MEN OF INVENTION AND INDUSTRY

by

Samuel Smiles

"Men there have been, ignorant of letters; without art, withouteloquence; who yet had the wisdom to devise and the courage to performthat which they lacked language to explain. Such men have worked thedeliverance of nations and their own greatness. Their hearts are theirbooks; events are their tutors; great actions are theireloquence. "--MACAULAY. 

Contents. 

Preface

CHAPTER I Phineas Pett: Beginnings of English Shipbuilding

CHAPTER II Francis Pettit Smith: Practical Introducer of the Screw Propeller

CHAPTER III John Harrison: Inventor of the Marine Chronometer

CHAPTER IV John Lombe: Introducer of the Silk Industry into England

CHAPTER V William Murdock: His Life and Inventions

CHAPTER VI Frederick Koenig: Inventor of the Steam-printing Machine

CHAPTER VII The Walters of 'The Times': Inventor of the Walter Press

CHAPTER VIII William Clowes: Book-printing by Steam

CHAPTER IX Charles Bianconi: A Lesson of Self-Help in Ireland

CHAPTER X Industry in Ireland: Through Connaught and Ulster to Belfast

CHAPTER XI Shipbuilding in Belfast: By Sir E. J. Harland, Engineer and Shipbuilder

CHAPTER XII Astronomers and students in humble life: A new Chapter in the 'Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties'

PREFACE

I offer this book as a continuation of the memoirs of men of inventionand industry published some years ago in the 'Lives of Engineers, ''Industrial Biography, ' and 'Self-Help. '

The early chapters relate to the history of a very important branch ofBritish industry--that of Shipbuilding. A later chapter, kindlyprepared by Sir Edward J. Harland, of Belfast, relates to the originand progress of shipbuilding in Ireland. 

Many of the facts set forth in the Life and Inventions of WilliamMurdock have already been published in my 'Lives of Boulton and Watt;'but these are now placed in a continuous narrative, and supplemented byother information, more particularly the correspondence between Wattand Murdock, communicated to me by the present representative of thefamily, Mr. Murdock, C. E. , of Gilwern, near Abergavenny. 

I have also endeavoured to give as accurate an account as possible ofthe Invention of the Steam-printing Press, and its application to theproduction of Newspapers and Books, --an invention certainly of greatimportance to the spread of knowledge, science, and literature, throughout the world. 

The chapter on the "Industry of Ireland" will speak for itself. Itoccurred to me, on passing through Ireland last year, that muchremained to be said on that subject; and, looking to the increasingmeans of the country, and the well-known industry of its people, itseems reasonable to expect, that with peace, security, energy, anddiligent labour of head and hand, there is really a great future beforeIreland. 

The last chapter, on "Astronomers in Humble Life, " consists for themost part of a series of Autobiographies. It may seem, at first sight, to have little to do with the leading object of the book; but it servesto show what a number of active, earnest, and able men arecomparatively hidden throughout society, ready to turn their hands andheads to the improvement of their own characters, if not to theadvancement of the general community of which they form a part. 

In conclusion, I say to the reader, as Quarles said in the preface tohis 'Emblems, ' "I wish thee as much pleasure in the reading as I had inthe writing. " In fact, the last three chapters were in some measurethe cause of the book being published in its present form. 

London, November, 1884. 

CHAPTER I. 

PHINEAS PETT: BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH SHIP-BUILDING. 

"A speck in the Northern Ocean, with a rocky coast, an ungenialclimate, and a soil scarcely fruitful, --this was the material patrimonywhich descended to the English race--an inheritance that would havebeen little worth but for the inestimable moral gift that accompaniedit. Yes; from Celts, Saxons, Danes, Normans--from some or all ofthem--have come down with English nationality a talisman that couldcommand sunshine, and plenty, and empire, and fame. The 'go' whichthey transmitted to us--the national vis--this it is which made the oldAngle-land a glorious heritage. Of this we have had a portion aboveour brethren--good measure, running over. Through this ourisland-mother has stretched out her arms till they enriched the globeof the earth.... Britain, without her energy and enterprise, what wouldshe be in Europe?"--Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine (1870). 

In one of the few records of Sir Isaac Newton's life which he left forthe benefit of others, the following comprehensive thought occurs:

"It is certainly apparent that the inhabitants of this world are of ashort date, seeing that all arts, as letters, ships, printing, theneedle, &c. , were discovered within the memory of history. "

If this were true in Newton's time, how much truer is it now. Most ofthe inventions which are so greatly influencing, as well as advancing, the civilization of the world at the present time, have been discoveredwithin the last hundred or hundred and fifty years. We do not say thatman has become so much wiser during that period; for, though he hasgrown in Knowledge, the most fruitful of all things were said by "theheirs of all the ages" thousands of years ago. 

But as regards Physical Science, the progress made during the lasthundred years has been very great. Its most recent triumphs have beenin connection with the discovery of electric power and electric light. Perhaps the most important invention, however, was that of the workingsteam engine, made by Watt only about a hundred years ago. The mostrecent application of this form of energy has been in the propulsion ofships, which has already produced so great an effect upon commerce, navigation, and the spread of population over the world. 

Equally important has been the influence of the Railway--now theprincipal means of communication in all civilized countries. Thisinvention has started into full life within our own time. Thelocomotive engine had for some years been employed in the haulage ofcoals; but it was not until the opening of the Liverpool and ManchesterRailway in 1830, that the importance of the invention came to beacknowledged. The locomotive railway has since been everywhere adoptedthroughout Europe. In America, Canada, and the Colonies, it has openedup the boundless resources of the soil, bringing the country nearer tothe towns, and the towns to the country. It has enhanced the celerityof time, and imparted a new series of conditions to every rank of life. 

The importance of steam navigation has been still more recentlyascertained. When it was first proposed, Sir Joseph Banks, Presidentof the Royal Society, said: "It is a pretty plan, but there is justone point overlooked: that the steam-engine requires a firm basis onwhich to work. " Symington, the practical mechanic, put this theory tothe test by his successful experiments, first on Dalswinton Lake, andthen on the Forth and Clyde Canal. Fulton and Bell afterwards showedthe power of steamboats in navigating the rivers of America and Britain. 

After various experiments, it was proposed to unite England and Americaby steam. Dr. Lardner, however, delivered a lecture before the RoyalInstitution in 1838, "proving" that steamers could never cross theAtlantic, because they could not carry sufficient coal to raise steamenough during the voyage. But this theory was also tested byexperience in the same year, when the Sirius, of London, left Cork forNew York, and made the passage in nineteen days. Four days after thedeparture of the Sirius, the Great Western left Bristol for New York, and made the passage in thirteen days five hours. [1] The problem wassolved; and great ocean steamers have ever since passed in continuousstreams between the shores of England and America. 

In an age of progress, one invention merely paves the way for another. The first steamers were impelled by means of paddle wheels; but theseare now almost entirely superseded by the screw. And this, too, is aninvention almost of yesterday. It was only in 1840 that the Archimedeswas fitted as a screw yacht. 

A few years later, in 1845, the Great Britain, propelled by the screw, left Liverpool for New York, and made the voyage in fourteen days. Thescrew is now invariably adopted in all long ocean voyages. 

It is curious to look back, and observe the small beginnings ofmaritime navigation. As regards this country, though its institutionsare old, modern England is still young. As respects its mechanical andscientific achievements, it is the youngest of all countries. Watt'ssteam engine was the beginning of our manufacturing supremacy; andsince its adoption, inventions and discoveries in Art and Science, within the last hundred years, have succeeded each other withextraordinary rapidity. In 1814 there was only one steam vessel inScotland; while England possessed none at all. Now, the Britishmercantile steam-ships number about 5000, with about 4 millions ofaggregate tonnage. [2]

In olden times this country possessed the materials for great things, as well as the men fitted to develope them into great results. But thenation was slow to awake and take advantage of its opportunities. There was no enterprise, no commerce--no "go" in the people. The roadswere frightfully bad; and there was little communication between onepart of the country and another. 

If anything important had to be done, we used to send for foreigners tocome and teach us how to do it. We sent for them to drain our fens, tobuild our piers and harbours, and even to pump our water at LondonBridge. Though a seafaring population lived round our coasts, we didnot fish our own seas, but left it to the industrious Dutchmen to catchthe fish, and supply our markets. It was not until the year 1787 thatthe Yarmouth people began the deep-sea herring fishery; and yet thesewere the most enterprising amongst the English fishermen. 

English commerce also had very slender beginnings. At the commencementof the fifteenth century, England was of very little account in theaffairs of Europe. Indeed, the history of modern England is nearlycoincident with the accession of the Tudors to the throne. With theexception of Calais and Dunkirk, her dominions on the Continent hadbeen wrested from her by the French. The country at home had been madedesolate by the Wars of the Roses. The population was very small, andhad been kept down by war, pestilence, and famine. [3] The chief staplewas wool, which was exported to Flanders in foreign ships, there to bemanufactured into cloth. Nearly every article of importance wasbrought from abroad; and the little commerce which existed was in thehands of foreigners. The seas were swept by privateers, little betterthan pirates, who plundered without scruple every vessel, whetherfriend or foe, which fell in their way. 

The British navy has risen from very low beginnings. The English fleethad fallen from its high estate since the reign of Edward III. , who wona battle from the French and Flemings in 1340, with 260 ships; but hisvessels were all of moderate size, being boats, yachts, and caravels, of very small tonnage. According to the contemporary chronicles, Weymouth, Fowey, Sandwich, and Bristol, were then of nearly almost asmuch importance as London;[4] which latter city only furnishedtwenty-five vessels, with 662 mariners. 

The Royal Fleet began in the reign of Henry VII. Only six or sevenvessels then belonged to the King, the largest being the Grace de Dieu, of comparatively small tonnage. The custom then was, to hire shipsfrom the Venetians, the Genoese, the Hanse towns, and other tradingpeople; and as soon as the service for which the vessels so hired wasperformed, they were dismissed. 

When Henry VIII. Ascended the throne in 1509, he directed his attentionto the state of the navy. Although the insular position of England wascalculated to stimulate the art of shipbuilding more than in mostcontinental countries, our best ships long continued to be built byforeigners. Henry invited from abroad, especially from Italy, wherethe art of shipbuilding had made the greatest progress, as many skilfulartists and workmen as he could procure, either by the hope of gain, orthe high honours and distinguished countenance which he paid them. "Byincorporating, " says Charnock, "these useful persons among his ownsubjects, he soon formed a corps sufficient to rival those states whichhad rendered themselves most distinguished by their knowledge in thisart; so that the fame of Genoa and Venice, which had long excited theenvy of the greater part of Europe, became suddenly transferred to theshores of Britain. "[5]

In fitting out his fleet, we find Henry disbursing large sums toforeigners for shipbuilding, for "harness" or armour, and for munitionsof all sorts. The State Papers[6] particularize the amounts paid toLewez de la Fava for "harness;" to William Gurre, "bregandy-maker;" andto Leonard Friscobald for "almayn ryvetts. "

Francis de Errona, a Spaniard, supplied the gunpowder. Among theforeign mechanics and artizans employed were Hans Popenruyter, gunfounder of Mechlin; Robert Sakfeld, Robert Skorer, Fortuno deCatalenago, and John Cavelcant. On one occasion 2, 797L. 19s. 4 1/2d. Was disbursed for guns and grindstones. This sum must be multiplied byabout four, to give the proper present value. Popenruyter seems to havebeen the great gunfounder of the age; he supplied the principal gunsand gun stores for the English navy, and his name occurs in everyOrdnance account of the series, generally for sums of the largestamounts. 

Henry VIII. Was the first to establish Royal dockyards, first atWoolwich, then at Portsmouth, and thirdly at Deptford, for the erectionand repair of ships. Before then, England had been principallydependent upon Dutchmen and Venetians, both for ships of war andmerchantmen. The sovereign had neither naval arsenals nor dockyards, nor any regular establishment of civil or naval affairs to provideships of war. Sir Edward Howard, Lord High Admiral of England, at theaccession of Henry VIII. , actually entered into a "contract" with thatmonarch to fight his enemies. 

This singular document is still preserved in the State Paper office. Even after the establishment of royal dockyards, the sovereign--as lateas the reign of Elizabeth--entered into formal contracts withshipwrights for the repair and maintenance of ships, as well as foradditions to the fleet. 

The King, having made his first effort at establishing a royal navy, sent the fleet to sea against the ships of France. The Regent was theship royal, with Sir Thomas Knivet, Master of the Horse, and Sir JohnCrew of Devonshire, as Captains. The fleet amounted to twenty-fivewell furnished ships. The French fleet were thirty-nine in number. They met in Brittany Bay, and had a fierce fight. The Regent grappledwith a great carack of Brest; the French, on the English boarding theirship, set fire to the gunpowder, and both ships were blown up, with alltheir men. The French fleet fled, and the English kept the seas. TheKing, hearing of the loss of the Regent, caused a great ship to bebuilt, the like of which had never before been seen in England, andcalled it Harry Grace de Dieu. 

This ship was constructed by foreign artizans, principally by Italians, and was launched in 1515. She was said to be of a thousand tonsportage--the largest ship in England. The vessel was four-masted, withtwo round tops on each mast, except the shortest mizen. She had a highforecastle and poop, from which the crew could shoot down upon the deckor waist of another vessel. The object was to have a sort of castle ateach end of the ship. This style of shipbuilding was doubtlessborrowed from the Venetians, then the greatest naval power in Europe. The length of the masts, the height of the ship above the water's edge, and the ornaments and decorations, were better adapted for thestillness of the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas, than for theboisterous ocean of the northern parts of Europe. [7] The story longprevailed that "the Great Harry swept a dozen flocks of sheep off theIsle of Man with her bob-stay. " An American gentleman (N. B. Anderson, LL. D. , Boston) informed the present author that this saying is stillproverbial amongst the United States sailors. 

The same features were reproduced in merchant ships. Most of them weresuited for defence, to prevent the attacks of pirates, which swarmedthe seas round the coast at that time. Shipbuilding by the natives inprivate shipyards was in a miserable condition. Mr. Willet, in hismemoir relative to the navy, observes: "It is said, and I believe withtruth, that at this time (the middle of the sixteenth century) therewas not a private builder between London Bridge and Gravesend, whocould lay down a ship in the mould left from a Navy Board's draught, without applying to a tinker who lived in Knave's Acre. "[8]

Another ship of some note built at the instance of Henry VIII. Was theMary Rose, of the portage of 500 tons. We find her in the "pond atDeptford" in 1515. Seven years later, in the thirtieth year of HenryVIII. 's reign, she was sent to sea, with five other English ships ofwar, to protect such commerce as then existed from the depredations ofthe French and Scotch pirates. The Mary Rose was sent many years later(in 1544) with the English fleet to the coast of France, but returnedwith the rest of the fleet to Portsmouth without entering into anyengagement. While laid at anchor, not far from the place where theRoyal George afterwards went down, and the ship was under repair, hergun-ports being very low when she was laid over, "the shipp turned, thewater entered, and sodainly she sanke. "

What was to be done? There were no English engineers or workmen whocould raise the ship. Accordingly, Henry VIII. Sent to Venice forassistance, and when the men arrived, Pietro de Andreas was dispatchedwith the Venetian marines and carpenters to raise the Mary Rose. SixtyEnglish mariners were appointed to attend upon them. The Venetianswere then the skilled "heads, " the English were only the "hands. "Nevertheless they failed with all their efforts; and it was not untilthe year 1836 that Mr. Dean, the engineer, succeeded in raising notonly the Royal George, but the Mary Rose, and cleared the roadstead atPortsmouth of the remains of the sunken ships. 

When Elizabeth ascended the throne in 1558, the commerce and navigationof England were still of very small amount. The population of thekingdom amounted to only about five millions--not much more than thepopulation of London is now. The country had little commerce, and whatit had was still mostly in the hands of foreigners. The Hanse townshad their large entrepot for merchandise in Cannon Street, on the siteof the present Cannon Street Station. The wool was still sent abroadto Flanders to be fashioned into cloth, and even garden produce wasprincipally imported from Holland. Dutch, Germans, Flemings, French, and Venetians continued to be our principal workmen. Our iron wasmostly obtained from Spain and Germany. The best arms and armour camefrom France and Italy. Linen was imported from Flanders and Holland, though the best came from Rheims. Even the coarsest dowlas, orsailcloth, was imported from the Low Countries. 

The royal ships continued to be of very small burthen, and themercantile ships were still smaller. The Queen, however, did what shecould to improve the number and burthen of our ships. "Foreigners, "says Camden, "stiled her the restorer of naval glory and Queen of theNorthern Seas. " In imitation of the Queen, opulent subjects builtships of force; and in course of time England no longer depended uponHamburg, Dantzic, Genoa, and Venice, for her fleet in time of war. 

Spain was then the most potent power in Europe, and the Netherlands, which formed part of the dominions of Spain, was the centre ofcommercial prosperity. Holland possessed above 800 good ships, of from200 to 700 tons burthen, and above 600 busses for fishing, of from 100to 200 tons. Amsterdam and Antwerp were in the heyday of theirprosperity. Sometimes 500 great ships were to be seen lying togetherbefore Amsterdam;[9] whereas England at that time had not four merchantships of 400 tons each! Antwerp, however, was the most important cityin the Low Countries. It was no uncommon thing to see as many as 2500ships in the Scheldt, laden with merchandize. Sometimes 500 shipswould come and go from Antwerp in one day, bound to or returning fromthe distant parts of the world. The place was immensely rich, and wasfrequented by Spaniards, Germans, Danes, English, Italians, andPortuguese the Spaniards being the most numerous. Camden, in hishistory of Queen Elizabeth, relates that our general trade with theNetherlands in 1564 amounted to twelve millions of ducats, fivemillions of which was for English cloth alone. 

The religious persecutions of Philip II. Of Spain and of Charles IX. OfFrance shortly supplied England with the population of which she stoodin need--active, industrious, intelligent artizans. Philip set up theInquisition in Flanders, and in a few years more than 50, 000 personswere deliberately murdered. The Duchess of Parma, writing to Philip II. In 1567, informed him that in a few days above 100, 000 men had alreadyleft the country with their money and goods, and that more werefollowing every day. They fled to Germany, to Holland, and above allto England, which they hailed as Asylum Christi. The emigrants settledin the decayed cities and towns of Canterbury, Norwich, Sandwich, Colchester, Maidstone, Southampton, and many other places, where theycarried on their manufactures of woollen, linen, and silk, andestablished many new branches of industry. [10]

Five years later, in 1572, the massacre of St. Bartholomew took placein France, during which the Roman Catholic Bishop Perefixe alleges that100, 000 persons were put to death because of their religions opinions. All this persecution, carried on so near the English shores, rapidlyincreased the number of foreign fugitives into England, which wasfollowed by the rapid advancement of the industrial arts in thiscountry. 

The asylum which Queen Elizabeth gave to the persecuted foreignersbrought down upon her the hatred of Philip II. And Charles IX. Whenthey found that they could not prevent her furnishing them with anasylum, they proceeded to compass her death. She was excommunicated bythe Pope, and Vitelli was hired to assassinate her. Philip alsoproceeded to prepare the Sacred Armada for the subjugation of theEnglish nation, and he was master of the most powerful army and navy inthe world. 

Modern England was then in the throes of her birth. She had not yetreached the vigour of her youth, though she was full of life andenergy. She was about to become the England of free thought, commerce, and manufactures; to plough the ocean with her navies, and to plant hercolonies over the earth. Up to the accession of Elizabeth, she haddone little, but now she was about to do much. 

It was a period of sudden emancipation of thought, and of immensefertility and originality. The poets and prose writers of the timeunited the freshness of youth with the vigour of manhood. Among thesewere Spenser, Shakespeare, Sir Philip Sidney, the Fletchers, Marlowe, and Ben Jonson. Among the statesmen of Elizabeth were Burleigh, Leicester, Walsingham, Howard, and Sir Nicholas Bacon. But perhapsgreatest of all were the sailors, who, as Clarendon said, "were anation by themselves;" and their leaders--Drake, Frobisher, Cavendish, Hawkins, Howard, Raleigh, Davis, and many more distinguished seamen. 

They were the representative men of their time, the creation in a greatmeasure of the national spirit. They were the offspring of longgenerations of seamen and lovers of the sea. They could not have beengreat but for the nation which gave them birth, and imbued them withtheir worth and spirit. The great sailors, for instance, could nothave originated in a nation of mere landsmen. 

They simply took the lead in a country whose coasts were fringed withsailors. Their greatness was but the result of an excellence inseamanship which prevailed widely around them. 

The age of English maritime adventure only began in the reign ofElizabeth. England had then no colonies--no foreign possessionswhatever. The first of her extensive colonial possessions wasestablished in this reign. "Ships, colonies, and commerce" began to bethe national motto--not that colonies make ships and commerce, but thatships and commerce make colonies. Yet what cockle-shells of ships ourpioneer navigators first sailed in!

Although John Cabot or Gabota, of Bristol, originally a citizen ofVenice, had discovered the continent of North America in 1496, in thereign of Henry VII. , he made no settlement there, but returned toBristol with his four small ships. Columbus did not see the continentof America until two years later, in 1498, his first discoveries beingthe islands of the West Indies. 

It was not until the year 1553 that an attempt was made to discover aNorth-west passage to Cathaya or China. Sir Hugh Willonghby was put incommand of the expedition, which consisted of three ships, --the BonaEsperanza, the Bona Ventura (Captain Chancellor), and the BonaConfidentia (Captain Durforth), --most probably ships built byVenetians. Sir Hugh reached 72 degrees of north latitude, and wascompelled by the buffeting of the winds to take refuge with CaptainDurforth's vessel at Arcina Keca, in Russian Lapland, where the twocaptains and the crews of these ships, seventy in number, were frozento death. In the following year some Russian fishermen found Sir JohnWillonghby sitting dead in his cabin, with his diary and other papersbeside him. 

Captain Chancellor was more fortunate. He reached Archangel in theWhite Sea, where no ship had ever been seen before. He pointed out tothe English the way to the whale fishery at Spitzbergen, and opened upa trade with the northern parts of Russia. Two years later, in 1556, Stephen Burroughs sailed with one small ship, which entered the KaraSea; but he was compelled by frost and ice to return to England. Thestrait which he entered is still called "Burrough's Strait. "

It was not, however, until the reign of Elizabeth that great maritimeadventures began to be made. Navigators were not so venturous as theyafterwards became. Without proper methods of navigation, they were aptto be carried away to the south, across an ocean without limit. In1565 a young captain, Martin Frobisher, came into notice. At the ageof twenty-five he captured in the South Seas the Flying Spirit, aSpanish ship laden with a rich cargo of cochineal. Four years later, in 1569, he made his first attempt to discover the north-west passageto the Indies, being assisted by Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick. Theships of Frobisher were three in number, the Gabriel, of from 15 to 20tons; the Michael, of from 20 to 25 tons, or half the size of a modernfishing-boat; and a pinnace, of from 7 to 10 tons! The aggregate ofthe crews of the three ships was only thirty-five, men and boys. Thinkof the daring of these early navigators in attempting to pass by theNorth Pole to Cathay through snow, and storm, and ice, in suchmiserable little cockboats! The pinnace was lost; the Michael, underOwen Griffith, a Welsh-man, deserted; and Martin Frobisher in theGabriel went alone into the north-western sea!

