which no change ever came, and her heart pined for lack of thosethings which gladden the souls of mortal men. For where she dweltthere was neither day nor night. She never saw the bright children ofHelios driving his flocks to their pastures in the morning. She neverbeheld the stars as they look out from the sky, when the sun sinksdown into his golden cup in the evening. There no clouds ever passedacross the heaven, no breeze ever whispered in the air, but a paleyellow light brooded on the land everlastingly. So there rested on theface of Medusa a sadness such as the children of men may never feel;and the look of hopeless pain was the more terrible because of thegreatness of her beauty. She spake not to any of her awful grief, forher sisters knew not of any such thing as gentleness and love, andthere was no comfort for her from the fearful Graiai who were herkinsfolk. Sometimes she sought them out in their dark caves, for itwas something to see even the faint glimmer of the light of day whichreached the dwelling of the Graiai, but they spake not to her a wordof hope when she told them of her misery, and she wandered back to theland which the light of Helios might never enter. Her brow was knitwith pain, but no tear wetted her cheek, for her grief was too greatfor weeping. But harder things yet were in store for Medusa, for Athene, thedaughter of Zeus, came from the Libyan land to the dwelling of theGorgon sisters, and she charged Medusa to go with her to the gardenswhere the children of Hesperos guard the golden apples of the ladyHere. Then Medusa bowed herself down at the feet of Athene, andbesought her to have pity on her changeless sorrow, and she said, "Child of Zeus, thou dwellest with thy happy kinsfolk, where Heliosgladdens all with his light and the Horai lead the glad dance whenPhœbus touches the strings of his golden harp. Here there is neithernight nor day, nor cloud or breeze or storm. Let me go forth from thishorrible land and look on the face of mortal men, for I, too, mustdie, and my heart yearns for the love which my sisters scorn. " ThenAthene looked on her sternly, and said, "What hast thou to do withlove? and what is the love of men for one who is of kin to the beingswho may not die? Tarry here till thy doom is accomplished, and then itmay be that Zeus will grant thee a place among those who dwell in hisglorious home. " But Medusa said, "Lady, let me go forth now. I can nottell how many ages may pass before I die, and thou knowest not theyearning which fills the heart of mortal things for tenderness andlove. " Then a look of anger came over the fair face of Athene, and shesaid, "Trouble me not. Thy prayer is vain, and the sons of men wouldshrink from thee, if thou couldst go among them, for hardly could theylook on the woeful sorrow of thy countenance. " But Medusa answered, gently, "Lady, hope has a wondrous power to kill the deepest grief, and in the pure light of Helios my face may be as fair as thine. " [Illustration: GRECIAN ALTAR. (_3000 years old. _)] Then the anger of Athene became fiercer still, and she said, "Dostthou dare to vie with me? I stand by the side of Zeus, to do hiswill, and the splendor of his glory rests upon me, and what art thou, that thou shouldst speak to me such words as these? Therefore, hearthy doom. Henceforth, if mortal man ever look upon thee, one glance ofthy face shall turn him to stone. Thy beauty shall still remain, butit shall be to thee the blackness of death. The hair which streams ingolden tresses over thy fair shoulders shall be changed into hissingsnakes, which shall curl and cluster round thy neck. On thycountenance shall be seen only fear and dread, that so all mortalthings which look on thee may die. " So Athene departed from her, andthe blackness of the great horror rested on the face of Medusa, andthe hiss of the snakes was heard as they twined around her head andtheir coils were wreathed about her neck. Yet the will of Athene wasnot wholly accomplished, for the heart of Medusa was not changed bythe doom which gave to her face its deadly power, and she said, "Daughter of Zeus, there is hope yet, for thou hast left me mortalstill, and, one day, I shall die. " DANAE. From the home of Phœbus Apollo, at Delphi, came words of warning toAkrisios, the King of Argos, when he sent to ask what should befallhim in the after days, and the warning was that he should be slain bythe son of his daughter, Danae. So the love of Akrisios was changedtowards his child, who was growing up fair as the flowers of spring, in her father's house, and he shut her up in a dungeon, caring nothingfor her wretchedness. But the power of Zeus was greater than the powerof Akrisios, and Danae became the mother of Perseus, and they calledher child the Son of the Bright Morning, because Zeus had scatteredthe darkness of her prison-house. Then Akrisios feared exceedingly, and he spake the word that Danae and her child should die. The first streak of day was spreading its faint light in the easternsky when they led Danae to the sea-shore, and put her in a chest, witha loaf of bread and a flask of water. Her child slept in her arms, andthe rocking of the waves, as they bore the chest over the heaving sea, made him slumber yet more sweetly, and the tears of Danae fell on himas she thought of the days that were past and the death which she mustdie in the dark waters. And she prayed to Zeus, and said, "O Zeus, whohast given me my child, canst thou hear me still and save me from thisterrible doom?" Then a deep sleep came over Danae, and, as she sleptwith the babe in her arms, the winds carried the chest at the biddingof Poseidon, and cast it forth on the shore of the island of Seriphos. Now it so chanced that Diktys, the brother of Polydektes, the King ofthe Island, was casting a net into the sea, when he saw somethingthrown up by the waves on the dry land, and he went hastily and tookDanae with her child out of the chest, and said, "Fear not, lady, noharm shall happen to thee here, and they who have dealt hardly withthee shall not come nigh to hurt thee in this land. " So he led her tothe house of King Polydektes, who welcomed her to his home, and Danaehad rest after all her troubles. [Illustration: THEMIS (_Goddess of Law_). ] Thus the time went on, and the child Perseus grew up brave and strong, and all who saw him marveled at his beauty. The light of early morningis not more pure than was the color on his fair cheeks, and the goldenlocks streamed brightly over his shoulders, like the rays of the sunwhen they rest on the hills at midday. And Danae said, "My child, inthe land where thou wast born, they called thee the Son of the BrightMorning. Keep thy faith, and deal justly with all men; so shalt thoudeserve the name which they gave thee. " Thus Perseus grew up, hatingall things that were mean and wrong, and all who looked on him knewthat his hands were clean and his heart pure. But there were evil days in store for Danae--for King Polydektessought to win her love against her will. Long time he besought her tohearken to his prayer, but her heart was far away in the land ofArgos, where her child was born, and she said, "O King, my life is sadand weary; what is there in me that thou shouldst seek my love? Thereare maidens in thy kingdom fairer far than I; leave me, then, to takecare of my child while we dwell in a strange land. " Then Polydektessaid, hastily, "Think not, lady, to escape me thus. If thou wilt nothearken to my words, thy child shall not remain with thee, but I willsend him forth far away into the western land, that he may bring methe head of the Gorgon Medusa. " So Danae sat weeping when Polydektes had left her, and when Perseuscame he asked her why she mourned and wept, and he said, "Tell me, mymother, if the people of this land have done thee wrong, and I willtake a sword in my hand and smite them. " Then Danae answered, "Manytoils await thee in time to come, but here thou canst do nothing. Onlybe of good courage, and deal truly, and one day thou shalt be able tosave me from my enemies. " Still, as the months went on, Polydektes sought to gain the love ofDanae, until at last he began to hate her because she would not listento his prayer. And he spake the word, that Perseus must go forth toslay Medusa, and that Danae must be shut up in a dungeon until the boyshould return from the land of the Graiai and the Gorgons. So once more Danae lay within a prison, and the boy Perseus came tobid her farewell before he set out on his weary journey. Then Danaefolded her arms around him, and looked sadly into his eyes, and said, "My child, whatever a mortal man can do for his mother, that, I know, thou wilt do for me, but I can not tell whither thy long toils shalllead thee, save that the land of the Gorgons lies beyond theslow-rolling stream of Ocean. Nor can I tell how thou canst do thebidding of Polydektes, for Medusa alone of the Gorgon sisters may growold and die, and the deadly snakes will slay those who come near, andone glance of her woeful eye can turn all mortal things to stone. Once, they say, she was fair to look upon, but the lady Athene haslaid on her a dark doom, so that all who see the Gorgon's face mustdie. It may be, Perseus, that the heart of Medusa is full rather ofgrief than hatred, and that not of her own will the woeful glare ofher eye changes all mortal things into stone, and, if so it be, thenthe deed which thou art charged to do shall set her free from ahateful life, and bring to her some of those good things for which nowshe yearns in vain. Go, then, my child, and prosper. Thou hast a greatwarfare before thee, and though I know not how thou canst win thevictory, yet I know that true and fair dealing gives a wondrous mightto the children of men, and Zeus will strengthen the arm of those whohate treachery and lies. " Then Perseus bade his mother take courage, and vowed a vow that hewould not trust in craft and falsehood, and he said, "I know not, mymother, the dangers and the foes which await me, but be sure that Iwill not meet them with any weapons which thou wouldst scorn. Only, asthe days and months roll on, think not that evil has befallen me, forthere is hope within me that I shall be able to do the bidding ofPolydektes and to bear thee hence to our Argive land. " So Perseus wentforth with a good courage to seek out the Gorgon Medusa. PERSEUS. The east wind crested with a silvery foam the waves of the sea ofHelle, when Perseus went into the ship which was to bear him away fromSeriphos. The white sail was spread to the breeze, and the ship spedgaily over the heaving waters. Soon the blue hills rose before them, and as the sun sank down in the west, Perseus trod once more theArgive land. But there was no rest for him now in his ancient home. On and on, through Argos and other lands, he must wander in search of the Gorgon, with nothing but his strong heart and his stout arm to help him. Yetfor himself he feared not, and if his eyes filled with tears, it wasonly because he thought of his mother, Danae; and he said withinhimself, "O, my mother, I would that thou wert here. I see the towersof the fair city where Akrisios still is King. I see the home whichthou longest to behold, and which now I may not enter, but one day Ishall bring thee hither in triumph, when I come to win back mybirthright. " Brightly before his mind rose the vision of the time to come, as helay down to rest beneath the blue sky, but when his eyes were closedin sleep, there stood before him a vision yet more glorious, for thelady Athene was come from the home of Zeus, to aid the young hero ashe set forth on his weary labor. Her face gleamed with a beauty suchas is not given to the daughters of men. But Perseus feared notbecause of her majesty, for the soft spell of sleep lay on him, and heheard her words as she said, "I am come down from Olympos, wheredwells my father, Zeus, to help thee in thy mighty toil. Thou artbrave of heart and strong of hand, but thou knowest not the way whichthou shouldst go, and thou hast no weapons with which to slay theGorgon Medusa. Many things thou needest, but only against the freezingstare of the Gorgon's face can I guard thee now. On her countenancethou canst not look and live, and even when she is dead, one glance ofthat fearful face will still turn all mortal things to stone. So, whenthou drawest nigh to slay her, thine eye must not rest upon her. Takegood heed, then, to thyself, for while they are awake the Gorgonsisters dread no danger, for the snakes which curl around their headswarn them of every peril. Only while they sleep canst thou approachthem, and the face of Medusa, in life or in death, thou must neversee. Take, then, this mirror, into which thou canst look, and whenthou beholdest her image there, then nerve thy heart and take thineaim, and carry away with thee the head of the mortal maiden. Lingernot in thy flight, for her sisters will pursue after thee, and theycan neither grow old nor die. " So Athene departed from him, and early in the morning he saw by hisside the mirror which she had given to him, and he said, "Now I knowthat my toil is not in vain, and the help of Athene is a pledge of yetmore aid in time to come. " So he journeyed on with a good heart overhill and dale, across rivers and forests, towards the setting of thesun. Manfully he toiled on, till sleep weighed heavy on his eyes, andhe lay down to rest on a broad stone in the evening. Once more beforehim stood a glorious form. A burnished helmet glistened on his head, agolden staff was in his hand, and on his feet were the golden sandals, which bore him through the air with a flight more swift than theeagle's. And Perseus heard a voice which said, "I am Hermes, themessenger of Zeus, and I come to arm thee against thine enemies. Takethis sword, which slays all mortal things on which it may fall, and goon thy way with a cheerful heart. A weary road yet lies before thee, and for many a long day must thou wander on before thou canst haveother help in thy mighty toil. Far away, towards the setting of thesun, lies the Tartessian land, whence thou shalt see the white-crestedmountains where Atlas holds up the pillars of the heaven. There mustthou cross the dark waters, and then thou wilt find thyself in theland of the Graiai, who are of kin to the Gorgon sisters, and thouwilt see no more the glory of Helios, who gladdens the homes of livingmen. Only a faint light from the far-off sun comes dimly to thedesolate land where, hidden in the gloomy cave, lurk the haplessGraiai. These thou must seek out, and when thou hast found them, fearthem not. Over their worn and wrinkled faces stream tangled masses oflong gray hair, their voice comes hollow from their toothless gums, and a single eye is passed from one to the other when they wish tolook forth from their dismal dwelling. Seek them out, for these alonecan tell thee what more remaineth yet for thee to do. " When Perseus woke in the morning, the sword of Hermes lay beside him, and he rose up with great joy, and said, "The help of Zeus fails menot; if more is needed will he not grant it to me?" So onward he wentto the Tartessian land, and thence across the dark sea towards thecountry of the Graiai, till he saw the pillars of Atlas rise afar offinto the sky. Then, as he drew nigh to the hills which lay beneaththem, he came to a dark cave, and as he stooped to look into it, hefancied that he saw the gray hair which streamed over the shoulders ofthe Graiai. Long time he rested on the rocks without the cave, till heknew by their heavy breathing that the sisters were asleep. Then hecrept in stealthily, and took the eye which lay beside them, andwaited till they should wake. At last, as the faint light from thefar-off sun, who shines on mortal men, reached the cave, he saw themgroping for the eye which he had taken, and presently, from theirtoothless jaws, came a hollow voice, which said, "There is some onenear us who is sprung from the children of men, for of old time wehave known that one should come and leave us blind until we did hisbidding. " Then Perseus came forth boldly and stood before them, andsaid, "Daughters of Phorkos and of Keto, I know that ye are of kin tothe Gorgon sisters, and to these ye must now guide me. Think not toescape my craft or guile, for in my hands is the sword of Hermes, andit slays all living things on which it may fall. " And they answered, quickly, "Slay us not, child of man, for we will deal truly by thee, and will tell thee of the things which must be done before thou canstreach the dwelling of the Gorgon sisters. Go hence along the plainwhich stretches before thee, then over hill and vale, and forest anddesert, till thou comest to the slow-rolling Ocean stream; there callon the nymphs who dwell beneath the waters, and they shall rise at thybidding and tell thee many things which it is not given to us toknow. " Onwards again he went, across the plain, and over hill and vale tillhe came to the Ocean which flows lazily round the world of living men. No ray of the pure sunshine pierced the murky air, but the pale yellowlight, which broods on the land of the Gorgons, showed to him the darkstream, as he stood on the banks and summoned the nymphs to do hisbidding. Presently they stood before him, and greeted him by his name, and they said, "O Perseus, thou art the first of living men whose feethave trodden this desolate shore. Long time have we known that thewill of Zeus would bring thee hither to accomplish the doom of themortal Medusa. We know the things of which thou art in need, andwithout us thy toil would in very truth be vain. Thou hast to comenear to beings who can see all around them, for the snakes which twistabout their heads are their eyes, and here is the helmet of Hades, which will enable thee to draw nigh to them unseen. Thou hast thesword which never falls in vain; but without this bag which we givethee, thou canst not bear away the head, the sight of which changesall mortal things to stone. And when thy work of death is done on themortal maiden, thou must fly from her sisters who can not die, and whowill follow thee more swiftly than eagles, and here are the sandalswhich shall waft thee through the air more quickly than a dream. Hasten, then, child of Danae, for we are ready to bear thee in ourhands across the Ocean stream. " So they bare Perseus to the Gorgon land, and he journeyed on in thepale yellow light which rests upon it everlastingly. On that night, in the darkness of their lonesome dwelling, Medusaspake to her sisters of the doom which should one day be accomplished, and she said, "Sisters, ye care little for the grief whose image on myface turns all mortal things to stone. Ye who know not old age ordeath, know not the awful weight of my agony, and can not feel thesigns of the change that is coming. But I know them. The snakes whichtwine around my head warn me not in vain; but they warn me againstperils which I care not now to shun. The wrath of Athene, who crushedthe faint hopes which lingered in my heart, left me mortal still, andI am weary with the woe of the ages that are past. O sisters, ye knownot what it is to pity, but something more, ye know what it is tolove, for even in this living tomb we have dwelt together in peace, and peace is of kin to love. But hearken to me now. Mine eyes areheavy with sleep, and my heart tells me that the doom is coming, for Iam but a mortal maiden, and I care not if the slumber which isstealing on me be the sleep of those whose life is done. Sisters, mylot is happier at the least than yours, for he who slays me is myfriend. I am weary of my woe, and it may be that better things awaitme when I am dead. " But even as Medusa spake, the faces of Stheino and Euryale remainedunchanged, and it seemed as though for them the words of Medusa werebut an empty sound. Presently the Gorgon sisters were all asleep. Thedeadly snakes lay still and quiet, and only the breath which hissedfrom their mouths was heard throughout the cave. Then Perseus drew nigh, with the helmet of Hades on his head, and thesandals of the nymphs on his feet. In his right hand was the sword ofHermes, and in his left the mirror of Athene. Long time he gazed onthe image of Medusa's face, which still showed the wreck of herancient beauty, and he said within himself, "Mortal maiden, well mayit be that more than mortal woe should give to thy countenance itsdeadly power. The hour of thy doom is come, but death to thee must bea boon. " Then the sword of Hermes fell, and the great agony of Medusawas ended. So Perseus cast a veil over the dead face, and bare it awayfrom the cave in the bag which the nymphs gave him on the banks of theslow-rolling Ocean. ANDROMEDA. Terrible was the rage of the Gorgon sisters when they woke up fromtheir sleep and saw that the doom of Medusa had been accomplished. Thesnakes hissed as they rose in knotted clusters round their heads, andthe Gorgons gnashed their teeth in fury, not for any love of themortal maiden whose woes were ended, but because a child of weak andtoiling men had dared to approach the daughters of Phorkos and Keto. Swifter than the eagles they sped from their gloomy cave, but theysought in vain to find Perseus, for the helmet of Hades was on hishead, and the sandals of the nymphs were bearing him through the airlike a dream. Onwards he went, not knowing whither he was borne, forhe saw but dimly through the pale yellow light which brooded on theGorgon land everlastingly; but presently he heard a groan as from onein mortal pain, and before him he beheld a giant form, on whose headrested the pillars of the heaven, and he heard a voice, which said, "Hast thou slain the Gorgon Medusa, child of man, and art thou come torid me of my long woe? Look on me, for I am Atlas, who rose up withthe Titans against the power of Zeus, when Prometheus fought on hisside; and of old time have I known that for me is no hope of rest tilla mortal man should bring hither the Gorgon head which can turn allliving things to stone. For so was it shown to me from Zeus, when hemade me bow down beneath the weight of the brazen heaven. Yet, if thouhast slain Medusa, Zeus hath been more merciful to me than toPrometheus who was his friend, for he lies nailed on the rugged cragsof Caucasus, and only thy child in the third generation shall scareaway the vulture which gnaws his heart, and set the Titan free. Buthasten now, Perseus, and let me look on the Gorgon's face, for theagony of my labor is well nigh greater than I can bear. " So Perseushearkened to the words of Atlas, and he unveiled before him the deadface of Medusa. Eagerly he gazed for a moment on the changelesscountenance, as though beneath the blackness of great horror he couldyet see the wreck of her ancient beauty and pitied her for herhopeless woe. But in an instant the straining eyes were closed, theheaving breast was still, the limbs which trembled with the weight ofheaven were still and cold, and it seemed to Perseus, as he rose againinto the pale yellow air, that the gray hairs which streamed from thegiant's head were like the snow which rests on the peaks of the greatmountain, and that in place of the trembling limbs he saw only therents and clefts on a rough hill-side. Onward yet and higher he sped, he knew not whither, on the goldensandals, till from the murky glare of the Gorgon land he passed into asoft and tender light, in which all things wore the colors of a dream. It was not the light of sun or moon, for in that land was neither daynor night. No breeze wafted the light clouds of morning through thesky, or stirred the leaves of the forest trees where the golden fruitsglistened the whole year round, but from beneath rose the echoes ofsweet music, as he glided gently down to the earth. Then he took thehelmet of Hades from off his head, and asked the people whom he metthe name of this happy land, and they said, "We dwell where the icybreath of Boreas can not chill the air or wither our fruits, thereforeis our land called the garden of the Hyperboreans. " There, for awhile, Perseus rested from his toil, and all day long he saw thedances of happy maidens fair as Hebe and Harmonia, and he shared therich banquets at which the people of the land feasted with wreaths oflaurel twined around their head. There he rested in a deep peace, forno sound of strife or war can ever break it, and they know nothing ofmalice and hatred, of sickness or old age. But presently Perseus remembered his mother, Danae, as she lay in herprison-house, at Seriphos, and he left the garden of the Hyperboreansto return to the world of toiling men, but the people of the land knewonly that it lay beyond the slow-rolling Ocean stream, and Perseus sawnot whither he went as he rose on his golden sandals into the soft anddreamy air. Onwards he flew, until far beneath he beheld the Oceanriver, and once more he saw the light of Helios, as he drove his fierychariot through the heaven. Far away stretched the mighty Libyanplain, and further yet, beyond the hills which shut it in, he saw thewaters of the dark sea, and the white line of foam, where the breakerswere dashed upon the shore. As he came nearer, he saw the huge rockswhich rose out of the heaving waters, and on one of them he beheld amaiden, whose limbs were fastened with chains to a stone. The folds ofher white robe fluttered in the breeze, and her fair face was worn andwasted with the heat by day and the cold by night. Then Perseushastened to her, and stood a long time before her, but she saw himnot, for the helmet of Hades was on his head, and he watched her theretill the tears started to his eyes for pity. Her hands were claspedupon her breast, and only the moving of her lips showed the greatnessof her misery. Higher and higher rose the foaming waters, till at lastthe maiden said, "O Zeus, is there none whom thou canst send to helpme?" Then Perseus took the helmet in his hand, and stood before her inall his glorious beauty, and the maiden knew that she had nothing tofear when he said, "Lady, I see that thou art in great sorrow; tell mewho it is that has wronged thee, and I will avenge thee mightily. " Andshe answered, "Stranger, whoever thou art, I will trust thee, for thyface tells me that thou art not one of those who deal falsely. My nameis Andromeda, and my father, Kepheus, is King of the rich Libyan land, but there is strife between him and the old man, Nereus, who dwellswith his daughters in the coral caves, beneath the sea, for, as I grewup in my father's house, my mother made a vain boast of my beauty, andsaid that among all the children of Nereus there was none so fair asI. " So Nereus rose from his coral caves, and went to the KingPoseidon, and said, "King of the broad sea, Kassiopeia, hath done agrievous wrong to me and to my children. I pray thee let not herpeople escape for her evil words. Then Poseidon let loose the waters of the sea, and they rushed in overthe Libyan plains till only the hills which shut it in remained abovethem, and a mighty monster came forth and devoured all the fruits ofthe land. In grief and terror the people fell down before my father, Kepheus, and he sent to the home of Ammon to ask what he should do forthe plague of waters and for the savage beast who vexed them; and soonthe answer came that he must chain up his daughter on a rock, till thebeast came and took her for his prey. So they fastened me here to thisdesolate crag, and each day the monster comes nearer as the watersrise; and soon, I think, they will place me within his reach. " ThenPerseus cheered her with kindly words, and said, "Maiden, I amPerseus, to whom Zeus has given the power to do great things. I holdin my hand the sword of Hermes, which has slain the Gorgon Medusa, and I am bearing to Polydektes, who rules in Seriphos, the head whichturns all who look on it into stone. Fear not, then, Andromeda. I willdo battle with the monster, and, when thy foes are vanquished, I willsue for the boon of thy love. " A soft blush as of great gladness cameover the pale cheek of Andromeda, as she answered, "O Perseus, whyshould I hide from thee my joy? Thou hast come to me like the light ofthe morning when it breaks on a woeful night. " But, even as she spake, the rage of the waves waxed greater, and the waters rose higher andhigher, lashing the rocks in their fury, and the hollow roar of themonster was heard as he hastened to seize his prey. Presently by themaiden's side he saw a glorious form with the flashing sword in hishand, and he lashed the waters in fiercer anger. Then Perseus wentforth to meet him, and he held aloft the sword which Hermes gave tohim, and said, "Sword of Phœbus, let thy stroke be sure, for thousmitest the enemy of the helpless. " So the sword fell, and the bloodof the mighty beast reddened the waters of the green sea. [Illustration: EUTERPE (_Muse of Pleasure_). ] In gladness of heart Perseus led the maiden to the halls of Kepheus, and said, "O King, I have slain the monster to whom thou didst givethy child for a prey; let her go with me now to other lands, if shegainsay me not. " But Kepheus answered, "Tarry with us yet a while, andthe marriage feast shall be made ready, if indeed thou must hastenaway from the Libyan land. " So, at the banquet, by the side of Perseussate the beautiful Andromeda; but there arose a fierce strife, forPhineus had come to the feast, and it angered him that another shouldhave for his wife the maiden whom he had sought to make his bride. Deeper and fiercer grew his rage, as he looked on the face of Perseus, till at last he spake evil words of the stranger who had taken awaythe prize which should have been his own. But Perseus said, calmly, "Why, then, didst thou not slay the monster thyself and set the maidenfree?" When Phineus heard these words his rage almost choked him, andhe charged his people to draw their swords and slay Perseus. Wildlyrose the din in the banquet hall, but Perseus unveiled the Gorgon'sface, and Phineus and all his people were frozen into stone. Then, in the still silence, Perseus bare away Andromeda from herfather's home, and when they had wandered through many lands they cameat length to Seriphos. Once more Danae looked on the face of her son, and said, "My child, the months have rolled wearily since I bade theefarewell; but sure I am that my prayer has been heard, for thy face isas the face of one who comes back a conqueror from battle. " ThenPerseus said, "Yes, my mother, the help of Zeus has never failed me. When the eastern breeze carried me hence to the Argive land, my heartwas full of sorrow, because I saw the city which thou didst yearn tosee, and the home which thou couldst not enter, and I vowed a vow tobring thee back in triumph when I came to claim my birthright. That evening, as I slept, the lady Athene came to me from the home ofZeus, and gave me a mirror so that I might take the Gorgon's headwithout looking on the face which turns everything into stone, and yetanother night, Hermes stood before me, and gave me the sword whosestroke never fails, and the Graiai told me where I should find thenymphs who gave me the helmet of Hades, and the bag which has bornehither the Gorgon's head, and the golden sandals which have carried melike a dream over land and sea. O, my mother, I have done wondrousthings by the aid of Zeus. By me the doom of Medusa has beenaccomplished, and I think that the words which thou didst speak weretrue, for the image of the Gorgon's face, which I saw in Athene'smirror, was as the countenance of one whose beauty has been marred bya woeful agony, and whenever I have looked since on that image, it hasseemed to me as though it wore the look of one who rested in deathfrom a mighty pain. So, as the giant Atlas looked on thatgrief-stricken brow, he felt no more the weight of the heaven as itrested on him, and the gray hair which streamed from his head seemedto me, when I left him, like the snow which clothes the mountain-topsin winter. So, when from the happy gardens of the Hyperboreans I cameto the rich Libyan plain, and had killed the monster who sought toslay Andromeda, the Gorgon's face turned Phineus and his people intostone, when they sought to slay me because I had won her love. " ThenDanae answered the questions of Perseus, and told him how Polydekteshad vexed her with his evil words, and how Diktys alone had shieldedher from his brother. And Perseus bade Danae be of good cheer, becausethe recompense of Polydektes was nigh at hand. There was joy and feasting in Seriphos when the news was spread abroadthat Perseus had brought back for the King the head of the GorgonMedusa, and Polydektes made a great feast, and the wine sparkled inthe goblets as the minstrels sang of the great deeds of the son ofDanae. Then Perseus told him of all that Hermes and Athene had donefor him. He showed them the helmet of Hades, and the golden sandals, and the unerring sword, and then he unveiled the face of Medusa beforePolydektes and the men who had aided him against his mother, Danae. SoPerseus looked upon them, as they sat at the rich banquet, stiff andcold as a stone, and he felt that his mighty work was ended. Then, athis prayer, came Hermes, the messenger of Zeus, and Perseus gave himback the helmet of Hades, and the sword which had slain the Gorgon, and the sandals which had borne him through the air like a dream. AndHermes gave the helmet again to Hades, and the sandals to the Oceannymphs, but Athene took the Gorgon's head, and it was placed upon hershield. Then Perseus spake to Danae, and said, "My mother, it is time for theeto go home. The Gorgon's face has turned Polydektes and his peopleinto stone, and Diktys rules in Seriphos. " So once more the whitesails were filled with the eastern breeze, and Danae saw once more theArgive land. From city to city spread the tidings that Perseus wascome, who had slain the Gorgon, and the youths and maidens sang "IoPaian, " as they led the conqueror to the halls of Akrisios. AKRISIOS. The shouts of "Io Paian" reached the ear of Akrisios, as he sat in hislonely hall, marveling at the strange things which must have happenedto waken the sounds of joy and triumph; for, since the day when Danaewas cast forth with her babe on the raging waters, the glory of warhad departed from Argos, and it seemed as though all the chieftainshad lost their ancient strength and courage. But the wonder ofAkrisios was changed to a great fear when they told him that hischild, Danae, was coming home, and that the hero, Perseus, had rescuedher from Polydektes, the King of Seriphos. The memory of all the wrongwhich he had done to his daughter tormented him, and still in his minddwelt the words of warning which came from Phœbus Apollo that heshould one day be slain by the hands of her son; so that, as he lookedforth on the sky, it seemed to him as though he should see the sunagain no more. In haste and terror Akrisios fled from his home. He tarried not tohear the voice of Danae, he stayed not to look on the face of Perseus, nor to see that the hero who had slain the Gorgon bore him no malicefor the wrongs of the former days. Quickly he sped over hill and dale, across river and forest, till he came to the house of Teutamidas, thegreat chieftain who ruled in Larissa. The feast was spread in the banquet-hall, and the Thessalian minstrelssang of the brave deeds of Perseus, for even thither had his famereached already. They told how from the land of toiling men he hadpassed to the country of the Graiai and the Gorgons, how he had slainthe mortal Medusa and stiffened the giant Atlas into stone, and thenthey sang how, with the sword of Hermes, he smote the mighty beastwhich ravaged the Libyan land, and won Andromeda to be his bride. ThenTeutamidas spake, and said, "My friend, I envy thee for thy happy lot, for not often in the world of men may fathers reap such glory fromtheir children as thou hast won from Perseus. In the ages to come menshall love to tell of his great and good deeds, and from him shallspring mighty chieftains, who shall be stirred up to a purer couragewhen they remember how Perseus toiled and triumphed before them. Andnow tell me, friend, wherefore thou hast come hither. Thy cheek ispale, and thy hand trembles, but I think not that it can be from theweight of years, for thy old age is yet but green, and thou mayesthope still to see the children of Perseus clustering around thyknees. " But Akrisios could scarcely answer for shame and fear; for he carednot to tell Teutamidas of the wrongs which he had done to Danae. So hesaid, hastily, that he had fled from a great danger, for the warningof Phœbus was that he should be slain by his daughter's son. AndTeutamidas said, "Has thy daughter yet another son?" And then Akrisioswas forced to own that he had fled from the hero, Perseus. But theface of Teutamidas flushed with anger as he said, "O shame, that thoushouldst flee from him who ought to be thy glory and thy pride!Everywhere men speak of the goodness and the truth of Perseus, and Iwill not believe that he bears thee a grudge for anything that thouhast done to him. Nay, thou doest to him a more grievous wrong inshunning him now than when thou didst cast him forth in his mother'sarms upon the angry sea. " So he pleaded with Akrisios for Perseus, until he spoke the word that Danae and her child might come to thegreat games which were to be held on the plain before Larissa. With shouts of "Io Paian" the youths and maidens went out beforePerseus as he passed from the city of Akrisios to go to Larissa, andeverywhere as he journeyed the people came forth from town and villageto greet the bright hero and the beautiful Andromeda, whom he hadsaved from the Libyan dragon. Onwards they went, spreading gladnesseverywhere, till the cold heart of Akrisios himself was touched with afeeling of strange joy, as he saw the band of youths and maidens whocame before them to the house of Teutamidas. So once more his childDanae stood before him, beautiful still, although the sorrows oftwenty years had dimmed the brightness of her eye, and the merry laughof her youth was gone. Once more he looked on the face of Perseus, andhe listened to the kindly greeting of the hero whom he had wronged inthe days of his helpless childhood. But he marveled yet more at thebeauty of Andromeda, and he thought within himself that throughout thewide earth were none so fair as Perseus and the wife whom he had wonwith the sword of Hermes. Then, as they looked on the chiefs who strove together in the games, the shouting of the crowd told at the end of each that Perseus was theconqueror. At last they stood forth to see which should have moststrength of arm in hurling the quoit; and, when Perseus aimed at themark, the quoit swerved aside and smote Akrisios on the head, and thewarning of Phœbus Apollo was accomplished. Great was the sorrow of Teutamidas and his people as the chieftain ofArgos lay dead before them; but deeper still and more bitter was thegrief of Perseus for the deed which he had unwittingly done, and hesaid, "O Zeus, I have striven to keep my hands clean and to dealtruly, and a hard recompense hast thou given me. " So they went back mourning to Argos, but although he strove heartilyto rule his people well, the grief of Perseus could not be lessenedwhile he remained in the house of Akrisios. So he sent a messenger tohis kinsman, Megapenthes, who ruled at Tiryns, and said, "Come thouand rule in Argos, and I will go and dwell among thy people. " SoPerseus dwelt at Tiryns, and the men of the city rejoiced that he hadcome to rule over them. Thus the months and years went quickly by, asPerseus strove with all his might to make his people happy and toguard them against their enemies. At his bidding, the Cyclopes camefrom the far-off Lykian land, and built the mighty walls which girdthe city round about; and they helped him to build yet another city, which grew in after-times to be even greater and mightier than Tiryns. So rose the walls of Mykenæ, and there, too, the people loved andhonored Perseus for his just dealing more than for all the deeds whichhe had done with the sword of Hermes. At last the time came when thehero must rest from his long toil, but as they looked on his face, bright and beautiful even in death, the minstrels said, "We shall hearhis voice no more, but the name of Perseus shall never die. " KEPHALOS AND PROKRIS. Of all the maidens in the land of Attica none was so beautiful asProkris, the daughter of King Erechtheus. She was the delight of herfather's heart, not so much for her beauty as for her goodness andher gentleness. The sight of her fair face and the sound of her happyvoice brought gladness to all who saw and heard her. Every one stoppedto listen to the songs which she sang as she sat working busily at theloom, and the maidens who dwelt with her were glad when the hour cameto go with Prokris and wash their clothes or draw water from thefountain. Then, when all her tasks were ended, she would roam overhill and valley, into every nook and dell. There was no spot in allthe land where Prokris had not been. She lay down to rest in the topof the highest hills, or by the side of the stream where it murmuredamong the rocks far down in the woody glen. So passed her days away;and while all loved her and rejoiced to see her face, only Prokrisknew not of her own beauty, and thought not of her own goodness. Butthey amongst whom she lived, the old and the young, the sorrowful andhappy, all said that Prokris, the child of Herse, was always as fairand bright as the dew of early morning. [Illustration: THALIA (_Muse of Comedy_). ] Once in her many wanderings she had climbed the heights of MountHymettos, almost before the first streak of dawn was seen in the sky. Far away, as she looked over the blue sea, her eyes rested on theglittering cliffs of Eubœa, and she looked and saw that a ship wassailing towards the shore beneath the hill of Hymettos. Presently itreached the shore, and she could see that a man stepped out of theship, and began to climb the hill, while the rest remained on thebeach. As he came nearer to her, Prokris knew that his face was veryfair, and she thought that she had never seen such beauty in mortalman before. She had heard that sometimes the gods come down from theirhome on Olympos to mingle among the children of men, and thatsometimes the bright heroes were seen in the places where they hadlived on the earth before they were taken to dwell in the halls ofZeus. As the stranger came near to her the sun rose brightly andwithout a cloud from the dark sea, and its light fell on his face, andmade it gleam with more than mortal beauty. Gently he came towardsher, and said, "Lady, I am come from the far-off eastern land, and asI drew near to this shore I saw that some one was resting here uponthe hill. So I hastened to leave the ship that I might learn the nameof the country which I have reached. My name is Kephalos, and myfather, Helios, lives in a beautiful home beyond the sea, but I amtraveling over the earth, till I shall have gone over every land andseen all the cities which men have built. Tell me now thy name, andthe name of this fair land. " Then she said, "Stranger, my name isProkris, and I am the daughter of King Erechtheus, who dwells atAthens yonder, where thou seest the bright line of Kephisos flowinggently into the sea. " So Prokris guided the stranger to her father'shouse, and Erechtheus received him kindly, and spread a banquet beforehim. But as they feasted and drank the dark red wine, he thoughtalmost that Kephalos must be one of the bright heroes come back to hisown land, so fair and beautiful was he to look upon, and that nonesave only his own child, Prokris, might be compared to him for beauty. Long time Kephalos abode in the house of Erechtheus, and, each day, heloved more and more the bright and happy Prokris; and Prokris becamebrighter and happier, as the eye of Kephalos rested gently andlovingly upon her. At last Kephalos told her of his love, andErechtheus gave him his child to be his wife, and there were none inall the land who dwelt together in a love so deep and pure as that ofKephalos and Prokris. But among the maidens of that land there was one who was named Eos. She, too, was fair and beautiful, but she had not the gentle spiritand the guileless heart of Prokris. Whenever Kephalos wandered forthwith his young wife, then Eos would seek to follow them stealthily, or, if she met them by chance, she would suffer her eyes to rest longon the fair face of Kephalos, till she began to envy the happiness ofProkris. And so one day, when there was a feast of the people of theland, and the maidens danced on the soft grass around the fountain, Kephalos and Eos talked together, and Eos suffered herself to becarried away by her evil love. From that day she sought more and moreto talk with Kephalos, till at last she bowed her head before him andtold him softly of her love. But Kephalos said to her, gently, "Maiden, thou art fair to look upon, and there are others who may lovethee well, and thou deservest the love of any. But I may not leaveProkris, whom Erechtheus has given to me to be my wife. Forgive me, maiden, if Prokris appear to me even fairer than thou art; but I prizeher gentleness more than her beauty, and Prokris, with her pure loveand guileless heart, shall be always dearer to me than any other inall the wide earth. " Then Eos answered him craftily, "O Kephalos, thouhast suffered thyself to be deceived. Prokris loves thee not as I do;prove her love and thou shalt see that I have spoken truly. " Thus Eos spoke to him for many days, and the great happiness of hislife was marred, for the words of Eos would come back to his mind, ashe looked on the happy and guileless Prokris. He had begun to doubtwhether she were in very deed so pure and good as she seemed to be, and at last he said to Eos that he would prove her love. Then Eos toldhim how to do so, and said that if he came before his wife as astranger and brought to her rich gifts, as from a distant land, shewould forget her love for Kephalos. With a heavy heart he went away, for he foreboded evil days from thesubtle words of Eos, and he departed and dwelt in another land. So thetime passed on, until many weeks and months had gone by, and Prokrismourned and wept in the house of Erechtheus, until the brightness ofher eye was dimmed and her voice had lost its gladness. Day after dayshe sought throughout all the land for Kephalos, day after day shewent up the hill of Hymettos, and as she looked towards the sea, shesaid, "Surely he will come back again; ah, Kephalos, thou knowest notthe love which thou hast forsaken. " Thus she pined away in her sorrow, although to all who were around her she was as gentle and as loving asever. Her father was now old and weak, and he knew that he must soondie, but it grieved him most of all that he must leave his child in agrief more bitter than if Kephalos had remained to comfort her. SoErechtheus died, and the people honored him as one of the heroes ofthe land, but Prokris remained in his house desolate, and all who sawher pitied her for her true love and her deep sorrow. At last she feltthat Kephalos would return no more, and that she could no more behappy until she went to her father in the bright home of the heroesand the gods. Then a look of peace and loving patience came over her fair face, andshe roamed with a strange gladness through every place where Kephaloshad wandered with her; and so it came to pass that one day Prokris satresting in the early morning on the eastern slopes of Mount Hymettos, when suddenly she beheld a man coming near to her. The dress wasstrange, but she half thought she knew his tall form and the lightstep as he came up the hill. Presently he came close to her, and shefelt as if she were in a strange dream. The sight of his face and theglance of his eye carried her back to the days that were past, and shestarted up and ran towards him, saying, "O Kephalos, thou art comeback at last; how couldst thou forsake me so long?" But the strangeranswered, in a low and gentle voice (for he saw that she was in greatsorrow), "Lady, thou art deceived. I am a stranger come from a farcountry, and I seek to know the name of this land. " Then Prokris satdown again on the grass, and clasped her hands, and said, slowly, "Itis changed and I can not tell how; yet surely it is the voice ofKephalos. " Then she turned to the stranger, and said, "O stranger, Iam mourning for Kephalos, whom I have loved and lost; he, too, camefrom a far land across the sea. Dost thou know him, and canst thoutell me where I may find him?" And the stranger answered, "I know him, lady; he is again in his own home, far away, whither thou canst notgo; yet think not of him, for he has forgotten his love. " Then thestranger spoke to her in gentle and soothing words, until her griefbecame less bitter. Long time he abode in the land, and it pleasedProkris to hear his voice while his eye rested kindly on her, untilshe almost fancied that she was with Kephalos once more. And shethought to herself, "What must that land be, from which there can cometwo who are beautiful as the bright heroes?" So at last, when with soft and gentle words he had soothed her sorrow, the stranger spoke to her of his love, and Prokris felt that she, too, could love him, for had not Kephalos despised her love and forsakenher long ago? So he said, "Canst thou love me, Prokris, instead ofKephalos?" and when she gently answered "Yes, " then a change came overthe face of the stranger, and she saw that it was Kephalos himself whoclasped her in his arms. With a wild cry she broke from him, and asbitter tears ran down her cheek, she said, "O Kephalos, Kephalos, whyhast thou done thus? all my love was thine, and _thou_ hast drawn meinto evil deeds. " Then, without tarrying for his answer, with all herstrength she fled away, and she hastened to the sea shore and badethem make ready a ship to take her from her father's land. Sorrowfullythey did as she besought them, and they took her to the Island ofCrete, far away in the eastern sea. When Prokris was gone, the maiden Eos came and stood before Kephalos, and she said to him, "My words are true, and now must thou keep thevow by which thou didst swear to love me, if Prokris should yieldherself to a stranger. " So Kephalos dwelt with Eos, but for all herfond words he could not love her as still he loved Prokris. Meanwhile Prokris wandered, in deep and bitter sorrow, among the hillsand valleys of Crete. She cared not to look on the fair morning as itbroke on the pale path of night; she cared not to watch the bright sunas he rose from the dark sea, or when he sank to rest behind thewestern waters. For the earth had lost all its gladness, and she feltthat she could die. But one day as she sat on a hill-side and lookedon the broad plains which lay stretched beneath, suddenly a womanstood before her, brighter and more glorious than the daughters ofmen, and Prokris knew, from the spear which she held in her hand andthe hound which crouched before her, that it was Artemis, the mightychild of Zeus and Leto. Then Prokris fell at her feet, and said, "Olady Artemis, pity me in my great sorrow;" and Artemis answered, "Fearnot, Prokris, I know thy grief. Kephalos hath done thee a great wrong, but he shall fall by the same device wherewith he requited thy pureand trusting love. " Then she gave to Prokris her hound and her spear, and said, "Hasten now to thine own land, and go stand before Kephalos, and I will put a spell upon him that he may not know thee. Follow himin the chase, and at whatsoever thou mayest cast this spear, it shallfall, and from this hound no prey which thou mayest seek for shallever escape. " So Prokris sailed back to the land of Erechtheus with the gifts ofArtemis. And when Kephalos went to the chase, Prokris followed him, and all the glory of the hunt fell to her portion, for the houndstruck down whatever it seized, and her spear never missed its aim. And Kephalos marveled greatly, and said to the maiden, "Give me thyhound and thy spear, " and he besought the stranger many times for thegift, till at last Prokris said, "I will not give them but for thylove, thou must forsake Eos and come to dwell with me. " Then Kephalossaid, "I care not for Eos; so only I have thy gifts, thou shalt havemy love. " But even as he spoke these words, a change came over theface of the stranger, and he saw that it was Prokris herself who stoodbefore him. And Prokris said, "Ah, Kephalos, once more thou hastpromised to love me, and now may I keep thy love, and remain with theealways. Almost I may say that I never loved any one but thee, but thouart changed, Kephalos, although still the same, else wouldst thou nothave promised to love me for the gift of a hound and a spear. " ThenKephalos besought Prokris to forgive him, and he said, "I am caught inthe trap which I laid for thee, but I have fallen deeper. When thougavest thy love to me as to a stranger, it pleased thee yet to thinkthat I was like Kephalos, and my vow to thee has been given for themere gifts which I coveted. " But Prokris only said, "My joy is comeback to me again, and now I will leave thee no more. " So once more in the land of Erechtheus Prokris and Kephalos dwelttogether in a true and deep love. Once more they wandered over hilland dale as in the times that were past, and looked out from theheights of Hymettos to the white shore of Eubœa, as it glistened inthe light of early day. But whenever he went to the chase with thehound and the spear of Artemis, Prokris saw that Eos still watched ifhaply she might talk with Kephalos alone, and win him again forherself. Once more she was happy, but her happiness was not what ithad been when Kephalos first gave her his love, while her father, Erechtheus, was yet alive. She knew that Eos still envied her, and shesought to guard Kephalos from the danger of her treacherous look andher enticing words. She kept ever near him in the chase, although hesaw her not, and thus it came to pass that one day, as Prokriswatched him from a thicket, the folds of her dress rustled against thebranches, so that Kephalos thought it was some beast moving from hisden, and hurled at her the spear of Artemis that never missed itsmark. Then he heard the cry as of one who has received a deadly blow, and when he hastened into the thicket, Prokris lay smitten down to theearth before him. The coldness of death was on her face, and herbright eye was dim, but her voice was as loving as ever, while shesaid, "O Kephalos, it grieves me not that thy arm hath struck me down. I have thy love, and having it, I go to the land of the bright heroes, where my father, Erechtheus, is waiting for his child, and where thou, too, shalt one day meet me, to dwell with me forever. " One loving lookshe gave to Kephalos, and the smile of parting vanished in thestillness of death. [Illustration: NUMA POMPILIUS VISITING THE NYMPH EGERIA. ] Then over the body of Prokris Kephalos wept tears of bitter sorrow, and he said, "Ah, Eos, Eos, well hast thou rewarded me for doubtingonce a love such as thou couldst never feel. " Many days and many weekshe mourned for his lost love, and daily he sat on the slopes ofHymettos, and thought with a calm and almost happy grief how Prokristhere had rested by his side. All this time the spear of Artemis wasidle, and the hound went not forth to the chase, until chieftains camefrom other lands to ask his aid against savage beasts or men. Amongthem came Amphitryon, the lord of Thebes, to ask for help, andKephalos said, "I will do as thou wouldst have me. It is time that Ishould begin to journey to the bright land where Prokris dwells, beyond the western sea. " So he went with Amphitryon into the Theban land, and hunted out thesavage beasts which wasted his harvests, and then he journeyed on tillhe came to the home of Phœbus Apollo, at Delphi. There the god badehim hasten to the western sea, where he should once again findProkris. Onward he went, across the heights and vales of Ætolia, untilhe stood on the Leukadian cape and looked out on the blue water. Thesun was sinking low down in the sky, and the golden clouds of eveningwere gathered round him as he hastened to his rest. And Kephalos said, "Here must I rest, also, for my journey is done, and Prokris iswaiting for me in the brighter land. " There on the white cliff hestood, and just as the sun touched the waters, the strength ofKephalos failed him, and he sank gently into the sea. So again, in the homes of the bright heroes, Kephalos found the wifewhom he had loved and slain. SKYLLA. From the turret of her father's house, Skylla, the daughter of Nisos, watched the ships of King Minos, as they drew near from the Island ofCrete. Their white sails and the spears of the Cretan warriorssparkled in the sunshine, as the crested waves rose and fell, carryingthe long billows to the shore. As she watched the goodly sight, Skyllathought sadly of the days that were gone, when her father hadsojourned as a guest in the halls of King Minos, and she had looked onhis face as on the face of a friend. But now there was strife betweenthe chieftains of Crete and Megara, for Androgeos, the son of Minos, had been slain by evil men as he journeyed from Megara to Athens, andMinos was come hither with his warriors to demand the price of hisblood. But when the herald came with the message of Minos, the face ofNisos, the King, flushed with anger, as he said, "Go thy way to himthat sent thee, and tell him that he who is guarded by the undyinggods cares not for the wrath of men whose spears shall be snapped likebulrushes. " Then said the herald, "I can not read thy riddle, chieftain of Megara, but the blood of the gods runs in the veins ofMinos, and it can not be that the son of Europa shall fall under thehands of thee or of thy people. " The sun went down in a flood of golden glory behind the purpleheights of Geraneia, and as the mists of evening fell upon the land, the warriors of Minos made ready for the onset on the morrow. But whenthe light of Eos flushed the eastern sky, and the men of Crete wentforth to the battle, their strength and their brave deeds availed themnothing, for the arms of the mightiest became weak as the hands of alittle child, because the secret spell, in which lay the strength ofthe undying gods, guarded the city of Nisos. And so it came to passthat, as day by day they fought in vain against the walls of Megara, the spirit of the men of Crete waxed feeble, and many said that theycame not thither to fight against the deathless gods. But each day as Minos led his men against the city, the daughter ofNisos had looked forth from her turret, and she saw his face, beautiful as in the days when she had sojourned in his house atGnossos, and flushed with the pride and eagerness of the war. Then theheart of Skylla was filled with a strange love, and she spake musinglywithin herself, "To what end is this strife of armed men? Love isbeyond all treasures, and brighter for me than the love of otherswould be one kindly look from the bright son of Europa. I know thespell which keeps the city of the Megarians, and where is the evil ofthe deed, if I take the purple lock of hair which the gods have givento my father as a pledge that so long as it remains untouched, no harmshall befall his people? If I give it to Minos the struggle is ended, and it may be that I shall win his love. " So when the darkness of night fell again upon the earth, and all thesons of men were buried in a deep sleep, Skylla entered stealthilyinto her father's chamber, and shore off the purple lock in which layhis strength and the strength of his people. Then, as the tints ofearly morning stole across the dark heavens, the watchmen of theCretans beheld the form of a woman as she drew nigh to them and badethem lead her to the tent of King Minos. When she was brought beforehim, with downcast face she bowed herself to the earth, and said, "Ihave sojourned in thy halls in the days that are gone, when there waspeace between thee and the house of my father, Nisos. O Minos, peaceis better than war, and of all treasures the most precious is love. Look on me, then, gently as in former days, for at a great price do Iseek thy kindness. In this purple lock is the strength of my fatherand his people. " Then a strange smile passed over the face of Minos, as he said, "The gifts of fair maidens must not be lightly cast aside;the requital shall be made when the turmoil of strife is ended. " With a mighty shout the Cretan warriors went forth to the onset as thefiery horses of Helios rose up with his chariot into the kindledheaven. Straightway the walls of Megara fell, and the men of Creteburst into the house of Nisos. So the city was taken, and Minos madeready to go against the men of Athens, for on them also he sought totake vengeance for the death of his son, Androgeos. But even as hehastened to his ship, Skylla stood before him on the sea-shore. "Thyvictory is from me, " she said, "where is the requital of my gift?"Then Minos answered, "She who cares not for the father that hascherished her has her own reward, and the gift which thou didst bringme is beyond human recompense. " The light southern breeze swelled theoutspread sail, and the ship of Minos danced gaily over the ripplingwaters. For a moment the daughter of Nisos stood musing on the shore. Then she stretched forth her arms, as with a low cry of bitter anguishshe said, "O Love, thy sting is cruel, and my life dies poisoned bythe smile of Aphrodite!" So the waters closed over the daughter ofNisos, as she plunged in the blue depths; but the strife which vexesthe sons of men follows her still, when the eagle swoops down from theclouds for his prey in the salt sea. PHRIXOS AND HELLE. Many, many years ago, there was a man called Athamas, and he had awife whose name was Nephele. They had two children--a boy and a girl. The name of the boy was Phrixos, and his sister was called Helle. Theywere good and happy children, and played about merrily in the fields, and their mother, Nephele, loved them dearly. But by and by theirmother was taken away from them, and their father, Athamas, forgot allabout her, for he had not loved her as he ought to do. And very soonhe married another wife whose name was Ino, but she was harsh andunkind to Phrixos and Helle, and they began to be very unhappy. Theircheeks were no more rosy, and their faces no longer looked bright andcheerful, as they used to do when they could go home to their mother, Nephele, and so they played less and less, until none would havethought that they were the same children who were so happy beforeNephele was taken away. But Ino hated these poor children, for she wasa cruel woman, and she longed to get rid of Phrixos and Helle, and shethought how she might do so. So she said that Phrixos spoiled all thecorn, and prevented it from growing, and that they would not be ableto make any bread till he was killed. At last she persuaded Athamasthat he ought to kill Phrixos. But although Athamas cared nothingabout Phrixos and Helle, still their mother, Nephele, saw what wasgoing on, although they could not see her, because there was a cloudbetween them; and Nephele was determined that Athamas should not hurtPhrixos. So she sent a ram which had a golden fleece to carry herchildren away, and one day, when they were sitting down on the grass(for they were too sad and unhappy to play), they saw a beautiful ramcome into the field. And Phrixos said to Helle, "Sister, look at thissheep that is coming to us; see, he shines all over like gold--hishorns are made of gold, and all the hair on his body is golden, too. "So the ram came nearer and nearer, and at last he lay down quite closeto them, and looked so quiet that Phrixos and Helle were not at allafraid of him. Then they played with the sheep, and they took him bythe horns, and stroked his golden fleece, and patted him on the head, and the ram looked so pleased that they thought they would like tohave a ride on his back. So Phrixos got up first, and put his armsround the ram's neck, and little Helle got up behind her brother andput her arms round his waist, and then they called to the ram to standup and carry them about. And the ram knew what they wanted, and beganto walk first, and then to run. By and by it rose up from the groundand began to fly. And when it first left the earth, Phrixos and Hellebecame frightened, and they begged the ram to go down again and putthem upon the ground, but the ram turned his head round, and looked sogently at them, that they were not afraid any more. So Phrixos toldHelle to hold on tight round his waist, and he said, "Dear Helle, donot be afraid, for I do not think the ram means to do us any harm, andI almost fancy that he must have been sent by our dear mother, Nephele, and that he will carry us to some better country, where thepeople will be kind to us, as our mother used to be. " Now it so happened that, just as the ram began to fly away with thetwo children on its back, Ino and Athamas came into the field, thinking how they might kill Phrixos, but they could not see himanywhere; and when they looked up, then, high up in the air over theirheads, they saw the ram flying away with the children on its back. Sothey cried out and made a great noise, and threw stones up into theair, thinking that the ram would get frightened and come down to theearth again; but the ram did not care how much noise they made or howmany stones they threw up. On and on he flew, higher and higher, tillat last he looked only like a little yellow speck in the blue sky; andthen Ino and Athamas saw him no more. So these wicked people sat down, very angry and unhappy. They weresorry because Phrixos and Helle had got away all safe, when theywanted to kill them. But they were much more sorry because they hadgone away on the back of a ram whose fleece was made of gold. So Inosaid to Athamas, "What a pity that we did not come into the field alittle sooner, for then we might have caught this ram and killed himand stripped off his golden fleece, and we should have been rich forthe rest of our days. " All this time the ram was flying on and on, higher and higher, withPhrixos and Helle on his back. And Helle began to be very tired, andshe said to her brother that she could not hold on much longer, andPhrixos said, "Dear Helle, try and hold on as long as you possiblycan; I dare say the ram will soon reach the place to which he wants tocarry us, and then you shall lie down on the soft grass, and have suchpleasant sleep that you will not feel tired any more. " But Helle said, "Dearest Phrixos, I will indeed try and hold fast as long as I can, but my arms are becoming so weak that I am afraid that I shall not beable to hold on long. " And by and by, when she grew weaker, she said, "Dear Phrixos, if I fall off, you will not see Helle any more, but youmust not forget her, you must always love her as she loved you, andthen some day or other we shall see each other again, and live withour dear mother, Nephele. " Then Phrixos said, "Try and hold fast alittle longer still, Helle. I can never love any one so much as I loveyou; but I want you to live with me on earth, and I can not bear tothink of living without you. " But it was of no use that he talked so kindly and tried to encouragehis sister, because he was not able to make her arms and her bodystronger; so by and by poor Helle fell off, just as they were flyingover a narrow part of the sea, and she fell into it and was drowned. And the people called the part of the sea where she fell in, theHellespont, which means the sea of little Helle. So Phrixos was left alone on the ram's back; and the ram flew on andon a long way, till it came to the palace of Aietes, the King ofKolchis. And King Aietes was walking about in his garden, when helooked up into the sky, and saw something which looked very like ayellow sheep with a little boy on its back. And King Aietes wasgreatly amazed, for he had never seen so strange a thing before, andhe called his wife and his children, and everyone else that was in hishouse, to come and see this wonderful sight. And they looked, and sawthe ram coming nearer and nearer, and then they knew that it reallywas a boy on its back; and by and by the ram came down upon the earthnear their feet, and Phrixos got off its back. Then King Aietes wentup to him, and took him by the hand, and asked him who he was, and hesaid, "Tell me, little boy, how it is that you come here, riding inthis strange way on the back of a ram. " Then Phrixos told him the ramhad come into the field where he and Helle were playing, and hadcarried them away from Ino and Athamas, who were very unkind to them, and how little Helle had grown tired, and fallen off his back, and hadbeen drowned in the sea. Then King Aietes took Phrixos up in his arms, and said, "Do not be afraid; I will take care of you and give you allthat you want, and no one shall hurt you here; and the ram which hascarried you through the air shall stay in this beautiful place, wherehe will have as much grass to eat as he can possibly want, and astream to drink out of and to bathe in whenever he likes. " So Phrixos was taken into the palace of King Aietes, and everybodyloved him, because he was good and kind, and never hurt anyone. And hegrew up healthy and strong, and he learned to ride about the countryand to leap and run over the hills and valleys, and swim about in theclear rivers. He had not forgotten his sister Helle, for he loved herstill as much as ever, and very often he wished that she could comeand live with him again, but he knew that she was with his mother, Nephele, in the happy land to which good people go after they aredead. And therefore he was never unhappy when he thought of hissister, for he said, "One day I, too, shall be taken to that brightland, and live with my mother and my sister again, if I try always todo what is right. " And very often he used to go and see the beautifulram with the golden fleece feeding in the garden, and stroke itsgolden locks. But the ram was not so strong now as he was when he flew through theair with Phrixos and Helle on his hack, for he was growing old andweak, and at last the ram died, and Phrixos was very sorry. And KingAietes had the golden fleece taken off from the body, and they nailedit up upon the wall, and every one came to look at the fleece whichwas made of gold, and to hear the story of Phrixos and Helle. But all this while Athamas and Ino had been hunting about everywhere, to see if they could find out where the ram had gone with the childrenon his back; and they asked every one whom they met, if they had seena sheep with a fleece of gold carrying away two children. But no onecould tell anything about it, till at last they came to the house ofAietes, the King of Kolchis. And they came to the door, and askedAietes if he had seen Phrixos and Helle, and the sheep with the goldenfleece. Then Aietes said to them, "I have never seen little Helle, forshe fell off from the ram's back, and was drowned in the sea, butPhrixos is with me still, and as for the ram, see here is his goldenfleece nailed up upon the wall. " And just then Phrixos happened tocome in, and Aietes asked them, "Look, now, and tell me if this is thePhrixos whom you are seeking. " And when they saw him, they said, "Itis indeed the same Phrixos who went away on the ram's back, but he isgrown into a great man;" and they began to be afraid, because theythought they could not now ill-treat Phrixos, as they used to do whenhe was a little boy. So they tried to entice him away by pretending tobe glad to see him, and they said, "Come away with us, and we shalllive happily together. " But Phrixos saw from the look of their facesthat they were not telling the truth, and that they hated him still, and he said to them, "I will not go with you; King Aietes has beenvery good to me, and you were always unkind to me and to my sister, and therefore I will never leave King Aietes to go away with you. "Then they said to Aietes, "Phrixos may stay here, but give us thegolden fleece which came from the ram that carried away the children. "But the King said, "I will not--I know that you only ask for itbecause you wish to sell it, and therefore you shall not have it. " Then Ino and Athamas turned away in a rage, and went to their owncountry again, wretched and unhappy because they could not get thegolden fleece. And they told every one that the fleece of the ram wasin the palace of the King of Kolchis, and they tried to persuade everyone to go in a great ship and take away the fleece by force. So agreat many people came, and they all got into a large ship called theArgo, and they sailed and sailed, until at last they came to Kolchis. Then they sent some one to ask Aietes to give them the golden fleece, but he would not, and they would never have found the fleece again, ifthe wise maiden, Medeia, had not shown Iason how he might outdo thebidding of King Aietes. But when Iason had won the prize and they hadsailed back again to their own land, the fleece was not given toAthamas and Ino. The other people took it, for they said, "It is quiteright that we should have it, to make up for all our trouble inhelping to get it. " So, with all their greediness, these wretchedpeople remained as poor and as miserable as ever. MEDEIA. Far away in the Kolchian land, where her father, Aietes, was King, thewise maiden, Medeia, saw and loved Iason, who had come in the ship, Argo, to search for the golden fleece. To her Zeus had given a wiseand cunning heart, and she had power over the hidden things of theearth, and nothing in the broad sea could withstand her might. She hadspells to tame the monsters which vex the children of men, and tobring back youth to the wrinkled face and the tottering limbs of theold. But the spells of Eros were mightier still, and the wise maidenforgot her cunning as she looked on the fair countenance of Iason, andshe said within herself that she would make him conqueror in hisstruggle for the golden fleece, and go with him to be his wife in thefar-off western land. So King Aietes brought up in vain thefire-breathing bulls that they might scorch Iason as he plowed theland with the dragon's teeth, and in vain from these teeth sprang upthe harvest of armed men ready for strife and bloodshed. For Medeiahad anointed the body of Iason with ointment, so that the fiery breathof the bulls hurt him not; and by her bidding he cast a stone amongthe armed men, and they fought with one another for the stone till alllay dead upon the ground. Still King Aietes would not give to him thegolden fleece, and the heart of Iason was cast down till Medeia cameto him and bade him follow her. Then she led him to a hidden dellwhere the dragon guarded the fleece, and she laid her spells on themonster and brought a heavy sleep upon his eye, while Iason took thefleece and hastened to carry it on board the ship Argo. So Medeia left her father's house, and wandered with Iason into manylands--to Iolkos, to Athens, and to Argos. And wherever she went, menmarveled at her for her wisdom and her beauty, but as they looked onher fair face and listened to her gentle voice, they knew not thepower of the maiden's wrath if any one should do her wrong. So shedwelt at Iolkos, in the house of Pelias, who had sent forth Iason tolook for the golden fleece, that he might not be King in his stead, and the daughters of Pelias loved the beautiful Medeia, for theydreamed not that she had sworn to avenge on Pelias the wrong which hehad done to Iason. Craftily she told the daughters of Pelias of thepower of her spells, which could tame the fire-breathing bulls, andlull the dragon to sleep, and bring back the brightness of youth tothe withered cheeks of the old. And the daughters of Pelias said toher, "Our father is old, and his limbs are weak and tottering, show ushow once more he can be made young. " Then Medeia took a ram and cut itup, and put its limbs into a caldron, and when she had boiled them onthe hearth there came forth a lamb, and she said, "So shall yourfather be brought back again to youth and strength, if ye will do tohim as I have done to the ram, and when the time is come, I will speakthe words of my spell, and the change shall be accomplished. " So thedaughters of Pelias followed her counsel, and put the body of theirfather into the caldron, and, as it boiled on the hearth, Medeia said, "I must go up to the house-top and look forth on the broad heaven, that I may know the time to speak the words of my charm. " And the firewaxed fiercer and fiercer, but Medeia gazed on at the bright stars, and came not down from the house-top till the limbs of Pelias wereconsumed away. [Illustration: POLYHYMNIA (_Muse Of Rhetoric and Eloquence_). ] Then a look of fierce hatred passed over her face, and she said, "Daughters of Pelias, ye have slain your father, and I go with Iasonto the land of Argos. " So thither she sped with him in her dragonchariot, which bore them to the house of King Kreon. Long time she abode in Argos, rejoicing in the love of Iason and atthe sight of her children, who were growing up in strength and beauty. But Iason cared less and less for the wise and cunning Medeia, and heloved more to look on Glauke, the daughter of the King, till at lasthe longed to be free from the love and the power of Medeia. Then men talked in Argos of the love of Iason for the beautifulGlauke, and Medeia heard how he was going to wed another wife. Oncemore her face grew dark with anger, as when she left the daughters ofPelias mourning for their father, and she vowed a vow that Iasonshould repent of his great treachery. But she hid her anger within herheart, and her eye was bright and her voice was soft and gentle as shespake to Iason and said, "They tell me that thou art to wed thedaughter of Kreon; I had not thought thus to lose the love for which Ileft my father's house and came with thee to the land of strangers. Yet do I chide thee not, for it may be that thou canst not love thewise Kolchian maid like the soft daughters of the Argive land, and yetthou knowest not altogether how I have loved thee. Go, then, and dwellwith Glauke, and I will send her a bright gift, so that thou mayestnot forget the days that are past. " So Iason went away, well pleased that Medeia had spoken to him gentlyand upbraided him not, and presently his children came after him tothe house of Kreon, and said, "Father, we have brought a wreath forGlauke, and a robe which Helios gave to our mother, Medeia, before shecame away with thee from the house of her father. " Then Glauke cameforth eagerly to take the gifts, and she placed the glittering wreathon her head, and wrapped the robe round her slender form. Like ahappy child, she looked into a mirror to watch the sparkling of thejewels on her fair forehead, and sat down on the couch playing withthe folds of the robe of Helios. But soon a look of pain passed overher face, and her eyes shone with a fiery light as she lifted her handto take the wreath away, but the will of Medeia was accomplished, forthe poison had eaten into her veins, and the robe clung with a deadlygrasp to her scorched and wasted limbs. Through the wide halls rangthe screams of her agony, as Kreon clasped his child in his arms. Thensped the poison through his veins also, and Kreon died with Glauke. Then Medeia went with her children to the house-top, and looked up tothe blue heaven, and stretching forth her arms, she said, "O Helios, who didst give to me the wise and cunning heart, I have avenged me onIason, even as once I avenged him on Pelias. Thou hast given me thypower; yet, it may be, I would rather have the life-long love of thehelpless daughters of men. " Presently her dragon chariot rose into the sky, and the people ofArgos saw the mighty Medeia no more. THESEUS. Many a long year ago a little child was playing on the white sand ofthe Bay of Troizen. His golden locks streamed in the breeze as he ranamongst the rippling waves which flung themselves lazily on the beach. Sometimes he clapped his hands in glee as the water washed over hisfeet, and he stopped again to look with wondering eyes at the strangethings which were basking on the sunny shore, or gazed on the mightywaters which stretched away bright as a sapphire stone into the fardistance. But presently some sadder thoughts troubled the child, forthe look of gladness passed away from his face, and he went slowly tohis mother, who sat among the weed-grown rocks, watching her childplay. "Mother, " said the boy, "I am very happy here, but may I not knowto-day why I never see my father as other children do? I am not now sovery young, and I think that you feel sometimes lonely, for your facelooks sad and sorrowful, as if you were grieving for some one who isgone away. " Fondly and proudly the mother looked on her boy, and smoothed thegolden locks on his forehead, as she said, "My child, there is much tomake us happy, and it may be that many days of gladness are in storefor us both. But there is labor and toil for all, and many a hard taskawaits thee, my son. Only have a brave heart, and turn away from allthings mean and foul, and strength will be given thee to conquer thestrongest enemy. Sit down, then, here by my side, and I will tell theea tale which may make thee sad, but which must not make thee unhappy, for none can do good to others who waste their lives in weeping. Manysummers have come and gone since the day when a stranger drew nigh tothe house of my father, Pittheus. The pale light of evening was fadingfrom the sky, but we could see, by his countenance and the strength ofhis stalwart form, that he was come of a noble race and could do bravedeeds. When Pittheus went forth from the threshold to meet him, thestranger grasped his hand, and said, 'I come to claim the rights ofour ancient friendship, for our enemies have grown too mighty for us, and Pandion, my father, rules no more in Athens. Here, then, let metarry till I can find a way to punish the men who have driven awaytheir King and made his children wanderers on the earth. ' So Aigeussojourned in my father's house, and soon he won my love, and I becamehis wife. Swiftly and happily the days went by, and one thing onlytroubled me, and this was the thought that one day he must leave me, to fight with his enemies and place his father again upon his throne. But even this thought was forgotten for awhile, when Aigeus looked onthee for the first time, and, stretching forth his hands towardsheaven, said, 'O Zeus, that dwellest in the dark cloud, look down onmy child, and give him strength that he may be a better man than hisfather, and if thou orderest that his life shall be one of toil, stilllet him have the joy which is the lot of all who do their work with acheerful heart and keep their hands from all defiling things. ' Thenthe days passed by more quickly and happily than ever, but at