He entered the great bay, since called Hudson's Bay, by Frobisher'sStrait. He returned to England without making the discovery of thePassage, which long remained the problem of arctic voyagers. Yet tenyears later, in 1577, he made another voyage, and though he made hissecond attempt with one of Queen Elizabeth's own ships, and two barks, with 140 persons in all, he was as unsuccessful as before. He broughthome some supposed gold ore; and on the strength of the stonescontaining gold, a third expedition went out in the following year. After losing one of the ships, consuming the provisions, and sufferinggreatly from ice and storms, the fleet returned home one by one. Thesupposed gold ore proved to be only glittering sand. 

While Frobisher was seeking El-Dorado in the North, Francis Drake wasfinding it in the South. He was a sailor, every inch of him. 

"Pains, with patience in his youth, " says Fuller, "knit the joints ofhis soul, and made them more solid and compact. " At an early age, whencarrying on a coasting trade, his imagination was inflamed by theexploits of his protector Hawkins in the New World, and he joined himin his last unfortunate adventure on the Spanish Main. He was not, however, discouraged by his first misfortune, but having assembledabout him a number of seamen who believed in him, he made otheradventures to the West Indies, and learnt the navigation of that partof the ocean. In 1570, he obtained a regular commission from QueenElizabeth, though he sailed his own ships, and made his own ventures. Every Englishman, who had the means, was at liberty to fit out his ownships; and with tolerable vouchers, he was able to procure a commissionfrom the Court, and proceed to sea at his own risk and cost. Thus, thenaval enterprise and pioneering of new countries under Elizabeth, wasalmost altogether a matter of private enterprise and adventure. 

In 1572, the butchery of the Hugnenots took place at Paris andthroughout France; while at the same time the murderous power of PhilipII. Reigned supreme in the Netherlands. The sailors knew what they hadto expect from the Spanish king in the event of his obtaining histhreatened revenge upon England; and under their chosen chiefs theyproceeded to make war upon him. In the year of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Drake set sail for the Spanish Main in the Pasha, ofseventy tons, accompanied by the Swan, of twenty-five tons; the unitedcrews of the vessels amounting to seventy-three men and boys. Withthis insignificant force, Drake made great havoc amongst the Spanishshipping at Nombre de Dios. He partially crossed the Isthmus ofDarien, and obtained his first sight of the great Pacific Ocean. Hereturned to England in August 1573, with his frail barks crammed withtreasure. 

A few years later, in 1577, he made his ever-memorable expedition. Charnock says it was "an attempt in its nature so bold andunprecedented, that we should scarcely know whether to applaud it as abrave, or condemn it as a rash one, but for its success. " The squadronwith which he sailed for South America consisted of five vessels, thelargest of which, the Pelican, was only of 100 tons burthen; the next, the Elizabeth, was of 80; the third, the Swan, a fly-boat, was of 50;the Marygold bark, of 30; and the Christopher, a pinnace, of 15 tons. The united crews of these vessels amounted to only 164, gentlemen andsailors. 

The gentlemen went with Drake "to learn the art of navigation. " Aftervarious adventures along the South American coast, the little fleetpassed through the Straits of Magellan, and entered the Pacific Ocean. Drake took an immense amount of booty from the Spanish towns along thecoast, and captured the royal galleon, the Cacafuego, laden withtreasure. After trying in vain to discover a passage home by theNorth-eastern ocean, though what is now known as Behring Straits, hetook shelter in Port San Francisco, which he took possession of in thename of the Queen of England, and called New Albion. He eventuallycrossed the Pacific for the Moluccas and Java, from which he sailedright across the Indian Ocean, and by the Cape of Good Hope to England, thus making the circumnavigation of the world. He was absent with hislittle fleet for about two years and ten months. 

Not less extraordinary was the voyage of Captain Cavendish, who madethe circumnavigation of the globe at his own expense. He set out fromPlymouth in three small vessels on the 21st July, 1586. One vessel wasof 120 tons, the second of 60 tons, and the third of 40 tons--not muchbigger than a Thames yacht. The united crews, of officers, men, andboys, did not exceed 123! Cavendish sailed along the South Americancontinent, and made through the Straits of Magellan, reaching thePacific Ocean. He burnt and plundered the Spanish settlements alongthe coast, captured some Spanish ships, and took by boarding thegalleon St. Anna, with 122, 000 Spanish dollars on board. He thensailed across the Pacific to the Ladrone Islands, and returned homethrough the Straits of Java and the Indian Archipelago by the Cape ofGood Hope, and reached England after an absence of two years and amonth. 

The sacred and invincible Armada was now ready, Philip II. Wasdetermined to put down those English adventurers who had swept thecoasts of Spain and plundered his galleons on the high seas. TheEnglish sailors knew that the sword of Philip was forged in the goldmines of South America, and that the only way to defend their countrywas to intercept the plunder on its voyage home to Spain. But thesailors and their captains--Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, Howard, Grenville, Raleigh, and the rest--could not altogether interrupt theenterprise of the King of Spain. The Armada sailed, and came in sightof the English coast on the 20th of July, 1588. 

The struggle was of an extraordinary character. On the one side wasthe most powerful naval armament that had ever put to sea. It consistedof six squadrons of sixty fine large ships, the smallest being of 700tons. Besides these were four gigantic galleasses, each carrying fiftyguns, four large armed galleys, fifty-six armed merchant ships, andtwenty caravels--in all, 149 vessels. On board were 8000 sailors, 20, 000 soldiers, and a large number of galley-slaves. The shipscarried provisions enough for six months' consumption; and the supplyof ammunition was enormous. 

On the other side was the small English fleet under Hawkins and Drake. The Royal ships were only thirteen in number. The rest werecontributed by private enterprize, there being only thirty-eightvessels of all sorts and sizes, including cutters and pinnaces, carrying the Queen's flag. The principal armed merchant ships wereprovided by London, Southampton, Bristol, and the other southern ports. Drake was followed by some privateers; Hawkins had four or five ships, and Howard of Effingham two. The fleet was, however, very badly foundin provisions and ammunition. There was only a week's provisions onboard, and scarcely enough ammunition for one day's hard fighting. Butthe ships, small though they were, were in good condition. They couldsail, whether in pursuit or in flight, for the men who navigated themwere thorough sailors. 

The success of the defence was due to tact, courage, and seamanship. At the first contact of the fleets, the Spanish towering galleonswished to close, to grapple with their contemptuous enemies, and crushthem to death. "Come on!" said Medina Sidonia. Lord Howard came onwith the Ark and three other ships, and fired with immense rapidityinto the great floating castles. The Sam Mateo luffed, and wanted themto board. "No! not yet!" The English tacked, returned, fired again, riddled the Spaniards, and shot away in the eye of the wind. To theastonishment of the Spanish Admiral, the English ships approached himor left him just as they chose. "The enemy pursue me, " wrote theSpanish Admiral to the Prince of Parma; "they fire upon me most daysfrom morning till nightfall, but they will not close and grapple, though I have given them every opportunity. " The Capitana, a galleonof 1200 tons, dropped behind, struck her flag to Drake, and increasedthe store of the English fleet by some tons of gunpowder. AnotherSpanish ship surrendered, and another store of powder and shot wasrescued for the destruction of the Armada. And so it happenedthroughout, until the Spanish fleet was driven to wreck and ruin, andthe remaining ships were scattered by the tempests of the north. Afterall, Philip proved to be, what the sailors called him, only "a Colossusstuffed with clouts. "

The English sailors followed up their advantage. They went on"singeing the Ring of Spain's beard. " Private adventurers fitted up afleet under the command of Drake, and invaded the mainland of Spain. They took the lower part of the town of Corunna; sailed to the Tagus, and captured a fleet of ships laden with wheat and warlike stores for anew Armada. They next sacked Vigo, and returned to England with 150pieces of cannon and a rich booty. The Earl of Cumberland sailed tothe West Indies on a private adventure, and captured more Spanishprizes. In 1590, ten English merchantmen, returning from the Levant, attacked twelve Spanish galleons, and after six hours' contest, putthem to flight with great loss. In the following year, three merchantships set sail for the East Indies, and in the course of their voyagetook several Portuguese vessels. 

A powerful Spanish fleet still kept the seas, and in 1591 theyconquered the noble Sir Richard Grenville at the Azores--fifteen greatSpanish galleons against one Queen's ship, the Revenge. In 1593, twoof the Queen's ships, accompanied by a number of merchant ships, sailedfor the West Indies, under Burroughs, Frobisher, and Cross, and amongsttheir other captures they took the greatest of all the East Indiacaracks, a vessel of 1600 tons, 700 men, and 36 brass cannon, ladenwith a magnificent cargo. She was taken to Dartmouth, and surprisedall who saw her, being the largest ship that had ever been seen inEngland. In 1594, Captain James Lancaster set sail with three shipsupon a voyage of adventure. He was joined by some Dutch and Frenchprivateers. The result was, that they captured thirty-nine of theSpanish ships. Sir Amias Preston, Sir John Hawkins, and Sir FrancisDrake, also continued their action upon the seas. Lord Admiral Howardand the Earl of Essex made their famous attack upon Cadiz for thepurpose of destroying the new Armada; they demolished all the forts;sank eleven of the King of Spain's best ships, forty-four merchantships, and brought home much booty. 

Nor was maritime discovery neglected. The planting of new coloniesbegan, for the English people had already begun to swarm. In 1578, SirHumphrey Gilbert planted Newfoundland for the Queen. In 1584, SirWaiter Raleigh planted the first settlement in Virginia. Nor was theNorth-west passage neglected; for in 1580, Captain Pett (a name famouson the Thames) set sail from Harwich in the George, accompanied byCaptain Jackman in the William. They reached the ice in the North Sea, but were compelled to return without effecting their purpose! Will itbe believed that the George was only of 40 tons, and that its crewconsisted of nine men and a boy; and that the William was of 20 tons, with five men and a boy? The wonder is that these little vessels couldresist the terrible icefields, and return to England again with theirhardy crews. 

Then in 1585, another of our adventurous sailors, John Davis, ofSandridge on the Dart, set sail with two barks, the Sunshine and theMoonshine, of 50 and 35 tons respectively, and discovered in the farNorth-west the Strait which now bears his name. He was driven back bythe ice; but, undeterred by his failure, he set out on a second, andthen on a third voyage of discovery in the two following years. But henever succeeded in discovering the North-west passage. It all readslike a mystery--these repeated, determined, and energetic attempts todiscover a new way of reaching the fabled region of Cathay. 

In these early times the Dutch were not unworthy rivals of the English. After they had succeeded in throwing off the Spanish yoke and achievedtheir independence, they became one of the most formidable of maritimepowers. In the course of another century Holland possessed morecolonies, and had a larger share of the carrying trade of the worldthan Britain. It was natural therefore that the Dutch republic shouldtake an interest in the North-west passage; and the Dutch sailors, bytheir enterprise and bravery, were among the first to point the way toArctic discovery. Barents and Behring, above all others, proved thecourage and determination of their heroic ancestors. 

The romance of the East India Company begins with an advertisement inthe London Gazette of 1599, towards the end of the reign of QueenElizabeth. As with all other enterprises of the nation, it wasestablished by private means. The Company was started with a capitalof 72, 000L. In 50L. Shares. The adventurers bought four vessels of anaverage burthen of 350 tons. These were stocked with provisions, "Norwich stuffs, " and other merchandise. The tiny fleet sailed fromBillingsgate on the 13th February, 1601. It went by the Cape of GoodHope to the East Indies, under the command of Captain James Lancaster. It took no less than sixteen months to reach the Indian Archipelago. 

The little fleet reached Acheen in June, 1602. The king of theterritory received the visitors with courtesy, and exchanged spiceswith them freely. The four vessels sailed homeward, taking possessionof the island of St. Helena on their way back; having been absentexactly thirty-one months. The profits of the first voyage proved tobe about one hundred per cent. Such was the origin of the great EastIndia Company--now expanded into an empire, and containing about twohundred millions of people. 

To return to the shipping and the mercantile marine of the time ofQueen Elizabeth. The number of Royal ships was only thirteen, the restof the navy consisting of merchant ships, which were hired anddischarged when their purpose was served. [11] According to Wheeler, atthe accession of the Queen, there were not more than four shipsbelonging to the river Thames, excepting those of the Royal Navy, whichwere over 120 tons in burthen;[12] and after forty years, the whole ofthe merchant ships of England, over 100 tons, amounted to 135; only afew of these being of 500 tons. In 1588, the number had increased to150, "of about 150 tons one with another, employed in trading voyagesto all parts and countries. " The principal shipping which frequentedthe English ports still continued to be foreign--Italian, Flemish, andGerman. 

Liverpool, now possessing the largest shipping tonnage in the world, had not yet come into existence. It was little better than a fishingvillage. The people of the place presented a petition to the Queen, praying her to remit a subsidy which had been imposed upon them, andspeaking of their native place as "Her Majesty's poor decayed town ofLiverpool. " In 1565, seven years after Queen Elizabeth began to reign, the number of vessels belonging to Liverpool was only twelve. Thelargest was of forty tons burthen, with twelve men; and the smallestwas a boat of six tons, with three men. [13]

James I. , on his accession to the throne of England in 1603, called inall the ships of war, as well as the numerous privateers which had beenemployed during the previous reign in waging war against the commerceof Spain, and declared himself to be at peace with all the world. James was as peaceful as a Quaker. He was not a fighting King;--and, partly on this account, he was not popular. He encouraged manufacturesin wool, silk, and tapestry. He gave every encouragement to themercantile and colonizing adventurers to plant and improve the risingsettlements of Virginia, New England, and Newfoundland. He alsopromoted the trade to the East Indies. Attempts continued to be made, by Hudson, Poole, Button, Hall, Baffin, and other courageous seamen, todiscover the North-West passage, but always without effect. 

The shores of England being still much infested by Algerine and otherpirates, [14] King James found it necessary to maintain the ships of warin order to protect navigation and commerce. He nearly doubled theships of the Royal Navy, and increased the number from thirteen totwenty-four. Their size, however, continued small, both Royal andmerchant ships. Sir William Monson says, that at the accession ofJames I. There were not above four merchant ships in England of 400tons burthen. [15] The East Indian merchants were the first to increasethe size. In 1609, encouraged by their Charter, they built the Trade'sIncrease, of 1100 tons burthen, the largest merchant ship that had everbeen built in England. As it was necessary that, the crew of the shipshould be able to beat off the pirates, she was fully armed. Theadditional ships of war were also of heavier burthen. In the sameyear, the Prince, of 1400 tons burthen, was launched; she carriedsixty-four cannon, and was superior to any ship of the kind hithertoseen in England. 

And now we arrive at the subject of this memoir. The Petts were theprincipal ship-builders of the time. They had long been known upon theThames, and had held posts in the Royal Dockyards since the reign ofHenry VII. They were gallant sailors, too; one of them, as alreadymentioned, having made an adventurous voyage to the Arctic Ocean in hislittle bark, the George, of only 40 tons burthen. Phineas Pett was thefirst of the great ship-builders. His father, Peter Pett, was one ofthe Queen's master shipwrights. Besides being a ship-builder, he wasalso a poet, being the author of a poetical piece entitled, "Time'sJourney to seek his daughter Truth, "[16] a very respectableperformance. Indeed, poetry is by no means incompatible withship-building--the late Chief Constructor of the Navy being, perhaps, as proud of his poetry as of his ships. Pett's poem was dedicated tothe Lord High Admiral, Howard, Earl of Nottingham; and this maypossibly have been the reason of the singular interest which heafterwards took in Phineas Pett, the poet shipwright's son. 

Phineas Pett was the second son of his father. He was born atDeptford, or "Deptford Strond, " as the place used to be called, on the1st of November, 1570. At nine years old, he was sent to thefree-school at Rochester, and remained there for four years. Notprofiting much by his education there, his father removed him to aprivate school at Greenwich, kept by a Mr. Adams. Here he made so muchprogress, that in three years time he was ready for Cambridge. He wasaccordingly sent to that University at Shrovetide, 1586, and wasentered at Emmanuel College, under charge of Mr. Charles Chadwick, thepresident. His father allowed him 20L. Per annum, besides books, apparel, and other necessaries. 

Phineas remained at Cambridge for three years. He was obliged to quitthe University by the death of his "reverend, ever-loving father, "whose loss, he says, "proved afterwards my utter undoing almost, hadnot God been more merciful to me. " His mother married again, "a mostwicked husband, " says Pett in his autobiography, [17] "one, Mr. ThomasNunn, a minister, " but of what denomination he does not state. Hismother's imprudence wholly deprived him of his maintenance, and havingno hopes of preferment from his friends, he necessarily abandoned hisUniversity career, "presently after Christmas, 1590. "

Early in the following year, he was persuaded by his mother toapprentice himself to Mr. Richard Chapman, of Deptford Strond, one ofthe Queen's Master shipwrights, whom his late father had "bred up froma child to that profession. " He was allowed 2L. 6s. 8d. Per annum, with which he had to provide himself with tools and apparel. Pettspent two years in this man's service to very little purpose; Chapmanthen died, and the apprentice was dismissed. Pett applied to his elderbrother Joseph, who would not help him, although he had succeeded tohis father's post in the Royal Dockyard. He was accordingly"constrained to ship himself to sea upon a desperate voyage in aman-of-war. " He accepted the humble place of carpenter's mate on boardthe galleon Constance, of London. Pett's younger brother, Peter, thenliving at Wapping, gave him lodging, meat, and drink, until the shipwas ready to sail. But he had no money to buy clothes. Fortunately oneWilliam King, a yoeman in Essex, taking pity upon the unfortunate youngman, lent him 3L. For that purpose; which Pett afterwards repaid. 

The Constance was of only 200 tons burden. She set sail for the Southa few days before Christmas, 1592. There is no doubt that she wasbound upon a piratical adventure. Piracy was not thought dishonourablein those days. Four years had elapsed since the Armada had approachedthe English coast; and now the English and Dutch ships were scouringthe seas in search of Spanish galleons. 

Whoever had the means of furnishing a ship, and could find a pluckycaptain to command her, sent her out as a privateer. Even theCompanies of the City of London clubbed their means together for thepurpose of sending out Sir Waiter Raleigh to capture Spanish ships, andafterwards to divide the plunder; as any one may see on referring tothe documents of the London Corporation. [18]

The adventure in which Pett was concerned did not prove very fortunate. He was absent for about twenty months on the coasts of Spain andBarbary, and in the Levant, enduring much misery for want of victualsand apparel, and "without taking any purchase of any value. " TheConstance returned to the Irish coast, "extreme poorly. " The vesselentered Cork harbour, and then Pett, thoroughly disgusted withprivateering life, took leave of both ship and voyage. With muchdifficulty, he made his way across the country to Waterford, fromwhence he took ship for London. He arrived there three days beforeChristmas, 1594, in a beggarly condition, and made his way to hisbrother Peter's house at Wapping, who again kindly entertained him. The elder brother Joseph received him more coldly, though he lent himforty shillings to find himself in clothes. At that time, the fleetwas ordered to be got ready for the last expedition of Drake andHawkins to the West Indies. The Defiance was sent into Woolwich dockto be sheathed; and as Joseph Pett was in charge of the job, he allowedhis brother to be employed as a carpenter. 

In the following year, Phineas succeeded in attracting the notice ofMatthew Baker, who was commissioned to rebuild Her Majesty's Triumph. Baker employed Pett as an ordinary workman; but he had scarcely begunthe job before Baker was ordered to proceed with the building of agreat new ship at Deptford, called the Repulse. 

Phineas wished to follow the progress of the Triumph, but finding hisbrother Joseph unwilling to retain him in his employment, he followedBaker to Deptford, and continued to work at the Repulse until she wasfinished, launched, and set sail on her voyage, at the end of April, 1596. This was the leading ship of the squadron which set sail forCadiz, under the command of the Earl of Essex and the Lord AdmiralHoward, and which did so much damage to the forts and shipping ofPhilip II. Of Spain. 

During the winter months, while the work was in progress, Pett spentthe leisure of his evenings in perfecting himself in learning, especially in drawing, cyphering, and mathematics, for the purpose, ashe says, of attaining the knowledge of his profession. His master, Mr. Baker, gave him every encouragement, and from his assistance, he adds, "I must acknowledge I received my greatest lights. " The Lord Admiralwas often present at Baker's house. Pett was importuned to set sailwith the ship when finished, but he preferred remaining at home. Theprincipal reason, no doubt, that restrained him at this moment fromseeking the patronage of the great, was the care of his twosisters, [19] who, having fled from the house of their barbarousstepfather, could find no refuge but in that of their brother Phineas. Joseph refused to receive them, and Peter of Wapping was perhaps lessable than willing to do so. 

In April, 1597, Pett had the advantage of being introduced to Howard, Earl of Nottingham, then Lord High Admiral of England. This, he says, was the first beginning of his rising. Two years later, Howardrecommended him for employment in purveying plank and timber in Norfolkand Suffolk for shipbuilding purposes. Pett accomplished his businesssatisfactorily, though he had some malicious enemies to contendagainst. In his leisure, he began to prepare models of ships, which herigged and finished complete. He also proceeded with the study ofmathematics. The beginning of the year 1600 found Pett once more outof employment; and during his enforced idleness, which continued forsix months, he seriously contemplated abandoning his profession andattempting to gain "an honest and convenient maintenance" by joining afriend in purchasing a caravel (a small vessel), and navigating ithimself. 

He was, however, prevented from undertaking this enterprise by amessage which he received from the Court, then stationed at Greenwich. The Lord High Admiral desired to see him; and after many civilcompliments, he offered him the post of keeper of the plankyard atChatham. Pett was only too glad to accept this offer, though thesalary was small. He shipped his furniture on board a hoy of Rainham, and accompanied it down the Thames to the junction with the Medway. There he escaped a great danger--one of the sea perils of the time. The mouths of navigable rivers were still infested with pirates; and asthe hoy containing Pett approached the Nore about three o'clock in themorning, and while still dark, she came upon a Dunkirk picaroon, fullof men. Fortunately the pirate was at anchor; she weighed and gavechase, and had not the hoy set full sail, and been impelled up theSwale by a fresh wind, Pett would have been taken prisoner, with allhis furniture. [20]

Arrived at Chatham, Pett met his brother Joseph, became reconciled tohim, and ever after they lived together as loving brethren. At hisbrother's suggestion, Pett took a lease of the Manor House, and settledthere with his sisters. He was now in the direct way to preferment. Early in the following year (March, 1601) he succeeded to the place ofassistant to the principal master shipwright at Chatham, and undertookthe repairs of Her Majesty's ship The Lion's Whelp, and in the nextyear he new-built the Moon enlarging her both in length and breadth. 

At the accession of James I. In 1603, Pett was commanded by the LordHigh Admiral with all possible speed to build a little vessel for theyoung Prince Henry, eldest son of His Majesty. It was to be a sort ofcopy of the Ark Royal, which was the flagship of the Lord High Admiralwhen he defeated the Spanish Armada. Pett proceeded to accomplish theorder with all dispatch. The little ship was in length by the keel 28feet, in breadth 12 feet, and very curiously garnished within andwithout with painting and carving. After working by torch and candlelight, night and day, the ship was launched, and set sail for theThames, with the noise of drums, trumpets, and cannon, at the beginningof March, 1604. After passing through a great storm at the Nore, thevessel reached the Tower, where the King and the young Prince inspectedher with delight. She was christened Disdain by the Lord High Admiral, and Pett was appointed captain of the ship. 

After his return to Chatham, Pett, at his own charge, built a smallship at Gillingham, of 300 tons, which he launched in the same year, and named the Resistance. The ship was scarcely out of hand, when Pettwas ordered to Woolwich, to prepare the Bear and other vessels forconveying his patron, the Lord High Admiral, as an AmbassadorExtraordinary to Spain, for the purpose of concluding peace, after astrife of more than forty years. The Resistance was hired by theGovernment as a transport, and Pett was put in command. He seems tohave been married at this time, as he mentions in his memoir that heparted with his wife and children at Chatham on the 24th of March, 1605, and that he sailed from Queenborough on Easter Sunday. 

During the voyage to Lisbon the Resistance became separated from theAmbassador's squadron, and took refuge in Corunna. She then set sailfor Lisbon, which she reached on the 24th of April; and afterwards forSt. Lucar, on the Guadalquiver, near Seville, which she reached on the11th of May following. After revisiting Corunna, "according toinstructions, " on the homeward voyage, Pett directed his course forEngland, and reached Rye on the 26th of June, "amidst much rain, thunder, and lightning. " In the course of the same year, his brotherJoseph died, and Phineas succeeded to his post as master shipbuilder atChatham. He was permitted, in conjunction with one Henry Farvey andthree others, to receive the usual reward of 5s. Per ton for buildingfive new merchant ships, [21] most probably for East Indian commerce, now assuming large dimensions. He was despatched by the Government toBearwood, in Hampshire, to make a selection of timber from the estateof the Earl of Worcester for the use of the navy, and on presenting hisreport 3000 tons were purchased. What with his building of ships, hisattendance on the Lord Admiral to Spain, and his selection of timberfor the Government, his hands seem to have been kept very full duringthe whole of 1605. 

In July, 1606, Pett received private instructions from the Lord HighAdmiral to have all the King's ships "put into comely readiness" forthe reception of the King of Denmark, who was expected on a Royalvisit. "Wherein, " he says, "I strove extraordinarily to express myservice for the honour of the kingdom; but by reason the time limitedwas short, and the business great, we laboured night and day to effectit, which accordingly was done, to the great honour of our sovereignking and master, and no less admiration of all strangers that wereeye-witnesses to the same. " The reception took place on the 10th ofAugust, 1606. 

Shortly after the departure of His Majesty of Denmark, four of theRoyal ships--the Ark, Victory, Golden Lion, and Swiftsure--were orderedto be dry-docked; the two last mentioned at Deptford, under charge ofMatthew Baker; and the two former at Woolwich, under that of Pett. Forgreater convenience, Pett removed his family to Woolwich. After beingelected and sworn Master of the Company of Shipwrights, he refers inhis manuscript, for the first time, to his magnificent and originaldesign of the Prince Royal. [22]

"After settling at Woolwich, " he says, "I began a curious model for theprince my master, most part whereof I wrought with my own hands. "After finishing the model, he exhibited it to the Lord High Admiral, and, after receiving his approval and commands, he presented it to theyoung prince at Richmond. "His Majesty (who was present) wasexceedingly delighted with the sight of the model, and passed some timein questioning the divers material things concerning it, and demandedwhether I could build the great ship in all parts like the same; for Iwill, says His Majesty, compare them together when she shall befinished. Then the Lord Admiral commanded me to tell His Majesty thestory of the Three Ravens[23] I had seen at Lisbon, in St. Vincent'sChurch; which I did as well as I could, with my best expressions, though somewhat daunted at first at His Majesty's presence, havingnever before spoken before any King. "

Before, however, he could accomplish his purpose, Pett was overtaken bymisfortunes. His enemies, very likely seeing with spite the favourwith which he had been received by men in high position, stirred up anagitation against him. There may, and there very probably was, a greatdeal of jobbery going on in the dockyards. It was difficult, under thesystem which prevailed, to have any proper check upon the expenditurefor the repair and construction of ships. At all events, a commissionwas appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the abuses andmisdemeanors of those in office; and Pett's enemies took care that hispast proceedings should be thoroughly overhauled, --together with thoseof Sir Robert Mansell, then Treasurer to the Navy; Sir John Trevor, surveyor; Sir Henry Palmer, controller; Sir Thomas Bluther, victualler;and many others. 

While the commission was still sitting and holding what Pett callstheir "malicious proceedings, " he was able to lay the keel of his newgreat ship upon the stocks in the dock at Woolwich on the 20th ofOctober, 1608. He had a clear conscience, for his hands were clean. He went on vigorously with his work, though he knew that theinquisition against him was at its full height. His enemies reportedthat he was "no artist, and that he was altogether insufficient toperform such a service" as that of building his great ship. Nevertheless, he persevered, believing in the goodness of his cause. Eventually, he was enabled to turn the tables upon his accusers, and tocompletely justify himself in all his transactions with the king, theLord Admiral, and the public officers, who were privy to all histransactions. Indeed, the result of the enquiry was not only to causea great trouble and expense to all the persons accused, but, as Pettsays in his Memoir, "the Government itself of that royal office was soshaken and disjoined as brought almost ruin upon the whole Navy, and afar greater charge to his Majesty in his yearly expense than ever wasknown before. "[24]

In the midst of his troubles and anxieties, Pett was unexpectedlycheered with the presence of his "Master" Prince Henry, who speciallytravelled out of his way from Essex to visit him at Woolwich, to seewith his own eyes what progress he was making with the great ship. After viewing the dry dock, which had been constructed by Pett, and wasone of the first, if not the very first in England, --his Highnesspartook of a banquet which the shipbuilder had hastily prepared for himin his temporary lodgings. 

One of the circumstances which troubled Pett so much at this time, wasthe strenuous opposition of the other shipbuilders to his plans of thegreat ship. There never had been such a frightful innovation. Themodel was all wrong. The lines were detestable. The man who plannedthe whole thing was a fool, a "cozener" of the king, and the ship, suppose it to be made, was "unfit for any other use but a dung-boat!"This attack upon his professional character weighed very heavily uponhis mind. 

He determined to put his case in a staightforward manner before theLord High Admiral. He set down in writing in the briefest mannereverything that he had done, and the plots that had been hatchedagainst him; and beseeched his lordship, for the honour of the State, and the reputation of his office, to cause the entire matter to bethoroughly investigated "by judicious and impartial persons. " After aconference with Pett, and an interview with his Majesty, the Lord HighAdmiral was authorised by the latter to invite the Earls of Worcesterand Suffolk to attend with him at Woolwich, and bring all the accusersof Pett's design of the great ship before them for the purpose ofexamination, and to report to him as to the actual state of affairs. Meanwhile Pett's enemies had been equally busy. They obtained aprivate warrant from the Earl of Northampton[25] to survey the work;"which being done, " says Pett, "upon return of the insufficiency of thesame under their hands, and confirmation by oath, it was resolvedamongst them I should be turned out, and for ever disgraced. "

But the lords appointed by the King now interfered between Pett and hisadversaries. They first inspected the ship, and made a diligent surveyof the form and manner of the work and the goodness of the materials, and then called all the accusers before them to hear their allegations. They were examined separately. First, Baker the master shipbuilder wascalled. He objected to the size of the ship, to the length, breadth, depth, draught of water, height of jack, rake before and aft, breadthof the floor, scantling of the timber, and so on. Then another of theobjectors was called; and his evidence was so clearly in contradictionto that which had already been given, that either one or both must bewrong. The principal objector, Captain Waymouth, next gave hisevidence; but he was able to say nothing to any purpose, except givingtheir lordships "a long, tedious discourse of proportions, measures, lines, and an infinite rabble of idle and unprofitable speeches, cleanfrom the matter. "

The result was that their lordships reported favourably of the designof the ship, and the progress which had already been made. 

The Earl of Nottingham interposed his influence; and the King himself, accompanied by the young Prince, went down to Woolwich, and made apersonal examination. [26] A great many witnesses were again examined, twenty-four on one side, and twenty-seven on the other. The King thencarefully examined the ship himself: "the planks, the tree-nails, theworkmanship, and the cross-grained timber. " "The cross-grain, " heconcluded, "was in the men and not in the timber. " After all themeasurements had been made and found correct, "his Majesty, " says Pett, "with a loud voice commanded the measurers to declare publicly the verytruth; which when they had delivered clearly on our side, all the wholemultitude heaved up their hats, and gave a great and loud shout andacclamation. And then the Prince, his Highness, called with a highvoice in these words: 'Where be now these perjured fellows that darethus abuse his Majesty with these false accusations? Do they notworthily deserve hanging?"'

Thus Pett triumphed over all his enemies, and was allowed to finish thegreat ship in his own way. By the middle of September 1610, the vesselwas ready to be "strucken down upon her ways"; and a dozen of thechoice master carpenters of his Majesty's navy came from Chatham toassist in launching her. The ship was decorated, gilded, draped, andgarlanded; and on the 24th the King, the Queen, and the Royal familycame from the palace at Theobald's to witness the great sight. Unfortunately, the day proved very rough; and it was little better thana neap tide. The ship started very well, but the wind "overblew thetide"; she caught in the dock-gates, and settled hard upon the ground, so that there was no possibility of launching her that day. 

This was a great disappointment. The King retired to the palace atGreenwich, though the Prince lingered behind. When he left, hepromised to return by midnight, after which it was proposed to makeanother effort to set the ship afloat. When the time arrived, thePrince again made his appearance, and joined the Lord High Admiral, andthe principal naval officials. It was bright moonshine. Aftermidnight the rain began to fall, and the wind to blow from thesouthwest. But about two o'clock, an hour before high water, the wordwas given to set all taut, and the ship went away without any strainingof screws and tackles, till she came clear afloat into the midst of theThames. The Prince was aboard, and amidst the blast of trumpets andexpressions of joy, he performed the ceremony of drinking from thegreat standing cup, and throwing the rest of the wine towards thehalf-deck, and christening the ship by the name of the Prince Royal. [27]

The dimensions of the ship may be briefly described. Her keel was 114feet long, and her cross-beam 44 feet. She was of 1400 tons burthen, and carried 64 pieces of great ordnance. She was the largest ship thathad yet been constructed in England. 

The Prince Royal was, at the time she was built, considered one of themost wonderful efforts of human genius. Mr. Charnock, in his 'Treatiseon Marine Architecture, ' speaks of her as abounding in strikingpeculiarities. Previous to the construction of this ship, vessels werebuilt in the style of the Venetian galley, which although well adaptedfor the quiet Mediterranean, were not suited for the stormy northernocean. The fighting ships also of the time of Henry VIII. AndElizabeth were too full of "top-hamper" for modern navigation. Theywere oppressed by high forecastles and poops. Pett struck out entirelynew ideas in the build and lines of his new ship; and the course whichhe adopted had its effect upon all future marine structures. The shipwas more handy, more wieldy, and more convenient. She wasunquestionably the first effort of English ingenuity in the directionof manageableness and simplicity. "The vessel in question, " saysCharnock, "may be considered the parent of the class of shipping whichcontinues in practice even to the present moment. "

It is scarcely necessary to pursue in detail the further history ofPhineas Pett. We may briefly mention the principal points. In 1612, the Prince Royal was appointed to convey the Princess Elizabeth and herhusband, The Palsgrave, to the Continent. Pett was on board the ship, and found that "it wrought exceedingly well, and was so yare of conductthat a foot of helm would steer her. " While at Flushing, "such amultitude of people, men, women, and children, came from all places inHolland to see the ship, that we could scarce have room to go up anddown till very night. "

About the 27th of March, 1616, Pett bargained with Sir Waiter Raleighto build a vessel of 500 tons, [28] and received 500L. From him onaccount. The King, through the interposition of the Lord Admiral, allowed Pett to lay her keel on the galley dock at Woolwich. In thesame year he was commissioned by the Lord Zouche, now Lord Warden ofthe Cinque Ports, to construct a pinnace of 40 tons, in respect ofwhich Pett remarks, "towards the whole of the hull of the pinnace, andall her rigging, I received only 100L. From the Lord Zouche, the restSir Henry Mainwaring (half-brother to Raleigh) cunningly received on mybehalf, without my knowledge, which I never got from him but bypiecemeal, so that by the bargain I was loser 100L. At least. "

Pett fared much worse at the hands of Raleigh himself. His great ship, the Destiny, was finished and launched in December, 1616. "I deliveredher to him, " says Pett, "on float, in good order and fashion; by whichbusiness I lost 700L. , and could never get any recompense at all forit; Sir Walter going to sea and leaving me unsatisfied. "[29] Nor wasthis the only loss that Pett met with this year. The King, he states, "bestowed upon me for the supply of my present relief the making of aknight-baronet, " which authority Pett passed to a recusant, one FrancisRatcliffe, for 700L. ; but that worthy defrauded him, so that he lost30L. By the bargain. 

Next year, Pett was despatched by the Government to the New Forest inHampshire, "where, " he says, "one Sir Giles Mompesson[30] had made avast waste in the spoil of his Majesty's timber, to redress which I wasemployed thither, to make choice out of the number of trees he hadfelled of all such timber as was useful for shipping, in which businessI spent a great deal of time, and brought myself into a great deal oftrouble. " About this period, poor Pett's wife and two of his childrenlay for some time at death's door. Then more enquiries took place intothe abuses of the dockyards, in which it was sought to implicate Pett. During the next three years (1618-20) he worked under the immediateorders of the Commissioners in the New Dock at Chatham. 

In 1620, Pett's friend Sir Robert Mansell was appointed General of theFleet destined to chastise the Algerine pirates, who still continuedtheir depredations on the shipping in the Channel, and the Kingthereupon commissioned Pett to build with all dispatch two pinnaces, of120 and 80 tons respectively. "I was myself, " he says, "to serve asCaptain in the voyage"--being glad, no doubt, to escape from histormentors. The two pinnaces were built at Ratcliffe, and werelaunched on the 16th and 18th of October, 1620. On the 30th, Pettsailed with the fleet, and after driving the pirates out of theChannel, he returned to port after an absence of eleven months. 

His enemies had taken advantage of his absence from England to get anorder for the survey of the Prince Royal, his masterpiece; the resultof which was, he says, that "they maliciously certified the ship to beunserviceable, and not fit to continue--that what charges should bebestowed upon her would be lost. " Nevertheless, the Prince Royal wasdocked, and fitted for a voyage to Spain. She was sent thither withCharles Prince of Wales and the Duke of Buckingham, the former going insearch of a Spanish wife. Pett, the builder of the ship, was commandedto accompany the young Prince and the Duke. 

The expedition sailed on the 24th of August, 1623, and returned on the14th of October. Pett was entertained on board the Prince Royal, andrendered occasional services to the officers in command, though nothingof importance occurred during the voyage. 

The Prince of Wales presented him with a valuable gold chain as areward for his attendance. In 1625, Pett, after rendering manyimportant services to the Admiralty, was ordered again to prepare thePrince Royal for sea. She was to bring over the Prince of Wales'sbride from France. While the preparations were making for the voyage, news reached Chatham of the death of King James. Pett was afterwardscommanded to go forward with the work of preparing the Prince Royal, aswell as the whole fleet, which was intended to escort the FrenchPrincess, or rather the Queen, to England. The expedition took placein May, and the young Queen landed at Dover on the 12th of that month. 

Pett continued to be employed in building and repairing ships, as wellas in preparing new designs, which he submitted to the King and theCommissioners of the Navy. In 1626, he was appointed a jointcommissioner, with the Lord High Admiral, the Lord TreasurerMarlborough, and others, "to enquire into certain alleged abuses of theNavy, and to view the state thereof, and also the stores thereof, "clearly showing that he was regaining his old position. He was alsoengaged in determining the best mode of measuring the tonnage ofships. [31] Four years later he was again appointed a commissioner formaking "a general survey of the whole navy at Chatham. " For this andhis other services the King promoted Pett to be a principal officer ofthe Navy, with a fee of 200L. Per annum. His patent was sealed on the16th of January, 1631. In the same year the King visited Woolwich towitness the launching of the Vanguard, which Pett had built; and hisMajesty honoured the shipwright by participating in a banquet at hislodgings. 

From this period to the year 1637, Pett records nothing of particularimportance in his autobiography. He was chiefly occupied in aiding hisson Peter--who was rapidly increasing his fame as a shipwright--inrepairing and building first-class ships of war. As Pett had, on anearly occasion in his life, prepared a miniature ship for Prince Henry, eldest son of James I. , he now proceeded to prepare a similar model forthe Prince of Wales, the King's eldest son, afterwards Charles II. This model was presented to the Prince at St. James's, "who entertainedit with great joy, being purposely made to disport himself withal. " Onthe next visit of his Majesty to Woolwich, he inspected the progressmade with the Leopard, a sloop-of-war built by Peter Pett. While inthe hold of the vessel, the King called Phineas to one side, and toldhim of his resolution to have a great new ship built, and that Phineasmust be the builder. This great new ship was The Sovereign of theSeas, afterwards built by Phineas and Peter Pett. Some say that themodel was prepared by the latter; but Phineas says that it was preparedby himself, and finished by the 29th of October, 1634. As acompensation for his services, his Majesty renewed his pension of 40L. (which had been previously stopped), with orders for all the arrearsdue upon it to be paid. 

To provide the necessary timber for the new ship, Phineas and his sonwent down into the North to survey the forests. They went first bywater to Whitby; from thence they proceeded on horseback to Gisboroughand baited; then to Stockton, where they found but poor entertainment, though they lodged with the Mayor, whose house "was only a meanthatched cottage!" Middlesborough and the great iron district of theNorth had not yet come into existence. 

Newcastle, already of some importance, was the principal scene of theirlabours. The timber for the new ship was found in Chapley Wood andBracepeth Park. The gentry did all they could to facilitate the objectof Pett. On his journey homewards (July, 1635), he took Cambridge onhis way, where, says he, "I lodged at the Falcon, and visited EmmanuelCollege, where I had been a scholar in my youth. "

The Sovereign of the Seas was launched on the 12th of October, 1637, having been about two years in building. Evelyn in his diary says ofthe ship (19th July, 1641):--"We rode to Rochester and Chatham to seethe Soveraigne, a monstrous vessel so called, being for burthen, defence, and ornament, the richest that ever spread cloth before thewind. She carried 100 brass cannon, and was 1600 tons, a rare sailer, the work of the famous Phineas Pett. " Rear-Admiral Sir William Symondssays that she was afterwards cut down, and was a safe and fast ship. [32]

The Sovereign continued for nearly sixty years to be the finest ship inthe English service. Though frequently engaged in the most injuriousoccupations, she continued fit for any services which the exigencies ofthe State might require. She fought all through the wars of theCommonwealth; she was the leading ship of Admiral Blake, and was in allthe great naval engagements with France and Holland. The Dutch gaveher the name of The Golden Devil. In the last fight between theEnglish and French, she encountered the Wonder of the World, and sowarmly plied the French Admiral, that she forced him out of histhree-decked wooden castle, and chasing the Royal Sun, before her, forced her to fly for shelter among the rocks, where she became a preyto lesser vessels, and was reduced to ashes. At last, in the reign ofWilliam III. , the Sovereign became leaky and defective with age; shewas laid up at Chatham, and being set on fire by negligence oraccident, she burnt to the water's edge. 

To return to the history of Phineas Pett. As years approached, heretired from office, and "his loving son, " as he always affectionatelydesignates Peter, succeeded him as principal shipwright, Charles I. Conferring upon him the honour of knighthood. Phineas lived for tenyears after the Sovereign of the Seas was launched. In the burialregister of the parish of Chatham it is recorded, "Phineas Pett, Esqe. And Capt. , was buried 21st August, 1647. "[33]

Sir Peter Pett was almost as distinguished as his father. He was thebuilder of the first frigate, The Constant Warwick. Sir WilliamSymonds says of this vessel:--"She was an incomparable sailer, remarkable for her sharpness and the fineness of her lines; and manywere built like her. " Pett "introduced convex lines on the immersedpart of the hull, with the studding and sprit sails; and, in short, heappears to have fully deserved his character of being the best shiparchitect of his time. "[34] Sir Peter Pett's monument in Deptford OldChurch fully records his services to England's naval power. 

The Petts are said to have been connected with shipbuilding in theThames for not less than 200 years. Fuller, in his 'Worthies ofEngland, ' says of them--"I am credibly informed that that mystery ofshipwrights for some descents hath been preserved faithfully infamilies, of whom the Petts about Chatham are of singular regard. Goodsuccess have they with their skill, and carefully keep so precious apearl, lest otherwise amongst many friends some foes attain unto it. "

The late Peter Bolt, member for Greenwich, took pride in beingdescended from the Petts; but so far as we know, the name itself hasdied out. In 1801, when Charnock's 'History of Marine Architecture'was published, Mr. Pett, of Tovil, near Maidstone, was the solerepresentative of the family. 

Footnotes for Chapter I. 

[1] This was not the first voyage of a steamer between England andAmerica. The Savannah made the passage from New York to Liverpool asearly as 1819; but steam was only used occasionally during the voyage, In 1825, the Enterprise, with engines by Maudslay, made the voyage fromFalmouth to Calcutta in 113 days; and in 1828, the Curacoa made thevoyage between Holland and the Dutch West Indies. But in all thesecases, steam was used as an auxiliary, and not as the one essentialmeans of propulsion, as in the case of the Sirius and the GreatWestern, which were steam voyages only. 

[2] "In 1862 the steam tonnage of the country was 537, 000 tons; in1872, it was 1, 537, 000 tons; and in 1882, it had reached 3, 835, 000tons. "--Mr. Chamberlain's speech, House of Commons, 19th May, 1884. 

[3] The last visit of the plague was in 1665. 

[4] Roll of Edward the Third's Fleet. Cotton's Library, British Museum. 

[5] Charnock's History Of Marine Architecture, ii. 89. 

[6] State Papers. Henry VIII. Nos. 3496, 3616, 4633. The principalkinds of ordnance at that time were these:--The "Apostles, " so calledfrom the head of an Apostle which they bore; "Curtows, " or "Courtaulx";"Culverins" and "Serpents"; "Minions, " and "Potguns"; "Nurembergers, "and "Bombards" or mortars. 

[7] The sum of all costs of the Harry Grace de Dieu and three smallgalleys, was 7708L. 5s. 3d. (S. P. O. No. 5228, Henry VIII. )

[8] Charnock, ii. 47 (note). 

[9] Macpherson, Annals of Commerce, ii. 126. 

[10] The Huguenots: their Settlements, Churches, and Industries, inEngland and Ireland, ch. Iv. 

[11] Macpherson, Annals of Commerce, ii. 156. 

[12] Ibid. Ii. 85. 

[13] Picton's Selections from the Municipal Archives and Records ofLiverpool, p. 90. About a hundred years later, in 1757, the grosscustoms receipts of Liverpool had increased to 198, 946L. ; whilst thoseof Bristol were as much as 351, 211L. In 1883, the amount of tonnage ofLiverpool, inwards and outwards, was 8, 527, 531 tons, and the total dockrevenue for the year was 1, 273, 752L. !

[14] There were not only Algerine but English pirates scouring theseas. Keutzner, the German, who wrote in Elizabeth's reign, said, "TheEnglish are good sailors and famous pirates (sunt boni nautae etinsignis pyratae). " Roberts, in his Social History of the SouthernCounties (p. 93), observes, "Elizabeth had employed many English asprivateers against the Spaniard. After the war, many were loth to leadan inactive life. They had their commissions revoked, and wereproclaimed pirates. The public looked upon them as gallant fellows;the merchants gave them underhand support; and even the authorities inmaritime towns connived at the sale of their plunder. In spite ofproclamations, during the first five years after the accession of JamesI. , there were continual complaints. This lawless way of life evenbecame popular. Many Englishmen furnished themselves with good shipsand scoured the seas, but little careful whom they might plunder. " Itwas found very difficult to put down piracy. According to Oliver'sHistory of the city of Exeter, not less than "fifteen sail of Turks"held the English Channel, snapping up merchantmen, in the middle of theseventeenth century! The harbours in the south-west were infested byMoslem pirates, who attacked and plundered the ships, and carried theircrews into captivity. The loss, even to an inland port like Exeter, inships, money, and men, was enormous. 