lastthere came the messengers from Athens, to tell him that the enemies ofPandion were at strife among themselves, and that the time was comethat Aigeus should fight for his father's house. Not many days afterthis we sat here, watching thee at play among the weeds and flowersthat climb among the rocks, when thy father put his arms gently roundme, and said, 'Aithra, best gift of all that the gods have ever givento me, I leave thee to go to my own land, and I know not what thingsmay befall me there, nor whether I may return hither to take thee todwell with me at Athens. But forget not the days that are gone, andfaint not for lack of hope that we may meet again in the days that arecoming. Be a brave mother to our child, that so he, too, may grow upbrave and pure, and when he is old enough to know what he must do, tell him that he is born of a noble race, and that he must one dayfight stoutly to win the heritage of his fathers. ' And now, my son, thou seest yonder rock, over which the wild briars have clambered. Nohands have moved it since the day when thy father lifted it up andplaced beneath it his sword and his sandals. Then he put back thestone as it was before, and said to me, 'When thou thinkest fit, tellour child that he must wait until he is able to lift this stone. Thenmust he put my sandals on his feet, and gird my sword on his side, andjourney to the city of his forefathers. ' From that day, my child, Ihave never seen thy father's face, and the time is often weary, although the memory of the old days is sweet and my child is by myside to cheer me with his love. So now thou knowest something of thetask that lies before thee. Think of thy father's words, and makethyself ready for the toil and danger that may fall to thy lot in timeto come. " [Illustration: SPHINX OF EGYPT. ] The boy looked wistfully into his mother's face, and a strangefeeling of love and hope and strength filled his heart, as he saw thetears start to her eyes when the tale was ended. His arms were claspedaround her neck, but he said only, "Mother, I will wait patiently tillI am strong enough to lift the stone, but before that time comes, perhaps my father may come back from Athens. " So for many a year more the days went by, and the boy, Theseus, grewup brave, truthful, and strong. None who looked upon him grudged himhis beauty, for his gentleness left no room for envy, and his motherlistened with a proud and glad heart to the words with which thepeople of the land told of his kindly deeds. At length the days of hisyouth were ended, but Aigeus came not back, and Theseus went toAithra, and said, "The time is come, my mother; I must see this daywhether I am strong enough to lift the stone. " And Aithra answered, gently, "Be it as thou wilt, and as the undying gods will it, my son. "Then he went up to the rock, and nerved himself for a mighty effort, and the stone yielded slowly to his strength, and the sword andsandals lay before him. Presently he stood before Aithra, and to herit seemed that the face of Theseus was as the face of one of thebright heroes who dwell in the halls of Zeus. A flush of gloriousbeauty lit up his countenance, as she girt the sword to his side andsaid, "The gods prosper thee, my son, and they will prosper thee, ifthou livest in time to come as thou hast lived in the days that aregone. " So Theseus bade his mother farewell, there on the white sea-shore, where long ago he had asked her first to tell him of his name andkindred. Sadly, yet with a good hope, he set out on his journey. Theblue sea lay before him, and the white sails of ships glistened asthey danced on the heaving waters. But Theseus had vowed a vow that hewould do battle with the evil-doers who filled the land with blood, and for terror of whom the travelers walked in by-ways. So atEpidauros he fought with the cruel Periphetes, and smote him with hisown club, and at the Megarian isthmus he seized the robber, Sinis, andtore him to pieces between the trunks of pines, even as he had beenwont to do with the wayfarers who fell into his hands. Then, in thethickets of Krommyon, he slew the huge sow that ravaged the faircorn-fields, and on the borderland he fought a sore fight with Skiron, who plundered all who came in his path, and, making them wash hisfeet, hurled them, as they stooped, down the cliffs which hung overthe surging sea. Even so did Theseus to him, and journeying on to thebanks of Kephisos, stretched the robber, Prokroustes, on the bed onwhich he had twisted and tortured the limbs of his victims till theydied. Thus, amid the joyous shoutings of the people whom he had set free, Theseus entered into the city of his fathers, and the rumor of him wasbrought to Aigeus, the King. Then the memory of the days that weregone came back to Aigeus, and his heart smote him as he thought withinhimself that this must be the child of Aithra, whom he had leftmourning on the shore of Troizen. But soon there was a strife in thecity, for among the mightiest of the people were many who mocked atTheseus, and said, "Who is this stranger that men should exalt himthus, as though he came of the race of heroes? Let him show that he isthe child of Aigeus, if he would win the heritage which he claims. " Sowas Theseus brought before the King, and a blush of shame passed overthe old man's face when he saw the sword and sandals which he had leftbeneath the great stone, near the Troizenian shore. Few words only hespake of welcome, and none of love or kindness for his child or forthe wife who still yearned for the love of the former days. Then, athis father's bidding, Theseus made ready to go forth once again on hispath of toil, and he chafed not against the hard lot which had fallento his portion. Only he said, "The love of a father would sweeten mylabor, but my mother's love is with me still, and the battle is forright and for law. " So in after-times the minstrels sang of the glorious deeds of Theseusthe brave and fair. They told how at last at the bidding of his fatherhe went forth from the gates of Athens and smote the bull whichravaged the broad plains of Marathon, and how in the secret maze ofthe labyrinth he smote the Minotauros. They sang of his exploits inthe day when the Amazons did battle with the men of Athens--how hewent with Meleagros and his chieftains to the chase of the boar inKalydon--how with the heroes in the ship Argo he brought back thegolden fleece from Kolchis. They told how at last he went down withPeirithoos, his comrade, into the gloomy kingdom of Hades and seizedon the daughter of Demeter, to bring her to the land of living men. They sang of the fierce wrath of Hades when his lightnings burst forthand smote Peirithoos--of the dark prison-house where Theseus lay whilemany a rolling year went round, until at last the mighty Heraklespassed the borders of the shadowy land and set the captive free. And so it was that, when the heroes had passed to the home of Zeus andthe banquet of the gods, the glory of Theseus was as the glory of thebrave son of Alkmene who toiled for the false Eurystheus; and ever inthe days of feasting, the minstrels linked together the names ofHerakles and Theseus. ARIADNE. The soft western breeze was bearing a ship from the Athenian land tothe fair haven of Gnossos, and the waters played merrily round theship as it sped along the paths of the sea. But on board there weremournful hearts and weeping eyes, for the youths and maidens whichthat ship was bearing to Crete were to be the prey of the savageMinotauros. As they came near the harbor gates, they saw the peopleof King Minos crowded on the shore, and they wept aloud because theyshould no more look on the earth and on the sun as he journeyedthrough the heaven. In that throng stood Ariadne, the daughter of the King, and as shegazed on the youths and maidens who came out of the tribute ship, there passed before her one taller and fairer than all, and she sawthat his eye alone was bright and his step firm, as he moved from theshore to go to the house of Minos. Presently they all stood before theKing, and he saw that one alone gazed steadfastly upon him, while theeyes of the rest were dim with many tears. Then he said, "What is thyname?" The young man answered, "I am Theseus, the son of King Aigeus, and I have come as one of the tribute children, but I part not with mylife till I have battled for it with all my strength. Wherefore sendme first, I pray thee, that I may fight with Minotauros; for if I bethe conqueror, then shall all these go back with me in peace to ourown land. " Then Minos said, "Thou shalt indeed go first to meetMinotauros; but think not to conquer him in the fight, for the flamefrom his mouth will scorch thee, and no mortal man may withstand hisstrength. " And Theseus answered, "It is for man to do what best hemay; the gods know for whom remains the victory. " But the gentle heart of Ariadne was moved with love and pity as shelooked on his fair face and his bright and fearless eye, and she saidwithin herself, "I can not kill the Minotauros or rob him of hisstrength, but I will guide Theseus so that he may reach the monsterwhile sleep lies heavy upon him. " On the next day Theseus, the Athenian, was to meet the dreadfulMinotauros, who dwelt in the labyrinth of Gnossos. Far within itsthousand twisted alleys was his den, where he waited for his prey, asthey were brought each along the winding paths. But Ariadne talked insecret with Theseus in the still evening time, and she gave him aclue of thread, so that he might know how to come back out of themazes of the labyrinth after he had slain the Minotauros; and when themoon looked down from heaven, she led him to a hidden gate, and badehim go forth boldly, for he should come to the monster's den whilesleep lay heavy on his eyes. So when the morning came, the Minotauroslay lifeless on the ground, and there was joy and gladness in thegreat city of Gnossos, and Minos himself rejoiced that the youths andmaidens might go back with Theseus in peace to Athens. So once again they went into the ship, and the breeze blew softly tocarry them to the homes which they had not thought to see again. ButTheseus talked with Ariadne, in the house of Minos, and the maidenwept as though some great grief lay heavy upon her, and Theseus twinedhis arm gently round her, and said, "Fairest of maidens, thy aid hathsaved me from death, but I care not now to live if I may not be withthee. Come with me, and I will lead thee to the happier land, where myfather, Aigeus, is King. Come with me, that my people may see and lovethe maiden who rescued the tribute children from the savageMinotauros. " Then Ariadne went with him joyfully, for her own love made her thinkthat Theseus loved her not less dearly. So she wept not as she saw thetowers of Gnossos growing fainter and fainter while the ship sped overthe dancing waters, and she thought only of the happy days which sheshould spend in the bright Athens where Theseus should one day beKing. Gaily the ship sped upon her way, and there was laughter andmirth among the youths and maidens who were going back to their home. And Theseus sat by the side of Ariadne, speaking the words of a deeperlove than in truth he felt, and fancying that he loved the maiden evenas the maiden loved him. But while yet he gazed on the beautifulAriadne, the image of Aigle came back to his mind, and the old lovewas wakened again in his heart. Onward sailed the ship, cleaving itsway through the foaming waters, by the Islands of Thera and Amorgos, till the high cliffs of Naxos broke upon their sight. The sun was sinking down into the sea when they came to its windingshores, and the seamen moored the ship to the land, and came forth torest until the morning. There they feasted gaily on the beach, andTheseus talked with Ariadne until the moon was high up in the sky. Sothey slept through the still hours of night, but when the sun wasrisen, Ariadne was alone upon the sea-shore. In doubt and fear, sheroamed along the beach, but she saw no one, and there was no shipsailing on the blue sea. In many a bay and nook she sought him, andshe cried in bitter sorrow, "Ah, Theseus, Theseus, hast thou forsakenme?" Her feet were wounded by the sharp flints, her limbs were faintfrom very weariness, and her eyes were dim with tears. Above her rosethe high cliffs like a wall, before her was spread the bright andlaughing sea, and her heart sank within her, for she felt that shemust die. "Ah, Theseus, " she cried, "have I done thee wrong? I pitiedthee in the time of thy sorrow and saved thee from thy doom, and thenI listened to thy fair words, and trusted them as a maiden trusts whenlove is first awakened within her. Yet hast thou dealt me a hardrequital. Thou art gone to happy Athens, and it may be thou thinkestalready of some bright maiden who there has crossed thy path, and thouhast left me here to die for weariness and hunger. So would I notrequite thee for a deed of love and pity. " [Illustration: CALLIOPE. (_Muse of Heroic Verse. _)] Wearied and sad of heart, she sank down on the rock, and her longhair streamed over her fair shoulders. Her hands were clasped aroundher knees, and the hot tears ran down her cheeks, and she knew notthat there stood before her one fairer and brighter than the sons ofmen, until she heard a voice which said, "Listen to me, daughter ofMinos. I am Dionysos, the lord of the feast and revel. I wander withlight heart and the sweet sounds of laughter and song over land andsea; I saw thee aid Theseus when he went into the labyrinth to slaythe Minotauros. I heard his fair words when he prayed thee to leavethy home and go with him to Athens. I saw him this morning, while yetthe stars twinkled in the sky, arouse his men and sail away in hisship to the land of Aigeus; but I sought not to stay him, for, Ariadne, thou must dwell with me. Thy love and beauty are a gift toogreat for Theseus; but thou shalt be the bride of Dionysos. Thy daysshall be passed amid feasts and banquets, and when thy life is endedhere, thou shalt go with me to the homes of the undying gods, and menshall see the crown of Ariadne in the heavens when the stars lookforth at night from the dark sky. Nay, weep not, Ariadne, thy love forTheseus hath been but the love of a day, and I have loved thee longbefore the black-sailed ship brought him from poor and rugged Athens. "Then Ariadne wept no more, and in the arms of Dionysos she forgot thefalse and cruel Theseus; so that among the matrons who thronged roundthe joyous wine-god the fairest and the most joyous was Ariadne, thedaughter of Minos. ARETHUSA. On the heights of Mænalos the hunter Alpheios saw the maiden Arethusaas she wandered joyously with her companions over the green swellingdowns where the heather spread out its pink blossoms to the sky. Onward she came, the fairest of all the band, until she drew nigh tothe spot where Alpheios stood marveling at the brightness of herbeauty. Then, as she followed the winding path on the hill-side, shesaw his eye resting upon her, and her heart was filled with fear, forhis dark face was flushed by the toil of the long chase and his tornraiment waved wildly in the breeze. And yet more was she afraid whenshe heard the sound of his rough voice, as he prayed her to tarry byhis side. She lingered not to listen to his words, but with light footshe sped over hill and dale and along the bank of the river where itleaps down the mountain cliffs and winds along the narrow valleys. Then Alpheios vowed a vow that the maiden should not escape him. "Iwill follow thee, " he said, "over hill and dale; I will seek theethrough rivers and seas, and where thou shalt rest, there will I rest, also. " Onward they sped, across the dark heights of Erymanthos andover the broad plains of Pisa, till the waters of the western sea layspread out before them, dancing in the light of the midday sun. Then with arms outstretched, and with wearied limbs, Arethusa criedaloud, and said, "O daughters of the gentle Okeanos, I have playedwith you on the white shore in the days of mirth and gladness, and nowI come to your green depths. Save me from the hand of the wildhuntsman. " So she plunged beneath the waves of the laughing sea, andthe daughters of Okeanos bore her gently downwards till she came tothe coral caves, where they sat listening to the sweet song of thewaters. But there they suffered her not to rest, for they said, "Yetfurther must thou flee, Arethusa, for Alpheios comes behind thee. "Then in their arms they bore her gently beneath the depths of the sea, till they laid her down at last on the Ortygian shore of theThrinakian land, as the sun was sinking down in the sky. Dimly she sawspread before her the blue hills, and she felt the soft breath of thesummer breeze, as her eyes closed for weariness. Then suddenly sheheard the harsh voice which scared her on the heights of Mænalos, andshe tarried not to listen to his prayer. "Flee not away, Arethusa, "said the huntsman, Alpheios, "I mean not to harm thee; let me rest inthy love, and let me die for the beauty of thy fair face. " But themaiden fled with a wild cry along the winding shore, and the lightstep of her foot left no print on the glistening sand. "Not thus shaltthou escape from my arms, " said the huntsman, and he stretched forthhis hand to seize the maiden, as she drew nigh to a fountain whosewaters flashed clear and bright in the light of the sinking sun. Thenonce again Arethusa called aloud on the daughters of Okeanos, and shesaid, "O friends, once more I come to your coral caves, for on earththere is for me no resting-place. " So the waters closed over themaiden, and the image of heaven came down again on the brightfountain. Then a flush of anger passed over the face of Alpheios, ashe said, "On earth thou hast scorned my love, O maiden, but my formshall be fairer in thy sight when I rest beside thee beneath thelaughing waters. " So over the huntsman, Alpheios, flowed the Ortygianstream, and the love of Arethusa was given to him in the coral caves, where they dwell with the daughters of Okeanos. [Illustration: THE ORIGIN OF MAN. (_From an antique Sculpture. _)] TYRO. On the banks of the fairest stream in all the land of Thessaly, thegolden-haired Enipeus wooed the maiden Tyro; with her he wandered ingladness of heart, following the path of the winding river, andtalking with her of his love. And Tyro listened to his tender words, as day by day she stole away from the house of her father, Salmoneus, to spend the livelong day on the banks of his beautiful stream. But Salmoneus was full of rage when he knew that Tyro loved Enipeus, and how she had become the mother of two fair babes. There was none toplead for Tyro and her helpless children, for her mother, Alkidike, was dead, and Salmoneus had taken the iron-hearted Sidero to be hiswife. So he followed her evil counsels, and he said to Tyro, "Thychildren must die, and thou must wed Kretheus, the son of the mightyAiolos. " Then Tyro hastened in bitter sorrow to the banks of the stream, andher babes slept in her arms, and she stretched out her hands with aloud cry for aid, but Enipeus heard her not, for he lay in his greendwelling far down beneath the happy waters. So she placed the babesamidst the thick rushes which grew along the banks, and she said, "OEnipeus, my father says that I may no more see thy face; but to thee Igive our children; guard them from the anger of Salmoneus, and it maybe that in time to come they will avenge my wrongs. " There, nestled amid the tall reeds, the children slept, till aherdsman saw them as he followed his cattle along the shore. And Tyrowent back in anguish of heart to the house of Salmoneus, but she wouldnot have the love of Kretheus or listen to his words. Then Siderowhispered again her evil counsels into the ear of Salmoneus, and heshut up Tyro, so that she might not see the light of the sun or hearthe voice of man. He cut off the golden locks that clustered on herfair cheeks, he clothed her in rough raiment, and bound her in fetterswhich gave her no rest by night or by day. So in her misery she pinedaway, and her body was wasted by hunger and thirst, because she wouldnot become the wife of Kretheus. Then more and more she thought of thedays when she listened to the words of Enipeus as she wandered withhim by the side of the sounding waters, and she said within herself, "He heard me not when I called to him for help, but I gave him mychildren, and it may be that he has saved them from death; and if everthey see my face again, they shall know that I never loved any saveEnipeus, who dwells beneath the stream. " So the years passed on, and Pelias and Neleus dwelt with the herdsman, and they grew up strong in body and brave of soul. But Enipeus had notforgotten the wrongs of Tyro, and he put it into the heart of herchildren to punish Sidero for her evil counsels. So Sidero died, andthey brought out their mother from her dreary dungeon, and led her tothe banks of the stream where she had heard the words of Enipeus inthe former days. But her eyes were dim with long weeping, and thewords of her children sounded strangely in her ears, and she said, "Omy children, let me sink to sleep while I hear your voices, whichsound to me like the voice of Enipeus. " So she fell asleep and died, and they laid her body in the ground by the river's bank, where thewaters of Enipeus made their soft music near her grave. NARKISSOS. On the banks of Kephisos, Echo saw and loved the beautiful Narkissos, but the youth cared not for the maiden of the hills, and his heart wascold to the words of her love, for he mourned for his sister, whomHermes had taken away beyond the Stygian River. Day by day he satalone by the streamside, sorrowing for the bright maiden whose lifewas bound up with his own, because they had seen the light of the sunin the self-same day, and thither came Echo and sat down by his side, and sought in vain to win his love. "Look on me and see, " she said, "Iam fairer than the sister for whom thou dost mourn. " But Narkissosanswered her not, for he knew that the maiden would ever havesomething to say against his words. So he sat silent and looked downinto the stream, and there he saw his own face in the clear water, andit was to him as the face of his sister for whom he pined away insorrow, and his grief became less bitter as he seemed to see again hersoft blue eye, and almost to hear the words which came from her lips. But the grief of Narkissos was too deep for tears, and it dried upslowly the fountain of his life. In vain the words of Echo fell uponhis ears, as she prayed him to hearken to her prayer: "Ah, Narkissos, thou mournest for one who can not heed thy sorrow, and thou carest notfor her who longs to see thy face and hear thy voice forever. " ButNarkissos saw still in the waters of Kephisos the face of his twinsister, and still gazing at it he fell asleep and died. Then thevoice of Echo was heard no more, for she sat in silence by his grave, and a beautiful flower came up close to it. Its white blossoms droopedover the banks of Kephisos where Narkissos had sat and looked downinto its clear water, and the people of the land called the plantafter his name. ORPHEUS AND EURYDIKE. In the pleasant valleys of a country which was called Thessaly therelived a man whose name was Orpheus. Every day he made soft music withhis golden harp, and sang beautiful songs such as no one had everheard before. And whenever Orpheus sang, then everything came tolisten to him, and the trees bowed down their heads to hear, and eventhe clouds sailed along more gently and brightly in the sky when hesang, and the stream which ran close to his feet made a softer noise, to show how glad his music made it. Now, Orpheus had a wife who was called Eurydike, whom he loved verydearly. All through the winter, when the snow was on the hills, andall through the summer, when the sunshine made everything beautiful, Orpheus used to sing to her, and Eurydike sat on the grass by his sidewhile the beasts came round to listen, and the trees bowed down theirheads to hear him. But one day when Eurydike was playing with some children on the bankof the river, she trod upon a snake in the long grass, and the snakebit her. And by and by she began to be very sick, and Eurydike knewthat she must die. So she told the children to go to Orpheus (for hewas far away) and say how sorry she was to leave him, and that sheloved him always very dearly, and then she put her head down upon thegrass and fell asleep and died. Sad indeed was Orpheus when thechildren came to tell him that Eurydike was dead. He felt so wretchedthat he never played upon his golden harp, and he never opened hislips to sing, and the beasts that used to listen to him wondered whyOrpheus sat all alone on the green bank where Eurydike used to sitwith him, and why it was that he never made any more of his beautifulmusic. All day long he sat there, and his cheeks were often wet withtears. At last he said, "I can not stay here any more, I must go andlook for Eurydike. I can not bear to be without her, and perhaps theking of the land where people go after they are dead will let her comeback and live with me again. " So he took his harp in his hand, and went to look for Eurydike in theland which is far away, where the sun goes down into his golden cupbefore the night comes on. And he went on and on a very long way, tillat last he came to a high and dark gateway. It was barred across withiron bars, and it was bolted and locked so that nobody could open it. It was a wretched and gloomy place, because the sunshine never camethere, and it was covered with clouds and mist. In front of this greatgateway there sat a monstrous dog, with three heads, and six eyes, andthree tongues, and everything was dark around, except his eyes, whichshone like fire, and which saw every one that dared to come near. Now, when Orpheus came looking for Eurydike, the dog raised his threeheads, and opened his three mouths, and gnashed his teeth at him, androared terribly, but when Orpheus came nearer, the dog jumped up uponhis feet and got himself ready to fly at him and tear him to pieces. Then Orpheus took down his harp and began to play upon its goldenstrings. And the dog, Kerberos (for that was his name), growled andsnarled and showed the great white teeth which were in his threemouths, but he could not help hearing the sweet music, and he wonderedwhy it was that he did not wish any more to tear Orpheus in pieces. Very soon the music made him quiet and still, and at last it lulledhim to sleep, and only his heavy breathing told that there was any dogthere. So when Kerberos had gone to sleep, Orpheus passed by him andcame up to the gate, and he found it wide open, for it had come openof its own accord while he was singing. And he was glad when he sawthis, for he thought that now he should see Eurydike. So he went on and on a long way, until he came to the palace of theKing, and there were guards placed before the door who tried to keephim from going in, but Orpheus played upon his harp, and then theycould not help letting him go. [Illustration: ERATE (_Muse of the Lute_). ] So he went into the great hall, where he saw the King and Queensitting on a throne, and as Orpheus came near, the King called out tohim with a loud and terrible voice, "Who are you, and how dare you tocome here? Do you not know that no one is allowed to come here tillafter they are dead? I will have you chained and placed in a dungeon, from which you will never be able to get out. " Then Orpheus saidnothing, but he took his golden harp in his hand and began to singmore sweetly and gently than ever, because he knew that, if he likedto do so, the King could let him see Eurydike again. And as he sang, the face of the King began to look almost glad, and his anger passedaway, and he began to feel how much happier it must be to be gentleand loving than to be angry and cruel. Then the King said, "You havemade me feel happy with your sweet music, although I have never felthappy before; and now tell me why you have come, because you must wantsomething or other, for, otherwise, no one would come, before he wasdead, to this sad and gloomy land of which I am the King. " ThenOrpheus said, "O King, give me back my dear Eurydike, and let her gofrom this gloomy place and live with me on the bright earth again. " Sothe King said that she should go. And the King said to Orpheus, "Ihave given you what you wanted, because you sang so sweetly, and whenyou go back to the earth from this place, your wife whom you loveshall go up after you, but remember that you must never look backuntil she has reached the earth, for if you do, Eurydike will bebrought back here, and I shall not be able to give her to you again, even if you should sing more sweetly and gently than ever. " Now, Orpheus was longing to see Eurydike, and he hoped that the Kingwould let him see her at once, but when the King said that he must nottry to see her till she had reached the earth, he was quite content, for he said, "Shall I not wait patiently a little while, that Eurydikemay come and live with me again?" So he promised the King that hewould go up to the earth without stopping to look behind and seewhether Eurydike was coming after him. Then Orpheus went away from the palace of the King, and he passedthrough the dark gateway, and the dog, Kerberos, did not bark orgrowl, for he knew that Orpheus would not have been allowed to comeback if the King had not wished it. So he went on and on a long way, and he became impatient, and longed more and more to see Eurydike. Atlast he came near to the land of living men, and he saw just a littlestreak of light, where the sun was going to rise from the sea, andpresently the sky became brighter, and he saw everything before him soclearly that he could not help turning round to look at Eurydike. But, ah! she had not yet quite reached the earth, and so now he lost heragain. He just saw something pale and white, which looked like his owndear wife, and he just heard a soft and gentle voice, which soundedlike the voice of Eurydike, and then it all melted away. And still hethought that he saw that pale white face, and heard that soft andgentle voice, which said, "O Orpheus, Orpheus, why did you look back?How dearly I love you, and how glad I should have been to live withyou again, but now I must go back, because you have broken yourpromise to the King, and I must not even kiss you, and say how much Ilove you. " [Illustration: TERPSICHORE. (_Muse of Dancing. _)] And Orpheus sat down at the place where Eurydike was taken away fromhim, and he could not go on any further, because he felt so miserable. There he stayed day after day, and his cheek became more pale, and hisbody weaker and weaker, till at last he knew that he must die. AndOrpheus was not sorry, for although he loved the bright earth, withall its flowers and soft grass and sunny streams, he knew that hecould not be with Eurydike again until he left it. So at last he laidhis head upon the earth, and fell asleep, and died; and then he andEurydike saw each other in the land which is far away, where the sungoes down at night into his golden cup, and were never parted again. KADMOS AND EUROPA. In a beautiful valley in Phœnicia, a long time ago, two children, named Kadmos and Europa, lived with their mother, Telephassa. Theywere good and happy children, and full of fun and merriment. It was avery lovely place in which they lived, where there were all sorts ofbeautiful trees with fruits and flowers. The oranges shone like goldamong the dark leaves, and great bunches of dates hung from the tallpalm trees which bowed their heads as if they were asleep, and therewas a delicious smell from the lime groves, and from many fruits andflowers which are never seen in America, but which blossom and ripenunder the hot sun in Syria. So the years went; and one day, as they were playing about by the sideof the river, there came into the field a beautiful white bull. He wasquite white all over--as white as the whitest snow; there was not asingle spot or speck on any part of his body. And he came and lay downon the green grass, and remained still and quiet. So they went nearerand nearer to the bull, and the bull did not move, but looked at themwith his large eyes as if he wished to ask them to come and play withhim, and at last they came to the place where the bull was. ThenKadmos thought that he would be very brave, so he put out his hand, and began to pat the bull on his side, and the bull only made a softsound to show how glad he was. Then Europa put out her hand, andstroked him on the face, and laid hold of his white horn, and the bullrubbed his face gently against her dress. So by and by Kadmos thought that it would be pleasant to have a rideon the back of the bull, and he got on, and the bull rose up from theground, and went slowly round the field with Kadmos on his back, andjust for a minute or two Kadmos felt frightened, but when he saw howwell and safely the bull carried him, he was not afraid any more. Sothey played with the bull until the sun sank down behind the hills, and then they hastened home. When they reached the house, they ran quickly to Telephassa, and saidto her, "Only think, we have been playing in the field with abeautiful white bull. " And Telephassa was glad that they had been sohappy, but she would not have been so glad if she had known what thebull was going to do. Now, the next day while Europa was on its back, the bull began to trotquickly away, but Kadmos thought he was only trotting away for fun. So he ran after him, and cried out to make him stop. But the fasterthat Kadmos ran, the bull ran faster still, and then Kadmos saw thatthe bull was running away with his sister, Europa. Away the bull flew, all along the bank of the river, and up the steep hill and down intothe valley on the other side, and then he scoured along the plainbeneath. And Kadmos watched his white body, which shone like silver ashe dashed through the small bushes and the long waving grass and thecreeping plants which were trailing about all over the ground, till atlast the white body of the bull looked only like a little speck, andthen Kadmos could see it no more. Very wretched was Kadmos when his sister was taken away from him inthis strange way. His eyes were full of tears so that he couldscarcely see, but still he kept on looking and looking in the way thebull had gone, and hoping that he would bring his sister back by andby. But the sun sank lower and lower in the sky, and then Kadmos sawhim go down behind the hills, and he knew now that the bull would notcome again, and then he began to weep bitterly. He hardly dared to gohome and tell Telephassa what had happened, and yet he knew that heought to tell her. So he went home slowly and sadly, and Telephassasaw him coming alone, and she began to be afraid that something hadhappened to Europa, and when she came up to him Kadmos could scarcelyspeak. At last he said, "The bull has run away with Europa. " ThenTelephassa asked him where he had gone, and Kadmos said that he didnot know. But Telephassa said, "Which way did he go?" and then Kadmostold her that the bull had run away towards the land of the West, where the sun goes down into his golden cup. Then Telephassa said thatthey, too, must get up early in the morning and go towards the land ofthe West, and see if they could find Europa again. That night they hardly slept at all, and their cheeks were pale andwet with their tears. And before the sun rose, and while the starsstill glimmered in the pale light of the morning, they got up and wenton their journey to look for Europa. Far away they went, along thevalleys and over the hills, across the rivers and through the woods, and they asked every one whom they met if they had seen a white bullwith a girl upon its back. But no one had seen anything of the kind, and many people thought that Kadmos and Telephassa were silly to asksuch a question, for they said, "Girls do not ride on the backs ofbulls; you can not be telling the truth. " So they went on and on, asking every one, but hearing nothing about her; and as theyjourneyed, sometimes they saw the great mountains rising up high intothe sky, with their tops covered with snow, and shining like gold inthe light of the setting sun; sometimes they rested on the bank of agreat broad river, where the large white leaves lay floating andsleeping on the water, and where the palm trees waved their longbranches above their heads. Sometimes they came to a water-fall, wherethe water sparkled brightly as it rushed over the great stones. Andwhenever they came to these beautiful places, Kadmos would say toTelephassa, "How we should have enjoyed staying here if Europa werewith us; but we do not care to stay here now, we must go on lookingfor her everywhere. " So they went on and on till they came to the sea, and they wondered how they could get across it, for it was a greatdeal wider than any river which they had seen. At last they found aplace where the sea was narrow, and here a boatman took them across inhis boat, just where little Helle had been drowned when she fell offthe back of the ram that was carrying her and her brother away toKolchis. So Telephassa and Kadmos crossed over Hellespontos, whichmeans the Sea of Helle, and they went on and on, over mountains andhills and rocks, and wild gloomy places, till they came to the sunnyplains of Thessaly. And still they asked every one about Europa, butthey found no one who had seen her. And Kadmos saw that his mother wasgetting weak and thin, and that she could not walk now as far and asquickly as she had done when they had set out from home to look forhis sister. So he asked her to rest for a little while. But Telephassasaid, "We must go on, Kadmos, for if we do, perhaps we may still findEuropa. " So they went on, until at last Telephassa felt that she couldnot go any further. And she said to Kadmos, "I am very tired, and I donot think I shall be able to walk any more with you; I must lie downand go to sleep here, and perhaps, Kadmos, I may not wake again. Butif I die while I am asleep, then you must go on by yourself and lookfor Europa, for I am quite sure that you will find her some day, although I shall not be with you. And when you see your sister, tellher how I longed to find her again, and how much I loved her always. And now, my child, I must go to sleep, and if I do not wake up anymore, then I trust that we shall all see each other again one day, ina land which is brighter and happier than even the land in which weused to live before your sister was taken away from us. " So when she had said this, Telephassa fell asleep, just as thedaylight was going away from the sky, and when the bright round moonrose up slowly from behind the dark hill. All night long Kadmoswatched by her side, and when the morning came, he saw that Telephassahad died while she was asleep. Her face was quite still, and Kadmosknew by the happy smile which was on it, that she had gone to thebright land to which good people go when they are dead. Kadmos wasvery sorry to be parted from his mother, but he was not sorry that nowshe could not feel tired or sorrowful any more. So Kadmos placed hismother's body in the ground, and very soon all kinds of flowers grewup upon her grave. But Kadmos had gone on to look for his sister, Europa, and presentlyhe met a shepherd who was leading his flock of sheep. He was verybeautiful to look at. His face shone as bright almost as the sun. Hehad a golden harp, and a golden bow, and arrows in a golden quiver, and his name was Phœbus Apollo. And Kadmos went up to him and said, "Have you seen my sister, Europa? a white bull ran away with her onhis back. Can you tell me where I can find her?" And Phœbus Apollosaid, "I have seen your sister, Europa, but I can not tell you yetwhere she is, you must go on a great way further still, till you cometo a town which is called Delphi, under a great mountain namedParnassos, and there perhaps you may be able to find out somethingabout her. But when you have seen her you must not stay there, becauseI wish you to build a city, and become a King, and be wise and strongand good. You and Europa must follow a beautiful cow that I shallsend, till it lies down upon the ground to rest, and the place wherethe cow shall lie down shall be the place where I wish you to buildthe city. " So Kadmos went on and on till he came to the town of Delphi, which laybeneath the great mountain, called Parnassos. And there he saw abeautiful temple with white marble pillars, which shone brightly inthe light of the early morning. And Kadmos went into the temple, andthere he saw his dear sister, Europa. And Kadmos said, "Europa, is ityou, indeed? How glad I am to find you. " Then Europa told Kadmos howthe bull had brought her and left her there a long time ago, and howsorry she had been that she could not tell Telephassa where she was. Then she said to Kadmos, "How pale and thin and weak you look; tell mehow it is you are come alone, and when shall I see our dear mother?"Then his eyes became full of tears, and Kadmos said, "We shall neversee our mother again in this world. She has gone to the happy landwhere good people go when they are dead. She was so tired with seekingafter you that at last she could not come any further, and she laydown and fell asleep, and never waked up again. But she said thatwhen I saw you I must tell you how she longed to see you, and how shehoped that we should all live together one day in the land to whichshe has gone before us. And now, Europa, we must not stay here, for Imet a shepherd whose name is Phœbus Apollo. He had a golden harp and agolden bow, and his face shone like the sun, and he told me that wemust follow a beautiful cow which he would send, and build a city inthat place where the cow shall lie down to rest. " [Illustration: ANCIENT SACRIFICE. (_From Wall Painting of Pompeii. _)] So Europa left Delphi with her brother, Kadmos, and when they had gonea little way, they saw a cow lying down on the grass. But when theycame near, the cow got up, and began to walk in front of them, andthen they knew that this was the cow which Phœbus Apollo had sent. Sothey followed the cow, and it went on and on, a long way, and at lastit lay down to rest on a large plain, and Kadmos knew then that thiswas the place where he must build the city. And there he built a greatmany houses, and the city was called Thebes. And Kadmos became theKing of Thebes, and his sister, Europa, lived there with him. He was awise and good King, and ruled his people justly and kindly. And by andby Kadmos and Europa both fell asleep and died, and then they sawtheir mother, Telephassa, in the happy land to which good people gowhen they are dead, and were never parted from her any more. BELLEROPHON. The minstrels sang of the beauty and the great deeds of Bellerophonthrough all the lands of Argos. His arm was strong in the battle, hisfeet were swift in the chase, and his heart was pure as the pure heartof Artemis and Athene. None that were poor and weak and wretchedfeared the might of Bellerophon. To them the sight of his beautifulform brought only joy and gladness, but the proud and boastful, theslanderer and the robber, dreaded the glance of his keen eye. But thehand of Zeus lay heavy upon Bellerophon. He dwelt in the halls of KingPrœtos, and served him even as Herakles served the mean and craftyEurystheus. For many long years Bellerophon knew that he must obey thebidding of a man weaker than himself, but his soul failed him not, andhe went forth to his long toil with a heart strong as the sun when herises in his strength, and pure as the heart of a little child. But Anteia, the wife of King Prœtos, saw day by day the beauty ofBellerophon, and she would not turn away her eye from his fair face. Every day he seemed to her to be more and more like to the brightheroes who feast with the gods in the halls of high Olympos, and herheart became filled with love, and she sought to beguile Bellerophonby her enticing words. But he hearkened not to her evil prayer, andheeded not her tears and sighs; so her love was turned to wrath, andshe vowed a vow that Bellerophon should suffer a sore vengeance, because he would not hear her prayer. Then, in her rage, she went toKing Prœtos, and said, "Bellerophon, thy slave, hath sought to do mewrong, and to lead me astray by his crafty words. Long time he strovewith me to win my love, but I would not hearken to him. Therefore, letthine hand lie more heavy upon him than in time past, for the evilthat he hath done, and slay him before my face. " Then was Prœtos alsofull of anger, but he feared to slay Bellerophon, lest he should bringon himself the wrath of Zeus, his father. So he took a tablet of wood, and on it he drew grievous signs of toil and war, of battles anddeath, and gave it to Bellerophon to carry to the far-off Lykian land, where the father of Anteia was King, and as he bade him farewell, hesaid, "Show this tablet to the King of Lykia, and he will recompensethee for all thy good deeds which thou hast done for me, and for thepeople of Argos. " So Bellerophon went forth on his long wandering, and dreamed not ofthe evil that was to befall him by the wicked craft of Anteia. On andon he journeyed towards the rising of the sun, till he came to thecountry of the Lykians. Then he went to the house of the King, whowelcomed him with rich banquets, and feasted him for nine days, and onthe tenth day he sought to know wherefore Bellerophon had come to theLykian land. Then Bellerophon took the tablet of Prœtos and gave it tothe King, who saw on it grievous signs of toil and woe, of battles anddeath. Presently the King spake, and said, "There are great thingswhich remain for thee to do, Bellerophon, but when thy toil is over, high honor awaits thee here and in the homes of the bright heroes. " Sothe King sent him forth to slay the terrible Chimæra, which had theface of a lion with a goat's body and a dragon's tail. ThenBellerophon journeyed yet further towards the rising of the sun, tillhe came to the pastures where the winged horse, Pegasos, the child ofGorgo, with the snaky hair, was feeding, and he knew that if he couldtame the steed he should then be able to conquer the fierce Chimæra. Long time he sought to seize on Pegasos, but the horse snorted wildlyand tore up the ground in his fury, till Bellerophon sank wearied onthe earth and a deep sleep weighed down his eyelids. Then, as heslept, Pallas Athene came and stood by his side, and cheered him withher brave words, and gave him a philtre which should tame the wildPegasos. When Bellerophon awoke, the philtre was in his hand, and heknew now that he should accomplish the task which the Lykian King hadgiven him to do. So, by the help of Athene, he mounted the wingedPegasos and smote the Chimæra, and struck off his head, and with it hewent back, and told the King of all that had befallen him. But theKing was filled with rage, for he thought not to see the face ofBellerophon again, and he charged him to go forth and do battle withthe mighty Solymi and the fair Amazons. Then Bellerophon went forthagain, for he dreamed not of guile and falsehood, and he dreadedneither man nor beast that might meet him in open battle. Long time hefought with the Solymi and the Amazons, until all his enemies shrankfrom the stroke of his mighty arm, and sought for mercy. Glad ofheart, Bellerophon departed to carry his spoils to the home of theLykian King, but as he drew nigh to it and was passing through anarrow dell where the thick brushwood covered the ground, fifty of themightiest Lykians rushed upon him with fierce shoutings, and sought toslay him. At the first, Bellerophon withheld his hands, and said, "Lykian friends, I have feasted in the halls of your King, and eatenof his bread; surely ye are not come hither to slay me. " But theyshouted the more fiercely, and they hurled spears at Bellerophon; sohe stretched forth his hand in the greatness of his strength, and didbattle for his life until all the Lykians lay dead before him. Weary in body and sad of heart, Bellerophon entered the hall where theKing was feasting with his chieftains. And the King knew thatBellerophon could not have come thither unless he had first slain allthe warriors whom he had sent forth to lie in wait for him. But hedissembled his wrath, and said, "Welcome, Bellerophon, bravest andmightiest of the sons of men. Thy toils are done, and the time of restis come for thee. Thou shalt wed my daughter, and share with me mykingly power. " Then the minstrels praised the deeds of Bellerophon, and there wasfeasting for many days when he wedded the daughter of the King. Butnot yet was his doom accomplished; and once again the dark cloudgathered around him, laden with woe and suffering. Far away from hisLykian home, the wrath of Zeus drove him to the western land where thesun goes down into the sea. His heart was brave and guileless still, as in the days of his early youth, but the strength of his arm wasweakened, and the light of his eye was now dim. Sometimes the mightwas given back to his limbs, and his face shone with its ancientbeauty; and then, again, he wandered on in sadness and sorrow, as aman wanders in a strange path through the dark hours of night, whenthe moon is down. And so it was that when Bellerophon reached thewestern sea, he fell asleep and died, and the last sight which he sawbefore his eyes were closed was the red glare of the dying sun, as hebroke through the barred clouds and plunged beneath the sea. ALTHAIA AND THE BURNING BRAND. There was feasting in the halls of Oineus, the chieftain of Kalydon, in the Ætolian land, and all prayed for wealth and glory for thechief, and for his wife, Althaia, and for the child who had on thatday been born to them. And Oineus besought the King of gods and menwith rich offerings, that his son, Meleagros, might win a name greaterthan his own, that he might grow up stout of heart and strong of arm, and that in time to come men might say, "Meleagros wrought mightyworks and did good deeds to the people of the land. " But the mighty Moirai, whose word even Zeus himself may not turnaside, had fixed the doom of Meleagros. The child lay sleeping in hismother's arms, and Althaia prayed that her son might grow up brave andgentle, and be to her a comforter in the time of age and the hour ofdeath. Suddenly, as she yet spake, the Moirai stood before her. Therewas no love or pity in their cold, grey eyes, and they looked downwith stern, unchanging faces on the mother and her child, and one ofthem said, "The brand burns on the hearth, when it is burnt wholly, thy child shall die. " But love is swifter than thought, and the mothersnatched the burning brand from the fire, and quenched its flame inwater, and she placed it in a secret place where no hand but her ownmight reach it. So the child grew, brave of heart and sturdy of limb, and ever readyto hunt the wild beasts or to go against the cities of men. Many greatdeeds he did in the far-off Kolchian land, when the chieftains sailedwith Athamas and Ino to take away the golden fleece from King Aietes. But there were greater things for him to do when he came again toKalydon, for his father, Oineus, had roused the wrath of the mightyArtemis. There was rich banqueting in his great hall when his harvestwas ingathered, and Zeus and all the other gods feasted on the fatburnt-offerings, but no gift was set apart for the virgin child ofLeto. Soon she requited the wrong to Oineus, and a savage boar wasseen in the land, which tore up the fruit-trees, and destroyed theseed in the ground, and trampled on the green corn as it came up. Nonedared to approach it, for its mighty tusks tore everything thatcrossed its path. Long time the chieftains took counsel what theyshould do, until Meleagros said, "I will go forth; who will followme?" Then from Kalydon and from the cities and lands round about camemighty chieftains and brave youths, even as they had hastened to theship, Argo, when they sought to win the golden fleece from Kolchis. With them came the Kouretes, who live in Pleuron, and among them wereseen Kastor and Polydeukes, the twin brethren, and Theseus, with hiscomrade, Peirithoos, and Iason and Admetos. But more beautiful thanall was Atalante, the daughter of Schoineus, a stranger from theArcadian land. Much the chieftains sought to keep her from the chase, for the maiden's arm was strong, and her feet swift, and her aim sure, and they liked not that she should come from a far country to sharetheir glory or take away their name. But Meleagros loved the fair andbrave maiden, and said, "If she go not to the chase, neither will I gowith you. " So they suffered her, and the chase began. At first theboar fled, trampling down those whom he chanced to meet, and rendingthem with his tusks, but at last he stood fiercely at bay, and foughtfuriously, and many of the hunters fell, until at length the spear ofAtalante pierced his side, and then Meleagros slew him. Then was there great gladness as they dragged the body of the boar toKalydon, and made ready to divide the spoil. But the anger of Artemiswas not yet soothed, and she roused a strife between the men ofPleuron and the men of Kalydon. For Meleagros sought to have the head, and the Kouretes of Pleuron cared not to take the hide only for theirportion. So the strife grew hot between them, until Meleagros slew thechieftain of the Kouretes, who was the brother of Althaia, his mother. Then he seized the head of the boar, and bare it to Atalante, andsaid, "Take, maiden, the spoils are rightly thine. From thy spear camethe first wound which smote down the boar; and well hast thou earnedthe prize for the fleetness of thy foot and the sureness of thy aim. " So Atalante took the spoils and carried them to her home in theArcadian land, but the men of Pleuron were full of wrath, and theymade war on the men of Kalydon. Many times they fought, but in everybattle the strong arm of Meleagros and his stout heart won the victoryfor the men of his own city, and the Kouretes began to grow faint inspirit, so that they quailed before the spear and sword of Meleagros. But presently Meleagros was seen no more with his people, and hisvoice was no longer heard cheering them on to the battle. No morewould he take lance in hand or lift up his shield for the strife, buthe tarried in his own house by the side of the beautiful Kleopatra, whom Idas, her father, gave to him to be his wife. For the heart of his mother was filled with grief and rage when sheheard the story of the deadly strife, and that Meleagros, her child, had slain her brother. In heavy wrath and sorrow she sat down upon theearth, and she cast the dust from the ground into the air, and withwild words called on Hades, the unseen King, and Persephone, whoshares his dark throne: "Lord of the lands beneath the earth, stretchforth thy hand against Meleagros, my child. He has quenched the loveof a mother in my brother's blood, and I will that he should die. " Andeven as she prayed, the awful Erinys, who wanders through the air, heard her words and swore to accomplish the doom. But Meleagros wasyet more wrathful when he knew that his mother had laid her curse uponhim, and therefore he would not go forth out of his chamber to theaid of his people in the war. So the Kouretes grew more and more mighty, and their warriors came upagainst the City of Kalydon, and would no longer suffer the people tocome without the walls. And everywhere there was faintness of heartand grief of spirit, for the enemy had wasted their fields and slainthe bravest of the men, and little store remained to them of food. Dayby day Oineus besought his son, and the great men of the city fell atthe knees of Meleagros and prayed him to come out to their help, buthe would not hearken. Still he tarried in his chamber with his wife, Kleopatra, by his side, and heeded not the hunger and the wailings ofthe people. Fiercer and fiercer waxed the roar of war; the loosenedstones rolled from the tottering wall, and the battered gates werescarce able to keep out the enemy. Then Kleopatra fell at herhusband's knee, and she took him by the hand, and called him gently byhis name, and said, "O Meleagros, if thou wilt think of thy wrath, think also of the evils which war brings with it--how when a city istaken, the men are slain, and the mother with her child, the old andthe young are borne away into slavery. If the men of Pleuron win theday, thy mother may repent her of the curse which she has laid uponthee; but thou wilt see thy children slain and me a slave. " [Illustration: MELPOMENE. (_Muse of Tragedy. _)] Then Meleagros started from his couch and seized his spear and shield. He spake no word, but hastened to the walls, and soon the Kouretesfell back before the spear which never missed its mark. Then hegathered the warriors of his city, and bade them open the gates, andwent forth against the enemy. Long and dreadful was the battle, but atlength the Kouretes turned and fled, and the danger passed away fromthe men of Kalydon. But the Moirai still remembered the doom of the burning brand, and theunpitying Erinys had not forgotten the curse of Althaia, and theymoved the men of Kalydon to withhold the prize of his good deeds fromthe chieftain, Meleagros. "He came not forth, " they said, "save at theprayer of his wife. He hearkened not when we besought him, he heedednot our misery and tears; why should we give him that which he did notwin from any love for us?" So his people were angry with Meleagros, and his spirit grew yet more bitter within him. Once again he laywithin his chamber, and his spear and shield hung idle on the wall, and it pleased him more to listen the whole day long to the soft wordsof Kleopatra than to be doing brave and good deeds for the people ofhis land. Then the heart of his mother, Althaia, was more and more turned awayfrom him, so that she said in bitterness of spirit, "What good shallhis life now do to me?" and she brought forth the half-burnt brandfrom its secret place, and cast it on the hearth. Suddenly it burstinto a flame, and suddenly the strength of Meleagros began to fail ashe lay in the arms of Kleopatra. "My life is wasting within me, " hesaid; "clasp me closer in thine arms; let others lay a curse upon me, so only I die rejoicing in thy love. " Weaker and weaker grew hisfailing breath, but still he looked with loving eyes on the face ofKleopatra, and his spirit went forth with a sigh of gladness, as thelast spark of the brand flickered out upon the hearth. Then was there grief and sorrow in the house of Oineus and through allthe City of Kalydon, but they wept and mourned in vain. They thoughtnow of his good deeds, his wise counsels, and his mighty arm, but invain they bewailed the death of their chieftain in the glory of hisage. Yet deeper and more bitter was the sorrow of Althaia, for thelove of a mother came back to her heart when the Moirai hadaccomplished the doom of her child. And yet more bitterly sorrowed hiswife, Kleopatra, and yearned for the love which had been torn awayfrom her. There was no more joy within the halls of Oineus, for theErinys had done their task well. Soon Althaia followed her child tothe unknown land, and Kleopatra went forth with joy to meet Meleagrosin the dark kingdom of Hades and Persephone. IAMOS. On the banks of Alpheios, Evadne watched over her new-born babe, tillshe fled away because she feared the wrath of Aipytos, who ruled inPhaisana. The tears streamed down her cheeks as she prayed to PhœbusApollo, who dwells at Delphi, and said, "Lord of the bright day, lookon thy child, and guard him when he lies forsaken, for I may no longertarry near him. " So Evadne fled away, and Phœbus sent two serpents, who fed the babewith honey as he lay amid the flowers which clustered round him. Andever more and more through all the land went forth the saying ofPhœbus, that the child of Evadne should grow up mighty in wisdom andin the power of telling the things that should happen in the time tocome. Then Aipytos asked of all who dwelt in his house to tell himwhere he might find the son of Evadne. But they knew not where thechild lay, for the serpents had hidden him far away in the thicket, where the wild flowers sheltered him from wind and heat. Long timethey searched amid the tall reeds which clothe the banks of Alpheios, until at last they found the babe lying in a bed of violets. SoAipytos took the child and called his name Iamos, and he grew up braveand wise of heart, pondering well the signs of coming grief and joy, and the tokens of hidden things which he saw in the heaven above himor the wide earth beneath. He spake but little to the youths andmaidens who dwelt in the house of Aipytos, but he wandered on the barehills or by the stream side, musing on many things. And so it came topass that one night, when the stars glimmered softly in the sky, Iamosplunged beneath the waters of Alpheios, and prayed to Phœbus whodwells at Delphi, and to Poseidon, the lord of the broad sea; and hebesought them to open his eyes, that he might reveal to the sons ofmen the things which of themselves they could not see. Then they ledhim away to the high rocks which look down on the plain of Pisa, andthey said, "Look yonder, child of Evadne, where the white stream ofAlpheios winds its way gently to the sea. Here, in the days which areto come, Herakles, the son of the mighty Zeus, shall gather togetherthe sons of Helen, and give them in the solemn games the mightiest ofall bonds; hither shall they come to know the will of Zeus, and hereshall it be thy work and the work of thy children to read to them thesigns which of themselves they can not understand. " Then Phœbus Apollotouched his ears, and straightway the voices of the birds spake to himclearly of the things which were to come and he heard their words as aman listens to the speech of his friend. So Iamos prosperedexceedingly, for the men of all the Argive land sought aid from hiswisdom, and laid rich gifts at his feet. And he taught his childrenafter him to speak the truth and to deal justly, so that none enviedtheir great wealth, and all men spake well of the wise children ofIamos. [Illustration: CLIO (_Muse of History_). ] [Page Decoration] FINE ARTS. The artistic instinct is one of the earliest developed in man; thelove of representation is evolved at the earliest period; we see it inthe child, we see it in the savage, we find traces of it amongprimitive men. The child in his earliest years loves to trace theforms of objects familiar to his eyes. The savage takes a pleasure indepicting and rudely giving shape to objects which constantly meet hisview. The artistic instinct is of all ages and of all climes; itsprings up naturally in all countries, and takes its origin alikeeverywhere in the imitative faculty of man. Evidences of this instinctat the earliest period have been discovered among the relics ofprimitive men; rough sketches on slate and on stone of the mammoth, the deer, and of man, have been found in the caves of France; theAmerican savage traces rude hunting scenes, or the forms of animals onthe covering of his tents, and on his buffalo robes; the savageAustralian covers the side of caverns, and the faces of rocks withcoarse drawings of animals. We thus find an independent evolution ofthe art of design, and distinct and separate cycles of its developmentthrough the stages of rise, progress, maturity, decline and decay, inmany countries the most remote and unconnected with one another. Theearliest mode of representing men, animals and objects was in outlineand in profile. It is evidently the most primitive style, andcharacteristic of the commencement of the art, as the first attemptsmade by children and uncivilized people are solely confined to it;the most inexperienced perceive the object intended to be represented, and no effort is required to comprehend it. Outline figures were thusin all countries the earliest style of painting, and we find this modepracticed at a remote period in Egypt and in Greece. In Egypt we meetpaintings in this earliest stage of the art of design in the tombs ofBeni Hassan, dating from over 2000 B. C. They are illustrative of themanners and customs of that age. Tradition tells us that the origin ofthe art of design in Greece was in tracing in outline and in profilethe shadow of a human head on the wall and afterwards filling it in soas to present the appearance of a kind of silhouette. The Greekpainted vases of the earliest epoch exhibit examples of this style. From this humble beginning the art of design in Greece rose ingradually successive stages, until it reached its highest degree ofperfection under the hands of Zeuxis and Apelles. The interest that attaches to Egyptian art is from its greatantiquity. We see it in the first attempts to represent what in aftertimes, and in some other countries, gradually arrived, under betterauspices, at the greatest perfection; and we even trace in it the germof much that was improved upon by those who had a higher appreciationof, and feeling for, the beautiful. For, both in ornamental art, aswell as in architecture, Egypt exercised in early times considerableinfluence over other people less advanced than itself, or only justemerging from barbarism; and the various conventional devices, thelotus flowers, the sphinxes, and other fabulous animals, as well asthe early Medusa's head, with a protruding tongue, of the oldest Greekpottery and sculptures, and the ibex, leopard, and above all the(Nile) "goose and sun, " on the vases, show them to be connected with, and frequently directly borrowed from, Egyptian fancy. It was, as itstill is, the custom of people to borrow from those who have attainedto a greater degree of refinement and civilization than themselves;the nation most advanced in art led the taste, and though some hadsufficient invention to alter what they adopted, and to render ittheir own, the original idea may still be traced whenever it has beenderived from a foreign source. Egypt was long the dominant nation, andthe intercourse established at a very remote period with othercountries, through commerce of war, carried abroad the taste of thisthe most advanced people of the time; and so general seems to havebeen the fashion of their ornaments, that even the Nineveh marblespresent the winged globe, and other well-known Egyptian emblems, asestablished elements of Assyrian decorative art. [Illustration: ANCIENT ART AND LITERATURE. ] While Greece was still in its infancy, Egypt had long been the leadingnation of the world; she was noted for her magnificence, her wealth, and power, and all acknowledged her pre-eminence in wisdom andcivilization. It is not, therefore, surprising that the Greeks shouldhave admitted into their early art some of the forms then most invogue, and though the wonderful taste of that gifted people speedilyraised them to a point of excellence never attained by the Egyptiansor any others, the rise and first germs of art and architecture mustbe sought in the Valley of the Nile. In the oldest monuments ofGreece, the sloping or pyramidal line constantly predominates; thecolumns in the oldest Greek order are almost purely Egyptian, in theproportions of the shaft, and in the form of its shallow fluteswithout fillets; and it is a remarkable fact that the oldest Egyptiancolumns are those which bear the closest resemblance to the GreekDoric. Though great variety was permitted in objects of luxury, as furniture, vases, and other things depending on caprice, the Egyptians wereforbidden to introduce any material innovations into the human figure, such as would alter its general character, and all subjects connectedwith religion retained to the last the same conventional type. A godin the latest temple was of the same form as when represented onmonuments of the earliest date; and King Menes would have recognizedAmun, or Osiris, in a Ptolemaic or a Roman sanctuary. In sacredsubjects the law was inflexible, and religion, which has frequentlydone so much for the development and direction of taste in sculpture, had the effect of fettering the genius of Egyptian artists. Noimprovements, resulting from experience and observation, were admittedin the mode of drawing the human figure; to copy nature was notallowed; it was therefore useless to study it, and no attempt was madeto give the proper action to the limbs. Certain rules, certain models, had been established by the priesthood, and the faulty conceptions ofignorant times were copied and perpetuated by every successive artist. For, as Plato and Synesius say, the Egyptian sculptors were notsuffered to attempt anything contrary to the regulations laid downregarding the figures of the gods; they were forbidden to introduceany change, or to invent new subjects and habits, and thus the art, and the rules which bound it, always remained the same. Egyptian bas-relief appears to have been, in its origin, a mere copyof painting, its predecessor. The first attempt to represent thefigures of gods, sacred emblems, and other subjects, consisted indrawing or painting simple outlines of them on a flat surface, thedetails being afterwards put in with color; but in process of timethese forms were traced on stone with a tool, and the intermediatespace between the various figures being afterwards cut away, the oncelevel surface assumed the appearance of a bas-relief. It was, in fact, a pictorial representation on stone, which is evidently the characterof all the bas-reliefs on Egyptian monuments, and which readilyaccounts for the imperfect arrangement of their figures. Deficient in conception, and above all in a proper knowledge ofgrouping, they were unable to form those combinations which give trueexpression; every picture was made up of isolated parts, put togetheraccording to some general notions, but without harmony, orpreconceived effect. The human face, the whole body, and everythingthey introduced, were composed in the same manner, of separate membersplaced together one by one according to their relative situations: theeye, the nose, and other features composed a face, but the expressionof feelings and passions was entirely wanting; and the countenance ofthe King, whether charging an enemy's phalanx in the heat of battle, or peaceably offering incense in a sombre temple, presented the sameoutline and the same inanimate look. The peculiarity of the front viewof an eye, introduced in a profile, is thus accounted for: it was theordinary representation of that feature added to a profile, and noallowance was made for any change in the position of the head. It was the same with drapery: the figure was first drawn, and thedrapery then added, not as part of the whole, but as an accessory;they had no general conception, no previous idea of the effectrequired to distinguish the warrior or the priest, beyond theimpressions received from costume, or from the subject of which theyformed a part, and the same figure was dressed according to thecharacter it was intended to perform. Every portion of a picture wasconceived by itself, and inserted as it was wanted to complete thescene; and when the walls of the building, where a subject was to bedrawn, had been accurately ruled with squares, the figures wereintroduced, and fitted to this mechanical arrangement. The memberswere appended to the body, and these squares regulated their form anddistribution, in whatever posture they might be placed. As long as this conventional system continued, no great change couldtake place, beyond a slight variation in the proportions, which at oneperiod became more elongated, particularly in the reign of the secondRemeses; but still the general form and character of the figurescontinued the same, which led to the remark of Plato, "that thepictures and statues made ten thousand years ago, are in no oneparticular better or worse than what they now make. " And taken in thislimited sense--that no nearer approach to the beau ideal of the humanfigure, or its real character, was made at one period thananother--his remark is true, since they were always bound by the sameregulations, which prohibited any change in these matters, even to thelatest times, as is evident from the sculptures of the monumentserected after Egypt had long been a Roman province. All was stillEgyptian, though of bad style; and if they then attempted to finishthe details with more precision, it was only substituting ornament forsimplicity; and the endeavor to bring the proportions of the humanfigure nearer to nature, with the retention of its conventional type, only made its deformity greater, and showed how incompatible theEgyptian was with any other style. In the composition of modern paintings three objects are required: onemain action, one point of view, and one instant of time, and theproportions and harmony of the parts are regulated by perspective, butin Egyptian sculpture these essentials were disregarded; every thingwas sacrificed to the principal figure; its colossal dimensionspointed it out as a center to which all the rest was a mere accessory, and, if any other was made equally conspicuous, or of equal size, itwas still in a subordinate station, and only intended to illustratethe scene connected with the hero of the piece. In the paintings of the tombs greater license was allowed in therepresentation of subjects relating to private life, the trades, orthe manners and occupations of the people, and some indication ofperspective in the position of the figures may occasionally beobserved; but the attempt was imperfect, and, probably, to an Egyptianeye, unpleasing, for such is the force of habit, that even wherenature is copied, a conventional style is sometimes preferred to amore accurate representation. In the battle scenes on the temples of Thebes, some of the figuresrepresenting the monarch pursuing the flying enemy, despatching ahostile chief with his sword, and drawing his bow, as his horses carryhis car over the prostrate bodies of the slain, are drawn with muchspirit, and the position of the arms gives a perfect idea of theaction which the artist intended to portray; still, the sameimperfections of style, and want of truth, are observed; there isaction, but no sentiment, expression of the passions, nor life in thefeatures; it is a figure ready formed, and mechanically _varied_ intomovement, and whatever position it is made to assume, the point ofview is the same: the identical profile of the human body with theanomaly of the shoulders seen in front. It is a description ratherthan a representation. But in their mode of portraying a large crowd of persons they oftenshow great cleverness, and, as their habit was to avoid uniformity, the varied positions of the heads give a truth to the subject withoutfatiguing the eye. Nor have they any symmetrical arrangement offigures, on opposite sides of a picture, such as we find in some ofthe very early paintings in Europe. As their skill increased, the mere figurative representation wasextended to that of a descriptive kind, and some resemblance of thehero's person was attempted; his car, the army he commanded, and theflying enemies, were introduced, and what was at first scarcely morethan a symbol, aspired to the more exalted form and character of apicture. Of a similar nature were all their historical records, andthese pictorial illustrations were a substitute for written documents. Rude drawing and sculpture, indeed, long preceded letters, and we findthat even in Greece, to describe, draw, engrave, and write, wereexpressed by the same word. Of the quality of the pencils used by the Egyptians for drawing andpainting, it is difficult to form any opinion. Those generallyemployed for writing were a reed or rush, many of which have beenfound with the tablets or inkstands belonging to the scribes; and withthese, too, they probably sketched the figures in red and black uponthe stone or stucco of the walls. To put in the color, we may supposethat brushes of some kind were used, but the minute scale on which thepainters are represented in the sculptures prevents our deciding thequestion. Habits among men of similar occupations are frequently alike, even inthe most distant countries, and we find it was not unusual for anEgyptian artist, or scribe, to put his reed pencil behind his ear, when engaged in examining the effect of his painting, or listening toa person on business, like a clerk in the counting-house. The Etruscans, it is said, cultivated painting before the Greeks, andPliny attributes to the former a certain degree of perfection beforethe Greeks had emerged from the infancy of the art. Ancient paintingsat Ardea, in Etruria, and at Lanuvium still retained, in the time ofPliny, all their primitive freshness. According to Pliny, paintings ofa still earlier date were to be seen at Cære, another Etruscan city. Those paintings mentioned by Pliny were commonly believed to beearlier than the foundation of Rome. At the present day the tombs ofEtruria afford examples of Etruscan painting in every stage of itsdevelopment, from the rudeness and conventionality of early art in thetomb of Veii to the correctness and ease of design, and the moreperfect development of the art exhibited in the painted scenes in thetombs of Tarquinii. In one of these tombs the pilasters are profuselyadorned with arabesques, and a frieze which runs round the side of thetomb is composed of painted figures draped, winged, armed, fighting, or borne in chariots. The subjects of these paintings are various; inthem we find the ideas of the Etruscans on the state of the soul afterdeath, combats of warriors, banquets, funeral scenes. The Etruscanspainted also bas-reliefs and statues. The Greeks carried painting to the highest degree of perfection; theirfirst attempts were long posterior to those of the Egyptians; they donot even date as far back as the epoch of the siege of Troy; and Plinyremarks that Homer does not mention painting. The Greeks alwayscultivated sculpture in preference. Pausanias enumerates onlyeighty-eight paintings, and forty-three portraits; he describes, onthe other hand, 2, 827 statues. These were, in fact, more suitableornaments to public places, and the gods were always represented inthe temple by sculpture. In Greece painting followed the invariablelaw of development. Its cycle was run through. Painting passed throughthe successive stages of rise, progress, maturity, decline, and decay. The art of design in Greece is said to have had its origin in Corinth. The legend is: the daughter of Dibutades, a potter of Corinth, struckby the shadow of her lover's head cast by the lamp on the wall, drewits outline, filling it in with a dark shadow. Hence, the earliestmode of representing the human figure was a silhouette. The simplestform of design or drawing was mere outline, or monogrammon, and wasinvented by Cleanthes, of Corinth. After this the outlines were filledin, and light and shade introduced of one color, and hence were styledmono-chromes. Telephanes, of Sicyon, further improved the art byindicating the principal details of anatomy; Euphantes, of Corinth, orCraton, of Sicyon, by the introduction of color. Cimon, of Cleonæ, isthe first who is mentioned as having advanced the art of painting inGreece, and as having emancipated it from its archaic rigidity, byexchanging the conventional manner of rendering the human form for anapproach to truthfulness to nature. He also first made musculararticulations, indicated the veins, and gave natural folds todraperies. He is also supposed to have been the first who used avariety of colors, and to have introduced foreshortening. The firstpainter of great renown was Polygnotus. Accurate drawing, and a nobleand distinct manner of characterizing the most different mythologicalforms was his great merit; his female figures also possessed charmsand grace. His large tabular pictures were conceived with greatknowledge of legends, and in an earnest religious spirit. At Athens hepainted, according to Pausanias, a series of paintings of mythologicalsubjects in the Pinakotheke in the Propylæa on the Acropolis, andpictorial decorations for the temple of Theseus, and the Pœcile. Heexecuted a series of paintings at Delphi on the long walls of theLesche. The wall to the right on entering the Lesche bore scenesillustrative of the epic myth of the taking of Troy; the left, thevisit of Ulysses to the lower world, as described in the Odyssey. Pliny remarks that in place of the old severity and rigidity of thefeatures he introduced a great variety of expression, and was thefirst to paint figures with the lips open. Lucian attributes to himgreat improvements in the rendering of drapery so as to show the formsunderneath. Apollodorus, of Athens, was the first great master oflight and shade. According to Pliny he was the first to paint men andthings as they really appear. A more advanced stage of improvedpainting began with Zeuxis, in which art aimed at illusion of thesenses and the rendering of external charms. He appears to have beenequally distinguished in the representation of female charms, and ofthe sublime majesty of Zeus on his throne. His masterpiece was hispicture of Helen, in painting which he had as his models the five mostbeautiful virgins of Croton. Neither the place nor date of the birth of Zeuxis can be accuratelyascertained, though he was probably born about 455 B. C. , since thirtyyears after that date we find him practicing his art with greatsuccess at Athens. He was patronized by Archelaus, King of Macedonia, and spent some time at his court. He must also have visited MagnaGræcia, as he painted his celebrated picture of Helen for the City ofCroton. He acquired great wealth by his pencil, and was veryostentatious in displaying it. He appeared at Olympia in a magnificentrobe, having his name embroidered in letters of gold, and the samevanity is also displayed in the anecdote that, after he had reachedthe summit of his fame, he no longer sold, but gave away, hispictures, as being above all price. With regard to his style of art, single figures were his favorite subjects. He could depict gods orheroes with sufficient majesty, but he particularly excelled inpainting the softer graces of female beauty. In one important respecthe appears to have degenerated from the style of Polygnotus, hisidealism being rather that of _form_ than of _character_ and_expression_. Thus his style is analogous to that of Euripides intragedy. He was a great master of color, and his paintings weresometimes so accurate and life-like as to amount to illusion. This isexemplified in the story told of him and Parrhasius. As a trial ofskill, these artists painted two pictures. That of Zeuxis representeda bunch of grapes, and was so naturally executed that the birds cameand pecked at it. After this proof, Zeuxis, confident of success, called upon his rival to draw aside the