[15] Naval Tracts, p. 294. 

[16] This poem is now very rare. It is not in the British Museum. 

[17] There are three copies extant of the autobiography, all of whichare in the British Museum. In the main, they differ but slightly fromeach other. Not one of them has been published in extenso. InDecember, 1795, and in February, 1796, Dr. Samuel Denne communicated tothe Society of Antiquaries particulars of two of these MSS. , andsubsequently published copious extracts from them in their transactions(Archae. Xii. Anno 1796), in a very irregular and careless manner. Itis probable that Dr. Denne never saw the original manuscript, but onlya garbled copy of it. The above narrative has been taken from theoriginal, and collated with the documents in the State Paper Office. 

[18] See, for instance, the Index to the Journals of Records of theCorporation of the City of London (No. 2, p. 346, 15901694) under thehead of "Sir Walter Raleigh. " There is a document dated the 15thNovember, 1593, in the 35th of Elizabeth, which runs asfollows:--"Committee appointed on behalf of such of the City Companiesas have ventured in the late Fleet set forward by Sir Walter Raleigh, Knight, and others, to join with such honourable personages as theQueen hath appointed, to take a perfect view of all such goods, prizes, spices, jewels, pearls, treasures, &c. , lately taken in the Carrack, and to make sale and division (Jor. 23, p. 156). Suit to be made tothe Queen and Privy Council for the buying of the goods, &c. , latelytaken at sea in the Carrack; a committee appointed to take orderaccordingly; the benefit or loss arising thereon to be divided andborne between the Chamber [of the Corporation of the City] and theCompanies that adventured (157). The several Companies that adventuredat sea with Sir Waiter Raleigh to accept so much of the goods taken inthe Carrack to the value of 12, 000L. According to the Queen's offer. Acommittee appointed to acquaint the Lords of the Council with theCity's acceptance thereof (167). Committee for sale of the Carrackgoods appointed (174). Bonds for sale to be sealed (196).... Committee to audit accounts of a former adventure (224 b. ). "

[19] There were three sisters in all, the eldest of whom (Abigail) fella victim to the cruelty of Nunn, who struck her across the head withthe fire-tongs, from the effects of which she died in three days. Nunnwas tried and convicted of manslaughter. He died shortly after. Mrs. Nunn, Phineas's mother, was already dead. 

[20] It would seem, from a paper hereafter to be more particularlyreferred to, that the government encouraged the owners of ships andothers to clear the seas of these pirates, agreeing to pay them fortheir labours. In 1622, Pett fitted out an expedition against thesepests of navigation, but experienced some difficulty in getting hisexpenses repaid. 

[21] See grant S. P. O. , 29th May, 1605. 

[22] An engraving of this remarkable ship is given in Charnock'sHistory of Marine Architecture, ii. P. 199. 

[23] The story of the Three, or rather Two Ravens, is as follows:--Thebody of St. Vincent was originally deposited at the Cape, which stillbears his name, on the Portuguese coast; and his tomb, says the legend, was zealously guarded by a couple of ravens. When it was determined, in the 12th century, to transport the relics of the Saint to theCathedral of Lisbon, the two ravens accompanied the ship whichcontained them, one at its stem and the other at its stern. The relicswere deposited in the Chapel of St. Vincent, within the Cathedral, andthere the two ravens have ever since remained. The monks continued tosupport two such birds in the cloisters, and till very lately theofficials gravely informed the visitor to the Cathedral that they werethe identical ravens which accompanied the Saint's relics to theircity. The birds figure in the arms of Lisbon. 

[24] The evidence taken by the Commissioners is embodied in avoluminous report. State Paper Office, Dom. James I. , vol. Xli. 1608. 

[25] The Earl of Northampton, Privy Seal, was Lord Warden of the CinquePorts; hence his moving in the matter. Pett says he was his "mostimplacable enemy. " It is probable that the earl was jealous of Pett, because he had received his commission to build the great ship directlyfrom the sovereign, without the intervention of his lordship. 

[26] This Royal investigation took place at Woolwich on the 8th May, 1609. The State Paper Office contains a report of the same date, mostprobably the one presented to the King, signed by six ship-builders andCaptain Waymouth, and counter signed by Northampton and four others. The Report is headed "The Prince Royal: imperfections found upon viewof the new work begun at Woolwich. " It would occupy too much space togive the results here. 

[27] Alas! for the uncertainties of life! This noble young prince--thehope of England and the joy of his parents, from whom such great thingswere anticipated--for he was graceful, frank, brave, active, and alover of the sea, --was seized with a serious illness, and died in hiseighteenth year, on the 16th November, 1612. 

[28] Pett says she was to be 500 tons, but when he turned her out herburthen was rated at 700 tons. 

[29] This conduct of Raleigh's was the more inexcusable, as there is inthe State Paper Office a warrant dated 16th Nov. , 1617, for the paymentto Pett of 700 crowns "for building the new ship, the Destiny ofLondon, of 700 tons burthen. " The least he could have done was to havehanded over to the builder his royal and usual reward. In the abovewarrant, by the way, the title "our well-beloved subject, " the ordinaryprefix to such grants, has either been left blank or erased (it isdifficult to say which), but was very significant of the slipperyfooting of Raleigh at Court. 

[30] Sir Giles Overreach, in the play of "A new way to pay old debts, "by Philip Massinger. It was difficult for the poet, or any otherperson, to libel such a personage as Mompesson. 

[31] Pett's method is described in a paper contained in the S. P. O. , dated 21st Oct. , 1626. The Trinity Corporation adopted his method. 

[32] Memoirs of the Life and Services of Rear-Admiral Sir WilliamSymonds, Kt. , p. 94. 

[33] Pett's dwelling-house at Rochester is thus described in ananonymous history of that town (p. 337, ed. 1817):--"Beyond theVictualling Office, on the same side of the High Street, at Rochester, is an old mansion, now occupied by a Mr. Morson, an attorney, whichformerly belonged to the Petts, the celebrated ship-builders. Thechimney-piece in the principal room is of wood, curiously carved, theupper part being divided into compartments by caryatydes. The centralcompartment contains the family arms, viz. , Or, on a fesse, gu. , between three pellets, a lion passant gardant of the field. On theback of the grate is a cast of Neptune, standing erect in his car, withTriton blowing conches, &c. , and the date 1650. "

[34] Symonds, Memoirs of Life and Services, 94. 

CHAPTER II. 

FRANCIS PETTIT SMITH: PRACTICAL INTRODUCER OF THE SCREW PROPELLER. 

"The spirit of Paley's maxim that 'he alone discovers who proves, ' isapplicable to the history of inventions and discoveries; for certainlyhe alone invents to any good purpose, who satisfies the world that themeans he may have devised have been found competent to the endproposed. "--Dr. Samuel Brown. 

"Too often the real worker and discoverer remains unknown, and aninvention, beautiful but useless in one age or country, can be appliedonly in a remote generation, or in a distant land. Mankind hangstogether from generation to generation; easy labour is but inheritedskill; great discoveries and inventions are worked up to by the effortsof myriads ere the goal is reached. "--H. M. Hyndman. 

Though a long period elapsed between the times of Phineas Pett and"Screw" Smith, comparatively little improvement had been effected inthe art of shipbuilding. The Sovereign of the Seas had not beenexcelled by any ship of war built down to the end of last century. [1]At a comparatively recent date, ships continued to be built of timberand plank, and impelled by sails and oars, as they had been forthousands of years before. 

But this century has witnessed many marvellous changes. A new materialof construction has been introduced into shipbuilding, with entirelynew methods of propulsion. Old things have been displaced by new; andthe magnitude of the results has been extraordinary. The mostimportant changes have been in the use of iron and steel instead ofwood, and in the employment of the steam-engine in impelling ships bythe paddle or the screw. 

So long as timber was used for the construction of ships, the number ofvessels built annually, especially in so small an island as Britain, must necessarily have continued very limited. Indeed, so little had thecultivation of oak in Great Britain been attended to, that all theroyal forests could not have supplied sufficient timber to build oneline-of-battle ship annually; while for the mercantile marine, theworld had to be ransacked for wood, often of a very inferior quality. 

Take, for instance, the seventy-eight gun ship, the Hindostan, launcheda few years ago. It would have required 4200 loads of timber to builda ship of that description, and the growth of the timber would haveoccupied seventy acres of ground during eighty years. [2] It would haveneeded something like 800, 000 acres of land on which to grow the timberfor the ships annually built in this country for commercial purposes. And timber ships are by no means lasting. The average durability ofships of war employed in active service, has been calculated to beabout thirteen years, even when built of British oak. 

Indeed, years ago, the building of shipping in this country was muchhindered by the want of materials. 

The trade was being rapidly transferred to Canada and the UnitedStates. Some years since, an American captain said to an Englishman, Captain Hall, when in China, "You will soon have to come to our countryfor your ships: your little island cannot grow wood enough for a largemarine. " "Oh!" said the Englishman, "we can build ships of iron!""Iron?" replied the American in surprise, "why, iron sinks; only woodcan float!" "Well! you will find I am right. " The prophecy wascorrect. The Englishman in question has now a fleet of splendid ironsteamers at sea. 

The use of iron in shipbuilding had small beginnings, like everythingelse. The established prejudice--that iron must necessarily sink inwater--long continued to prevail against its employment. The firstiron vessel was built and launched about a hundred years since by JohnWilkinson, of Bradley Forge, in Staffordshire. In a letter of his, dated the 14th July, 1787, the original of which we have seen, hewrites: "Yesterday week my iron boat was launched. It answers all myexpectations, and has convinced the unbelievers, who were 999 in 1000. It will be only a nine days' wonder, and afterwards a Columbus's egg. "It was, however, more than a nine days' wonder; for wood long continuedto be thought the only material capable of floating. 

Although Wilkinson's iron vessels continued to ply upon the Severn, more than twenty years elapsed before another shipbuilder ventured tofollow his example. But in 1810, Onions and Son, of Brosely, builtseveral iron vessels, also for use upon the Severn. Then, in 1815, Mr. Jervons, of Liverpool, built a small iron boat for use on the Mersey. Six years later, in 1821, Mr. Aaron Manby designed an iron steamvessel, which was built at the Horsley Company's Works, inStaffordshire. She sailed from London to Havre a few years later, under the command of Captain (afterwards Sir Charles) Napier, RN. Shewas freighted with a cargo of linseed and iron castings, and went upthe Seine to Paris. It was some time, however, before iron came intogeneral use. Ten years later, in 1832, Maudslay and Field built fouriron vessels for the East India Company. In the course of about twentyyears, the use of iron became general, not only for ships of war, butfor merchant ships plying to all parts of the world. 

When ships began to be built of iron, it was found that they could beincreased without limit, so long as coal, iron, machinery, and strongmen full of skill and industry, were procurable. The trade inshipbuilding returned to Britain, where iron ships are now made andexported in large numbers; the mercantile marine of this countryexceeding in amount and tonnage that of all the other countries of theworld put together. The "wooden walls"[3] of England exist no more, for iron has superseded wood. Instead of constructing vessels from theforest, we are now digging new navies out of the bowels of the earth, and our "walls, " instead of wood, are now of iron and steel. 

The attempt to propel ships by other means than sails and oars went onfrom century to century, and did not succeed until almost within ourown time. It is said that the Roman army under Claudius Codex wastransported into Sicily in boats propelled by wheels moved by oxen. Galleys, propelled by wheels in paddles, were afterwards attempted. The Harleian MS. Contains an Italian book of sketches, attributed tothe 15th century, in which there appears a drawing of a paddle-boat, evidently intended to be worked by men. Paddle-boats, worked byhorse-power, were also tried. Blasco Garay made a supreme effort atBarcelona in 1543. His vessel was propelled by a paddle-wheel on eachside, worked by forty men. But nothing came of the experiment. 

Many other efforts of a similar kind were made, --by Savery amongothers, [4]--until we come down to Patrick Miller, of Dalswinton, who, in 1787, invented a double-hulled boat, which he caused to be propelledon the Firth of Forth by men working a capstan which drove the paddleson each side. The men soon became exhausted, and on Miller mentioningthe subject to William Symington, who was then exhibiting his roadlocomotive in Edinburgh, Symington at once said, "Why don't you employsteam-power?"

There were many speculations in early times as to the application ofsteam-power for propelling vessels through the water. David Ramsay in1618, Dr. Grant in 1632, the Marquis of Worcester in 1661, were amongthe first in England to publish their views upon the subject. But itis probable that Denis Papin, the banished Hugnenot physician, for sometime Curator of the Royal Society, was the first who made a modelsteam-boat. Daring his residence in England, he was elected Professorof Mathematics in the University of Marburg. It was while at that citythat he constructed, in 1707, a small steam-engine, which he fitted ina boat--une petite machine d'un, vaisseau a roues--and despatched it toEngland for the purpose of being tried upon the Thames. The littlevessel never reached England. At Munden, the boatmen on the RiverWeser, thinking that, if successful, it would destroy their occupation, seized the boat, with its machine, and barbarously destroyed it. Papindid not repeat his experiment, and died a few years later. 

The next inventor was Jonathan Hulls, of Campden, in Gloucestershire. He patented a steamboat in 1736, and worked the paddle-wheel placed atthe stern of the vessel by means of a Newcomen engine. He tried hisboat on the River Avon, at Evesham, but it did not succeed, and theengine was taken on shore again. A local poet commemorated his failurein the following lines, which were remembered long after his steamboatexperiment had been forgotten:--

 "Jonathan Hull, With his paper skull, Tried hard to make a machine That should go against wind and tide; But he, like an ass, Couldn't bring it to pass, So at last was ashamed to be seen. "

Nothing of importance was done in the direction of a steam-engine ableto drive paddles, until the invention by James Watt, in 1769, of hisdouble-acting engine--the first step by which steam was renderedcapable of being successfully used to impel a vessel. But Watt wasindifferent to taking up the subject of steam navigation, as well as ofsteam locomotion. He refused many invitations to make steam-enginesfor the propulsion of ships, preferring to confine himself to his"regular established trade and manufacture, " that of making condensingsteam-engines, which had become of great importance towards the closeof his life. 

Two records exist of paddle-wheel steamboats having been early tried inFrance--one by the Comte d'Auxiron and M. Perrier in 1774, the other bythe Comte de Jouffroy in 1783--but the notices of their experiments arevery vague, and rest on somewhat doubtful authority. 

The idea, however, had been born, and was not allowed to die. When Mr. Miller of Dalswinton had revived the notion of propelling vessels bymeans of paddle-wheels, worked, as Savery had before worked them, bymeans of a capstan placed in the centre of the vessel, and when hecomplained to Symington of the fatigue caused to the men by working thecapstan, and Symington had suggested the use of steam, Mr. Miller wasimpressed by the idea, and proceeded to order a steam-engine for thepurpose of trying the experiment. The boat was built at Edinburgh, andremoved to Dalswinton Lake. It was there fitted with Symington'ssteam-engine, and first tried with success on the 14th of October, 1788, as has been related at length in Mr. Nasmyth's 'Autobiography. 'The experiment was repeated with even greater success in the charlotteDundas in 1801, which was used to tow vessels along the Forth and ClydeCanal, and to bring ships up the Firth of Forth to the canal entranceat Grangemouth. 

The progress of steam navigation was nevertheless very slow. Symington's experiments were not renewed. The Charlotte Dundas waswithdrawn from use, because of the supposed injury to the banks of theCanal, caused by the swell from the wheel. The steamboat was laid upin a creek at Bainsford, where it went to ruin, and the inventorhimself died in poverty. Among those who inspected the vessel while atwork were Fulton, the American artist, and Henry Bell, the Glasgowengineer. The former had already occupied himself with modelsteamboats, both at Paris and in London; and in 1805 he obtained fromBoulton and Watt, of Birmingham, the steam-engine required forpropelling his paddle steamboat on the Hudson. The Clermont was firststarted in August, 1807, and attained a speed of nearly five miles anhour. Five years later, Henry Bell constructed and tried his firststeamer on the Clyde. 

It was not until 1815 that the first steamboat was seen on the Thames. This was the Richmond packet, which plied between London and Richmond. The vessel was fitted with the first marine engine Henry Maudslay evermade. During the same year, the Margery, formerly employed on theFirth of Forth, began plying between Gravesend and London; and theThames, formerly the Argyll, came round from the Clyde, encounteringrough seas, and making the voyage of 758 miles in five days and twohours. This was thought extraordinarily rapid--though the voyage ofabout 3000 miles, from Liverpool to New York, can now be made in onlyabout two days' more time. 

In nearly all seagoing vessels, the Paddle has now almost entirelygiven place to the Screw. It was long before this invention wasperfected and brought into general use. It was not the production ofone man, but of several generations of mechanical inventors. Aperfected invention does not burst forth from the brain like a poeticthought or a fine resolve. It has to be initiated, laboured over, andpursued in the face of disappointments, difficulties, anddiscouragements. 

Sometimes the idea is born in one generation, followed out in the next, and perhaps perfected in the third. In an age of progress, oneinvention merely paves the way for another. What was the wonder ofyesterday, becomes the common and unnoticed thing of to-day. 

The first idea of the screw was thrown out by James Watt more than acentury ago. Matthew Boulton, of Birmingham, had proposed to movecanal boats by means of the steam-engine; and Dr. Small, his friend, was in communication with James Watt, then residing at Glasgow, on thesubject. In a letter from Watt to Small, dated the 30th September, 1770, the former, after speaking of the condenser, and saying that itcannot be dispensed with, proceeds: "Have you ever considered a spiraloar for that purpose [propulsion of canal boats], or are you for twowheels?" Watt added a pen-and-ink drawing of his spiral oar, greatlyresembling the form of screw afterwards patented. Nothing, however, was actually done, and the idea slept. 

It was revived again in 1785, by Joseph Bramah, a wonderful projectorand inventor. [5] He took out a patent, which included a rotatorysteam-engine, and a mode of propelling vessels by means either of apaddle-wheel or a "screw propeller. " This propeller was "similar tothe fly of a smoke-jack"; but there is no account of Bramah havingpractically tried this method of propulsion. 

Austria, also, claims the honour of the invention of the screw steamer. At Trieste and Vienna are statues erected to Joseph Ressel, on whosebehalf his countrymen lay claim to the invention; and patents for somesort of a screw date back as far as 1794. 

Patents were also taken out in England and America--by W. Lyttleton in1794; by E. Shorter in 1799; by J. C. Stevens, of New Jersey, in 1804;by Henry James in 1811--but nothing practical was accomplished. Richard Trevethick, the anticipator of many things, also took out apatent in 1815, and in it he describes the screw propeller withconsiderable minuteness. Millington, Whytock, Perkins, Marestier, andBrown followed, with no better results. 

The late Dr. Birkbeck, in a letter addressed to the 'Mechanics'Register, ' in the year 1824, claimed that John Swan, of 82, MansfieldStreet, Kingsland Road, London, was the practical inventor of the screwpropeller. John Swan was a native of Coldingham, Berwickshire. He hadremoved to London, and entered the employment of Messrs. Gordon, ofDeptford. Swan fitted up a boat with his propeller, and tried it on asheet of water in the grounds of Charles Gordon, Esq. , of Dulwich Hill. "The velocity and steadiness of the motion, " said Dr. Birkbeck in hisletter, "so far exceeded that of the same model when impelled bypaddle-wheels driven by the same spring, that I could not doubt itssuperiority; and the stillness of the water was such as to give thevessel the appearance of being moved by some magical power. "

Then comes another claimant--Mr. Robert Wilson, then of Dunbar (not farfrom Coldingham), but afterwards of the Bridgewater Foundry, Patricroft. In his pamphlet, published a few years ago, he states thathe had long considered the subject, and in 1827 he made a small model, fitted with "revolving skulls, " which he tried on a sheet of water inthe presence of the Hon. Capt. Anthony Maitland, son of the Earl ofLauderdale. The experiment was successful--so successful, that whenthe "stern paddles" were in 1828 used at Leith in a boat twenty-fivefeet long, with two men to work the machinery, the boat was propelledat an average speed of about ten miles an hour; and the Society of Artsafterwards, in October, 1882, awarded Mr. Wilson their silver medal forthe "description, drawing, and models of stern paddles for propellingsteamboats, invented by him. " The subject was, in 1833, brought by SirJohn Sinclair under the consideration of the Board of Admiralty; butthe report of the officials (Oliver Lang, Abethell, Lloyd, andKingston) was to the effect that "the plan proposed (independent ofpractical difficulties) is objectionable, as it involves a greater lossof power than the common mode of applying the wheels to the side. " Andhere ended the experiment, so far as Mr. Wilson's "stern paddles" wereconcerned. 

It will be observed, from what has been said, that the idea of a screwpropeller is a very old one. Watt, Bramah, Trevethick, and many more, had given descriptions of the screw. Trevethick schemed a number ofits forms and applications, which have been the subject of manysubsequent patents. It has been so with many inventions. It is notthe man who gives the first idea of a machine who is entitled to themerit of its introduction, or the man who repeats the idea, andre-repeats it, but the man who is so deeply impressed with theimportance of the discovery, that he insists upon its adoption, willtake no denial, and at the risk of fame and fortune, pushes through allopposition, and is determined that what he thinks he has discoveredshall not perish for want of a fair trial. And that this was the casewith the practical introducer of the screw propeller will be obviousfrom the following statement. 

Francis Pettit Smith was born at Hythe, in the county of Kent, in 1808. His father was postmaster of the town, and a person of much zeal andintegrity. The boy was sent to school at Ashford, and there received afair amount of education, under the Rev. Alexander Power. Young Smithdisplayed no special characteristic except a passion for constructingmodels of boats. When he reached manhood, he adopted the business of agrazing farmer on Romney Marsh. He afterwards removed to Hendon, northof London, where he had plenty of water on which to try his modelboats. The reservoir of the Old Welsh Harp was close at hand--a placefamous for its water-birds and wild fowl. 

Smith made many models of boats, his experiments extending over manyyears. In 1834, he constructed a boat propelled by a wooden screwdriven by a spring, the performance of which was thought extraordinary. Where he had got his original idea is not known. It was floating aboutin many minds, and was no special secret. Smith, however, arrived atthe conclusion that his method of propelling steam vessels by means ofa screw was much superior to paddles--at that time exclusivelyemployed. In the following year, 1835, he constructed a superiormodel, with which he performed a number of experiments at Hendon. InMay 1836, he took out a patent for propelling vessels by means of ascrew revolving beneath the water at the stern. He then openlyexhibited his invention at the Adelaide Gallery in London. Sir JohnBarrow, Secretary to the Admiralty, inspected the model, and was muchimpressed by its action. During the time it was publicly exhibited, anoffer was made to purchase the invention for the Pacha of Egypt; butthe offer was declined. 

At this stage of his operations, Smith was joined by Mr. Wright, banker, and Mr. C. A. Caldwell, who had the penetration to perceivethat the invention was one of much promise, and were desirous ofhelping its introduction to general use. They furnished Smith with themeans of constructing a more complete model. In the autumn of 1836, asmall steam vessel of 10 tons burthen and six horse-power was built, further to test the advantages of the invention. This boat was fittedwith a wooden screw of two whole turns. On the 1st of November thevessel was exhibited to the public on the Paddington Canal, as well ason the Thames, where she continued to ply until the month of September1837. 

During the trips upon the Thames, a happy accident occurred, whichfirst suggested the advantage of reducing the length of the screw. Thepropeller having struck upon some obstacle in the water, about one-halfof the length of the screw was broken off, and it was found that; thevessel immediately shot ahead and attained a much greater speed thanbefore. In consequence of this discovery, a new screw of a single turnwas fitted to her, after which she was found to work much better. 

Having satisfied himself as to the eligibility of the propeller insmooth water, Mr. Smith then resolved to take his little vessel to theopen sea, and breast the winds and the waves. Accordingly, one Saturdayin the month of September 1837, he proceeded in his miniature boat, down the river, from Blackwall to Gravesend. There he took a pilot onboard, and went on to Ramsgate. He passed through the Downs, andreached Dover in safety. A trial of the vessel's performance was madethere in the presence of Mr. Wright, the banker, and Mr. Peake, thecivil engineer. From Dover the vessel went on to Folkestone and Hythe, encountering severe weather. Nevertheless, the boat behaved admirably, and attained a speed of over seven miles an hour. 

Though the weather had become stormy and boisterous, the little vesselnevertheless set out on her return voyage to London. Crowds of peopleassembled to witness her departure, and many nautical men watched herprogress with solicitude as she steamed through the waves under thesteep cliffs of the South Foreland. The courage of the undertaking, andthe unexpected good performance of the little vessel, rendered her anobject of great interest and excitement as she "screwed" her way alongthe coast. 

The tiny vessel reached her destination in safety. Surely thedifficulty of a testing trial, although with a model screw, had atlength been overcome. But no! The paddle still possessed theascendency; and a thousand interests--invested capital, use and wont, and conservative instincts--all stood in the way. 

Some years before--indeed, about the time that Smith took out hispatent--Captain Ericsson, the Swede, invented a screw propeller. Smithtook out his patent in May, 1836; and Ericsson in the following July. Ericsson was a born inventor. While a boy in Sweden, he made saw millsand pumping engines, with tools invented by himself. He learnt todraw, and his mechanical career began. When only twelve years old, hewas appointed a cadet in the Swedish corps of mechanical engineers, andin the following year he was put in charge of a section of the GothaShip Canal, then under construction. Arrived at manhood, Ericsson wentover to England, the great centre of mechanical industry. He was thentwenty-three years old. He entered into partnership with JohnBraithwaite, and with him constructed the Novelty, which took part inthe locomotive competition at Rainhill on the 6th October, 1829. Theprize was awarded to Stephenson's Rocket on the 14th; but it wasacknowledged by The Times of the day that the Novelty was Stephenson'ssharpest competitor. 

Ericsson had a wonderfully inventive brain, a determined purpose, and agreat capacity for work. When a want was felt, he was immediatelyready with an invention. The records of the Patent Office show hisincessant activity. He invented pumping engines, steam engines, fireengines, and caloric engines. His first patent for a "reciprocatingpropeller" was taken out in October 1834. To exhibit its action, hehad a small boat constructed of only about two feet long. It waspropelled by means of a screw; and was shown at work in a circular bathin London. It performed its voyage round the basin at the rate ofabout three miles an hour. His patent for a "spiral propeller, " wastaken out in July 1836. This was the invention, to exhibit which hehad a vessel constructed, of about 40 feet long, with two propellers, each of 5 feet 3 inches diameter. 

This boat, the Francis B. Ogden, proved extremely successful. She movedat a speed of about ten miles an hour. She was able to tow vessels of140 tons burthen at the rate of seven miles an hour. Perceiving thepeculiar and admirable fitness of the screw-propeller for ships of war, Ericsson invited the Lords of the Admiralty to take an excursion in towof his experimental boat. "My Lords" consented; and the Admiraltybarge contained on this occasion, Sir Charles Adam, senior Lord, SirWilliam Symonds, surveyor, Sir Edward Parry, of Polar fame, CaptainBeaufort, hydrographer, and other men of celebrity. This distinguishedcompany embarked at Somerset House, and the little steamer, with herprecious charge, proceeded down the river to Limehouse at the rate ofabout ten miles an hour. After visiting the steam-engine manufactoryof Messrs. Seawood, where their Lordships' favourite apparatus, theMorgan paddle-wheel, was in course of construction, they re-embarked, and returned in safety to Somerset House. 

The experiment was perfectly successful, and yet the result wasdisappointment. A few days later, a letter from Captain Beaufortinformed Mr. Ericsson that their Lordships had certainly been "verymuch disappointed with the result of the experiment. " The reason forthe disappointment was altogether inexplicable to the inventor. Itafterwards appeared, however, that Sir William Symonds, then Surveyorto the Navy, had expressed the opinion that "even if the propeller hadthe power of propelling a vessel, it would be found altogether uselessin practice, because the power being applied at the stern, it would beabsolutely impossible to make the vessel steer!" It will be rememberedthat Francis Pettit Smith's screw vessel went to sea in the course ofthe same year; and not only faced the waves, but was made to steer in aperfectly successful manner. 

Although the Lords of the Admiralty would not further encourage thescrew propeller of Ericsson, an officer of the United States Navy, Capt. R. F. Stockton, was so satisfied of its success, that aftermaking a single trip in the experimental steamboat from London Bridgeto Greenwich, he ordered the inventor to build for him forthwith twoiron boats for the United States, with steam machinery and a propelleron the same plan. One of these vessels--the Robert F. Stockton--seventy feet in length, was constructed by Laird and Co. , ofBirkenhead, in 1838, and left England for America in April 1839. Capt. Stockton so fully persuaded Ericsson of his probable success inAmerica, that the inventor at once abandoned his professionalengagements in England, and set out for the United States. It isunnecessary to mention the further important works of this greatengineer. 

We may, however, briefly mention that in 1844, Ericsson constructed forthe United States Government the Princeton screw steamer--though he wasnever paid for his time, labour, and expenditure. [6] Undeterred bytheir ingratitude, Ericsson nevertheless constructed for the samegovernment, when in the throes of civil war, the famous Monitor, theiron-clad cupola vessel, and was similarly rewarded! He afterwardsinvented the torpedo ship--the Destroyer--the use of which hasfortunately not yet been required in sea warfare. Ericsson stilllives--constantly planning and scheming--in his house in Beach Street, New York. He is now over eighty years old having been born in 1803. He is strong and healthy. How has he preserved his vigorousconstitution? The editor of Scribner gives the answer: "The hallwindows of his house are open, winter and summer, and none but opengrate-fires are allowed. Insomnia never troubles him, for he fallsasleep as soon as his head touches the pillow. His appetite anddigestion are always good, and he has not lost a meal in ten years. What an example to the men who imagine it is hard work that is killingthem in this career of unremitting industry!"

To return to "Screw" Smith, after the successful trial of his littlevessel at sea in the autumn of 1837. He had many difficulties yet tocontend with. There was, first, the difficulty of a new invention, andthe fact that the paddle-boat had established itself in publicestimation. The engineering and shipbuilding world were dead againsthim. They regarded the project of propelling a vessel by means of ascrew as visionary and preposterous. There was also the officialunwillingness to undertake anything novel, untried, and contrary toroutine. There was the usual shaking of the head and the shrugging ofthe shoulders, as if the inventor were either a mere dreamer or aprojector eager to lay his hands upon the public purse. The surveyorof the navy was opposed to the plan, because of the impossibility ofmaking a vessel steer which was impelled from the stern. "Screw" Smithbided his time; he continued undaunted, and was determined to succeed. He laboured steadily onward, maintaining his own faith unshaken, andupholding the faith of the gentlemen who had become associated with himin the prosecution of the invention. 

At the beginning of 1838 the Lords of the Admiralty requested Mr. Smithto allow his vessel to be tried under their inspection. Two trials wereaccordingly made, and they gave so much satisfaction that the adoptionof the propeller for naval purposes was considered as a not improbablecontingency. Before deciding finally upon its adoption, the Lords ofthe Admiralty were anxious to see an experiment made with a vessel ofnot less than 200 tons. Mr. Smith had not the means of accomplishingthis by himself, but with the improved prospects of the invention, capitalists now came to his aid. One of the most effective andenergetic of these was Mr. Henry Currie, banker; and, with theassistance of others, the "Ship Propeller Company" was formed, andproceeded to erect the test ship proposed by the Admiralty. 

The result was the Archimedes, a wooden vessel of 237 tons burthen. She was designed by Mr. Pasco, laid down by Mr. Wimshurst in the springof 1838, was launched on the 18th of October following, and made herfirst trip in May 1839. She was fitted with a screw of one turn placedin the dead wood, and propelled by a pair of engines of 80-horse power. The vessel was built under the persuasion that her performance would beconsidered satisfactory if a speed was attained of four or five knotsan hour, where as her actual speed was nine and a half knots. TheLords of the Admiralty were invited to inspect the ship. At the secondtrial Sir Edward Parry, Sir William Symonds, Captain Basil Hall, andother distinguished persons were present. 

The results were again satisfactory. The success of the Archimedesastonished the engineering world. Even the Surveyor of the Royal Navyfound that the vessel could steer! The Lords of the Admiralty could nolonger shut their eyes. But the invention could not at once beadopted. It must be tested by the best judges. The vessel was sent toDover to be tried with the best packets between Dover and Calais. Mr. Lloyd, the chief engineer of the Navy, conducted the investigation, andreported most favourably as to the manner of her performance. Yetseveral years elapsed before the screw was introduced into the service. 

In 1840 the Archimedes was placed at the disposal of Captain Chappell, of the Royal Navy, who, accompanied by Mr. Smith, visited everyprincipal port in Great Britain. She was thus seen by shipowners, marine engineers, and shipbuilders in every part of the kingdom. Theyregarded her with wonder and admiration; yet the new mode of navigationwas not speedily adopted. The paddle-wheel still held its own. Thesentiment, if not the plant and capital, of the engineering world, wereagainst the introduction of the screw. After the vessel had returnedfrom her circumnavigation of Great Britain, she was sent to Oporto, andperformed the voyage in sixty-eight and a half hours, then held to bethe quickest voyage on record. She was then sent to the Texel at therequest of the Dutch Government. She went through the North HollandCanal, visited Amsterdam, Antwerp, and other ports; and everywhere leftthe impression that the screw was an efficient and reliable power inthe propulsion of vessels at sea. 

Shipbuilders, however, continued to "fight shy" of the screw. The lateIsambard Kingdon Brunel is entitled to the credit of having firstdirected the attention of shipbuilders to this important invention. Hewas himself a man of original views, free from bias, and always readyto strike out a fresh path in engineering works. He was building alarge new iron steamer at Bristol, the Great Britain, for passengertraffic between England and America. He had intended to construct heras a paddle steamer; but hearing of the success of the Archimedes, heinspected the vessel, and was so satisfied with the performance of thescrew that he recommended his directors to adopt this method forpropelling the Great Britain. His advice was adopted, and the vesselwas altered so as to adapt her for the reception of the screw. Thevessel was found perfectly successful, and on her first voyage toLondon she attained the speed of ten knots an hour, though the wind andbalance of tides were against her. A few other merchant ships werebuilt and fitted with the screw; the Princess Royal at Newcastle in1840, the Margaret and Senator at Hull, and the Great Northern atLondonderry, in 1841. 

The Lords of the Admiralty made slow progress in adapting the screw forthe Royal Navy. Sir William Symonds, the surveyor and principaldesigner of Her Majesty's ships, was opposed to all new projects. Hehated steam power, and was utterly opposed to iron ships. He speaks ofthem in his journal as "monstrous. "[7] So long as he remained inoffice everything was done in a perfunctory way. A small vessel namedthe Bee was built at Chatham in 1841, and fitted with both paddles andthe screw for the purposes of experiment. In the same year theRattier, the first screw vessel built for the navy, was laid down atSheerness. Although of only 888 tons burthen, she was not launcheduntil the spring of 1843. She was then fitted with the same kind ofscrew as the Archimedes, that is, a double-headed screw of half aconvolution. Experiments went on for about three years, so as todetermine the best proportions of the screw, and the proportions thenascertained have since been the principal guides of engineeringpractice. 

The Rattler was at length tried in a water tournament with thepaddle-steamer Alecto, and signally defeated her. Francis PettitSmith, like Gulliver, may be said to have dragged the whole Britishfleet after him. Were the paddle our only means of propulsion, ourwhole naval force would be reduced to a nullity. Hostile gunners wouldwing a paddle-steamer as effectually as a sportsman wings a bird, andall the plating in the world would render such a ship a mere helplesslog on the water. 

The Admiralty could no longer defer the use of this importantinvention. Like all good things, it made its way slowly and bydegrees. The royal naval authorities, who in 1833 backed the sidepaddles, have since adopted the screw in most of the ships-of-war. Inall long sea-going voyages, also, the screw is now the favourite modeof propulsion. Screw ships of prodigious size are now built andlaunched in all the ship-building ports of Britain, and are sent out tonavigate in every part of the world. 

The introduction of iron as the material for shipbuilding has immenselyadvanced the interests of steam navigation, as it enables the buildersto construct vessels of great size with the finest lines, so as toattain the highest rates of speed. 

One might have supposed that Francis Pettit Smith would derive somesubstantial benefit from his invention, or at least that the ShipPropeller Company would distribute large dividends among theirproprietors. Nothing of the kind. Smith spent his money, his labour, and his ingenuity in conferring a great public benefit withoutreceiving any adequate reward; and the company, instead of distributingdividends, lost about 50, 000L. In introducing this great invention;after which, in 1856, the patent-right expired. Three hundred andtwenty-seven ships and vessels of all classes in the Royal Navy hadthen been fitted with the screw propeller, and a much larger number inthe merchant service; but since that time the number of screwpropellers constructed is to be counted by thousands. 

In his comparatively impoverished condition it was found necessary todo something for the inventor. The Civil Engineers, with RobertStephenson, M. P. , in the chair, entertained him at a dinner andpresented him with a handsome salver and claret jug. And that he mighthave something to put upon his salver and into his claret jug, a numberof his friends and admirers subscribed over 2000L. As a testimonial. The Government appointed him Curator of the Patent Museum at SouthKensington; the Queen granted him a pension on the Civil List for 200L. A year; he was raised to the honour of knighthood in 1871, and threeyears later he died. 

Francis Pettit Smith was not a great inventor. He had, like manyothers, invented a screw propeller. But, while those others had givenup the idea of prosecuting it to its completion, Smith stuck to hisinvention with determined tenacity, and never let it go until he hadsecured for it a complete triumph. As Mr. Stephenson observed at theengineer's meeting: "Mr. Smith had worked from a platform which mighthave been raised by others, as Watt had done, and as other great menhad done; but he had made a stride in advance which was almosttantamount to a new invention. It was impossible to overrate theadvantages which this and other countries had derived from his untiringand devoted patience in prosecuting the invention to a successfulissue. " Baron Charles Dupin compared the farmer Smith with the barberArkwright: "He had the same perseverance and the same indomitablecourage. These two moral qualities enabled him to triumph over everyobstacle. " This was the merit of "Screw" Smith--that he was determinedto realize what his predecessors had dreamt of achieving; and heeventually accomplished his great purpose. 

Footnotes for Chapter II. 

[1] In the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for1860, it was pointed out that the general dimensions and form of bottomof this ship were very similar to the most famous line-of-battle shipsbuilt down to the end of last century, some of which were then inexistence. 

[2] According to the calculation of Mr. Chatfield, of Her Majesty'sdockyard at Plymouth, in a paper read before the British Association in1841 on shipbuilding. 

[3] The phrase "wooden walls" is derived from the Greek. When the cityof Athens was once in danger of being attacked and destroyed, theoracle of Delphi was consulted. The inhabitants were told that therewas no safety for them but in their "wooden walls, "--that is theirshipping. As they had then a powerful fleet, the oracle gave themrational advice, which had the effect of saving the Athenian people. 

[4] An account of these is given by Bennet Woodcraft in his Sketch ofthe Origin and Progress of Steam Navigation, London, 1848. 

[5] See Industrial Biography, pp. 183-197, [6] The story is told in Scribner's Monthly Illustrated Magazine, forApril 1879. Ericsson's modest bill was only $15, 000 for two years'labour. He was put off from year to year, and at length the Governmentrefused to pay the amount. "The American Government, " says the editorof Scribner, "will not appropriate the money to pay it, and that isall. It is said to be the nature of republics to be ungrateful; butmust they also be dishonest?"

[7] Memoirs of the Life and Services of Rear-Admiral Sir WilliamSymonds, Kt. , p. 332. 

CHAPTER III. [1]

JOHN HARRISON: INVENTOR OF THE MARINE CHRONOMETER. 

"No man knows who invented the mariner's compass, or who first hollowedout a canoe from a log. The power to observe accurately the sun, moon, and planets, so as to fix a vessel's actual position when far out ofsight of land, enabling long voyages to be safely made; the marvellousimprovements in ship-building, which shortened passages by sailingvessels, and vastly reduced freights even before steam gave anindependent force to the carrier--each and all were done by smalladvances, which together contributed to the general movement ofmankind.... Each owes all to the others. The forgotten inventors livefor ever in the usefulness of the work they have done and the progressthey have striven for. "--H. M. Hyndman. 

One of the most extraordinary things connected with Applied Science isthe method by which the Navigator is enabled to find the exact spot ofsea on which his ship rides. There may be nothing but water and skywithin his view; he may be in the midst of the ocean, or graduallynearing the land; the curvature of the globe baffles the search of histelescope; but if he have a correct chronometer, and can make anastronomical observation, he may readily ascertain his longitude, andknow his approximate position--how far he is from home, as well as fromhis intended destination. He is even enabled, at some special place, to send down his grappling-irons into the sea, and pick up anelectrical cable for examination and repair. 

This is the result of a knowledge of Practical Astronomy. "Place anastronomer, " says Mr. Newcomb, "on board a ship; blindfold him; carryhim by any route to any ocean on the globe, whether under the tropicsor in one of the frigid zones; land him on the wildest rock that can befound; remove his bandage, and give him a chronometer regulated toGreenwich or Washington time, a transit instrument with the properappliances, and the necessary books and tables, and in a single clearnight he can tell his position within a hundred yards by observationsof the stars. This, from a utilitarian point of view, is one of themost important operations of Practical Astronomy. "[2]

The Marine Chronometer was the outcome of the crying want of thesixteenth century for an instrument that should assist the navigator tofind his longitude on the pathless ocean. Spain was then the principalnaval power; she was the most potent monarchy in Europe, and held halfAmerica under her sway. Philip III. Offered 100, 000 crowns for anydiscovery by means of which the longitude might be determined by abetter method than by the log, which was found very defective. Hollandnext became a great naval power, and followed the example of Spain inoffering 30, 000 florins for a similar discovery. But though someefforts were made, nothing practical was done, principally through thedefective state of astronomical instruments. England succeeded Spainand Holland as a naval power; and when Charles II. Established theGreenwich Observatory, it was made a special point that Flamsteed, theAstronomer-Royal, should direct his best energies to the perfecting ofa method for finding the longitude by astronomical observations. Butthough Flamsteed, together with Halley and Newton, made some progress, they were prevented from obtaining ultimate success by the want ofefficient chronometers and the defective nature of astronomicalinstruments. 

Nothing was done until the reign of Queen Anne, when a petition waspresented to the Legislature on the 25th of May, 1714, by "severalcaptains of Her Majesty's ships, merchants in London, and commanders ofmerchantmen, in behalf of themselves, and of all others concerned inthe navigation of Great Britain, " setting forth the importance of theaccurate discovery of the longitude, and the inconvenience and dangerto which ships were subjected from the want of some suitable method ofdiscovering it. The petition was referred to a committee, which tookevidence on the subject. It appears that Sir Isaac Newton, with hisextraordinary sagacity, hit the mark in his report. "One is, " he said, "by a watch to keep time exactly; but, by reason of the motion of aship, and the variation of heat and cold, wet and dry, and thedifference of gravity in different latitudes, such a watch hath not yetbeen made. "

An Act was however passed in the Session of 1714, offering a very largepublic reward to inventors: 10, 000L. To any one who should discover amethod of determining the longitude to one degree of a great circle, or60 geographical miles; 15, 000L. If it determined the same to two-thirdsof that distance, or 40 geographical miles; and 20, 000L. If itdetermined the same to one-half of the same distance, or 30geographical miles. Commissioners were appointed by the same Act, whowere instructed that "one moiety or half part of such reward shall bedue and paid when the said commissioners, or the major part of them, doagree that any such method extends to the security of ships within 80geographical miles of the shore, which are places of the greatestdanger; and the other moiety or half part when a ship, by theappointment of the said commissioners, or the major part of them, shallactually sail over the ocean, from Great Britain to any such port inthe West Indies as those commissioners, or the major part of them, shall choose or nominate for the experiment, without losing thelongitude beyond the limits before mentioned. "

The terms of this offer indicate how great must have been the risk andinconvenience which it was desired to remedy. Indeed, it is almostinconceivable that a reward so great could be held out for a methodwhich would merely afford security within eighty geographical miles!

This splendid reward for a method of discovering the longitude wasoffered to the world--to inventors and scientific men of allcountries--without restriction of race, or nation, or language. Asmight naturally be expected, the prospect of obtaining it stimulatedmany ingenious men to make suggestions and contrive experiments; butfor many years the successful construction of a marine time-keeperseemed almost hopeless. At length, to the surprise of every one, theprize was won by a village carpenter--a person of no school, oruniversity, or college whatever. 

Even so distinguished an artist and philosopher as Sir Christopher Wrenwas engaged, as late in his life as the year 1720, in attempting tosolve this important problem. As has been observed, in the memoir ofhim contained in the 'Biographia Britannica, '[3] "This noble invention, like some others of the most useful ones to human life, seems to bereserved for the peculiar glory of an ordinary mechanic, who, byindefatigable industry, under the guidance of no ordinary sagacity, hath seemingly at last surmounted all difficulties, and brought it to amost unexpected degree of perfection. " Where learning and sciencefailed, natural genius seems to have triumphed. 

The truth is, that the great mechanic, like the great poet, is born, not made; and John Harrison, the winner of the famous prize, was a bornmechanic. He did not, however, accomplish his object without theexercise of the greatest skill, patience, and perseverance. Hisefforts were long, laborious, and sometimes apparently hopeless. Indeed, his life, so far as we can ascertain the facts, affords one ofthe finest examples of difficulties encountered and triumphantlyovercome, and of undaunted perseverance eventually crowned by success, which is to be found in the whole range of biography. 

No complete narrative of Harrison's career was ever written. Only ashort notice of him appears in the 'Biographia Britannica, ' publishedin 1766, during his lifetime'--the facts of which were obtained fromhimself. A few notices of him appear in the 'Annual Register, ' alsopublished during his lifetime. The final notice appeared in the volumepublished in 1777, the year after his death. No Life of him has sinceappeared. Had he been a destructive hero, and fought battles by landor sea, we should have had biographies of him without end. But hepursued a more peaceful and industrious course. His discoveryconferred an incalculable advantage on navigation, and enabledinnumerable lives to be saved at sea; it also added to the domains ofscience by its more exact measurement of time. But his memory has beensuffered to pass silently away, without any record being left for thebenefit and advantage of those who have succeeded him. The followingmemoir includes nearly all that is known of the life and labours ofJohn Harrison. 