curtain which concealed hispicture. But the painting of Parrhasius was the curtain itself, andZeuxis was now obliged to acknowledge himself vanquished, for, thoughhe had deceived birds, Parrhasius had deceived the author of thedeception. But many of the pictures of Zeuxis also displayed greatdramatic power. He worked very slowly and carefully, and he is said tohave replied to somebody who blamed him for his slowness, "It is trueI take a long time to paint, but then I paint works to last a longtime. " His master-piece was the picture of Helen, already mentioned. Parrhasius was a native of Ephesus, but his art was chiefly exercisedat Athens, where he was presented with the right of citizenship. Hisdate can not be accurately ascertained, but he was probably ratheryounger than his contemporary, Zeuxis, and it is certain that heenjoyed a high reputation before the death of Socrates. The style anddegree of excellence attained by Parrhasius appear to have been muchthe same as those of Zeuxis. He was particularly celebrated for theaccuracy of his drawing, and the excellent proportions of his figures. For these he established a canon, as Phidias had done in sculpture forgods, and Polycletus for the human figure, whence Quintilian calls himthe legislator of his art. His vanity seems to have been as remarkableas that of Zeuxis. Among the most celebrated of his works was aportrait of the personified Athenian _Demos_, which is said to havemiraculously expressed even the most contradictory qualities of thatmany-headed personage. [Illustration: PAINTING. (_2600 years old. _)] Parrhasius excelled in giving a roundness and a beautiful contour tohis figures, and was remarkable for the richness and variety of hiscreations. His numerous pictures of gods and heroes attained thehighest consideration in art. He was overcome, however, in a pictorialcontest, in which the subject was the contest of Ulysses and Ajax forthe arms of Achilles, by the ingenious Timanthes, in whose sacrificeof Iphigenia the ancients admired the expression of grief carried tothat pitch of intensity at which art had only dared to hint. The moststriking feature in the picture was the concealment of the face ofAgamemnon in his mantle. (The concealment of the face of Agamemnon inthis picture has been generally considered as a "trick" or ingeniousinvention of Timanthes, when it was the result of a fundamental law inGreek art--to represent alone what was beautiful, and never to presentto the eye anything repulsive or disagreeable; the features of afather convulsed with grief would not have been a pleasing object togaze on; hence the painter, fully conscious of the laws of his art, concealed the countenance of Agamemnon. ) Timanthes was distinguishedfor his invention and expression. Before all, however, ranks the greatApelles, who united the advantages of his native Ionia--grace, sensualcharms, and rich coloring--with the scientific accuracy of theSicyonian school. The most prominent characteristic of his style wasgrace (charis), a quality which he himself avowed as peculiarly his, and which serves to unite all the other gifts and faculties which thepainter requires; perhaps in none of his pictures was it exhibited insuch perfection as in his famous Anadyomene, in which Aphrodite isrepresented rising out of the sea, and wringing the wet out of herhair. But heroic subjects were likewise adapted to his genius, especially grandly-conceived portraits, such as the numerouslikenesses of Alexander, by whom he was warmly patronized. He notonly represented Alexander with the thunderbolt in his hand, but heeven attempted, as the master in light and shade, to paintthunderstorms, probably at the same time as natural scenes andmythological personifications. The Anadyomene, originally painted forthe temple of Æsculapius, at Cos, was transferred by Augustus to thetemple of D. Julius, at Rome, where, however, it was in a decayedstate even at the time of Nero. Contemporaneously with him flourishedProtogenes and Nicias. Protogenes was both a painter and a statuary, and was celebrated for the high finish of his works. His master-piecewas the picture of Ialysus, the tutelary hero of Rhodes, where helived. He is said to have spent seven years on it. Nicias, of Athens, was celebrated for the delicacy with which he painted females. He wasalso famous as an encaustic painter, and was employed by Praxiteles toapply his art to his statues. The glorious art of these masters, asfar as regards light, tone, and local colors, is lost to us, and weknow nothing of it except from obscure notices and later imitations. It is not thus necessary to speak at length of the various schools ofpainting in Greece, their works being all lost, the knowledge of thecharacteristics peculiar to each school would be at the present dayperfectly useless. Painting had to follow the invariable law of alldevelopment; having reached a period of maturity, it followed, as anecessary consequence, that the period of decline should begin. Theart of this period of refinement, Mr. Wornum writes, which has beentermed the Alexandrian, because the most celebrated artist of thisperiod lived about the time of Alexander the Great, was the last ofprogression, or acquisition, but it only added variety of effect tothe tones it could not improve, and was principally characterized bythe diversity of the styles of so many contemporary artists. Thedecadence of the arts immediately succeeded, the necessaryconsequence, when, instead of excellence, variety and originalitybecame the end of the artist. The tendencies which are peculiar tothis period gave birth sometimes to pictures which ministered to a lowsensuality; sometimes to works which attracted by their effects oflight, and also to caricatures and travesties of mythologicalsubjects. The artists of this period were under the necessity ofattracting attention by novelty and variety; thus rhyparography, andthe lower classes of art, attained the ascendency, and became thecharacteristic styles of the period. In these Pyreieus waspre-eminent; he was termed rhyparographos, on account of the meanquality of his subjects. After the destruction of Corinth by Mummiusand the spoliation of Athens by Sylla the art of painting experienceda rapid and total decay. [Illustration: Engraved & Printed by Illman Brothers THE PHILÆ ISLANDS. FOR THE MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITY] We shall now make a few extracts from Mr. Wornum's excellent articleon the vehicles, materials, colors, and methods of painting used bythe Greeks. The Greeks painted with wax, resins, and in water-colors, to whichthey gave a proper consistency, according to the material upon whichthey painted, with gum, glue, and the white of egg; gum and glue werethe most common. They painted upon wood, clay, plaster, stone, parchment, and canvas. They generally painted upon panels or tables, and very rarely uponwalls; and an easel, similar to what is now used, was common among theancients. These panels, when finished, were fixed into frames ofvarious descriptions and materials, and encased in walls. The ancientsused also a palette very similar to that used by the moderns, as issufficiently attested by a fresco painting from Pompeii, whichrepresents a female painting a copy of Hermes, for a votive tablet, with a palette in her left hand. The earlier Grecian masters used only four colors: the earth of Melosfor white; Attic ochre for yellow; Sinopis, an earth from Pontus, forred; and lamp-black; and it was with these simple elements thatZeuxis, Polygnotus, and others of that age, executed their celebratedworks. By degrees new coloring substances were found, such as wereused by Apelles and Protogenes. So great, indeed, is the number of pigments mentioned by ancientauthors, and such the beauty of them, that it is very doubtfulwhether, with all the help of modern science, modern artists possessany advantage in this respect over their predecessors. We now give the following list of colors, known to be generally usedby ancient painters: _Red. _--The ancient reds were very numerous, cinnabar, vermilion, bisulphuret of mercury, called also by Pliny and Vitruvius, minium. The cinnabaris indica, mentioned by Pliny and Dioscorides, was what isvulgarly called dragon's blood, the resin obtained from variousspecies of the calamus palm. Miltos seems to have had varioussignifications; it was used for cinnabaris, minium, red lead, andrubrica, red ochre. There were various kinds of rubricæ; all were, however, red oxides, of which the best were the Lemnian, from the Isleof Lemnos, and the Cappadocian, called by the Romans rubrica sinopica, from Sinope in Paphlagonia. Minium, red oxide of lead, red lead, wascalled by the Romans cerussa usta, and, according to Vitruvius, sandaracha. The Roman sandaracha seems to have had various significations. Plinyspeaks of the different shades of sandaracha; there was also acompound color of equal parts of sandaracha and rubrica calcined, called sandyx, which Sir H. Davy supposed to approach our crimson intint; in painting it was frequently glazed with purple, to give itadditional lustre. _Yellow. _--Yellow-ochre, hydrated peroxide of iron, the _sil_ of theRomans, formed the base of many other yellows, mixed with variouscolors and carbonate of lime. Ochre was procured from differentparts--the Attic was considered the best; sometimes the paler sort ofsandaracha was used for yellow. _Green. _--Chrysocolla, which appears to have been green carbonate ofcopper, or malachite (green verditer), was the green most approved ofby the ancients; there was also an artificial kind which was made fromclay impregnated with sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) rendered greenby a yellow dye. The commonest and cheapest colors were the Appianum, which was a clay, and the creta viridis, the common green earth ofVerona. _Blue. _--The ancient blues were very numerous; the principal of thesewas cœruleum, azure, a species of verditer, or blue carbonate ofcopper, of which there were many varieties. The Alexandrian was themost valued, as approaching the nearest to ultramarine. It was alsomanufactured at Pozzuoli. This imitation was called cœlon. Armeniumwas a metallic color, and was prepared by being ground to animpalpable powder. It was of a light blue color. It has beenconjectured that ultramarine (lapis lazuli) was known to the ancientsunder the name of Armenium, from Armenia, whence it was procured. Itis evident, however, from Pliny's description, that the "sapphirus" ofthe ancients was the lapis lazuli of the present day. It came fromMedia. Indigo, indicum, was well known to the ancients. _Purple. _--The ancients had several kinds of purple, purpurissimum, ostrum, hysginum, and various compound colors. Purpurissimum was madefrom creta argentaria, a fine chalk or clay, steeped in a purple dye, obtained from the murex. In color it ranged between minium and blue, and included every degree in the scale of purple shades. The best sortcame from Pozzuoli. Purpurissimum indicum was brought from India. Itwas of a deep blue, and probably was the same as indigo. Ostrum was aliquid color, to which the proper consistence was given by addinghoney. It was produced from the secretion of a fish called ostrum, anddiffered in tint according to the country from whence it came; beingdeeper and more violet when brought from the northern, redder whenfrom the southern coasts of the Mediterranean. The Roman ostrum was acompound of red ochre and blue oxide of copper. Hysginum, according toVitruvius, is a color between scarlet and purple. The celebratedTyrian dye was a dark, rich purple, of the color of coagulated blood, but, when held against the light, showed a crimson hue. It wasproduced by a combination of the secretions of the murex and buccinum. In preparing the dye the buccinum was used last, the dye of the murexbeing necessary to render the colors fast, while the buccinumenlivened by its tint of red the dark hue of the murex. Sir H. Davy, on examining a rose-colored substance, found in the baths of Titus, which in its interior had a lustre approaching to that of carmine, considered it a specimen of the best Tyrian purple. The purpura, asmentioned in Pliny, was an amethyst or violet color. _Brown. _--Ochra usta, burnt ochre. --The browns were ochres calcined, oxides of iron and manganese, and compounds of ochres and blacks. _Black. _--Atramentum, or black, was of two sorts, natural andartificial. The natural was made from a black earth, or from thesecretion of the cuttle-fish, sepia. The artificial was made of thedregs of wine carbonized, calcined ivory, or lamp-black. Theatramentum indicum, mentioned by Pliny, was probably the ChineseIndian ink. _White. _--The ordinary Greek white was melinum, an earth from the Isleof Melos; for fresco-painting the best was the African parœtonium. There was also a white earth of Eretria and the annularian white. Carbonate of lead, or white lead, cerussa, was apparently not muchused by the ancient painters. It has not been found in any of theremains of painting in Roman ruins. _Methods of Painting. _--There were two distinct classes of paintingpracticed by the ancients--in water colors and in wax, both of whichwere practiced in various ways. Of the former the principal werefresco, al fresco; and the various kinds of distemper (a tempera), with glue, with the white of egg, or with gums (a guazzo); and withwax or resins when these were rendered by any means vehicles thatcould be worked with water. Of the latter the principal was throughfire, termed encaustic. Fresco was probably little employed by the ancients for works ofimitative art, but it appears to have been the ordinary method ofsimply coloring walls, especially amongst the Romans. Coloring alfresco, in which the colors were mixed simply in water, as the termimplies, was applied when the composition of the stucco on the wallswas still wet (udo tectorio), and on that account was limited tocertain colors, for no colors except earths can be employed in thisway. The fresco walls, when painted, were covered with an encausticvarnish, both to heighten the colors and to preserve them from theinjurious effects of the sun or the weather. Vitruvius describes theprocess as a Greek practice. When the wall was colored and dry, Punicwax, melted and tempered with a little oil, was rubbed over it with ahard brush (seta); this was made smooth and even by applying a_cauterium_ or an iron pan, filled with live coals, over the surface, as near to it as was just necessary to melt the wax; it was thenrubbed with a candle (wax) and a clean cloth. In encaustic paintingthe wax colors were _burnt into_ the ground by means of a hot iron(called cauterium) or pan of hot coals being held near the surface ofthe picture. The mere process of burning in constitutes the wholedifference between encaustic and the ordinary method of painting withwax colors. We shall now say a few words with regard to the much canvassedquestion of painting or coloring statues. Its antiquity anduniversality admit of no doubt. Indeed, the practice of paintingstatues is a characteristic of a primitive and workmanship of clay orwood. It was a survival of the old religious practices of daubing theearly statues of the gods with vermilion, and was done to meet thesuperstitious tastes of the uneducated. Statues for religious purposesmay have been painted in obedience to a formula prescribed byreligion, but statues as objects of art, on which the sculptorexhibited all his genius and taste, were unquestionably executed inthe pure and uncolored marble alone. In the chryselephantine, or ivorystatues of Jove and Minerva, by Phidias, art was made a handmaid toreligion. Phidias himself would have preferred to have executed themin marble. We may further remark that form, in its purest ideal, being the chiefaim of sculpture, any application of color, which would detract fromthe purity and ideality of this purest of the arts, could never beagreeable to refined taste. Coloring sculpture and giving it alife-like reality is manifestly trenching on the province of painting, and so departing from the true principle of sculpture, which is togive form in its most perfect and idealized development. We must alsoconsider that sculpture in marble, by its whiteness, is calculated forthe display of light and shade. For this reason statues andbas-reliefs were placed either in the open light to receive the directrays of the sun, or in underground places, or thermæ, where theyreceived their light either from an upper window, or, by night, fromthe strong light of a lamp, the sculptor having for that purposestudied the effects of the shadows. It must also be remembered thatthe statues in Greek and Roman temples received their light from theupper part of the building, many of the temples being hypæthral, thushaving the benefit of a top light, the sculptor's chief aim. Color inthese statues or bas-reliefs would have tended to mar the contrasts oflight and shade, and blended them too much; for example, color aphotograph of a statue, which exhibits a marked contrast of light andshade, and it will tend to confuse and blend the two. The taste forpolychrome sculpture in the period of the decline of art was obviouslybut a returning to the primitive imperfection of art, when an attemptwas made to produce illusion in order to please the uneducated tasteof the vulgar. The Romans derived their knowledge of painting from the Etruscans, their ancestors and neighbors; the first Grecian painters who came toItaly are said to have been brought over by Demaratus, the father ofTarquinius Priscus, King of Rome; at all events Etruria appears tohave exercised extensive influence over the arts of Rome during thereign of the Tarquins. Tradition attributes to them the first workswhich were used to adorn the temples of Rome, and, according to Pliny, not much consideration was bestowed either on the arts or on theartists. Fabius, the first among the Romans, had some paintingexecuted in the temple of Salus, from which he received the name ofPictor. The works of art brought from Corinth by Mummius, from Athensby Sulla, and from Syracuse by Marcellus, introduced a taste forpaintings and statues in their public buildings, which eventuallybecame an absorbing passion with many distinguished Romans. Towardsthe end of the republic Rome was full of painters. Julius Cæsar, Agrippa, Augustus, were among the earliest great patrons of artists. Suetonius informs us that Cæsar expended great sums in the purchase ofpictures by the old masters. Under Augustus, Marcus Ludius paintedmarine subjects, landscape decorations, and historic landscape asornamentation for the apartments of villas and country houses. Heinvented that style of decoration which we now call arabesque orgrotesque. It spread rapidly, insomuch that the baths of Titus andLivia, the remains discovered at Cumæ, Pozzuoli, Herculaneum, Stabiæ, Pompeii, in short, whatever buildings about that date have been foundin good preservation, afford numerous and beautiful examples of it. Atthis time, also, a passion for portrait painting prevailed; an artwhich flattered their vanity was more suited to the tastes of theRomans than the art which could produce beautiful and refined workssimilar to those of Greece. Portraits must have been exceedinglynumerous; Varro made a collection of the portraits of 700 eminent men. Portraits, decorative and scene painting, seem to have engrossed theart. The example, or rather the pretensions, of Nero must also havecontributed to encourage painting in Rome; but Roman artists were, however, but few in number; the victories of the consuls, and therapine of the prætors, were sufficient to adorn Rome with all themaster-pieces of Greece and Italy. They introduced the fashion ofhaving a taste for the beautiful works of Greek art. At a laterperiod, such was the corrupt state of taste, that painting was almostleft to be practiced by slaves, and the painter was estimated by thequantity of work that he could do in a day. The remains of painting found at Pompeii, Herculaneum, and in thebaths of Titus, at Rome, are the only paintings which can give us anyidea of the coloring and painting of the ancients, which, though theyexhibit many beauties, particularly in composition, are evidently theworks of inferior artists in a period of decline. At Pompeii there isscarcely a house the walls of which are not decorated with frescopaintings. The smallest apartments were lined with stucco, painted inthe most brilliant and endless variety of colors, in compartmentssimply tinted with a light ground, surrounded by an ornamental margin, and sometimes embellished with a single figure or subject in thecenter, or at equal distances. These paintings are very frequentlyhistorical or mythological, but embrace every variety of subject, someof the most exquisite beauty. Landscape painting was never a favoritewith the ancients, and if ever introduced in a painting, wassubordinate. The end and aim of painting among the ancients was torepresent and illustrate the myths of the gods, the deeds of heroes, and important historical events, hence giving all prominence to thedelineation of the human form. Landscape, on the other hand, illustrated nothing, represented no important event deserving ofrecord, and was thus totally without significance in a Grecian templeor pinacotheca. In an age of decline, as at Pompeii, it was employedfor mere decorative purposes. Many architectural subjects arecontinually found in which it is easy to trace the true principles ofperspective, but they are rather indicated than minutely expressed oraccurately displayed; whereas in most instances a total want of theknowledge of this art is but too evident. Greek artists seem to havebeen employed; indeed, native painters were few, while the formereverywhere abounded, and their superiority in design must have alwaysinsured them the preference. The subjects of Roman mural paintings are usually Greek myths; in thecomposition and style we see Greek conception, modified by Romaninfluence. The style of drawing is rather dexterous than masterly;rapidity of execution seems to be more prized than faithful, conscientious representation of the truth of nature; the drawing isgenerally careless, and effects are sometimes produced by tricks andexpedients, which belong rather to scene-painting than to the higherbranches of art. It must not, however, be forgotten that the majorityof these pictures were architectural decorations, not meant to beregarded as independent compositions, but as parts of largercompositions, in which they were inserted as in a frame. As examplesof ancient coloring they are of the highest interest, and much may belearnt from them in reference to the technical materials and processesemployed by ancient artists. [Page Decoration] SCULPTURING. We do not intend to enter here on the history of sculpture in all itsphases, but to give the distinctive features which characterize thedifferent styles of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman sculpture, as they arevisible in statues of the natural or colossal size, in statues oflesser proportion, and lastly in busts and bas-reliefs. We shall give also the styles of each separate nation which prevailedat each distinct age or epoch, styles which mark the stages of thedevelopment of the art of sculpture in all countries. Sculpture, likearchitecture and painting, indeed all art, had an indigenous andindependent evolution in all countries, all these arts springing upnaturally, and taking their origin alike everywhere in the imitativefaculty of man. They had their stages of development in the ascendingand descending scales, their rise, progress, culminating point, decline and decay, their cycle of development; the sequence of thesestages being necessarily developed wherever the spirit of art hasarisen, and has had growth and progress. The first and most importantstep in examining a work of ancient sculpture is to distinguish withcertainty whether it is of Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, or Romanworkmanship; and this distinction rests entirely on a profoundknowledge of the style peculiar to each of those nations. The nextstep is, from its characteristic features, to distinguish what period, epoch, or stage of the development of the art of that particularnation it belongs to. We shall further give the various attributes andcharacteristics of the gods, goddesses, and other mythologicalpersonages which distinguish the various statues visible in Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, and Roman sculpture. This enumeration will be found of use in the many sculpture galleriesof the various museums both at home and abroad. Man _attempted_ sculpture long before he _studied_ architecture; asimple hut, or a rude house, answered every purpose as a place ofabode, and a long time elapsed before he sought to invent what was notdemanded by necessity. Architecture is a creation of the mind; it has no model in nature, andit requires great imaginative powers to conceive its ideal beauties, to make a proper combination of parts, and to judge of the harmony offorms altogether new and beyond the reach of experience. But thedesire in man to imitate and to record what has passed before hiseyes, in short, to transfer the impression from his own mind toanother, is natural in every stage of society; and however imperfectlyhe may succeed in representing the objects themselves, his attempts toindicate their relative position, and to embody the expression of hisown ideas, are a source of the highest satisfaction. As the wish to record events gave the first, religion gave the secondimpulse to sculpture. The simple pillar of wood or stone, which wasoriginally chosen to represent the deity, afterwards assumed the humanform, the noblest image of the power that created it; though the_Hermæ_ of Greece were not, as some have thought, the origin ofstatues, but were borrowed from the mummy-shaped gods of Egypt. Pausanias thinks that "all statues were in ancient times of wood, particularly those made in Egypt;" but this must have been at a periodso remote as to be far beyond the known history of that country;though it is probable that when the arts were in their infancy theEgyptians were confined to statues of that kind; and they occasionallyerected wooden figures in their temples, even till the times of thelatter Pharaohs. Long after men had attempted to make out the parts of the figure, statues continued to be very rude; the arms were placed directly downthe side of the thighs, and the legs were united together; nor didthey pass beyond this imperfect state in Greece, until the age ofDædalus. Fortunately for themselves and for the world, the Greeks wereallowed to free themselves from old habits, while the Egyptians, atthe latest periods, continued to follow the imperfect models of theirearly artists, and were forever prevented from arriving at excellencein sculpture; and though they made great progress in other branches ofart, though they evinced considerable taste in the forms of theirvases, their furniture, and even in some architectural details, theywere forever deficient in ideal beauty, and in the mode ofrepresenting the natural positions of the human figure. In Egypt the prescribed automaton character of the figures effectuallyprevented all advancement in the statuary's art; the limbs beingstraight, without any attempt at action, or, indeed, any indication oflife; they were really _statues_ of the person they represented, notthe person "living in marble, " in which they differed entirely fromthose of Greece. No statue of a warrior was sculptured in the variedattitudes of attack and defence; no wrestler, no _discobolus_, nopugilist exhibited the grace, the vigor, or the muscular action of aman; nor were the beauties, the feeling, and the elegance of femaleforms displayed in stone: all was made to conform to the sameinvariable model, which confined the human figure to a fewconventional postures. A sitting statue, whether of a man or woman, was represented with thehands placed upon the knees, or held across the breast; a kneelingfigure sometimes supported a small shrine or sacred emblem; and whenstanding the arms were placed directly down the sides of the thighs, one foot (and that always the left) being advanced beyond the other, as if in the attitude of walking, but without any attempt to separatethe legs. The oldest Egyptian sculptures on all large monuments were in lowrelief, and, as usual at every period, painted (obelisks andeverything carved in hard stone, some funeral tablets, and other smallobjects, being in intaglio); and this style continued in vogue untilthe time of Remeses II. , who introduced intaglio very generally onlarge monuments; and even his battle scenes at Karnac and theMemnonium are executed in this manner. The reliefs were little raisedabove the level of the wall; they had generally a flat surface withthe edges softly rounded off, far surpassing the intaglio in effect;and it is to be regretted that the best epoch of art, when design andexecution were in their zenith, should have abandoned a style sosuperior; which, too, would have improved in proportion to theadvancement of that period. After the accession of the twenty-sixth dynasty some attempt was madeto revive the arts, which had been long neglected; and, independent ofthe patronage of government, the wealth of private individuals wasliberally employed in their encouragement. Public buildings wereerected in many parts of Egypt, and beautified with rich sculpture;the City of Sais, the royal residence of the Pharaohs of that dynasty, was adorned with the utmost magnificence, and extensive additions weremade to the temples of Memphis, and even to those of the distantThebes. The fresh impulse thus given to art was not without effect; thesculptures of that period exhibit an elegance and beauty which mighteven induce some to consider them equal to the productions of anearlier age, and in the tombs of the Assaseef, at Thebes, are manyadmirable specimens of Egyptian art. To those, however, who understandthe true feeling of this peculiar school, it is evident, that thoughin minuteness and finish they are deserving of the highestcommendation, yet in grandeur of conception and in boldness ofexecution they fall far short of the sculptures of Sethos and thesecond Remeses. The skill of the Egyptian artists in drawing bold and clear outlinesis, perhaps, more worthy of admiration than anything connected withthis branch of art, and in no place is the freedom of their drawingmore conspicuous than in the figures in the unfinished part ofBelzoni's tomb, at Thebes. It was in the drawing alone that theyexcelled, being totally ignorant of the correct mode of coloring afigure, and their painting was not an imitation of nature, but merelythe harmonious combination of certain hues, which they wellunderstood. Indeed, to this day the harmony of positive colors isthoroughly felt in Egypt and the East, and it is strange to find thelittle perception of it in Northern Europe, where theories take uponthemselves to explain to the mind what the eye has not yet learned, asif a grammar could be written before the language is understood. A remarkable feature of Egyptian sculpture is the frequentrepresentation of their Kings in a colossal form. The two most famouscolossi are the seated figures in the plain of Thebes. One isrecognized to be the vocal Memnon (Amunoph III. ) mentioned by Strabo. They are forty-seven feet high, and measure about eighteen feet threeinches across the shoulders. But the grandest and largest colossalstatue was the stupendous statue of King Remeses II. , a Syenitegranite, in the Memnonium, at Thebes. It represented the King seatedon a throne, in the usual attitude of Kings, the hands resting on hisknees. It is now in fragments. It measured twenty-two feet four inchesacross the shoulders. According to Sir G. Wilkinson, the whole mass, when entire, must have weighed about 887 tons. A colossal statue ofRemeses II. Lies with his face upon the ground on the site of Memphis;it was placed before the temple of Pthah. Its total height isestimated at forty-two feet eight inches, without the pedestal. It isof white siliceous limestone. Another well-known colossus is thestatue of the so-called Memnon, now in the British Museum. It issupposed to be the statue of Remeses II. It was brought by Belzonifrom the Memnonium, at Thebes. In the different epochs of Egyptian sculpture, the Egyptian artistswere bound by certain fixed canons or rules of proportion to guidethem in their labors, and which they were obliged to adhere torigidly. The following are the canons of three distinct epochs: 1. Thecanon of the time of the pyramids, the height was reckoned at six feetfrom the sole of the foot to the crown of the head, and subdivisionsobtained by one-half or one-third of a foot. 2. The canon from thetwelfth to the twenty-second dynasty is only an extension of thefirst. The whole figure was contained in a number of squares of half afoot, and the whole height divided into eighteen parts. In these twocanons the height above the sixth foot is not reckoned. 3. The canonof the age of Psammetici, which is mentioned by Diodorus, reckoningthe entire height at twenty-one and one-fourth feet from the sole tothe crown of the head, taken to the upper part. The proportions aredifferent, but without any introduction of the Greek canon. The canonand the leading lines were originally traced in red, subsequentlycorrected by the principal artist in black, and the design thenexecuted. In Egypt, almost every object of sculpture and architecturewas painted. The colossal Egyptian statues are generally of granite, basalt, porphyry, or sandstone. The two colossi on the plain of Thebesare, of course, hard gritstone. The Egyptians also worked in dark andred granites, breccias, serpentines, arragonite, limestones, jaspers, feldspar, cornelian, glass, gold, silver, bronze, lead, iron, the hardwoods, fir or cedar, sycamore, ebony, acacia, porcelain and ivory, andterra cotta. All objects, from the most gigantic obelisk to the minutearticles of private life, are found decorated with hieroglyphics. Egyptian sculptors were also remarkable for the correct and excellentrepresentation of animals. They may, indeed, be noticed in theirrepresentation a freedom of hand, a choice and variety of forms, atruthfulness, and even what deserves to be called imitation, whichcontrast with the uniformity, the rigidity, the absence of nature andlife, which human figures present. Plato mentions a law which forbadethe artists to depart, in the slightest degree, in the execution ofstatues of the human form from the type consecrated by priestlyauthority. The artist, therefore, not being restricted in his study ofthe animal form, could thus give to his image greater variety ofmotion, and by imitating animals in nature, indemnify himself for theconstraint he experienced when he represented Kings and priests. Thetwo colossal lions in red granite, brought to England by the late Dukeof Northumberland, may be considered as remarkably good specimens ofEgyptian art, as applied to the delineation of animal forms. Theyevince a considerable knowledge of anatomy in the strongly-markeddelineation of the muscular development. The form also is natural andeasy, thus admirably expressing the idea of strength in a state ofrepose. They were sculptured in the reign of Amunoph III. Therepresentations of the sacred animals, the cynocephalus, the lion, thejackal, the ram, etc. , are frequently to be met with in Egyptiansculpture. _Greek. _--The stages of the cycle of development of the art ofsculpture in Greece may be given in five distinct periods or epochs, naming these, for greater convenience, chiefly from the name of theprincipal artist whose style prevailed at that period. I. The Dædalean, or early ( -580 B. C. ) II. The Æginetan, or archaic (580-480 B. C. ) III. The Phidian, or the grand (480-400 B. C. ) IV. The Praxitelean, or the beautiful (400-250 B. C. ) V. The Decline (250- ) Prior to the age of Dædalus, there was an earlier stage in thedevelopment of art, in which the want of art, which is peculiar tothat early stage, was exhibited in rude attempts at therepresentation of the human figure, for similar and almost identicalrude representations are attempted in the early stages of art in allcountries; as the early attempts of children are nearly identical inall ages. The presence of a god was indicated in a manner akin to theFetichism of the African, by the simplest and most shapeless objects, such as unhewn blocks of stone and by simple pillars or pieces ofwood. The first attempt at representation consisted in fashioning ablock of stone or wood into some semblance of the human form, and thisrude attempt constituted a divinity. Of this primitive form was theVenus of Cyprus, the Cupid of Thespiæ; the Juno of Argos was fashionedin a similar rude manner from the trunk of a wild pear tree. Theseattempts were thus nothing more than shapeless blocks, the head, arms, and legs scarcely defined. Some of these wooden blocks are supposed tohave been, in a coarse attempt at imitation, furnished with real hair, and to have been clothed with real draperies in order to conceal theimperfection of the form. The next step was to give these shapelessblocks a human form. The upper part assumed the likeness of a head, and by degrees arms and legs were marked out; but in these earlyimitations of the human figure the arms were, doubtless, representedclosely attached to the sides; and the legs, though to a certainextent defined, were still connected and united in a common pillar. The age of Dædalus marks an improvement in the modeling of the humanfigure, and in giving it life and action. This improvement in the artconsisted in representing the human figure with the arms isolated fromthe body, the legs detached, and the eyes open; in fine, giving it anappearance of nature as well as of life, and thus introducing aprinciple of imitation. This important progress in the practice of theart is the characteristic feature of the school of Dædalus, for underthe name of Dædalus we must understand the art of sculpture itself inits primitive form, and in its first stage of development. Accordingto Flaxman, the rude efforts of this age were intended to representdivinities and heroes only--Jupiter, Neptune, Hercules, and severalheroic characters, had the self-same face, figure, and action; thesame narrow eyes, thin lips, with the corners of the mouth turnedupwards; the pointed chin, narrow loins, turgid muscles; the sameadvancing position of the lower limbs; the right hand raised besidethe head, and the left extended. Their only distinctions were thatJupiter held the thunderbolt, Neptune the trident, and Hercules a palmbranch or bow. The female divinities were clothed in draperies dividedinto few and perpendicular folds, their attitudes advancing like thoseof the male figures. The hair of both male and female statues of thisperiod is arranged with great care, collected in a club behind, sometimes entirely curled. Between the rudeness of the Dædalean and the hard and severe style ofthe Æginetan there was a transitional style, to which period theartists Dipœnus and Scyllis are assigned by Pliny. The metopes of thetemple of Selinus in Sicily, the bas-reliefs representing Agamemnon, Epeus, and Talthybius, in the Louvre, the Harpy monument in theBritish Museum, and the Apollo of Tenea, afford examples of thisstyle. _Æginetan. _--In the Æginetan period of sculpture there was stillretained in the character of the heads, in the details of the costume, and in the manner in which the beard and the hair are treated, something archaic and conventional, undoubtedly derived from thehabits and teachings of the primitive school. But there prevails atthe same time, in the execution of the human form, and the manner inwhich the nude is treated, a knowledge of anatomy, and an excellenceof imitation carried to so high a degree of truth as to giveconvincing proofs of an advanced step and higher stage in thedevelopment of the art. The following are the principalcharacteristics of the Æginetan style, as derived from a carefulexamination of the statues found in Ægina, which were the undoubtedproductions of the school of the Æginetan period. The style in whichthey are executed is called Hieratic, or Archaic. The heads, either totally destitute of expression, or all reduced to ageneral and conventional expression, present, in the oblique positionof the eyes and mouth, that forced smile which seems to have been thecharacteristic feature common to all productions of this archaicstyle; for we find it also on the most ancient medals, and onbas-reliefs of the primitive period. The hair, treated likewise in a systematic manner in small curls orplaits, worked with wonderful industry, imitates not real hair, butgenuine wigs, a peculiarity which may be remarked on other works inthe ancient style, and of Etruscan origin. The beard is indicated onthe cheek by a deep mark, and is rarely worked in relief, but, in thelatter case, so as to imitate a false beard, and consequently in thesame system as the hair. The costume partakes of the same conventionaland hieratic taste; it consists of drapery, with straight and regularfolds, falling in symmetrical and parallel masses, so as to imitatethe real draperies in which the ancient statues in wood were draped. These conventional forms of the drapery and hair may, therefore, beconsidered as deriving their origin from an imitation of the earlystatues in wood, the first objects of worship and of art among theGreeks, which were frequently covered with false hair, and clothedwith real draperies. The muscular development observable in thesefigures is somewhat exaggerated, but, considering the period, iswonderfully accurate and true to nature. The genius for imitationexhibited in this style, carried as far as it is possible in theexpression of the forms of the body, although still accompanied by alittle meagreness and dryness, the truth of detail, the exquisite carein the execution, evince so profound a knowledge of the structure ofthe human body, so great a readiness of hand--in a word, an imitationof nature so skillful, and, at the same time, so simple, that one cannot but recognize in them the productions of an art which had arrivedat a point which required only a few steps more to reach perfection. To the latter part of this period belong the sculptors Canachus, Calamis, and Pythagoras. Canachus was the sculptor of a famous statueof a nude Apollo in bronze, termed Philesius, at Didymi, near Miletus, and was considered as very hard in his style. _Phidian. _--"This period (we here adopt Mr. Vaux's words) is thegolden age of Greek art. During this period arose a spirit ofsculpture which combined grace and majesty in the happiest manner, andby emancipating the plastic art from the fetters of antique stiffness, attained, under the direction of Pericles, and by the hand of Phidias, its culminating point. It is curious to remark the gradual progress ofthe arts; for it is clear that it was slowly and not _per saltum_ thatthe gravity of the elder school was changed to the perfect style ofthe age of Phidias. " In this phase of the art, the ideal had reachedits zenith, and we behold a beauty and perfection which has never beenequaled. In this age alone sculpture, by the grandeur and sublimity ithad attained to in its style, was qualified to give a form to thesublime conceptions of the deity evolved by the mind of Phidias. Healone was considered able to embody and to render manifest to the eyethe sublime images of Homer. Hence, he was called "the sculptor of thegods. " It is well known that in the conception of his Jupiter Olympus, Phidias wished to render manifest, and that he succeeded in realizing, the sublime image under which Homer represents the master of the gods. The sculptor embodied that image in the following manner, according toPausanias: "The god, made of ivory and gold, is seated on a throne, his head crowned with a branch of olive, his right hand presented aVictory of ivory and gold, with a crown and fillet; his left handheld a sceptre, studded with all kinds of metals, on which an eaglesat; the sandals of the god were gold, so was his drapery, on whichwere various animals, with flowers of all kinds, especially lilies;his throne was richly wrought with gold and precious stones. Therewere also statues; four Victories, alighting, were at each foot of thethrone; those in front rested each on a sphinx that had seized aTheban youth; below the sphinxes the children of Niobe were slain bythe arrows of Apollo and Artemis. " This statue, Flaxman observes, sixty feet in height, was the most renowned work of ancient sculpture, not for stupendous magnitude alone, but more for careful majesty andsublime beauty. His Minerva in the Parthenon was of gold and ivory. The goddess was represented standing robed in a tunic, and her headcovered with the formidable ægis; with her right hand she held alance; in the left she held a statue of Victory about five feet high;her helmet was surmounted by a sphinx and two griffins, and over thevisor eight horses in front in full gallop. The shield erected at thefeet of the goddess was adorned on both sides with bas-reliefs. At thebase of the statue were a sphinx and a serpent. This colossus wasthirty-seven feet high. The gem of Aspasus and the silver tetra-drachmof Athens are said to be copies of the head of this Minerva. Another remarkable statue of Phidias was the Athene Promachus, in theAcropolis. It represented the tutelary goddess of the Athenians, fullyarmed and in the attitude of battle, with one arm raised and holdingspear in her hand. This work was of colossal dimensions and stood inthe open air, nearly opposite the Propylæa. It towered above the roofof the Parthenon and it is said the crest of the helmet and the pointof the spear could be seen far off by ships approaching Athens fromSunium. Its height is supposed to have been, with its pedestal, aboutseventy feet, the material was bronze. There are two marble statueswhich have come down to us, and which give some idea of the Minervasof Phidias. One is the Pallas of Velletri, which is supposed to be acopy of the Minerva Promachus (cut is on p. 530). The Farnese Minerva, at Naples, may afford some idea of the chryselephantine statue of theParthenon. It does not, however, present the accessories of theAthenian figure. The Sphinx, the serpent and the shield are notrepresented. The sculptures of the Parthenon, now in the BritishMuseum, can lead us to appreciate the manner of Phidias, and thecharacter of his school, so observed by Flaxman. The statues of thepediments, the metopes, and bas-reliefs, are remarkable for thegrandeur of style, simplicity, truth, beauty, which are thecharacteristics of this school. On the eastern pediment wasrepresented the birth of Minerva, and on the western the contestbetween Minerva and Neptune for the guardianship of the soil ofAttica. Of the figures still preserved to us of the eastern pediment, it has been generally supposed that the reclining figure may beidentified as Theseus, that another is Ceres, a third Iris, themessenger, about to announce to mortals the great event of the birthof Minerva, which has just taken place, while the group of threefemale figures are considered to represent the three Fates. Of thewestern pediment, the remaining figures are Cecrops, the first Kingand founder of Athens, and Aglaura, his wife, and the river god, Ilissus, or Cephisus. The metopes, which generally represent singlecontests between the Athenians and the Centaurs, are in strong highrelief, full of bold action and passionate exertion--though this isfor the most part softened by great beauty of form and a masterlystyle of composition which knows how to adapt itself with the utmostfreedom to the strict conditions of the space. These reliefs wereplaced high, as they were calculated for the full light of the sun, and to throw deeper shadows. The frieze may be considered as the chief glory of the art ofPhidias. The artists here expressed with the utmost beauty thesignification of the temple by depicting a festive procession, whichwas celebrated every fifth year at Athens, in honor of Minerva, conveying in solemn pomp to the temple of the Parthenon the peplos, orsacred veil, which was to be suspended before the statue of thegoddess. The end of the procession has just reached the temple, thearchons and heralds await, quietly conversing together, the end of theceremony. They are followed by a train of Athenian maidens, singly orin groups, many of them with cans and other vessels in their hands. Then follow men and women, then bearers of sacrificial gifts, thenflute-players and musicians, followed by combatants in chariots, withfour splendid horses. The whole is concluded by prancing horsemen, theprime of the manly youth of Athens. This frieze was within thecolonnade of the Parthenon, on the upper part of the wall of thecella, and was continued round the building. By its position it onlyobtained a secondary light. Being placed immediately below the soffit, it received all its light from between the columns, and by reflectionfrom the pavement below. Mr. Westmacott remarks that these works areunquestionably the finest specimens of the art that exist, and theyillustrate fully and admirably the progress and, as it may be said, the consummation of sculpture. They exhibit in a remarkable degree allthe qualities that constitute fine art--truth, beauty, and perfectexecution. In the forms, the most perfect, the most appropriate andthe most graceful have been selected. All that is coarse or vulgar isomitted, and that only is represented which unites the two essentialqualities of truth and beauty. The result of this happy combination iswhat has been termed ideal beauty. These sculptures, however, whichemanated from the mind of Phidias, and were most certainly executedunder his eyes, and in his school, are not the works of his hands. Phidias himself disdained or worked but little in marble. They were, doubtless, the works of his pupils, Alcamenes, Agoracritus, Colotes, Pæonios, and some other artists of his time. For, as Flaxman remarks, the styles of different hands are sufficiently evident in the alto andbasso rilievo. To the age of Phidias belong the sculptors Alcamenes, Agoracritus, and Pæonios. The greatest work of Alcamenes was a statueof Venus in the Gardens, a work to which it is said Phidias himselfput the finishing touch. He also executed a bronze statue of aconqueror in the games, which Pliny says was known as the"Encrinomenos, the highly approved. " Agoracritus, who, Pliny says, wassuch a favorite of Phidias that he gave his own name to many of thatartist's works, entered into a contest with Alcamenes, the subjectbeing a statue of Venus. Alcamenes was successful, Pliny tells us, notthat his work was superior, but because his fellow-citizens chose togive their suffrages in his favor, in preference to a stranger. It wasfor this reason that Agoracritus, indignant at his treatment, sold hisstatue on the express condition that it should never be taken toAthens, and changed its name to Nemesis. It was accordingly erected atRhamnus. A marble statue of Victory, a beautiful Nike in excellentpreservation, has been lately discovered at Olympia, bearing the nameof Pæonios. This statue is mentioned by Pausanius as a votive offeringset up by the Messenians in the Altis, the sacred grove of Zeus atOlympia. The statues in the eastern pediment of the temple of Jupiterat Olympia were by Pæonios, and those in the western by Alcamenes. Thefirst represented the equestrian contest of Pelops against Oenomaus, and in the second the Lapithæ were represented fighting with thecentaurs at the marriage of Pirithous. The frieze of the temple of Apollo at Bassæ, near Phigaleia, inArcadia, belongs to this period. It was the work of Ictinus, thearchitect of the Parthenon. Contests with the Amazons and battles withthe centaurs form the subject of the whole. The most animated andboldest compositions are sculptured in these reliefs. They exhibit, however, exaggeration, and are wanting in that repose and beauty whichare the characteristics of the works of Phidias. In the half draped Venus of Milo now in the Louvre, we have a genuineGreek work, which represents an intermediate style between that ofPhidias and Praxiteles. "Grandly serious, " Professor Lubke writes, "and almost severe, stands the goddess of Love, not yet conceived asin later representations, as a love requiring woman. The simpledrapery, resting on the hips, displays uncovered the grand forms ofthe upper part of the body, which, with all her beauty, have thatmysteriously unapproachable feeling which is the genuine expression ofthe divine. " _Praxitilean. _ This period is characterized by a more rich and flowingstyle of execution, as well as by the choice of softer and moredelicate subjects than had usually been selected for representation. In this the beautiful was sought, after rather than the sublime. Praxiteles may be considered the first sculptor who introduced thismore sensual, if it may be so called, style of art, for he was thefirst who, in the unrobed Venus, combined the utmost luxuriance ofpersonal charms with a spiritual expression in which the queen of loveherself appeared as a woman needful of love, and filled with inwardlonging. He first gave a prominence to corporeal attractions, withwhich the deity was invested. His favorite subjects were of youthfuland feminine beauty. In his Venus of Cnidos he exhibited the goddessin the most exquisite form of woman. His Cupid represented the beautyand grace of that age in boys which seemed to the Greeks the mostattractive. His Apollo Sauroctonos presented the form of a youth ofexquisite beauty and proportion. The Venus of Cnidos stands foremostas one of the celebrated art creations of antiquity. This artistrepresented the goddess completely undraped; but this bold innovationwas justified by the fact that she was taking up her garment with herleft hand, as if she were just coming from her bath, while with herright she modestly covered her figure. Many as are the subsequentcopies preserved of this famous statue, we can only conceive theoutward idea of the attitude, but none of the pure grandeur of thework of Praxiteles. In the Vatican (Chiaramonte gallery, No. 112)there is one of very inferior execution, but perhaps the only onewhich gives a correct idea of this Venus, as it corresponds as nearlyas possible with the pose of the statue on the coin of Cnidos and withthe description of Lucan. His Cupid is represented as a slender, undeveloped boy, full ofliveliness and activity, earnestly endeavoring to fasten the stringsto his bow. A Roman copy of this statue is in the British Museum. He also executed in bronze a Faun, which was known as "Periboetos, themuch famed;" the finest of the many copies of this celebrated statuethat have come down to us, is in the Capitol; and a youthful Apollo, styled Sauroctonos, because he is aiming an arrow at a lizard which isstealing towards him; a copy of this statue in marble is in theVatican, and one in bronze in the Villa Albani. Contemporary with Praxiteles was Scopas. His works exhibit powerfulexpression, grandeur, combined with beauty and grace. The group ofNiobe and her children, at Florence, has been attributed to him. Another very celebrated work of Scopas was the statue of the PythianApollo playing on the lyre, which Augustus placed in the temple whichhe built to Apollo, on the Palatine, in thanksgiving for his victoryat Actium. An inferior Roman copy of this statue is in the Vatican. Hewas also celebrated for his heads of Apollo. Of these many excellentcopies are still extant, the finest being that formerly in theGiustiniani collection, and now in the British Museum. The late discoveries at Halicarnassus have yielded genuine works ofScopas in the sculptures of the bas-reliefs of Mausoleum, erected byArtemisia in memory of her husband, Mausolus, King of Caria, the eastside of which is known to have proceeded from his hands; the othersides by his contemporaries, Bryaxis, Timotheus and Leochares. Partsof these are now in the British Museum. The bas-reliefs of the temple of Nike Apteros have been associatedwith the peculiarities which characterize the productions of Scopas. Afigure of Victory, stooping to loose her sandal, in bas-relief fromthis temple, is remarkable for its admirably arranged drapery. The sculptural decorations of the temple of Artemis, at Ephesus, thefoundations of which have been lately discovered by Mr. Wood, there isevery reason to believe were contributed by Praxiteles and Scopas. Thedrum of a column, with figures in bas-relief from this temple, hasbeen lately added to the British Museum. The beautiful figure of a Bacchante in bas-relief in the BritishMuseum is generally referred to Scopas. The following are some of the more particular characteristics of thehuman form, adopted by the Grecian sculptors of this age: In the profile, the forehead and lips touch a perpendicular line drawnbetween them. In young persons, the brow and nose nearly form astraight line, which gives an expression of grandeur and delicacy tothe face. The forehead was low, the eyes large, but not prominent. Adepth was given to the eye to give to the eyebrow a finer arch, and, by a deeper shadow, a bolder relief. To the eyes a living play oflight was communicated by a sharp projection of the upper eyelid, anda deep depression of the pupil. The eye was so differently shaped inthe heads of divinities and ideal heads that it is itself acharacteristic by which they can be distinguished. In Jupiter, Apollo, and Juno the opening of the eye is large, and roundly arched; it hasalso less length than usual, that the curve which it makes may be morespherical. Pallas likewise has large eyes, but the upper lid fallsover them more than in the three divinities just mentioned, for thepurpose of giving her a modest maiden look. Small eyes were reservedfor Venuses and voluptuous beauties, which gave them a languishingair. The upper lip was short, the lower lip fuller than the upper, asthis tended to give a roundness to the chin; the short upper lip, andthe round and grandly-formed chin, being the most essential signs ofgenuine Greek formation. The lips were generally closed; they slightlyopen in the statues of the gods, especially in the case of Venus, butthe teeth were never seen. The ear was carefully modeled and finished. The beauty, and especially the execution of them, is, according toWinkelman, the surest sign by which to discriminate the antique fromadditions and restorations. The hair was curly, abundant, and disposedin floating locks, and executed with the utmost imaginable care; infemales it was tied in a knot behind the head. The frontal hair wasrepresented as growing in a curve over the temples in order to givethe face an oval shape. The face was always oval, and a cross drawn inthe oval indicated the design of the face. The perpendicular linemarked the position of the brow, the nose, the mouth, and the chin;the horizontal line passed through the eyes, and was parallel to themouth. The hands of youth were beautifully rounded, and the dimplesgiven; the fingers were tapered, but the articulations were notgenerally indicated. In the male form the chest was high, arched, andprominent. In the female form, especially in that of goddesses andvirgins, the form of the breasts is virginal in the extreme, sincetheir beauty was generally made to consist in the moderateness oftheir size. They were generally a little higher than nature. Theabdomen was without prominence. The legs and knees of youthfulfigures are rounded with softness and smoothness, and unmarked bymuscular movements. The proportion of the limbs was longer than in thepreceding period. In male and female figures the foot was rounded inits form; in the female the toes are delicate, and have dimples overtheir first joints gently marked. It is evident that this type of beauty of form, adopted by the Greciansculptors, is in unison with, and exhibits a marked analogy to thetype of face and form of the Greeks themselves, for, as Sir CharlesBell observes, the Greek face is a fine oval, the forehead full andcarried forward, the eyes large, the nose straight, the lips and chinfinely formed; in short, the forms of the head and face have been thetype of the antique, and of all which we most admire. The sculptors of this age, instead of aiming at an abstract, unattainable ideal, studied nature in its choicest forms, and attainedthe beautiful by selecting and concentrating in one those charms whichare found diffused over all. They avoided the representation of allviolent motions and perturbations of the passions, which would havecompletely marred that expression of serene repose which is aprominent characteristic of the beautiful period of Greek sculpture. Indeed, the chief object of the Greek sculptor was the representationof the beautiful alone, and to this principle he made character, expression, costume, and everything else subordinate. Lysippus, the successor of Praxiteles and Scopas, was a contemporaryof Alexander the Great. He contributed to advance their style by thepeculiar fullness, roundness, and harmonious general effect by whichit appears that his works were characterized. His school exhibited astrong naturalistic tendency, a closer imitation of nature, leading tomany refinements in detail. It was unquestionably greater in portraitthan in ideal works. Pliny thus speaks of his style: "He is consideredto have contributed very greatly to the art of the statuary byexpressing the details of the hair, and by making the head smallerthan had been done by the ancients, and the body more graceful andless bulky, a method by which his statues were made to appear taller. " The portrait statues of Alexander the Great by Lysippus were verynumerous. The great King would only allow himself to be modeled byLysippus. The head of Alexander, as the young Ammon on the coins ofLysimachus, is said to have been designed by him. An athlete, scrapinghis body with a strigil, was the most famous of the bronze statues ofLysippus. The statue of an athlete in the Vatican, in a similarposition, is supposed to be a marble copy of the original bronze ofLysippus; though an inferior work, it illustrates the statements ofPliny regarding the proportions adopted by Lysippus--a small head andthe body long and slim. The bas-reliefs also on the monument ofLysicrates, representing the story of Dionysus and the Tyrrhenianpirates, presented all the characteristic features of the school ofLysippus. It was erected in the archonship of Euænetus, B. C. 335. The canon of Polycletus began to be generally adopted at this period. It was followed by Lysippus, who called the Doryphoros of that artisthis master. In his practice of dealing with the heads and limbs of hisfigures, Lysippus was followed by Silanion and Euphranor, and hisauthority may be said to have governed the school of Greece to a lateperiod of the art. Pliny tells us that Euphranor was the first who represented heroeswith becoming dignity, and who paid particular attention toproportion. He made, however, in the generality of instances, thebodies somewhat more slender and the heads larger. His most celebratedstatue was a Paris, which expressed alike the judge of the goddesses, the lover of Helen, and the slayer of Achilles. The very beautifulsitting figure of Paris, in marble, in the Vatican, is, no doubt, acopy of this work. Subsequently to these sculptors we have Chares, the Rhodian, whoconstructed the famous colossus of Helios at the entrance of theharbor of Rhodes, which was 105 feet high. It appears there is noauthority for the common statement that its legs extended over themouth of the harbor. Of the later Asiatic or Rhodian schools we have the famous groups ofthe Laocoon, on page 555, and of Dirce tied to a bull, commonly calledthe Toro Farnese. In both of these the dramatic element ispredominant, and the tragic interest is not appreciated. In theLaocoon consummate skill is shown in the mastery of execution; but ifthe object of the artist was to create pity or awe, he has drawn toomuch attention to his power of carving marble. The Laocoon wasexecuted, according to Pliny, by Agesander, Polydorus and Athenodorus, natives of Rhodes. This group, now in the Vatican, was found in thebaths of Titus. From the evidence of an antique gem, on which isengraved a representation of this group, we find the right arm of theLaocoon has been wrongly restored. In the gem the hand of Laocoon isin contact with his head, and not, as restored by Giovanni daMontorsoli, raised high. The Farnese Bull, a work in which we possess the most colossal groupof antiquity, was executed by Apollonius and Tauriscus, of Tralles. Tothe same school belongs the Dying Gladiator, who unquestionablyrepresents, as usually supposed, a combatant who died in theamphitheatre. It is remarkable for the entire absence of idealrepresentation, and for its complete individuality and close imitationof nature. This statue is probably one of the masterpieces of thecelebrated Pyromachus, who executed several groups, and largecompositions of battle scenes for Attalus, King of Pergamus, tocelebrate his decisive victory over the Gauls (B. C. 240). To the later Athenian school belong probably the Belvidere Torso, somuch admired by Michael Angelo, the Farnese Hercules, the Venusde'Medici, and the Fighting Gladiator. The Belvidere Torso is nowconsidered to be a copy by Apollonius, the son of Nestor, of theHercules of Lysippus, and probably executed in the Macedonian period. The Farnese Hercules is so exaggerated in its style as to have beendeemed a work as late as the Roman empire. According to Flaxman, theVenus de'Medici is a deteriorated variety or repetition of a Venus ofPraxiteles. It is now generally admitted that it is a work of thelatest Macedonian period, probably by Cleomenes, whose name appears onits base. The Fighting Gladiator bears the name of Agasias of Ephesus. From the attitude of the figure it is clear that the statue representsnot a gladiator, but a warrior contending with a mounted combatant, probably an Athenian, warding off a blow from a centaur. [Illustration: DYING GLADIATOR. ] The Macedonian age, to which most of these statues belonged, commencedwith Alexander the Great, and terminated with the absorption of Greekart by the Romans. Art having, in the two previous periods, reached its culminating pointof perfection, as is the law of all development, when a culminatingpoint is reached, a downward tendency and a period of decline begins, for the cycle of development must be completed and the stages ofrise, progress, maturity, decline and decay run through. No exact date, however, can be assigned to the beginning of the stageof decline; no sharp line of demarcation can be pointed out dividingone stage from the other. The decline was so gradual that there was aninevitable blending of the two. We perceive evident signs of declinein the fourth stage, while, in the fifth, or stage of decline, wesometimes meet some noble works of art partaking of the perfect styleof the earlier periods. A period of decline inevitably and invariablyfollows an age of maturity and perfection. As Mr. Lecky observes, "Thesculptor and the painter of the age of Praxiteles precipitated artinto sensuality; both of them destroyed its religious character, bothof them raised it to high æsthetic perfection, but in both cases thatperfection was followed by a speedy decline. " Muller remarks, "Thecreative activity, the real central point of the entire activity ofart, which fashions peculiar forms for peculiar ideas, must haveflagged in its exertions when the natural circle of ideas among theGreeks had received complete plastic embodiment, or it must have beenmorbidly driven to abnormal inventions. We find, therefore, that art, during this period, with greater or less degrees of skill inexecution, delighted now in fantastical, now in effeminateproductions, calculated merely to charm the senses. And even in thebetter and nobler works of the time there was still on the wholesomething--not, indeed, very striking to the eye, but which could befelt by the natural sense, something which distinguished them from theearlier works--the _striving after effect_. " The spirit of imitationmarked the later portion of this period of decline. The sculptors ofthis age, despairing of equaling the productions of the former age, gave themselves up completely to servile imitation. The imitation wasnaturally inferior to the original, and each succeeding attempt atimitation was but a step lower in degradation of the art. When theyceased to study nature they thought to repair the deterioration of thebeauty of form by the finish of the parts, and in a still later periodthey gave, instead of a grandeur of style, an exaggeration of form. Lastly, being utterly unable to cope with their predecessors in thesculpture of statues, they had recourse to the manufacture of bustsand portraits, which they executed in countless numbers. The artreached its lowest ebb, and thus the cycle of the development of Greeksculpture terminated in its last stage--utter decay and degradation. _Roman. _--In the very early periods the Romans imitated the Etruscans, for, generally speaking, all the works of the first periods of Romewere executed by Etruscan artists. Their earliest statues of gods werein clay. Etruscan art exercised the greatest influence in Rome, forRome was adorned with monuments of Etruscan art, in its very infancy;it was a Tuscan called Veturius Mamurius who made the shields(ancilia) of the temple of Numa, and who made, in bronze, the statueof Vertumna, a Tuscan deity, in the suburb of Rome. The Romans owedall their culture to the Etruscans, from whom they learned the arts ofarchitecture, terra-cotta work, and painting; calling in artists ofthat more tasteful race when anything of that sort was required forthe decoration of their simple edifices. The most ancient monuments ofRome thus corresponded with the contemporaneous style of Etruscan art;there is thus a similarity in the figures; the attributes alone canlead one to distinguish them, as these attributes tell if the statuewas connected with the creed or modes of belief of Etruria or Rome. There was not, therefore, any Roman style, properly so called; theonly distinction to be remarked is that the statues of the earlyperiods, executed by the Romans, are characterized, like the Romansthemselves of the same period, by a beard and long hair. At a lateperiod all the architecture, all the sculpture of the public edificesat Rome, were in the Tuscan style, according to the testimony ofPliny. After the second Punic war, Greek artists took the place of Etruscanartists at Rome; the taking of Syracuse gave the Romans a knowledge ofthe beautiful works of Greece, and the treasures of art brought fromCorinth chiefly contributed to awaken a taste among them, and theysoon turned into ridicule their ancient statues in clay; Greek art wasgradually transferred to Rome; Greek artists began to abound there, and the history of Roman art was thenceforward confounded with that ofthe vicissitudes of Greek art. The style of the works of sculptureunder the first Emperors may be considered as a continuation andsequel of the development of Greek sculpture. These works, moreparticularly the portrait statues, which were the prevailing works ofthis period, exhibit a great deal of force and character, though awant of care is visible in some parts, especially in the hair. Thecharacters of the heads always bear out the descriptions whichhistorians have given of the person they belong to, the Roman headdiffering essentially from the Greek, in having a more archedforehead, a nose more aquiline, and features altogether of a moredecided character. It may be observed, however, as a general remark, that the Roman statues are of a thicker and more robust form, withless ease and grace, more stern, and of a less ideal expression thanGreek statues, though equally made by Greek artists. Under Augustus, and the following Roman Emperors, to meet the demand for Greek statuesto embellish their houses and villas, several copies and imitations ofcelebrated Greek works were manufactured by the sculptors of the age. The Apollo Belvidere, the Venus of the Capitol, and several copies ofcelebrated Greek works, in various Museums, such as the Faun, Cupid, Apollo Sauroctonos, and Venus of Praxiteles, the Discobolos of Myron, and several works of Scopas and Lysippus, are supposed to be of thisage. Archæologists are now generally agreed in thinking that theApollo Belvidere is only a copy of a Roman period of a very fine Greekstatue of about the beginning of the third century B. C. , and that theoriginal was in bronze. Another copy has been identified in a bronzestatuette now in St. Petersburg, known as the Stroganoff Apollo. Fromthis statuette it is found that the Apollo Belvidere held forward inhis left hand, not a bow as was thought, but the _ægis_, in theattitude of spreading consternation among an enemy. The production ofthis statue is generally assigned to the period after the invasion ofthe Gauls, whom, in 278 B. C. , the god drove in alarm from hissanctuary, at Delphi. (A cut of Apollo Belvidere is seen on page 495. ) Of the Faun of Praxiteles there are two copies in the Vatican, butboth are inferior to that in the Capitol. A copy of the Cupid ofPraxiteles is in the British Museum. Of the Apollo Sauroctonos thereare two copies, one in the Vatican, and another in bronze in the VillaAlbani. Of the Venus of Cnidos of Praxiteles there are several copiesin the Vatican; one in particular, in the Chiaramonte Gallery, No. 112, though very inferior as a work of art, gives the exact pose ofthe original statue as it appears on the coin of Cnidos. The Venus ofthe Capitol is a Roman version of the Praxitelean statue; it differsin attitude. Several copies of the Discobolos of Myron are still inexistence: one in the British Museum, one in the Vatican, and a third, much finer than either of the others, in the possession of PrinceMassimo. A very fine marble copy of the celebrated bronze of Lysippusis in the Vatican. A copy of the Pythian Apollo by Scopas is in thesame museum. The noble statue of Augustus, discovered in 1863, and now in theVatican, is a grand example of the portrait statues of this period. Itis full of life and individuality. The pose is simple and majestic, asbefitting the portrait of an Emperor. The bust of the young Augustusin the Vatican for depth of expression, individuality, truth tonature, and delicacy of finish and treatment, is a marvel inportraiture. Under Tiberius and Claudius a limit was placed to the right of havingstatues exposed in public; consequently a lesser number of statueswere made, and less attention was paid to the perfection of theportrait. However, some excellent works were produced in this period. The style became purer and more refined under Hadrian, for a partialrevival of Greek art is attributed to this Emperor. The hair wascarefully worked, the eyebrows were raised, the pupils were indicatedby a deep cavity--an essential characteristic of this age, rare beforethis period, and frequently introduced afterwards; the heads requiredgreater strength, without, however, increasing in character. Of themost remarkable productions of the age of Hadrian are the numerousrepetitions of the statue of Antinous, an ideal portrait of Hadrian'sfavorite, exhibiting much artistic perfection. That in the Capitol isremarkable, not only for its exceeding beauty, but also for itscorrect anatomy. Of the Emperor Hadrian there is a fine portraitstatue in the British Museum. Under the Antonines, the decay of theart was still more manifest, displaying a want of simplicity, and anattention in trivial and meretricious accessories. Thus, in the busts, the hair and the beard luxuriate in an exaggerated profusion of curls, the careful expression of features of the countenance being at thesame time frequently neglected. This age was remarkable also for itsrecurrence to the style of a primitive and imperfect art in thereproduction of Egyptian statues. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] MOSAIC. Mosaic, opus musivum, is a kind of painting made with minute pieces ofcolored substances, generally either marble or natural stones, or elseglass, more or less opaque, and of every variety of hue which thesubject may require, set in very fine cement, and which thus formpictures of different kinds, rivaling in color and hue those paintedby the brush. Early nations knew the art of mosaic, and it is supposed to derive itsorigin from Asia, where paintings of this kind were composed, inimitation of the beautiful carpets manufactured at all periods inthose countries. The Egyptians employed it very probably for differentpurposes; no traces of it have, however, been found in the temples orpalaces the ruins of which remain. There is in the Egyptian collectionat Turin a fragment of a mummy case, the paintings of which areexecuted in mosaic with wonderful precision and truth. The material isenamel, the colors are of different hues, and their variety renderswith perfect truth the plumage of birds. It is believed to be the onlyexample of Egyptian mosaic. The Greeks carried the art of mosaic to the highest perfection, assuming after the time of Alexander an importance which entitled itto be ranked as an independent art. Skillfully managing the hues, andgiving to the figures in their compositions an exquisite harmony, theyresembled at a slight distance real paintings. Different names weregiven to the mosaics, according as they were executed in pieces ofmarble of a certain size; it was then _lithostroton_, opus sectile; orin small cubes, in this case it was called _opus tessellatum_, or_vermiculatum_. The name of _asaroton_ was given to a mosaic destinedto adorn the pavement of a dining hall. It was supposed to representan unswept hall, on the pavement of which the crumbs and remains ofthe repast which fell from the table still remained. It was said to beintroduced by Sosus of Pergamus, the first mosaic artist ofconsequence of whom we hear. [Illustration: MOSAIC FLOOR. ] Mosaic was used to adorn the pavements, walls, and ceilings of publicand private edifices. The Greeks in general preferred marble to everyother material. A bed of mortar was prepared, which served as a base, which was covered with a very fine cement. The artist, having beforehim the colored design which he was to execute, fixed the coloredcubes in the cement, and polished the entire surface when it hadhardened, taking care, however, that too great a polish, by itsreflection, might not mar the general effect of his work. The greatadvantage of mosaic is that it resists humidity, and all which couldchange the colors and the beauty of painting. Painting could not beemployed in the pavement of buildings, and mosaics gave them anappearance of great elegance. The mosaic of the Capitol, found inHadrian's Villa, may give an idea of the perfection which the Greeksattained to in that art. It represents a vase full of water, on thesides of which are four doves, one of which is in the act of drinking. It is supposed by some to be the mosaic of Pergamus mentioned byPliny. It is entirely composed of cubes of marble, without anyadmixture of colored glass. Mosaic of this kind may be considered asthe most ancient; it was only by degrees that the art of coloringmarble, enamel, and glass multiplied the materials suited for mosaics, and rendered their execution much more easy. It was then carried to avery high degree of perfection. The mosaic found at Pompeii, whichrepresents three masked figures playing on different instruments, witha child near them, is of the most exquisite workmanship. It is formedof very small pieces of glass, of the most beautiful colors, and ofvarious shades. The hair, the small leaves which ornament the masks, and the eyebrows, are most delicately expressed. What enhances thevalue of this mosaic is the name of the artist who worked init--Dioscorides of Samos. Another mosaic found at Pompeii is thebeautiful one of Acratus on a Panther. The subjects represented inmosaics are in endless variety, and generally are derived frommythology or heroic myths. Landscapes and ornaments in borders, infrets, in compartments, intermingled with tritons, nereides, centaurs, are to be found on them. The principal subject is in the center, therest serves as a bordering or framework. In the Greek tessellatedpavement found at Halicarnassus, the mosaic is of very fineworkmanship, being composed of small cubes of white, black and redmarble. [Illustration: MOSAIC DOVES. ] Another and a still more remarkable mosaic was discovered in the Houseof the Faun, and is perhaps the most beautiful and magnificentspecimen of the art that has yet been found. This mosaic, which is nowpreserved in the museum at Naples, is about eighteen feet long by ninebroad. The subject represents a battle between Greeks and barbarians, the latter apparently of eastern race; but a variety of conjectureshave been hazarded as to what battle is actually depicted. Some haveseen in it the combat between Patroclus and Sarpedon, and the death ofthe latter; others have recognized in it the battles of the Granicus, of Arbela, of Platæa, of Marathon, etc. But the opinion most commonlyadopted is that of Professor Quaranta, who refers the picture to thebattle of Issus. The Grecian leader, supposed to represent Alexanderthe Great, is drawn with great beauty and vigor. Charging, bareheaded, in the midst of the fight, he has transfixed with his lance one ofthe Persian leaders, whose horse, wounded in the shoulder, had alreadyfallen. The expression of physical agony in the countenance of thewounded man is admirably depicted. Another horse, which an attendanthad brought for him, has arrived too late. The death of the Persiangeneral has evidently decided the fortune of the day. In thebackground, the Persian spears are still directed against theadvancing Greeks. But at the sight of the fallen general, anotherPersian leader in a quadriga, who, from the richness of his dress andaccoutrements, the height of his tiara, and his red chlamys, isprobably Darius himself, stretches forth his right hand in an attitudeof alarm and despair, while the charioteer urges his horses toprecipitate flight. Nothing can exceed the vigor with which both menand animals are depicted in this unequaled mosaic. If the Grecian heroreally represents Alexander the Great, the mosaic may probably be acopy of a picture by Appelles, the only artist privileged to paint theMacedonian conqueror. It is unfortunate that the work has sufferedmuch damage on the left side, or that which contains the Grecian host. It was, however, in this mutilated state when discovered, and seems tohave been under a process of reparation. The border represents ariver, apparently the Nile, with a crocodile, hippopotamus, ichneumon, ibises, etc. ; whence some have been led to think that the mosaic is acopy of a picture on the same subject known to have been painted by afemale Egyptian artist named Helena, and brought to Rome by Vespasian. Painted floors were first used by the Greeks, who made and coloredthem with much care, until they were driven out by the mosaic floorscalled _lithostrota_. The most famous workman in this kind was Sosus, who wrought at Pergamus the pavement which is called _asarotus oikos_, the unswept hall, made of quarrels or square tesseræ of differentcolors, in such a way as to resemble the crumbs and scraps that fellfrom the table, and such-like things as usually are swept away, as ifthey were still left by negligence upon the pavement. There also isadmirably represented a dove drinking, in such a way that the shadowof her head is cast on the water. Other doves are seen sitting on therim of the vessel preening themselves and basking in the sun. Thefirst paved floors which came into use were those called barbarica andsubtegulanea, which were beaten down with rammers, as may be known bythe name pavimentum, from pavire, to ram. The pavements calledscalpturata were first introduced into Italy in the Temple of JupiterCapitolinus, after the beginning of the third Punic war. But ere theCimbric wars began, such pavements were in common use at Rome, and mentook great delight and pleasure therein. For galleries and terraces open to the sky, they were devised by theGreeks, who, enjoying a warm climate, used to cover their houses withthem; but where the rain waters freeze, pavements of this sort are notto be trusted. To make a terrace of this sort, it is necessary to laytwo courses of boards, one athwart the other, the ends of which oughtto be nailed, that they should not twist nor warp; which done take twoparts of new rubbish, and one of tiles stamped to powder; then withother three parts of old rubbish mix two parts of lime, and herewithlay a bed of a foot thickness, taking care to ram it hard together. Over this must be laid a bed of mortar, six fingers thick, and uponthis middle couch, large paving-tiles, at least two fingers deep. Thissort of pavement is to be made to rise to the center in the proportionof one inch and a-half to ten feet. Being thus laid, it is to beplaned and polished diligently with some hard stone; but, above all, regard is to be had that the boarded floor be made of oak. As for suchas do start or warp any way, they be thought naught. Moreover, it werebetter to lay a course of flint or chaff between it and the lime, tothe end that the lime may not have so much force to hurt the boardunderneath it. It were also well to put at the bottom a bed of roundpebbles. [Illustration: APOLLO CHARMING NATURE. ] And here we must not forget another kind of these pavements which arecalled Græcanica, the manner of which is this: Upon a floor wellbeaten with rammers, is laid a bed of rubbish, or else brokentile-shards, and then upon it a couch of charcoal, well beaten, anddriven close together, with sand, and lime, and small cinders, wellmixed together, to the thickness of half a foot, well leveled; andthis has the appearance of an earthen floor; but, if it be polishedwith a hard smooth stone, the whole pavement will seem all black. Asfor those pavements called lithostrota, which are made of diverscolored squares or dice, they came into use in Sylla's time, who madeone at Præneste, in the temple of Fortune, which pavement remains tobe seen at this day. It may be remarked here, that the Roman villa at Northleigh, inOxfordshire, examined and described by Mr. Hakewill, abounded withbeautiful pavements. The substratum of one of these, which had beenbroken, was investigated, when it was found that the natural soil hadbeen removed to a depth of near seven feet, and the space filled upwith materials which bear a near resemblance to those which Plinyrecommends. A specimen of the coarser sort of mosaic pavement is to be seen in theTownley Gallery, in the British Museum. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] LITERATURE. The perfection which the Greeks attained in literature and art is oneof the most striking features in the history of the people. Theirintellectual activity and their keen appreciation of the beautifulconstantly gave birth to new forms of creative genius. There was anuninterrupted progress in the development of the Grecian mind from theearliest dawn of the history of the people to the downfall of theirpolitical independence, and each succeeding age saw the production ofsome of those master works of genius which have been the models andadmiration of all subsequent time. The poets were the popular writers of ancient Greece; prose writersappear no earlier than the sixth century before the Christian era, atwhich time the first literary prose essay was produced, for whichthree contemporary authors claim the honor. The Greeks had arrived ata high degree of civilization before they can be said to havepossessed a history of their own. Nations far behind them inintellectual development have infinitely excelled them in thisrespect. The imagination seems to have been entirely dazzled andfascinated with the glories of the heroic ages, and to have taken butlittle interest in the events which were daily passing around them. Poetry constitutes the chief part of early Greek literature. We givespecimens of both Greek poetry and prose. We will not attempt to givespecimens of all, but only such as are considered, by common consent, the best. HOMER. Seven cities have contested for the honor of the birth-place of Homer. It is now generally agreed that he was born about 950 B. C. , in theCity of Melesigenes. It is not a little strange that nothing should be known with certaintyof the parentage or of the birth-place, or even of the era of thegreatest poet of antiquity, of him who, next to Milton, ranks as thegreatest epic poet of the world. In two respects, all the accountsconcerning him agree--that he had traveled much, and that he wasafflicted with blindness. From the first circumstance, it has beeninferred that he was either rich or enjoyed the patronage of thewealthy; but this will not appear necessary when it is consideredthat, in his time, journeys were usually performed on foot, and thathe probably traveled, with a view to his support, as an itinerantmusician or reciter. From most of the traditions respecting him, itappears that he was poor, and it is to be feared that necessity, rather than the mere desire of gratifying curiosity, prompted hiswanderings. All that has been advanced respecting the occasion of hisblindness is mere conjecture. Certain it is, that this misfortunearose from accident or disease, and not from the operation of natureat his birth; for the character of his compositions seems rather tosuppose him all eye, than destitute of sight; and if they were evenframed during his blindness, they form a glorious proof of the vividpower of the imagination more than supplying the want of the bodilyorgans, and not merely throwing a variety of its own tints over theobjects of nature, but presenting them to the mind in a clearer lightthan could be shed over them by one whose powers of immediate visionwere perfectly free from blemish. Of the incidents in the life of Homer, almost as little is known asof his parentage and birth-place. However, the general account is thathe was for many years a school-master in Smyrna; that, being visitedby one Mentes, the commander of a Leucadian ship, he was induced byhim to leave his occupation and travel; that, in company with thiscaptain, he visited the various countries around the shores of theMediterranean, and at last was left at Ithaca, in consequence of aweakness in his eyes. While in this island, he was entertained by aman of fortune named Mentor, who narrated to him the stories uponwhich afterwards the Odyssey was founded. On the return of Mentes, heaccompanied him to Colophon, where he became totally blind. He thenreturned to Smyrna, and afterwards removed to Cyme (called also Cuma), in Æolis, where he received great applause in the recitations of hispoems, but no pecuniary reward; the people alleging that they couldnot maintain all the Homeroi, or _blind men_, and hence he obtainedthe name of _Homer_. Thence he went about from place to place, acquiring much wealth by his recitations, and died at the Island ofIos, one of the Cyclades, where he was buried. The works attributed to Homer consist of the two epic poems, the_Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, of twenty-four books each, the_Batrachomyomachia_, or "Battle of the Frogs and Mice, " a humorous, mock-heroic poem, and somewhat of a parody on the _Iliad_; the_Margites_, a satirical, personal satire, and about thirty _Hymns_. All of these but the two great epics are now, however, considered asspurious. But it was left to modern skepticism (which seems to think that todoubt shows a higher order of intellect than to believe on evidence)to maintain the bold position that the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" werea collection of separate lays by different authors, arranged and puttogether for the first time during the tyranny and by the order ofPisistratus, at Athens, about 550 B. C. The chief supporters of thistheory are the celebrated German scholars, Wolf and Heyne, whoflourished about the year 1800. Those who may desire to go into the subject fully will read Wolf's"Prolegomena, " and the strictures of his great opponent, G. W. Nitzsch;but a succinct account of the argument may be found in Browne's"Classical Literature, " and in the "History of Greek Literature, " bySir Thomas Noon Talfourd. Even Wolf himself candidly declares that when he reads the "Iliad" hefinds such unity of design, such harmony of coloring, and suchconsistency of character, that he is ready to give up his theories, and to be angry with himself for doubting the common faith in thepersonality of Homer. Professor Felton, in his excellent edition of the "Iliad, " thusremarks in the preface: "For my part, I prefer to consider it, as wehave received it from ancient editors, as one poem, the work of oneauthor, and that author Homer--the first and greatest of minstrels. AsI understand the 'Iliad, ' there is a unity of plan, a harmony ofparts, a consistency among the different situations of the samecharacter, which mark it as the production of one mind; but of a mindas versatile as the forms of nature, the aspects of life, and thecombinations of powers, propensities and passions in man are various. "In these views, the literary world now very generally concurs. "The hypothesis to which the antagonists of Homer's personality mustresort implies something more wonderful than the theory which theyimpugn. They profess to cherish the deepest veneration for the geniusdisplayed in the poems. They agree, also, in the antiquity usuallyassigned to them; and they make this genius and this antiquity thearguments to prove that one man could not have composed them. Theysuppose, then, that in a barbarous age, instead of one beingmarvelously gifted, there were many; a mighty race of bards, such asthe world has never since seen--a number of miracles instead of one. All experience is against this opinion. In various periods of theworld great men have arisen, under very different circumstances, toastonish and delight it; but that the intuitive power should be sostrangely diffused, at any one period, among a great number, whoshould leave no successors behind them, is unworthy of credit. And weare requested to believe this to have occurred in an age which thosewho maintain the theory regard as unfavorable to the poetic art! Thecommon theory, independent of other proofs, is _prima facie_ the mostprobable. Since the early existence of the works can not be doubted, it is easier to believe in one than in twenty Homers. "--_Talfourd. _ OPENING ARGUMENT OF THE ILIAD. (_By Homer. _) Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess sing! That wrath which hurl'd to Pluto's gloomy reign The souls of mighty chiefs untimely slain; Whose limbs, unburied on the naked shore, Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore; Since great Achilles and Atrides strove. Such was the sov'reign doom, and such the will of Jove. _Pope. _ MINERVA ARMING HERSELF FOR BATTLE. (_By Homer. _) Minerva wrapt her in the robe that curiously she wove With glorious colors, as she sate on th' azure floor of Jove; And wore the arms that he puts on, bent to the tearful field. About her broad-spread shoulders hung his huge and horrid shield, Fring'd round with ever-fighting snakes; though it was drawn to life The miseries and deaths of fight; in it frown'd bloody Strife; In it shin'd sacred Fortitude; in it fell Pursuit flew; In it the monster Gorgon's head, in which held out to view Were all the dire ostents of Jove; on her big head she plac'd His four-plum'd glittering casque of gold, so admirably vast, It would an hundred garrisons of soldiers comprehend. Then to her shining chariot her vigorous feet ascend; And in her violent hand she takes his grave, huge, solid lance, With which the conquests of her wrath she useth to advance, And overturn whole fields of men; to show she was the seed Of him that thunders. Then heaven's queen, to urge her horses' speed, Takes up the scourge, and forth they fly; the ample gates of heaven Rung, and flew open of themselves; the charge whereof is given, With all Olympus and the sky, to the distinguish'd Hours; That clear or hide it all in clouds, or pour it down in showers. This way their scourge-obeying horse made haste, and soon they won The top of all the topful heavens, where aged Saturn's son Sate severed from the other gods. _Chapman's translation_, v. PARTING OF HECTOR AND ANDROMACHE. (_By Homer. _) Hector now pass'd, with sad presaging heart, To seek his spouse, his soul's far dearer part; At home he sought her, but he sought in vain: She, with one maid of all her menial train, Had thence retired; and with her second joy, The young Astyanax, the hope of Troy: Pensive she stood on Ilion's towery height, Beheld the war, and sicken'd at the sight; There her sad eyes in vain her lord explore, Or weep the wounds her bleeding country bore. Hector this heard, return'd without delay; Swift through the town he trod his former way, Through streets of palaces and walks of state, And met the mourner at the Scæan gate. With haste to meet him sprung the joyful fair, His blameless wife, Aetion's wealthy heir. [Illustration: ANCIENT AUTHORS. ] The nurse stood near, in whose embraces press'd, His only hope hung smiling at her breast; Whom each soft charm and early grace adorn, Fair as the new-born star that gilds the morn. Silent the warrior smiled, and pleased resign'd To tender passions all his mighty mind: His beauteous princess cast a mournful look, Hung on his hand, and then dejected spoke; Her bosom labor'd with a boding sigh, And the big tear stood trembling in her eye. "Too darling prince! ah, whither dost thou run? Ah, too forgetful of thy wife and son! And think'st thou not how wretched we shall be, A widow I, a helpless orphan he! For sure such courage length of life denies, And thou must fall, thy virtues sacrifice. Greece in her single heroes strove in vain; Now hosts oppose thee, and thou must be slain! Oh grant me, gods! ere Hector meets his doom, All I can ask of heaven, an early tomb! So shall my days in one sad tenor run, And end with sorrows as they first begun. No parent now remains my griefs to share, No father's aid, no mother's tender care. The fierce Achilles wrapp'd our walls in fire, Laid Thebe waste, and slew my warlike sire! By the same arm my seven brave brothers fell, In one sad day beheld the gates of hell. My mother lived to bear the victor's bands, The queen of Hippoplacia's sylvan lands. Yet, while my Hector still survives, I see My father, mother, brethren, all in thee: Alas! my parents, brothers, kindred, all Once more will perish, if my Hector fall. Thy wife, thy infant, in thy danger share: O, prove a husband's and a father's care! That quarter most the skillful Greeks annoy Where yon wild fig-trees join the walls of Troy; Thou from this tower defend the important post; There Agamemnon points his dreadful host, That pass Tydides, Ajax, strive to gain. And there the vengeful Spartan fires his train. Thrice our bold foes the fierce attack have given, Or led by hopes, or dictated from heaven. Let others in the field their arms employ, But stay my Hector here, and guard his Troy. " The chief replied: "That post shall be my care, Nor that alone, but all the works of war. How would the sons of Troy, in arms renown'd, And Troy's proud dames, whose garments sweep the ground, Attaint the lustre of my former name, Should Hector basely quit the field of fame? My early youth was bred to martial pains, My soul impels me to the embattled plains; Let me be foremost to defend the throne, And guard my father's glories and my own. Yet come it will, the day decreed by fates; (How my heart trembles while my tongue relates!) The day when thou, imperial Troy! must bend, Must see thy warriors fall, thy glories end. And yet no dire presage so wounds my mind, My mother's death, the ruin of my kind, Not Priam's hoary hairs defiled with gore, Not all my brothers gasping on the shore, As thine, Andromache! thy griefs I dread; I see the trembling, weeping, captive led! In Argive looms our battles to design, And woes of which so large a part was thine! To bear the victor's hard commands, or bring The weight of waters from Hyperia's spring. There, while you groan beneath the load of life, They cry, 'Behold the mighty Hector's wife!' Some haughty Greek, who lives thy tears to see, Embitters all thy woes by naming me. The thoughts of glory past, and present shame, A thousand griefs shall waken at the name! May I lie cold before that dreadful day, Press'd with a load of monumental clay! Thy Hector, wrapt in everlasting sleep, Shall neither hear thee sigh, nor see thee weep. " Thus having spoke, the illustrious chief of Troy Stretch'd his fond arms to clasp the lovely boy. The babe clung crying to his nurse's breast, Scared at the dazzling helm and nodding crest. With secret pleasure each fond parent smiled, And Hector hasted to relieve his child; The glittering terrors from his brows unbound, And placed the gleaming helmet on the ground. Then kiss'd the child, and, lifting high in air, Thus to the gods preferr'd a father's prayer:-- "O, thou whose glory fills the ethereal throne! And all ye deathless powers, protect my son! Grant him, like me, to purchase just renown, To guard the Trojans, to defend the crown; Against his country's foes the war to wage, And rise the Hector of the future age! So when, triumphant from successful toils Of heroes slain, he bears the reeking spoils, Whole hosts may hail him with deserved acclaim, And say, 'This chief transcends his father's fame;' While pleased, amidst the general shouts of Troy, His mother's conscious heart o'erflows with joy. " He spoke, and fondly gazing on her charms, Restored the pleasing burden to her arms; Soft on her fragrant breast the babe he laid, Hush'd to repose, and with a smile survey'd. The troubled pleasure soon chastised by fear. She mingled with the smile a tender tear. The soften'd chief with kind compassion view'd, And dried the falling drops, and thus pursued:-- "Andromache, my soul's far better part, Why with untimely sorrows heaves thy heart? No hostile hand can antedate my doom, Till fate condemns me to the silent tomb. Fix'd is the term to all the race of earth; And such the hard condition of our birth, No force can then resist, no flight can save, All sink alike, the fearful and the brave. No more--but hasten to thy tasks at home, There guide the spindle, and direct the loom: Me glory summons to the martial scene, The field of combat is the sphere for men; Where heroes war, the foremost place I claim, The first in danger, as the first in fame. " Thus having said, the glorious chief resumes His towery helmet black with shading plumes. His princess parts, with a prophetic sigh, Unwilling parts, and oft reverts her eye, That stream'd at every look; then, moving slow, Sought her own palace, and indulged her woe. There, while her tears deplored the god-like man, Through all her train the soft infection ran. The pious maids their mingled sorrows shed, And mourn the living Hector as the dead. _Pope_, _Iliad_, vi. THE RACE OF MAN. (_By Homer. _) Like leaves on trees the race of man is found, Now green in youth, now withering on the ground; Another race the following spring supplies; They fall successive, and successive rise: So generations in their course decay; So flourish these when those are past away. _Pope_, _Iliad_, vi. COUNCIL OF THE GODS. (_By Homer. _) Aurora now, fair daughter of the dawn, Sprinkled with rosy light the dewy lawn; When Jove convened the senate of the skies, Where high Olympus' cloudly tops arise. The Sire of Gods his awful silence broke, The heavens attentive trembled as he spoke:-- "Celestial states, immortal gods, give ear! Hear our decree, and reverence what ye hear; The fix'd decree, which not all heaven can move; Thou, Fate, fulfill it; and ye, Powers, approve! What god but enters yon forbidden field, Who yields assistance, or but wills to yield, Back to the skies with shame he shall be driven, Gash'd with dishonest wounds, the scorn of heaven: Or far, oh far, from steep Olympus thrown, Low in the dark Tartarean gulf shall groan, With burning chains fix'd to the brazen floors, And lock'd by hell's inexorable doors; As deep beneath the infernal center hurl'd, As from that center to the ethereal world. Let him who tempts me dread those dire abodes, And know the Almighty is the god of gods. League all your forces, then, ye powers above, Join all, and try the omnipotence of Jove: Let down our golden everlasting chain, Whose strong embrace holds heaven, and earth, and main; Strive all, of mortal and immortal birth, To drag, by this, the Thunderer down to earth: Ye strive in vain! If I but stretch this hand, I heave the gods, the ocean, and the land; I fix the chain to great Olympus' height, And the vast world hangs trembling in my sight! For such I reign, unbounded and above; And such are men and gods, compared to Jove. " _Pope_, _Iliad_, viii. NIGHT-SCENE. (_By Homer. _) The troops exulting sat in order round, And beaming fires illumined all the ground. As when the moon, refulgent lamp of night! O'er heaven's clear azure spreads her sacred light, When not a breath disturbs the deep serene, And not a cloud o'ercasts the solemn scene; Around her throne the vivid planets roll, And stars unnumber'd gild the glowing pole, O'er the dark trees a yellower verdure shed, And tip with silver every mountain's head; Then shine the vales, the rocks in prospect rise, A flood of glory bursts from all the skies: The conscious swains, rejoicing in the sight, Eye the blue vault, and bless the useful light. So many flames before proud Ilion blaze, And lighten glimmering Xanthus with their rays: The long reflections of the distant fires Gleam on the walls, and tremble on the spires. _Pope_, _Iliad_, viii. HATEFULNESS OF WAR. (_By Homer. _) Cursed is the man, and void of law and right, Unworthy property, unworthy light, Unfit for public rule, or private care; That wretch, that monster, who delights in war: Whose lust is murder, and whose horrid joy To tear his country, and his kind destroy! _Pope_, _Iliad_, ix. FALSEHOOD. (_By Homer. _) Who dares think one thing, and another tell, My heart detests him as the gates of hell. _Pope_, _Iliad_, ix. SHOWERS OF ARROWS. (_By Homer. _) As the feathery snows Fall frequent on some wintry day, when Jove Hath risen to shed them on the race of man, And show his arrowy stores; he lulls the wind Then shakes them down continual, covering thick Mountain tops, promontories, flowery meads, And cultured valleys rich, and ports and shores Along the margined deep; but there the wave Their further progress stays; while all besides Lies whelm'd beneath Jove's fast-descending shower; So thick, from side to side, by Trojans hurled Against the Greeks, and by the Greeks returned, The stony volleys flew. _Cowper_, _Iliad_, xii. PRIAM BEGGING THE BODY OF HECTOR. (_By Homer. _) "Think, O Achilles, semblance of the gods, On thine own father, full of days like me. And trembling on the gloomy verge of life. Some neighbor chief, it may be, even now Oppresses him, and there is none at hand, No friend to succor him in his distress. Yet, doubtless, hearing that Achilles lives, He still rejoices, hoping day by day, That one day he shall see the face again Of his own son, from distant Troy returned. But me no comfort cheers, whose bravest sons, So late the flowers of Ilium, are all slain. When Greece came hither, I had fifty sons; But fiery Mars hath thinn'd them. One I had, One, more than all my sons, the strength of Troy, Whom, standing for his country, thou hast slain-- Hector. His body to redeem I come Into Achaia's fleet, bringing myself, Ransom inestimable to thy tent. Rev'rence the gods, Achilles! recollect Thy father; for his sake compassion show To me, more pitiable still, who draw Home to my lips (humiliation yet Unseen on earth) his hand who slew my son!" So saying, he waken'd in his soul regret Of his own sire; softly he placed his hand On Priam's hand, and pushed him gently away, Remembrance melted both. Rolling before Achilles' feet, Priam his son deplored, Wide-slaughtering Hector, and Achilles wept By turns his father, and by turns his friend Patroclus: sounds of sorrow fill'd the tent. _Cowper_, _Iliad_, xxiv. HELEN'S LAMENTATION OVER HECTOR. (_By Homer. _) Grief fell on all around; Then Helen thus breathed forth her plaintive sound:-- "Hector, to Helen's soul more lov'd than all Whom I in Ilion's walls dare brother call, Since Paris here to Troy his consort led, Who in the grave had found a happier bed. 'Tis now, since here I came, the twentieth year, Since left my land, and all I once held dear: But never from that hour has Helen heard From thee a harsh reproach or painful word; But if thy kindred blam'd me, if unkind The queen e'er glanc'd at Helen's fickle mind-- (For Priam, still benevolently mild, Look'd on me as a father views his child)-- Thy gentle speech, thy gentleness of soul, Would by thine own, their harsher minds control. Hence, with a heart by torturing misery rent, Thee and my hapless self I thus lament; For no kind eye in Troy on Helen rests, But who beholds me shudders and detests. " _Sotheby_, _Iliad_, xxi. We will here give a few pages of the history of the Trojan war, givingsome of the characters, subjects, etc. , referred to in the precedingpoems in a prose story. PARIS. There was sorrow, instead of gladness, in the halls of Priam, becausea son was born unto him, and because the lady Hecuba had dreamed adream, from which the seers knew that the child should bring ruin onthe Ilion land. So his mother looked with cold, unloving eyes on thebabe as he lay weak and helpless in his cradle, and Priam bade themtake the child and leave him on rugged Ida, for the fountain of hislove was closed against him. For five days the dew fell on the babe by night, and the sun shonefiercely on him by day, as he lay on the desolate hill-side, and theshepherd who placed him there to sleep the sleep of death looked uponthe child and said, "He sleeps as babes may slumber on silken couches;the gods will it not that he should die. " So he took him to his home, and the child grew up with ruddy cheek and nimble feet, brave andhardy, so that none might be matched with him for strength and beauty. The fierce wolves came not near the flocks while Paris kept guard nearthe fold, the robber lurked not near the homestead when Paris sat bythe hearth. So all sang of his strength and his great deeds, and theycalled him Alexandros, the helper of men. Many years he tended the flocks on woody Ida, but Priam, his father, dwelt in Ilion, and thought not to see his face again, and he saidwithin himself, "Surely my child is long since dead, and no feast hasbeen given to the gods that Paris may dwell in peace in the darkkingdom of Hades. " Then he charged his servants to fetch him a bullfrom the herd, which might be given to the man who should conquer inthe games, and they chose out one which Paris loved above all othersthat he drove out to pasture. So he followed the servants of Priam ingrief and anger, and he stood forth and strove with his brethren inthe games, and in all of them Paris was the conqueror. Then one of hisbrothers was moved with wrath, and lifted up his sword against him, but Paris fled to the altar of Zeus, and the voice of Cassandra, hissister, was heard saying, "O blind of eye and heart, see ye not thatthis is Paris, whom ye sent to sleep the sleep of death on woody Ida?" But Paris would not dwell in the sacred Ilion, for he loved not thosewho sought to slay him while he was yet a helpless child, and again hetended the flocks on the wide plains and up the rough hillsides. Strong he was of limb and stout of heart, and his face shone with amarvelous beauty, so that they who saw it thought him fair as thebright heroes. There, as he wandered in the woody dells of Ida, he sawand wooed the beautiful Œnone, the child of the river-god, Kebren. Many a time he sat with the maiden by the side of the stream, and thesound of their voices was mingled with the soft murmur of the waters. He talked to her of love, and Œnone looked up with a wondrous joy intohis beautiful face, when the morning dew glistened white upon thegrass and when the evening star looked out upon the pale sky. So was Paris wedded to Œnone, and the heart of the maiden was full ofhappiness, for none was braver or more gentle--none so stout of heart, so lithe of limb, so tender and loving as Paris. Thus passed the daysaway in a swift dream of joy, for Œnone thought not of the change thatwas coming. There was feasting and mirth among the gods and men, for the bravePeleus had won Thetis, the maiden of the sea, for his bride; and sherose from the depths of her coral caves to go to his home in Phthia. The banquet was spread in his ancient hall, and the goblets sparkledwith the dark wine, for all the gods had come down from Olympus toshare the feast in the house of Peleus. Only Eris was not bidden, forshe was the child of War and Hatred, and they feared to see her facein the hours of laughter and mirth; but her evil heart rested not tillshe found a way to avenge herself for the wrong which they had done toher. The gods were listening to the song of Phœbus Apollo as he made sweetmusic on the strings of his harp, when a golden apple was cast uponthe table before them. They knew not whence it came, only they sawthat it was to be a gift for the fairest in that great throng, for sowas it written on the apple. Then the joy of the feast was gone, andthe music of the song ceased, for there was a strife which should havethe golden prize; and Here, the Queen, said, "The gods themselves doobeisance to me when I enter the halls of Olympus, and men sing of theglory of my majesty; therefore must the gift be mine. " But Atheneanswered, and said, "Knowledge and goodness are better things thanpower; mine is the worthier title. " Then the fair Aphrodite lifted herwhite arm, and a smile of triumph passed over her face as she said, "Iam the child of love and beauty, and the stars danced in the heavenfor joy as I sprang from the sea foam; I dread not the contest, for tome alone must the golden gift be given. " So the strife waxed hot in the banquet hall, till Zeus spake with aloud voice, and said, "It needs not to strive now. Amid the pineforest of Ida dwells Paris, the fairest of the sons of men; let himbe judge, and the apple shall be hers to whom he shall give it. " ThenHermes rose and led them quickly over land and sea, to go to the roughhillside where Paris wooed and won Œnone. Presently the messenger of Zeus stood before Paris, and said, "Fairestof the sons of men, there is strife among the undying gods, for Hereand Aphrodite and Athene seek each to have the golden apple which mustbe given to her who is most fair. Judge thou, therefore, between themwhen they come, and give peace again to the halls of Zeus. " In a dream of joy and love Œnone sate by the river-side, and shelooked on her own fair face, which was shown to her in a still calmpool where the power of the stream came not, and she said to herself, "The gods are kind, for they have given to me a better gift than thatof beauty, for the love of Paris sheds for me a wondrous beauty overthe heaven above and the broad earth beneath. " Then came Paris, andsaid, "See, Œnone, dearest child of the bright waters, Zeus hathcalled me to be judge in a weighty matter. Hither are coming Here, theQueen, and Aphrodite and Athene, seeking each the golden apple whichmust be given to her alone who is the fairest. Yet go not away, Œnone;the broad vine leaves have covered our summer bower; there tarry andlisten to the judgment, where none may see thee. " So Paris sat in judgment, and Here spake to him, and said, "I know Iam the fairest, for none other has beauty and majesty like mine. Hearken, then, to me, and I will give thee power to do great deedsamong the sons of men, and a name which the minstrels shall sing ofamong those who shall be born in long time to come. " But Atheneanswered, "Heed not her words, O Paris. Thy hand is strong and thyheart is pure, and the men among whom thou dwellest honor thee evennow because thou hast done them good. There are better things thanpower and high renown; and if thou wilt hearken to me, I will givethee wisdom and strength; and pure love shall be thine, and the memoryof happy days when thou drawest near to the dark land of Hades. " Then Paris thought that he heard the voice of Œnone, and it seemed towhisper to him, "Wisdom and right are better than power, give it toAthene. " But Aphrodite gazed upon him with laughing eyes, as she cameup closer to his side. Her dark curls fell waving over his shoulder, and he felt the breath from her rosy lips, as she laid her hand on hisarm and whispered softly in his ear, "I talk not to thee of my beauty, for it may be thou seest that I am very fair, but hearken to me, and Iwill give thee for thy wife the fairest of all the daughters of men. "But Paris answered, "I need not thy gift, O child of the bright seafoam, for fairer wife than Œnone no mortal man may hope to have. Yetart thou the fairest of all the daughters of the undying gods, and thegift of the fairest is thine. " So he placed the golden apple in the palm of her snow-white hand, andthe touch of her slender fingers thrilled through the heart of Parisas she parted from him with smiling lip and laughing eye. But Here, the Queen, and Athene, the virgin child of Zeus, went away displeased, and evermore their wrath lay heavy on the city and land of Ilion. Then went Paris to Œnone, and he twined his arms around her and said, "Didst thou see the dark countenance of the lady Here when I gave tothe fairest the gift which the fairest alone may have? Yet what care Ifor the wrath of Here and Athene? One smile from the lips of Aphroditeis better than their favor for a whole life long. " But Œnone answeredsadly, "I would that thou mayest speak truly, Paris; yet in my eyesthe lady Athene is fairer far, and Aphrodite is ever false as fair. "Then Paris clasped her closer in his arms and kissed her pale cheek, and said nothing. [Illustration: LIBRARY OF HERCULANEUM. ] But the fierce wrath of Eris was not ended yet. Far away in thewestern land, there was sore famine in the kingdom of the mightyMenelaus, the people died by the wayside, and the warriors had nostrength to go forth to the battle or the huntsmen to the chase. Manytimes they sought to know the will of the gods, but they heard onlydark words for answers, till Phœbus Apollo said that the famine shouldnever cease from the land until they brought from Ilion the bones ofthe children of Prometheus, whom Zeus bound on the desolate crags ofCaucasus. So Menelaus, the King, departed from his home and went tothe city of Priam. There he saw the beautiful Paris, and took him tothe Spartan land, for he said that Paris should return home rich andwealthy. So Paris believed his words, and sailed with him over thewide sea. Long time he abode in Sparta, and day by day he saw the ladyHelen in the halls of Menelaus. At the first he thought withinhimself, "I would that Œnone were here to see the wife of Menelaus, for surely she is fairer than aught else on the earth. " But soon hethought less and less of Œnone, who was sorrowing for his long sojournin the strange land, as she wandered amid the pine forests of woodyIda. Quickly sped the days for Paris, for his heart was filled with astrange love, and the will of Eris was being accomplished within him. He thought not of Œnone and her lonely wanderings on heathy Ida; hecared not for the kindly deeds of Menelaus; and so it came to passthat, when Menelaus was far away, Paris spoke words of evil love toHelen and beguiled her to leave her home. Stealthily they fled away, and sailed over the sea till they came to the Ilion land; and Helendwelt with Paris in the house of his father, Priam. But Œnone mourned for the love which she had lost, and her tears fellinto the gentle stream of Kebren as she sat on its grassy banks. "Ahme, " she said, "my love hath been stung by Aphrodite. O Paris, Paris!hast thou forgotten all thy words? Here thine arms were clasped aroundme, and here, as thy lips were pressed to mine, thou didst say thatthe wide earth had for thee no living thing so fair as Œnone. Sure amI that Helen hath brought to thee only a false joy; for her heart isnot thine as the heart of a maiden when it is given to her firstlove; and sure am I, too, that Helen is not a fairer wife than I, formy heart is all thine, and the beauty of woman is marred when sheyields herself to a lawless love. But the cloud is gathering roundthee; and I am sprung from the race of the gods, and mine eyes areopened to behold the things that willingly I would not see. I see thewaters black with ships, and the hosts of the Achaians gathered roundthe walls of Ilion. I see the moons roll round, while thy peoplestrive in vain against the wrath of Here and the might of the son ofPeleus; and far away I see the flames that shall burn the sacredIlion. I see thy father smitten down in his own hall, and the spearthat shall drink thy life-blood. Ah me! for the doom that is coming, and for the pleasant days when we loved and wandered among the dellsof Ida. " So Paris dwelt with Helen in the house of Priam; but men said, "Thisis no more the brave Alexandros, " for he lay at ease on silkencouches, and his spear and shield hung idle on the wall. For him thewine sparkled in the goblet while the sun rose high in the heavens, and he cared only to listen to the voice of Helen, or the minstrelswho sang of the love and the bowers of laughter-loving Aphrodite. AndHelen sat by his side in sullen mood, for she thought of the formerdays and of the evil which she had done to the good King Menelaus. Then there came into her heart a deep hatred for Paris, and sheloathed him for his false words and his fond looks, as he lay quaffingthe wine and taking his rest by day and by night upon the silkencouches. But throughout the streets of Ilion there was hurrying and shouting ofarmed men, and terror and cries of women and children; for the hostsof the Achaians were come to take vengeance for the wrongs ofMenelaus. Yet Paris heeded not the prayers of his brethren, that heshould send back Helen; so she tarried by his side in his gildedchambers, and he went not forth to the battle, till all men reviledhim for his evil love, because he had forsaken the fair Œnone. So for Paris fell the mighty Hector; for him died the brave Sarpedon;and the women of Ilion mourned for their husbands who were smittendown by the Achaian warriors. Fiercer and fiercer grew the strife, forHere and Athene fought against the men of Troy, and no help came fromthe laughter-loving Aphrodite. Many times the years went round, while yet the Achaians strove to takethe city of Priam, till at last for very shame Paris took from thewall his spear and shield, and went forth to the battle, but thestrength of his heart and of his arm was gone, and he trembled at thefierce war-cries, as a child trembles at the roaring of the storm. Then before the walls of Ilion there was fiercer strife, and thebodies of the slain lay in heaps upon the battle plain. Faint andweary, the people of Priam were shut up within the walls, until theAchaians burst into the gates and gave the city to sword and flame. Then the cry of men and women went up to the high heaven, and theblood ran in streams upon the ground. With a mighty blaze rose up theflames of the burning city, and the dream of Paris was ended. Fast he fled from the wrath of Menelaus, and he cared not to look backon the Argive Helen or the slaughter of his kinsfolk and his people. But the arrow of Philoctetes came hissing through the air, and thebarb was fixed in the side of Paris. Hastily he drew it from thewound, but the weapons of Herakles failed not to do their work, andthe poison sped through his burning veins. Onwards he hastened to thepine forests of Ida, but his limbs trembled beneath him, and he sankdown as he drew nigh to the grassy bank where he had tended his flocksin the former days. "Ah, Œnone, " he said, "the evil dream is over, andthy voice comes back to mine ear, soft and loving as when I wooed andwon thee among the dells of Ida. Thou hearest me not, Œnone, or elseI know that, forgiving all the wrong, thou wouldst hasten to help me. " And even as he spoke Œnone stood before him, fair and beautiful as inthe days that were past. The glory as of the pure evening time wasshed upon her face, and her eye glistened with the light of an undyinglove. Then she laid her hand upon him and said, gently, "Dost thouknow me, Paris? I am the same Œnone whom thou didst woo in the dellsof woody Ida. My grief hath not changed me, but thou art not the same, O Paris, for thy love hath wandered far away, and thou hast yieldedthyself long to an evil dream. " But Paris said, "I have wronged thee, Œnone, fairest and sweetest, and what may atone for the wrong? Thefire burns in my veins, my head reels, and mine eye is dim; look butupon me once, that thinking on our ancient love, I may fall asleep anddie. " Then Œnone knelt by the side of Paris, and saw the wound which thearrow of Philoctetes had made; but soon she knew that neither gods normen could stay the poison with which Herakles had steeped his mightyweapons. There she knelt, but Paris spoke not more. The coldness ofdeath passed over him as Œnone looked down upon his face and thoughtof the days when they lived and loved amid the dells of Ida. Long time she knelt by his side, until the stars looked forth in thesky. Then Œnone said, "O Eris, well hast thou worked thy will, andwell hath Aphrodite done thy bidding. O Paris, we have loved andsuffered, but I never did thee wrong, and now I follow thee to thedark land of Hades. " Presently the flame shot up to heaven from the funeral pile of Paris, and Œnone lay down to rest on the fiery couch by his side. ACHILLES. Nine years the Achaians had fought against Ilion to avenge the wrongsand woes of Helen, and still the war went on, and only the words ofKalchas, which he spoke long ago in Aulis, cheered them with the hopethat the day of vengeance was near at hand. For strife had arisenbetween the King, Agamemnon, and the mighty son of Peleus, and itseemed to the men of Argos that all their toil must be for naught. Infierce anger Achilles vowed a vow that he would go forth no more tothe battle, and he sat in sullen silence within his tent, or wanderedgloomily along the sea-shore. With fresh courage the hosts of theTrojans poured out from their walls when they knew that Achillesfought no more on the side of the Achaians, and the chieftains soughtin vain for his help when the battle went against them. Then the faceof the war was changed, for the men of Ilion came forth from theircity, and shut up the Achaians within their camp, and fought fiercelyto take the ships. Many a chief and warrior was smitten down, andstill Achilles sat within his tent, nursing his great wrath, andreviling all who came before him with gifts and prayers. But dearer than all others to the child of the sea-nymph, Thetis, wasPatroclus, the son of Menœtius, and the heart of Achilles was touchedwith pity when he saw the tears stream down his face, and he said, "Dear friend, tell me thy grief, and hide nothing from me. Hast thouevil tidings from our home at Phthia, or weepest thou for the troubleswhich vex us here?" Then Patroclus spoke out boldly, and said, "Be notangry at my words, Achilles. The strength of the Argives is wastedaway, and the mightiest of their chieftains lie wounded or dead aroundtheir ships. They call thee the child of Peleus and of Thetis, but menwill say that thou art sprung from the rugged rocks and the barrensea, if thou seest thy people undone and liftest not an arm to helpthem. " Then Achilles answered, "My friend, the vow is on me, and I cannot go, but put thou on my armor and go forth to the battle. Only takeheed to my words, and go not in my chariot against the City of Ilion. Drive our enemies from the ships, and let them fight in the plain, andthen do thou come back to my tent. " Then the hearts of the Achaians were cheered, for next to Achillesthere was not in all the host a warrior more brave and mighty thanPatroclus. At his word the Myrmidons started up from their long rest, and hastily snatched their arms to follow him to the battle. PresentlyPatroclus came forth. The glistening helmet of Achilles was on hishead, and his armor was girt around his body. Only he bore not hismighty spear, for no mortal man might wield that spear in battle butAchilles. Before the tent stood the chariot, and harnessed to it werethe horses, Xanthos and Balios, who grow not old nor die. So Patroclus departed for the fight, and Achilles went into his tent, and as he poured out the dark wine from a golden goblet, he prayed toZeus, and said, "O thou that dwellest far away in Dodona, where theSelloi do thy bidding and proclaim thy will, give strength and victoryto Patroclus, my friend. Let him drive the men of Ilion from the shipsand come back safe to me after the battle. " But Zeus heard the prayerin part only, for the doom was that Achilles should see Patroclusalive no more. Then the hosts of the Trojans trembled as Patroclus drew nigh on thechariot of Achilles, and none dared to go forth against him. Onwardsped the undying horses, and wherever they went the ground was redwith the blood of the Trojans who were smitten down by his spear. ThenSarpedon, the great chief of the Lykians, spake to Glaucus, and said, "O friend, I must go forth and do battle with Patroclus. The peoplefall beneath his sword, and it is not fit that the chieftains shouldbe backward in the strife. " But the doom of Sarpedon was sealed, andpresently his body lay lifeless on the ground, while the men of Argosand of Ilion fought for his glittering arms. Then the doom came on Patroclus also, for Phœbus Apollo fought againsthim in the battle, and in the dust was rolled the helmet which noenemy had touched when it rested on the head of Achilles. Before himflashed the spear of Hector, as he said, "The hour of thy death iscome, Patroclus, and the aid of Achilles can not reach thee now. " ButPatroclus said only, "It is thy time for boasting now; wait yet alittle while, and the sword of Achilles shall drink thy life-blood. " So Patroclus died, and there was a fierce fight over his body, andmany fell on both sides, until there was a great heap of dead aroundit. But away from the fight, the horses Xanthos and Balios wept fortheir charioteer, and they would not stir with the chariot, but stoodfixed firm as pillars on the ground, till Zeus looked down in pity onthem, and said, "Was it for this that I gave you to Peleus, thechieftain of Phthia--horses who can not grow old or die, to a mortalman, the most wretched thing that crawls upon the earth? But fear not;no enemy shall lay hands on the chariot of Achilles, or on theimmortal horses which bear it. Your limbs shall be filled with newstrength, and ye shall fly like birds across the battle-field till yecome to the tent of your master. " Then the horses wept no more, butswift as eagles they bore Automedon through the fight, while Hectorand his people strove fiercely to seize them. At last the battle wasover, and, while the Achaians bore the body of Patroclus to the ships, Antilochus, the son of Nestor, went to the tent of Achilles, and said, "Thy friend is slain, and Hector has his armor. " Then the dark cloud of woe fell on the soul of Achilles. In a fiercegrief he threw earth with both hands into the air, and rent hisclothes, and lay down weeping in the dust. Far away in her coral cavesbeneath the sea Thetis heard the deep groans of her child, and, like awhite mist, she rose from the waters and went to comfort him; and shesaid, "Why weepest thou, my son? When Agamemnon did thee wrong, thoudidst pray that the Achaians might sorely need thy aid in the battle, and thy wish has been accomplished. So may it be again. " But Achillesanswered, "Of what profit is it to me, my mother, that my prayer hasbeen heard, since Patroclus, my friend, is slain, and Hector has myarmor? One thing only remains to me now. I will slay Hector and avengethe slaughter of Patroclus. " Then the tears ran down the cheeks ofThetis as she said, "Then is thine own doom accomplished, for whenthou slayest Hector, thou hast not many days to live, " "So then let itbe, " said Achilles; "the mighty Herakles tasted of death; thereforelet me die also, so only Hector dies before me. " Then Thetis sought no more to turn him from his purpose, but she wentto the house of Hephaistos to get armor for her child in place of thatwhich Hector had taken from Patroclus. And Achilles vowed a vow thattwelve sons of the Trojans should be slain at the grave of his friend, and that Hector should die before the funeral rites were done. ThenAgamemnon sent him gifts, and spake kindly words, so that the strifebetween them might end, and Achilles now go forth to fight for theAchaians. So, in the armor which Hephaistos had wrought at the prayerof Thetis, he mounted his chariot, and bade his horses bring him backsafe from the battle-field. Then the horse Xanthos bowed his head, andthe long tresses of his mane flowed down to the earth as he madeanswer, "We will in very truth save thee, O mighty Achilles; but thydoom is near at hand, and the fault rests not with us now, or when weleft Patroclus dead on the battle-field, for Phœbus Apollo slew himand gave the glory and the arms to Hector. " And Achilles said, "Whyspeak to me of evil omens? I know that I shall see my father and mymother again no more; but if I must die in a strange land, I willfirst take my fill of vengeance. " Then the war-cry of Achilles was heard again, and a mighty life waspoured into the hearts of the Achaians, as they seized their arms atthe sound. Thick as withering leaves in autumn fell the Trojansbeneath his unerring spear. Chief after chief was smitten down, untiltheir hosts fell in terror within the walls of Ilion. Only Hectorawaited his coming, but the shadow of death was stealing over him, forPhœbus Apollo had forsaken the great champion of Troy because Zeus sowilled it. So in the strife the strength of Hector failed, and he sankdown on the earth. The foot of Achilles rested on his breast, and thespear's point was on his neck, while Hector said, "Slay me if thouwilt, but give back my body to my people. Let not the beasts of thefield devour it, and rich gifts shall be thine from my father and mymother for this kindly deed. " But the eyes of Achilles flashed with adeadly hatred, as he answered, "Were Priam to give me thy weight ingold, it should not save thy carcass from the birds and dogs. " AndHector said, "I thought not to persuade thee, for thy heart is made ofiron, but see that thou pay not the penalty for thy deed on the daywhen Paris and Phœbus Apollo shall slay thee at the Scæan gates ofIlion. " Then the life-blood of Hector reddened the ground as Achillessaid, "Die, wretch! My fate I will meet in the hour when it may pleasethe undying gods to send it. " But not yet was the vengeance of Achilles accomplished. At his feetlay Hector dead, but the rage in his heart was fierce as ever, and hetied the body to his chariot and dragged it furiously, till none wholooked on it could say, "This was the brave and noble Hector. " Butthings more fearful still came afterwards, for the funeral rites weredone to Patroclus, and twelve sons of the Trojans were slain in themighty sacrifice. Still the body of Hector lay on the ground, and themen of Ilion sought in vain to redeem it from Achilles. But PhœbusApollo came down to guard it, and he spread over it his golden shieldto keep away all unseemly things. At last the King, Priam, mounted hischariot, for he said, "Surely he will not scorn the prayer of a fatherwhen he begs the body of his son. " Then Zeus sent Hermes to guide theold man to the tent of Achilles, so that none others of the Achaiansmight see him. Then he stood before the man who had slain his son, andhe kissed his hands, and said, "Hear my prayer, Achilles. Thy fatheris an old man like me, but he hopes one day to see thee come back withgreat glory from Ilion. My sons are dead, and none had braver sons inTroy than I; and Hector, the flower and pride of all, has been smittenby thy spear. Fear the gods, Achilles, and pity me for the remembranceof thy father, for none has ever dared like me to kiss the hand of theman who has slain his son. " So Priam wept for his dear child, Hector, and the tears flowed down the cheeks of Achilles as he thought of hisfather, Peleus, and his friend, Patroclus, and the cry of theirmourning went up together. So the body of Hector was borne back to Ilion, and a great sacrificewas done to the gods beneath the earth, that Hector might be welcomedin the kingdom of Hades and Persephone. But the time drew nigh thatthe doom of Achilles must be accomplished, and the spear of PhœbusApollo pierced his heart as they fought near the Scæan gates of Ilion. In the dust lay the body of Achilles, while the Achaians fought thewhole day around it, till a mighty storm burst forth from the heaven. Then they carried it away to the ships, and placed it on a couch, andwashed it in pure water. And once more from her coral caves beneaththe sea rose the silver-footed Thetis, and the cry of the nymphs whofollowed her filled the air, so that the Achaians who heard ittrembled, and would have fled to the ships, but Nestor, the wise chiefof the Pylians, said, "Flee not, ye Argives, for those come to mournfor the dead Achilles. " So Thetis stood weeping by the body of herchild, and the nymphs wrapped it in shining robes. Many days andnights they wept and watched around it, until at last they raised agreat pile of wood on the sea-shore, and the flame went up to heaven. Then they gathered up the ashes, and placed them, with the ashes ofPatroclus, in a golden urn which Hephaistos wrought and gave toDionysus, and over it they raised a great cairn on the shore of theSea of Helle, that men might see it afar off as they sailed on thebroad waters. THE VENGEANCE OF ODYSSEUS. A fair breeze filled the sail of the Phæakian ship in which Odysseuslay asleep as in the dreamless slumber of the dead. The wild music ofthe waves rose on the air as the bark sped on its glistening pathway, but their murmur reached not the ear of the wanderer, for the spell ofAthene was upon him, and all his cares and griefs were for a littlewhile forgotten. The dawn light was stealing across the eastern sky when the good shiprode into the haven of the sea-god, Phorkys, and rested without anchoror cable beneath the rocks which keep off the breath of the harshwinds. At the head of the little bay a broad-leaved olive tree spreadits branches in front of a cave where the sea nymphs wove theirbeautiful purple robes. Gently the sailors raised Odysseus in theirarms; gently they bore him from the ship, and placed him on the landwith the gifts which Alkinous and Arete and Naosikaa had given to himwhen he set off to go to Ithaka. So the Phæakians went away, andOdysseus rested once more in his own land. But when he awoke from hissleep, he knew not where he was, for Athene had spread a mist on landand sea. The haven, the rocks, the trees, the pathways wore a strangelook in the dim and gloomy light; but while Odysseus yet ponderedwhere he should stow away the gifts lest thieves should find them, there stood before him a glorious form, and he heard a voice, whichsaid, "Dost thou not know me, Odysseus? I am Pallas Athene, who havestood by thy side to guard thee in all thy wanderings and deliver theefrom all thy enemies. And now that thou standest again on thine ownland of Ithaka, I have come to thee once more, to bid thee make readyfor the great vengeance, and to bear with patience all that may befallthee until the hour be come. " But Odysseus could scarcely believe thathe was in Ithaka, even though it was Athene who spake to him, untilshe scattered the mist and showed him the fair haven with itsbroad-spreading olive trees, and the home of the sea nymphs, and theold hill of Neritos with its wooded sides. [Illustration: _Menelaus. Paris. Diomedes. Odysseus. Nestor. Achilles. Agamemnon. _ HEROES OF THE TROJAN WAR. ] Then they placed the gifts of the Phæakians in the cave hard by thestream of living waters which flowed through it to the sea, and Athenetouched him with a staff, and all the beauty of his form was gone. Hisface became seamed with wrinkles, his flashing eyes grew dim, and thegolden locks vanished from his shoulders. His glistening raimentturned to noisome rags, as Athene put a beggar's wallet on hisshoulder and placed a walking staff in his hand, and showed him thepath which led to the house of the swineherd Eumaius. So Odysseus went his way, but when he entered the court-yard ofEumaius in his tattered raiment, the dogs flew at him with loudbarkings, until the swineherd drove them away, and led the strangerinto his dwelling, where he placed a shaggy goat-skin for him to lieon. "Thou hast welcomed me kindly, " said Odysseus, "the gods grantthee in return thy heart's desire. " Then Eumaius answered sadly, "Myfriend, I may not despise a stranger though he be even poorer andmeaner than myself, for it is Zeus who sends to us the poor man andthe beggar. Little indeed have I to give, for so it is with bondmenwhen the young chiefs lord it in the land. But he is far away wholoved me well and gave me all my substance. I would that the wholekindred of Helen had been uprooted from the earth, for it was for hersake that my master went to fight with the Trojans at Ilion. " Then Eumaius placed meat and wine before him. "It is but a homelymeal, " he said, "and a poor draught, but the chiefs who throng aboutmy master's wife eat all the fat of the land. A brave life they haveof it, for rich were the treasures which my master left in his housewhen he went to take vengeance for the wrongs of Helen. " "Tell me thymaster's name, friend, " said the stranger. "If he was indeed so richand great, I may perhaps be able to tell you something about him, forI have been a wanderer in many lands. " "Why, what would be the use?"answered the swineherd. "Many a vagabond comes here with trumped-uptales to my master's wife, who listens to them greedily, hopingagainst hope. No, he must long ago have died; but we love Odysseusstill, and we call him our friend, though he is very far away. " "Nay, but thou art wrong this time, " said the stranger, "for I do knowOdysseus, and I swear to thee that the sun shall not finish hisjourney through the heavens before thy lord returns. " But Eumaiusshook his head. "I have nothing to give you for your news. Sure I amthat Odysseus will not come back. Say no more about him, for my heartis pained when any make me call to mind the friend whom I have lost. But what is your name, friend, and whence do you come?" Then Odysseus was afraid to reveal himself, so he told him a longstory how he had come from Crete, and been made a slave in Egypt, howafter many years Phoinix had led him to the purple land, how Pheidon, the chief of the Thesprotians, had showed him the treasures ofOdysseus, and how at last he had fallen into the hands of robbers, whohad clothed him in beggarly rags and left him on the shore of Ithaka. But still Eumaius would not believe. "I can not trust your tale, myfriend, when you tell me that Odysseus has sojourned in theThesprotian land. I have had enough of such news since an Æolian cameand told me that he had seen him in Crete with Idomeneus, mending theships which had been hurt by a storm, and that he would come again tohis home before that summer was ended. Many a year has passed since, and if I welcome you still, it is not for your false tidings about mymaster. " "Well, " said Odysseus, "I will make a covenant with you. Ifhe returns this year, you shall clothe me in sound garments and sendme home to Doulichion, if he does not, bid thy men hurl me from thecliffs, that beggars may learn not to tell lies. " "Nay, how can I dothat, " said Eumaius, "when you have eaten bread in my house? WouldZeus ever hear my prayer again? Tell me no more false tales, and letus talk together as friends. " Meanwhile Telemachus was far away in Sparta, whither he had gone toseek his father, Odysseus, if haply he might find him; and one nightas he lay sleepless on his couch, Athene stood before him and warnedhim to hasten home. "The suitors are eating up thy substance, and theylie in wait that they may slay thee before the ship reaches Ithaka;but the gods who guard thee will deliver thee from them, and when thoucomest to the land, go straightway to the house of Eumaius. " Then in the morning Telemachus bade farewell to Menelaus, and thefair-haired Helen placed in his hands a beautiful robe which her ownfingers had wrought. "Take it, " she said, "as a memorial of Helen, andgive it to thy bride when thy marriage day has come. " So they set offfrom Sparta, and came to Pylos, and there, as Telemachus offeredsacrifice, the wise seer Theoklymenus stood by his side, and asked himof his name and race, and when he knew that he was the son of Odysseushe besought Telemachus to take him with him to the ship, for he hadslain a man in Argos and he was flying from the avenger of blood. SoTheoklymenus, the seer, came with Telemachus to Ithaka. Then again Odysseus made trial of the friendship of Eumaius, and whenthe meal was over, he said, "To-morrow, early in the morning, I mustgo to the house of Odysseus. Therefore, let some one guide me thither. It may be that Penelope will listen to my tidings, and that thesuitors will give alms to the old man. For I can serve well, myfriends, and none can light a fire and heap on wood, or hand awinecup, more deftly than myself. " But Eumaius was angry, and saidsharply, "Why not tarry here? You annoy neither me nor my friends, andwhen Odysseus comes home, be sure he will give you coat and cloak andall else that you may need. " And the beggar said, "God reward thee, good friend, for succoring the stranger, " and he asked him if thefather and mother of Odysseus were yet alive. Then Eumaius told himhow his mother had pined away and died after Odysseus went to Ilion, and how Laertes lingered on in a wretched and squalid old age. But the ship of Telemachus had now reached the land, and he sent someof his men to tell Penelope that her son was come back, while hehimself went to the house of Eumaius. Glad indeed was the swineherd tosee him, for he had not thought to look upon his face again. AndTelemachus said, "Is my mother yet in her home, or has she weddedanother, and is the bridal couch of Odysseus covered with the webs ofspiders?" "Nay, she is still in her home, " said Eumaius; "but nightand day she sheds bitter tears in her grievous sorrow. " ThenTelemachus spied the beggar; and when he learned his story fromEumaius, he was troubled. "What can we do with him? Shall I give him acloak and a sword and send him away? I am afraid to take him to myfather's house, for the suitors may flout and jeer him. " Then thebeggar put in his word: "Truly these suitors meet us at every turn. How comes it all about? Do you yield to them of your own free will, ordo the people hate you, or have you a quarrel with your kinsfolk? Ifthese withered arms of mine had but the strength of their youth, soonshould some of these suitors smart for their misdeeds; and if theirnumbers were too great for me to deal with, better so to die than seethem thus devour the land. " "Nay, friend, your guesses are wrong, "said Telemachus. "The people do not hate me, and I have no feud withmy kindred; but these suitors have swarmed in upon us like bees fromall the country round about. " Presently Eumaius rose up to go with tidings to Penelope, and when hewas gone a glorious form stood before the door, but the eyes only ofOdysseus saw her, and he knew that it was Pallas Athene. "The time iscome, " she said; "show thyself to Telemachus and make ready with himfor the great vengeance. " Then Athene passed her golden staff over hisbody, and straightway his tattered raiment became a white andglistening robe. Once more the hue of youth came back to his cheek andthe golden locks flowed down over his shoulders, so that Telemachusmarveled, and said, "Who art thou, stranger, that thou lookest likeone of the bright gods? But now thy garment was torn, and thy handsshook with age. " "Nay, I am no god, " answered the man of many toilsand sorrows, "I am thy father. " Then Odysseus kissed his son, and thetears ran down his cheek, but Telemachus would not believe. "Menchange not thus, " he said, "from age to youth, from squalor andweakness to strength and splendor. " "It is the work of Athene, " saidthe stranger, "who can make all things fresh and fair, and if I be notOdysseus, none other will ever come to Ithaka. " Then Telemachus puthis arms around his father and wept, and the cry of their weeping wentup together, and Odysseus said, "The time for vengeance draws nigh. How many are these suitors?" "They may be told by scores, " saidTelemachus, "and what are two against so many?" "They are enough, "answered Odysseus, "if only Zeus and Athene be on their side. " Then Telemachus went to the house of Odysseus, where the suitors weregreatly cast down because their messengers had not been able to killhim. And Penelope came forth from her chamber, beautiful as Artemisand Aphrodite, and she kissed her son, who told her how he hadjourneyed to Sparta, seeking in vain for his father. But Theoklymenus, the seer, put in a word, and said, "Odysseus is now in Ithaka, and ismaking ready for the day of the great vengeance. " Presently Eumaius went back to his house, and there he found thebeggar, for Odysseus had laid aside his glistening robe and the gloryof youth had faded away again from his face. So they went to the citytogether, and sat by the beautiful fountain, whither the people cameto draw water, and Melanthius, the goatherd, as he drove the flock forthe suitors, spied them out and reviled them. "Thieves love thieves, they say; where hast thou found this vagabond, friend swineherd?" andhe pushed Odysseus with his heel. Then Odysseus was wroth, and wouldhave slain him, but he restrained himself, and Eumaius prayed aloud tothe nymphs that they would bring his master home. And Melanthius said, "Pray on, as thou wilt, but Telemachus shall soon lie low, forOdysseus shall see Ithaka no more. " Then he drove the goats onwards tothe house of Odysseus, and Eumaius and the beggar followed him, and asthey communed by the way, the swineherd bade him go first into thehouse, lest any finding him without might jeer or hurt him. But thebeggar would not. "Many a hard buffet have I had by land and by sea, "he said, "and I am not soon cast down. " Soon they stood before thedoor, and a dog worn with age strove to rise and welcome him, but hisstrength was gone, and Odysseus wept when he saw his hound, Argos, insuch evil plight. Then, turning to Eumaius, he said, "The hound iscomely in shape. Was he swift and strong in his youth?" "Neveranything escaped him in the chase; but there are none to care for himnow. " It mattered not, for the twenty long years had come to an end, and when Argos had once more seen his master, he sank down upon thestraw and died. Then Odysseus passed into his house, and he stood a beggar in his ownhall, and asked an alms from Antinous. "Give, " said he, "for thoulookest like a King, and I will spread abroad thy name through thewide earth. For I, too, was rich once, and had a glorious home, andoften I succored the wanderer; but Zeus took away all my wealth, anddrove me forth to Cyprus and to Egypt. " But Antinous thrust him aside. "What pest is this?" he said. "Stand off, old man, or thou shalt goagain to an Egypt and a Cyprus which shall not be much to thyliking. " Then Antinous struck him on the back; but Odysseus stood firmas a rock, and he shook his head for the vengeance that was coming. But the others were angry, and said, "Thou hast done an evil deed, ifindeed there be a god in heaven; nay, often in the guise of strangersthe gods themselves go through the earth, watching the evil and thegood. " When the tidings were brought to Penelope, she said to Eumaius, "Gocall me this stranger hither, for he may have something to tell me ofOdysseus. " But the beggar would not go then. "Tell her, " he said, "that I know her husband well, and that I have shared his troubles;but I can not talk with her before the sun goes down. At eventide sheshall see me. " Then, as Odysseus sate in the hall, there came up to him the beggarArnaius, whom the suitors called Iros because he was their messenger, and he said, "Get up, old man, and go, for the chiefs have bidden meto cast thee out; yet I would rather see thee depart of thy own will. "But Odysseus said, "Nay, friend, there is room enough here for both ofus. You are a beggar like me, and let us pray the gods to help us; butlay not thine hand upon me, lest I be angry and smite thee; for if Ido, thou wilt not, I take it, care to come again to the house ofOdysseus, the son of Laertes. " But Iros looked scornfully at him, andsaid, "Hear how the vagabond talks, just like an old furnace woman. Come now, and gird up thyself, and let us see which is the stronger. "Then Antinous, who had heard them quarreling, smiled pleasantly andcalled to the other suitors: "See here, the stranger and Iros arechallenging each other. Let us bring them together and look on. " ButIros shrank back in fear as the beggar arose, and only one feeble blowhad he given, when Odysseus dashed him to the ground. Then all thesuitors held up their hands and almost died with laughter, as thestranger dragged Iros from the hall, and said, "Meddle not more withother men's matters, lest a worse thing befall thee. " Then Odysseusgathered up his tattered garment and went and sat down again upon thethreshold, while the suitors praised him with loud cheers for hisexploit, and Amphinomus held out to him a goblet of rosy wine: "Drink, stranger, and mayest thou have good luck in time to come, for now thylot is hard and gloomy enough. " The kindly words stirred the beggar'sheart, and he said, "Hear my counsel, Amphinomus, and trust me whohave borne many griefs and sorrows and wandered in many lands sinceZeus drove me from my home. Depart from these evil men who are wastinganother's substance and heed not the woes that are coming, whenOdysseus shall once more stand in his father's house. " But Amphinomuswould not hear, for so had Athene doomed that he should fall on theday of the great vengeance. So, laughing at the beggar as he sat quietly on the threshold, thesuitors feasted at the banquet table of Odysseus, till the starslooked forth in the sky. But when they were gone away to sleep, Odysseus bade Telemachus gather up their arms and place them in theinner chamber. And they carried in the spears and shields and helmets, while Athene went before with a golden lamp in her hand to light theway. And Telemachus said, "Surely some one of the blessed gods must behere, my father, for walls, beams and pillars all gleam as though theywere full of eyes of blazing fire. " But Odysseus bade him be silentand sleep, and Telemachus went his way, and Odysseus tarried to takecounsel with Athene for the work of the coming vengeance. Then, as he sat alone in the hall, Penelope came forth from herchamber, to hear what the stranger might tell her of Odysseus. Butbefore she spake, Melantho reviled him as her father, Melanthius, hadreviled him by the fountain, and Odysseus said, "Dost thou scorn mebecause my garments are torn and my face is seamed with age andsorrow? Well, I, too, have been young and strong. See, then, that thechange come not on thee when Odysseus returns to his home. " ThenPenelope asked him straightly, "Who art thou, stranger, and whencehast thou come?" And the beggar said, "Ask me not, for I have hadgrievous troubles, and the thought of all my woes will force the tearsinto my eyes, so that ye may think I am mad with misery. " But Penelopeurged him: "Listen to me, old man. My beauty faded away when Odysseusleft me to go to Ilion, and my life has been full of woe since thesuitors came thronging round me, because my husband, as they said, lived no more upon the earth. So I prayed them to let me weave ashroud for Laertes, and every night I undid the web which I had wovenin the day time. Thus three years passed away, but in the fourth thesuitors found out my trick, and I know not how to avoid longer themarriage which I hate. Wherefore tell me who thou art, for thou didstnot spring forth a full-grown man from a tree or a stone. " ThenOdysseus recounted to her the tale which he had told to the swineherd, Eumaius, and the eyes of Penelope were filled with tears as thestranger spoke of the exploits of Odysseus. "Good friend, " she said, "thy kindly words fall soothingly on my ear. Here shalt thou sojourn, and I will give thee a robe which I had meant for him who will comeback to me no more. " But Odysseus would not take it, and he strove tocomfort her, till at the last he swore to her that before the year'send her husband should stand before her. And now, at the bidding of Penelope, his old nurse, Eurykleia, camewith water to wash his feet, and looking hard at him she said, "Many astranger has come to this house, but never one so like in form andvoice to my child, Odysseus, " and the stranger answered, smiling, "Most folk who have seen us both have marked the likeness. " So sheknelt down to wash his feet, but Odysseus turned himself as much as hecould from the fire, for he feared that she might see the mark of thewound which the boar's tusk had made long ago when he went toParnassus. But he strove in vain. For presently she saw the scar, andshe let go his feet, and the water was spilt upon the ground, as shecried out, "It is Odysseus, and I knew him not until I saw the printof the deadly wound which Autolykus healed by his wondrous power. "Then Odysseus bade her be silent, for Athene had dulled the ear ofPenelope that she might not hear, and he would not that any shouldknow that the chieftain had come back to his home. [Illustration: ANCIENT METAL ENGRAVING. ] So all were gone, and Odysseus alone remained in the hall through thestill hours of night. But when the morning came, the suitors againfeasted at the banquet board, and many a time they reviled the beggarand Telemachus, until Penelope brought forth the bow which Iphitus, the son of Eurytus, had given to Odysseus. Then she stood before thechiefs and said, "Whoever of you can bend this bow, that man shall bemy husband, and with him I will leave the home which I have loved, andwhich I shall still see in my dreams. " But when Antinous saw it, hisheart failed him, for he knew that none had ever bent the bow saveOdysseus only, and he warned the suitors that it would sorely taxtheir strength. Then Telemachus would have made trial of the bow, buthis father suffered him not. So Leiodes took it in his hand, and triedin vain to stretch it, till at last he threw it down in a rage, andsaid, "Penelope must find some other husband; for I am not the man. "But Antinous reviled him for his faintheartedness, and made Melanthiusbring fat to anoint the bow and make it supple; yet even thus theystrove in vain to stretch it. Then Odysseus went out into the courtyard, whither the cowherd and theswineherd had gone before him, and he said to them, "Friends, are yeminded to aid Odysseus if he should suddenly come to his home, or willye take part with the men who devour his substance?" And they swareboth of them that they would fight for their master to the death. ThenOdysseus said, "I am that man, who after grievous woes has come backin the twentieth year to his own land; and if ye doubt, see here isthe scar of the wound where the boar's tusk pierced my flesh, when Iwent to Parnassus in the days of my youth. " When they saw the scar, they threw their arms round Odysseus, and they kissed him on his headand his shoulders and wept, until he said, "Stay, friends, lest anysee us and tell the suitors in the house. And now hearken to me. Thesemen will not let me take the bow; so do thou, Eumaius, place it in myhands, and let Philoitius bar the gates of the court-yard. " But withinthe hall Eurymachus groaned with vexation because he could not stretchthe bow; and he said, "It is not that I care for Penelope, for thereare many Achaian women as fair as she; but that we are all so weak incomparison of Odysseus. " Then the beggar besought them that he, too, might try, and see whether the strength of his youth still remained tohim, or whether his long wanderings had taken away the force of hisarm. But Antinous said, "Old man, wine hath done thee harm; still itis well to drink yet more than to strive with men who are thybetters. " Then said Penelope, "What dost thou fear, Antinous? Vex notthyself with the thought that the beggar will lead me away as hisbride, even if he should be able to stretch the bow of Odysseus. ""Nay, lady, " he answered, "it is not that; but I dread lest theAchaians should say, 'The suitors could not stretch the bow, but therecame a wandering beggar, who did what they strove to do in vain. '" Then the swineherd took up the bow, but the suitors bade him lay itdown again, until at last Telemachus told Eumaius to bear it toOdysseus; and as the swineherd placed it in the beggar's hands, Eurykleia shut the doors of the hall and made them fast with thetackling of a ship. Then, as Odysseus raised the bow, the thunderpealed in the heaven, and his heart rejoiced because Zeus had givenhim a sign of his great victory. Presently the arrow sped from thestring, and Antinous lay dead upon the floor. Then the others spake in great wrath, and said, "The vultures shalltear thy flesh this day, because thou hast slain the greatest chiefin Ithaka. " But they knew not, as they spake thus, that the day of thegreat vengeance was come; and the voice of Odysseus was heard abovethe uproar, as he said, "Wretches, did ye fancy that I should neverstand again in my own hall? Ye have wasted my substance, ye havesought to steal my wife from me, ye have feared neither gods nor men, and this is the day of your doom. " The cheeks of the suitors turnedghastly pale through fear; but Eurymachus alone took courage and toldOdysseus that Antinous only had done the mischief, because he wishedto slay Telemachus and become King in Ithaka in the stead of Odysseus. "Spare, then, the rest, for they are thy people, and we will pay theea large ransom. " But Odysseus looked sternly at him, and said, "Notthis house full of silver and gold shall stay my hand in the day of mygreat vengeance. " Then Eurymachus drew his sword and bade his comrades fight bravely fortheir lives; but again the clang of the bow was heard, and Eurymachuswas stretched lifeless on the earth. So they fell, one after theother, until the floor of the hall was slippery with blood. Butpresently the arrows in the quiver of Odysseus were all spent, andlaying his bow against the wall, he raised a great shield on hisshoulder and placed a helmet on his head, and took two spears in hishand. Then Agelaus called to Melanthius, "Go up to the stair-door andshout to the people, that they may break into the hall and save us. "But Melanthius said, "It can not be, for it is near the gate of thehall, and one man may guard it against a hundred. But I will bring youarms, for I know that Odysseus and his son have stowed them away inthe inner chamber. " Hastily he ran thither and brought forth shieldsand spears and helmets, and the heart of Odysseus failed him for fearas he saw the suitors donning their armor and brandishing the lances. "Who has done this?" he asked, and Telemachus answered, "It is myfault, my father. I left the door ajar, but Eumaius shall go and seewhether some of the women have given this help to the suitors, orwhether, as I think, it be Melanthius. " So Eumaius and the cowherdplaced themselves on one side of the chamber door, and when Melanthiuscame forth with more arms for the chieftains, they caught him, andbinding him with stout cords they hoisted him up to the beams and lefthim dangling in the air. "Keep guard there, Melanthius, all night longin thy airy hammock, and when the golden Morning comes back from thestream of Ocean you will not fail to see her. " But in the hall the troop of suitors stood facing Odysseus andTelemachus in deadly rage, and presently Athene stood before them inthe likeness of Mentor. Then all besought her help, and the suitorsthreatened her, and said, "Be not led astray, Mentor, by the words ofOdysseus, for if you side with him, we will leave you neither housenor lands, wife nor children, when we have taken vengeance for theevil deeds of the son of Laertes. " But the wrath of Athene was kindledmore fiercely, and she said, "Where is thy strength, Odysseus? Many ayear the Trojans fell beneath the stroke of thy sword, and by thywisdom it was that the Achaians stormed the walls of breezy Ilion. Andnow dost thou stand trembling in thine own hall?" Then the form ofMentor vanished, and they