He was born at Foulby, in the parish of Wragby, near Pontefract, Yorkshire, in March, 1693. His father, Henry Harrison, was carpenterand joiner to Sir Rowland Winn, owner of the Nostell Priory estate. The present house was built by the baronet on the site of the ancientpriory. Henry Harrison was a sort of retainer of the family, and longcontinued in their Service. 

Little is known of the boy's education. It was certainly of a veryinferior description. Like George Stephenson, Harrison always had agreat difficulty in making himself understood, either by speech orwriting. Indeed, every board-school boy now receives a bettereducation than John Harrison did a hundred and eighty years ago. Buteducation does not altogether come by reading and writing. The boy waspossessed of vigorous natural abilities. He was especially attractedby every machine that moved upon wheels. The boy was 'father to theman. ' When six years old, and lying sick of small-pox, a going watchwas placed upon his pillow, which afforded him infinite delight. 

When seven years old he was taken by his father to Barrow, nearBarton-on-Humber, where Sir Rowland Winn had another residence andestate. Henry Harrison was still acting as the baronet's carpenter andjoiner. In course of time young Harrison joined his father in theworkshop, and proved of great use to him. His opportunities foracquiring knowledge were still very few, but he applied his powers ofobservation and his workmanship upon the things which were nearest him. He worked in wood, and to wood he first turned his attention. 

He was still fond of machines going upon wheels. He had enjoyed thesight of the big watch going upon brass wheels when he was a boy; but, now that he was a workman in wood, he proposed to make an eight-dayclock, with wheels of this material. He made the clock in 1713, whenhe was twenty years old, [4] so that he must have made diligent use ofhis opportunities. He had of course difficulties to encounter, andnothing can be accomplished without them; for it is difficulties thattrain the habits of application and perseverance. But he succeeded inmaking an effective clock, which counted the time with regularity. This clock is still in existence. It is to be seen at the Museum ofPatents, South Kensington; and when we visited it a few months ago itwas going, and still marking the moments as they passed. It iscontained in a case about six feet high, with a glass front, showing apendulum and two weights. Over the clock is the following inscription:

"This clock was made at Barrow, Lincolnshire, in the year 1715, by JohnHarrison, celebrated as the inventor of a nautical timepiece, orchronometer, which gained the reward of 20, 000L. , offered by the Boardof Longitude, A. D. 1767. 

"This clock strikes the hour, indicates the day of the month, and withone exception (the escapement) the wheels are entirely made of wood. "

This, however, was only a beginning. Harrison proceeded to make betterclocks; and then he found it necessary to introduce metal, which wasmore lasting. He made pivots of brass, which moved more convenientlyin sockets of wood with the use of oil. He also caused the teeth ofhis wheels to run against cylindrical rollers of wood, fixed by brasspins, at a proper distance from the axis of the pinions; and thus to aconsiderable extent removed the inconveniences of friction. 

In the meantime Harrison eagerly improved every incident from which hemight derive further information. There was a clergyman who came everySunday to the village to officiate in the neighbourhood; and havingheard of the sedulous application of the young carpenter, he lent him amanuscript copy of Professor Saunderson's discourses. That blindprofessor had prepared several lectures on natural philosophy for theuse of his students, though they were not intended for publication. Young Harrison now proceeded to copy them out, together with thediagrams. Sometimes, indeed, he spent the greater part of the night inwriting or drawing. 

As part of his business, he undertook to survey land, and to repairclocks and watches, besides carrying on his trade of a carpenter. Hesoon obtained a considerable knowledge of what had been done in clocksand watches, and was able to do not only what the best professionalworkers had done, but to strike out entirely new lights in the clockand watch-making business. He found out a method of diminishingfriction by adding a joint to the pallets of the pendulum, whereby theywere made to work in the nature of rollers of a large radius, withoutany sliding, as usual, upon the teeth of the wheel. He constructed aclock on the recoiling principle, which went perfectly, and never losta minute within fourteen years. Sir Edmund Denison Beckett says thathe invented this method in order to save himself the trouble of goingso frequently to oil the escapement of a turret clock, of which he hadcharge; though there were other influences at work besides this. 

But his most important invention, at this early period of his life, washis compensation pendulum. Every one knows that metals expand withheat and contract by cold. The pendulum of the clock thereforeexpanded in summer and contracted in winter, thereby interfering withthe regular going of the clock. Huygens had by his cylindrical checksremoved the great irregularity arising from the unequal lengths of theoscillations; but the pendulum was affected by the tossing of a ship atsea, and was also subject to a variation in weight, depending on theparallel of latitude. Graham, the well-known clock-maker, invented themercurial compensation pendulum, consisting of a glass or iron jarfilled with quicksilver and fixed to the end of the pendulum rod. Whenthe rod was lengthened by heat, the quicksilver and the jar whichcontained it were simultaneously expanded and elevated, and the centreof oscillation was thus continued at the same distance from the pointof suspension. 

But the difficulty, to a certain extent, remained unconquered untilHarrison took the matter in hand. He observed that all rods of metaldo not alter their lengths equally by heat, or, on the contrary, becomeshorter by cold, but some more sensibly than others. After innumerableexperiments Harrison at length composed a frame somewhat resembling agridiron, in which the alternate bars were of steel and of brass, andso arranged that those which expanded the most were counteracted bythose which expanded the least. By this means the pendulum containedthe power of equalising its own action, and the centre of oscillationcontinued at the same absolute distance from the point of suspensionthrough all the variations of heat and cold during the year. [5]

Thus by the year 1726, when he was only thirty-three years old, Harrison had furnished himself with two compensation clocks, in whichall the irregularities to which these machines were subject, wereeither removed or so happily balanced, one metal against the other, that the two clocks kept time together in different parts of his house, without the variation of more than a single second in the month. Oneof them, indeed, which he kept by him for his own use, and constantlycompared with a fixed star, did not vary so much as one whole minuteduring the ten years that he continued in the country after finishingthe machine. [6]

Living, as he did, not far from the sea, Harrison next endeavoured toarrange his timekeeper for purposes of navigation. 

He tried his clock in a vessel belonging to Barton-on-Humber; but hiscompensating pendulum could there be of comparatively little use; forit was liable to be tossed hither or thither by the sudden motions ofthe ship. He found it necessary, therefore, to mount a chronometer, orportable timekeeper, which might be taken from place to place, andsubjected to the violent and irregular motion of a ship at sea, withoutaffecting its rate of going. It was evident to him that the firstmover must be changed from a weight and pendulum to a spring wound upand a compensating balance. 

He now applied his genius in this direction. After pondering over thesubject, he proceeded to London in 1728, and exhibited his drawings toDr. Halley, then Astronomer-Royal. The Doctor referred him to Mr. George Graham, the distinguished horologer, inventor of the dead-beatescapement and the mercurial pendulum. After examining the drawings andholding some converse with Harrison, Graham perceived him to be a manof uncommon merit, and gave him every encouragement. He recommendedhim, however, to make his machine before again applying to the Board ofLongitude. 

Harrison returned home to Barrow to complete his task, and many yearselapsed before he again appeared in London to present his firstchronometer. 

The remarkable success which Harrison had achieved in his compensatingpendulum could not but urge him on to further experiments. He was nodoubt to a certain extent influenced by the reward of 20, 000L. Whichthe English Government had offered for an instrument that should enablethe longitude to be more accurately determined by navigators at seathan was then possible; and it was with the object of obtainingpecuniary assistance to assist him in completing his chronometer thatHarrison had, in 1728, made his first visit to London to exhibit hisdrawings. 

The Act of Parliament offering this superb reward was passed in 1714, fourteen years before, but no attempt had been made to claim it. Itwas right that England, then rapidly advancing to the first position asa commercial nation, should make every effort to render navigation lesshazardous. Before correct chronometers were invented, or good lunartables were prepared, [7] the ship, when fairly at sea, out of sight ofland, and battling with the winds and tides, was in a measure lost. Nomethod existed for accurately ascertaining the longitude. The shipmight be out of its course for one or two hundred miles, for anythingthat the navigator knew; and only the wreck of his ship on some unknowncoast told of the mistake that he had made in his reckoning. 

It may here be mentioned that it was comparatively easy to determinethe latitude of a ship at sea every day when the sun was visible. Thelatitude--that is, the distance of any spot from the equator and thepole--might be found by a simple observation with the sextant. Thealtitude of the sun at noon is found, and by a short calculation theposition of the ship can be ascertained. 

The sextant, which is the instrument universally used at sea, wasgradually evolved from similar instruments used from the earliesttimes. The object of this instrument has always been to find theangular distance between two bodies--that is to say, the anglecontained by two straight lines, drawn from those bodies to meet in theobserver's eye. The simplest instrument of this kind may be wellrepresented by a pair of compasses. If the hinge is held to the eye, one leg pointed to the distant horizon, and the other leg pointed tothe sun, the position of the two legs will show the angular distance ofthe sun from the horizon at the moment of observation. 

Until the end of the seventeenth century, the instrument used was ofthis simple kind. It was generally a large quadrant, with one or twobars moving on a hinge, --to all intents and purposes a huge pair ofcompasses. The direction of the sight was fixed by the use of a slitand a pointer, much as in the ordinary rifle. This instrument wasvastly improved by the use of a telescope, which not only allowedfainter objects to be seen, but especially enabled the sight to beaccurately directed to the object observed. 

The instruments of the pre-telescopic age reached their glory in thehands of Tycho Brahe. He used magnificent instruments of the simple"pair of compasses" kind--circles, quadrants, and sextants. These werefor the most part ponderous fixed instruments of little or no use forthe purposes of navigation. But Tycho Brahe's sextant proved theforerunner of the modern instrument. The general structure is thesame; but the vast improvement of the modern sextant is due, firstly, to the use of the reflecting mirror, and, secondly, to the use of thetelescope for accurate sighting. These improvements were due to manyscientific men--to William Gascoigne, who first used the telescope, about 1640; to Robert Hooke, who, in 1660, proposed to apply it to thequadrant; to Sir Isaac Newton, who designed a reflecting quadrant;[8]and to John Hadley, who introduced it. The modern sextant is merely amodification of Newton's or Badley's quadrant, and its presentconstruction seems to be perfect. 

It therefore became possible accurately to determine the position of aship at sea as regarded its latitude. But it was quite different asregarded the longitude that is, the distance of any place from a givenmeridian, eastward or westward. In the case of longitude there is nofixed spot to which reference can be made. The rotation of the earthmakes the existence of such a spot impossible. The question oflongitude is purely a question of TIME. The circuit of the globe, eastand west, is simply represented by twenty-four hours. Each place hasits own time. It is very easy to determine the local time at any spotby observations made at that spot. But, as time is always changing, the knowledge of the local time gives no idea of the actual position;and still less of a moving object--say, of a ship at sea. But if, inany locality, we know the local time, and also the local time of someother locality at that moment--say, of the Observatory at Greenwich wecan, by comparing the two local times, determine the difference oflocal times, or, what is the same thing, the difference of longitudebetween the two places. It was necessary therefore for the navigator tobe in possession of a first-rate watch or chronometer, to enable him todetermine accurately the position of his ship at sea, as respected thelongitude. 

Before the middle of the eighteenth century good watches werecomparatively unknown. The navigator mainly relied, for hisapproximate longitude, upon his Dead Reckoning, without any observationof the heavenly bodies. He depended upon the accuracy of the coursewhich he had steered by the compass, and the mensuration of the ship'svelocity by an instrument called the Log, as well as by combining andrectifying all the allowances for drift, lee-way, and so on, accordingto the trim of the ship; but all of these were liable to muchuncertainty, especially when the sea was in a boisterous condition. There was another and independent course which might have beenadopted--that is, by observation of the moon, which is constantlymoving amongst the stars from west to east. But until the middle ofthe eighteenth century good lunar tables were as much unknown as goodwatches. 

Hence a method of ascertaining the longitude, with the same degree ofaccuracy which is attainable in respect of latitude, had for ages beenthe grand desideratum for men "who go down to the sea in ships. " Mr. Macpherson, in his important work entitled 'The Annals of Commerce, 'observes, "Since the year 1714, when Parliament offered a reward of20, 000L. For the best method of ascertaining the longitude at sea, manyschemes have been devised, but all to little or no purpose, as goinggenerally upon wrong principles, till that heaven-taught artist Mr. John Harrison arose;" and by him, as Mr. Macpherson goes on to say, thedifficulty was conquered, having devoted to it "the assiduous studiesof a long life. "

The preamble of the Act of Parliament in question runs as follows:"Whereas it is well known by all that are acquainted with the art ofnavigation that nothing is so much wanted and desired at sea as thediscovery of the longitude, for the safety and quickness of voyages, the preservation of ships and the lives of men, " and so on. The Actproceeds to constitute certain persons commissioners for the discoveryof the longitude, with power to receive and experiment upon proposalsfor that purpose, and to grant sums of money not exceeding 2000L. Toaid in such experiments. It will be remembered from what has beenabove stated, that a reward of 10, 000L. Was to be given to the personwho should contrive a method of determining the longitude within onedegree of a great circle, or 60 geographical miles; 15, 000L. Within 40geographical miles; and 20, 000L. Within 30 geographical miles. 

It will, in these days, be scarcely believed that little more than ahundred and fifty years ago a prize of not less than ten thousandpounds should have been offered for a method of determining thelongitude within sixty miles, and that double the amount should havebeen offered for a method of determining it within thirty miles! Theamount of these rewards is sufficient proof of the fearful necessityfor improvement which then existed in the methods of navigation. Andyet, from the date of the passing of the Act in 1714 until the year1736, when Harrison finished his first timepiece, nothing had been donetowards ascertaining the longitude more accurately, even within thewide limits specified by the Act of Parliament. Although severalschemes had been projected, none of them had proved successful, and theoffered rewards therefore still remained unclaimed. 

To return to Harrison. After reaching his home at Barrow, after hisvisit to London in 1728, he began his experiments for the constructionof a marine chronometer. The task was one of no small difficulty. Itwas necessary to provide against irregularities arising from the motionof a ship at sea, and to obviate the effect of alternations oftemperature in the machine itself, as well as the oil with which it waslubricated. A thousand obstacles presented themselves, but they werenot enough to deter Harrison from grappling with the work he had sethimself to perform. 

Every one knows the beautiful machinery of a timepiece, and the perfecttools required to produce such a machine. Some of these tools Harrisonprocured in London, but the greater number he provided for himself; andmany entirely new adaptations were required for his chronometer. Aswood could no longer be exclusively employed, as in his first clock, hehad to teach himself to work accurately and minutely in brass and othermetals. Having been unable to obtain any assistance from the Board ofLongitude, he was under the necessity, while carrying forward hisexperiments, of maintaining himself by still working at his trade of acarpenter and joiner. This will account for the very long period thatelapsed before he could bring his chronometer to such a state as thatit might be tried with any approach to certainty in its operations. 

Harrison, besides his intentness and earnestness, was a cheerful andhopeful man. He had a fine taste for music, and organised and led thechoir of the village church, which attained a high degree ofperfection. He invented a curious monochord, which was not lessaccurate than his clocks in the mensuration of time. His ear wasdistressed by the ringing of bells out of tune, and he set himself toremedy them. At the parish church of Hull, for instance, the bellswere harsh and disagreeable, and by the authority of the vicar andchurchwardens he was allowed to put them into a state of exact tune, sothat they proved entirely melodious. 

But the great work of his life was his marine chronometer. He found itnecessary, in the first place, to alter the first mover of his clock toa spring wound up, so that the regularity of the motion might bederived from the vibrations of balances, instead of those of a pendulumas in a standing clock. Mr. Folkes, President of the Royal Society, when presenting the gold medal to Harrison in 1749, thus describes thearrangement of his new machine. The details were obtained fromHarrison himself, who was present. He had made use of two balancessituated in the same plane, but vibrating in contrary directions, sothat the one of these being either way assisted by the tossing of theship, the other might constantly be just so much impeded by it at thesame time. As the equality of the times of the vibrations of thebalance of a pocket-watch is in a great measure owing to the spiralspring that lies under it, so the same was here performed by the likeelasticity of four cylindrical springs or worms, applied near the upperand lower extremities of the two balances above described. 

Then came in the question of compensation. Harrison's experience withthe compensation pendulum of his clock now proved of service to him. He had proceeded to introduce a similar expedient in his proposedchronometer. As is well known to those who are acquainted with thenature of springs moved by balances, the stronger those springs are, the quicker the vibrations of the balances are performed, and viceversa; hence it follows that those springs, when braced by cold, orwhen relaxed by heat, must of necessity cause the timekeeper to goeither faster or slower, unless some method could be found to remedythe inconvenience. 

The method adopted by Harrison was his compensation balance, doubtlessthe backbone of his invention. His "thermometer kirb, " he himselfsays, "is composed of two thin plates of brass and steel, rivetedtogether in several places, which, by the greater expansion of brassthan steel by heat and contraction by cold, becomes convex on the brassside in hot weather and convex on the steel side in cold weather;whence, one end being fixed, the other end obtains a motioncorresponding with the changes of heat and cold, and the two pins atthe end, between which the balance spring passes, and which italternately touches as the spring bends and unbends itself, willshorten or lengthen the spring, as the change of heat or cold wouldotherwise require to be done by hand in the manner used for regulatinga common watch. " Although the method has since been improved upon byLeroy, Arnold, and Earnshaw, it was the beginning of all that has sincebeen done in the perfection of marine chronometers. Indeed, it isamazing to think of the number of clever, skilful, and industrious menwho have been engaged for many hundred years in the production of thatexquisite fabric--so useful to everybody, whether scientific orotherwise, on land or sea the modern watch. 

It is unnecessary here to mention in detail the particulars ofHarrison's invention. These were published by himself in his'Principles of Mr. Harrison's Timekeeper. ' It may, however, bementioned that he invented a method by which the chronometer might bekept going without losing any portion of time. This was during theprocess of winding up, which was done once in a day. While themainspring was being wound up, a secondary one preserved the motion ofthe wheels and kept the machine going. 

After seven years' labour, during which Harrison encountered andovercame numerous difficulties, he at last completed his first marinechronometer. He placed it in a sort of moveable frame, somewhatresembling what the sailors call a 'compass jumble, ' but much moreartificially and curiously made and arranged. In this state thechronometer was tried from time to time in a large barge on the riverHumber, in rough as well as in smooth weather, and it was found to goperfectly, without losing a moment of time. 

Such was the condition of Harrison's chronometer when he arrived withit in London in 1735, in order to apply to the commissioners appointedfor providing a public reward for the discovery of the longitude atsea. He first showed it to several members of the Royal Society, whocordially approved of it. Five of the most prominent members--Dr. Bailey, Dr. Smith, Dr. Bradley, Mr. John Machin, and Mr. GeorgeGraham--furnished Harrison with a certificate, stating that theprinciples of his machine for measuring time promised a very great andsufficient degree of exactness. In consequence of this certificate, the machine, at the request of the inventor, and at the recommendationof the Lords of the Admiralty, was placed on board a man-of-war. 

Sir Charles Wager, then first Lord of the Admiralty, wrote to thecaptain of the Centurion, stating that the instrument had been approvedby mathematicians as the best that had been made for measuring time;and requesting his kind treatment of Mr. Harrison, who was to accompanyit to Lisbon. Captain Proctor answered the First Lord from Spithead, dated May 17th, 1736, promising his attention to Harrison's comfort, but intimating his fear that he had attempted impossibilities. It isalways so with a new thing. The first steam-engine, the firstgaslight, the first locomotive, the first steamboat to America, thefirst electric telegraph, were all impossibilities!

This first chronometer behaved very well on the outward voyage in theCenturion. It was not affected by the roughest weather, or by theworking of the ship through the rolling waves of the Bay of Biscay. Itwas brought back, with Harrison, in the Orford man-of-war, when itsgreat utility was proved in a remarkable manner, although, from thevoyage being nearly on a meridian, the risk of losing the longitude wascomparatively small. Yet the following was the certificate of thecaptain of the ship, dated the 24th June, 1737: "When we made theland, the said land, according to my reckoning (and others), ought tohave been the Start; but, before we knew what land it was, JohnHarrison declared to me and the rest of the ship's company that, according to his observations with his machine, it ought to be theLizard--the which, indeed, it was found to be, his observation showingthe ship to be more west than my reckoning, above one degree andtwenty-six miles, "--that is, nearly ninety miles out of its course!

Six days later--that is, on the 30th June--the Board of Longitude met, when Harrison was present, and produced the chronometer with which hehad made the voyage to Lisbon and back. The minute states: "Mr. JohnHarrison produced a new invented machine, in the nature of clockwork, whereby he proposes to keep time at sea with more exactness than by anyother instrument or method hitherto contrived, in order to thediscovery of the longitude at sea; and proposes to make another machineof smaller dimensions within the space of two years, whereby he willendeavour to correct some defects which he hath found in that alreadyprepared, so as to render the same more perfect; which machine, whencompleted, he is desirous of having tried in one of His Majesty's shipsthat shall be bound to the West Indies; but at the same timerepresented that he should not be able, by reason of his necessitouscircumstances, to go on and finish his said machine without assistance, and requested that he may be furnished with the sum of 500L. , to puthim in a capacity to perform the same, and to make a perfect experimentthereof. "

The result of the meeting was that 500L. Was ordered to be paid toHarrison, one moiety as soon as convenient, and the other when he hasproduced a certificate from the captain of one of His Majesty's shipsthat he has put the machine on board into the captain's possession. Mr. George Graham, who was consulted, urged that the Commissionersshould grant Harrison at least 1000L. , but they only awarded him halfthe sum, and at first only a moiety of the amount voted. At therecommendation of Lord Monson, who was present, Harrison accepted the250L. As a help towards the heavy expenses which he had alreadyincurred, and was again about to incur, in perfecting the invention. He was instructed to make his new chronometer of less dimensions, asthe one exhibited was cumbersome and heavy, and occupied too much spaceon board. 

He accordingly proceeded to make his second chronometer. It occupied aspace of only about half the size of the first. He introduced severalimprovements. He lessened the number of the wheels, and therebydiminished friction. But the general arrangement remained the same. This second machine was finished in 1739. It was more simple in itsarrangement, and less cumbrous in its dimensions. It answered evenbetter than the first, and though it was not tried at sea its motionswere sufficiently exact for finding the longitude within the nearestlimits proposed by Act of Parliament. 

Not satisfied with his two machines, Harrison proceeded to make athird. This was of an improved construction, and occupied still lessspace, the whole of the machine and its apparatus standing upon an areaof only four square feet. It was in such forwardness in January, 1741, that it was exhibited before the Royal Society, and twelve of the mostprominent members signed a certificate of "its great and excellent use, as well for determining the longitude at sea as for correcting thecharts of the coasts. " The testimonial concluded: "We do recommendMr. Harrison to the favour of the Commissioners appointed by Act ofParliament as a person highly deserving of such further encouragementand assistance as they shall judge proper and sufficient to finish histhird machine. " The Commissioners granted him a further sum of 500L. Harrison was already reduced to necessitous circumstances by hiscontinuous application to the improvement of the timekeepers. He hadalso got into debt, and required further assistance to enable him toproceed with their construction; but the Commissioners would only helphim by driblets. 