saw a swallow fly away above the roof-tree. In great fear the suitors took council together, and six of them stoodforth and hurled their spears at Odysseus and Telemachus. But allmissed their mark except Amphimedon and Ktesippus, and these woundedTelemachus on the wrist and Eumaius on the shoulder. But once again Athene came, and this time she held aloft her awfulÆgis before the eyes of the suitors, and the hearts of all fainted forfear, so that they huddled together like cattle which have heard thelion's roar, and like cattle were they slain, and the floor of thehall was floated with blood. So was the slaughter ended, and the house of Odysseus was hushed in astillness more fearful than the din of battle, for the work of thegreat vengeance was accomplished. But Penelope lay on her couch in a sweet slumber which Athene had sentto soothe her grief, and she heard not the footsteps of Eurykleia asshe hastened joyously into the chamber. "Rise up, dear child, rise up. Thy heart's desire is come. Odysseus stands once more in his own home, the suitors are dead, and none are left to vex thee. " But Penelopecould not believe for joy and fear, even when Eurykleia told her ofthe mark of the boar's bite which Autolykus and his sons had healed. "Let us go, dear nurse, " she said, "and see the bodies of thechieftains and the man who has slain them. " So she went down into thehall, and sate down opposite to Odysseus, but she spake no word, andOdysseus also sat silent. And Telemachus said to his mother, "Hastthou no welcome for my father who has borne so many griefs since Zeustook him from his home twenty long years ago?" And Penelope said, "My child, I can not speak, for my heart is as astone within me; yet if it be indeed Odysseus, there are secret signsby which we shall know each other. " But when she bade Eurykleia makeready the couch which lay outside the bridal chamber, Odysseus asked, hastily, "Who has moved the couch which I wrought with my own hands, when I made the chamber round the olive tree which stood in thecourtyard? Scarcely could a mortal man move it, for it was heavy withgold and ivory and silver, and on it I spread a bull's hide gleamingwith a purple dye. " Then Penelope wept for joy, as she sprang into his arms; for now sheknew that it was indeed Odysseus who had come back in the twentiethyear. Long time they wept in each other's arms; but the keen-eyedAthene kept back the bright and glistening horses of the morning, thatthe day might not return too soon. Then the fair Eurynome anointed Odysseus, and clothed him in a royalrobe; and Athene brought back all his ancient beauty as when he wentforth in his youth to Ilion. So they sat together in the light of theblazing torches, and Penelope heard from Odysseus the story of hisgriefs and wanderings, and she told him of her own sorrows, while hewas far away in Ilion avenging the wrongs and woes of Helen. But forall his deep joy and his calm peace, Odysseus knew that here was notthe place of his rest. "The time must come, " he said, "when I must go to the land where thereis no sea; but the seer who told me of the things that are to be, saidthat my last hour should be full of light, and that I should leave mypeople happy. " And Penelope said, "Yet we may rejoice, my husband, that the hatefulchiefs are gone who darkened thy house and devoured thy substance, andthat once again I hold thee in my arms. Twenty years has Zeus grudgedme this deep happiness; but never has my heart swerved from thee, norcould aught stay thee from coming again to gladden my heart as in themorning of our life and joy. " SOLON. (636 B. C. ) REMEMBRANCE AFTER DEATH. Let not a death unwept, unhonor'd, be The melancholy fate allotted me! But those who loved me living, when I die Still fondly keep some cherish'd memory. TRUE HAPPINESS. (_By Solon. _) The man that boasts of golden stores, Of grain, that loads his groaning floors, Of fields with freshening herbage green, Where bounding steeds and herds are seen, I call not happier than the swain, Whose limbs are sound, whose food is plain, Whose joys a blooming wife endears, Whose hours a smiling offspring cheers. SOPHOCLES. Sophocles was born at Athens B. C. 495. His father, though a poormechanic, had the discrimination as well as generosity to bestow anexcellent education upon his son, whose great powers began early tounfold themselves, and to attract the notice of the first citizens ofAthens. Before he had attained his twenty-fifth year he carried offthe prize in a dramatic contest against his senior, Æschylus, and hissubsequent career corresponded to this splendid beginning. He is saidto have composed one hundred and twenty tragedies, to have gained thefirst prize twenty-four times, and on other occasions to have rankedsecond in the list of competing poets. So excellent was his conduct, so majestic his wisdom, so exquisite his poetical capacities, so rarehis skill in all the fine arts, and so uninterrupted his prosperity, that the Greeks regarded him as the peculiar favorite of heaven. Helived in the first city of Greece, and throughout her best times, commanding an admiration and love amounting to reverence. He died inextreme old age, without disease and without suffering, and wasmourned with such a sincerity and depth of grief as were manifestedat the death of no other citizen of Athens. HERODOTUS. Scarcely more is known of the celebrated historian, Herodotus, than ofthe illustrious poet, Homer. He was born in Asia Minor about 484 B. C. After being well educated he commenced that course of patient andobservant travel which was to render his name illustrious as aphilosophic tourist and historian. The shores of the Hellespont, Scythia, and the Euxine Sea; the Isles of the Ægæan; Syria, Egypt, Palestine, Colchis, the northern parts of Africa, Ecbatana, and evenBabylon were the objects of his unwearied research. On his return fromhis travels, after about twenty years, he settled for some time atSamos, where he wrote the nine books of his travels in thosecountries. The charm of Herodotus' writings consists in the earnestness of a manwho describes countries as an eye-witness, and events as oneaccustomed to participate in them. The life, the raciness, the vigorof an adventurer and a wanderer, glow in every page. He has none ofthe defining disquisitions that are born of the closet. He paintshistory, rather than descants on it; he throws the colorings of amind, unconsciously poetic, over all he describes. Now a soldier--nowa priest--now a patriot--he is always a poet, if rarely a philosopher. He narrates like a witness, unlike Thucydides, who sums up like ajudge. No writer ever made so beautiful an application ofsuperstitions to truths. His very credulities have a philosophy oftheir own; and modern historians have acted unwisely in disdaining theoccasional repetition even of his fables. For if his truths recordthe events--his fables paint the manners and the opinions of the time;and the last fill up the history, of which events are only theskeleton. To account for his frequent use of dialogue, and his dramatic effectsof narrative, we must remember the tribunal to which the work ofHerodotus was subjected. Every author, unconsciously to himself, consults the tastes of those he addresses. No small coteries ofscholars, no scrupulous and critical inquirers, made the ordealHerodotus underwent. His chronicles were not dissertations to becoldly pondered over, and skeptically conned; they were read aloud atsolemn festivals to listening thousands: they were to arrest thecuriosity--to amuse the impatience--to stir the wonder of a lively andmotley crowd. Thus the historian imbibed naturally the spirit of thetale-teller, as he was driven to embellish his history with theromantic legend--the awful superstition--the gossipy anecdote--whichyet characterize the stories of the popular and oral fictionist in thebazaars of the Mussulman, or on the sea-sands of Sicily. Still it hasbeen rightly said, that a judicious reader is not easily led astray byHerodotus in important particulars. His descriptions of localities, ofmanners and of customs, are singularly correct; and travelers can yettrace the vestiges of his fidelity. Few enlightened tourists are there who can visit Egypt, Greece, andthe regions of the East, without being struck by the accuracy, withthe industry, with the patience of Herodotus. To record all the factssubstantiated by travelers, illustrated by artists, and amplified bylearned research, would be almost impossible; so abundant, so rich, has this golden mine been found, that the more its native treasuresare explored, the more valuable do they appear. The oasis of Siwah, visited by Browne, Hornemann, Edmonstone, and Minutuoli; theengravings of the latter, demonstrating the co-identity of the godAmmon and the god of Thebes; the Egyptian mode of weaving, confirmedby the drawings of Wilkinson and Minutuoli; the fountain of the sun, visited by Belzoni; one of the stelæ or pillars of Sesostris, seen byHerodotus in Syria, and recognized on the road to Beyrout with thehieroglyphic of Remeses still legible; the kneading of dough, drawnfrom a sculpture in Thebes, by Wilkinson; the dress of the lowerclasses, by the same author; the prodigies of Egyptian architecture atEdfou; Caillaud's discovery of Meroe in the depths of Æthiopia; these, and a host of brilliant evidences, center their once divergent rays inone flood of light upon the temple of genius reared by Herodotus, anddisplay the goddess of Truth enshrined within. The following are the main subjects of his nine books, which werenamed after the nine muses:-- Book I. CLIO. --Transfer of the Lydian Kingdom from Gyges toCrœsus--minority of Cyrus--his overthrow of the Lydian power--risinggreatness of Athens and Lacedæmon. Book II. EUTERPE. --Dissertation on Egypt--Egyptian customs, and theregal succession of that Empire. Book III. THALIA. --Achievements of Cambyses--his total subjugation ofEgypt--election of Darius Hystaspes to the Persian throne, then vacantby the assassination of Smerdis, the impostor. Book IV. MELPOMENE. --Full narrative of the calamitous expeditions ofthe Persians against the Scythians in the reign of Darius Hystaspes. Book V. TERPSICHORE. --The political progress of Lacedæmon, Athens andCorinth--view of their relative resources during the time ofDarius--expulsion of Hippias from Athens. Book VI. ERATE. --Origin of the Kings of Lacedæmon--causes of Darius'hostility to Greece--first Persian invasion of Hellas--battle ofMarathon. Book VII. POLYHYMNIA. --Preparations and grand expedition of Xerxesinto Greece--battle at Thermopylæ. Book VIII. URANIA. --Further progress of the Persian arms--Athenscaptured and burned--defeat of the Persians at the sea-fight ofSalamis. Book IX. CALLIOPE. --Defeat of the Persians at Platæa--defeat at thepromontory of Mycale, and their complete retreat within their ownterritories. THE CROCODILE. (_By Herodotus. _) The following are the peculiarities of the crocodile: During thewinter months they eat nothing; they are four-footed, and liveindifferently on land or in the water. The female lays and hatches hereggs ashore, passing the greater portion of the day on dry land, butat night retiring to the river, the water of which is warmer than thenight-air and the dew. Of all known animals this is the one which fromthe smallest size grows to be the greatest, for the egg of thecrocodile is but little bigger than that of the goose, and the youngcrocodile is in proportion to the egg, yet when it is full grown, theanimal measures frequently seventeen cubits, and even more. It has theeyes of a pig, teeth large and tusk-like, of a size proportioned toits frame; unlike any other animal, it is without a tongue; it can notmove its under-jaw, and in this respect, too, it is singular, beingthe only animal in the world which moves the upper-jaw but not theunder. It has strong claws and a scaly skin, impenetrable upon theback. In the water it is blind, but on land it is very keen of sight. As it lives chiefly in the river, it has the inside of its mouthconstantly covered with leeches, hence it happens that, while all theother birds and beasts avoid it, with the trochilus it lives at peace, since it owes much to that bird, for the crocodile, when he leaves thewater and comes out upon the land, is in the habit of lying with hismouth wide open, facing the western breeze; at such times thetrochilus goes into his mouth and devours the leeches. This benefitsthe crocodile, who is pleased, and takes care not to hurt thetrochilus. The crocodile is esteemed sacred by some of the Egyptians, by othershe is treated as an enemy. Those who live near Thebes, and those whodwell around Lake Mœris, regard them with especial veneration. In eachof these places they keep one crocodile in particular, who is taughtto be tame and tractable. They adorn his ears with ear-rings of moltenstone or gold, and put bracelets on his fore-paws, giving him daily aset portion of bread, with a certain number of victims; and, afterhaving thus treated him with the greatest possible attention whilealive, they embalm him when he dies and bury him in a sacredrepository. The people of Elephantine, on the other hand, are so farfrom considering these animals as sacred that they even eat theirflesh. The modes of catching the crocodile are many and various. I shall onlydescribe the one which seems to me most worthy of mention. They bait ahook with a chine of pork and let the meat be carried out into themiddle of the stream, while the hunter upon the bank holds a livingpig, which he belabors. The crocodile hears its cries and, making forthe sound, encounters the pork, which he instantly swallows down. Themen on the shore haul, and when they have got him to land, the firstthing the hunter does is to plaster his eyes with mud. This onceaccomplished, the animal is dispatched with ease, otherwise he givesgreat trouble. ARTABANUS DISSUADES XERXES. (_By Herodotus. _) The other Persians were silent, for all feared to raise their voiceagainst the plan proposed to them. But Artabanus, the son ofHystaspes, and uncle of Xerxes, trusting to his relationship, was boldto speak: "O King, " he said, "it is impossible, if no more than oneopinion is uttered, to make choice of the best; a man is forced thento follow whatever advice may have been given him, but if oppositespeeches are delivered, then choice can be exercised. In like mannerpure gold is not recognized by itself, but when we test it along withbaser ore, we perceive which is the better. I counseled thy father, Darius, who was my own brother, not to attack the Scyths, a race ofpeople who had no town in their own land. He thought, however, tosubdue those wandering tribes, and would not listen to me, but marchedan army against them, and ere he returned home lost many of hisbravest warriors. Thou art about, O King, to attack a people farsuperior to the Scyths, a people distinguished above others both byland and sea. 'Tis fit, therefore, that I should tell thee what dangerthou incurrest hereby. Thou sayest that thou wilt bridge theHellespont, and lead thy troops through Europe against Greece. "Now, suppose some disaster befall thee by land or sea, or by both. Itmay be even so, for the men are reputed valiant. Indeed one maymeasure their prowess from what they have already done; for when Datisand Artaphernes led their huge army against Attica, the Athenianssingly defeated them. But grant they are not successful on bothelements. Still, if they man their ships, and, defeating us by sea, sail to the Hellespont, and there destroy our bridge--that, sire, werea fearful hazard. And here 'tis not by my own mother wit alone that Iconjecture what will happen, but I remember how narrowly we escapeddisaster once, when thy father, after throwing bridges over theThracian Bosphorus and the Ister, marched against the Scythians, andthey tried every sort of prayer to induce the Ionians, who had chargeof the bridge over the Ister, to break the passage. On that day, ifHistiæus, the King of Miletus, had sided with the other princes, andnot set himself to oppose their views, the empire of the Persianswould have come to naught. Surely a dreadful thing is this even tohear said, that the King's fortunes depended wholly on one man. "Think, then, no more of incurring so great a danger when no needpresses, but follow the advice I tender. Break up this meeting, andwhen thou hast well considered the matter with thyself, and settledwhat thou wilt do, declare to us thy resolve. I know not of aught inthe world that so profits a man as taking good counsel with himself;for even if things fall out against one's hopes, still one hascounseled well, though fortune has made the counsel of no effect:whereas, if a man counsels ill and luck follows, he has gotten awindfall, but his counsel is none the less silly. Seest thou how Godwith His lightning smites alway the bigger animals, and will notsuffer them to wax insolent, while those of lesser bulk chafe Him not?How likewise His bolts fall ever on the highest houses and the tallesttrees? So plainly does He love to bring down everything that exaltsitself. Thus oft-times a mighty host is discomfitted by a few men, when God in His jealousy sends fear or storm from heaven, and theyperish in a way unworthy of them. For God allows no one to have highthoughts but Himself. Again, hurry always brings about disasters, fromwhich huge sufferings are wont to arise; but in delay lie manyadvantages, not apparent (it may be) at first sight, but such as inthe course of time are seen of all. Such, then, is my counsel to thee, O King. "And thou, Mardonius, son of Gobryas, forbear to speak foolishlyconcerning the Greeks, who are men that ought not to be lightlyesteemed by us. For while thou revilest the Greeks, thou dostencourage the King to lead his own troops against them; and this, asit seems to me, is what thou art specially striving to accomplish. Heaven send thou succeed not to thy wish! For slander is of all evilsthe most terrible. In it two men do wrong, and one man has wrong doneto him. The slanderer does wrong, forasmuch as he abuses a man behindhis back; and the hearer, forasmuch as he believes what he has notsearched into thoroughly. The man slandered in his absence sufferswrong at the hands of both; for one brings against him a false charge, and the other thinks him an evil-doer. If, however, it must needs bethat we go to war with this people, at least allow the King to abideat home in Persia. Then let thee and me both stake our children on theissue, and do thou choose out thy men, and taking with thee whatevernumber of troops thou likest, lead forth our armies to battle. Ifthings go well for the King, as thou sayest they will, let me and mychildren be put to death; but if they fall out as I prophesy, let thychildren suffer, and thou, too, if thou shalt come back alive. Butshouldst thou refuse this wager, and still resolve to march an armyagainst Greece, sure I am that some of those whom thou leavest behindthee will one day receive the sad tidings that Mardonius has brought agreat disaster upon the Persian people, and lies a prey to dogs andbirds somewhere in the land of the Athenians, or else in that of theLacedæmonians; unless, indeed, thou shalt have perished sooner by theway, experiencing in thy own person the might of those men on whomthou wouldst fain induce the King to make war. " SOCRATES. Socrates was born at Athens about the middle or latter part of April, 469 B. C. He commanded more admiration and reverence than any otherindividual of ancient or modern times. By his ability and purity heemerged from a barbaric sophistry into the purest form of religionthat was ever invented by man, it was nearer like that of Christ thanwas ever reached by mortal before. The object of his entire philosophywas the attainment of correct ideas concerning moral and religiousobligations. Although Socrates was the son of a sculptor of limited means, he waseducated according to the manner of the times. Music and poetry andgymnastic exercises formed the principal part of the education of anAthenian youth, and in these Socrates was instructed. Through the influence of Crito, a wealthy Athenian who subsequentlybecame an intimate friend and disciple of our philosopher, he wasinduced to rise into a higher sphere. He then began the study ofphysics, mathematics, astronomy, natural philosophy, etc. Socrates, however, was unable to obtain any satisfactory knowledgefrom the philosophers and teachers of his time. Dissatisfied with thepretended wisdom of the Cosmologists and Sophists he entirelyabandoned all speculative subjects and devoted his entire attention tohuman affairs, and his earnestness as a social reformer brought uponhim increasing odium from the "Conservatives" of the day, as well asfrom that still larger class whose feelings of malice and revengetowards those who expose their follies and their vices, their wickedprivate customs and public institutions, can never be appeased butwith the death of their victim. Accordingly, prejudice, unpopularityand hate finally prevailed, and two charges were brought against him, one of not believing in the national deities and the other ofcorrupting the youth. That he did not believe in the idols that mostof his contemporaries worshiped, is true; but that he corrupted theyouth was as absurd as false, for all his teachings tended ever topurify them, and lead them in the paths of virtue and truth. Hedefended himself, and his defense is a perfect whole, neither more norless than what it ought to have been. Proudly conscious of hisinnocence, he sought not to move the pity of his judges, for he carednot for acquittal, and "exhibited that union of humility andhigh-mindedness which is observable in none, perhaps, with theexception of St. Paul. " His speech availed not, and he was condemnedto drink the hemlock. He continued in prison thirty days before thesentence was executed, and to this interval we are indebted for thatsublime conversation on the immortality of the soul which Plato hasembodied in his Phædo. [Illustration: SOCRATES DRINKING THE POISON (_From ancient Wall Painting. _)] At length the fatal day arrived, when he had reached his full threescore years and ten. Refusing all means of escape to which his friendscontinually and importunely urged him, he took the poisoned cup fromthe hands of the boy who brought it to him in his prison-chamber, drank it off calmly amid the tears and sobs of surrounding friends, walked about till the draught had begun to take effect upon hissystem, and then laid himself down upon his bed, and soon breathed hislast. Such was the life and such the death of this great man. It hasbeen felt as the greatest of all human examples, not only by his owncountrymen, but by the whole civilized world. SOCRATES AND ARISTODEMUS. (_By Socrates. _) We will now relate the manner in which Socrates discoursed withAristodemus, surnamed _the Little_, concerning the Deity. For, observing that he neither prayed nor sacrificed to the gods nor yetconsulted any oracle, but, on the contrary, ridiculed and laughed atthose who did, he said to him: "Tell me, Aristodemus, is there any man whom you admire on account ofhis merit?" Aristodemus having answered, "_Many. _"--"Name some of them, I prayyou. " "I admire, " said Aristodemus, "Homer for his epic poetry, Melanippidesfor his dithyrambics, Sophocles for tragedy, Polycletes for statuary, and Xeuxis for painting. " "But which seems to you most worthy of admiration, Aristodemus--theartist who forms images void of motion and intelligence, or one whohath the skill to produce animals that are endued, not only withactivity, but understanding. " "The _latter_, there can be no doubt, " replied Aristodemus, "providedthe production was not the effect of _chance_, but of wisdom andcontrivance. " "But since there are many things, some of which we can easily see the_use_ of, while we can not say of others to what purpose they wereproduced, which of these, Aristodemus, do you suppose the work ofwisdom?" "It should seem the most reasonable to affirm it of those whosefitness and utility is so evidently apparent. " "But it is evidently apparent, that He, who at the beginning made man, endued him with senses _because_ they were _good_ for him; eyes, wherewith to behold whatever was visible; and ears, to hear whateverwas to be heard. For say, Aristodemus, to what purpose should odors beprepared, if the sense of smelling had been denied? Or why thedistinctions of bitter and sweet, of savory and unsavory, unless apalate had been likewise given, conveniently placed, to arbitratebetween them, and declare the difference? Is not that Providence, Aristodemus, in a most eminent manner conspicuous, which, because theeye of man is so delicate in its contexture, hath therefore preparedeyelids like doors, whereby to secure it; which extend of themselveswhenever it is needful, and again close when sleep approaches? Are notthese eyelids provided, as it were, with a fence on the edge of them, to keep off the wind and guard the eye? Even the eyebrow itself is notwithout office, but, as a penthouse, is prepared to turn off thesweat, which, falling from the forehead, might enter and annoy that noless _tender_ than _astonishing_ part of us! Is it not to be admiredthat the ears should take in sounds of every sort, and yet are not toomuch filled by them? That the fore-teeth of the animal should beformed in such a manner as evidently best suited for the cutting ofits food, and those on the side for grinding it in pieces? That themouth, through which this food is conveyed, should be placed so nearthe nose and the eyes, as to prevent the passing, _unnoticed_, whatever is unfit for nourishment; while Nature, on the contrary, hathset at a distance, and concealed from the senses, all that mightdisgust them? And canst thou still doubt, Aristodemus! whether adisposition of parts like _this_ should be the work of chance, or ofwisdom and contrivance?" "I have no longer any doubt, " replied Aristodemus; "and, indeed, themore I consider it, the more evident it appears to me, that man mustbe the _masterpiece_ of some great Artificer, carrying along with itinfinite marks of love and favor of Him who hath thus formed it. " "And what thinkest thou, Aristodemus, of that _desire_ in theindividual which leads to the continuance of the species? Of thattenderness and affection in the female towards her young, so necessaryfor its preservation? Of that unremitted love of life, and dread ofdissolution, which take such strong possession of us from the momentwe begin to be?" "I think of them, " answered Aristodemus, "as so many regularoperations of the same great and wise Artist, deliberately determiningto _preserve_ what He hath once made. " "But, farther (unless thou desirest to ask me questions), seeing, Aristodemus, thou thyself art conscious of reason and intelligence, supposest thou there is no intelligence elsewhere? Thou knowest thybody to be a small part of that wide-extended earth which thoueverywhere beholdest; the moisture contained in it, thou also knowestto be a small portion of that mighty mass of waters whereof seasthemselves are but a part, while the rest of the elements contribute, out of their abundance, to thy formation. It is the soul, then, alone, that intellectual part of us, which is come to _thee_ by some luckychance, from I know not where. If so be, there is indeed nointelligence elsewhere; and we must be forced to confess, that thisstupendous universe, with all the various bodies containedtherein--equally amazing, whether we consider their magnitude ornumber, whatever their use, whatever their order--_all_ have beenproduced, not by _intelligence_, but _chance_!" "It is with difficulty that I can suppose otherwise, " returnedAristodemus, "for I behold none of those gods, whom you speak of as_making_ and _governing_ all things, whereas I see the artists when attheir work here among us. " "Neither yet seest thou thy soul, Aristodemus, which, however, mostassuredly _governs_ thy body: although it may well seem, by thy mannerof talking, that it is _chance_, and not _reason_, which governsthee. " "I do not despise the gods, " said Aristodemus; "on the contrary, Iconceive so highly of their excellence, as to suppose they stand in noneed of either me or of my services. " "Thou mistakest the matter, Aristodemus; the greater magnificence theyhave shown in their care of _thee_, so much the more honor and servicethou owest them. " "Be assured, " said Aristodemus, "if I once could be persuaded the godstook care of man, I should want no monitor to remind me of my duty. " "And canst thou doubt, Aristodemus, if the gods take care of man? Hathnot the glorious privilege of walking upright been _alone_ bestowed onhim, whereby he may, with the better advantage, survey what is aroundhim, contemplate, with more ease, those splendid objects which areabove, and avoid the numerous ills and inconveniences which wouldotherwise befall him? Other animals, indeed, they have provided withfeet, by which they may remove from one place to another; but to _man_they have also given _hands_, with which he can form many things forhis use, and make himself happier than creatures of any other kind. Atongue hath been bestowed on every other animal, but what animal, except man, hath the power of forming words with it, whereby toexplain his thoughts, and make them intelligible to others? And toshow that the gods have had regard to his very _pleasures_, they havenot limited them, like those of other animals, to _times_ and seasons, but man is left to indulge in them whenever not hurtful to him. "But it is not with respect to the body alone that the gods have shownthemselves thus bountiful to man! Their most excellent gift is that_soul_ they have infused into him, which so far surpasses what iselsewhere to be found. For, by what animal, except man, is even the_existence_ of those gods discovered, who have _produced_, and still_uphold_, in such regular order, this beautiful and stupendous frameof the universe? What other species of creatures are to be found thatcan serve, that can adore them? What other animal is able, like man, to provide against the assaults of heat and cold, of thirst andhunger? That can lay up remedies for the time of sickness and improvethe strength nature hath given by a well-proportioned exercise? Thatcan receive, like him, information and instruction, or so happily keepin memory what he hath seen, and heard, and learnt? These things beingso, who seeth not that man is, as it were, _a god_ in the midst ofthis visible creation; so far doth he surpass, whether in theendowments of soul or body, all animals whatsoever that have beenproduced therein! For, if the _body_ of the _ox_ had been joined tothe _mind_ of _man_, the acuteness of the latter would have stood himin small stead, while unable to execute the well-designed plan; norwould the _human_ form have been of more use to the brute, so long asit remained destitute of understanding! But in thee, Aristodemus, hathbeen joined to a wonderful _soul_, a body no less wonderful, andsayest thou, after _this_, 'the gods take no thought for me!' Whatwouldst thou, then, more to convince thee of their care?" "I would they should send, and inform me, " said Aristodemus, "whatthings I _ought_ or _ought not_ to do in like manner as thou sayestthey frequently do to thee. " "And what then, Aristodemus! Supposest thou, that when the gods giveout some oracle to _all_ the Athenians, they mean it not for _thee_?If, by their prodigies, they declare aloud to all Greece--to _all_mankind--the things which shall befall them, are they dumb to _thee_alone? And art _thou_ the only person whom they have placed beyondtheir care? Believest thou they would have wrought into the mind ofman a persuasion of their being _able_ to make him happy or miserable, if so be they had no such _power_? or would not even man himself, longere this, have seen through the gross delusion? How is it, Aristodemus, thou rememberest, or remarkest not, that the kingdoms andcommonwealths most renowned as well for their _wisdom_ as antiquity, are those whose piety and devotion hath been the most observable? Andwhy thinkest thou that the providence of God may not easily extenditself throughout the whole universe? As, therefore, among men, wemake best trial of the affection and gratitude of our neighbor, byshowing him kindness, and discover his wisdom, by consulting him inour distress; do thou, in like manner, behave towards the gods, and, if thou wouldst experience what their wisdom, and what their love, render thyself deserving the communication of some of those divinesecrets which may not be perpetrated by man, and are imparted to thosealone who consult, who adore, who obey the Deity. Then shalt thou, myAristodemus, understand there is a Being whose eye pierceth throughoutall nature, and whose ear is open to every sound; _extended_ to allplaces; _extending_ through all time, and whose bounty and care canknow no other bounds than those fixed by his own creation!" By this discourse, and others of the like nature, Socrates taught hisfriends that they were not only to forbear whatever was impious, unjust, or unbecoming before _men;_ but even, when alone, they oughtto have a regard to their actions; since the gods have their eyescontinually upon us, and none of our designs can be concealed fromthem. EURIPIDES. Euripides flourished about 450 B. C. ; was born 480 B. C. He spent hisyouth in the highest mental and physical training. He was a native ofAthens, and enjoyed the most glorious days of her annals, beingbrought in direct connection with Æschylus and Sophocles, and in hisolder days was a pupil of Socrates. In comparing Euripides and the other two masters in Grecian tragedy, it may be said that he ranks first in tragic representation andeffect; Sophocles first in dramatic symmetry and ornament; Æschylusfirst in poetic vigor and grandeur. Æschylus was the most sublime;Sophocles the most beautiful; Euripides the most pathetic. The firstdisplays the lofty intellect; the second exercises the cultivatedtaste; the third indulges the feeling heart. Each, as it were, shows afine piece of sculpture. In Æschylus, it is a naked hero, with all thestrength, boldness, and dignity of olden time. In Sophocles andEuripides, it may be perhaps the same hero; but with the former, hehas put on the flowing robes, the elegant address, and the softurbanity of a polished age; with the latter, he is yielding to somemelancholy emotion, ever heedless of his posture or gait, and castinghis unvalued drapery negligently about him. They have been compared byan illustration from another art: "The sublime and daring Æschylusresembles some strong and impregnable castle situated on a rock, whosemartial grandeur awes the beholder--its battlements defended byheroes, and its gates proudly hung with trophies. " Sophocles appearswith splendid dignity, like some imperial palace of richestarchitecture; the symmetry of the parts and the chaste magnificence ofthe whole delight the eye and command the approbation of the judgment. The pathetic and moral Euripides has the solemnity of a Gothic temple, whose storied windows admit a dim religious light, enough to show itshigh embowed roof, and the monuments of the dead which rise in everypart, impressing our minds with pity and terror as emblems of theuncertain and short duration of human greatness, and with an awfulsense of our own mortality. ARISTOPHANES. Very little is known about the life of Aristophanes. He was born about444 B. C. , and devoted himself to comic poetry. He wrote fifty-fourplays, of which eleven are extant. The comedies of Aristophanes are universally regarded as the standardof Attic writing in its greatest purity. His genius was vast, versatile, and original, and his knowledge of human nature surpassedby Homer and Shakspeare alone. The noble tone of morals, the elevated taste, the sound politicalwisdom, the boldness and acuteness of the satire, the grand object, which is seen throughout, of correcting the follies of the day, andimproving the condition of his country--all these are features inAristophanes, which, however disguised, as they intentionally are, bycoarseness and buffoonery, entitle him to the highest respect fromevery reader of antiquity. He condescended, indeed, to play the partof jester to the Athenian tyrant. But his jests were the vehicles fortelling to them the soundest truths. They were never without a farhigher aim than to raise a momentary laugh. He was no farce writer, but a deep philosophical politician; grieved and ashamed at thecondition of his country, and through the stage, the favoriteamusement of Athenians, aiding to carry on the one great common work, which Plato proposed in his dialogues, and in which all the better andnobler spirits of the time seem to have concurred as by aconfederacy--the reformation of an atrocious democracy. There is asmuch system in the comedies of Aristophanes as in the dialogues ofPlato. Every part of a vitiated public mind is exposed in its turn. Its demagogues in the Knights, its courts of justice in the Wasps, itsforeign policy in the Acharnians, its tyranny over the allies in theBirds, the state of female society in the Sysistrate and theEcclesiazusæ, and its corrupt poetical taste in the Frogs. No one playis without its definite object; and the state of national education, as the greatest cause of all, is laid open in the Clouds. Whateverlight is thrown, by that admirable play, upon the character ofSocrates, and the position which he occupies in the PlatonicDialogues--a point, it may be remarked, on which the greatest mistakesare daily made--it is chiefly valuable as exhibiting, in a short butvery complete analysis, and by a number of fine Rembrandt-likestrokes, not any of which must be overlooked, all the features of thatfrightful school of sophistry, which at that time was engagedsystematically in corrupting the Athenian youth, and against which thewhole battery of Plato was pointedly directed. PLATO. Plato was born in the year 429 B. C. , and died when he was eighty-twoyears old, on his birthday. He was a pupil of Socrates, the first andpurest of moral philosophers. By the rare union of a brilliantimagination with a fondness for severe mathematical studies andprofound metaphysical investigations; by extensive foreign travel; byfamiliar intercourse with the most enlightened men of his time, particularly Socrates, whose instructive conversations he attended foreight years, as well as by the correspondence which he maintained withthe Pythagoreans of Magna Græcia, this great philosopher came tosurpass all others in the vastness and profoundness of his views, andin the correctness and eloquence with which he expressed them; whilehis pure moral character entitled him to take his place by the side ofSocrates. Socrates once said, "For what higher reward could a teacherask than to have such pupils as Xenophon and Plato?" The object of Plato was evidently the noble one of placing before mana high intellectual, and consequently, by implication, a high moralstandard as the end and object of his aspirations; to encourage hisefforts after the true, the pure, the beautiful, and the virtuous, knowing that the character would be purified in the endeavor, and thatthe consciousness of the progress made, step by step, would be ofitself a reward. The object of science was, as he taught, the true, the eternal, the immutable, that which is; in one alone could theseattributes be found united--that is God. Man's duty, then, accordingto the Platonic system is to know God and His attributes, and to aimat being under the practical influence of this knowledge. This theChristian is taught, but much more simply and plainly, to know God, and Jesus Christ whom He hath sent, and to propose to himself aperfect standard, to be perfect even as his Father in heaven isperfect, and to look forward, by that help which Plato had no warrantto look for, to attain the perfect measure of the fulness of Christ. Although Plato believed and taught that man ought to strive after anddevote himself to the contemplation of the One, the Eternal, theInfinite, he was humbly conscious that no one could attain to theperfection of such knowledge; that it is too wonderful and excellentfor human powers. Man's incapacity for apprehending this knowledge heattributed to the soul, during his present state of existence, beingcramped and confined by its earthly tabernacle. Plato defined virtue to be the imitation of God, or the free effort ofman to attain to a resemblance to his original, or, in other terms, aunison and harmony of all our principles and actions according toreason, whence results the highest degree of happiness. Evil isopposed to this harmony as a disease of the soul. Virtue is _one_, indeed, but compounded of four elements--_wisdom_, _courage_, _temperance_, and _justice_. In his practical philosophy he blended arigid principle of moral obligation with a spirit of gentleness andhumanity; and education he described as a liberal cultivation andmoral discipline of the mind. Politics he defined to be theapplication, on a great scale, of the laws of morality; for a society, being composed of individuals, is under similar moral obligations, andthe end of politics to be liberty and concord. Beauty he considered tobe the sensible representation of moral and physical perfection;consequently it is one with truth and goodness, and inspires love, which leads to virtue. Would that many so-called Christian legislators and Christian peoplewould go to this "heathen" philosopher and learn of him--learn that todo right is always and ever the highest safety, the highestexpediency, the highest "conservatism, " the highest good! How beautifully Akenside expresses this:-- "Thus was beauty sent from heaven, The lovely ministress of truth and good, In this dark world: for TRUTH AND GOOD ARE ONE, AND BEAUTY DWELLS IN THEM, AND THEY IN HER, WITH LIKE PARTICIPATION. Wherefore, then, O sons of earth! would ye dissolve the tie? O wherefore, with a rash, impetuous aim, Seek ye those flowery joys with which the hand Of lavish fancy paints each flattering scene Where beauty _seems_ to dwell, nor once inquire Where is the sanction of eternal truth, Or where the seal of undeceitful good, To save your search from folly! wanting these, Lo! beauty withers in your void embrace, And with the glittering of an idiot's toy Did fancy mock your vows. " THE PERFECT BEAUTY. (_By Plato. _) "He who aspires to love rightly, ought from his earliest youth to seekan intercourse with beautiful forms, and first to make a single formthe object of his love, and therein to generate intellectualexcellencies. He ought, then, to consider that beauty in whatever formit resides is the brother of that beauty which subsists in anotherform; and if he ought to pursue that which is beautiful in form, itwould be absurd to imagine that beauty is not one and the same thingin all forms, and would therefore remit much of his ardent preferencetowards one, through his perception of the multitude of claims uponhis love. In addition, he would consider the beauty which is in soulsmore excellent than that which is in form. So that one endowed with anadmirable soul, even though the flower of the form were withered, would suffice him as the object of his love and care, and thecompanion with whom he might seek and produce such conclusions as tendto the improvement of youth; so that it might be led to observe thebeauty and the conformity which there is in the observation of itsduties and the laws, and to esteem little the mere beauty of theoutward form. He would then conduct his pupil to science, so that hemight look upon the loveliness of wisdom; and that contemplating thusthe universal beauty, no longer would he unworthily and meanly enslavehimself to the attractions of one form in love, nor one subject ofdiscipline or science, but would turn towards the wide ocean ofintellectual beauty, and from the sight of the lovely and majesticforms which it contains, would abundantly bring forth his conceptionsin philosophy; until, strengthened and confirmed, he should at lengthsteadily contemplate one science which is the science of thisuniversal beauty. [Illustration: FROM ANCIENT SCULPTURING. ] "Attempt, I entreat you, to mark what I say with as keen anobservation as you can. He who has been disciplined to this point inlove, by contemplating beautiful objects gradually, and in theirorder, now arriving at the end of all that concerns love, on a suddenbeholds a beauty wonderful in its nature. This is it, O Socrates, forthe sake of which all the former labors were endured. It is eternal, unproduced, indestructible; neither subject to increase nor decay;not, like other things, partly beautiful and partly deformed; not atone time beautiful and at another time not; not beautiful in relationto one thing and deformed in relation to another; not here beautifuland there deformed; not beautiful in the estimation of one person anddeformed in that of another; nor can this supreme beauty be figured tothe imagination like a beautiful face, or beautiful hands, or anyportion of the body, nor like any discourse, nor any science. Nor doesit subsist in any other that lives or is, either in earth, or inheaven, or in any other place; but it is eternally uniform andconsistent, and monoeidic with itself. All other things are beautifulthrough a participation of it, with this condition, that although theyare subject to production and decay, it never becomes more or less, orendures any change. When any one, ascending from a correct system oflove, begins to contemplate this supreme beauty, he already touchesthe consummation of his labor. For such as discipline themselves uponthis system, or are conducted by another beginning to ascend throughthese transitory objects which are beautiful, towards that which isbeauty itself, proceeding as on steps from the love of one form tothat of two, and from that of two, to that of all forms which arebeautiful; and from beautiful forms to beautiful habits andinstitutions, and from institutions to beautiful doctrines; until, from the meditation of many doctrines, they arrive at that which isnothing else than the doctrine of the supreme beauty itself, in theknowledge and contemplation of which at length they repose. "Such a life as this, my dear Socrates, " exclaimed the strangerProphetess, "spent in the contemplation of the beautiful, is the lifefor men to live; which, if you chance ever to experience, you willesteem far beyond gold and rich garments, and even those lovelypersons whom you and many others now gaze on with astonishment, andare prepared neither to eat nor drink so that you may behold and liveforever with these objects of your love! What, then, shall we imagineto be the aspect of the supreme beauty itself, simple, pure, uncontaminated with the intermixture of human flesh and colors, andall other idle and unreal shapes attendant on mortality; the divine, the original, the supreme, the monoeidic beautiful itself? What mustbe the life of him who dwells with and gazes on that which it becomesus all to seek? Think you not that to him alone is accorded theprerogative of bringing forth, not images and shadows of virtue, forhe is in contact not with a shadow but with reality; with virtueitself, in the production and nourishment of which he becomes dear tothe gods, and if such a privilege is conceded to any human being, himself immortal?"--_From the Banquet, translated by the poetShelley. _ THE LAST HOURS OF SOCRATES. (_By Plato. _) "When the dead arrive at the place to which their demon leads themseverally, first of all they are judged, as well those who have livedwell and piously, as those who have not. And those who appear to havepassed a middle kind of life, proceeding to Acheron, and embarking inthe vessels they have, on these arrive at the lake, and there dwell, and when they are purified, and have suffered punishment for theiniquities they may have committed, they are set free, and eachreceives the reward of his good deeds, according to his deserts; butthose who appear to be incurable, through the magnitude of theiroffences, either from having committed many and great sacrileges, ormany unjust and lawless murders, or other similar crimes, these asuitable destiny hurls into Tartarus, whence they never come forth. But those who appear to have been guilty of curable, yet greatoffences, such as those who through anger have committed any violenceagainst father or mother, and have lived the remainder of their lifein a state of penitence, or they who have become homicides in asimilar manner, these must fall into Tartarus, but after they havefallen, and have been there for a year, the wave casts them forth, thehomicides into Cocytus, but the parricides and matricides intoPyriphlegethon; but when, being borne along, they arrive at theAcherusian lake, there they cry out to and invoke, some those whomthey slew, others those whom they injured, and invoking them, theyentreat and implore them to suffer them to go out into the lake, andto receive them, and if they persuade them, they go out, and are freedfrom their sufferings, but if not, they are borne back to Tartarus, and thence again into the rivers, and they do not cease from sufferingthis until they have persuaded those whom they have injured; for thissentence was imposed upon them by the judges. But those who are foundto have lived an eminently holy life, these are they, who, being freedand set at large from these regions in the earth, as from prison, arrive at the pure abode above, and dwell on the upper parts of theearth. And among these, they who have sufficiently purified themselvesby philosophy shall live without bodies, throughout all future time, and shall arrive at habitations yet more beautiful than these, whichit is neither easy to describe, nor at present is there sufficienttime for the purpose. "But for the sake of these things which we have described, we shoulduse every endeavor, Simmias, so as to acquire virtue and wisdom inthis life; for the reward is noble, and the hope great. "To affirm positively, indeed, that these things are exactly as I havedescribed them, does not become a man of sense; that however eitherthis, or something of the kind, takes place with respect to our soulsand their habitations--since our soul is certainly immortal--thisappears to me most fitting to be believed, and worthy the hazard forone who trusts in its reality; for the hazard is noble, and it isright to allure ourselves with such things, as with enchantments; forwhich reason I have prolonged my story to such a length. On account ofthese things, then, a man ought to be confident about his soul, whoduring this life has disregarded all the pleasures and ornaments ofthe body as foreign from his nature, and who, having thought that theydo more harm than good, has zealously applied himself to theacquirement of knowledge, and who having adorned his soul not with aforeign but its own proper ornament, temperance, justice, fortitude, freedom, and truth, thus waits for his passage to Hades, as one who isready to depart whenever destiny shall summon him. You then, " hecontinued, "Simmias and Cebes, and the rest, will each of you departat some future time; but now destiny summons me, as a tragic writerwould say, and it is nearly time for me to betake myself to the bath;for it appears to me to be better to drink the poison after I havebathed myself, and not to trouble the women with washing my deadbody. " When he had thus spoken, Crito said, "So be it, Socrates; but whatcommands have you to give to these or to me, either respecting yourchildren, or any other matter, in attending to which we can mostoblige you?" "What I always say, Crito, " he replied, "nothing new; that by takingcare of yourselves you will oblige both me and mine and yourselves, whatever you do, though you should not now promise it; but if youneglect yourselves, and will not live as it were in the footprints ofwhat has been now and formerly said, even though you should promisemuch at present, and that earnestly, you will do no good at all. " "We will endeavor then so to do, " he said; "but how shall we buryyou?" "Just as you please, " he said, "if only you can catch me, and I do notescape from you. " And at the same time smiling gently, and lookinground on us, he said, "I can not persuade Crito, my friends, that I amthat Socrates who is now conversing with you, and who methodizes eachpart of the discourse; but he thinks that I am he whom he will shortlybehold dead, and asks how he should bury me. But that which I sometime since argued at length, that when I have drunk the poison I shallno longer remain with you, but shall depart to some happy state of theblessed, this I seem to have urged to him in vain, though I meant atthe same time to console both you and myself. Be ye, then, my suretiesto Crito, " he said, "in an obligation contrary to that which he madeto the judges; for he undertook that I should remain; but do you besureties that, when I die, I shall not remain, but shall depart, thatCrito may more easily bear it, and when he sees my body either burnedor buried, may not be afflicted for me, as if I suffered some dreadfulthing, nor say at my interment that Socrates is laid out, or iscarried out, or is buried. For be well assured, " he said, "mostexcellent Crito, that to speak improperly is not only culpable as tothe thing itself, but likewise occasions some injury to our souls. Youmust have a good courage, then, and say that you bury my body, andbury it in such a manner as is pleasing to you, and as you think ismost agreeable to our laws. " When he had said this, he rose, and went into a chamber to bathe, andCrito followed him, but he directed us to wait for him. We waited, therefore, conversing among ourselves about what had been said, andconsidering it again, and sometimes speaking about our calamity, howsevere it would be to us, sincerely thinking that, like those who aredeprived of a father, we should pass the rest of our lives as orphans. When he had bathed, and his children were brought to him, for he hadtwo little sons and one grown up, and the women belonging to hisfamily were come, having conversed with them in the presence of Crito, and giving them such injunctions as he wished, he directed the womenand children to go away, and then returned to us. And it was now nearsunset; for he spent a considerable time within. But when he came frombathing he sat down, and did not speak much afterwards. Then theofficer of the Eleven came in, and, standing near him, said, "Socrates, I shall not have to find that fault with you that I do withothers, that they are angry with me, and curse me, when, by order ofthe archons, I bid them drink the poison. But you, on all otheroccasions during the time you have been here, I have found to be themost noble, meek, and excellent man of all that ever came into thisplace; and, therefore, I am now well convinced that you will not beangry with me, for you know who are to blame, but with them. Now, then, for you know what I came to announce to you, farewell, andendeavor to bear what is inevitable as easily as possible. " And at thesame time, bursting into tears he turned away and withdrew. And Socrates, looking after him, said, "And thou, too, farewell; wewill do as you direct. " At the same time turning to us, he said, "Howcourteous this man is; during the whole time I have been here he hasvisited me, and conversed with me sometimes, and proved the worthiestof men; and now how generously he weeps for me. But come, Crito, letus obey him, and let some one bring the poison, if it is readypounded, but if not, let the man pound it. " Then Crito said, "But I think, Socrates, that the sun is still on themountains, and has not yet set. Besides, I know that others have drankthe poison very late, after it had been announced to them, and havesupped and drank freely. Do not hasten, then, for there is yet time. " Upon this Socrates replied, "These men whom you mention, Crito, dothese things with good reason, for they think they shall gain by sodoing, and I, too, with good reason shall not do so; for I think Ishall gain nothing by drinking a little later, except to becomeridiculous to myself, in being so fond of life, and sparing of it whennone any longer remains. Go, then, " he said, "obey, and do notresist. " Crito having heard this, nodded to the boy that stood near. And theboy having gone out, and stayed for some time, came, bringing with himthe man that was to administer the poison, who brought it readypounded in a cup. And Socrates, on seeing the man, said, "Well, mygood friend, as you are skilled in these matters, what must I do?" "Nothing else, " he replied, "than, when you have drank it, walk aboutuntil there is a heaviness in your legs, then lie down: thus it willdo its purpose. " And at the same time he held out the cup to Socrates. And he having received it very cheerfully, neither trembling, norchanging at all in color or countenance, but, as he was wont, lookingsteadfastly at the man, said, "What say you of this potion, withrespect to making a libation to any one, is it lawful or not?" "We only pound so much, Socrates, " he said, "as we think sufficient todrink. " "I understand you, " he said, "but it is certainly both lawful andright to pray to the gods that my departure hence thither may behappy; which therefore I pray, and so may it be. " And as he said thishe drank it off readily and calmly. Thus far, most of us were withdifficulty able to restrain ourselves from weeping; but when we sawhim drinking, and having finished the draught, we could do so nolonger; but in spite of myself the tears came in full torrent, sothat, covering my face, I wept for myself, for I did not weep for him, but for my own fortune, in being deprived of such a friend. But Crito, even before me, when he could not restrain his tears, had risen up. But Apollodorus even before this had not ceased weeping, and thenbursting into an agony of grief, weeping and lamenting, he pierced theheart of every one present, except Socrates himself. But he said, "What are you doing, my admirable friends? I indeed for this reasonchiefly, sent away the women, that they might not commit any folly ofthis kind. For I have heard that it is right to die with good omens. Be quiet, therefore, and bear up. " When we heard this we were ashamed, and restrained our tears. But he, having walked about, when he said that his legs were growing heavy, laid down on his back; for the man so directed him. And at the sametime he who gave him the poison, taking hold of him, after a shortinterval examined his feet and legs; and then having pressed his foothard, he asked if he felt it; he said that he did not. And after thishe pressed his thighs; and thus going higher, he showed us that he wasgrowing cold and stiff. Then Socrates touched himself, and said thatwhen the poison reached his heart he should then depart. But now theparts around the lower belly were almost cold; when, uncoveringhimself, for he had been covered over, he said, and they were his lastwords, "Crito, we owe a cock to Æsculapius; pay it, therefore, and donot neglect it. " "It shall be done, " said Crito, "but consider whether you have anything else to say. " To this question he gave no reply, but shortly after he gave aconvulsive movement, and the man covered him, and his eyes were fixed, and Crito, perceiving it, closed his mouth and eyes. This, Echecrates, was the end of our friend, a man, as we may say, thebest of all of his time that we have known, and, moreover, the mostwise and just. DEMOSTHENES. Demosthenes was born 382 B. C. And died 322 B. C. , at the age of sixty. His father died when he was but seven years old and left his son alarge estate, which was squandered by his guardians. Demosthenes, most happily, was forced to depend upon the resources ofhis own intellect, and determined to devote his life to oratory. Hechose Isæus for his master, and though having a weakly constitution, and an impediment in his speech, yet by steady, persevering effort, and daily practice, he brought himself to address withoutembarrassment, and with complete success, the assembled multitudes ofthe Athenian people. His first attempts at oratory were made tovindicate his own claims, and recover the property which his guardianshad appropriated to themselves. In this he proved entirely successful. After this, he displayed his ability as an orator on several publicoccasions, and succeeded by the power of his eloquence in preventingthe Athenians from engaging in a war with Persia. [Illustration: KING PHILIP (_of Macedon_). ] But most of the oratorical efforts of Demosthenes were directed torouse the Athenians from indolence, and to arm them against theinsidious designs and ambitious schemes of Philip, who, in the year358 B. C. , began the attack upon the northern maritime allies ofAthens. In modern times, Lord Chatham's speech on American affairs, deliveredin the House of Lords, November 18, 1877; Edmund Burke's, on the"Nabob of Arcot's Debts, " delivered in the House of Commons, February28, 1785; Fisher Ames', on the "British Treaty, " delivered in ourHouse of Representatives, April 28, 1796; Daniel Webster's, on the"Public Lands, " delivered in the United States Senate, 1830, andCharles Sumner's, on the infamous "Fugitive Slave Bill, " delivered inthe Senate in 1852, will, for effective, brilliant, and logicaleloquence, rank side by side with the masterly efforts of Demosthenes. PHILIP AND THE ATHENIANS. (_Oration of Demosthenes. _) If any one of you, Athenians, think that Philip is hard to strugglewith, considering both the magnitude of the power already to his handand the fact that all the strong places are lost to our state--hethinks rightly enough. But let him take this into account: that weourselves, Athenians, once held Pydna, and Potidæa, and Methone, andall that country--as it were in our own home-circle; and many of thestates now under his sway were beginning to be self-ruled and free, and preferred to hold friendly relations with us rather than with him. Now, then, if Philip had harbored at that time the idea that it washard to struggle with the Athenians when they had such strongholds inhis country, while he was destitute of allies--he would have effectednone of those things which he has accomplished, nor would he have everacquired so great power. But he at least knew this well enough, Athenians--that all these strongholds are prizes of war open to eachcontestant, and that naturally the possessions of the absent fall tothose who are on the spot, and the opportunities of the careless areseized by those willing to work and to risk. It has been so in hiscase, for, possessed by such sentiments, he has thoroughly subdued andnow holds all places; some, as one might hold them in his grasp bycustom of war; others, by having made them allies and friends. Nowonder; for all are ready to give their heartfelt adherence to thosewhom they see prepared and ready to do what necessity demands. In like manner, if you, also, Athenians, are now ready to adopt thesame principle (since, alas! you were not before), and each one ofyou, throwing away all dissimulation, is ready to show himself usefulto the state, as far as its necessity and his power extend; if each isready to _do_--the rich to contribute, those of serviceable age totake the field; in a word, if you choose to be your own masters, andeach individual ceases to do nothing, hoping that his neighbor will doall for him--you will both regain your possessions (with heaven'spermission) and recover your opportunities recklessly squandered; youwill take vengeance on HIM. Do not suppose his present happy fortune immutable--immortal, like agod's; on the other hand, some hate him, others fear him, Athenians, and envy him, and that, too, in the number of those who seem onintimate terms with him; for all those passions that rage in othermen, we may assume to be hidden in the bosoms of those also thatsurround him. Now, however, all these passions have crouched beforehim, having no escape on account of your laziness and indifference, which, I repeat, you ought immediately to abandon. For you see thestate of things, Athenians, to what a pitch of arrogance he hascome--this man who gives you no choice to act or to remain quiet, butbrags about and talks words of overwhelming insolence, as they tellus. He is not such a character as to rest with the possessions whichhe has conquered, but is always compassing something else, and atevery point hedging us, dallying and supine, in narrower and narrowercircles. When, then, Athenians, when will you do what you ought? Assoon as something happens? As soon, great Jove! as necessity compelsyou? Why, what does necessity compel you to think now of your deeds?In my opinion, the most urgent necessity to freemen is the disgraceattendant upon their public policy. Or do you prefer--tell me, do you prefer to wander about here andthere, asking in the market-place, "What news? what news?" What can benewer than that a Macedonian should crush Athenians in war and lord itover all Greece? "Is Philip dead?" "No, by Jove, but he's sick. " Whatdifference is it to you? what difference? For if anything shouldhappen to him, you would quickly raise up another Philip, if youmanage your public affairs as you now do. For not so much to his ownstrength as to your laziness does he owe his present aggrandizement. Yet even if anything should happen to him, and fortune begin to favorus (for she has always cared for us more kindly than we forourselves); you know that by being nearer to them you could assert_your_ power over all these disordered possessions, and could dictatewhat terms you might choose; but as you now act, if some chance shouldgive you Amphipolis, you could not take it, so lacking are you in yourpreparations and zeal. MEASURES TO RESIST PHILIP. (_Oration of Demosthenes. _) Let any one now come forward and tell me by whose contrivance but oursPhilip has grown strong. Well, sir, this looks bad, but things at homeare better. What proof can be adduced? The parapets that arewhitewashed? The roads that are repaired? fountains and fooleries?Look at the men of whose statesmanship these are the fruits. They haverisen from beggary to opulence, or from obscurity to honor; some havemade their private houses more splendid than the public buildings, andin proportion as the state has declined, their fortunes have beenexalted. What has produced these results? How is it that all went prosperouslythen, and now goes wrong? Because anciently the people, having thecourage to be soldiers, controlled the statesmen, and disposed of allemoluments; any of the rest was happy to receive from the people hisshare of honor, office, or advantage. Now, contrariwise, the statesmendispose of emoluments; through them everything is done; you, thepeople, enervated, stripped of treasure and allies, are become asunderlings and hangers-on, happy if these persons dole you outshow-money or send you paltry beeves; and, the unmanliest part of all, you are grateful for receiving your own. They, cooping you in thecity, lead you to your pleasures, and make you tame and submissive totheir hands. It is impossible, I say, to have a high and noble spirit, while you are engaged in petty and mean employments; whatever be thepursuits of men, their characters must be similar. By Ceres, I shouldnot wonder if I, for mentioning these things, suffered more from yourresentment than the men who have brought them to pass. For evenliberty of speech you allow not on all subjects; I marvel indeed youhave allowed it here. Would you but even now, renouncing these practices, perform militaryservice and act worthily of yourselves; would you employ thesedomestic superfluities as a means to gain advantage abroad; perhaps, Athenians, perhaps you might gain some solid and important advantage, and be rid of these perquisites, which are like the diet ordered byphysicians for the sick. As that neither imparts strength, norsuffers the patient to die, so your allowances are not enough to be ofsubstantial benefit, nor yet permit you to reject them and turn tosomething else. Thus do they increase the general apathy. What? Ishall be asked, mean you stipendiary service? Yes, and forthwith thesame arrangement for all, Athenians, that each, taking his dividendfrom the public, may be what the state requires. Is peace to be had?You are better at home, under no compulsion to act dishonorably fromindigence. Is there such an emergency as the present? Better to be asoldier, as you ought, in your country's cause, maintained by thosevery allowances. Is any one of you beyond the military age? What henow irregularly takes without doing service, let him take by justregulation, superintending and transacting needful business. Thus, without derogating from or adding to our political system, onlyremoving some irregularity, I bring it into order, establishing auniform rule for receiving money, for serving in war, for sitting onjuries, for doing what each, according to his age, can do, and whatoccasion requires. I never advise we should give to idlers the wagesof the diligent, or sit at leisure, passive and helpless, to hear thatsuch a one's mercenaries are victorious, as we now do. Not that Iblame any one who does you a service; I only call upon you, Athenians, to perform upon your own account those duties for which you honorstrangers, and not to surrender that post of dignity which, wonthrough many glorious dangers, your ancestors have bequeathed. I have said nearly all that I think necessary. I trust you will adoptthat course which is best for the country and yourselves. FORMER ATHENIANS DESCRIBED. (_By Demosthenes. _) I ask you, Athenians, to see how it was in the time of your ancestors;for by domestic (not foreign) examples you may learn your lesson ofduty. Themistocles who commanded in the sea-fight at Salamis, andMiltiades who led at Marathon, and many others, who performed servicesunlike the generals of the present day--assuredly they were not set upin brass nor overvalued by our forefathers, who honored them, but onlyas persons on a level with themselves. Your forefathers, O mycountrymen, surrendered not their part to any of those glories. Thereis no man who will attribute the victory of Salamis to Themistocles, but to the Athenians; nor the battle of Marathon to Miltiades, but tothe republic. But now people say that Timotheus took Corcyra, andIphicrates cut off the Spartan division, and Chabrias won the navalvictory at Naxos; for you seem to resign the merit of these actions, by the extravagance of the honors which you have bestowed on theiraccount upon each of the commanders. So wisely did the Athenians of that day confer political rewards; soimproperly do you. But how the rewards of foreigners? To Menon thePharsalian, who gave twelve talents in money for the war at Eion byAmphipolis, and assisted them with two hundred horsemen of his ownretainers, the Athenians then voted not the freedom of their city, butonly granted immunity from imposts. And in earlier times to Perdiccas, who reigned in Macedonia during the invasion of the Barbarian--when hehad destroyed the Persians who retreated from Platæa after theirdefeat, and completed the disaster of the King--they voted not thefreedom of their city, but only granted immunity from imposts;doubtless esteeming their country to be of high value, honor, anddignity, surpassing all possible obligation. But now, ye men ofAthens, ye adopt the vilest of mankind, menials and the sons ofmenials, to be your citizens, receiving a price as for any othersalable commodity. And you have fallen into such a practice, notbecause your natures are inferior to your ancestors, but because theywere in a condition to think highly of themselves, while from you, menof Athens, this power is taken away. It can never be, methinks, thatyour spirit is generous and noble, while you are engaged in petty andmean employments; no more than you can be abject and mean-spirited, while your actions are honorable and glorious. Whatever be thepursuits of men their sentiments must necessarily be similar. Mark what a summary view may be taken of the deeds performed by yourancestors and by you. Possibly from such comparison you may risesuperior to yourselves. They for a period of five and forty years tookthe lead of the Greeks by general consent, and carried up more thanten thousand talents into the citadel; and many glorious trophies theyerected for victories by land and sea, wherein even yet we take apride. And remember, they erected these, not merely that we may surveythem with admiration, but, also, that we may emulate the virtues ofthe dedicators. Such was their conduct; but for ours--fallen as wehave on a solitude manifest to you all--look if it bears anyresemblance. Have not more than fifteen hundred talents been lavishedineffectually on the distressed people of Greece? Have not all privatefortunes, the revenues of the state, the contributions from ourallies, been squandered? Have not the allies, whom we gained in thewar, been lost recently in the peace? But forsooth, in these respectsonly was it better anciently than now, in other respects worse. Veryfar from that! Let us examine what instances you please. The edificeswhich they left, the ornaments of the city in temples, harbors, andthe like, were so magnificent and beautiful, that room is not leftfor any succeeding generation to surpass them; yonder gateway, theParthenon, docks, porticos, and others structures, which they adornedthe city withal and bequeathed to us. The private houses of the men inpower were so modest and in accordance with the name of theconstitution, that if any one knows the style of house whichThemistocles occupied, or Cimon, or Aristides, or Miltiades, and theillustrious of that day, he perceives it to be no grander than that ofthe neighbors. But now, ye men of Athens--as regards publicmeasures--our government is content to furnish roads, fountains, whitewashing, and trumpery; not that I blame the authors of theseworks; far otherwise; I blame you, if you suppose that such measuresare all you have to execute. As regards individual conduct--your menin office have (some of them) made their private houses, not only moreostentatious than the multitude, but more splendid than the publicbuildings; others are farming land which they have purchased of suchan extent as once they never hoped for in a dream. The cause of this difference is, that formerly the people were lordsand masters of all; any individual citizen was glad to receive fromthem his share of honor, office, or profit. Now, on the contrary, these persons are the disposers of emoluments; everything is done bytheir agency; the people are treated as underlings and dependents, andyou are happy to take what these men allow you for your portion. ORATION ON THE CROWN. (_By Demosthenes. _) Let me begin, men of Athens, by imploring, of all the Heavenly Powers, that the same kindly sentiments which I have, throughout my publiclife, cherished towards this country and each one of you, may now byyou be shown towards me in the present contest! In two respects myadversary plainly has the advantage of me. First, we have not the sameinterests at stake; it is by no means the same thing for me to forfeityour esteem, and for Æschines, an unprovoked volunteer, to fail in hisimpeachment. My other disadvantage is, the natural proneness of men tolend a pleased attention to invective and accusation, but to givelittle heed to him whose theme is his own vindication. To myadversary, therefore, falls the part which ministers to yourgratification, while to me there is only left that which, I may almostsay, is distasteful to all. And yet, if I do not speak of myself andmy own conduct, I shall appear defenseless against his charges, andwithout proof that my honors were well earned. This, therefore, I mustdo; but it shall be with moderation. And bear in mind that the blameof my dwelling on personal topics must justly rest upon him who hasinstituted this personal impeachment. At least, my judges, you will admit that this question concerns me asmuch as Ctesiphon, and justifies on my part an equal anxiety. To bestripped of any possession, and more especially by an enemy, isgrievous to bear, but to be robbed of your confidence and esteem--ofall possessions the most precious--is indeed intolerable. Such, then, being my stake in this cause, I conjure you all to give ear to mydefense against these charges, with that impartiality which the lawsenjoin--those laws first given by Solon, and which he fixed, not onlyby engraving them on brazen tables, but by the sanction of the oathsyou take when sitting in judgment; because he perceived that, theaccuser being armed with the advantage of speaking first, the accusedcan have no chance of resisting his charges, unless you, his judges, keeping the oath sworn before Heaven, shall receive with favor thedefense which comes last, and, lending an equal ear to both parties, shall thus make up your minds upon the whole of the case. CICERO. Cicero, taken all in all, for his eloquence, for his learning, for histrue patriotism, for the profound and ennobling views he has left usin his critical, oratorical and philosophical writings, as well as forhis purity in all the domestic relations of life, in the midst ofalmost universal profligacy, stands forth upon the page of history asone of the very brightest names the ancients have left us. He wasprobably distinguished most as an orator, in which character he ismost generally known, though as a general scholar and statesman he wasalmost without a peer. He was born on the third of January, 106 B. C. His father was a member of the Equestrian order, and lived in easycircumstances near Arpinum, but afterwards removed to Rome for thepurpose of educating his sons, Marcus and Quintus. The very bestteachers were procured for them. Almost immediately after hisschooling he was promoted, and rose from one station of honor anddistinction to another. It may be doubted whether any individual ever rose to power by morevirtuous and truly honorable conduct, and the integrity of his publiclife was only equaled by the purity of his private morals. But as hishistory is taught to our school boys and his orations read in theiroriginal language, we will not lengthen our remarks. The following arehis works. They are numerous and diversified, but may be arrangedunder five separate heads: 1. _Philosophical Works. _ 2. _Speeches. _ 3. _Correspondence. _ 4. _Poems. _ 5. _Historical and Miscellaneous Works. _The following are the most important: First, his _Philosophical Works_, 1. _De Inventione Rhetorica_, "Onthe Rhetorical Art;" intended to exhibit, in a compendious form, allthat are most valuable in the works of the Grecian rhetoricians. 2. _De Partitione Oratorio Dialogus_, "A Dialogue on the severalDivisions of Rhetoric, " a sort of catechism of rhetoric. 3. _DeOratore_, "On the True Orator, " a systematic work on the art oforatory. This is one of his most brilliant efforts, and so accuratelyfinished in its minute parts, that it may be regarded as a masterpieceof skill in all that relates to the graces of style and composition. 4. _Brutus: de claris Oratoribus. _ This is in the form of a dialogue, and contains a complete critical history of Roman eloquence. 5. _Orator_, "The Orator, " addressed to Marcus Brutus, giving his viewsas to what constitutes a perfect orator. 6. _De Republica_, "On theRepublic, " in six books, designed to show the best form of governmentand the duty of the citizen; but a considerable portion of this islost. 7. _De Officiis_; a treatise on moral obligations, viewed not somuch with reference to a metaphysical investigation of the basis onwhich they rest, as to the practical business of the world, and theintercourse of social and political life. This is one of his mostprecious legacies. 8. _De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum_, "On the Ends ofGood and Evil, " a series of dialogues dedicated to M. Brutus, in whichthe opinions of the Grecian schools, especially of the Epicureans, theStoics, and the Peripatetics, on the Supreme Good, the _Summum Bonum_, that is, the _finis_, "the end. " [Illustration: AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. (_Found at Pompeii. _)] INVECTIVE AGAINST CATILINE. (_By Cicero. _) How long, O Catiline, wilt thou abuse our patience? How long shaltthou baffle justice in thy mad career? To what extreme wilt thou carrythy audacity? Art thou nothing daunted by the nightly watch, posted tosecure the Palatium? Nothing, by the city guards! Nothing, by therally of all good citizens? Nothing, by the assembling of the senatein this fortified place? Nothing, by the averted looks of all herepresent? Seest thou not that all thy plots are exposed?--that thywretched conspiracy is laid bare to every man's knowledge, here in thesenate?--that we are well aware of thy proceedings of last night; ofthe night before; the place, of meeting, the company convoked, themeasures concerted? Alas, the times! Alas, the public morals! Thesenate understands all this. The Consul sees it. Yet the traitorlives! Lives? Ay, truly, and confronts us here in council; takes partin our deliberations; and, with his measuring eye, marks out each manof us for slaughter! And we, all this while, strenuous that we are, think we have amply discharged our duty to the state, if we but _shun_this madman's sword and fury! Long since, O Catiline, ought the Consul to have ordered thee toexecution, and brought upon thy own head the ruin thou hast beenmeditating against others! There was that virtue once in Rome, that awicked citizen was held more execrable than the deadliest foe. We havea law still, Catiline, for thee. Think not that we are powerlessbecause forbearing. We have a decree--though it rests among ourarchives like a sword in its scabbard--a decree by which thy lifewould be made to pay the forfeit of thy crimes. And, should I orderthee to be instantly seized and put to death, I make just doubtwhether all good men would not think it done rather too late, than anyman too cruelly. But, for good reasons, I will yet defer the blow, long since deserved. _Then_ will I doom thee, when no man is found solost, so wicked, nay, so like thyself, but shall confess that it wasjustly dealt. While there is one man that dares defend thee, live! Butthou shalt live so beset, so surrounded, so scrutinized, by thevigilant guards that I have placed around thee, that thou shalt notstir a foot against the Republic without my knowledge. There shall beeyes to detect thy slightest movement, and ears to catch thy wariestwhisper, of which thou shalt not dream. The darkness of night shallnot cover thy treason--the walls of privacy shall not stifle itsvoice. Baffled on all sides, thy most secret counsels clear asnoon-day, what canst thou now have in view? Proceed, plot, conspire, as thou wilt; there is nothing you can contrive, nothing you canpropose, nothing you can attempt which I shall not know, hear, andpromptly understand. Thou shalt soon be made aware that I am even moreactive in providing for the preservation of the state than thou inplotting its destruction!--_First Oration. _ EXPULSION OF CATILINE FROM ROME. (_By Cicero. _) At length, Romans, we are rid of Catiline! We have driven him forth, drunk with fury, breathing mischief, threatening to revisit us withfire and sword. He is gone; he is fled; he has escaped; he has brokenaway. No longer, within the very walls of the city, shall he plot herruin. We have forced him from secret plots into open rebellion. Thebad citizen is now the avowed traitor. His flight is the confession ofhis treason! Would that his attendants had not been so few! Be speedy, ye companions of his dissolute pleasures; be speedy, and you mayovertake him before night, on the Aurelian road. Let him not languish, deprived of your society. Haste to join the congenial crew thatcompose his army; _his_ army, I say--for who doubts that the armyunder Manlius expect Catiline for their leader? And such an army!Outcasts from honor, and fugitives from debt; gamblers and felons;miscreants, whose dreams are of rapine, murder, and conflagration! Against these gallant troops of your adversary, prepare, O Romans, your garrisons and armies; and first to that maimed and batteredgladiator oppose your consuls and generals; next, against thatmiserable, outcast horde, lead forth the strength and flower of allItaly! On the one side, chastity contends; on the other wantonness;here purity, there pollution; here integrity, there treachery; herepiety, there profaneness; here constancy, there rage; here honesty, there baseness; here continence, there lust; in short, equity, temperance, fortitude, prudence, struggle with iniquity, luxury, cowardice, rashness; every virtue with every vice; and, lastly, thecontest lies between well-grounded hope and absolute despair. In sucha conflict, were even human aid to fail, would not the immortal godsempower such conspicuous virtue to triumph over such complicatedvice?--_Second Oration. _ THE TYRANT PRÆTOR DENOUNCED. (_By Cicero. _) An opinion has long prevailed, fathers, that, in public prosecutions, men of wealth, however clearly convicted, are always safe. Thisopinion, so injurious to your order, so detrimental to the state, isnow in your power to refute. A man is on trial before you who is rich, and who hopes his riches will compass his acquittal, but whose lifeand actions are sufficient condemnation in the eyes of all candid men. I speak of Caius Verres, who, if he now receive not the sentence hiscrimes deserve, it shall not be through the lack of a criminal or of aprosecutor, but through the failure of the ministers of justice to dotheir duty. Passing over the shameful irregularities of his youth, what does the quæstorship of Verres exhibit but one continued scene ofvillainies? The public treasure squandered, a Consul stripped andbetrayed, an army deserted and reduced to want, a province robbed, thecivil and religious rights of a people trampled on! But hispraætorship in Sicily has crowned his career of wickedness, andcompleted the lasting monument of his infamy. His decisions haveviolated all law, all precedent, all right. His extortions from theindustrious poor have been beyond computation. Our most faithfulallies have been treated as enemies. Roman citizens have, like slaves, been put to death with tortures. Men the most worthy have beencondemned and banished without a hearing, while the most atrociouscriminals have, with money, purchased exemption from the punishmentdue to their guilt. I ask now, Verres, what have you to advance against these charges? Artthou not the tyrant prætor, who, at no greater distance than Sicily, within sight of the Italian coast, dared to put to an infamous death, on the cross, that ill-fated and innocent citizen, Publius GaviusCosanus? And what was his offense? He had declared his intention ofappealing to the justice of his country against your brutalpersecutions! For this, when about to embark for home, he was seized, brought before you, charged with being a spy, scourged and tortured. In vain did he exclaim: "I am a Roman citizen! I have served underLucius Pretius, who is now at Panormus, and who will attest myinnocence!" Deaf to all remonstrance, remorseless, thirsting forinnocent blood, you ordered the savage punishment to be inflicted!While the sacred words, "I am a Roman citizen, " were on hislips--words which, in the remotest regions, are a passport toprotection--you ordered him to death, to a death upon the cross! O liberty! O sound once delightful to every Roman ear! O sacredprivilege of Roman citizenship! once sacred--now trampled on! Is itcome to this? Shall an inferior magistrate--a governor, who holds hiswhole power of the Roman people--in a Roman province, within sight ofItaly, bind, scourge, torture, and put to an infamous death, a Romancitizen? Shall neither the cries of innocence expiring in agony, thetears of pitying spectators, the majesty of the Roman commonwealth, nor the fear of the justice of this country, restrain the mercilessmonster, who, in the confidence of his riches, strikes at the veryroot of liberty, and sets mankind at defiance? And shall this manescape? Fathers, it must not be! It must not be, unless you wouldundermine the very foundations of social safety, strangle justice, andcall down anarchy, massacre and ruin on the commonwealth. --_Orationagainst Verres. _ ADVANTAGES OF AGE. (_By Cicero. _) Indeed, old age is so far from being necessarily a state of languorand inactivity, that it generally continues to exert itself in thatsort of occupation which was the favorite object of its pursuit inmore vigorous years. I will add, that instances might be produced ofmen who, in this period of life, have successfully applied themselveseven to the acquisition of some art of science to which they werebefore entirely strangers. Thus Solon in one of his poems, writtenwhen he was advanced in years, glories that "he learned somethingevery day he lived. " And old as I myself am, it is but lately that Iacquired a knowledge of the Greek language; to which I applied withthe more zeal and diligence, as I had long entertained an earnestdesire of becoming acquainted with the writings and characters ofthose excellent men, to whose examples I have occasionally appealed inthe course of our present conversation. Thus, Socrates, too, in hisold age, learned to play upon the lyre, an art which the ancients didnot deem unworthy of their application. If I have not followed thephilosopher's example in this instance (which, indeed, I very muchregret), I have spared, however, no pains to make myself master of theGreek language and learning. Inestimable, too, are the advantages of old age, if we contemplate itin another point of view; if we consider it as delivering us from thetyranny of lust and ambition; from the angry and contentious passions;from every inordinate and irrational desire; in a word, as teaching usto retire within ourselves, and look for happiness in our own bosoms. If to these moral benefits naturally resulting from length of days beadded that sweet food of the mind which is gathered in the fields ofscience, I know not any season of life that is passed more agreeablythan the learned leisure of a virtuous old age. IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL. (_By Cicero. _) And now, among the different sentiments of the philosophers concerningthe consequences of our final dissolution, may I not venture todeclare my own? and the rather, as the nearer death advances towardsme, the more clearly I seem to discern its real nature. I am well convinced, then, that my dear departed friends, your twoillustrious fathers, are so far from having ceased to live, that thestate they now enjoy can alone with propriety be called _life_. Thesoul, during her confinement within this prison of the body, is doomedby fate to undergo a severe penance; for her native seat is in heaven, and it is with reluctance that she is forced down from those celestialmansions into these lower regions, where all is foreign and repugnantto her divine nature. But the gods, I am persuaded, have thus widelydisseminated immortal spirits, and clothed them with human bodies, that there might be a race of intelligent creatures, not only to havedominion over this, our earth, but to contemplate the host of heaven, and imitate in their moral conduct the same beautiful order anduniformity so conspicuous in those splendid orbs. This opinion I aminduced to embrace, not only as agreeable to the best deductions ofreason, but in just deference, also, to the authority of the noblestand most distinguished philosophers. And I am further confirmed in mybelief of the soul's immortality by the discourse which Socrates--whomthe oracle of Apollo pronounced to be the wisest of men--held uponthis subject just before his death. In a word, when I consider thefaculties with which the human mind is endued; its amazing celerity;its wonderful power in recollecting past events, and sagacity indiscerning future; together with its numberless discoveries in theseveral arts and sciences, I feel a conscious conviction that thisactive, comprehensive principle can not possibly be of a mortalnature. And as this unceasing activity of the soul derives its energyfrom its own intrinsic and essential powers, without receiving it fromany foreign or external impulse, it necessarily follows (as it isabsurd to suppose the soul would desert itself) that this activitymust continue forever. But farther; as the soul is evidently a simple, uncompounded substance, without any dissimilar parts or heterogeneousmixture, it can not, therefore, be divided; consequently, it can notperish. I might add, that the facility and expedition with which youthare taught to acquire numberless very difficult arts, is a strongpresumption that the soul possessed a considerable portion ofknowledge before it entered into the human form, and that what seemsto be received from instruction is, in fact, no other than areminiscence or recollection of its former ideas. This, at least, isthe opinion of Plato. JULIUS CAESAR. Julius Cæsar was born on the 12th of July, 100 B. C. As to hisintellectual character, Cæsar was gifted by nature with the mostvaried talents, and was distinguished by an extraordinary genius, andby attainments in very diversified pursuits. He was, at one and thesame time, a general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, an orator, apoet, an historian, a philologer, a mathematician, and an architect. He seemed equally fitted to excel in all, and has given proofs that hewould surpass most men in any subject to which he should devote theenergies of his great mind; and Middleton says he was the only man inRome capable of rivaling Cicero as an orator. During his whole busylife he found time for literary pursuits, and always took pleasure inthe society and conversation of men of learning. Cæsar wrote many works on different subjects, but they are now alllost but his "Commentaries. " These relate the history of the firstseven years of the Gallic War in seven books, and the Civil War downto the commencement of the Alexandrine in three books. The purity ofhis Latin, and the clearness and beauty of his style have rendered his"Commentaries" a most popular and desirable text book for students ofthe Latin language. A most important change was introduced by him in the reformation ofthe calendar, which was not only of vast importance to his country andto the civilized world, but its benefits have extended to the presentday. What consummate folly, then, to say nothing of the wickedness, was displayed by the conspirators who put him to death; for instead ofthe wise, the noble, the magnanimous, they exalted to supreme powerone of the basest men in all Rome--Augustus, who, as one of thesecond Triumvirate, consented to the murder of his intimate and noblefriend, Cicero. [Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR. (_From an Ancient Sculpturing. _)] THE GERMANS. (_By Julius Cæsar. _) The Germans differ much from these usages, for they have neitherDruids to preside over sacred offices, nor do they pay great regard tosacrifices. They rank in the number of the gods those alone whom theybehold, and by whose instrumentality they are obviously benefited, namely, the sun, fire, and the moon; they have not heard of the otherdeities even by report. Their whole life is occupied in hunting andin the pursuits of the military art; from childhood they devotethemselves to fatigue and hardships. Those who have remained chastefor the longest time receive the greatest commendation among theirpeople; they think that by this the growth is promoted, by this thephysical powers are increased and the sinews are strengthened. They do not pay much attention to agriculture, and a large portion oftheir food consists in milk, cheese, and flesh; nor has any one afixed quantity of land or his own individual limits; but themagistrates and the leading men each year apportion to the tribes andfamilies, who have united together, as much land as, and in the placewhich, they think proper, and the year after compel them to removeelsewhere. For this enactment they advance many reasons--lest seducedby long-continued custom, they may exchange their ardor in the wagingof war for agriculture; lest they may be anxious to acquire extensiveestates, and the more powerful drive the weaker from theirpossessions; lest they construct their houses with too great a desireto avoid cold and heat; lest the desire of wealth spring up, fromwhich cause divisions and discords arise; and that they may keep thecommon people in a contented state of mind, when each sees his ownmeans placed on an equality with those of the most powerful. It is the greatest glory to the several states to have as wide desertsas possible around them, their frontiers having been laid waste. Theyconsider this the real evidence of their prowess, that their neighborsshall be driven out of their lands and abandon them, and that no onedare settle near them; at the same time they think that they shall beon that account the more secure, because they have removed theapprehension of a sudden incursion. When a state either repels warwaged against it, or wages it against another, magistrates are chosento preside over that war with such authority that they have power oflife and death. In peace there is no common magistrate, but thechiefs of provinces and cantons administer justice and determinecontroversies among their own people. Robberies which are committedbeyond the boundaries of each state bear no infamy, and they avow thatthese are committed for the purpose of disciplining their youth and ofpreventing sloth. And when any of their chiefs has said in an assembly"that he will be their leader, let those who are willing to followgive in their names, " they who approve of both the enterprise and theman arise and promise their assistance and are applauded by thepeople; such of them as have not followed him are accounted in thenumber of deserters and traitors, and confidence in all matters isafterwards refused them. To injure guests they regard as impious; theydefend from wrong those who have come to them for any purposewhatever, and esteem them inviolable; to them the houses of all areopen and maintenance is freely supplied. BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. (_By Julius Cæsar. _) There was so much space left between the two lines as sufficed for theonset of the hostile armies; but Pompey had ordered his soldiers toawait Cæsar's attack, and not to advance from their position, orsuffer their line to be put into disorder. And he is said to have donethis by the advice of Caius Triarius, that the impetuosity of thecharge of Cæsar's soldiers might be checked, and their line broken, and that Pompey's troops, remaining in their ranks, might attack themwhile in disorder; and he thought that the javelins would fall withless force if the soldiers were kept in their ground, than if they metthem in their course; at the same time he trusted that Cæsar'ssoldiers, after running over double the usual ground, would becomeweary and exhausted by the fatigue. But to me Pompey seems to haveacted without sufficient reason; for there is a certain impetuosity ofspirit and an alacrity implanted by nature in the hearts of all men, which is inflamed by a desire to meet the foe. This a general shouldendeavor not to repress, but to increase; nor was it a vaininstitution of our ancestors that the trumpets should sound on allsides, and a general shout be raised; by which they imagined that theenemy were struck with terror, and their own army inspired withcourage. But our men, when the signal was given, rushed forward with theirjavelins ready to be launched, but perceiving that Pompey's men didnot run to meet their charge, having acquired experience by custom, and being practiced in former battles, they of their own accordrepressed their speed, and halted almost midway, that they might notcome up with the enemy when their strength was exhausted, and after ashort respite they again renewed their course, and threw theirjavelins, and instantly drew their swords, as Cæsar had ordered them. Nor did Pompey's men fail in this crisis, for they received ourjavelins, stood our charge, and maintained their ranks; and havinglaunched their javelins, had recourse to their swords. At the sametime Pompey's horse, according to their orders, rushed out at oncefrom his left wing, and his whole host of archers poured after them. Our cavalry did not withstand their charge, but gave ground a little, upon which Pompey's horse pressed them more vigorously, and began tofile off in troops, and flank our army. When Cæsar perceived this, hegave the signal to his fourth line, which he had formed of the sixcohorts. They instantly rushed forward and charged Pompey's horse withsuch fury that not a man of them stood; but all wheeling about, notonly quitted their post, but galloped forward to seek a refuge in thehighest mountains. By their retreat the archers and slingers, beingleft destitute and defenseless, were all cut to pieces. The cohorts, pursuing their success, wheeled about upon Pompey's left wing, whilsthis infantry still continued to make battle, and attacked them in therear. At the same time Cæsar ordered his third line to advance, which tillthen had not been engaged, but had kept their post. Thus, new andfresh troops having come to the assistance of the fatigued, and othershaving made an attack on their rear, Pompey's men were not able tomaintain their ground, but all fled, nor was Cæsar deceived in hisopinion that the victory, as he had declared in his speech to hissoldiers, must have its beginning from those six cohorts, which he hadplaced as a fourth line to oppose the horse. For by them the cavalrywere routed; by them the archers and slingers were cut to pieces; bythem the left wing of Pompey's army was surrounded, and obliged to bethe first to flee. But when Pompey saw his cavalry routed, and thatpart of his army on which he reposed his greatest hopes thrown intoconfusion, despairing of the rest, he quitted the field, and retreatedstraightway on horseback to his camp, and calling to the centurions, whom he had placed to guard the prætorian gate, with a loud voice, that the soldiers might hear: "Secure the camp, " says he; "defend itwith diligence, if any danger should threaten it; I will visit theother gates, and encourage the guards of the camp. " Having thus said, he retired into his tent in utter despair, yet anxiously waiting theissue. Cæsar having forced the Pompeians to flee into their entrenchment, andthinking that he ought not to allow them any respite to recover fromtheir fright, exhorted his soldiers to take advantage of fortune'skindness, and to attack the camp. Though they were fatigued by theintense heat, for the battle had continued till mid-day, yet, beingprepared to undergo any labor, they cheerfully obeyed his command. Thecamp was bravely defended by the cohorts which had been left to guardit, but with much more spirit by the Thracians and foreignauxiliaries. For the soldiers who had fled for refuge to it from thefield of battle, affrighted and exhausted by fatigue, having thrownaway their arms and military standards, had their thoughts moreengaged on their further escape than on the defense of the camp. Norcould the troops who were posted on the battlements long withstand theimmense number of our darts, but fainting under their wounds, quittedthe place, and under the conduct of their centurions and tribunes, fled, without stopping, to the high mountains which joined the camp. In Pompey's camp you might see arbors in which tables were laid; alarge quantity of plate set out; the floors of the tents covered withfresh sods; the tents of Lucius Lentulus and others shaded with ivy;and many other things which were proofs of excessive luxury, and aconfidence of victory; so that it might readily be inferred, that theyhad no apprehensions of the issue of the day, as they indulgedthemselves in unnecessary pleasures, and yet upbraided with luxuryCæsar's army, distressed and suffering troops, who had always been inwant of common necessaries. Pompey, as soon as our men had forced thetrenches, mounting his horse, and stripping off his general's habit, went hastily out of the back gate of the camp, and galloped with allspeed to Larissa. Nor did he stop there, but with the same dispatch, collecting a few of his flying troops, and halting neither day nornight, he arrived at the sea-side, attended by only thirty horses, andwent on board a victualing barque, often complaining, as we have beentold, that he had been so deceived in his expectation, that he wasalmost persuaded that he had been betrayed by those from whom he hadexpected victory, as they began the flight. VIRGIL. Virgil was born October 15, 70 B. C. , and died 19 B. C. His father wasan opulent farmer, and gave his son a liberal Greek and Latineducation. His principal works were the _Georgica_ and the _Æneid_. The _Georgica_ (Georgics), or "Agricultural Poems, " is a didactic poemin four books, dedicated to Mæcenas. In the first book he treats ofthe cultivation of the soil; in the second, of fruit trees; in thethird, of horses and other cattle, and in the fourth, of bees. Itgives us the most finished specimen of the Latin hexameter which wehave. It is acknowledged by scholars to stand at the head of allVirgil's works, and is certainly the most elaborate and extraordinaryinstance of power in embellishing a most barren subject which humangenius has ever afforded. The commonest precepts of farming aredelivered with an elegance which could scarcely be attained by a poetwho should endeavor to clothe in verse the sublimest maxims ofphilosophy. At what time Virgil projected the _Æneid_ is uncertain, but from avery early age he appears to have had a strong desire of composing anepic poem which would be an enduring monument of his fame. And he hassucceeded, for this poem is ranked as one of the great epics of theworld. It is divided into twelve books, and originates from an oldRoman tradition that Æneas and his company of Trojans settled inItaly, and founded the Roman nation. PRAISE OF RURAL LIFE. (_By Virgil. _) Thrice happy swains! whom genuine pleasures bless, If they but knew and felt their happiness! From wars and discord far, and public strife, Earth with salubrious fruits supports their life; Tho' high-arch'd domes, tho' marble halls they want, And columns cased in gold and elephant, In awful ranks where brazen statues stand, The polish'd works of Grecia's skillful hand; Nor dazzling palace view, whose portals proud Each morning vomit out the cringing crowd; Nor wear the tissu'd garment's cumb'rous pride, Nor seek soft wool in Syrian purple dy'd, Nor with fantastic luxury defile The native sweetness of the liquid oil; Yet calm content, secure from guilty cares, Yet home-felt pleasure, peace, and rest, are theirs; Leisure and ease, in groves, and cooling vales, Grottoes, and bubbling brooks, and darksome dales; The lowing oxen, and the bleating sheep, And under branching trees delicious sleep! There forests, lawns, and haunts of beasts abound, There youth is temperate, and laborious found; There altars and the righteous gods are fear'd, And aged sires by duteous sons rever'd. There Justice linger'd ere she fled mankind, And left some traces of her reign behind! _Georgics II. Warton. _ EMPLOYMENTS OF THE BEE. (_By Virgil. _) If all things with great we may compare, Such are the bees, and such their busy care: Studious of honey, each in his degree, The youthful swain, the grave, experienced bee; That in the field; this in affairs of state, Employed at home, abides within the gate, To fortify the combs, to build the wall, To prop the ruins, lest the fabric fall: But late at night, with weary pinions come The laboring youth, and heavy laden home. Plains, meads, and orchards, all the day he plies, The gleans of yellow thyme distend his thighs: He spoils the saffron flowers, he sips the blues Of violets, wilding blooms, and willow dews. Their toil is common, common is their sleep; They shake their wings when morn begins to peep; Rush through the city gates without delay, Nor ends their work but with declining day: Then, having spent the last remains of light, They give their bodies due repose at night; When hollow murmurs of their evening bells Dismiss the sleepy swains, and toll them to their cells. _Georgics IV. Dryden. _ [Illustration: VIRGIL AND HORACE. ] PUNISHMENTS IN HELL. (_By Virgil. _) Now to the left, Æneas darts his eyes, Where lofty walls with tripple ramparts rise. There rolls swift Phlegethon, with thund'ring sound, His broken rocks, and whirls his surges round. On mighty columns rais'd, sublime are hung The massy gates, impenetrably strong. In vain would men, in vain would gods essay, To hew the beams of adamant away. Here rose an iron tow'r; before the gate, By night and day, a wakeful fury sate, The pale Tisiphone; a robe she wore, With all the pomp of horror, dy'd in gore. Here the loud scourge and louder voice of pain, The crashing fetter, and the ratt'ling chain. Strike the great hero with the frightful sound, The hoarse, rough, mingled din, that thunders round: Oh! whence that peal of groans? what pains are those? What crimes could merit such stupendous woes? Thus she--brave guardian of the Trojan state, None that are pure must pass that dreadful gate. When plac'd by Hecat o'er Avernus' woods, I learnt the secrets of those dire abodes, With all the tortures of the vengeful gods. Here Rhadamanthus holds his awful reign, Hears and condemns the trembling impious train. Those hidden crimes the wretch till death supprest, With mingled joy and horror in his breast, The stern dread judge commands him to display, And lays the guilty secrets bare to-day; Her lash Tisiphone that moment shakes; The ghost she scourges with a thousand snakes; Then to her aid, with many a thund'ring yell, Calls her dire sisters from the gulfs of hell. Near by the mighty Tityus I beheld, Earth's mighty giant son, stretch'd o'er the infernal field; He cover'd nine large acres as he lay, While with fierce screams a vulture tore away His liver for her food, and scoop'd the smoking prey; Plunged deep her bloody beak, nor plung'd in vain, For still the fruitful fibres spring again, Swell, and renew th' enormous monster's pain, She dwells forever in his roomy breast, Nor gives the roaring fiend a moment's rest; But still th' immortal prey supplies th' immortal feast. Need I the Lapiths' horrid pains relate, Ixion's torments, or Perithous' fate? On high a tottering rocky fragment spreads, Projects in air, and trembles o'er their heads. Stretch'd on the couch, they see with longing eyes In regal pomp successive banquets rise, While lucid columns, glorious to behold, Support th' imperial canopies of gold. The queen of furies, a tremendous guest, Sits by their side, and guards the tempting feast, Which if they touch, her dreadful torch she rears, Flames in their eyes, and thunders in their ears They that on earth had low pursuits in view, Their brethren hated, or their parents slew, And, still more numerous, those who swelled their store, But ne'er reliev'd their kindred or the poor; Or in a cause unrighteous fought and bled; Or perish'd in the foul adulterous bed; Or broke the ties of faith with base deceit; Imprison'd deep their destin'd torments wait. But what their torments, seek not thou to know, Or the dire sentence of their endless wo. Some roll a stone, rebounding down the hill, Some hang suspended on the whirling wheel; There Theseus groans in pain that ne'er expire, Chain'd down forever in a chair of fire. There Phlegyas feels unutterable wo, And roars incessant thro' the shades below; Be just, ye mortals! by these torments aw'd, These dreadful torments, not to scorn a god. This wretch his country to a tyrant sold, And barter'd glorious liberty for gold. Laws for a bribe he past, but past in vain, For those same laws a bribe repeal'd again. To some enormous crimes they all aspir'd; All feel the torments that those crimes requir'd! Had I a hundred mouths, a hundred tongues, A voice of brass, and adamantine lungs, Not half the mighty scene could I disclose, Repeat their crimes, or count their dreadful woes! _Æneid VI. Pitt. _ HORACE. Horace was born 65 B. C. And died 8 B. C. His father gave him a goodeducation. About the age of seventeen he lost his father, andafterwards his property was confiscated. He had to write forbread--_Paupertas impulit audax ut versus facerem_--and in so doinggained much reputation, and sufficient means to purchase the place ofscribe in the Quæstor's office. He now made his acquaintance withVirgil and Varius, and by them was introduced to that munificentpatron of scholars, Mæcenas, who gave to our poet a place next to hisheart, while he, in return, is never weary of acknowledging how muchhe owes to his illustrious friend. The following happy remarks on the Roman Satirists are by ProfessorSanborn, formerly Professor of Latin in Dartmouth College, and now inthe University of St. Louis: "The principal Roman Satirists wereHorace, Juvenal and Persius. Horace is merry; Persius serious; Juvenalindignant. Thus, wit, philosophy and lofty scorn mark their respectivepages. The satire of Horace was playful and good natured. His arrowswere always dipped in oil. He was a fine specimen of an accomplishedgentleman. His sentiments were evidently modified by his associates. He was an Epicurean and a stoic by turns. He commended and ridiculedboth sects. He practiced economy and praised liberality. He livedtemperate, and sang the praises of festivity. He was the favorite ofthe court and paid for its patronage in compliments and panegyrics, unsurpassed in delicacy of sentiment and beauty of expression. Horaceis every man's companion. He has a word of advice and admonition forall. His criticisms constitute most approved canons of therhetorician; his sage reflections adorn the page of the moralist; hishumor and wit give point and force to the satirist, and his gravermaxims are not despised by the Christian philosopher. Juvenal isfierce and denunciatory. His characteristics are energy, force, andindignation; his weapons are irony, wit and sarcasm; he is a decidedcharacter, and you must yield and submit, or resist. His denunciationsof vice are startling. He hated the Greeks, the aristocracy and womanwith intense hatred. No author has written with such terriblebitterness of the sex. Unlike other satirists, he never relents. Hisarrow is ever on the string, and whatever wears the guise of woman ishis game. The most celebrated of the modern imitators of Horace andJuvenal are Swift and Pope. " The Odes, Satires and Epistles are his chief productions. TO LICINIUS. (_By Horace. _) Receive, dear friend, the truths I teach So shalt thou live beyond the reach Of adverse Fortune's power; Not always tempt the distant deep, Nor always timorously creep Along the treacherous shore. He that holds fast the golden mean, And lives contentedly between The little and the great, Feels not the wants that pinch the poor, Nor plagues that haunt the rich man's door, Embittering all his state. The tallest pines feel most the power Of wintry blasts; the loftiest tower Comes heaviest to the ground; The bolts that spare the mountain's side, His cloud-capt eminence divide, And spread the ruin round. The well-inform'd philosopher Rejoices with an wholesome fear, And hopes, in spite of pain; If Winter bellow from the north, Soon the sweet Spring comes dancing forth, And Nature laughs again. What if thine heaven be overcast? The dark appearance will not last; Expect a brighter sky; The god that strings the silver bow, Awakes sometimes the Muses, too, And lays his arrows by. If hindrances obstruct thy way, Thy magnanimity display, And let thy strength be seen; But oh! if Fortune fill thy sail With more than a propitious gale, Take half thy canvas in. _Cowper. _ TO PYRRHA. (_By Horace. _) What youth, O Pyrrha! blooming fair, With rose-twined wreath and perfumed hair, Woos thee beneath yon grotto's shade, Urgent in prayer and amorous glance? For whom dost thou thy tresses braid, Simple in thine elegance? Alas! full soon shall he deplore Thy broken faith, thy altered mien: Like one astonished at the roar Of breakers on a leeward shore, Whom gentle airs and skies serene Had tempted on the treacherous deep, So he thy perfidy shall weep Who now enjoys thee fair and kind, But dreams not of the shifting wind. Thrice wretched they, deluded and betrayed, Who trust thy glittering smile and Siren tongue! I have escaped the shipwreck, and have hung In Neptune's fane my dripping vest displayed With votive tablet on his altar laid, Thanking the sea-god for his timely aid. _Lord Ravensworth. _ SENECA. Seneca was born 7 B. C. And died 65 A. D. His writings were of aphilosophical nature. His character was much doubted. His greatmisfortune was to have known Nero, who ordered him to be put to death, to which he merely replied that he who had murdered his brother andhis mother could not be expected to spare his teacher. He had beenabsent from Rome some time, and when he returned to visit his motherin the country, he was spied, and Nero sent a squad of armed men tothe house to ask him to choose the manner of his death. His fame restson his numerous writings, which, with all their faults, have greatmerits. His principal works, which are of a philosophical character, are essays "On Anger, " "On Consolation, " "On Providence, " "OnTranquillity of Mind, " "On the Firmness of the Wise Man, " "OnClemency, " "On the Brevity of Human Life, " "On a Happy Life, " etc. , together with "Epistles of Lucilius, " one hundred and twenty-four innumber. Besides these, there are extant ten tragedies attributed tohim, entitled, _Hercules Furens_, _Thyestes_, _Thebais_ or _Phœnissæ_, _Hippolytus_ or _Phædra_, _Œdipus_, _Troades_ or _Hecuba_, _Medea_, _Agamemnon_, _Hercules Œtæus_ and _Octavia_. These were never intendedfor the stage, but were designed for reading or recitation, after theRoman fashion. They contain many striking passages, and have somemerits as poems. HAPPINESS FOUNDED ON WISDOM. (_By Seneca. _) Taking it for granted that _human happiness_ is founded upon _wisdom_and _virtue_, we shall treat of these two points in order as they lie, and _first_ of _wisdom_; not in the latitude of its variousoperations, but only as it has a regard to good life and the happinessof mankind. Wisdom is a right understanding; a faculty of discerning good fromevil; what is to be chosen, and what rejected; a judgment groundedupon the value of things, and not the common opinion of them; anequality of force and strength of resolution. It sets a watch over ourwords and deeds, it takes us up with the contemplation of the works ofnature, and makes us invincible by either good or evil fortune. It islarge and spacious, and requires a great deal of room to work in; itransacks heaven and earth; it has for its object things past and tocome, transitory and eternal. It examines all the circumstances oftime; "what it is, when it began, and how long it will continue;" andso for the mind; "whence it came; what it is; when it begins; how longit lasts; whether or no it passes from one form to another, or servesonly one, and wanders when it leaves us; where it abides in the stateof separation, and what the action of it; what use it makes of itsliberty; whether or no it retains the memory of things past, and comesto the knowledge of itself. " It is the habit of a perfect mind and theperfection of humanity, raised as high as nature can carry it. Itdiffers from _philosophy_, as avarice and money; the one desires, andthe other is desired; the one is the effect and the reward of theother. To be wise is the use of wisdom, as seeing is the use of eyesand well-speaking the use of eloquence. He that is perfectly wise isperfectly happy; nay, the very beginning of wisdom makes life easy tous. Neither is it enough to know this, unless we print it in ourminds by daily meditation, and so bring a _good will_ to a good habit. And we must practice what we preach, for _philosophy_ is not a subjectfor popular ostentation, nor does it rest in words, but in things. Itis not an entertainment taken up for delight, or to give a taste toleisure, but it fashions the mind, governs our actions, tells us whatwe are to do, and what not. It sits at the helm, and guides us throughall hazards; nay, we can not be safe without it, for every hour givesus occasion to make use of it. It informs us in all the duties oflife, piety to our parents, faith to our friends, charity to themiserable, judgment in counsel; it gives us _peace_, by _fearing_nothing, and _riches_, by _coveting nothing_. There is no condition of life that excludes a wise man fromdischarging his duty. If his fortune be good, he _tempers_ it; if bad, he _masters_ it; if he has an estate, he will exercise his virtue inplenty, if none, in poverty; if he can not do it in his country, hewill do it in banishment; if he has no command, he will do the officeof a common soldier. Some people have the skill of reclaiming thefiercest of beasts: they will make a lion embrace his keeper, a tigerkiss him, and an elephant kneel to him. This is the case of a wise manin the extremest difficulties; let them be never so terrible inthemselves, when they come to him once, they are perfectly tame. Theythat ascribe the invention of tillage, architecture, navigation, etc. , to wise men, may perchance be in the right, that they were invented bywise men; but they were not invented by wise men, as _wise men_; forwisdom does not teach our fingers, but our minds: fiddling anddancing, arms and fortifications, were the works of luxury anddiscord; but wisdom instructs us in the way of nature, and in the artsof unity and concord; not in the instruments, but in the government oflife; nor to make us live only, but to live happily. She teaches uswhat things are good, what evil, and what only appear so; and todistinguish betwixt true greatness and tumor. She clears our minds ofdross and vanity; she raises up our thoughts to heaven, and carriesthem down to hell; she discourses on the nature of the soul, thepowers and faculties of it; the first principles of things; the orderof providence: she exalts us from things corporeal to thingsincorporeal; and retrieves the truth of all: she searches nature, gives laws to life; and tells us, "that it is not enough to know Godunless we obey Him. " She looks upon all accidents as acts ofprovidence; sets a true value upon things; delivers us from falseopinions, and condemns all pleasures that are attended withrepentance. She allows nothing to be good that will not be so forever;no man to be happy but he that needs no other happiness than what hehas within himself; no man to be great or powerful, that is not masterof himself;--and this is the felicity of human life; a felicity thatcan neither be corrupted nor extinguished. AGAINST RASH JUDGMENT. (_By Seneca. _) It is good for every man to fortify himself on his weak side; and ifhe loves his peace, he must not be inquisitive and harken totale-bearers; for the man that is over-curious to hear and seeeverything, multiplies troubles to himself; for a man does not feelwhat he does not know. He that is listening after private discourse, and what people say of him, shall never be at peace. How many thingsthat are innocent in themselves, are made injurious yet bymisconstruction? Wherefore some things we are to pause upon, others tolaugh at, and others again to pardon. Or if we can not avoid the senseof indignities, let us, however, shun the open profession of it; whichmay be easily done, as appears by many examples of those who havesuppressed their anger, under the awe of a greater fear. It is a goodcaution not to believe anything until you are very certain of it; formany probable things prove false, and a short time will make evidenceof the undoubted truth. We are prone to believe many things which weare unwilling to hear, and so we conclude, and take up a prejudicebefore we can judge. Never condemn a friend unheard; or withoutletting him know his accuser, or his crime. It is a common thing tosay, "Do not tell that you had it from me; for if you do, I will denyit; and never tell you anything again. " By which means friends are settogether by the ears, and the informer slips his neck out of thecollar. Admit no stories, upon these terms; for it is an unjust thingto believe in private, and be angry openly. He that delivers himselfup to guess and conjecture, runs a great hazard; for there can be nosuspicion without some probable grounds; so that without much candorand simplicity, and making the best of everything, there is no livingin society with mankind. Some things that offend us we have by report;others we see or hear. In the first case, let us not be too credulous;some people frame stories that may deceive us; others only tell uswhat they hear, and are deceived themselves; some make it their sportto do ill offices; others do them only to receive thanks; there aresome that would part the dearest friends in the world; others love todo mischief, and stand off aloof to see what comes of it. If it be asmall matter, I would have witnesses; but if it be a greater, I wouldhave it upon oath, and allow time to the accused, and counsel, too, and hear it over and over again. [Illustration: EUCLID. ] THE EQUALITY OF MAN. (_By Seneca. _) It is not well done to be still murmuring against nature and fortune, as if it were their unkindness that makes you inconsiderable, when itis only by your own weakness that you make yourself so; for it isvirtue, not pedigree, that renders a man either valuable or happy. Philosophy does not either reject or choose any man for his quality. Socrates was no _patrician_, Cleanthes but an _under-gardener_;neither did Plato dignify philosophy by his birth, but by hisgoodness. All these worthy men are our _progenitors_, if we will butdo ourselves the honor to become their _disciples_. The original ofall mankind was the same, and it is only a clear conscience that makesany man noble, for that derives even from heaven itself. It is thesaying of a great man, that if we could trace our descents we shouldfind all slaves to come from princes and all princes from slaves. Butfortune has turned all things topsy-turvy, in a long story ofrevolutions. It is most certain that our beginning had nothing beforeit, and our ancestors were some of them splendid, others sordid, as ithappened. We have lost the memorials of our extraction; and, in truth, it matters not whence we come, but whither we go. Nor is it any moreto our honor the glory of our predecessors, than it is to their shamethe wickedness of their posterity. We are all of us composed of thesame elements; why should we, then, value ourselves upon our nobilityof blood, as if we were not all of us equal, if we could but recoverour evidence? But when we can carry it no farther, the _herald_provides us some _hero_ to supply the place of an illustriousoriginal, and there is the rise of arms and families. For a man tospend his life in pursuit of a title, that serves only when he dies, to furnish out an _epitaph_, is below a wise man's business. ALL THINGS ORDERED BY GOD. (_By Seneca. _) Every man knows without telling, that this wonderful fabric of theuniverse is not without a Governor, and that a constant order can notbe the work of chance, for the parts would then fall foul one uponanother. The motions of the stars, and their influences, are acted bythe command of an eternal decree. It is by the dictate of an AlmightyPower, that the heavy body of the earth hangs in balance. Whence comethe revolutions of the seasons and the flux of the rivers? thewonderful virtue of the smallest seeds? as an _oak_ to arise from an_acorn_. To say nothing of those things that seem to be most irregularand uncertain; as clouds, rain, thunder, the eruptions of fire out ofmountains, earthquakes, and those tumultuary motions in the lowerregion of the air, which have their ordinate causes, and so have thosethings, too, which appear to us more admirable because less frequent;as scalding fountains and new islands started out of the sea; or whatshall we say of the ebbing and flowing out of the ocean, the constanttimes and measures of the tides, according to the changes of the moonthat influences most bodies; but this needs not, for it is not that wedoubt of providence, but complain of it. And it were a good office toreconcile mankind to the gods, who are undoubtedly best to the best. It is against nature that good should hurt good. A good man is notonly the friend of God, but the very image, the disciple, and theimitator of Him, and a true child of his heavenly Father. He is trueto himself, and acts with constancy and resolution. PLUTARCH. Plutarch was born A. D. 90, in Chæronea, a city of Bœotia. To him weare indebted for so many of the lives of the philosophers, poets, orators and generals of antiquity. No book has been more generallysought after or read with greater avidity than "Plutarch's Lives. "However ancient, either Greek or Latin, none has received such auniversal popularity. But the character of Plutarch himself, not lessthan his method of writing biography, explains his universalpopularity, and gives its special charm and value to his book. He wasa man of large and generous nature, of strong feeling, of refinedtastes, of quick perceptions. His mind had been cultivated in theacquisition of the best learning of his times, and was disciplined bythe study of books as well as of men. He deserves the title ofphilosopher; but his philosophy was of a practical rather than aspeculative character--though he was versed in the wisest doctrines ofthe great masters of ancient thought, and in some of his moral worksshows himself their not unworthy follower. Above all, he was a man ofcheerful and genial temper. A lover of justice and of liberty, hissympathies are always on the side of what is right, noble andhonorable. He was educated at Delphi and improved himself by the advantages offoreign travel. On his return he was employed by his country on anembassy to Rome, where he opened a school for youth, employing all hisleisure time at that capital of the world and chief seat of eruditionin acquiring those vast stores of learning which he afterwards readfor the delight and instruction of mankind. "It must be borne inmind, " he says, "that my design is not to write histories, but lives. And the most glorious exploits do not always furnish us with theclearest discoveries of virtue or vice in men; sometimes a matter ofless moment, an expression or a jest, informs us better of theircharacters and inclinations than the most famous sieges, the greatestarmaments, or the bloodiest battles whatsoever. Therefore, asportrait-painters are more exact in the lines and features of theface, in which the character is seen, than in the other parts of thebody, so I must be allowed to give my more particular attention to themarks and indications of the souls of men; and, while I endeavor bythese to portray their lives, may be free to leave more weightymatters and great battles to be treated by others. " THE HORRIBLE PROSCRIPTIONS OF SYLLA. (_By Plutarch. _) Sylla being thus wholly bent upon slaughter, and filling the city withexecutions without number or limit, many wholly uninterested personsfalling a sacrifice to private enmity, through his permission andindulgence to his friends, Caius Metellus, one of the younger men, made bold in the senate to ask him what end there was of these evils, and at what point he might be expected to stop? "We do not ask you, "said he, "to pardon any whom you have resolved to destroy, but to freefrom doubt those whom you are pleased to save. " Sylla answering, thathe knew not as yet whom to spare, "Why, then, " said he, "tell us whomyou will punish. " This Sylla said he would do. These last words, someauthors say, were spoken not by Metellus, but by Afidus, one ofSylla's fawning companions. Immediately upon this, withoutcommunicating with any of the magistrates, Sylla proscribed eightypersons, and notwithstanding the general indignation, after one day'srespite he posted two hundred and twenty more, and on the third, again, as many. In an address to the people on this occasion, he toldthem he had put up as many names as he could think of; those that hadescaped his memory he would publish at a future time. He issued anedict likewise, making death the punishment of humanity, proscribingany who should dare to receive and cherish a proscribed person, without exception to brother, son, or parents. And to him who shouldslay any one proscribed person, he ordained two talents reward, evenwere it a slave who had killed his master, or a son his father. Andwhat was thought most unjust of all, he caused the attainder to passupon their sons, and son's sons, and made open sale of all theirproperty. Nor did the proscription prevail only at Rome, butthroughout all the cities of Italy the effusion of blood was such, that neither sanctuary of the gods, nor hearth of hospitality, norancestral home escaped. Men were butchered in the embraces of theirwives, children in the arms of their mothers. Those who perishedthrough public animosity, or private enmity, were nothing incomparison of the numbers of those who suffered for their riches. Eventhe murderers began to say, that "his fine house killed this man, agarden that, a third, his hot baths. " Quintus Aurelius, a quiet, peaceable man, and one who thought all his part in the common calamityconsisted in condoling with the misfortunes of others, coming into theforum to read the list, and finding himself among the proscribed, cried out, "Woe is me, my Alban farm has informed against me. " He hadnot gone far, before he was dispatched by a ruffian, sent on thaterrand. DEMOSTHENES AND CICERO COMPARED. (_By Plutarch. _) Omitting an exact comparison of the respective faculties in speakingof Demosthenes and Cicero, yet this much seems fit to be said; thatDemosthenes, to make himself a master in rhetoric, applied all thefaculties he had, natural or acquired, wholly that way; that he farsurpassed in force and strength of eloquence all his cotemporaries inpolitical and judicial speaking, in grandeur and majesty all thepanegyrical orators, and in accuracy and science all the logicians andrhetoricans of his day; that Cicero was highly educated, and by hisdiligent study became a most accomplished general scholar in all thesebranches, having left behind him numerous philosophical treatises ofhis own on Academic principles; as, indeed, even in his writtenspeeches, both political and judicial, we see him continually tryingto show his learning by the way. And one may discover the differenttemper of each of them in their speeches. For Demosthenes' oratory waswithout all embellishment and jesting, wholly composed for real effectand seriousness; not smelling of the lamp, as Pytheas scoffingly said, but of the temperance, thoughtfulness, austerity, and graveearnestness of his temper. Whereas Cicero's love for mockery often ranhim into scurrility; and in his love of laughing away seriousarguments in judicial cases by jests and facetious remarks, with aview to the advantage of his clients, he paid too little regard towhat was decent. Indeed, Cicero was by natural temper very muchdisposed to mirth and pleasantry, and always appeared with a smilingand serene countenance. But Demosthenes had constant care andthoughtfulness in his look, and a serious anxiety, which he seldom, ifever, set aside, and, therefore, was accounted by his enemies, as hehimself confessed, morose and ill-mannered. Also, it is very evident, out of their several writings, thatDemosthenes never touched upon his own praises but decently andwithout offense when there was need of it, and for some weightier end;but, upon other occasions, modestly and sparingly. But Cicero'simmeasurable boasting of himself in his orations argues him guilty ofan uncontrollable appetite for distinction, his cry being evermorethat arms should give place to the gown, and the soldier's laurel tothe tongue. And at last we find him extolling not only his deeds andactions, but his orations, also, as well those that were only spoken, as those that were published. * * [Illustration: ALEXANDER SEVERUS. ] The power of persuading and governing the people did, indeed, equallybelong to both, so that those who had armies and camps at commandstood in need of their assistance. But what are thought and commonlysaid most to demonstrate and try the tempers of men, namely, authorityand place, by moving every passion, and discovering every frailty, these are things which Demosthenes never received; nor was he ever ina position to give such proof of himself, having never obtained anyeminent office, nor led any of those armies into the field againstPhilip which he raised by his eloquence. Cicero, on the other hand, was sent quæstor into Sicily, and proconsul into Cilicia andCappadocia, at a time when avarice was at the height, and thecommanders and governors who were employed abroad, as though theythought it a mean thing to steal, set themselves to seize by openforce; so that it seemed no heinous matter to take bribes, but he thatdid it most moderately was in good esteem. And yet he, at this time, gave the most abundant proofs alike of his contempt of riches and ofhis humanity and good nature. And at Rome, when he was created consulin name, but indeed received sovereign and dictatorial authorityagainst Catiline and his conspirators, he attested the truth ofPlato's prediction, that then the miseries of states would be at anend, when by a happy fortune supreme power, wisdom and justice shouldbe united in one. * * Finally, Cicero's death excites our pity; for an old man to bemiserably carried up and down by his servants, flying and hidinghimself from that death which was, in the course of nature, so near athand, and yet at last to be murdered. Demosthenes, though he seemed atfirst a little to supplicate, yet, by his preparing and keeping thepoison by him, demands our admiration; and still more admirable washis using it. When the temple of the god no longer afforded him asanctuary, he took refuge, as it were, at a mightier altar, freeinghimself from arms and soldiers, and laughing to scorn the cruelty ofAntipater. [This seems to have been Plutarch's views of suicide, and, in fact, the spirit of the age in which he lived. From the standpoint of thephilosophy of our day, suicide manifests nothing but a weakness andvery generally insanity. ] [Page Decoration] [Illustration: Engraved & Printed by Illman Brothers. SCHOOL OF THE VESTAL VIRGINS. (WALL-PAINTING POMPEII) FOR THE MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITY] [Page Decoration] TOMBS AND CATACOMBS. TOMBS. Respect for the dead, and a considerate regard for the due performanceof the rites of burial, have been distinctive features in man in allages and countries. Among the Greeks and Romans great importance wasattached to the burial of the dead, as, if a corpse remained unburied, it was believed that the spirit of the departed wandered for a hundredyears on the hither side of the Styx. Hence it became a religious dutyto scatter earth over any unburied body which any one might chance tomeet. This was considered sufficient to appease the infernal gods. Theearliest tomb was the tumulus or mound of earth, heaped over the dead. It is a form naturally suggested to man in the early stages of hisdevelopment. There are two classes of primitive tombs, which areevidently of the highest antiquity. The _hypergæan_, or raised mounds, or tumuli, and _hypogæan_, which are subterranean or excavated. Thetumulus may be considered as the most simple and the most ancient formof sepulture. Its adoption was universal among all primitive nations. Such was the memorial raised by the Greeks over the bodies of theirheroes. These raised mounds are to be met with in all countries. TheEtruscans improved upon this form by surrounding the base with apodium, or supporting wall of masonry, as at the Cocumella at Vulci, and in the Regulini-Galassi tomb. The Lydians adopted a similarimprovement in the tomb of Alyattes, near Sardis. The pyramid, whichis but a further development in stone of this form of sepulture, isnot peculiar to Egypt alone, it has been adopted in several othercountries. Examples of subterranean tombs are to be found in Egypt, Etruria, Greece. Those of Egypt and Etruria afford instances ofextraordinary labor bestowed in excavating and constructing thesesubterranean abodes of the dead. The great reverence paid by theEgyptians to the bodies of their ancestors, and their carefulpreservation of them by embalmment, necessitated a great number andvast extent of tombs. The Egyptians called their earthly dwellingsinns, because men stay there but a brief while; the tombs of thedeparted they called everlasting mansions, because the dead dwelt inthem forever. The pyramids were tombs. These monuments were the last abode of theKings of the early dynasties. They are to be met with in Lower Egyptalone. The Theban Kings and their subjects erected no pyramids, andnone of their tombs are structural. In Upper Egypt numerousexcavations from the living rock in the mountains of the Thebaidreceived their mortal remains. Nothing can exceed the magnificence andcare with which these tombs of the Kings were excavated and decorated. It appears to have been the custom with their Kings, so soon as theyascended the throne, to begin preparing their final resting place. Theexcavation seems to have gone on uninterruptedly, year by year, thepainting and adornment being finished as it progressed, till the handof death ended the King's reign, and simultaneously the works of histomb. The tomb thus became an index of the length of a King's reign aswell as of his magnificence. Their entrance, carefully closed, wasfrequently indicated by a facade cut on the side of the hill. A numberof passages, sometimes intersected by deep wells and large halls, finally led, frequently by concealed entrances, to the large chamberwhere was the sarcophagus, generally of granite, basalt, or alabaster. The sides of the entire excavation, as well as the roof, were coveredwith paintings, colored sculptures, and hieroglyphic inscriptions inwhich the name of the deceased King was frequently repeated. Wegenerally find represented in them the funeral ceremonies, theprocession, the visit of the soul of the deceased to the principaldivinities, its offerings to each of them, lastly, its presentation bythe god who protected it to the supreme god of the Amenti, theunder-world or Hades. The splendor of these works, and the richnessand variety of their ornamentation, exceed all conception; thefigures, though in great number, are sometimes of colossal size;frequently scenes of civil life are mingled with funeralrepresentations; the labors of agriculture, domestic occupations, musicians, dances, and furniture of wonderful richness and elegance, are also figured on them; on the ceiling are generally astronomical orastrological subjects. Several tombs of the Kings of the eighteenthdynasty and subsequent dynasties have been found in the valley ofBiban-el-Molouk on the western side of the plain of Thebes. One of themost splendid of these is that opened by Belzoni, and now known asthat of Osirei Menepthah, of the nineteenth dynasty. A sloping passageleads to a chamber which has been called "The Hall of Beauty. " [Illustration: EGYPTIAN TOMB. ] Forcing his way farther on, Belzoni found as a termination to a seriesof chambers a large vaulted hall which contained the sarcophagus whichheld the body of the monarch, now in Sir John Soane's Museum. Theentire extent of this succession of chambers and passages is hollowedto a length of 320 feet into the heart of the rock, and they areprofusely covered with the paintings and hieroglyphics usually foundin those sepulchral chambers. The tombs of the other Kings, RemesesIII. And Remeses Miamun, exhibit similar series of passages andchambers, covered with paintings and sculptures, in endless variety, some representing the deepest mysteries of the Egyptian religion; but, as Mr. Fergusson says, like all the tombs, they depend for theirmagnificence more on the paintings that adorn the walls than onanything which can strictly be called architecture. One of the tombsat _Biban-el Molouk_ is 862 feet in length without reckoning thelateral chambers; the total area of excavation is 23, 809, occupying anacre and a quarter of space for one chamber. Private individuals were buried according to their rank and fortune. Their tombs, also excavated from the living rock, consisted of one orof several chambers ornamented with paintings and sculptures; the lastcontained the sarcophagus and the mummy. According to Sir G. Wilkinson, the tombs were the property of the priests, and asufficient number being always kept ready, the purchase was made atthe shortest notice, nothing being requisite to complete even thesculptures or inscriptions but the insertion of the deceased's nameand a few statements respecting his family and profession. Thenumerous subjects representing agricultural scenes, the trades of thepeople, in short, the various occupations of the Egyptians, varyingonly in their details and the mode of their execution, were figured inthese tombs, and were intended as a short epitome of human life, whichsuited equally every future occupant. The tombs at Beni Hassan areeven of an earlier date than those of Thebes. Among these the tomb ofa monarch or provincial governor is of the age of Osirtasen I. Thewalls of this tomb are covered with a series of representations, setting forth the ordinary occupations and daily avocations of thedeceased, thus illustrating the manners and customs of the Egyptiansof that age. These representations are a sort of epitome of life, orthe career of man, previous to his admission to the mansions of thedead. They were therefore intended to show that the deceased hadcarefully and duly fulfilled and performed all the duties andavocations which his situation in life and the reverence due to thegods required. In the cemeteries of Gizeh and Sakkara are tombs of thetime of Nephercheres, sixth King of the second dynasty, probably themost ancient in Egypt. Around the great pyramid are numerous tombs ofdifferent periods; among them are the tombs of the princes, and othermembers of the family or time of Khufu. One of the most interesting isthat known as Campbell's tomb, of the supposed date of about 660 B. C. It contained a tomb built up in its center, covered by three stones asstruts, over which was a semicircular arch of brick. Near it, also, are several tombs of private individuals, who were mostly priests ofMemphis. Many of these have false entrances, and several have pitswith their mouths at the top of the tomb. The walls are covered withthe usual paintings representing the ordinary occupations of thedeceased. _Mummies. _--The origin of the process of embalming has been variouslyaccounted for. The real origin appears to be this: it was a part ofthe religious belief of the Egyptians that, as a reward of awell-spent and virtuous life, their bodies after death should existand remain undecayed forever in their tombs, for we find in the "Bookof the Dead" the following inscription placed over the spirits whohave found favor in the eyes of the Great God: "The bodies which theyhave forsaken shall _sleep forever_ in their sepulchres, while theyrejoice in the presence of God most high. " This inscription evidentlyshows a belief in a separate eternity for soul and body; of an eternalexistence of the body in the tomb, and of the soul in the presence ofGod. The soul was supposed to exist as long as the body existed. Hencethe necessity of embalming the body as a means to insure its eternalexistence. Some have considered that the want of ground forcemeteries, and also the excavations made in the mountains for theextraction of materials employed in the immense buildings of Egypt, compelled them to have recourse to the expedient of mummification. Others consider the custom arose rather from a sanitary regulation forthe benefit of the living. According to Mr. Gliddon, mummificationpreceded, in all probability, the building of the pyramids and tombs, because vestiges of mummies have been found in the oldest of these, and, in fact, the first mummies were buried in the sand before theEgyptians possessed the necessary tools for excavating sepulchres inthe rock. The earliest mode of mummification was extremely simple; thebodies were prepared with natron, or dried in ovens, and wrapped inwoolen cloth. At a later period every provincial temple was providedwith an establishment for the purpose of mummification. The bodieswere delivered to the priests to be embalmed, and after seventy daysrestored to their friends, to be carried to the place of deposit. Themode of embalming depended on the rank and position of the deceased. There were three modes of embalming; the first is said to have cost atalent of silver (about $1, 250); the second, 22 minæ ($300); the thirdwas extremely cheap. The process is thus described by Herodotus;--"InEgypt certain persons are appointed by law to exercise this art astheir peculiar business, and when a dead body is brought them theyproduce patterns of mummies in wood, imitated in painting. Inpreparing the body according to the most expensive mode, they commenceby extracting the brain from the nostrils by a curved hook, partlycleansing the head by these means, and partly by pouring in certaindrugs; then making an incision in the side with a sharp Ethiopianstone (black flint), they draw out the intestines through theaperture. Having cleansed and washed them with palm wine, they coverthem with pounded aromatics, and afterwards filling the cavity withpowder of pure myrrh, cassia, and other fragrant substances, frankincense excepted, they sew it up again. This being done, theysalt the body, keeping it in natron during seventy days, to whichperiod they are strictly confined. When the seventy days are over, they wash the body, and wrap it up entirely in bands of fine linensmeared on the inner side with gum. The relatives then take away thebody, and have a wooden case made in the form of a man, in which theydeposit it; and when fastened up they keep it in a room in theirhouse, placing it upright against the wall. (This style of mummy wassupposed to represent the deceased in the form of Osiris. ) This is themost costly mode of embalming. "For those who choose the middle kind, on account of the expense, theyprepare the body as follows:--They fill syringes with oil of cedar, and inject this into the abdomen without making any incision orremoving the bowels; and, taking care that the liquid shall notescape, they keep it in salt during the specified number of days. Thecedar-oil is then taken out, and such is its strength that it bringswith it the bowels and all the inside in a state of dissolution. Thenatron also dissolves the flesh, so that nothing remains but the skinand bones. This process being over, they restore the body without anyfurther operation. "The third kind of embalming is only adapted for the poor. In thisthey merely cleanse the body by an injection of syrmæa, and salt itduring seventy days, after which it is returned to the friends whobrought it. " Sir G. Wilkinson gives some further information with regard to themore expensive mode of embalming. The body, having been prepared withthe proper spices and drugs, was enveloped in linen bandages sometimes1, 000 yards in length. It was then enclosed in a cartonage fittingclose to the mummied body, which was richly painted and covered infront with a network of beads and bugles arranged in a tasteful form, the face being laid over with a thick gold leaf, and the eyes made ofenamel. The three or four cases which successively covered thecartonage were ornamented in like manner with painting and gilding, and the whole was enclosed in a sarcophagus of wood or stone, profusely charged with painting or sculpture. These cases, as well asthe cartonage, varied in style and richness, according to the expenseincurred by the friends of the deceased. The bodies thus embalmed weregenerally of priests of various grades. Sometimes the skin itself wascovered with gold leaf; sometimes the whole body, the face, oreyelids; sometimes the nails alone. In many instances the body or thecartonage was beautified in an expensive manner, and the outer caseswere little ornamented; but some preferred the external show of richcases and sarcophagi. Some mummies have been found with the facecovered by a mask of cloth fitting closely to it, and overlaid with acoating of composition, so painted as to resemble the deceased, and tohave the appearance of flesh. These, according to Sir G. Wilkinson, are probably of a Greek epoch. Greek mummies usually differed fromthose of the Egyptians in the manner of disposing the bandages of thearms and legs. No Egyptian is found with the limbs bandagedseparately, as those of Greek mummies. On the breast was frequentlyplaced a scarabæus in immediate contact with the flesh. Thesescarabæi, when of stone, had their extended wings made of lead orsilver. On the cartonage and case, in a corresponding situation above, the same emblem was also placed, to indicate the protecting influenceof the Deity. The subjects painted upon the cartonage were the fourgenii of Amenti, and various emblems belonging to deities connectedwith the dead. A long line of hieroglyphics extending down the frontusually contained the name and quality of the deceased, and theofferings presented by him to the gods; and transverse bandsfrequently repeated the former, with similar donations to otherdeities. On the breast was placed the figure of Netpe, with expandedwings, protecting the deceased; sacred arks, boats, and other thingswere arranged in different compartments, and Osiris, Isis, Anubis, andother deities, were frequently introduced. In some instances Isis wasrepresented throwing her arms round the feet of the mummy, with thisappropriate legend: "I embrace thy feet. " A plaited beard was attachedto the chin when the mummy was that of a man; the absence of thisappendage indicated the mummy of a woman. [Illustration: SARCOPHAGUS, OR COFFIN. (_With Noah's Ark cut in relief on the outside. _)] _Mummy Cases and Sarcophagi. _--The outer case of the mummy was eitherof wood--sycamore or cedar--or of stone. When of wood it had a flat orcircular summit, sometimes with a stout square pillar rising at eachangle. The whole was richly painted, and some of an older agefrequently had a door represented near one of the corners. At one endwas the figure of Isis, at the other Nepthys, and the top was paintedwith bands or fancy devices. In others, the lid represented thecurving top of the ordinary Egyptian canopy. The stone coffins, usually called sarcophagi, were of oblong shape, having flat straightsides, like a box, with a curved or pointed lid. Sometimes the figureof the deceased was represented upon the latter in relief, like thatof the Queen of Amasis in the British Museum; and some were in theform of a King's name or oval. Others were made in the shape of themummied body, whether of basalt, granite, slate, or limestone, specimens of which are met with in the British Museum. These caseswere deposited in the sepulchral chambers. Various offerings wereplaced near them, and sometimes the instruments of the profession ofthe deceased. Near them were also placed vases and small figures ofthe deceased, of wood or vitrified earthenware. In Sir John Soane'smuseum is the sarcophagus of Seti I. (Menephtha) B. C. 1322, cut out ofa single block of Oriental alabaster. It is profusely covered withhieroglyphics, and scenes on it depict the passage of the sun throughthe hours of the night. It was found by Belzoni in his tomb in theBiban-el-molouk. The sarcophagus now in the British Museum wasformerly supposed to have been the identical sarcophagus whichcontained the body of Alexander the Great. The hieroglyphic name, which has been read upon the monument, proves it to be that ofNectanebo I. , of the thirtieth dynasty, who reigned from B. C. 381 to363. Its material is a breccia from a quarry near Thebes, and isremarkable for its hardness. A remarkable rectangular-shaped coffin ofwhinstone was that of Menkare, the Mycerinus of the Greeks, and thebuilder of the third pyramid; this interesting relic was found byColonel Vyse in the sepulchral chambers of the third pyramid, but wasunfortunately lost at sea while on its way to England. The remains ofthe cedar-coffin of this monarch are in the British Museum. Manybeautiful sarcophagi are in the Vatican at Rome. [Illustration: COFFIN OF ALABASTER. (_Features of the deceased Sculptured. _)] The vases, generally named canopi, from their resemblance to certainvases made by the Romans to imitate the Egyptian taste, butinadmissible in its application to any Egyptian vase, were four innumber, of different materials, according to the rank of the deceased, and were placed near his coffin in the tomb. Some were of commonlimestone, the most costly were of Oriental alabaster. These fourvases form a complete series; the principal intestines of the mummywere placed in them, embalmed in spices and various substances, androlled up in linen, each containing a separate portion. They weresupposed to belong to the four genii of Amenti, whose heads and namesthey bore. The vase with a cover, representing the human head ofAmset, held the stomach and large intestines; that with thecynocephalus head of Hapi contained the small intestines; in thatbelonging to the jackal-headed Tuautmutf were the lungs and heart; andfor the vase of the hawk-headed Kabhsenuf were reserved thegall-bladder and liver. On the sides of the vases were several columnsof hieroglyphics, which expressed the adoration of the deceased toeach of the four deities whose symbols adorned the covers, and whichgave the name of the deceased. Small figures, called _shabti_, offered through respect for the dead, are to be found in great numbers in the tombs. They were images ofOsiris, whose form the deceased was supposed to assume, and who thencewas called the Osirian. They are in several shapes, sometimes in thatof the deceased, standing in the dress of the period, but moregenerally in the shape of a mummy, the body swathed in bandages, fromwhich the hands come out, holding a hoe, _hab_, and pick-ax, and thecord of a square basket, slung on the left shoulder, or nape of theneck. The head attire of the deceased is either that of the period ordignity, and in the case of monarchs accompanied by the uræus, emblemof royalty. Some figures hold the emblem of life, _ankh_, and ofstability, _tat_, or a whip, _khu_. They are generally of wood, orvitrified earthenware. The name and quality of the deceased are foundon all those in the same tomb, and thrown on the ground round thesarcophagus. They usually bear in hieroglyphics the sixth chapter ofthe funeral ritual. Some are found with a blank space left for thename of the deceased, which leads one to think that the relations andfriends procured these figures from dealers; the funeral formula, witha list of the customary presentations of offerings for his soul toOsiris were already on them; nothing was wanting but the name of thedeceased; this being added, they were then evidently offered astestimonies of respect by the relations and friends of the deceased, perhaps at the funeral, and then collected and placed in the tomb. Sometimes these small figures were placed in painted cases dividedinto compartments. These cases were about two feet long and one foothigh. Manuscripts on papyrus, of various lengths, have been found on somemummies. These rolls of papyrus are found in the coffins, or under theswathings of the mummies, between the legs, on the breast, or underthe arms. Some are enclosed in a cylindrical case. The papyrus of theMuseum of Turin is sixty-six feet long, that at Paris is twenty-twofeet long; others are of different lengths, down to two or threefeet. That of Turin may be considered as complete. On all, the upperpart of the page is occupied by a line of figures of the divinitieswhich the soul visits in succession; the rest is filled withperpendicular columns of hieroglyphics, which are prayers which thesoul addresses to each divinity; towards the end of the manuscript ispainted the judgment scene; the great god Osiris is on his throne; athis feet is an enormous female crocodile, its mouth open; behind isthe divine balance, surmounted by a cynocephalus emblem of universaljustice; the good and bad actions of the soul are weighed in hispresence. Horus examines the plummet, and Thoth records the sentence;standing close by is the soul of the deceased in its corporeal form, conducted by the two goddesses, Truth and Justice, before the greatjudge of the dead. The name of Ritual of the Dead has been given byEgyptologists to these papyri, but in reality they bear the title of"The Book of the Manifestation to Light. " A copy of this, more or lesscomplete, according to the fortune of the deceased, was deposited inthe case of every mummy. The book was revised under the twenty-sixthdynasty, and then assumed its final definite form. But many parts ofit are of the highest antiquity. The whole series of pilgrimages whichthe soul, separated from the body, was believed to accomplish in thevarious divisions of the lower regions, are related in this book. Itcontained also a collection of prayers for the use of the deceased inthe other world, and of magical formulæ intended to secure thepreservation of the mummy from decay, and to prevent its possession byan evil spirit, till the ultimate return of the soul of the deceased. Many of these rituals are also found written, not in hieroglyphics, but in hieratic characters, which are an abbreviated form ofhieroglyphic signs. Papyri with hieroglyphics are nearly alwaysdivided by ruled lines into narrow vertical columns of an inch or lessin breadth, in which the hieroglyphic signs are arranged one underthe other. Sometimes the papyri are found written in the enchorialcharacter. Several manuscripts in Greek on papyrus have been alsodiscovered in Egypt; they are, however, of a late date, and relate tothe sale of lands; many have been discovered referring to lands andpossessions about Thebes, one of which has been given in full on page245. [Illustration: DISCOVERED TOMB WITH ITS TREASURES. (_At Pompeii. _)] _Roman Tombs. _--Before commencing our description of the tombs whichline the way as the visitor approaches Pompeii, and seem to preparehim for that funeral silence which reigns in the long-lost city, themore remarkable for its contrast with the gay and festive style ofdecoration which still characterizes the remains which surround him, it is our intention, as we have done in other instances, to give somegeneral information upon the subject which we are about to treat indetail, for the benefit of those among our readers to whom the formsof Roman burial and the expressions of Roman sorrow are unfamiliar. Great, absurdly great among the uneducated, as is the importanceattached to a due performance of the rites of burial in the presentday, it is as nothing compared to the interest which was felt on thissubject by the Romans; and not by them only, but by other nations ofantiquity, with whose manners we have nothing to do here. The Romansindeed had a good reason for this anxiety, for they believed, incommon with the Greeks, that if the body remained unentombed, the soulwandered for a hundred years on the hither side of the Styx, alone anddesponding, unable to gain admission to its final resting-place, whether among the happy or the miserable. If, therefore, any personperished at sea, or otherwise under such circumstances that his bodycould not be found, a _cenotaph_, or empty tomb, was erected by hissurviving friends, which served as well for his passport over theStygian ferry as if his body had been burnt or committed to the earthwith due ceremonies. Hence it became a religious duty, not rashly tobe neglected, to scatter earth over any unburied body which menchanced to see, for even so slight a sepulchre as this was heldsufficient to appease the scruples of the infernal gods. The reader, if there be any readers of Latin to whom these superstitions areunfamiliar, may refer to the sixth book of the Æneid, line 325, and toa remarkable ode of Horace, the 28th of the first book, which turnsentirely upon this subject. Burial, therefore, was a matter ofconsiderable importance. When death approached, the nearest relative hung over the dyingperson, endeavoring to inhale his last breath, in a fond belief thatthe _anima_, the living principle, departed at that moment, and bythat passage from the body. Hence the phrases, _animam in primo oretenere, spiritum excipere_, and the like. It is curious to observe howan established form of expression holds its ground. Here are we, afterthe lapse of eighteen hundred years, still talking of receiving adying friend's last breath, as if we really meant what we say. Afterdeath the body was washed and anointed by persons called_pollinctores_; then laid out on a bier, the feet to the door, totypify its approaching departure, dressed in the best attire which ithad formerly owned. The