Although Harrison had promised that the third machine would be readyfor trial on August 1, 1743, it was not finished for some years later. In June, 1746, we find him again appearing before the Board, asking forfurther assistance. While proceeding with his work he found itnecessary to add a new spring, "having spent much time and thought intempering them. " Another 500L. Was voted to enable him to pay hisdebts, to maintain himself and family, and to complete his chronometer. 

Three years later he exhibited his third machine to the Royal Society, and on the 30th of November, 1749, he was awarded the Gold Medal forthe year. In presenting it, Mr. Folkes, the President, said to Mr. Harrison, "I do here, by the authority and in the name of the RoyalSociety of London for the improving of natural knowledge, present youwith this small but faithful token of their regard and esteem. I do, in their name congratulate you upon the successes you have already had, and I most sincerely wish that all your future trials may in every wayprove answerable to these beginnings, and that the full accomplishmentof your great undertaking may at last be crowned with all thereputation and advantage to yourself that your warmest wishes maysuggest, and to which so many years so laudably and so diligently spentin the improvement of those talents which God Almighty has bestowedupon you, will so justly entitle your constant and unweariedperseverance. "

Mr. Folkes, in his speech, spoke of Mr. Harrison as "one of the mostmodest persons he had ever known. In speaking, " he continued, "of hisown performances, he has assured me that, from the immense number ofdiligent and accurate experiments he has made, and from the severetests to which he has in many ways put his instrument, he expects heshall be able with sufficient certainty, through all the greatestvariety of seasons and the most irregular motions of the sea, to keeptime constantly, without the variation of so much as three seconds in aweek, --a degree of exactness that is astonishing and even stupendous, considering the immense number of difficulties, and those of verydifferent sorts, which the author of these inventions must have had toencounter and struggle withal. "

Although it is common enough now to make first-ratechronometers--sufficient to determine the longitude with almost perfectaccuracy in every clime of the world--it was very different at thattime, when Harrison was occupied with his laborious experiments. Although he considered his third machine to be the ne plus ultra ofscientific mechanism, he nevertheless proceeded to construct a fourthtimepiece, in the form of a pocket watch about five inches in diameter. He found the principles which he had adopted in his larger machinesapplied equally well in the smaller, and the performances of the lastsurpassed his utmost expectations. But in the meantime, as his thirdtimekeeper was, in his opinion, sufficient to supply the requirementsof the Board of Longitude as respected the highest reward offered, heapplied to the Commissioners for leave to try that instrument on boarda royal ship to some port in the West Indies, as directed by thestatute of Queen Anne. 

Though Harrison's third timekeeper was finished about the year 1758, itwas not until March 12, 1761, that he received orders for his sonWilliam to proceed to Portsmouth, and go on board the Dorsetshireman-of-war, to proceed to Jamaica. But another tedious delay occurred. The ship was ordered elsewhere, and William Harrison, after remainingfive months at Portsmouth, returned to London. By this time, JohnHarrison had finished his fourth timepiece--the small one, in the formof a watch. At length William Harrison set sail with this timekeeperfrom Portsmouth for Jamaica, on November 18th, 1761, in the Deptfordman-of-war. The Deptford had forty-three ships in convoy, and arrivedat Jamaica on the 19th of January, 1762, three days before the Beaver, another of His Majesty's ships-of-war, which had sailed from Portsmouthten days before the Deptford, but had lost her reckoning and beendeceived in her longitude, having trusted entirely to the log. Harrison's timepiece had corrected the log of the Deptford to theextent of three degrees of longitude, whilst several of the ships inthe fleet lost as much as five degrees! This shows the haphazard wayin which navigation was conducted previous to the invention of themarine chronometer. 

When the Deptford arrived at Port Royal, Jamaica, the timekeeper wasfound to be only five and one tenth seconds in error; and during thevoyage of four months, on its return to Portsmouth on March 26th, 1762, it was found (after allowing for the rate of gain or loss) to haveerred only one minute fifty-four and a half seconds. In the latitudeof Portsmouth this only amounted to eighteen geographical miles, whereas the Act had awarded that the prize should be given where thelongitude was determined within the distance of thirty geographicalmiles. One would have thought that Harrison was now clearly entitledto his reward of 20, 000L. 

Not at all! The delays interposed by Government are long and tedious, and sometimes insufferable. Harrison had accomplished more than wasneedful to obtain the highest reward which the Board of Longitude hadpublicly offered. But they would not certify that he had won theprize. On the contrary, they started numerous objections, andcontinued for years to subject him to vexatious delays anddisappointments. They pleaded that the previous determination of thelongitude of Jamaica by astronomical observation was unsatisfactory;that there was no proof of the chronometer having maintained a uniformrate during the voyage; and on the 17th of August, 1762, they passed aresolution, stating that they "were of opinion that the experimentsmade of the watch had not been sufficient to determine the longitude atsea. "

It was accordingly necessary for Harrison to petition Parliament on thesubject. Three reigns had come and gone since the Act of Parliamentoffering the reward had been passed. Anne had died; George I. AndGeorge II. Had reigned and died; and now, in the reign of GeorgeIII. --thirty-five years after Harrison had begun his labours, and afterhe had constructed four several marine chronometers, each of which wasentitled to win the full prize, --an Act of Parliament was passedenabling the inventor to obtain the sum of 5000L. As part of thereward. But the Commissioners still hesitated. They differed aboutthe tempering of the springs. They must have another trial of thetimekeeper, or anything with which to put off a settlement of theclaim. Harrison was ready for any further number of trials; and in themeantime the Commissioners merely paid him a further sum on account. 

Two more dreary years passed. Nothing was done in 1763 except aquantity of interminable talk at the Board of Commissioners. Atlength, on the 28th of March, 1764, Harrison's son again departed withthe timekeeper on board the ship Tartar for Barbadoes. He returned inabout four months, during which time the instrument enabled thelongitude to be ascertained within ten miles, or one-third of therequired geographical distance. Harrison memorialised theCommissioners again and again, in order that he might obtain the rewardpublicly offered by the Government. 

At length the Commissioners could no longer conceal the truth. InSeptember, 1764, they virtually recognised Harrison's claim by payinghim 1000L. On account; and, on the 9th of February, 1765, they passed aresolution setting forth that they were "unanimously of opinion thatthe said timekeeper has kept its time with sufficient correctness, without losing its longitude in the voyage from Portsmouth to Barbadoesbeyond the nearest limit required by the Act 12th of Queen Anne, buteven considerably within the same. " Yet they would not give Harrisonthe necessary certificate, though they were of opinion that he wasentitled to be paid the full reward!

It is pleasant to contrast the generous conduct of the King of Sardiniawith the procrastinating and illiberal spirit which Harrison met within his own country. During the same year in which the above resolutionwas passed, the Sardinian minister ordered four of Harrison'stimekeepers at the price of 1000L. Each, at the special instance of theKing of Sardinia "as an acknowledgement of Mr. Harrison's ingenuity, and as some recompense for the time spent by him for the general goodof mankind. " This grateful attention was all the more praiseworthy, asSardinia could not in any way be regarded as a great maritime power. 

Harrison was now becoming old and feeble. He had attained the age ofseventy-four. He had spent forty long years in working out hisinvention. He was losing his eyesight, and could not afford to waitmuch longer. Still he had to wait. 

 "Full little knowest thou, who hast not tried, What hell it is in suing long to bide; To lose good days, that might be better spent; To waste long nights in pensive discontent; To spend to-day, to be put back to-morrow, To feed on hope, to pine with fear and sorrow. "

But Harrison had not lost his spirit. On May 30th, 1765, he addressedanother remonstrance to the Board, containing much stronger languagethan he had yet used. "I cannot help thinking, " he said, "that I amextremely ill-used by gentlemen from whom I might have expected adifferent treatment; for, if the Act of the 12th of Queen Anne bedeficient, why have I so long been encouraged under it, in order tobring my invention to perfection? And, after the completion, why wasmy son sent twice to the West Indies? Had it been said to my son, whenhe received the last instruction, 'There will, in case you succeed, bea new Act on your return, in order to lay you under new restrictions, which were not thought of in the Act of the 12th of Queen Anne, '--Isay, had this been the case, I might have expected some such treatmentas that I now meet with. 

"It must be owned that my case is very hard; but I hope I am the first, and for my country's sake I hope I shall be the last, to suffer bypinning my faith upon an English Act of Parliament. Had I received myjust reward--for certainly it may be so called after forty years' closeapplication of the talent which it has pleased God to give me--then myinvention would have taken the course which all improvements in thisworld do; that is, I must have instructed workmen in its principles andexecution, which I should have been glad of an opportunity of doing. But how widely different this is from what is now proposed, viz. , forme to instruct people that I know nothing of, and such as may knownothing of mechanics; and, if I do not make them understand to theirsatisfaction, I may then have nothing!

"Hard fate indeed to me, but still harder to the world, which may bedeprived of this my invention, which must be the case, except by myopen and free manner in describing all the principles of it togentlemen and noblemen who almost at all times have had free recourseto my instruments. And if any of these workmen have been so ingeniousas to have got my invention, how far you may please to reward them fortheir piracy must be left for you to determine; and I must set myselfdown in old age, and thank God I can be more easy in that I have theconquest, and though I have no reward, than if I had come short of thematter and by some delusion had the reward!"

The Right Honourable the Earl of Egmont was in the chair of the Boardof Longitude on the day when this letter was read--June 13, 1765. TheCommissioners were somewhat startled by the tone which the inventor hadtaken. Indeed, they were rather angry. Mr. Harrison, who was inwaiting, was called in. After some rather hot speaking, and after aproposal was made to Harrison which he said he would decline to accedeto "so long as a drop of English blood remained in his body, " he leftthe room. Matters were at length arranged. The Act of Parliament (5Geo. III. Cap. 20) awarded him, upon a full discovery of the principlesof his time-keeper, the payment of such a sum, as with the 2500L. Hehad already received, would make one half of the reward; and theremaining half was to be paid when other chronometers had been madeafter his design, and their capabilities fully proved. He was alsorequired to assign his four chronometers--one of which was styled awatch--to the use of the public. 

Harrison at once proceeded to give full explanations of the principlesof his chronometer to Dr. Maskelyne, and six other gentlemen, who hadbeen appointed to receive them. He took his timekeeper to pieces intheir presence, and deposited in their hands correct drawings of thesame, with the parts, so that other skilful makers might constructsimilar chronometers on the same principles. Indeed, there was nodifficulty in making them; after his explanations and drawings had beenpublished. An exact copy of his last watch was made by the ingeniousMr. Kendal; and was used by Captain Cook in his three years'circumnavigation of the world, to his perfect satisfaction. 

England had already inaugurated that series of scientific expeditionswhich were to prove so fruitful of results, and to raise her navalreputation to so great a height. In these expeditions, the officers, the sailors, and the scientific men, were constantly brought face toface with unforeseen difficulties and dangers, which brought forththeir highest qualities as men. There was, however, some intermixtureof narrowness in the minds of those who sent them forth. For instance, while Dr. Priestley was at Leeds, he was asked by Sir Joseph Banks tojoin Captain Cook's second expedition to the Southern Seas, as anastronomer. Priestley gave his assent, and made arrangements to setout. But some weeks later, Banks informed him that his appointment hadbeen cancelled, as the Board of Longitude objected to his theology. Priestley's otherwise gentle nature was roused. "What I am, and whatthey are, in respect of religion, " he wrote to Banks, in December, 1771, "might easily have been known before the thing was proposed to meat all. Besides, I thought that this had been a business ofphilosophy, and not of divinity. If, however, this be the case, Ishall hold the Board of Longitude in extreme contempt. "

Captain Cook was appointed to the command of the Resolution, andCaptain Wallis to the command of the Adventure, in November, 1771. They proceeded to equip the ships; and amongst the other instrumentstaken on board Captain Cook's ship, were two timekeepers, one made byMr. Larcum Kendal, on Mr. Harrison's principles, and the other by Mr. John Arnold, on his own. The expedition left Deptford in April, 1772;and shortly afterwards sailed for the South Seas. "Mr. Kendal's watch"is the subject of frequent notices in Captain Cook's account. At theCape of Good Hope, it is said to have "answered beyond allexpectation. " Further south, in the neighbourhood of Cape Circumcision, he says, "the use of the telescope is found difficult at first, but alittle practice will make it familiar. By the assistance of the watchwe shall be able to discover the greatest error this method ofobserving the longitude at sea is liable to. " It was found thatHarrison's watch was more correct than Arnold's, and when near CapePalliser in New Zealand, Cook says, "this day at noon, when we attendedthe winding-up of the watches, the fusee of Mr. Arnold's would not turnround, so that after several unsuccessful trials we were obliged to letit go down. " From this time, complete reliance was placed uponHarrison's chronometer. Some time later, Cook says, "I must here takenotice that our longitude can never be erroneous while we have so gooda guide as Mr. Kendal's watch. " It may be observed, that at thebeginning of the voyage, observations were made by the lunar tables;but these, being found unreliable, were eventually discontinued. 

To return to Harrison. He continued to be worried by officialopposition. His claims were still unsatisfied. His watch at homeunderwent many more trials. Dr. Maskelyne, the Royal Astronomer, wascharged with being unfavourable to the success of chronometers, beingdeeply interested in finding the longitude by lunar tables; althoughthis method is now almost entirely superseded by the chronometer. Harrison accordingly could not get the certificate of what was due tohim under the Act of Parliament. Years passed before he could obtainthe remaining amount of his reward. It was not until the year 1773, orforty-five years after the commencement of his experiments, that hesucceeded in obtaining it. The following is an entry in the list ofsupplies granted by Parliament in that year: "June 14. To JohnHarrison, as a further reward and encouragement over and above the sumsalready received by him, for his invention of a timekeeper forascertaining the longitude at sea, and his discovery of the principlesupon which the same was constructed, 8570 pounds 0s. 0d. "

John Harrison did not long survive the settlement of his claims; for hedied on the 24th of March, 1776, at the age of eighty-three. He wasburied at the south-west corner of Hampstead parish churchyard, where atombstone was erected to his memory, and an inscription placed upon itcommemorating his services. His wife survived him only a year; shedied at seventy-two, and was buried in the same tomb. His son, WilliamHarrison, F. R. S. , a deputy-lientenant of the counties of Monmouth andMiddlesex, died in 1815, at the ripe age of eighty-eight, and was alsointerred there. The tomb having stood for more than a century, becamesomewhat dilapidated; when the Clock-makers' Company of the City ofLondon took steps in 1879 to reconstruct it, and recut theinscriptions. An appropriate ceremony took place at the finaluncovering of the tomb. 

But perhaps the most interesting works connected with John Harrison andthe great labour of his life, are the wooden clock at the SouthKensington Museum, and the four chronometers made by him for theGovernment, which are still preserved at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The three early ones are of great weight, and can scarcelybe moved without some bodily labour. But the fourth, the marinechronometer or watch, is of small dimensions, and is easily handled. It still possesses the power of going accurately; as does "Mr. Kendal'swatch, " which was made exactly after it. These will always prove thebest memorials of this distinguished workman. 

Before concluding this brief notice of the life and labours of JohnHarrison, it becomes me to thank most cordially Mr. Christie, Astronomer-Royal, for his kindness in exhibiting the variouschronometers deposited at the Greenwich Observatory, and for hispermission to inspect the minutes of the Board of Longitude, where thevarious interviews between the inventor and the commissioners, extending over many years, are faithfully but too procrastinatinglyrecorded. It may be finally said of John Harrison, that by hisinvention of the chronometer--the ever-sleepless and ever-trusty friendof the mariner--he conferred an incalculable benefit on science andnavigation, and established his claim to be regarded as one of thegreatest benefactors of mankind. 

POstscript. --In addition to the information contained in this chapter, I have been recently informed by the Rev. Mr. Sankey, vicar of Wragby, that the family is quite extinct in the parish, except the wife of aplumber, who claims relationship with Harrison. The representative ofthe Winn family was created Lord St. Oswald in 1885. Harrison is notquite forgotten at Foulby. The house in which he was born was a lowthatched cottage, with two rooms, one used as a living room, and theother as a sleeping room. The house was pulled down about forty yearsago; but the entrance door, being of strong, hard wood, is stillpreserved. The vicar adds that young Harrison would lie out on thegrass all night in summer time, studying the details of his woodenclock. 

Footnotes to Chapter III. 

[1] Originally published in Longmam's Magazine, but now rewritten andenlarged. 

[2] Popular Astronomy. By Simon Newcomb, LL. D. , Professor U. S. NavalObservatory. 

[3] Biographia Britannica, vol. Vi. Part 2, p. 4375. This volume waspublished in 1766, before the final reward had been granted to Harrison. 

[4] This clock is in the possession of Abraham Riley, of Bromley, nearLeeds. He informs us that the clock is made of wood throughout, excepting the escapement and the dial, which are made of brass. Itbears the mark of "John Harrison, 1713. "

[5] Harrison's compensation pendulum was afterwards improved by Arnold, Earnshaw, and other English makers. Dent's prismatic balance is nowconsidered the best. 

[6] See Mr. Folkes's speech to the Royal Soc. , 30th Nov. , 1749. 

[7] No trustworthy lunar tables existed at that time. It was not untilthe year 1753 that Tobias Mayer, a German, published the first lunartables which could be relied upon. For this, the British Governmentafterwards awarded to Mayer's widow the sum of 5000L. 

[8] Sir Isaac Newton gave his design to Edmund Halley, thenAstronomer-Royal. Halley laid it on one side, and it was found amonghis papers after his death in 1742, twenty-five years after the deathof Newton. A similar omission was made by Sir G. B. Airy, which led tothe discovery of Neptune being attributed to Leverrier instead of toAdams. 

CHAPTER IV. 

JOHN LOMBE: INTRODUCER OF THE SILK INDUSTRY INTO ENGLAND. 

"By Commerce are acquired the two things which wise men accompt of allothers the most necessary to the well-being of a Commonwealth: That isto say, a general Industry of Mind and Hardiness of Body, which neverfail to be accompanyed with Honour and Plenty. So that, questionless, when Commerce does not flourish, as well as other Professions, and whenParticular Persons out of a habit of Laziness neglect at once thenoblest way of employing their time and the fairest occasion foradvancing their fortunes, that Kingdom, though otherwise never soglorious, wants something of being compleatly happy. "--A Treatisetouching the East India Trade (1695). 

Industry puts an entirely new face upon the productions of nature. Bylabour man has subjugated the world, reduced it to his dominion, andclothed the earth with a new garment. The first rude plough that manthrust into the soil, the first rude axe of stone with which he felledthe pine, the first rude canoe scooped by him from its trunk to crossthe river and reach the greener fields beyond, were each the outcome ofa human faculty which brought within his reach some physical comfort hehad never enjoyed before. 

Material things became subject to the influence of labour. From theclay of the ground, man manufactured the vessels which were to containhis food. Out of the fleecy covering of sheep, he made clothes forhimself of many kinds; from the flax plant he drew its fibres, and madelinen and cambric; from the hemp plant he made ropes and fishing nets;from the cotton pod he fabricated fustians, dimities, and calicoes. From the rags of these, or from weed and the shavings of wood, he madepaper on which books and newspapers were printed. Lead was formed byhim into printer's type, for the communication of knowledge without end. 

But the most extraordinary changes of all were made in a heavy stonecontaining metal, dug out of the ground. With this, when smelted bywood or coal, and manipulated by experienced skill, iron was produced. From this extraordinary metal, the soul of every manufacture, and themainspring perhaps of civilised society--arms, hammers, and axes weremade; then knives, scissors, and needles; then machinery to hold andcontrol the prodigious force of steam; and eventually railroads andlocomotives, ironclads propelled by the screw, and iron and steelbridges miles in length. 

The silk manufacture, though originating in the secretion of a tinycaterpillar, is perhaps equally extraordinary. Hundreds of thousandsof pounds weight of this slender thread, no thicker than the filamentsspun by a spider, give employment to millions of workers throughout theworld. Silk, and the many textures wrought from this beautifulmaterial, had long been known in the East; but the period cannot befixed when man first divested the chrysalis of its dwelling, anddiscovered that the little yellow ball which adhered to the leaf of themulberry tree, could be evolved into a slender filament, from whichtissues of endless variety and beauty could be made. The Chinese weredoubtless among the first who used the thread spun by the silkworm forthe purposes of clothing. The manufacture went westward from China toIndia and Persia, and from thence to Europe. Alexander the Greatbrought home with him a store of rich silks from Persia Aristotle andPliny give descriptions of the industrious little worm and itsproductions. Virgil is the first of the Roman writers who alludes tothe production of silk in China; and the terms he employs show howlittle was then known about the article. It was introduced at Romeabout the time of Julius Caesar, who displayed a profusion of silks insome of his magnificent theatrical spectacles. Silk was so valuablethat it was then sold for an equal weight of gold. Indeed, a law waspassed that no man should disgrace himself by wearing a silken garment. The Emperor Heliogabalus despised the law, and wore a dress composedwholly of silk. The example thus set was followed by wealthy citizens. A demand for silk from the East soon became general. 

It was not until about the middle of the sixth century that two Persianmonks, who had long resided in China, and made themselves acquaintedwith the mode of rearing the silkworm, succeeded in carrying the eggsof the insect to Constantinople. Under their direction they werehatched and fed. A sufficient number of butterflies were saved topropagate the race, and mulberry trees were planted to affordnourishment to the rising generations of caterpillars. Thus theindustry was propagated. It spread into the Italian peninsula; andeventually manufactures of silk velvet, damask, and satin becameestablished in Venice, Milan, Florence, Lucca, and other places. 

Indeed, for several centuries the manufacture of silk in Europe was forthe most part confined to Italy. The rearing of silkworms was of greatimportance in Modena, and yielded a considerable revenue to the State. The silk produced there was esteemed the best in Lombardy. Until thebeginning of the sixteenth century, Bologna was the only city whichpossessed proper "throwing" mills, or the machinery requisite fortwisting and preparing silken fibres for the weaver. Thousands ofpeople were employed at Florence and Genoa about the same time in thesilk manufacture. And at Venice it was held in such high esteem, thatthe business of a silk factory was considered a noble employment. [1]

It was long before the use of silk became general in England. "Silk, "said an old writer, "does not immediately come hither from the Wormthat spins and makes it, but passes many a Climate, travels many aDesert, employs many a Hand, loads many a Camel, and freights many aShip before it arrives here; and when at last it comes, it is in returnfor other manufactures, or in exchange for our money. "[2] It is saidthat the first pair of silk stockings was brought into England fromSpain, and presented to Henry VIII. He had before worn hose of cloth. In the third year of Queen Elizabeth's reign, her tiring woman, Mrs. Montagu, presented her with a pair of black silk stockings as a NewYear's gift; whereupon her Majesty asked if she could have any more, inwhich case she would wear no more cloth stockings. When James VI. OfScotland received the ambassadors sent to congratulate him upon hisaccession to the throne of Great Britain, he asked one of his lords tolend him his pair of silken hose, that he "might not appear a scrubbefore strangers. " From these circumstances it will be observed howrare the wearing of silk was in England. 

Shortly after becoming king, James I. Endeavoured to establish the silkmanufacture in England, as had already been successfully done inFrance. He gave every encouragement to the breeding of silkworms. Hesent circular letters to all the counties of England, stronglyrecommending the inhabitants to plant mulberry trees. The trees wereplanted in many places, but the leaves did not ripen in sufficient timefor the sustenance of the silkworms. 