bier was often decked with leaves and flowers, a simple and touching tribute of affection, which is of the heart, andspeaks to it, and therefore has maintained its ground in every age andregion, unaffected by the constant changes in customs merely arbitraryand conventional. [Illustration] In the early ages of Rome the rites of burial and burning seem to havebeen alike in use. Afterwards the former seems (for the matter is notvery clear) to have prevailed, until towards the close of the seventhcentury of the city, after the death of Sylla, who is said to havebeen the first of the patrician Cornelii who was burnt. Thenceforwardcorpses were almost universally consumed by fire until theestablishment of Christianity, when the old fashion was brought upagain, burning being violently opposed by the fathers of the church, probably on account of its intimate connection with Pagan associationsand superstitions. Seven days, we are told, elapsed between death andthe funeral; on the eighth the corpse was committed to the flames; onthe ninth the ashes were deposited in the sepulchre. This probablyrefers only to the funerals of the great, where much splendor andextent of preparation was required, and especially those publicfunerals (_funera indictiva_) to which the whole people were bidden byvoice of crier, the ceremony being often closed by theatrical andgladiatorial exhibitions, and a sumptuous banquet. But we have nointention to narrate the pomp which accompanied the princely nobles ofRome to the tomb: it is enough for our purpose to explain the usagesof private life, to which the Street of Tombs owes its origin and itsinterest. In the older times funerals were celebrated at night because the ritesof religion were celebrated by day; and it was pollution for theministers, or for anything connected with worship of the deities ofthe upper world, even to see, much more to touch, anything connectedwith death. From this nightly solemnization many of the wordsconnected with this subject are derived. Those who bore the bier werecalled originally _Vesperones_, thence _Vespillones_, from _Vespera_, evening; and the very term _funus_ is derived by grammarians, _afunalibus_, from the rope torches coated with wax or tallow whichcontinued to be used long after the necessity for using them ceased. This practice, now far more than two thousand years old, is stillretained in the Roman Church, with many other ceremonies borrowed fromheathen rites. St. Chrysostom assures us that it is not of modernrevival, and gives a beautiful reason for its being retained. "Tellme, " he says, "what mean those brilliant lamps? Do we not go forthwith the dead on their way rejoicing, as with men who have foughttheir fight?" The corpse being placed upon a litter or bier, the former being usedby the wealthy, the latter by the poor, was carried out preceded byinstrumental musicians, and female singers, who chanted the dirge. These hired attendants, whose noisy sorrow was as genuine as the dumbgrief of our mutes, were succeeded, if the deceased were noble, ordistinguished by personal exploits, by numerous couches containing thefamily effigies of his ancestors, each by itself, that the length ofhis lineage might be the more conspicuous; by the images of suchnations as he had conquered, such cities as he had taken; by thespoils which he had won; by the ensigns of the magistracies which hehad filled; but if the fasces were among them these were bornereversed. Then came the slaves whom he had emancipated (and often witha view to this post-mortem magnificence, a master emancipated greatnumbers of them), wearing hats in token of their manumission. Behindthe corpse came the nearest relations, profuse in the display of griefas far as it can be shown by weeping, howling, beating the breasts andcheeks, and tearing the hair, which was laid, as a last tribute ofaffection, on the breast of the deceased, to be consumed with him. Toshave the head was also a sign of mourning. It is a curious inversionof the ordinary customs of life, that the sons of the deceased mournedwith the head covered, the daughters with it bare. With this attendance the body was borne to the place of burial, beingusually carried through the Forum, where, if the deceased had been aperson of any eminence, a funeral oration was spoken from the rostrain his honor. The place of burial was without the city, in almostevery instance. By the twelve tables it was enacted that no one shouldbe burned or buried within the city; and as this wholesome law fellinto disuse, it was from time to time revived and enforced. Thereasons for its establishment were twofold, religious and civil. Tothe former head belongs the reason, already assigned for a differentobservance, that the very sight of things connected with death broughtpollution on things consecrated to the gods of the upper world. So farwas this carried that the priest of Jupiter might not even enter anyplace where there was a tomb, or so much as hear the funeral pipes;nay, his wife, the Flaminica, might not wear shoes made of the hide ofan ox which had died a natural death, because all things which haddied spontaneously were of ill omen. Besides, it was an ill omen toany one to come upon a tomb unawares. Another reason was that thepublic convenience might not be interrupted by private rites, sinceno tombs could be removed without sacrilege when once established, unless by the state, upon sufficient cause. The civil reasons are tobe sought in the unwholesome exhalations of large burying-grounds, andthe danger of fire from burning funeral piles in the neighborhood ofhouses. It is not meant, however, that there were no tombs within thecity. Some appear to have been included by the gradual extension ofthe walls; others were established in those intervals when the law ofthe twelve tables fell, as we have said, into desuetude; nor does itappear that these were destroyed, nor their contents removed. Thusboth the Claudian and the Cincian clans had sepulchres in Rome, theformer under the Capitol. [Illustration: ARTICLES FOUND IN A TOMB. ] If the family were of sufficient consequence to have a patrimonialtomb the deceased was laid in it; if he had none such, and waswealthy, he usually constructed a tomb upon his property during life, or bought a piece of ground for the purpose. If possible the tomb wasalways placed near a road. Hence the usual form of inscription, _Siste, Viator_ (Stay, Traveler), continually used in churches bythose small wits who thought that nothing could be good English whichwas not half Latin, and forgot that in our country the traveler musthave stayed already to visit the sexton before he can possibly do soin compliance with the advice of the monument. For the poor there werepublic burial-grounds, called _puticuli, a puteis_, from the trenchesready dug to receive bodies. Such was the ground at the Esquilinegate, which Augustus gave Mæcenas for his gardens. Public tombs werealso granted by the state to eminent men, an honor in early timesconferred on few. These grants were usually made in the CampusMartius, where no one could legally be buried without a decree of thesenate in his favor. It appears from the inscriptions found in theStreet of Tombs, at Pompeii, that much, if not the whole of the groundon which those tombs are built, was public property, the property ofthe corporation, as we should now say; and that the sites of many, perhaps of all, were either purchased or granted by the decurions, ormunicipal senate, in gratitude for obligations received. Sometimes the body was burned at the place where it was to beentombed, which, when the pile and sepulchre were thus joined, wascalled _bustum_; sometimes the sepulchre was at a distance from theplace of burning, which was then called _ustrina_. The words _bustum_and _sepulchrum_, therefore, though often loosely used as synonymous, are not in fact so, the latter being involved in, but by no meanscomprehending the former. The pile was ordered to be built of roughwood, unpolished by the ax. Pitch was added to quicken the flames, andcypress, the aromatic scent of which was useful to overpower thestench of the burning body. The funeral piles of great men were ofimmense size and splendidly adorned; and all classes appear to haveindulged their vanity in this respect to the utmost of their means, sothat a small and unattended pyre is mentioned as the mark of aninsignificant or friendless person. The body was placed on it in thelitter or bier; the nearest relation present then opened the eyes, which it had been the duty of the same person to close immediatelyafter death, and set fire to the wood with averted face, in testimonythat he performed that office not of good will, but of necessity. Asthe combustion proceeded, various offerings were cast into the flames. The manes were believed to love blood; animals, therefore, especiallythose which they had loved while alive, were killed and thrown uponthe pile, as horses, dogs and doves, besides the beasts commonly usedin sacrifice, as sheep and oxen. Human beings, especially prisoners ofwar, were sometimes put to death, though not in the later times of therepublic. The most costly robes and arms of the deceased, especiallytrophies taken in warfare, were also devoted in his honor, and theblaze was fed by the costly oils and gums of the East. The body beingreduced to ashes, these were then quenched with wine, and collected bythe nearest relation; after which, if the grief were real, they wereagain bedewed with tears; if not, wine or unguents answered thepurpose equally well. The whole ceremony is described in a few linesby Tibullus: There, while the fire lies smouldering on the ground, My bones, the all of me, can then be found. Arrayed in mourning robes, the sorrowing pair Shall gather all around with pious care; With ruddy wine the relics sprinkle o'er, And snowy milk on them collected pour. Then with fair linen cloths the moisture dry, Inurned in some cold marble tomb to lie. With them enclose the spices, sweets and gums, And all that from the rich Arabia comes, And what Assyria's wealthy confines send, And tears, sad offering, to my memory lend. _Eleg. Iii. _ 2-17. The ashes thus collected were then finally deposited in the urn, whichwas made of different materials, according to the quality of the dead;usually of clay or glass, but sometimes of marble, bronze, and eventhe precious metals. The ceremony thus over, the præfica gave theword, _Ilicet_ (the contracted form of _Ire licet_, It is lawful togo), and the bystanders departed, having been thrice sprinkled with abranch of olive or laurel dipped in water, to purify them from thepollution which they had contracted, and repeating thrice the words, _Vale_, or _Salve_, words of frequent occurrence in monumentalinscriptions, as in one of beautiful simplicity which we quote: "Farewell, most happy soul of Caia Oppia. We shall follow thee in suchorder as may be appointed by nature. Farewell, sweetest mother. " The distinction between cenotaphs and tombs has been alreadyexplained. Cenotaphs, however, were of two sorts: those erected topersons already duly buried, which were merely honorary, and thoseerected to the unburied dead, which had a religious end and efficacy. This evasion of the penal laws against lying unburied was chieflyserviceable to persons shipwrecked or slain in war; but all came infor the benefit of it whose bodies could not be found or identified. When a cenotaph of the latter class was erected sacrifices wereoffered, the names of the deceased were thrice invoked with a loudvoice, as if to summon them to their new abode, and the cenotaph washallowed with the same privileges as if the ashes of the deceasedreposed within it. The heir, however, had not discharged his last duty when he had laidthe body of his predecessor in the tomb; there were still due solemnrites, and those of an expensive character. The Romans loved to keepalive the memory of their dead, showing therein a constancy ofaffection which does them honor; and not only immediately after thefuneral, but at stated periods from time to time, they celebratedfeasts and offered sacrifices and libations to them. The month ofFebruary was especially set apart for doing honor to the manes, havingobtained that distinction in virtue of being, in old times, the lastmonth of the year. Private funeral feasts were also celebrated on theninth day after death, and indeed at any time, except on those dayswhich were marked as unlucky, because some great public calamity hadbefallen upon them. Besides these feasts, the dead were honored withsacrifices, which were offered to the manes, and with games; but thelatter belong more to those splendid public funerals which we haveprofessed not to describe. The inferiæ consisted principally oflibations, for which were used water, milk, wine, but especiallyblood, the smell of which was thought peculiarly palatable to theghosts. Perfumes and flowers were also thrown upon the tomb; and theinexpediency of wasting rich wines and precious oils on a cold stoneand dead body, when they might be employed in comforting the living, was a favorite subject with the _bons vivans_ of the age. It was withthe same design to crown it with garlands, and to honor it withlibations, that Electra and Orestes met and recognized each other attheir father's tomb. Roses were in especial request for this service, and lilies also: Full canisters of fragrant lilies bring, Mixed with the purple roses of the Spring; Let me with funeral flowers his body strow, This gift which parents to their children owe, This unavailing gift at least I may bestow. _Dryden, Æn, vi. 883. _ _Inscriptions. _--Before entering upon a description of the catacombs, we will speak of the inscriptions of the ancients. Most of the tombsare really Egyptian, and no nation has left so many inscriptions asthe Egyptian. All its monuments are covered with them. Its temples, palaces, tombs, isolated monuments, present an infinite number ofinscriptions in hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic characters. TheEgyptians rarely executed a statue, or figured representation, withoutinscribing by its side its name or subject. This name is invariablyfound by the side of each divinity, personage, or individual. In eachpainted scene, on each sculptured figure, an inscription, more or lessextensive, explains its subject. The characters used by the Egyptians were of threekinds--hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic. The latter has been alsotermed _enchorial_, or popular. The first was doubtless a system ofrepresentational signs, or picture writing--the earliest form ofwriting, in the first stage of its development; the hieratic is anabbreviated form of the hieroglyphic; the demotic, a simplified formof the hieratic, and a near approach towards the alphabetic system. [Illustration: HIEROGLYPHICS. ] Hieroglyphics (styled by the Egyptians _skhai en neter tur_--writingof sacred words) are composed of signs representing objects of thephysical world, as animals, plants, stars, man and his differentmembers, and various objects. They are pure or linear, the latterbeing a reduction of the former. The pure were always sculptured orpainted. The linear were generally used in the earlier papyri, containing funeral rituals. They have been divided into four classes:--1, Representational orikonographic; 2, Symbolic or tropical; 3, Enigmatic; 4, Phonetic. Fromthe examination of hieroglyphic inscriptions of different ages, it isevident that these four classes of symbols were used promiscuously, according to the pleasure and convenience of the artist. 1. Ikonographic, representational, or imitative hieroglyphics, arethose that present the images of the things expressed, as the sun'sdisk to signify the sun, the crescent to signify the moon. These maybe styled pure hieroglyphics. 2. The symbolical, or tropical (by Bunsen termed ideographic), substituted one object for another, to which it bore an analogy, asheaven and a star expressed night; a leg in a trap, deceit; two armsstretched towards heaven expressed the word offering; a censer withsome grains of incense, adoration; a bee was made to signify LowerEgypt; the fore-quarters of a lion, strength; a crocodile, darkness. The following hieroglyphics were on the triumph Hall Thothmes III. , and mean, after translating: [Illustration] "I went: I order that you reduce and crush all the high officers ofTsahi. I cast them together with all their possessions at thy feet. " This kind of character appears to have been particularly invented forthe expression of abstract ideas, especially belonging to religion orthe royal power. These are the characters generally alluded to by theancients when they speak of hieroglyphics, and are the most difficultof interpretation. 3. Enigmatic are those in which an emblematic figure is put in lieu ofthe one intended to be represented, as a hawk for the sun; a seatedfigure with a curved beard, for a god. These three kinds were eitherused _alone_, or _in company_ with the phonetically written word theyrepresented. Thus: 1. The word Ra, sun, might be written in lettersonly, or be also followed by the ikonograph, the _solar disk_ (whichif alone would still have the same meaning--Ra, the sun). So, too, theword "moon, " Aah, was followed by the crescent. In these cases thesign so following the phonetic word has been called a _terminative_, from its serving to determine the meaning of what preceded it. We givehere a few words translated: [Illustration] "In your transformation as golden sperbe you have accomplished it. " 2. In the same manner, the _tropical_ hieroglyphics might be alone orin company with the word written phonetically; and the expression "towrite, " _skhai_, might be followed or not by its tropicalhieroglyphic, the "pen and inkstand, " as its determinative sign. 3. The emblematic figure, a _hawk-headed_ god, bearing the disk, signifying the "sun, " might also be alone, or after the name "Ra"written phonetically, as a determinative sign; and as a general rulethe determinative followed, instead of preceding the names. Determinatives are of two kinds--ideograms, and genericdeterminatives: the first were the pictures of the object spoken of;the second, conventional symbols of the class of notions expressed bythe word. [Illustration] 4. Phonetic. Phonetic characters or signs were those expressive ofsounds. They are either purely _alphabetic_ or _syllabic_. All theother Egyptian phonetic signs have _syllabic_ values, which areresolvable into combinations of the letters of the alphabet. Thisphonetic principle being admitted, the numbers of figures used torepresent a sound might have been increased almost without limit, andany hieroglyphic might stand for the first letter of its name. Socopious an alphabet would have been a continual source of error. Thecharacters, therefore, thus applied, were soon fixed, and theEgyptians practically confined themselves to particular hieroglyphicsin writing certain words. [Illustration] "Out of bad comes good. " Hieroglyphic writing was employed on monuments of all kinds, ontemples as well as on the smallest figures, and on bricks used forbuilding purposes. On the most ancient monuments this writing isabsolutely the same as on the most recent Egyptian work. Out of Egyptthere is scarcely a single example of a graphic system identically thesame during a period of over two thousand years. The hieroglyphiccharacters were either engraved in relief, or sunk below the surfaceon the public monuments, and objects of hard materials suited for theglyptic art. The hieroglyphics on the monuments are either sculpturedand plain, or decorated with colors. The colored are divided into twodistinct classes, the monochromatic of one simple tone, and thepolychromatic, or those which rendered with more or less fidelity thecolor of the object they were intended to depict. The hieroglyphicfigures were arranged in vertical columns or horizontal lines, andgrouped together as circumstances required, so as to leave no spacesunnecessarily vacant. They were written from right to left, or fromleft to right. The order in which the characters were to be read, wasshown by the direction in which the figures are placed, as their headsare invariably turned towards the reader. A single line ofhieroglyphics--the dedication of a temple or of any other monument, for example--proceeds sometimes one half from left to right, and theother half from right to left; but in this case a sign, such as thesacred tau, or an obelisk, which has no particular direction, isplaced in the middle of the inscription, and it is from that sign thatthe two halves of the inscription take each an opposite direction. The period when hieroglyphics--the oldest Egyptian characters--werefirst used, is uncertain. They are found in the Great Pyramid of thetime of the fourth dynasty, and had evidently been invented longbefore, having already assumed a cursive style. [23] This shows them tobe far older than any other known writing; and the written documentsof the ancient languages of Asia, the Sanskrit and the Zend, are of arecent time compared with those of Egypt, even if the date of theRig-Veda in the fifteenth century B. C. Be proved. Manetho shows thatthe invention of writing was known in the reign of Athoth (the sonand successor of Menes), the second King of Egypt, when he ascribes tohim the writing of the anatomical books, and tradition assigned to ita still earlier origin. At all events, hieroglyphics, and the use ofthe papyrus, with the usual reed pen, are shown to have been commonwhen the pyramids were built, and their style in the sculptures provesthat they were then a very old invention. In hieroglyphics of theearliest periods there were fewer phonetic characters than in afterages, these periods being nearer to the original picture-writing. Thenumber of signs also varied at different times; but they may bereckoned at from 900 to 1, 000. Various new characters were added atsubsequent periods, and a still greater number were introduced underthe Ptolemies and Cæsars, which are not found in the early monuments;some, again, of the older times, fell into disuse. Hieratic is an abbreviated form of the hieroglyphic; thus eachhieroglyphic sign--ikonographic, symbolic, or phonetic--has itsabridged hieratic form, and this abridged form has the same import asthe sign itself of which it is a reduced copy. It was written fromright to left, and was the character used by the priests and sacredscribes, whence its name. It was invented at least as early as theninth dynasty (4, 240 years ago), and fell into disuse when the demotichad been introduced. The hieratic writing was generally used formanuscripts, and is also found on the cases of mummies, and onisolated stones and tablets. Long inscriptions have been written onthem with a brush. Inscriptions of this kind are also found onbuildings, written or engraved by ancient travelers. But its mostimportant use was in the historical papyri, and the registers of thetemples. Most valuable information respecting the chronology andnumeric systems of the Egyptians has been derived from them. Demotic, or enchorial, is composed of signs derived from the hieratic, and is a simplified form of it, but from which figurative orikonographic signs are generally excluded, and but few symbolicalsigns, relative to religion alone, are retained; signs nearlyapproaching the alphabetic are chiefly met with in this third kind ofwriting. It was invariably written, like the hieratic, from right toleft. It is thus evident that the Egyptians, strictly speaking, hadbut one system of writing, composed of three kinds of signs, thesecond and third being regularly deduced from the first, and all threegoverned by the same fundamental principles. The demotic was reservedfor general use among the Egyptians: decrees and other public acts, contracts, some funeral stelæ, and private transactions, were writtenin demotic. The intermediate text of the Rosetta inscription is ofthis kind. It is not quite certain when the demotic first came intouse, but it was at least as early as the reign of Psammetichus II. , ofthe twenty-sixth dynasty (B. C. 604); and it had therefore long beenemployed when Herodotus visited Egypt. Soon after its invention it wasadopted for all ordinary purposes. The chief objects of interest in the study of an Egyptian inscriptionare its historical indications. These are found in the names of Kingsor of chief officers, and in the dates they contain. The names ofKings are always enclosed in an oval called _cartouche_. An ovalcontains either the royal title or prænomen, or the proper name ornomen of the King. [Illustration: EGYPTIAN PILLAR. ] The dates which are found with these royal legends are also of greatimportance in an historical point of view, and monuments which bearany numerical indications are exceedingly rare. These numericalindications are either the age of the deceased on a funeral tablet, orthe number of different consecrated objects which he has offered tothe gods, or the date of an event mentioned in the inscription. Dates, properly so called, are the most interesting to collect; theyare expressed in hieroglyphic cyphers, single lines expressing thenumber of units up to nine, when an arbitrary sign represents 10, another 100, and another 10, 000. The most celebrated Egyptian inscriptions are those of the Rosettastone. This stone, a tablet of black basalt, contains threeinscriptions, one in hieroglyphics, another in demotic or enchorial, and a third in the Greek language. The inscriptions are to the samepurport in each, and are a decree of the priesthood of Memphis, inhonor of Ptolemy Epiphanes, about the year B. C. 196. "Ptolemy is therestyled King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Son of the gods Philopatores, approved by Pthah, to whom Ra has given victory, a living image ofAmun, son of Ra, Ptolemy Immortal, beloved by Pthah, God Epiphanes, most gracious. In the date of the decree we are told the names of thepriests of Alexander, of the gods Soteres, of the gods Adelphi, of thegods Euergetæ, of the gods Philopatores, of the god Epiphanes himself, of Berenice Euergetis, of Arsinoe Philadelphus, and of ArsinoePhilopator. The preamble mentions with gratitude the services of theKing, or rather of his wise minister, Aristomenes, and the enactmentorders that the statue of the King shall be worshipped in every templeof Egypt, and be carried out in the processions with those of the godsof the country, and lastly that the decree is to be carved at the footof every statue of the King in sacred, in common and in Greek writing"(Sharpe). It is now in the British Museum. This stone is remarkablefor having led to the discovery of the system pursued by the Egyptiansin their monumental writing, and for having furnished a key to itsinterpretation, Dr. Young giving the first hints by establishing thephonetic value of the hieroglyphic signs, which were followed up andcarried out by Champollion. Another important and much more ancient inscription is the tablet ofAbydos in the British Museum. It was discovered by Mr. Banks in achamber of the temple of Abydos, in 1818. It is now greatlydisfigured, but when perfect it represented an offering made byRemeses II. , of the nineteenth dynasty, to his predecessors on thethrone of Egypt. The tablet is of fine limestone, and originallycontained the names of fifty-two Kings disposed in the two upperlines, twenty-six in each line, and a third or lower line with thename and prænomen of Remeses II. Or III. Repeated twenty-six times. Onthe upper line, beginning from the right hand, are the names ofmonarchs anterior to the twelfth dynasty. The names in the second lineare those of monarchs of the twelfth and the eighteenth or nineteenthdynasties. The King Remeses II. Probably stood on the right hand ofthe tablet, and on the other is the lower part of a figure of Osiris. The lateral inscription is the speech of the deceased King to "theirson" Remeses II. The tablet of Karnac, now in one of the halls of the Bibliotheque atParis, was discovered by Burton in a chamber situated in the southeastangle of the temple-palace of Thebes, and was published by itsdiscoverer in his "Excerpta Hieroglyphica. " The chamber itself wasfully described by Rosellini in his "Monumenti Storici. " The Kings arein two rows, overlooked each of them by a large figure of ThothmesIII. , the fifth King of the eighteenth dynasty. In the row to the leftof the entrance are thirty-one names, and in that to the right arethirty, all of them predecessors of Thothmes. The Theban Kings whoruled in Upper Egypt during the usurpation of the Hyksos invaders arealso exhibited among the lists. Over the head of each King is hisoval, containing his royal titles. A most valuable tablet of Kings has been lately discovered by M. Mariette in a tomb near Memphis, that of a priest who lived underRemeses II. , and was called Tunar-i. It contains two rows of Kings'names, each twenty-nine in number. Six have been wholly obliteratedout of the upper row, and five out of the lower row. The upper rowcontains the names of Remeses II. And his predecessors, who seem allmeant for Kings of Upper Egypt, or Kings of Memphis who ruled overUpper Egypt, while the names in the lower row seem meant forcontemporaneous High Priests of Memphis, some or all of whom may havecalled themselves Kings of Lower Egypt. The result of the comparisonof this tablet with other authorities, namely, Manetho, Eratosthenes, and the tablet of Abydos, is supposed by some to contradict the longerviews of chronology held by Bunsen, Lepsius and others. Thus, readingthe list of names backwards from Remeses II. To Amosis, the first ofthe eighteenth dynasty, this tablet, like the tablet of Abydos, immediately jumps to the Kings of Manetho's twelfth dynasty; thusarguing that the intermediate five dynasties mentioned by Manetho musthave been reigning contemporaneously with the others, and add nolength of time to a table of chronology. There is also a furtheromission in this tablet of four more dynasties. This tablet would thusseem to confirm the views of the opponents of the longer chronology ofBunsen and others, by striking out from the long chronology twoperiods amounting together to 1, 536 years. But a complete counterpartof the tablet of Memphis has been recently found at Abydos by M. Mariette, fully confirming the chronology of Manetho, and bearing outthe views of Bunsen and Lepsius. The _Moniteur_ publishes a letterfrom M. Mariette, containing the following statement:--"At Abydos Ihave discovered a magnificent counterpart of the tablet of Sakharah. Seti I. , accompanied by his son, subsequently Remeses II. (Sesostris), presents an offering to seventy-six Kings drawn up in line before him. Menes (the first King of the first dynasty on Manetho's list) is attheir head. From Menes to Seti I. , this formidable list passes throughnearly all the dynasties. The first six are represented therein. Weare next introduced to sovereigns still unknown to us, belonging tothe obscure period which extends from the end of the sixth to thebeginning of the eleventh. From the eleventh to the eighteenth the newtable follows the beaten track, which it does not quit again duringthe reign of Thothmes, Amenophis, and the first Remeses. If in thisnew list everything is not absolutely new, we at least find in it avaluable confirmation of Manetho's list, and in the present state ofscience we can hardly expect more. Whatever confirms Manetho gives usconfidence in our own efforts, even as whatever contradicts it weakensthe results we obtain. The new tablet of Abydos is, moreover, thecompletest and best preserved monument we possess in this respect. Itsstyle is splendid, and there is not a single cartouche or ovalwanting. It has been found engraved on one of the walls of a smallchamber in the large temple of Abydos. " An important stone bearing a Greek inscription with equivalentEgyptian hieroglyphics has been discovered by Professor Lepsius, atSan, the former Tanis, the chief scene of the grand architecturalundertakings of Remeses II. The Greek inscription consists ofseventy-six lines, in the most perfect preservation, dating from thetime of Ptolemy Euergetes I. (B. C. 238). The hieroglyphicalinscription has thirty-seven lines. It was also found that a demoticinscription was ordered to be added by the priests, on a stone orbrass stele, in the sacred writing of the Egyptians and in Greekcharacters; this is unfortunately wanting. The contents of theinscription are of great interest. It is dated the ninth year theseventh Apellæus--seventeen Tybi, of the reign of Euergetes I. Thepriests of Egypt came together in Canopus to celebrate the birthday ofEuergetes, on the fifth Dios, and his assumption of the royal honor onthe twenty-eighth of the same month, when they passed the decree herepublished. They enumerate all the good deeds of the King, amongst themthe merit of having recovered in a military expedition the sacredimages carried off in former times by the Persians, and order greathonors to be paid in reward for his services. This tablet ofcalcareous stone with a rounded top, is about seven feet high, and iscompletely covered by the inscription. The discovery of this stone isof the greatest importance for hieroglyphical studies. We may mention here another inscribed tablet, the celebrated Isiactable in the Museum at Turin. It is a tablet in bronze, covered withEgyptian figures or hieroglyphics engraved or sunk, the outlines beingfilled with silvering, forming a kind of niello. It was one of thefirst objects that excited an interest in the interpretation ofhieroglyphics, and elicited learned solutions from Kircher and others. It is now considered to be one of those pseudo-Egyptian productions soextensively fabricated during the reign of Hadrian. [Illustration: EGYPTIAN COLUMN. ] The Egyptian obelisks also present important inscriptions. Of thesethe most ancient is that of Heliopolis. We have selected these few examples of Egyptian inscriptions for theircelebrity. Almost every Egyptian monument, of whatever period, temples, statues, tablets, small statues, were inscribed withhieroglyphic inscriptions, all generally executed with great care andfinish. The Egyptian edifices were also covered with religious orhistorical tableaux, sculptured and painted on all the walls; it hasbeen estimated that in one single temple there existed no less than30, 000 square feet of sculpture, and at the sides of these tableauxwere innumerable inscriptions, equally composed of ingeniously groupedfigurative signs, in explanation of the subjects, and combining withthem far more happily than if they had been the finest alphabeticalcharacters in the world. Their study would require more than a lifetime, and we have only spaceto give a few general hints. We have a much more accurate knowledge of Greek inscriptions than wehave of Egyptian palæography. The Greek alphabet, and all itsvariations, as well as the language, customs, and history of thatillustrious people, are better known to us. Greek inscriptions lead usback to those glorious periods of the Greek people when their heroesand writers made themselves immortal by their illustrious deeds andwritings. What emotions must arise in the breast of the archæologistwho finds in a marble worn by time the funereal monument placed byAthens, twenty-three centuries ago, over the grave of its warriors whodied before Potidæa. "Their souls high heaven received; their bodies gained, In Potidæa's plains, this hallowed tomb. Their foes unnumbered fell: a few remained Saved by their ramparts from the general doom. The victor city mourns her heroes slain, Foremost in fight, they for her glory died. " The most important monumental inscription which presents Greekrecords, illustrating and establishing the chronology of Greekhistory, is the Parian chronicle, now preserved among the Arundelianmarbles at Oxford. It was so called from the supposition of its havingbeen made in the Island of Paros, B. C. 263. In its perfect state itwas a square tablet, of coarse marble, five inches thick; and whenSelden first inspected it it measured three feet seven inches by twofeet seven inches. On this stone were engraved some of the principalevents in the history of ancient Greece, forming a compendium ofchronology during a series of 1, 318 years, which commenced with thereign of Cecrops, the first King of Athens, B. C. 1582, and ended withthe archonship of Diognetus. It was deciphered and published by thelearned Selden in 1628. It makes no mention of Olympiads, and reckonsbackwards from the time then present by years. Particular attention should be paid, in the interpretation of Greekinscriptions, to distinguish the numerous titles of magistrates ofevery order, of public officers of different ranks, the names of godsand of nations, those of towns, and the tribes of a city; theprescribed formulas for different kinds of monuments; the text ofdecrees, letters, etc. , which are given or cited in analogous texts;the names of monuments, such as stelæ, tablets, cippi, etc. , theindication of places, or parts belonging to those places, where theyought to be set up or deposited, such as a temple or vestibule, acourt or peristyle, public square, etc. ; those at whose cost it wasset up, the entire city or a curia, the public treasure, or a privatefund, the names and surnames of public or private individuals;prerogatives or favors granted, such as the right of asylum, ofhospitality, of citizenship; the punishments pronounced against thosewho should destroy or mutilate the monument; the conditions oftreaties and alliances; the indications of weights, moneys andmeasures. Another early example of a commemorative inscription of which the datecan also be positively fixed is that lately discovered by Dr. Frick onthe bronze serpent with the three heads, now at Constantinople, whichsupported the golden tripod which was dedicated, as Herodotus states, to Apollo by the allied Greeks as a tenth of the Persian spoils atPlatæa, and which was placed near the altar at Delphi. On thismonument, as we learn from Thucydides, Pausanias, regent of Sparta, inscribed an arrogant distich, in which he commemorates the victory inhis own name as general in chief, hardly mentioning the allied forceswho gained it. This epigram was subsequently erased by theLacedæmonians, who substituted it for an inscription enumerating thevarious Hellenic states who had taken a part in repulsing the Persianinvaders. The inscription contains exactly what the statements ofThucydides and Herodotus would lead us to expect; the names of thoseGreek states which took an active part in the defeat of the Persians. Thirty-one names have been deciphered, and there seem to be traces ofthree more. The first three names in the list are the Lacedæmonians, Athenians, Corinthians. The remainder are nearly identical with thoseinscribed on the statue of Zeus at Olympia, as they are given byPausanias. The names of the several states seem to be arranged on theserpent generally according to their relative importance, and alsowith some regard to their geographical distribution. The states ofcontinental Greece are enumerated first; then the islanders andoutlying colonies in the north and west. It is supposed the presentinscription was placed on the serpent B. C. 476. The dedicatory inscriptions on the statues at Branchidæ probably rangefrom B. C. 580-520. The famous Sigean inscription, brought from theTroad to England in the last century, is now admitted to be not apseudo-archaic imitation, as Bockh maintained, but a genuine specimenof Greek writing in Asia Minor, contemporary, or nearly so, with theBranchidæ inscriptions. Kirchhoff considers it not later than Olympiad69 (B. C. 504-500). A most interesting inscription of the archaic period is the celebratedbronze tablet, which Sir William Gell obtained from Olympia, and onwhich is engraved a treaty between the Eleans and Heræans. The termsof this specimen of ancient diplomacy are singularly concise. Kirchhoff places this inscription before Olympiad 75 (B. C. 480); Bockhassigns it to a much earlier date. In any case, we may regard this asthe oldest extant treaty in the Greek language. It must have beenoriginally fixed on the wall of some temple at Olympia. A series of Athenian records on marble has been found inscribed on thewall of the Parthenon, while others have been put together out of manyfragments extracted from the ruins on the Acropolis and fromexcavations at Athens. Of the public records preserved in theseinscriptions, the following are the most important classes: thetribute lists, the treasure lists, and the public accounts. An interesting inscription has been lately brought to light in thediggings on the Athenian Acropolis. It is the treaty-stone betweenAthens and Chalcis. The inscription is of the days of Pericles, andrecords the terms on which Chalcis in Eubœa was again received as anAthenian dependency or subject ally after its revolt and recovery inB. C. 445. The event is recorded in Thucydides. The inscription is inAttic Greek, but the spelling is archaic. Funeral monuments usually bear an inscription which gives the namesand titles of the deceased, his country, his age, the names of hisfather and of his mother, his titles and his services, hisdistinguished qualities and his virtues. Frequently a funerealinscription contains only the names of the deceased, that of hiscountry, and acclamations and votive formulæ generally terminate it. The Sigean marble is one of the most celebrated palæographicalmonuments in existence. It is written in the most ancient Greekcharacters, and in the Boustrophedon manner. The purport of theinscription, which in sense is twice repeated, on the upper and lowerpart of the stone, is to record the presentation of three vessels forthe use of the Prytaneum, or Town Hall of the Sigeans. The upper andlower inscriptions, in common letters, read thus: The first inscription is thus translated: "I am the gift ofPhanodicus, the son of Hermocrates, of Proconnesus; he gave a vase (acrater), a stand or support for it, and a strainer, to the Sigeans forthe Prytaneum. " The second, which says, "I also am the gift ofPhanodicus, " repeating the substance of the former inscription, adds, "if any mischance happens to me, the Sigeans are to mend me. Æsop andhis brethren made me. " The lower inscription is the more ancient. Itis now nearly obliterated. Kirchhoff considers it to be not later thanOlympiad 69 B. C. (504-500). _The Athenian People erects this Statue of Socrates, the Son ofSocrates of Thoricus. _ "The Sons of Athens, Socrates, from thee Imbibed the lessons of the Muse divine; Hence this thy meed of wisdom: prompt are we To render grace for grace, our love for thine. " _Wordsworth's Athens. _ To Perpenna the Roman, of Consular dignity, the Senate and People of Syracuse. A man by whose wise counsels this city of Syracuse hath breathed fromits labors, and seen the hour of repose. For these services the bestof its citizens have erected to him an image of marble, but theypreserve that of his wisdom in their breasts. _Museum of Syracuse. _ _On a Gateway at Nicæa_ (_Translation_): "The very splendid, and large, and good city of the Nicæans [erects]this wall for the autocrat Cæsar Marcus Aurelius Claudius, the pious, the fortunate, august, of Tribunitial authority, second timeProconsul, father of his country, and for the Sacred Senate, and thepeople of the Romans, in the time of the illustrious Consular VelleiusMacrinus, Legate and Lieutenant of the august Cæsar Antoninus, thesplendid orator. " A. D. 269. [Page Decoration] THE CATACOMBS. The catacombs, or under-ground cemeteries, are among the moststupendous wonders of antiquity, and have ever since their discoveryexcited the keenest interest of archæologists. The cut on page 875 is a plan of the catacombs of Rome. These alonewere years ago computed to be 590 miles in length, while Mr. Marchi, in the light of more recent investigations and new discoveries hascalculated their length to be between 800 and 900 miles, and, that inthe sepulchral enclosures of their vast hollows between 6, 000, 000 and7, 000, 000 of the human race have been entombed. Most of the catacombsare situated from fifty to seventy-five feet below the surface of theearth, not a ray of natural light can penetrate the dense blackness ofnight which everywhere abounds. Woe to the man whose boldness leadshim to venture alone into these dark depths! So extensive and sointricate are the corridors and passages that he must be irrevocablylost and miserably perish in this endless labyrinth. Even the mostexperienced guides, with burning torches in hand, would rather followonly thoroughly explored passages, and care not to leave well-beatentracks. The passages are from six to twelve feet high and have an averagewidth of from three to six feet. In the tufa rock of which their wallsare composed niches are hollowed out, one above the other, in whichthe dead were laid, from three to six persons having been placed oneach side. All the passages and galleries have these ghastly linings, and most of them end their long and dreary course in a chamber, as thereader may observe on examining the cuts below. These chambers are often of large dimensions, and were originallyadorned with great splendor and high art. They were the tombs ofwealthy and noble families, who spared neither labor nor money inbeautifying their final habitations. The walls and ceilings wereexquisitely sculptured and painted by the most gifted artists of theage. Sarcophagi or coffins of bronze, of porphyry and other raremarbles contained the bodies of the dead. On their massive lids andsides were carved the forms and features of those lying within, sothat even to-day we are in possession of fine and accurate portraitsof ancient people. Around the sarcophagi were placed rich vases ofgold, drinking cups of silver, and many other valuable treasures dearto the departed when alive. Statues of bronze and marble were rangedabout in lavish array and gleamed under the soft light which fell fromquaint lamps of precious metals, curious in shape and wrought withelaborate skill. [Illustration: SECTIONS OF CATACOMBS WITH CHAMBERS. ] In the Roman Campagna there were forty-three catacombs, whose namesare recorded in inscriptions, in martyrologies, and in the PontificalRegisters used by Anastasius, since republished, with additions, invarious forms, and repeated in substance by Baronius in his Annals, and Panvinius in his treatise on the Cemeteries. Aringhi reckons onthe number at fifty-six, and from the account of Signor de Rossi itappears that the number is now reckoned at about sixty. The number of_general_ cemeteries is not so large. [Illustration: PLAN OF CATACOMBS AT ROME. (_Estimated to be between 800 and 900 miles in length. _)] The original entrances to the catacombs were in many instances bysubterranean roads or corridors, sometimes called streets. Thesecorridors, which served as entrances to and passages in theburial-places, were originally old sand-pit roads, from which thePozzolana sand had been extracted; when this bed of sand is extracted, the entrance is usually closed. The soft bed of Pozzolana sand was, however, not generally used for interments, but the harder bed underit, called "tufa granulare. " The different horizontal layers or bedsof tufa vary very much in hardness and also in thickness. Although these catacombs may not be the finest cemeteries, yet the useof these would be infinitely preferable to the recent Roman practiceof throwing the bodies of all persons, whose families can not affordto buy a piece of land in perpetuity, into a pit, in the same manneras the ancient Romans did the bodies of their slaves. There are three hundred and eighty pits provided in the burial groundof S. Lorenzo, one of which was opened every night. All the bodiesbrought for interment that day or night were thrown into it, afterbeing first stripped to the skin by the officials; and then hot limewas thrown upon them, that they might be thoroughly decayed before theyear came round. The mouth of the pit was closed with lime grouting, so that no effluvium could escape, and this covering was not brokenuntil the pit was wanted to be used again. These corridors or passages of the sand-pits from which the Pozzolanasand had been excavated are large enough to admit a horse and cart;these were frequently the entrances to the catacombs, the corridors ofwhich are usually by the side of or under those of the _arenariæ_, orsand-pits, and are only just large enough for a man, or two men witha body, to pass along; the height varies from five to seven or eightfeet, or more, according to the thickness of the bed of tufa. In thecatacomb of S. Hermes, part of the wide sand-pit road has been reducedto one-third of its width, by building up brick walls on each sidewith _loculi_ in them. There is in general, at present, no communication between one catacomband another; each occupies a separate hill or rising ground in theCampagna, and is separated from the others by the intervening valleys. When the first tier of tombs extended to the edges of the hill, asecond was made under it, and then sometimes a third, or more. Themanner in which the rock is excavated in a number of corridorstwisting in all directions, in order to make room for the largestpossible number of bodies, is thus accounted for. The plan of thecatacomb of S. Priscilla is a good illustration of this. It would havebeen hardly safe to have excavated the rock to any greater extent. Thelowest corridors are frequently below the level of the valleys, andthere may have been originally passages from one to the other, so thatone entrance to S. Calixtus may have been through S. Sebastian's. Thepeculiarly dry and drying nature of the sandstone, or tufa rock, inwhich these tombs are excavated, made them admirably calculated forthe purpose. These catacombs were the public cemeteries of ChristianRome for several centuries, and it would have been well for the healthof the city if they could always have continued so. Unfortunatelyafter the siege of Rome by the Goths, in the time of Justinian, whensome of the catacombs were rifled of their contents, the use of theseexcellent burying places was discontinued. That the _arenaria_ were considered as burying places in the time ofNero is evident from his exclamations of horror at the idea of beingtaken there alive for the purpose of concealment. The sand-pits arealso mentioned by Cicero in his Oration for Cluentius, where he saysthat the young Asinius, a citizen of noble family, was inveigled intoone of them and murdered. [Illustration: STONE COFFIN. ] This shows they were in use before the Christian era, and there isevery reason to believe that they have been in use ever sincelime-mortar came into use, which is believed to have been manycenturies before that period. The celebrated Pozzolana sand makes thebest mortar in the world, from its gritty nature. This valuable sandis found to any extent nearly all over the Campagna of Rome, inhorizontal beds or layers between the beds of tufa; some of the tufaitself, which is sandstone, may be scraped into this sand, but it iseasier to take it as ready provided by nature. People once accustomedto the use of this sand can not do without it, and hundreds of cartsfilled with it may be seen daily traversing the Campagna, conveying iteither to Rome, or to Ostia, or to Porto, for exportation. Thehorizontal layers or beds of this sand are not usually more than sixfeet thick, although they extend at a certain level over the wholesurface of the country. It is therefore excavated in horizontalcorridors, with various branches, extending for many miles, undermining the whole surface of the soil, but not in large or deeppits, so that the name of sand-pit is rather deceitful to Americanpeople, who commonly imagine it to be always a large and deep pit towhich these roads lead only; this is not always the case, the roadsthemselves being excavated in the layer of sand, and frequentlythemselves the sand-pits. Sometimes there are different layers of sandat different levels, and in some cases there may be two sand-pit roadsone over the other, with the bed of hard tufa between them. We are told in the _Acta Sanctorum_ that one of the punishmentsinflicted on the Christians by the Emperor Maximinus in the sixthpersecution, A. D. 35, was digging sand and stone. The martyrs, Ciriacus and Sisinnus are especially mentioned as ordered to bestrictly guarded, and compelled to dig sand and to carry it on theirown shoulders. Some of the catacombs were evidently made under tombs by the side ofthe road, and in that of S. Calixtus there are remains of the tomb onthe surface of the ground. The burial-chapels of the fourth centurycommonly found over a catacomb probably replace earlier tombs. Thechurch of S. Urban is now considered to have been a family tomb of thefirst century, made into a church long afterwards. [Illustration: STONE COFFIN WITH OPEN SIDE. ] Many inscriptions are preserved relating to the preservation of a tombwith the land belonging to it in perpetuity, and they frequentlymention the number of feet along the road and in the field. Their sizevaries enormously. Horace mentions one that was 1, 000 feet by 300feet. The inscription of one dug up in the Via Labicana gives 1, 800feet by 500 feet; another was only twenty-four feet by fifteen feet, and another sixteen feet square. In the case of one of the largertombs belonging to a family that became Christian, it was easy forthem to make a catacomb under it and allow their fellow-Christians tobe buried there, or to sell portions of the large space for separatevaults. Many vaults of sixteen feet square might be made in the spaceof 1, 800 feet long by 500 feet wide, as the one on the Via Labicana. If the adjoining field belonged to the same family, the catacomb mightbe extended as far as the family property itself extended. This is themost probable explanation of the _prædium_ of the Lady Lucina andother Christian martyrs. They were heiresses to whom such a tomb andmeadow belonged. When the space was limited, three or four storieswere excavated in succession, one under the other, as we see in manyinstances. The measurements of Michele de Rossi coincide with this in aremarkable manner. He finds the _area_ of each separate catacomb to berespectively 100, 125, 150, 180 and 250 feet. None of these spaces areat all too large for the area commonly left round a tomb ofimportance, and the family property of this area would extend to anydepth. Each cemetery was complete in itself, but sometimes connectedwith others by subterranean roads. These tombs were protected by special laws, and the _area_ in whichthe tomb stood was included with it. The area was often ofconsiderable extent, and was intended for the burial-place ofsucceeding generations of the family to whom it belonged. The tombs ofthe period of the early empire were by no means exclusively for the_columbaria_ for cinerary urns. The instances in which there are bothplaces for bodies and urns are perhaps more numerous than those forurns only. The fine sarcophagi now found in museums, or applied to allsorts of uses, as water-troughs, vases for flowers, and various otherpurposes, were all originally in tombs, and generally in tombs inwhich there were also _columbaria_ for cinerary urns. Some Pagan tombson the Via Latina have catacombs for the interment of bodies underthem, and often bodies were put in them. The custom of burning the bodies was never universal, and lasted onlyfor a certain period; the custom of burying bodies came in again soonafter the Christian era, and probably was influenced by the strongfeeling which sprung up among the Christians on this subject. Thesumptuous painted chambers in the upper part of the tombs of the firstand second centuries on the Via Latina were evidently imitated by thepoor in the catacombs in the fourth and fifth centuries and later;but there is no evidence of any Scriptural or religious subjects forpaintings before the time of Constantine. The character of thepaintings is almost universally later, and the few that are early arenot Christian nor Scriptural. [Illustration: INSIDE VIEW OF CATACOMBS. ] It might very well happen that some members of the family wereChristians and others were not, and this would account for the mixtureof Pagan tombs with Christian ones in the same catacombs. Thesubterranean sand-pit roads frequently run parallel to the high roadsat a little distance from them, and such a road passing at the back ofthe subterranean cemetery or catacomb would be very convenient toChristians in time of persecution. The part of these roads which camewithin the limits of the cemetery would naturally be used for burialplaces, also, as we see that they were distinctly in the case of S. Hermes, and nearly with equal certainty in other cases. In ordinarytimes, there was no necessity for secrecy. The bodies of Christianmartyrs were given up for the purpose of burial to those who appliedfor them. The catacombs of SS. Saturnius and Thraso, the entrance to which is inthe gardens of the Villa Gangalani, about a mile from Rome, on the ViaSalaria, are stated to have formed part of the great catacomb of S. Priscilla, the entrance to which is about a quarter of a mile fartherfrom Rome, on the same road. On descending into that of S. Saturninusby a steep flight of steps of modern appearance, but perhaps restoredonly, we soon pass under the road and hear carriages passing overhead;we then continue to descend to the depth of about fifty feet, dividedinto five corridors, only four of which can at present be seen; but wepass the entrance to the fifth on one of the stair-cases, and see theopening to it. The two lower corridors of this catacomb have tombs or_cubicula_ on the sides; a few of these are painted, and the vault ofthe corridor in front of them, also. The sandstone in which this catacomb is made is more than usuallyhard, for which reason apparently there are only three of the sidechapels for family burying places, and few of the arched tombs; mostof the recesses for graves are merely parallelograms just large enoughto contain the body, or two bodies side by side, one behind the other, the recess being excavated to a sufficient depth for that purpose, andsome of these have the slabs covering the openings left in theirplaces. The skeletons are allowed to remain in several of the tombswhere the slab has been removed and left open. One of the chapels hasremains of paintings of the fourth century in a very decayed state. The other two chapels are connected by a short passage; they haveevidently been family burying places, a second added when the firstwas full. The passage is made through the principal tomb of the firstchapel, the body previously interred there was probably removed to theinner chapel when that was made. The painted chapel is in the uppercorridor, the double one in the lowest. In descending from the garden, the two upper corridors have tombs onthe sides, and are regular catacombs; the third is an _arenarium_, orsand-pit, without tombs, and large enough for a horse and cart to passalong, as in the ordinary sand-pits. There must have been anotherentrance to this, and it is said to have been half a mile off, whichis not improbable, judging by other sand-pits, both those now in useand others that are closed, some of which are known to be more than amile long, and with the different branch galleries, the corridorsaltogether often extend several miles. These galleries are large andwide enough for a horse and cart, but not for two to pass, sidingsbeing made at intervals for that purpose. The passages in thecatacombs vary much both in height and in width, but are seldom morethan three feet wide. The chapels also vary in size, but none of themwould hold more than fifty people; those in the present catacomb aresmall. [Illustration: LAMPS FOUND IN THE CATACOMBS. ] That each of these chapels was the burial-place of a family, and wasconsidered as private property, is evident from the remains of a doorat the entrance of several of them, as in the catacomb of S. Priscilla. In one of these, the stone corbel, with the hole for thepivot to work in, remains in its place; the lower stone, with thecorresponding hole, has been moved, but is lying on the floor in anadjoining chapel. Another door has been made to slide up and down likea portcullis or a modern sash-window, as we see by the grooveremaining on both sides. This is close to a _luminaria_, or well foradmitting light and air, and it seems quite possible that it reallywas a window, or that the upper part was made to slide down to admitthe light and air from the _luminaria_. If this was the burial-placeof Priscilla, the paintings were probably renewed in the restorationby John I. , A. D. 523. The lower part of the wall is faced with stuccopaneled with oblong panels, colored in imitation of different kinds ofmarble; the stucco is about an inch thick, like slabs of marble, andthe divisions between the panels are sunk to that depth, as if eachpanel had been painted before it was placed and fixed to the wallslike marble slabs. There are some long narrow slips of white stuccolying about, which seem to have been fitted into the hollow groovesbetween the slabs. The vaults in this catacomb are in many partssupported by brick arches; in one place, at a crossing, are four smalllow brick arches, the character of which agrees with the period of therestoration in the sixth century; the mortar between the bricks ortiles is about the same thickness as the tiles themselves, which arerather more than an inch thick, so that there are five tiles to afoot, including the mortar between them. These brick arches are notsubsequent repairs, but part of the original construction to carry thevault. The _arenarium_, or sand-pit gallery, through which the presententrance is made, has evidently been used as a subterranean road. Abranch of an aqueduct running along the side of this is part of anextensive system of irrigation carried on throughout all thisdistrict, the water having been brought from the Aqua Virgo, whichpassed in this direction. It was probably part of the original line ofthe Aqueduct, which has been altered in the portion near to Rome; thishas not been traced out to any considerable extent, but Signor deRossi has found many remains and indications of it. The sand-pitroads, or _arenaria_, ran for miles parallel to the high roads, andwere probably used by the carters in preference to the open roads inhot weather, as they are always cool. _Christian Inscriptions_ are all funereal, and are for the most partfound in the catacombs, or subterranean cemeteries. The word cemeteryis derived from a Greek word, meaning "a sleeping place, " hence thefrequent formulæ in the Christian epitaphs, "dormit in pace, " hesleeps in peace; "dormitio Elpidis, " the sleeping place of Elpis;"cubiculum Aureliæ, " the sleeping chamber of Aurelia. The termcatacomb was applied to these subterranean cemeteries at a much laterperiod. The practice of subterranean burial among the early Christianswas evidently derived from the Jewish custom of burying the dead inexcavated sepulchres, and thus may have been adopted by the earlyJewish converts. The Roman Jews had a very early catacomb of theirown, in the Monte Verde, contiguous to their place of abode, in theTrasteverine quarter of Rome. This subterranean mode of sepulture isundoubtedly of Egyptian origin. It is generally supposed that theearly Christians used for their burial places the excavations made bythe Romans for procuring stone and cement for building purposes. Thisis an erroneous view. Recent geological observations on the soil ofthe Agro Romano have shown that the surface of the Campagna consistsof volcanic rocks of different natures and ages. The earliest of theseries, the tufa lithoide, was constantly employed from the earliestages in the buildings of the city, as attested by the massive blocksof the Cloaca Maxima, the tabularium of the Capitol, and the walls ofRomulus; the second, or tufa granolare, which though it has justconsistency enough to retain the form given to it by the excavator, can not be hewn or extracted in blocks; and the pozzolana, which hasbeen extensively used in all ages for mortar or Roman cement. The tufalithoide and the pozzolana were thus alone used for building purposesby the Romans, and the catacombs are never found excavated in these. The catacombs were hewn only in the tufa granolare, and wereconsequently excavated expressly for burials by the early Christians. The Christian architects carefully avoided the massive strata of thetufa lithoide, and we believe it is ascertained that all the knowncatacombs are driven exclusively along the courses of the tufagranolare. With equal care these subterranean engineers avoided thelayers of pozzolana, which would have rendered their work insecure, and in which no permanent rock tomb could have been constructed. Thuswe arrive at the curious fact, that in making the catacombs theexcavators carefully avoided the strata of hard stone and the strataof soft stone, used respectively for building and for mortar, andselected that course of medium hardness which was best adapted totheir peculiar purpose. The early Christian tomb inscriptions arecharacterized by symbols and formulæ peculiar to the Christian creed;the idea of another life, a life beyond the grave, usually prevails inthem. The symbols found in connection with the funereal inscriptions are ofthree kinds; the larger proportion of these refer to the profession ofChristianity, its doctrines and its graces. A second class, of apartly secular description, only indicate the trades of the deceased, and the remainder represent proper names: thus a lion must be read asa proper name, _Leo_; an ass, _Onager_; a dragon, _Dracontius_. Of thefirst kind the most usually met with is the monogram of Christ. Theother symbols generally in use are the ship, the emblem of the church;the fish, the emblem of Christ, the palm, the symbol of martyrdom. Theanchor represented hope in immortality; the dove, peace; the stagreminded the faithful of the pious aspiration of the Psalmist; thehorse was the emblem of strength in the faith; the hunted hare, ofpersecution; the peacock and the phœnix stood for signs of theresurrection. Christ, as the good pastor, was also introduced in theepitaph. Even personages of the Pagan mythology were introduced, whichthe Christians employed in a concealed sense, as Orpheus, enchantingthe wild beasts with the music (see page 701) of his lyre, was thesecret symbol of Christ as the civilizer of men leading all nations tothe faith. Ulysses, fastened to the mast of his ship, was supposed topresent some faint resemblance to the crucifixion. In classifying the Roman inscriptions, M. De Rossi has adopted thefollowing divisions. The first comprises those inscriptions only whichcontain some express note of time, and are therefore susceptible ofexact chronological arrangement. The second comprises the selectinscriptions, viz. : first, sacred and historical ones, and next thosewhich, either by testimony, by forms, or by symbols, illustrate thedoctrines, the worship, or the morals of the Christians. The third, the purely topographical, assigns each inscription its proper placeamong the ancient localities of Rome. This comprises also inscriptionsof unknown or uncertain locality, as well as inscriptions of spuriousorigin or doubtful authenticity. In considering the chronological arrangements of Christianinscriptions, it is important to keep in view that in the earliercenturies the Christians kept note of time either by the years of thebishop, or by some of the civil forms which prevailed in the variouscountries in which they resided. In Rome the common date was that ofthe consular year. The common use of the Christian era as a note oftime began, as is well known, later than the sixth century, at whichM. De Rossi's series terminates. In M. De Rossi's collection oneinscription bears date from the year A. D. 107, and another from 111. Of the period from the year 204, in which the next inscription with adate occurs, till the peace of the church in 312, twenty-eight datedinscriptions have been found; after the peace of the church the numberof dated inscriptions increases rapidly. Between the accession ofConstantine and the close of the fourth century, his collectioncontains 450 dated inscriptions, and the fifth century presents aboutthe same number; but in the sixth, the number again declines, thatcentury producing little more than 200. In those cases where no note of time is marked, M. De Rossi hasavailed himself of other chronological indications and tests, foundedon the language, on the style, on the names, and on the materialexecution of the inscription, in determining the date. Out of the11, 000 extant Roman inscriptions anterior to the seventh century, M. De Rossi finds chronological evidence of the date of no fewer than1374. There are also varieties in inflection, such as "spiritu sancta" for"spiritu sancto, " "pauperorum, " for "pauperum, " "vocitus" for"vocatus, " "requiescent" for "requiescunt, " etc. There are also new or unusual terms, or new familiar words in new orunusual meanings, such as "pausavit, rested, bisomus, trisomus, quadrisomus, " holding two, three, four bodies; compar and conpar(husband and wife); fecit for egit, _passed_; "percepit, " received, _scil. _ baptism, as also "consecutus est, " in the same sense, etc. Sometimes Latin is written in Greek characters and sometimes Greek inLatin. The age is expressed by "vixit, " or "vixit in sæculo, " "annos" (or"annis") "menses, " "dies" (or "diebus") ----, with the number of hourssometimes stated. Sometimes "qui fuit" stands for "vixit;" sometimesneither is expressed, and we have the form in the genitive, "sal. Annorum, " etc. Frequently the time passed in married life is mentioned, and we findsuch phrases as "vixit mecum, duravit mecum, vixit in conjugio, fecitmecum, fecit in conjugio, fecit cum compare, " with a precise statementof the number of years, etc. , and often with some expression markingthe happiness of the couple's married life. The epithets applied to the deceased indicate strong affection, andthe eulogies are sometimes extravagant. The occupation or position in life is stated, with the proper titles, in many dated Christian epitaphs. But they are all, it is supposed, later than the time of Constantine. The same designations of the place of burial and of the tomb are foundin both Christian and Pagan epitaphs. Acclamations or expressions of good wishes or prayers to or for thedeceased frequently occur in the inscriptions. The letters also of these inscriptions are usually very irregular. They are from half an inch to four inches in height, colored in theincision with a pigment resembling Venetian red. The sense, too, ofthe inscriptions is not always very obvious. An extreme simplicity oflanguage and sentiment is the prevailing characteristic of the earlierinscriptions. But, on the other hand, exaggerated examples of theopposite style are occasionally met with. Another peculiarity in these Christian inscriptions is the disuse ofthe three names usually assumed by the Romans. M. De Rossi has giventwenty inscriptions with the names complete, prior to Constantine. Ofthese, no fewer than seventeen have prænomina, whereas afterConstantine prænomina may be said entirely to disappear. The year is usually indicated by the names of the consuls. Theabbreviation COS for "consulibus" was in use up to the middle of thethird century, when COSS, CONS, and CONSS began to be adopted; COS isvery seldom found during the fourth century, and almost never in thefifth or sixth; COSS fell into disuse about the first quarter of thefifth century, and after that CONS was used; in the time of Diocletianwith S for one consul and SS for two. At the same time CC. SS. CS wereintroduced, but they were very rarely used in the fifth, and there isscarcely an example of them in the sixth. From about the middle of thefourth century CONS began to be placed before instead of after thenames, and this usage became the prevalent custom in the fifth andsixth. At the date of the discovery of the Roman catacombs, the whole body ofknown Christian inscriptions collected from all parts of Italy fellfar short of a thousand in number. Of these, too, not a single one wasof subterranean origin, and not dated earlier than A. D. 553. Atpresent the Christian inscriptions of Rome on catacombs alone, andanterior to the sixth century, considerably exceed 11, 000. They havebeen carefully removed from the cemeteries, and are now systematicallyarranged by M. De Rossi, on the walls of the Christian museum, recently formed by order of Pius IX. , in the Lateran Palace. A largenumber of these inscriptions are also inserted in the walls of theGalleria Lapidaria in the Vatican. EARLY INSCRIPTIONS. VG. VESPASIANO III COS IAN A. D. 71. This fragment has been received as a part of a Christian epitaph byReggi, Marini and de Rossi. It is the most ancient of all such as beardates. SERVILIA. ANNORVM. XIII PIS. ET BOL. COSS. Servilia, aged thirteen, died in the consulate of Piso and Bolanus. A. D. 111. TEMPORE. ADRIANI. IMPERATORIS. MARVIS. ADOLESCENS DVX. MILITVM QVI SATIS. VIXIT DVM VITAM PRO CHO CVM. SANGVINE CONSVNSIT. IN. PACE. TANDEM QUIEVIT. BENE MERENTES CVM. LACRIMIS. ET. METV. POSVERVNT. I. D. VI. "In the time of the Emperor Adrian, Marius, a young military officer who had lived long enough, when with blood he gave up his life for Christ. At length he rested in peace. The well-deserving set up this with tears and in fear, on the 6th before the ides. " A. D. 130. ALEXANDER MORTVVS NON EST SED VIVIT SVPER ASTRA ET CORPVS IN HOC TVMVLO QVIESCIT VITAM EXPLEVIT SVS ANTONINO IMP^o QVIVBI MVLTVM BENE FITII ANTEVENIRE PRAEVIDERET PROGRATIA ODIVM REDDIDIT GENVA ENIM FLECTENS VERO DEO SACRIFICATVRVS AD SVPPLICIA DVCITVRO TEMPORA INFAVSTA QVIBVS INTER SACRA ET VOTA NE IN CAVERNIS QVIDEM SALVARI POSSIMVS QVID MISERIVS VITA SED QVID MISERIVS IN MORTE CVM AB AMICIS ET PARENTIBVS SEPELIRI NEQVEANT TANDEM IN COELO CORVSCANT PARVM VIXIT QVI VIXIT IV. X. TEM. "In Christ. Alexander is not dead, but lives beyond the stars, and his body rests in this tomb. He lived under the Emperor Antoninus, who, foreseeing that great benefit would result from his services, returned evil for good. For, while on his knees, and about to sacrifice to the true God, he was led away to execution. O, sad times! in which sacred rites and prayers, even in caverns, afford no protection to us. What can be more wretched than such a life? and what than such a death? when they could not be buried by their friends and relations. At length they sparkle in heaven. He has scarcely lived who has lived in Christian times. " A. D. 160. _From the Cemetery of St. Callisto. _ AVRELIA DULCISSIMA FILIA QVAE DE. SAECVLO RECESSIT VIXIT ANN. XV. M. IIII. SEVERO ET QVINTIN COSS. "Aurelia; our sweetest daughter, who departed from the world. She lived fifteen years and four months. Severus and Quintinus being consuls. " A. D. 325. Consule Claudio et Paterno, nonis Novembribus, die Veneris, luna XXIV, Leuces filiæ Severæ carissimæ posuit et spiritui sancto tuo. Mortua annorum LV et mensium XI dierum X. "In the consulship of Claudius and Paternus, on the nones of November, on Friday, the 24th day of the moon, Leuce erected (this memorial) to her very dear daughter, and to thy holy spirit. She (died at the age) of fifty-five years, and eleven months, (and) ten days. " A. D. 269. D. M. P. LIBERIO VICXIT ANN N. V MENSES N. III DIES N. VIII R. ANICIO FAVSTO ET VIRIO GALLO COSS "Publius Liberio lived five years, three months, and eight days. He retired (from this world) in the consulship of Anicius Faustus and Virius Gallus. " A. D. 298. B. M. CVBICVLVM. AVRELIAE. MARTINAE. CASTISSIMAE ADQVE. PVDI. CISSIMAE FEMINAE QVE FECIT. IN. COIVGIO. ANN. XXIII. D. XIIII. BENE MERENTI. QVE VIXIT. ANN. XL. M. XI. D. XIII. DEPOSITIO EIS DIE. III. NONAS. OCT. NEPOTIANO. ET FACVNDO. CONNS. IN PACE "To the well-deserving. The chamber of Aurelia Martina, my wife, most chaste and modest, who lived in wedlock twenty-three years and fourteen days. To the well-deserving one, who lived forty years, eleven months, and thirteen days. Her burial was on the third nones of October. Nepotianus and Facundus being consuls. " In peace. A. D. 336. _Galleria Lapidaria. Vatican. _ Another in Greek characters: "Here lies Euterpe, the companion of the Muses, having lived simply and piously, and irreproachably for fifteen years, twenty-two days, and three months. She died on the fifth day before the calends of December, in consulship of our lords, for the tenth time, and for the third time (_i. E. _, in the Consulship of Constantine, for the tenth time, and Julian for the third time). " A. D. 360. ROMANO. NEOFITO BENEMERENTI QVI VI XIT. ANNOS. VIII. DXV. REQVIESCIT IN PACE DN FL. GRATIANO. AVG. II. ET. PETRONIO PROBO. CS. "To Romanus, the neophyte, the well-deserving, who lived eight years, fifteen days. He rests in the peace of the Lord. Flavius and Gratianus and Petronius Probus being consuls. " HIC QVIESCIT ANCILLA DEI QVE DE SVA OMNIO POSSIDIT DOMVM ISTA QVEM AMICE DEFLEN SOLACIVMQ REQVIRVNT. PRO HVNC VNVM ORA SVBOLEM QVEM SVPERIS. TITEM REQVISTI ETERNA REQVIEM FELICITA. S. CAVSA MANBIS IIIIX. KALENDAS OTOBRIS CVCVRBITINVS ET ABVMDANTIVS HIC SIMVL QVIESCIT DD. NN. GRATIANO V. ET TEODOSIO. AAGG. Hic quiescit ancilla Dei, quæ de suis omnibus possidet domum istam, quam amicæ deflent solaciumque requirunt. Pro hac una ora subole, quam superstitem reliquisti. Æterna in requie felicitatis causa manebis, XIV. Kalendis Octobris, Cucurbitinus et Abumdantius hic simul quiescunti. DDNN Gratiano v et Theodosio Augustis (Consulibus). "Here rests a handmaid of God, who out of all her riches now possesses but this one house, whom her friends bewail, and seek in vain for consolation. Oh pray for this one remaining daughter, whom thou hast left behind! Thou wilt remain in the eternal repose of happiness. On the 14 of the Calends of October. Curcurbitinus and Abumdantius rest here together. In the consulship of our Lords Gratian (V. ) and Theodosius Emperors. " A. D. 380. HIC POSITA EST ANIMA DVLCES INNOCA SAPIENS ET PVLCHRA NOMINE QUIRIACE QVE VIXIT. ANNOS. III. M III. DVIII. DP IN PACE IIII. ID IAN. CONSS. DN. TEVDOSIO. AVG. II ET MEROBAVDE. VC. III Hic posita est anima dulces (dulcis) innoca (innocua), sapiens et pulchra, nomine Quiriace, quæ vixit annos III. , menses III. , dies VIII. Deposita in pace, IV. Idus Januarias, Consulibus Domino nostro Teudosio (Theodoric) Augusto II. Et Merobaude Vire Clarissimo III. "Here has been laid a sweet spirit, guileless, wise and beautiful, by name Quiriace, who lived three years, three months, and eight days. Buried in peace, in the fourth day before the Ides of January, in the consulship of our Lord Theodorius Augustus, for the second time, and Merobaudes, a most distinguished man, for the third time. " A. D. 388. PERPETVAM SEDEM NVTRITOR POSSIDES IPSE HIC MERITVS FINEM MAGNIS DEFVNCTE PERICLIS HIC REQVIEM FELIX SVMIS COGENTIBVS ANNIS HIC POSITVS PAPAS ANTIMIOO VIXIT ANNIS LXX DEPOSITVS DOMINO NOSTRO ARCADIO II ET FL. RVFINO VVCCSS NONAS NOBEMB. "You, our nursing father, occupy a perpetual seat, being dead, and deserving an end of your great dangers. Here happy, you find rest, bowed down with years. Here lies the tutor, Antimio, who lived seventy years. Buried on the nones of November; our Lords Arcadius for the second time, and Flavius Rufinus being consuls. " A. D. 392. _Galleria Lapidaria. _ HIC REQVIESCET IN SOMNO PACIS MALA QVI VIXIT ANNOS XXXVIII. M. V. DV. ACCEPTA APVT DE IV. IDVS IVNIAS AETIO CONL. Hic requiescet (requiescit) in somno pacis, Mala qui (quæ) vixit annos XXXVIII. Menses V. Dies V. Accepta aput (apud) De(um) IV idus Junias. Aetio Consule. "Here rests in the sleep of peace Mala, who lived thirty-eight years, five months, five days. Received before God, on the fourth day before the Ides of June, in the consulship of Aetius. " A. D. 432. LEVIVAE CONIVNX PETRONIA FORMA PVDORIS HIS MEA DEPONENS SEDISVS OSSA LOCO PARCITE VOS LACRIMIS DVLCES CVM CONIVGE NATAE VIVENTEMQVE DEO CREDITE FLERE NEFAS DP IN PACE III NON OCTOBRIS FESTO VC. CONSS. "Petronia, a priest's wife, the type of modesty. In this place I lay my bones; spare your tears, dear husband and daughters, and believe that it is forbidden to weep for one who lives in God. Buried in peace on the 3d nones of October, in the consulate of Festus. " A. D. 472. IN PACE AVRELIO. FELICI QVI BIXIT CVM COIVCE ANNOS X. VIII DVLCIS. IN COIVGIO BONE MEMORIE BIXIT. ANNOS. L. V RAPTVS ETERNE DOMVS. XII KAL. IENVARIAS. "In peace To Aurelius Felix, who lived with his wife eighteen years in sweetest wedlock. Of good memory. He lived fifty-five years. Snatched away eternally on the twelfth kalend of January. " IRENE IN PACE. ARETVSA IN DEO "Irene sleeps in peace. " "Aretusa sleeps in God. " [Illustration: "Valeria sleeps in peace. "] ZOTICVS HIC AD DORMIEN DVM. "Zoticus laid here to sleep. " DOMITIANUS ANIMA SIMPLEX DORMIT IN PACE. "Domitianus, a simple soul, sleeps in peace. " NICEFORVS ANIMA DVLCIS IN REFRIGERIO. "Nicephorus, a sweet soul, in a place of refreshment. " PRIMITIVS IN PACE QVI POST MVLTAS. ANGVSTIAS FORTISSIMVS MARTYR ET. VIXIT. ANNOS P. M. XXXVIII CONIVG. SVO PERDVLCISSIMO BENEMERENTI FECIT. "Primitius in peace: a most valiant martyr after many torments. Aged 38. His wife raised this to her dearest well-deserving husband. " LANNVS XPI. MARTIR HIC REQVIESCIT. SVB DIOCLIZIANO PASSVS. "Lannus, a martyr of Christ, rests here. He suffered under Diocletian. " NABIRA IN PACE ANIMA DVLCIS QVI BIXIT ANNOS XVI. M. V ANIMA MELEIEA TITVLV FACTV A PARENTES "Navira in peace; a sweet soul who lived sixteen years and five months; a soul sweet as honey: this epitaph was made by her parents. " SEVERO FILIO DVL CISSIMO LAVRENTIVS PATER BENEMERENTI QVI BI XIT ANN. IIII. ME. VIII. DIES V. ACCERSITVS AB ANGELIS VII. IDVS. IANVA. "Laurence to his sweetest son Severus, borne away by angels on the 7th ides of January. " MACVS PVER INNOCENS ESSE IAMINTER INNOCENTIS COEPISTI. QVAM STAVILES TIVI HAEC VITA EST QVAM TELETVM EXCIP ET MATER ECLESIAE DEOC MVNDO REVERTENTEM COMPREMATVR PECTORVM GEMITVS STRVATVR FLETVS OCVLORVM. "Macus (or Marcus) an innocent boy. You have already begun to be among the innocent ones. How enduring is such a life to you! How gladly will your mother, the church of God, receive you, returning to this world! Let us restrain our sighs and cease from weeping. " _Galleria Lapidaria. _ PAX HIC MIHI SEMPER DOLOR ERIT IN AEVO ET TVVM BENERABILEM BVLTVM LICEAT VIDERE SOPORE CONIVNX ALBANAQVE MIHI SEMPER CASTA PVDICA