The same attempt was made at Inneshannon, near Bandon, in Ireland, bythe Hugnenot refugees, but proved abortive. The climate proved toocold or damp for the rearing of silkworms with advantage. All thatremains is "The Mulberry Field, " which still retains its name. Nevertheless the Huguenots successfully established the silkmanufacture at London and Dublin, obtaining the spun silk from abroad. 

Down to the beginning of last century, the Italians were the principalproducers of organzine or thrown silk; and for a long time theysucceeded in keeping their art a secret. Although the silkmanufacture, as we have seen, was introduced into this country by theHuguenot artizans, the price of thrown silk was so great that itinterfered very considerably with its progress. Organzine wasprincipally made within the dominions of Savoy, by means of a large andcurious engine, the like of which did not exist elsewhere. TheItalians, by the most severe laws, long preserved the mystery of theinvention. The punishment prescribed by one of their laws to beinflicted upon anyone who discovered the secret, or attempted to carryit out of the Sardinian dominions, was death, with the forfeiture ofall the goods the delinquent possessed; and the culprit was "to beafterwards painted on the outside of the prison walls, hanging to thegallows by one foot, with an inscription denoting the name and crime ofthe person, there to be continued for a perpetual mark of infamy. "[3]

Nevertheless, a bold and ingenious man was found ready to brave allthis danger in the endeavour to discover the secret. It may beremembered with what courage and determination the founder of the Foleyfamily introduced the manufacture of nails into England. He went intothe Danemora mine district, near Upsala in Sweden, fiddling his wayamong the miners; and after making two voyages, he at last wrested fromthem the secret of making nails, and introduced the new industry intothe Staffordshire district. [4] The courage of John Lombe, whointroduced the thrown-silk industry into England, was equally notable. He was a native of Norwich. Playfair, in his 'Family Antiquity' (vii. 312), says his name "may have been taken from the French Lolme, or deLolme, " as there were many persons of French and Flemish origin settledat Norwich towards the close of the sixteenth century; but there is nofurther information as to his special origin. 

John Lombe's father, Henry Lombe, was a worsted weaver, and was twicemarried. By his first wife he had two sons, Thomas and Henry; and byhis second, he had also two sons, Benjamin and John. At his death in1695, he left his two brothers his "supervisors, " or trustees, anddirected them to educate his children in due time to some useful trade. Thomas, the eldest son, went to London. He was apprenticed to a trade, and succeeded in business, as we find him Sheriff of London andMiddlesex in 1727, when in his forty-second year. He was also knightedin the same year, most probably on the accession of George II. To thethrone. 

John, the youngest son of the family, and half-brother of Thomas, wasput an apprentice to a trade. In 1702, we find him at Derby, workingas a mechanic with one Mr. Crotchet. This unfortunate gentlemanstarted a small silk-mill at Derby, with the object of participating inthe profits derived from the manufacture. 

"The wear of silks, " says Hutton, in his 'History of Derby, ' "was thetaste of the ladies, and the British merchant was obliged to apply tothe Italian with ready money for the article at an exorbitant price. "Crotchet did not succeed in his undertaking. "Three engines were foundnecessary for the process: he had but one. An untoward trade is adreadful sink for money; and an imprudent tradesman is still moredreadful. We often see instances where a fortune would last a man muchlonger if he lived upon his capital, than if he sent it into trade. Crotchet soon became insolvent. "

John Lombe, who had been a mechanic in Crotchet's silk mill, lost hissituation accordingly. But he seems to have been possessed by anintense desire to ascertain the Italian method of silk-throwing. Hecould not learn it in England. There was no other method but going toItaly, getting into a silk mill, and learning the secret of the Italianart. He was a good mechanic and a clever draughtsman, besides beingintelligent and fearless. 

But he had not the necessary money wherewith to proceed to Italy. 

His half-brother Thomas, however, was doing well in London, and waswilling to help him with the requisite means. Accordingly, John setout for Italy, not long after the failure of Crotchet. 

John Lombe succeeded in getting employment in a silk mill in Piedmont, where the art of silk-throwing was kept a secret. He was employed as amechanic, and had thus an opportunity, in course of time, of becomingfamiliar with the operation of the engine. Hutton says that he bribedthe workmen; but this would have been a dangerous step, and wouldprobably have led to his expulsion, if not to his execution. Huttonhad a great detestation of the first silk factory at Derby, where hewas employed when a boy; and everything that he says about it must betaken cum grano salis. When the subject of renewing the patent wasbefore Parliament in 1731, Mr. Perry, who supported the petition of SirThomas Lombe, said that "the art had been kept so secret in Piedmont, that no other nation could ever yet come at the invention, and that SirThomas and his brother resolved to make an attempt for the bringing ofthis invention into their own country. They knew that there would begreat difficulty and danger in the undertaking, because the king ofSardinia had made it death for any man to discover this invention, orattempt to carry it out of his dominions. The petitioner's brother, however, resolved to venture his person for the benefit and advantageof his native country, and Sir Thomas was resolved to venture hismoney, and to furnish his brother with whatever sums should benecessary for executing so bold and so generous a design. His brotherwent accordingly over to Italy; and after a long stay and a greatexpense in that country, he found means to see this engine so often, and to pry into the nature of it so narrowly, that he made himselfmaster of the whole invention and of all the different parts andmotions belonging to it. "

John Lombe was absent from England for several years. While occupiedwith his investigations and making his drawings, it is said that itbegan to be rumoured that the Englishman was prying into the secret ofthe silk mill, and that he had to fly for his life. However this maybe, he got on board an English ship, and returned to England in safety. He brought two Italian workmen with him, accustomed to the secrets ofthe silk trade. He arrived in London in 1716, when, after conferringwith his brother, a specification was prepared and a patent for theorganzining of raw silk was taken out in 1718. The patent was grantedfor fourteen years. 

In the meantime, John Lombe arranged with the Corporation of the townof Derby for taking a lease of the island or swamp on the riverDerwent, at a ground rental of 8L. A year. The island, which was wellsituated for water-power, was 500 feet long and 52 feet wide. Arrangements were at once made for erecting a silk mill thereon, thefirst large factory in England. It was constructed entirely at theexpense of his brother Thomas. While the building was in progress, John Lombe hired various rooms in Derby, and particularly the TownHall, where he erected temporary engines turned by hand, and gaveemployment to a large number of poor people. 

At length, after about three years' labour, the great silk mill wascompleted. It was founded upon huge piles of oak, from 16 to 20 feetlong, driven into the swamp close to each other by an engine made forthe purpose. The building was five stories high, contained eight largeapartments, and had no fewer than 468 windows. The Lombes must havehad great confidence in their speculation, as the building and thegreat engine for making the organzine silk, together with the otherfittings, cost them about 30, 000L. 

One effect of the working of the mill was greatly to reduce the priceof the thrown-silk, and to bring it below the cost of the Italianproduction. The King of Sardinia, having heard of the success of theLombe's undertaking, prohibited the exportation of Piedmontese rawsilk, which interrupted the course of their prosperity, until meanswere taken to find a renewed supply elsewhere. 

And now comes the tragic part of the story, for which Mr. Hutton, theauthor of the 'History of Derby, ' is responsible. As he worked in thesilk mill when a boy, from 1730 to 1737, he doubtless heard it from themill-hands, and there may be some truth in it, though mixed with alittle romance. It is this:--

Hutton says of John Lombe, that he "had not pursued this lucrativecommerce more than three or four years when the Italians, who felt theeffects from their want of trade, determined his destruction, and hopedthat that of his works would follow. An artful woman came over in thecharacter of a friend, associated with the parties, and assisted in thebusiness. She attempted to gain both the Italian workmen, andsucceeded with one. By these two slow poison was supposed, and perhapsjustly, to have been administered to John Lombe, who lingered two orthree years in agony, and departed. The Italian ran away to his owncountry; and Madam was interrogated, but nothing transpired, exceptwhat strengthened suspicion. " A strange story, if true. 

Of the funeral, Hutton says:--"John Lombe's was the most superb everknown in Derby. A man of peaceable deportment, who had brought abeneficial manufactory into the place, employed the poor, and atadvanced wages, could not fail meeting with respect, and his melancholyend with pity. Exclusive of the gentlemen who attended, all the peopleconcerned in the works were invited. The procession marched in pairs, and extended the length of Full Street, the market-place, andIron-gate; so that when the corpse entered All Saints, at St. Mary'sGate, the last couple left the house of the deceased, at the corner ofSilk-mill Lane. "

Thus John Lombe died and was buried at the early age of twenty-nine;and Thomas, the capitalist, continued the owner of the Derby silk mill. Hutton erroneously states that William succeeded, and that he shothimself. The Lombes had no brother of the name of William, and thispart of Hutton's story is a romance. 

The affairs of the Derby silk mill went on prosperously. Enough thrownsilk was manufactured to supply the trade, and the weaving of silkbecame a thriving business. Indeed, English silk began to have aEuropean reputation. In olden times it was said that "the strangerbuys of the Englishman the case of the fox for a groat, and sells himthe tail again for a shilling. " But now the matter was reversed, andthe saying was, "The Englishman buys silk of the stranger for twentymarks, and sells him the same again for one hundred pounds. "

But the patent was about to expire. It had been granted for onlyfourteen years; and a long time had elapsed before the engine could beput in operation, and the organzine manufactured. It was the onlyengine in the kingdom. Joshua Gee, writing in 1731, says: "As we havebut one Water Engine in the kingdom for throwing silk, if that shouldbe destroyed by fire or any other accident, it would make thecontinuance of throwing fine silk very precarious; and it is very muchto be doubted whether all the men now living in the kingdom could makeanother. " Gee accordingly recommended that three or four more shouldbe erected at the public expense, "according to the model of that atDerby. "[5]

The patent expired in 1732. The year before, Sir Thomas Lombe, who hadbeen by this time knighted, applied to Parliament for a prolongation ofthe patent. The reasons for his appeal were principally these: thatbefore he could provide for the full supply of other silk proper forhis purpose (the Italians having prohibited the exportation of rawsilk), and before he could alter his engine, train up a sufficientnumber of workpeople, and bring the manufacture to perfection, almostall the fourteen years of his patent right would have expired. "Therefore, " the petition to Parliament concluded, "as he has nothitherto received the intended benefit of the aforesaid patent, and inconsideration of the extraordinary nature of this undertaking, the verygreat expense, hazard, and difficulty he has undergone, as well as theadvantage he has thereby procured to the nation at his own expense, thesaid Sir Thomas Lombe humbly hopes that Parliament will grant him afurther term for the sole making and using his engines, or such otherrecompense as in their wisdom shall seem meet. "[6]

The petition was referred to a Committee. After consideration, theyrecommended the House of Commons to grant a further term of years toSir Thomas Lombe. The advisers of the King, however, thought it betterthat the patent should not be renewed, but that the trade in silkshould be thrown free to all. Accordingly the Chancellor of theExchequer acquainted the House (14th March, 1731) that "His Majestyhaving been informed of the case of Sir Thomas Lombe, with respect tohis engine for making organzine silk, had commanded him to acquaintthis House, that His Majesty recommended to their consideration themaking such provision for a recompense to Sir Thomas Lombe as theyshall think proper. "

The result was, that the sum of 14, 000L. Was voted and paid to SirThomas Lombe as "a reward for his eminent services done to the nation, in discovering with the greatest hazard and difficulty the capitalItalian engines, and introducing and bringing the same to fullperfection in this kingdom, at his own great expense. "[7] The tradewas accordingly thrown open. Silk mills were erected at Stockport andelsewhere; Hutton says that divers additional mills were erected inDerby; and a large and thriving trade was established. In 1850, thenumber employed in the silk manufacture exceeded a million persons. The old mill has recently become disused. Although supported by strongwooden supports, it showed signs of falling; and it was replaced by alarger mill, more suitable to modern requirements. 

Footnotes for Chapter IV. 

[1] "This was equally the case with two other trades;--those ofglass-maker and druggist, which brought no contamination upon nobilityin Venice. In a country where wealth was concentrated in the hands ofthe powerful, it was no doubt highly judicious thus to encourage itsemployment for objects of public advantage. A feeling, more or lesspowerful, has always existed in the minds of the high-born, against theemployment of their time and wealth to purposes of commerce ormanufactures. All trades, save only that of war, seem to have beenheld by them as in some sort degrading, and but little comporting withthe dignity of aristocratic blood. " Cabinet Cyclopedia--SilkManufacture, p. 20. 

[2] A Brief State of the Inland or Home Trade. (Pamphlet. ) 1730. 

[3] A Brief State of the Case relating to the Machine erected at Derbyfor making Italian Organzine Silk, which was discovered and broughtinto England with the utmost difficulty and hazard, and at the SoleExpense of Sir Thomas Lombe. House of Commons Paper, 28th January, 1731. 

[4] Self-Help, p. 205. 

[5] The Trade and Navigation of Great Britain considered, p. 94. 

[6] The petition sets forth the merits of the machine at Derby formaking Italian organzine silk--"a manufacture made out of fine rawsilk, by reducing it to a hard twisted fine and even thread. This silkmakes the warp, and is absolutely necessary to mix with and cover theTurkey and other coarser silks thrown here, which are used forShute, --so that, without a constant supply of this fine Italianorganzine silk, very little of the said Turkey or other silks could beused, nor could the silk weaving trade be carried on in England. ThisItalian organzine (or thrown) silk has in all times past been boughtwith our money, ready made (or worked) in Italy, for want of the art ofmaking it here. Whereas now, by making it ourselves out of fineItalian raw silk, the nation saves near one-third part; and by what wemake out of fine China raw silk, above one-half of the price we pay forit ready worked in Italy. The machine at Derby contains 97, 746 wheels, movements, and individual parts (which work day and night), all whichreceive their motion from one large water-wheel, are governed by oneregulator, and it employs about 300 persons to attend and supply itwith work. " In Bees Cyclopaedia (art. 'Silk Manufacture') there is afull description of the Piedmont throwing machine introduced to Englandby John Lombe, with a good plate of it. 

[7] Sir Thomas Lombe died in 1738. He had two daughters. The first, Hannah, was married to Sir Robert Clifton, of Clifton, co. Notts; thesecond, Mary Turner, was married to James, 7th Earl of Lauderdale. Inhis will, he "recommends his wife, at the conclusion of the Darbyconcern, " to distribute among his "principal servants or managers fiveor six hundred pounds. "

CHAPTER V. 

WILLIAM MURDOCK: HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS. 

"Justice exacts, that those by whom we are most benefited Should bemost admired. "--Dr. Johnson. 

"The beginning of civilization is the discovery of some useful arts, bywhich men acquire property, comforts, or luxuries. The necessity ordesire of preserving them leads to laws and social institutions... Inreality, the origin as well as the progress and improvement of civilsociety is founded on mechanical and chemical inventions. "--Sir HumphryDavy. 

At the middle of last century, Scotland was a very poor country. Itconsisted mostly of mountain and moorland; and the little arable landit contained was badly cultivated. Agriculture was almost a lost art. "Except in a few instances, " says a writer in the 'Farmers' Magazine'of 1803, "Scotland was little better than a barren waste. " Cattlecould with difficulty be kept alive; and the people in some parts ofthe country were often on the brink of starvation. The people werehopeless, miserable, and without spirit, like the Irish in their veryworst times. After the wreck of the Darien expedition, there seemed tobe neither skill, enterprise, nor money left in the country. Whatresources it contained were altogether undeveloped. There was littlecommunication between one place and another, and such roads as existedwere for the greater part of the year simply impassable. 

There were various opinions as to the causes of this frightful state ofthings. Some thought it was the Union between England and Scotland;and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, "The Patriot, " as he was called, urgedits Repeal. In one of his publications, he endeavoured to show thatabout one-sixth of the population of Scotland was in a state ofbeggary--two hundred thousand vagabonds begging from door to door, orrobbing and plundering people as poor as themselves. [1] Fletcher wasaccordingly as great a repealer as Daniel O'Connell in after times. But he could not get the people to combine. There were others who helda different opinion. They thought that something might be done by thepeople themselves to extricate the country from its miserable condition. 

It still possessed some important elements of prosperity. Theinhabitants of Scotland, though poor, were strong and able to work. The land, though cold and sterile, was capable of cultivation. 

Accordingly, about the middle of last century, some important stepswere taken to improve the general condition of things. A fewpublic-spirited landowners led the way, and formed themselves into asociety for carrying out improvements in agriculture. They granted longleases of farms as a stimulus to the most skilled and industrious, andfound it to their interest to give the farmer a more permanent interestin his improvements than he had before enjoyed. Thus stimulated andencouraged, farming made rapid progress, especially in the Lothians;and the example spread into other districts. Banks were establishedfor the storage of capital. Roads were improved, and communicationsincreased between one part of the country and another. Hence trade andcommerce arose, by reason of the facilities afforded for theinterchange of traffic. The people, being fairly educated by theparish schools, were able to take advantage of these improvements. Sloth and idleness gradually disappeared, before the energy, activity, and industry which were called into life by the improved communications. 

At the same time, active and powerful minds were occupied in extendingthe domain of knowledge. Black and Robison, of Glasgow, were theprecursors of James Watt, whose invention of the condensingsteam-engine was yet to produce a revolution in industrial operations, the like of which had never before been known. Watt had hit upon hisgreat idea while experimenting with an old Newcomen model whichbelonged to the University of Glasgow. He was invited by Mr. Roebuckof Kinneil to make a working steam-engine for the purpose of pumpingwater from the coal-pits at Boroughstoness; but his progress wasstopped by want of capital, as well as by want of experience. It wasnot until the brave and generous Matthew Boulton of Birmingham took upthe machine, and backed Watt with his capital and his spirit, thatWatt's enterprise had the remotest chance of success. Even after abouttwelve years' effort, the condensing steam-engine was only beginning, though half-heartedly, to be taken up and employed by collieryproprietors and cotton manufacturers. In developing its powers, andextending its uses, the great merits of William Murdock can never beforgotten. Watt stands first in its history, as the inventor; Boultonsecond, as its promoter and supporter; and Murdock third, as itsdeveloper and improver. 

William Murdock was born on the 21st of August, 1754, at Bellow Mill, in the parish of Auchinleck, Ayrshire. His father, John, was a millerand millwright, as well as a farmer. His mother's maiden name wasBruce, and she used to boast of being descended from Robert Bruce, thedeliverer of Scotland. The Murdocks, or Murdochs--for the name wasspelt in either way--were numerous in the neighbourhood, and they werenearly all related to each other. They are supposed to have originallycome into the district from Flanders, between which country andScotland a considerable intercourse existed in the middle ages. Someof the Murdocks took a leading part in the construction of the abbeysand cathedrals of the North;[2] others were known as mechanics; but thegreater number were farmers. 

One of the best known members of the family was John Murdock, the poetBurns' first teacher. Burns went to his school at Alloway Mill, whenhe was six years old. There he learnt to read and write. When Murdockafterwards set up a school at Ayr, Burns, who was then fifteen, went toboard with him. In a letter to a correspondent, Murdock said: "In1773, Robert Burns came to board and lodge with me, for the purpose ofrevising his English grammar, that he might be better qualified toinstruct his brothers and sisters at home. He was now with me day andnight, in school, at all meals, and in all my walks. " The pupil evenshared the teacher's bed at night. Murdock lent the boy books, andhelped the cultivation of his mind in many ways. Burns soon revisedhis English grammar, and learnt French, as well as a little Latin. Some time after, Murdock removed to London, and had the honour ofteaching Talleyrand English during his residence as an emigrant in thiscountry. He continued to have the greatest respect for his formerpupil, whose poetry commemorated the beauties of his native district. 

It may be mentioned that Bellow Mill is situated on the Bellow Water, near where it joins the river Lugar. One of Burns' finest songsbegins:--

 "Behind yon hills where Lugar flows. "

That was the scene of William Murdock's boyhood. When a boy, he herdedhis father's cows along the banks of the Bellow; and as there were thenno hedges, it was necessary to have some one to watch the cattle whilegrazing. The spot is still pointed out where the boy, in theintervals of his herding, hewed a square compartment out of the rock bythe water side, and there burnt the splint coal found on the top of theBlack Band ironstone. That was one of the undeveloped industries ofScotland; for the Scotch iron trade did not arrive at any considerableimportance until about a century later. [3] The little cavern in whichMurdock burnt the splint coal was provided with a fireplace and vent, all complete. It is possible that he may have there derived, from hisexperiments, the first idea of Gas as an illuminant. 

Murdock is also said to have made a wooden horse, worked by mechanicalpower, which was the wonder of the district. On this mechanical horsehe rode to the village of Cumnock, about two miles distant. Hisfather's name is, however, associated with his own in the production ofthis machine. Old John Murdock had a reputation for intelligence andskill of no ordinary kind. When at Carron ironworks, in 1760, he had apinton cast after a pattern which he had prepared. This is said tohave been the first piece of iron-toothed gearing ever used in millwork. When I last saw it, the pinton was placed on the lawn in frontof William Murdock's villa at Handsworth. 

The young man helped his father in many ways. He worked in the mill, worked on the farm, and assisted in the preparation of mill machinery. In this way he obtained a considerable amount of general technicalknowledge. He even designed and constructed bridges. He was employedto build a bridge over the river Nith, near Dumfries, and it standsthere to this day, a solid and handsome structure. But he had anambition to be something more than a country mason. He had heard agreat deal about the inventions of James Watt; and he determined to trywhether he could not get "a job" at the famous manufactory at Soho. Heaccordingly left his native place in the year 1777, in the twenty-thirdyear of his age; and migrated southward. He left plenty of Murdocksbehind him. There was a famous staff in the family, originally ownedby William Murdock's grandfather, which bore the following inscription:"This staff I leave in pedigree to the oldest Murdock after me, in theparish of Auchenleck, 1745. " This staff was lately held by JeanMurdock, daughter of the late William Murdock, joiner, cousin of thesubject of this biography. 

When William arrived at Soho in 1777 he called at the works to ask foremployment. Watt was then in Cornwall, looking after his pumpingengines; but he saw Boulton, who was usually accessible to callers ofevery rank. In answer to Murdock's enquiry whether he could have ajob, Boulton replied that work was very slack with them, and that everyplace was filled up. During the brief conversation that took place, the blate young Scotchman, like most country lads in the presence ofstrangers, had some difficulty in knowing what to do with his hands, and unconsciously kept twirling his hat with them. Boulton's attentionwas attracted to the twirling hat, which seemed to be of a peculiarmake. It was not a felt hat, nor a cloth hat, nor a glazed hat: but itseemed to be painted, and composed of some unusual material. "Thatseems to be a curious sort of hat, " said Boulton, looking at it moreclosely; "what is it made of?" "Timmer, sir, " said Murdock, modestly. "Timmer? Do you mean to say that it is made of wood?" "'Deed it is, sir. " "And pray how was it made?" "I made it mysel, sir, in a bitlaithey of my own contrivin'. " "Indeed!"

Boulton looked at the young man again. He had risen a hundred degreesin his estimation. William was a good-looking fellow--tall, strong, and handsome--with an open intelligent countenance. Besides, he hadbeen able to turn a hat for himself with a lathe of his ownconstruction. This, of itself, was a sufficient proof that he was amechanic of no mean skill. "Well!" said Boulton, at last, "I willenquire at the works, and see if there is anything we can set you to. Call again, my man. "

"Thank you, sir, " said Murdock, giving a final twirl to his hat. 

Such was the beginning of William Murdock's connection with the firm ofBoulton and Watt. When he called again he was put upon a trial job, and then, as he was found satisfactory, he was engaged for two years at15s. A week when at home, 17s. When in