RELICTVM ME TVO GREMIO QVEROR. QYOD MIHI SANCTVM TE DEDERAT DIVINITVS AVTOR RELICTIS TVIS IACES IN PACE SOPORE MERITA RESVRGIS TEMPORALIS TIBI DATA REQVETIO QVE VIXIT ANNIS XLV. MENV. DIES XIII DEPOSITA IN PACE FECIT PLACVS MARITVS Peace. "This grief will always weigh upon me: may it be granted me to behold in sleep your revered countenance. My wife, Albana, always chaste and modest, I grieve, deprived of your support, for our Divine Author gave you to me as a sacred (boon). You, well-deserving one, having left your (relations), lie in peace--in sleep--you will arise--a temporary rest is granted you. She lived forty-five years, five months, and thirteen days. Buried in peace. Placus, her husband, made this. " _Galleria Lapidaria. _ CHURCH OF S. SEBASTIAN "IN CATACUMBIS. " I. INSCRIPTION OF POPE DAMASUS IN HONOR OF S. EUTYCHIUS, THE MARTYR, IN TWELVE VERSES (on the left hand on entering the church). Theseinscriptions are very numerous in the catacombs, and all of thisbeautiful calligraphy, and usually in Latin verse, not withoutelegance of style, though the construction of the sentences issometimes not clear. Damasus restored all the catacombs, after theyhad been damaged during the persecution under Julian the Apostate. EVTYCHIVS. MARTYR. CRVDELIA. IVSSA. TYRANNI CARNIFICVMQ. VIAS. PARITER. TVNC. MILLE. NOCENDI VINCERE. QVOD. POTVIT. MONSTRAVIT. GLORIA. CHRISTV CARCERIS. INLVVIEM. SEQVITVR. NOVA. POENA. PER. ARTVS TESTARVM. FRAGMENTA. PARANT. NE. SOMNVS. ADIRET BISSENI. TRANSIERE. DIES. ALIMENTA. NEGANTVR MITTITVR. IN. BARATHRUM. SANCTVS. LAVAT. OMNIA. SANGVIS VVLNERA. QVAE. INTVLERAT. MORTIS. METVENDA. TOTESTAS NOCTE. SOPORIFERA. TVRBANT. INSOMNIA. MENTEM OSTENDIT. LATEBRA. INSONTIS. QVAE. MEMBRA. TENERET QVAERITVR. INVENTVS. COLITVR. FOVET. OMNIA. PRESTANS EXPRESSIT. DAMASVS. MERITVM. VENERARE. SEPVLCHQVM F "That Eutychius, the Martyr, was able to overcome the cruel orders of the tyrant, and equally at that time the executioners' thousand ways of torment, the glory of Christ shewed. A new punishment follows the filth of the prison. They provide breaking of tiles on his limbs, to prevent sleep approaching. Twice six days passed, food is refused. The saint is thrown into a pit, blood bedews all the wounds which the dread power of death had caused. In night, which usually brings sleep, sleeplessness troubles his mind. The place of concealment which held the limbs of the innocent, manifested them(?). He is sought for, being found he is reverenced, he benefits all things. Damasus shewed forth his exceeding merit; venerate his tomb. " 2. ANOTHER INSCRIPTION IN THE SAME CATACOMB CHURCH (over a door on theright-hand side, looking towards the altar). VISITET. HIC. PIA. MENS. SCTORVM. BVSTA. FREQVENTER IN. CRISTO. QVORVM. GLORIA. PERPES. ERIT HIC. EST. CEMETERIV̄. BEATI. CHALIXTI. PAPE. ET. MARTIRIS INCLITI. QVICV̄QVE. ILLVD. CŌTRICTVS. ET. CŌFESSVS. INGRESSVS FVERIT. PLENAM. REMISSION̄E. OMNIV̄. PEC̄TORV̄. SVORV̄. OBTINEBIT PER. MERITA. GLORIOSA. CENTV̄. SEPTVAGINTA. QVATVOR. MILIV̄ SC̄TORV̄. MARTIRV̄. QVORV̄. IBI. CORPORA. IN. PACE. SEPVLTA. SV̄T̄ VNA. CV̄. QVADRAGINTA. SEX. PONTIFICIBVS. BEATIS. QVI. OMNES EX MAGNA. TRIBVLATIONE. VENERV̄T. ET. VT. HEREDES. IN. DOMO DOMINI. FIERĒT. MORTIS. SVPPLICIVM. PRO. CRISTI. NOMINE PERTVLERVNT "Here let the pious mind often visit the tombs of the saints, Whose glory will be everlasting in Christ. " "Here is the cemetery of the blessed Calixtus, renowned Pope and Martyr. Whoever shall have entered it contrite and after confession, shall obtain full remission of all his sins, through the glorious merits of 174, 000 martyr saints, whose bodies are buried here in peace, together with forty-six blessed pontiffs, who all came out of great tribulation, and suffered the punishment of death for Christ's name, that they might become heirs in the Lord's house. " PAINTINGS. If the tombs of the early martyrs, before "the peace of the church, "were commonly decorated with paintings at all, which is not probable, it is almost certain that some of those paintings have been renewed atvarious subsequent periods. The best monuments of the first threecenturies are the tomb stones with inscriptions and small simpleemblems incised upon them. It is difficult to decide by the art of drawing only between the endof the third and the beginning of the fourth century. But this art wasin the height of perfection in the first century, in the second it wasstill very good, in the third it had begun to decline, but not sorapidly as to justify the assumption that the very bad drawings in thecatacombs belong to that period, with the exception of those alreadymentioned as not Christian. The drawing of the figures in the mosaicpictures in the vault of S. Constantia, which are of the first half ofthe fourth century, are decidedly better than any of the Scripturalsubjects in the catacombs. The mosaic pictures of the fifth century onthe sides of the nave of S. Maria Maggiore, published by Ciampini, are much more like them. S. Paulinus, bishop of Nola, writing in the fifth century, says thathe had painted a catacomb, _for the pilgrims_, and gives his reasonsfor doing so. He thought good to enliven the whole _temple_ of S. Felix, in order that these colored representations might arrest theattention of the rustics, and prevent their drinking too much at thefeasts. The _temple_ here evidently means the tomb or crypt in whichthe commemorative feasts were held, and were represented by paintings. His expressions imply that such paintings were not then a receivedcustom. That the painted vaults in the catacombs were used for feasts onvarious occasions in the same manner as the painted chambers in thePagan tombs, is evident from the manner in which several writers ofthe fourth and fifth centuries mention them; in addition to theletters of Paulinus of Nola and S. Augustine, and the hymns ofPrudentius, there is also a remarkable passage in a sermon ofTheodoret on the Martyrs (written about A. D. 450): "Our Lord God leads His own even after death into the temples for yourGods, and renders them vain and empty; but to these [Martyrs] Herenders the honors previously paid to them. For your daily food andyour sacred and other feasts of Peter, Paul, and Thomas, and Sergiusand Marcellinus, and Leontius, and Antoninus, and Mauricius, and othermartyrs, the solemnities are performed; and in place of the old basepomp and obscene words and acts, their modest festivities arecelebrated, not with drunkenness and obscene and ludicrousexhibitions, but with hearing divine songs and holy sermons, andprayers and praises adorned with tears. When, therefore, you woulddilate on the honor of the martyrs, what use is there in sifting them?Fly, my friends, the error of demons, and under their guidance seizeupon the road that leads to God, and welcome their presence with holysongs, as the way is to eternal life. " Bosio enumerates six _cubicula_ or family burial-chapels in thecemetery or catacomb of Priscilla, and thirteen arched tombs withpaintings. These pictures, of which he gives engravings, were far moreperfect in his time than they are now. His engravings are good for theperiod when they were executed; but it was a time when all drawing wasbad, slovenly, and incorrect, so that the general idea only of thepicture is all we can expect. The costume and ornaments do notindicate any very early period of art, but rather a time when it haddeclined considerably. Costume in Rome, as in the East generally, wasfar more stationary and less subject to changes than in the West, andthese _may_ be as early as the fourth or fifth century, but can hardlybe earlier. Several of the martyrs buried in the Via Salaria sufferedin the tenth persecution under Diocletian, called the greatpersecution, about the year 300: the decorations of their tombs, therefore, can not be earlier than the fourth century, and many ofthem have been restored or renewed at subsequent times. John I. , A. D. 523, is recorded to have renewed the cemetery of Priscilla, and thisprobably means that he renewed the paintings in the style of his owntime, as the greater part of the paintings now remaining are of thecharacter of that period. On comparing the costumes of the figures in this catacomb with thosein the illuminations of the celebrated manuscript of Terence, usuallyattributed to the seventh or eighth century, and which can hardly beearlier than the fifth, we see at once that the long flowing robe wasthe ordinary costume of the period, and that the narrow scarf of blackribbon hanging over the shoulders, with the ends reaching nearly tothe ground, was the usual badge of a servant. This seems to have beenadopted as part of the costume of a Christian going to pray to God, whether in a church or chapel or any other place, emblematical of theyoke of Christ, as Durandus says. The surplice and stole of the priestof the Anglican Church is a more close copy of this ancient costumethan any now worn in the Roman church. The rich cope, cape, or cloakwas the dress of the Roman senator and of the Pagan priests; it wasprobably adopted by the Bishop of Rome when he assumed the title andoffice of Pontifex Maximus, and after a time the custom was followedby other bishops and priests of his communion. GLASS VASES. A valuable work on the ancient glass vases found in the catacombs waspublished by F. Buonarotti in Florence, nearly simultaneously with thework of Boldetti on the catacombs, and of Fabretti on the inscriptionsfound in them. This is the foundation of all the subsequent works onthe subject; the figures are badly drawn and engraved, according tothe fashion of the period, but many of the later works are not muchbetter. The subjects are generally the same as in the paintings on thewalls: the Good Shepherd, more numerous than any other; Adam and Eve, Moses striking the Rock, Noah and the Ark, the raising of Lazarus, Peter and Paul, generally busts--these are very numerous. Both thestyle of drawing and the character of the inscriptions indicate latedates and frequent copying from the same type. In one are threefigures, S. Peter, S. Paul, with S. Laurence seated between them. S. Agnes occurs frequently, always drawn as in the usual type of theeighth century. Other busts are evidently portraits of personsinterred. In some are the father, mother and child;--one has the nameof Cerontius; another of two busts, Cericia and Sottacus;--another isa family group, father, mother and four children; the name is partlybroken off . .. . N . .. BVSVISTRIS. P. Z. Remains. --Abraham with a drawnsword in his hand, and Isaac with his eyes bound, kneeling at hisfeet, with the ram. A tall female figure with the hands uplifted inprayer; the inscription is PETRVS PAVLVS ANE possibly for AGNES. Another similar subject consists of two figures seated facing eachother; over the left hand figure the name CRISTVS, over the right handone ISTEFANVS. Several of the subjects are distinctly Pagan; othersare evidently from the Jews' catacomb, as two lions guarding the ark, and under them two of the seven-branched candlesticks, with leaves andvases and palm-branch. S. CALIXTUS. This is one of the earliest of the catacombs; it is mentioned at avery early period as a burying-place, then in use, not as being thenjust made. Michele de Rossi, in the course of his investigations inthis catacomb, found a brick staircase and some brick _loculi_, evidently an alteration of and addition to the original catacombs, andthe stamps on these bricks were those of Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 161-180. This staircase is in the lower part of the catacomb, made forthe purpose of enlarging it, and seems to show that the ground hadbeen used as a cemetery in the first century. The original part wasprobably made before there were any Christians to be buried. Althoughthe staircase is later, and the bricks used again, they were probablyfound on the spot. Calixtus is said to have been entrusted with the government of theclergy, and set over _the cemetery_ by Zephyrinus his predecessor, before he became bishop or pope. This expression, _over the cemetery_, seems to prove that the whole of the catacombs were considered as onecemetery, and that he had the general superintendence of the burial ofthe Christians. This is the catacomb usually exhibited to strangers and now used forpilgrimages; its present state is very uninteresting to thearchæologist. The upper part of it nearest to the entrance has been somuch _restored_ that it has lost all archæological importance. Thisportion of the catacomb is illuminated on certain occasions, and isemployed to excite the devotion of the faithful. A low mass is said atan altar fitted up in the cemetery chapel of S. Cæcilia, on theanniversary of her martyrdom, and this part of the catacomb on thatoccasion is illuminated with candles. The other parts are in the usual state, stripped of nearly everyinscription, and the graves empty. The earliest inscription from thiscatacomb, of ascertained date, is of A. D. 268 or 279; it is dated bythe names of the consuls, which would apply to either of these twodates. One important inscription of Bishop Damasus is preserved, andis valuable in many ways; it shows that the cemetery chapel, in whichit was found, was made in his time, and the slab of marble on which itis engraved has a Pagan inscription on the back of it, evidentlyproving that it was used merely as a slab of marble, without referenceto that inscription. It shows for what purpose _some_ of the Paganinscriptions found in the catacombs may have been brought there. Twosmall and very curious tombstones, consisting of mosaic pictures saidto have been taken from this catacomb, are now preserved in thesacristy of the church of S. Maria in Trastevere. They were for somecenturies in the nave, built into one of the piers; but during the_restorations_ made in 1868-76, they were removed and built into thewall of the sacristy. One represents a landscape, with building in thestyle of the third century, and a harbor or a lake with a vessel, andfishermen dragging in a great net, evidently intended for themiraculous draught of fishes. This is an extremely curious mosaicpicture, the probable date of which is the beginning of the fourthcentury. The other small mosaic represents birds of various kinds, andis much earlier than the view of the harbor, perhaps as early as thefirst century. Possibly the birds were intended to be symbolical ofthe souls of the faithful. These are engraved by Ciampini in his workon Mosaics. Some of the original paintings [Bosio gives, on eightplates, engravings of a number of vases and lamps found in thiscatacomb, several views of _cubicula_, and upwards of seventypaintings. The same subjects have been repeated by Perret and Signorde Rossi. ] remain in the lower part of this catacomb that have notbeen restored, and these are of the usual subjects: Daniel and the twolions, Moses striking the rock, the raising of Lazarus, etc. [Illustration: PAINTED CEILING. ] THE LAST SUPPER. S. CALIXTUS. This painting has more the appearance of being really intended for theLast Supper than most of the paintings of this class. The centralfigure has a certain dignity about it. Upon the round plates on thetable are fishes, and the eight baskets are full of bread. It may be aChristian painting of a bad period, and intended to commemorate someof our Lord's miracles. The principal lines on the edges of thedresses have been renewed. This painting is under an _arco-solium_ inthe chapel of the Sacraments, the burial-place of the Bishops of Romein the third century. All the paintings in that part of this greatcatacomb that is usually open to the public, and in which masses aresaid on certain occasions, have long been said by well-informedpersons to have been _restored_ within the last twenty years, but thisis now denied by the Roman Catholic authorities. An engraving of this painting is given by Bosio in the sixth_arco-solium_ of this catacomb, p. 523; he calls it Christ and theApostles. It is also given by Perret in the modern French style, vol. I. P. 28; and by Dr. Northcote in plate xiii. , much embellished bycolor and improved by the skill of modern artists. S. PONTIANUS. The Baptistery, with the Baptism of Christ painted on the wall, overthe arch. He is represented standing in the River Jordan up to Hiswaist in water, in which fishes are swimming, and at which a hart isdrinking; the Holy Dove is over His head. S. John Baptist is standingon the bank, and pouring water on His head, or perhaps only holdingout his hand to touch it. On the opposite side is another figure in awhite dress, hiding his face. All the three figures have the nimbus. AN AGAPE. An Agape, or love-feast, is a common subject of the paintings in thecatacombs, and sometimes seems to be evidently a representation of thefamily gatherings that were held on the anniversaries in these tombs, in the same manner as they were in the painted tombs in the Via Latinaor the Via Appia. These paintings are often supposed to be the LASTSUPPER, and sometimes may be so, but the one before us can hardly beintended for Christ and his Apostles. CHRIST AND THE CHURCH. These two figures, one on either side of a small table, on which aretwo dishes, one with a fish upon it and the other with bread, aresupposed to represent our Lord after the Resurrection, and theChristian Church in the form of a woman, with the hands uplifted inthe Oriental attitude of prayer, such as is usually called in thecatacombs an Orante. This explanation is of course conjectural only, but seems not improbable. The painting is so much damaged that it isdifficult to tell to what period it belongs. A part of this greatcatacomb is as early as the second century. In this passage _stravit_may mean covering the walls with slabs of porphyry also, as well asthe floor. It is evident that in several instances the word _platonia_is applied by Anastasius to a chapel lined with marble plates forinscriptions, as at S. Sebastian's. HEAD OF CHRIST IN AN AUREOLE. --MARY, MOTHER OFCHRIST, AND MARY MAGDALENE. --ST. MARK, ST. PAUL AND ST. PETER. This cemetery or catacomb is on the western side of the Tiber, abouthalf a mile beyond the Porta Portuensis, on the road to Porto, but onthe hill above, and on a higher level than the road in what is now avineyard. The soil in which this catacomb is made is quite differentfrom the others; instead of the granular tufa, or volcanic sand, whichis the soil generally used for them near the Via Appia and the ViaArdeatina, this is an alluvial soil formed by the action of water onthe bank of the Tiber. Whether from this cause, or from some othersthat have not been explained, the paintings in this catacomb are farmore perfect than those in any other; they are the most celebrated andthe most popular, and those that have been more often engraved andpublished than any others. [Illustration: CHAMBER OF A CATACOMB. (_With head of Christ, etc. , of the first century. _)] The picture of the head of Christ is a very fine one, in an aureole orcircular nimbus, with the cross on it, called also a cruciform nimbus. This head has been many times engraved and published, and it isamusing to compare those commonly sold in the shops of Rome with theoriginal as shown in the photograph. These will illustrate the mannerin which the clever modern artists have _improved upon_ the originals;it is difficult to understand that they are intended for the samepicture. The figures of the three saints, St. Paul, St. Peter, and St. Mark, are painted on the ceiling, while Mary, the Mother of Christ, and MaryMagdalene are over and on the left side of the head of Christ. [Page Decoration] [Page Decoration] TRUTH OF THE BIBLE. It may seem presumptuous for us to undertake to write upon thissubject. "It is to paint the sun with charcoal, " for the mostscholastic divine to give his reflections on the Word of God. With themost devout feeling of the infinite value of such an article or thegreat evil which might result from the complexity of its appearance, we have concluded that nothing but the most reverential feeling of thesacredness of the subject can secure us from falling into dangers notto be lightly regarded, not merely in regard to facts, but in respectalso to comments and reflections; but with this caution such anarticle may be rendered eminently edifying and interesting. Why should we conclude this work, in this age of infidelity, withoutat least stating what was known of the Bible? Why should we not bringthe "cloud of witnesses" of the ruins we have already described? Thediscovery of the Assyrian and Babylonian historic records runningcontemporaneously with Scripture narratives have afforded innumerablepoints of proof. From the ruins of Nineveh and the Valley of the Nile;from the slabs and bas-reliefs of Sennacherib and the tombs, thecatacombs with their 1, 100 Christian inscriptions, and the monumentsof Pharaoh; from the rolls of Chaldee paraphrasts and Syrianversionists; from the cells and libraries of monastic scribes and thedry and dusty labors of scholars and antiquarians, the skepticism ofhistory has almost been silenced by the vivid reproductions of theancient and eastern world. An attentive perusal of the present volume will afford manyillustrations of these remarks. Knowing that the substance of thenarrative is drawn from sources of indisputable authority, the readercan have no anxiety respecting the truth of the facts recorded. Hewill, therefore, be able to resign himself altogether to the graciousinfluence which such a history is calculated to exercise on the mind. The assistance which the reader will derive from a well-arrangednarrative of these sublime events will be found of importance, notonly as exciting attention to facts, otherwise less noticed, but ashabituating him, in perusing the divine originals, to arrange andclassify the several portions of the history for himself. When thisability is acquired, the mind will have a readier command over thematerials of reflection, and the several arguments on which the proofof heavenly truth is founded will be seen with greater distinctness, and appreciated with a more practical feeling of their strength andvalue. With the assistance of the many scholarly productions on this matter, why should we not at least set the Bible side by side with Homer, Herodotus, Virgil, Horace, and others, which have already taken quitea space in the present work. The Scripture surely contains, independently of a divine origin, more true _sublimity_, moreexquisite _beauty_, purer _morality_, more important _history_, andfiner strains both of _poetry_ and _eloquence_, than could becollected within the same compass from all other books that were evercomposed in any age or in any idiom. The Bible accords in a wonderful manner with universal history. Thereis nothing more common in history than the recognition of a God. Sacred and profane history alike involve this principle. The fictionsof the poets respecting the different ages of the world coincide withScripture facts. The first, or Golden Age, is described as aparadisiacal state, feebly representing the bliss of the first pair inEden, Gen. Ii. And the second, or Iron Age, described in the fictionof Pandora and her fatal box of evils, which overspread the earth, isin accordance with the history of the introduction of evil into theworld, Gen. Iii. The celebrated Vossius shows, with great ingenuity, the similitude there is between the history of Moses and the fable ofBacchus. The cosmogony of the ancient Phœnicians is evidently similarto the account of creation given by Moses, and a like assertion may bemade respecting the ancient Greek philosophy. Travel north, south, east and west, and you find the period employed in creation used as ameasure of time, though no natural changes point it out as a measure, as is the case with the month and year. Consult the heathen classics, the records of our Scythian ancestors, the superstitions of Egypt, ofthe Indies, both East and West, and, indeed, of all the varied formsin which superstition has presented herself, and in one or in all youmeet with evidences of a universal flood, of man's fall, of theserpent having been the instrument in it, of propitiatory sacrifices, of the expectation of a great deliverer. The long lives of men in theearly ages of the world are mentioned by Berosus, Manetho, Hiromus andHelanicus, as also by Hesoid and many other writers quoted byJosephus, and afterwards by Servius, in his notes on Virgil. Pausanius, Philostratus, Pliny and several other writers give usaccounts of the remains of gigantic bodies which have been found inthe earth, serving in some degree to confirm Moses' account of theantediluvian giants. Berosus, the Chaldean historian, quoted byJosephus, and Abidenus by Eusebius, Plutarch, Lucian, Molo, NicholasDamascenus, as well as many of the heathen poets, mention the deluge;and some traditions respecting it are to be found among the Americansand Chinese; not to mention what some modern travelers have fabulouslyrelated concerning some ruins of the ark, said to remain on MountArarat, and to have been seen there a few centuries ago. AlexanderPolyphistor quotes Artapanus and Eupolemus, as mentioning the Tower ofBabel; and the former speaks of it as built by Belus. Strabo, Tacitus, Pliny, etc. , give us an account of the destruction of Sodom andGomorrah and the neighboring cities, in the main agreeable to that ofMoses. Herodotus, Diodorus, Strabo, etc. , mention circumcision as arite used by several of those nations into which, according to Moses, Abraham traveled, or which were descended from him. Berosus, andseveral others, make express and honorable mention of Abraham and someof his family. Eupolemus and Dius, as quoted by Eusebius and Grotius, mention many remarkable circumstances of David and Solomon, agreeingwith the Old Testament story. As for the mention of Nebuchadnezzar, and some of the succeeding kings of Babylon, as well as of Cyrus andhis successors, it is so common in ancient writers, as not to need amore particular notice of it. And very many passages of the OldTestament are mentioned by Celsus, and objections to Christianityformed upon them. Is not all this in favor of the credibility of theOld Testament? And with respect to the New Testament, we have thetestimony of Tacitus and Suetonius to the existence of Jesus Christ, the Founder of the Christian religion, and to His crucifixion in thereign of Tiberius, and during the procuratorship of Pontius Pilate, the time in which the evangelists place that event. Porphyry, also, though an inveterate enemy to Christianity, not only allowed thatthere was such a person as Christ, but honored Him as a most wise andpious man, translated into heaven as being approved by the gods; andaccordingly quotes some oracles, referring both to His sufferings andvirtues, with their subsequent rewards. Celsus, likewise, an Epicureanphilosopher, full of enmity to the Christian religion, mentionsnumberless circumstances in the history of Christ, indeed so many, that an abstract of the Christian history might almost be taken fromthe very fragments of his book preserved by Origen, and never pretendsto dispute His real existence, or the truth of the facts recorded ofHim. Hierocles, a man of learning and a magistrate, who wrote againstthe Christians, speaks of Jesus as extolled by the Christians as agod; mentions Peter and Paul by name; and refers both to the Gospelsand to the Epistles. The Emperor Julian, in the fourth century, called"Apostate, " writes of the birth of Jesus in the reign of Augustus;bears witness to the genuineness and authenticity of the Gospels, andthe Acts of the Apostles; and allows that Jesus Christ wroughtmiracles. He aimed to overthrow the Christian religion, but hasconfirmed it. The slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem is attested byMacrobius; the darkness at the crucifixion is recorded by Phlegon, andquoted by Origen. The manners and worship of the primitive Christiansare distinctly named by Pliny. The great dearth throughout the Romanworld, foretold by Agabus, in the reign of Claudius (Acts xi. 28), isattested by Suetonius Dion, Josephus, and others. The expulsion of theJews from Rome by Claudius (Acts xviii. 2) was occasioned, saysSuetonius, by the insurrection they had made about Chrestus, which ishis way of spelling Christ. It has been repeatedly proved, withlaborious research, and profuse erudition, that vestiges of all theprincipal doctrines of the Christian religion are to be found in themonuments, writings, or mythologies of all nations and ages. And theprincipal facts contained in the Gospels are confirmed by monuments ofgreat fame subsisting in every Christian country at this very day. Forinstance, baptism in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost, therite by which from the beginning men have been initiated into theChurch of Christ, and the profession of Christianity. The Lord'sSupper, celebrated in memory of the dying love of Christ. And thestated observation of the first day of the week, in honor of Christ'sresurrection from the dead. Who can say, and prove, that this is notevidential of the truth and credibility of the New Testament? What butinspiration could have produced such internal harmony, and suchexternal accordance? [Illustration: FRIEZE FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS. ] Of the monuments, none is more striking than the Arch of Titus. Thiscelebrated structure was erected by the Senate and the people of Romein estimation of the services of Titus in conquering the Jews. It isprobable that the monument was completed after the death of Titus. Itconsists of a single arch of Grecian marble, of exquisite proportions, with fluted columns on each side. The frieze, which gives it specialinterest and value, is on the right-hand side passing under the archgoing towards the Coliseum. It represents the triumphal procession ofcaptive Jews, the silver trumpets, the tables of shew-bread, and thegolden candlestick, with its seven branches. The candlestick itself issaid to have been thrown into the Tiber from the Milvina Bridge, onthe occasion of the battle between Maxentius and Constantine. Shouldthe proposal to turn the course of the Tiber be carried into effect itis not impossible that this precious relic may yet be recovered. _No book was ever produced by chance. _ Every volume in the world isindebted for its existence to some being or beings. And the Bible, weare assured, could not but have had an intelligent author. But withinthe range of intelligence there exist only bad beings, good beings, and God. Hence, among these must be found whatever originates inintelligence, for this classification includes all beings that areintelligent. Now that bad beings--wicked men and infernalspirits--could not have originated a book so full of goodness, is areasonable opinion; for it bears no resemblance to such an origin. Itcommands all duty, forbids all sin, and pronounces the heaviestpenalties against all unholy conduct; and as darkness can notoriginate light, so neither can evil originate good. Nor would it helpthe matter to suppose that good beings--pious men and holyangels--were the contrivers of these well-arranged records; for theyneither could nor would write a book, ascribing their own inventionsto divine inspiration; especially as such forgeries are most severelyreprobated in every part of it. As therefore God is the only remainingbeing within the range of intelligence to whom the Scriptures can bereasonably ascribed, they must, of necessity, have been written byHim. And, indeed, the Bible is a work as much exceeding every effortof mere man as the sun surpasses those scanty illuminations by whichhis splendor is imitated, or his absence supplied. We are now conducted, by fair and consecutive reasoning, to our lastgeneral proposition, which is this: _God was the author of the Bible. _ By the Bible we mean, of course, both the Old and New Testaments. "Thetwo Testaments, " says one, "may be likened to the double-doors of theTemple--the Old is the New infolded--the New is the Old unfolded. " TheNew Testament distinctly recognizes the Old as a revelation from God;and, referring to the Canon as received by the Jews, declares thebooks of which it consists genuine and credible. And by God being theauthor of the Bible we mean that it was "given by inspiration of Him. "It may be necessary here to define certain terms which either havebeen, or may be, hereafter, employed in this essay. And theseare:--Scripture; Testament; Inspiration; Gospel; Christianity; andReligion. Scripture, from scriptura, signifies writing--applied by wayof eminence to what is written in the Bible. Testament, fromtestamentum, a deed or will; but according to another rendering theappropriate name of the Bible is, the Old and New Covenants; namely, the Mosaic and the Christian. Inspiration, from spiro, signifies Ibreathe. "By the divine inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, " says anable writer, "I mean, such an immediate and complete discovery, by theHoly Spirit to the minds of the sacred penmen, of these things whichcould not have been otherwise known, and such an effectualsuperintendency as to those matters of which they might be informed orby other means, as entirely to preserve them from all error, in everyparticular which could in the least affect any of the doctrines orcommandments contained in their writings. " Gospel, from god, good, andspell, a history, a narrative, or message; and which denotes goodnews, glad tidings, news from God--applied emphatically to the bookwhich contains the recital of our Saviour's life, miracles, death, andso on. Christianity, from christianitas, signifies the religion ofChristians. And Religion, from religare, signifies to tie or bind, because by true religion the soul is tied or bound, as it were, to Godand His service. These things being premised, we shall be justified inproceeding to establish our proposition; namely, that God was theauthor of the Bible. And we hold this to be demonstrable. _From its great antiquity. _ It is acknowledged to be the oldest bookin the world. Its records embrace the creation of the world, theorigin of man, the introduction of evil, the fall and recovery of ourrace; and it contains the only rational account ever given of thesemomentous matters. We can trace the Bible to the time of the Cæsars, beyond that to the translation of the Septuagint, and beyond that wecan carry the proof up to the separation of the Jews and Samaritans;we can ascend up to the time when we discover that the law must havebeen given by a person called Moses to a people in the wilderness, ata time when idolatry was universal, and just as we have the factsrecorded in the nineteenth and twentieth chapters of the book ofExodus. And if Moses did not get the law from God, the getting it atall--the having it then as it is--is just as great a miracle as itscoming from God Himself; and you may take your choice of themiracles--for the one is as great a miracle as the other. Tatian, oneof the Greek fathers, tells us, that "Though Homer was before allpoets, philosophers, and historians, and was the most ancient of allprofane writers, yet Moses was more ancient than Homer himself. "Tertullian, another celebrated writer of the second century, speaks tothe same effect. "The Pagans themselves have not denied that thebooks of Moses were extant many ages before the states and cities ofGreece; before their temples and gods; and also before the beginningof Greek letters. " He moreover adds, "Moses lived five hundred yearsbefore Homer's time; and the other prophets who came a long time afterMoses were yet more ancient than any of the wise men, lawgivers, andphilosophers of Greece. And as the writings of Homer were a pattern tothem, so in like manner he followed the writings of the prophets, asthey were then known and spread abroad in the world. " And theexcellent and learned Sir W. Jones, adverting to the same point, remarked, "The antiquity of these writings no man doubts. " _From its uncorrupted preservation. _ Though it has been hated and heldin utter detestation by thousands, yet it has been preserved amidstall the revolutions of time, and handed down from generation togeneration, even until now. And that it is in all essential points thesame as it came originally from the hands of its authors, we have themost satisfactory evidence that can be required. "With regard to theOld Testament, " says the late learned William Greenfield, "theoriginal manuscripts were long preserved among the Jews, who werealways remarkable for being most faithful guardians of their sacredbooks, which they transcribed repeatedly, and compared most carefullywith the originals, of which they even numbered the words and letters. That the Jews have neither mutilated nor corrupted these writings isfully proved by the silence of the prophets as well as of Christ andHis apostles, who, though they bring many heavy charges against them, never once accuse them of corrupting one of their sacred writings; andalso by the agreement, in every essential point, of all the versionsand manuscripts, amounting to nearly 1, 150, which are now extant, andwhich furnishes a clear proof of their uncorrupted preservation. " [Illustration: PENTATEUCH, WRITTEN 3200 YEARS AGO. ] One of the most wonderful and ancient of these is the Pentateuch, asrepresented in the cut below. Mr. Mills says of it: "The roll itselfis of what we would call parchment, but of a material much older thanthat, written in columns twelve inches deep and seven and a half wide. The writing is in a fair hand but not nearly so large or beautiful asthe book copies which I had previously examined. The writing beingrather small each column contains from seventy to seventy-two lines. The name of the scribe is written in a kind of acrostic, and formspart of the text, running through three columns and is found in thebook of Deuteronomy. It was the work of the great grandson of Aaron, as indicated in the writing. The roll has all the appearance of a veryhigh antiquity, and is wonderfully well preserved, considering itsvenerable age. "One of the halves of the metal cylinder is very curious and deservesmore attention than it has received at the hands of Biblicalarchæologists. It is of silver, about two feet and six inches long, byten or twelve inches in diameter, and is covered with embossed workwith a descriptive legend attached to each portion. It proves to bethe Tabernacle of the Wilderness. "In fact, the constant reading of the sacred books, which were at oncethe rule of their faith and of their political constitution, in publicand private; the numerous copies of the original as well as of theSeptuagint version, which was widely spread over the world; thevarious sects and parties into which the Jews were divided after theircanon was closed, as well as their dispersion into every part of theglobe, concurred to render any attempt at fabrication impossiblebefore the time of Christ, and after that period, the same books beingin the hands of the Christians, they would instantly have detected thefraud of the Jews if they had endeavored to accomplish such a design, while the silence of the Jews, who would not have failed to notice theattempt if it had been made, is a clear proof that they were notcorrupted by the Christians. "Equally satisfactory is the evidence for the integrity andincorruptness of the New Testament. The multiplication of copies, bothof the original and of translations into a variety of languages, whichwere read, not only in private, but publicly in the religiousassemblies of the early Christians; the reverence of the Christiansfor these writings; the variety of sects and heresies which soon arosein the Christian Church, each of whom appealed to the Scriptures forthe truth of their doctrines, rendered any material alteration in thesacred books utterly impossible; while the silence of their acutestenemies, who would most assuredly have charged them with the attemptif it had been made, and the agreement of all the manuscripts andversions extant, are positive proofs of the integrity andincorruptness of the New Testament; which are further attested by theagreement with it of all the quotations which occur in the writings ofthe Christians from the earliest age to the present time. In fact, sofar from there having been any gross adulteration in the SacredVolumes, the best and most able critics have proved that, even inlesser matters, the Holy Scriptures of the New Testament have sufferedless from the injuries of time and the errors of transcribers than anyother ancient writings whatever; and that the very worst manuscriptextant would not pervert one article of our faith, nor destroy onemoral precept. " Add to this the testimony of the British Critic. "Not one syllablepenned by eight obscure authors of the Scriptures of the NewTestament, received by the Church as canonical at the death of John, has been lost in the course of eighteen centuries. Yet of thehistorical works of Tacitus half at least are wanting; out of the onehundred and forty-four books of Livy only thirty-five exist; thecollections of Atticus have entirely perished; the orations ofHortensius are known only through the allusions of his rival; and theliterary fame of the great dictator survives but in two narratives, one of which has sometimes been doubted. 'Where is the wise? Where isthe scribe? Where is the disputer of this world?' May it not be thepower of God which, amidst this wreck of eloquence and learning, haspreserved unmutilated, even to these later days, the simple andunstudied compositions of the illiterate Galileans--the impassionedbut rugged addresses of the tent-maker of Cilicia?" Dr. Adam Clarke, no mean judge, pronounced by the late Rev. Robert Hall to have been"an ocean of learning, " said, "I have diligently examined thequestion, and I can conscientiously say that we have the SacredOracles, at least in essential sum and substance, as they weredelivered by God to Moses and the prophets; and to the Church ofChrist by Jesus, His evangelists and apostles; and that nothing in thevarious readings of the Hebrew and Greek manuscripts can be found tostrengthen any error in doctrine or obliquity in moral practice. Allis safe and sound--all is pure and holy. " And the judicious Selden, whom Grotius calls "the glory of the English nation, " in his "TableTalk, " speaking of the Bible, says, "The English translation of theBible is the best translation in the world, and renders the sense ofthe original best; taking in for the English translation the Bishop'sBible as well as King James'. The translators in King James' time tookan excellent way. That part of the Bible was given to him who was mostexcellent in such a tongue, and then they met together, and one readthe translation, the others holding in their hands some Bible, eitherof the learned tongues, or French, Spanish, or Italian, etc. If theyfound any fault they spoke, if not he read on. "[24] _From its important discoveries. _ It makes discoveries to man on themost momentous subjects, which natural reason never could have made. One of the ancients said, "The Bible is the history of God. " Itreveals all that is needful to be known of the existence, nature, perfections, relations, mind and will of God. It discloses the wholehistory of man--opening with his creation, continuing with his presentstate, and closing with his eternal destiny. It lays open the amazinglove of God to man, the plan of redemption, the means of salvation andthe cleansing nature of the blood of Christ. It furnishes answers tothe most interesting and perplexing questions ever suggested to man byhimself, or propounded to him by his fellow-beings; and thus supplieshim with that information which no other volume can impart. It pointsa second life, unveils eternity, and speaks of the resurrection of thebody--the immortality of the soul--a judgment to come--a heaven, thegift of redeeming love--and a hell, the dire desert of sin. In oneword, it is God's heart opened to man--a map of heaven--an infalliblerule of life--an immovable ground of hope--an everlasting spring ofconsolation--and the only sure guide to eternal life and happiness. Afine old writer beautifully remarks, "What is there not in the holyScriptures? Are we poor? There is a treasury of riches. Are we sick?There is a shop of soul-medicines. Are we fainting? There is a cabinetof cordials. Are we Christless? There is the star that leads toChrist. Are we Christians? There are the bands that keep in Christ. Are we afflicted? There is our solace. Are we persecuted? There is ourprotection. Are we deserted? There is our recovery. Are we tempted?There are our sword and victory. Are we young? There is our beauty. Are we old? There is our wisdom. While we live, here is the rule ofour conversation; when we die, here is the hope of our glorification. So that I may say with Tertullian, 'I adore the fullness of theScripture. ' Oh blessed Scriptures! Who can know them and not lovethem? Who can love them and not delight to meditate in them night andday? Who can meditate in them and not desire to love them, love todesire them, and both desire and love to understand them? This is theBook of books, as David said of Goliah's sword, 'There's none likethat. '" The Bible is, indeed, what that great philosopher, theHonorable Robert Boyle, called it, "that matchless book. " We haveoften thought that the sublime descriptions which it gives of God, thehumbling and exalting doctrines which it reveals, and the high-tonedmorality which it inculcates, are of themselves proofs decisive of itsdivine authority. For, certainly, there is nothing like them in themost admired productions of the most celebrated authors, either inancient or modern times. _From its peculiar style. _ How remarkably simple and plain! Nohistories were ever so plainly related as those of the Bible: noprecepts were ever so clear, or promises less ambiguous. Howwonderfully grand and sublime! Whenever the matter requires it, thestyle is "Like the ladder in the Patriarch's dream, Its foot on earth, its height beyond the skies. " Witness many of the Psalms; the book of Job; the prophets, especially, Isaiah xl. And xliii. ; and the Apocalypse. And how astonishinglyconcise and expressive! The sacred writers never burden their subjectwith a load of words. They express themselves in words few, andwell-chosen--"in comely dress, without the paint of art. " Witness theProverbs; 1 Cor. Xiii. , etc. "Let there be light, " is noticed by thegreat critic Longinus, as a truly lofty expression. And the style ofScripture has awakened the attention even of infidels. Rousseau wasstruck with the majesty of the Scriptures. His eloquent eulogium onthe Gospel and its author is well known. Dr. Tillotson observes "Thedescriptions which Virgil makes of the Elysian Fields and the InfernalRegions fall infinitely short of the majesty of the holy Scriptureswhen describing heaven and hell, so that in comparison they arechildish and trifling;" and yet, perhaps, he had the most regular andbest governed imagination of any man, and observed the greatestdecorum in his descriptions. "There are I know, " said the elegantJoseph Addison, "men of heavy temper and without genius, who can readthe words of Scripture with as much indifference as they do otherpapers; however, I will not despair to bring men of wit into a loveand admiration of the sacred writings, and, old as I am, I promisemyself to see the day when it shall be as much the fashion among menof politeness, to admire a rapture of St. Paul's, as a fine expressionof Virgil or Homer; and to see a well-dressed young man produce anevangelist out of his pocket, and be no more out of countenance thanif it were a classic printed by Elzevir. " _From its internal harmony. _ Though written at different periods, bypersons residing in different parts of the earth, and by persons whosenatural abilities, education, habits, employments, etc. , wereexceedingly varied, yet where is there any real contradiction? Thesacred writers exactly coincide in the exhibition they give us of God;of man; of sin and salvation; of this world and the next; and, inshort, of all things connected with our duty, safety, interest, andcomfort. They all were evidently of the same judgment, aimed toestablish the same principles, and applied them to the same practicalpurposes. They could not write by concert--comparing notes, etc. , forthey lived in different times and places; and yet the exactcoincidence that is perceived among them, by the diligent student, ismost astonishing, and can not be accounted for on any rationalprinciples without admitting that they "wrote as they were moved bythe Holy Ghost. " "Whence, but from heaven, should men, unskilled in arts, In different nations born, and different parts, Weave such agreeing truths; or how or why Should all conspire to cheat us with a lie? Unasked their pains; ungrateful their advice; Starving their gains, and martyrdom their prize. " _From its striking impartiality. _ The amanuenses or penmen of the HolyGhost for the Scriptures were not contemptible or ordinary, butincomparable and extraordinary persons. As Moses, "the meekest man onearth, " the peculiar favorite of God, with whom God "talked face toface;" the None-such of all the prophets in Israel. Samuel, themighty man in prayer. David the King, "that man after God's ownheart. " King Solomon, that "wisest of all the Kings, " whom God honoredwith the building of the Temple. Daniel, in whom was found "anexcellent spirit, " and great dexterity in "expounding secrets andmysteries. " John, "the disciple whom Jesus loved" above all the rest, who "leaned on Jesus' breast. " Paul, "who was caught up into the thirdheavens, " "whose writings, " saith Chrysostom, "like a wall of adamant, compass about, or surround all the churches. " In a word, "all of themholy men of God, moved by the Holy Ghost. " The moral character of thesacred penmen is above suspicion: their greatest enemies have neverattempted to throw the least stain upon their characters. Many of themwere actually present at the scenes which they describe; eye-witnessesof the facts, and ear-witnesses of the discourses which they describe. They could not, therefore, be deceived themselves: nor could they havethe least inducement to deceive others. They honestly record their ownmistakes and faults, as well as the other particulars of the story. Every candid person must admit that the Scriptures are remarkable forfaithfulness of narrative, and that, contrary to the practice of otherhistories, they do not conceal the faults of the persons theydescribe. The faults of Abraham and Jacob are detailed, as well astheir virtues; and the incredulity of Thomas, and the defection ofPeter, are not concealed, but faithfully recorded. The apostles, especially, seem everywhere to forget that they are writing ofthemselves, and appear not at all solicitous about their ownreputation, but only that they might represent facts just as theywere, whatever might be the consequences. Hence they readily confess, not only the meanness of their original employments, and the scandalsof their former life, but their prejudices, follies, faults, unbelief, cowardice, ambition, rash zeal, foolish contentions, etc. How faithfulis the pen of inspiration--here truth with impartial hand dips herpencil, now in brighter, now in darker colors, and thus draws hercharacters to the very life. Dr. Beattie justly says, "The style ofthe Gospel bears intrinsic evidence of its truth. We find there noappearance of artifice or party spirit; no attempt to exaggerate onthe one hand, or depreciate on the other; no remarks thrown in toanticipate objections, nothing of that caution which never fails todistinguish the testimony of those who are conscious of imposture; noendeavor to reconcile the reader's mind to what may be extraordinaryin the narrative; all is fair, candid, and simple. " And we number thisamong the proofs of the Divine authority of the Bible. _From its stupendous miracles. _ Miracle, from miraculum, a wonder, aprodigy. "A miracle, " says Horne, "is a sensible suspension orcontrolment of, or deviation from, the known laws of nature. " It is asignal act of Divine Omnipotence, that which no other being but Godcan do. Miracles flow from Divine power, and are the proper evidenceof a Divine mission. The _reality_ of the miracles recorded inScripture, wrought by Christ, and by prophets and apostles, may beproved by the _number_ and _variety_--their being performed_publicly_, and not in a corner--before _enemies_ as well as beforefriends--_instantaneously_, and not by degrees--and _independent_ ofall second causes--were such as _all men could examine_ and judgeof--and all served _an important end_, worthy of a Divine author:viz. , to establish Divine truth. How superior the miracles wrought byMoses and Aaron to those wrought by the wise men and the sorcerers andthe magicians of Egypt! Witness the transformation of the rod, Exodusvii. 10-12--the production of the annoying vermin lice--Exodus viii. 16-19--the plague of darkness, Exodus x. 22-24--the dividing of theRed Sea, Exodus xiv. 21-31. These bear all the characters of truemiracles. And how far above the pretended supernatural doings ofMohammed, and the alleged Pagan and Romish miracles, were thewonderful deeds of Christ and His apostles! For example, our Saviourstilled the tempest, calmed the ruffled ocean, walked upon the sea, fed the famished multitude, opened the eyes of the blind, unstoppedthe ears of the deaf, healed the sick, cleansed the lepers, cast outdevils, raised the dead, and restored Himself to life; and Hisapostles healed the lame, cast out a spirit of divination, gave theHoly Ghost, restored the dead to life, etc. Every ingenuous mind mustsee in these all the characters of real miracles. Ponder Matt. Xi. 2-6; and John xiv. 11. Nicodemus, a Pharisee and ruler among the Jews, was so struck with the extraordinary character of our Lord's miraclesthat he came to Him, saying, "Rabbi, " excellent master, "we know thatThou art a teacher come from God: for no man can do these miraclesthat Thou doest, except God be with Him. " And miracles we think, withNicodemus, show that a prophet or religious teacher comes from God, because God would not work a miracle in attestation of a falsehood, orto encourage a false teacher. When, therefore, a miracle is wrought inconfirmation of anything, or as evidence of anything, we know that thething is true, because God has given to it His testimony. Every realmiracle is a work of God, done by His permission, and with Hisconcurrence; it is therefore, emphatically, the testimony of God. Andthat greatest of miracles, the resurrection of our Lord Himself fromthe dead, crowns the whole, and clearly attests the Divinity of theBible, and the truth of the Christian religion. _From its wonderful prophecies. _ Prophecy is a declaration ofsomething to come; a prediction of future events. It is theforetelling of such future things as were beyond the reach of humansagacity, and which, therefore, none but God could reveal. What mereman can foretell the events of to-morrow? Who can say what shalltranspire in ages to come? This is the sole prerogative of God, whoalone knows the end from the beginning. Now the Bible abounds withpredictions which were uttered long before their actual fulfillment, and which no human sagacity or foresight could possibly conjecture orforetell. Take the first gospel promise given--the seed of the womanto bruise the serpent's head; and remember that this promise wasdelivered at least four thousand years before its fulfillment. Thecelebrated prediction of Jacob (Gen. Xlix. 10) was uttered betweensixteen and seventeen hundred years before it took place. Mosesdeclared the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans, etc. (Deut. Xxviii. 49, etc. ), fifteen centuries previously. In the first book of Kings (chap. Xiii. 2, 3) there is a prophecy concerning Josiah by name, threehundred and thirty-one years; and in Isaiah (xlv. 1) concerning Cyrus, one hundred years, before either of them were born. According to thepredictions of the prophets Nineveh has been desolated (Nahum i. 1, 2, 3); Babylon swept with the bosom of destruction (Isaiah xiii. 14);Tyre become a place for the spreading of nets (Ezekiel xxvi. 4, 5);Egypt the basest of the kingdoms, etc. (Ezekiel xxix. 14, 15). Danieldistinctly predicted the overthrow, in succession, of the four greatempires of antiquity--the Babylonian, the Persian, the Grecian and theRoman, all of which has taken place. Not only are the leading featuresof the character of Christ delineated with the faithfulness of historyhundreds of years before He appeared, but there is scarcely anincident in His life which prophecy has overlooked. And according tothe predictions of the New Testament we see Jerusalem in ruins; theTemple not rebuilt; the Jews scattered, but not destroyed; theconversion of the nations to Christianity; the many anti-christiancorruptions of the Gospel; the idolatry, tyranny and persecution ofthe Roman hierarchy, etc. What prescience does all thisimply--prescience no where to be found but in God! "Let now theinfidel or the skeptical reader meditate thoroughly and soberly onthese predictions. The priority of the records to the events admitsof no question. The completion is obvious to every competent enquirer. Here, then, are facts. We are called upon to account for those factson rational and adequate principles. Is human foresight equal to thetask? Enthusiasm? Conjecture? Chance? Political contrivance? If noneof these, neither any other principle that may be devised by man'ssagacity, can account for the facts; then true philosophy, as well astrue religion, will ascribe them to the inspiration of the Almighty. Every effect must have a cause. " Prophecy is a species of perpetualmiracle. And the prophecies of Scripture do not come short of thefullest demonstration which the case will admit of, that the booksthat contain them are the unerring word of God. _From its holy tendency. _ It came immediately from God, and leadsimmediately to Him. It bears on it the stamp and impression of Deity;and is, emphatically and really, "the power of God unto salvation toevery one that believeth. " It contains the most excellentprecepts--the most weighty exhortations--and the most preciouspromises. The Bible teaches us the best way of living; the noblest wayof suffering; and the most comfortable way of dying. The word of God, accompanied by His Spirit, conveys strength to the weak, wisdom to thesimple, comfort to the sorrowful, light to those who are in darkness, and life to the dead. It introduces the infinite God as speaking in amanner worthy of Himself; with simplicity, majesty and authority. _It places before us the most important doctrines. _ For example, thedoctrine of the Trinity of persons or substances in the Unity of theGodhead--the proper, supreme, and eternal divinity of Christ--thepersonality, divinity, and offices of the Holy Spirit--the great worksof creation and providence--the fall of man from the mortal image ofGod--the necessity, nature, and extent of redemption--repentancetoward God, and faith toward the Lord Jesus Christ--justificationthrough the blood of the cross--the witness of the Spirit in the soulof believers--regeneration by the Spirit of God--holiness in heart andlife--the resurrection of the dead--the general judgment--and theeternity of future rewards and punishments. _It inculcates the highest morality. _ The love of God, and the love ofour neighbor--the doing to others as we would they should do tous--the forgiving of our enemies--the living "soberly"--in the use offood, apparel, and all things relating to ourselves, "righteously"--inthe performance of all duties towards our neighbors, and"godly"--worshiping God in a right manner--the checking of allimpurity of thought and desire--the rendering of honor to whom honor, and tribute to whom tribute, is due--the cultivation of humility, meekness, gentleness, placability, disinterestedness, truth, justice, beneficence, charity, and other virtues--and the avoidance of pride, discontent, despair, revenge, cruelty, oppression, contention, adultery, suicide, and other vices and crimes which injure mankind. _It preserves from all error. _ It is an infallible rule of judgmentand of practice, and clearly teaches what we ought to believe and whatwe ought to do--it enlightens the mind, informs the judgment, instructs the heart, and saves from those "faults in the life, " which"breed errors in the brain. " All error--false judgment of things, orassent unto falsehood--springs from ignorance of the Scriptures, Markxii. 24; John vii. 17; 2 Tim. Iii. 13-17. _It promotes holiness and peace here, as well as leads to happinessand heaven hereafter. _ "Wherewithal shall a young man cleanse hisway?" Psalm cxix. 9, 103-105. "The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul, " Psalm xix. 7-11. What an eulogy is this on theperfection of the sacred writings! the perfection of theirutility--their certainty--their purity--their value--theircomforts--their peace--and their sweetness. And this eulogy waspronounced by a prophet, a poet, and a king--no common assemblage. _It secures to the lover of it, in a rich degree, the Divine favor. _"Thus saith the Lord, the heaven is my throne, and the earth is myfootstool; but to this man will I look, even to him that is poor andof a contrite spirit, and trembleth at my word. " "Such a heart, " saysMatthew Henry, "is a living temple of God; He dwells there, and it isthe place of His rest; it is like heaven and earth, His throne and Hisfootstool. " _And it furnishes the most powerful motives to the practice of itsprecepts. _ For its rewards are such as "eye hath not seen, nor earheard;" and its threats are eminently calculated to terrify offenders. The Bible everywhere abounds with an intenseness of zeal for theDivine glory, and with a depth of self-renunciation on the part of thewriters. And what a contrast does it, in this respect, exhibit to allother productions of authorship! In Scripture, God is all in all: inother writings, man is always a prominent, and generally the soleclaimant of praise and admiration. And no man can attentively perusethe sacred volume without being awe-struck. For O how solemn andinspiring! and how admirably calculated to restrain from sin, and tosublimate the views and feelings! We say, therefore, that no man candiligently read the Scriptures without becoming a wiser and betterman. The celebrated John Locke, whose pure philosophy taught him toadore its source, said, with his dying lips, when tendering his adviceto a young nobleman, "Study the Holy Scriptures, especially the NewTestament; for therein are contained the words of eternal life: ithath God for its author--salvation for its end--and truth, without anymixture of error, for its matter. " "It sweetly cheers our drooping hearts, In this dark vale of tears. " It does more-- "It sheds a lustre all abroad, And points the path to bliss and heaven. " [Illustration: SHISHAK AND HIS CAPTIVES ON SCULPTURED WALL AT KARNAC. ] "Tis for our light and guidance given. " And O what a source of light, and strength and peace! How it clears the understanding, and fills thesoul with sweet delight! How it quickens our inactive powers, and setsall our wandering footsteps right! And how its promises rejoice ourhearts, and its precepts direct our lives! "A glory gilds the sacred page, Majestic like the sun; It gives a light to every age, It gives, but borrows none. " Ah! there are no words comparable to the Scriptures. None containingdoctrines so useful--commands so reasonable--arguments so powerful. The lines of Scripture are richer than the mines of gold. Howevidently suited to a sinful, sinning race! and how delightfullyframed for the perfection of human happiness! What proofs of a Divineoriginal! Show, if you can, in all this world, any one book of allthat ever was produced in any age or nation, like the Bible. Ay, theBible came from God; and it bears a moral resemblance to Him from whomit came. God is holy, just, and good; and the Bible is also holy inits nature, just in its requirements, and good in its provisions andtendency. [Illustration: PORTRAIT OF REHOBOAM. ] _From its beneficial effects. _ It has wrought wonders in all ages, inall places, on all persons, and in all possible varieties of human life. Christianity--the religion of the Bible--has taught the great lessons ofdevotion, self-government, and benevolence. It has diffused andpreserved literature--abated illiberal prejudices--produced humility, forgiveness of injuries, regard to truth, justice, and honesty, firmnessunder persecution, patience under worldly afflictions, and calmness andresignation at the approach of death--discouraged fornication, polygamy, adultery, divorces, suicide, and duels--checked infanticide, cruelsports, the violence of war, the vices of Kings and the assaults ofprinces--and rendered its sincere professors true, honest, just, pure, lovely, and of good report. It has improved the condition offemales--reclaimed dissolute men--abolished human sacrifices--preventedassassinations of princes, and revolutions in states--encouragedhospitality to strangers--founded charitable institutions--emancipatedslaves--abated the rigors of servitude--redeemed captives--relievedprisoners--protected widows and orphans--softened into tenderness andtears the hearts of despots--and given stability to thrones, wisdom tohuman laws, and protection to the people. Has it not done more for thehonor of the prince and the weal of the subject than any other system? _It has been a blessing to every country into which it has beenintroduced. _ It has been a blessing to Britain. It has enwrapped ingraceful robes the once naked inhabitants of this great country: ithas built cities, cultivated forests, reared our temples, regulatedour institutions, and rendered the country both powerful and happy. America has found in it her freedom and her peace. The wrongs ofAfrica have been mitigated and removed by its justice and generosity. Asia, and the isles of the sea, are waiting for its light and healing. In every Pagan country where it has prevailed, it has abolishedidolatry, with its sanguinary and polluted rites; raised the standardof morality, and thus improved the manners of the people; and diffusedfar and wide the choicest blessings of heaven--freedom to the captive, light to the blind, comfort to the distressed, hope to the despairing, and life to the dying. Ask the people of New Zealand, of Taheita, ofTonga, cannibals, infanticides, murderers of whole islands, what ithas done for the salvation of their souls. It is at once the desire ofall nations, and the glory of all lands. _And it has produced the most happy effects on multitudes of men. _ Ithas enlightened the most ignorant; softened the most hardened;reclaimed the most profligate; converted the most estranged; purifiedthe most polluted; exalted the most degraded; and plucked the mostendangered from hell to heaven. What was it that transformed thepersecuting and blaspheming Saul into a kind and devoted man? It wasreligion. What was it which brought the woman who was a sinner tobathe the feet of Jesus with her tears, and to wipe them with thehairs of her head? It was religion. What was it which produced thefaith of Abraham, the meekness of Moses, the patience of Job, thewisdom of Solomon, the placability of Joseph, the penitence and zealof David, the gentleness of Stephen, the boldness of the prophets, theundaunted zeal of Paul, the heroism of Peter, and the sweet temper of"the beloved disciple?" It was religion. What was it which producedsuch purity of life, and gave such majesty in death, in the cases ofGrotius, Selden, Salmasius, Hale, Paschal, Boyle, Locke, Newton, Boerhave, Addison, Maclaurin, Lyttleton, and a thousand others? It wasreligion. Even men who labored to erase out of the mind all respect for religionhave acknowledged the importance and expediency of it. Bayle admitsreligion to be useful if men acted agreeably to its principles; andVoltaire says, expressly, that religion is necessary in every fixedcommunity; the laws are a curb upon open crimes, and religion on thosethat are private. "No religion, " says Bolingbroke, "ever appeared inthe world whose natural tendency was so much directed to promote thepeace and happiness of mankind as the Christian. The system ofreligion recorded by the evangelists is a complete system to all thepurposes of true religion, natural or revealed. The Gospel of Christis one continued lesson of the strictest morality, justice, benevolence, and universal charity. .. . Supposing Christianity to havebeen purely an human invention, it had been the most amiable, and themost useful invention that was ever imposed on mankind for theirgood. " Hume acknowledges, that, "the disbelief in futurity loosens, ina great measure, the ties of morality, and may be supposed, for thatreason, pernicious to the peace of civil society. " Rousseauacknowledges, that, "if all were perfect Christians, individuals woulddo their duty, the people would be obedient to the laws, the chiefsjust, the magistrates incorrupt, the soldiers would despise death, andthere would be neither vanity nor luxury in such a state. " Gibbonadmits, that the gospel, or the church, discouraged suicide, advancederudition, checked oppression, promoted the manumission of slaves, andsoftened the ferocity of barbarous nations; that fierce nationsreceived at the same time the lessons of faith and humanity, and that, in the most corrupt state of Christianity, the barbarians might learnjustice from the law, and mercy from the gospel. "To impute crimes toChristianity, " says the celebrated King of Prussia, "is the act of anovice. " His word may fairly be taken for such an assertion. And yetthese unbelievers have been so vile and perverse as to decry a systemwhich they acknowledge to be useful. How ungrateful! Howreprehensible! Collect now the thoughts scattered under this branch ofthe subject, and be honest--heartily believe, and openly acknowledge, that God was the author of the Bible. What but a superhuman, a trulydivine influence breathing in the Scriptures, can account for theenergy and beneficence of their moral tendencies? _From its general reception. _ Vast numbers of wise and good men, through many generations and in different countries, have agreed inreceiving the Bible as a revelation from God. Many of them have beennoted for seriousness, erudition, penetration, and impartiality injudging of men and things. We might refer to Alfred, "replete withsoul--the light of a benighted age"--to Charles V. , Emperor ofGermany--to Gustavus Adolphus, the renowned King of Sweden; to Selden, the learned and laborious lawyer and antiquary--to Bacon, "the brightmorning star of science"--to Usher, the well-known archbishop ofArmagh--to Newton, "the sun whose beams have irradiated the world"--toBoyle, celebrated for genius and erudition--to Milton, the prince ofpoets--to Locke, the man of profound thought--to Jones, one of thebrightest geniuses and most distinguished scholars of the eighteenthcentury--and to many other deathless names. And if the evidence of thetruth of the Bible satisfied men of such high intellectual capacity, ought it not to satisfy us? We do not wish to insinuate that we oughtto believe in the Divinity of the Scriptures merely because theybelieved it. But we do mean to say that we ought not rashly toconclude against that which they received. They are acknowledgedauthorities in other cases; then why not in this? If we can placereliance upon them in their philosophical inquiries, why not in theirreligious ones? Surely the infidels of the present day, so farinferior to the believers of the former days, ought to expressthemselves with more modesty upon this important subject, and tohesitate before they openly profess their opposition to that book ofreligion and morals which has received the countenance of suchhonorable names as those which have been mentioned. On the subject of the propagation of Christianity it has beeneloquently said: "In spite of violent and accumulated opposition itdiffused its blessings among the cities of Asia and the islands ofGreece; over the deserts of Arabia and the European continent! Fromthe hill of Calvary it speedily found its way to imperial Rome, gathering fresh laurels as it progressed, until it entered the palaceand waved its banner over the proud dwelling of Cæsar! With all theinfluence of priests and kings against it, and all the terrors of thegibbet or the flames, it rapidly overspread the extensive Roman empireand reached Britain, the little isle of the sea. With a power divineit achieved a triumph over mental and moral obliquity, surpassing allthat the philosophy of Greece or Rome could boast; and still will itconquer, until the sun in the heavens shall not look down on a singlehuman being destitute of the knowledge of Jesus Christ. " And the Rev. Robert Hall, whom to mention is to praise, remarked: "We seeChristianity as yet but in its infancy. It has not already reached thegreat ends it is intended to answer and to which it is constantlyadvancing. At present it is but a grain of mustard seed and seems tobring forth a tender and weakly crop, but be assured it is of God'sown right hand planting, and He will never suffer it to perish. Itwill soon stretch its branches to the river and its shades to the endsof the earth. The weary will repose themselves under it, the hungrywill partake of its fruits, and its leaves will be for the healing ofthe nations. Those who profess the name of Jesus will delight incontemplating the increase and grandeur of His kingdom. 'He must reignuntil He hath put all enemies under His feet. ' The religion of Jesusis not the religion of one age or of one nation. It is a train oflight first put in motion by God, and which will continue to move andto spread till it has filled the whole earth with its glory. Itsblessings will descend and its influence will be felt to the latestgenerations. Uninterrupted in its course, and boundless in its extent, it will not be limited by time or space. The earth is too narrow forthe display of its effects and the accomplishment of its purposes. Itpoints forward to an eternity. The great Redeemer will again appearupon the earth as the judge and ruler of it; will send forth Hisangels and gather His elect from the four winds; will abolish sin anddeath; will place the righteous forever in the presence of his God, oftheir God, of his Father, and their father. " "As the waters the depth of the blue ocean cover, So fully shall God among mortals be known; His word, like the sunbeams, shall range the world over, The globe His vast temple, and mercy His throne. " Christianity, though not persecuting, has been bitterly persecuted;yet it has triumphed--and triumphed, too, in spite of all its foes. Like Moses' bush, it was unconsumable by fire; and rose up amid theflames and prospered. And like the eagle--the imperial bird ofstorms--it will continue securely to soar amid every tempest. Allattempts to impede its progress will be as powerless and vain asattempts to drive back the flowing tide with the point of a needle. When infidels can grasp the winds in their fists, hush the voice ofthe thunder by the breath of their mouth, suspend the succession ofthe seasons by their nod, and extinguish the light of the sun by aveil, then, and not till then, can they arrest the progress of truthor invalidate the verities of the Bible. Unwise and unhappy men! theyare but plowing the air--striking with a straw--writing on the surfaceof the water--and seeking figs where only brambles grow. And compare not the propagation of Mohammedanism with the propagationof Christianity; for it is useless, if not absurd. Suffice it to saythat the former was propagated by fanaticism, falsehood, pandering tothe passions, promising a voluptuous paradise, and the frequent use ofthe sword; but the latter by sanity, truth, restraining the passions, promising a pure and holy heaven, and the use of no other sword butthe sword of the Spirit, that is, the word of God. Christianitycame--saw--and conquered. And all her victories have beenbloodless--of untold advantage to the vanquished themselves. They havedesolated no country--produced no tears but to wipe them away--andbroken no hearts but to heal them. Now to what is all this to beattributed? Can we reasonably ascribe the general reception of theBible and the consequent spread of Christianity to anything short ofdivine power? Is it not unprecedented? "Could any books, " says an ablewriter, "have undergone so fearful and prolonged an ordeal andachieved so spotless and perfect a triumph, unless they had been givenand watched over by the Deity?" _From its innumerable martyrs. _ "If a person, " says Dr. Jortin, "laysdown his life for the name of Christ, or for what he takes to be thereligion of Christ, when he might prolong his days by renouncing hisfaith, he must stand for a martyr in every reasonable man's calendar, though he may have been much mistaken in some of his opinions. " It hasbeen calculated that since Christianity arose, not less than fiftymillions of martyrs have laid down their lives for its sake. Some werevenerable for years; others were in the bloom of life; and not a fewwere of the weaker sex. They were, for the most part, well-instructedpersons. Many were learned and respectable men; neither factious intheir principles nor violent in their passions. They were neither wildin their notions, nor foolishly prodigal of their lives. This maysafely be affirmed of such men as Polycarp and Ignatius, Jerome andHuss, Latimer and Cranmer, Ridley and Hooper, Philpot and Bradford, Lambert and Saunders, and many others. Yet these so valued the Bible, that, rather than renounce it, and relinquish the hopes it inspired, they yielded their bodies to be burnt, or otherwise tormented, and"rejoiced and clapped their hands in flames, " or the like. "All that aman hath will he give for his life. " All account life sweet andprecious. No man of sense and understanding will sacrifice his life, when he can preserve it, but for some deeply rooted conviction oftruth or duty. In this view, Christian martyrs are entitled to ourrespect and esteem. For, they gave the strongest proof of sincerity oftheir faith: and no suspicion of fraud can reasonably be entertainedagainst them. "We conclude, " says Dr. Jortin, "that they were assistedby God, who alleviated their pain, and gave them not only resignationand patience, but exultation and joy. And this wonderful behavior ofthe former Christians may justly be accounted a proof of the truth ofthe Bible, and our holy religion, and we should deserve to be blamedand despised if we parted with it, and gave it up tamely on accountof a few objections. " "No man, " observes Dr. Beattie, "ever laid downhis life for the honor of Jupiter, Neptune, or Apollo; but how manythousands have sealed their Christian testimony with their blood!"What a moral victory! And whence but from heaven such a religion, having such attestation? Other arguments might be added tending to demonstrate the truth of ourproposition; but surely, enough have been produced to establish theauthority of the Bible on an immovable basis. "Forever, O Lord, Thyword is settled in heaven. I esteem all Thy precepts concerning allthings to be right; and I hate every false way. " "All flesh is asgrass, and all the glory of man as the flower of grass. The grasswithereth, and the flower thereof falleth away; but the word of theLord endureth forever. And this is the word which by the Gospel ispreached unto you. " "The proudest works of Genius shall decay, And Reason's brightest lustre fade away; The Sophist's art, the Poet's boldest flight, Shall sink in darkness, and conclude in night; But Faith triumphant over Time shall stand, Shall grasp the Sacred Volume in her hand; Back to its source the heavenly gift convey, Then in the flood of Glory melt away. " THE END. [Page Decoration] FOOTNOTES: [23] The most ancient hieroglyphs, according to M. Pierret, which canbe seen in an European museum, are those on the statues of Sefa andNesa in the Louvre; they date from a period anterior to the fourthdynasty. The lintel of the door of the tomb of one of the priests ofSenat, fifth King of the second dynasty in the Ashmolean Library, Oxford, exhibits, however, hieroglyphs of an earlier date. [24] King James' Bible is that now commonly used in this country andGreat Britain. * * * * * +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Typographical errors corrected in text: | | | | Page 103: 'composed af two' replaced with | | 'composed of two' | | Page 134: victorius replaced with victorious | | Page 174: saccrifice replaced with sacrifice | | Page 204: Telemachos replaced with Telemachus | | Page 253: abtruse replaced with abstruse | | Page 280: significance replaced with insignificance | | (see Chevalier's book "Remarks on the | | production of the precious metals, and on the | | depreciation of gold" on page 28. | | http://www. Archive. Org/details/remarksonproduct00chevuoft)| | Page 270: 'suits of rooms' replaced with | | 'suites of rooms' | | Page 292: maratime replaced with maritime | | Page 334: Dionysaic replaced with Dionysiac | | Page 393: Ilaid replaced with Iliad | | Page 446: admiting replaced with admitting | | Page 475: uninterupted replaced with uninterrupted | | Page 484: oblelisks replaced with obelisks | | Page 515: 'THE SLEEP OP ENDYMION. ' replaced with | | 'THE SLEEP OF ENDYMION. ' | | Page 525: chieftan replaced with chieftain | | Page 561: glimmmer replaced with glimmer | | Page 568: Grogon's replaced with Gorgon's | | Page 653: 'rendering of drapery so as to show the forms | | underdeath' replaced with 'rendering of | | drapery so as to show the forms underneath' | | Page 698: 'the name of the artist worked in it' | | replaced with | | 'the name of the artist who worked in it' | | Page 712: Sacred replaced with Scared | | Page 754: Egyptain replaced with Egyptian | | Page 837: Egytians replaced with Egyptians | | Page 874: 'of porphyry and and other rare' replaced with | | 'of porphyry and other rare' | | Page 882: cemetry replaced with cemetery | | Page 888: Chiristians replaced with Christians | | Page 929: 'instantaneously, and and not by degrees' | | replaced with | | 'instantaneously, and not by degrees' | | | | Notes on Unusual Words: | | | | Page 88: The poem on page 88 really does say: | | "His hugy bulk on seven high volumes rolled" | | Page 105: coutch is a legitimate variant spelling for | | couch | | Page 659: 'sil' means yellow ochre. | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * *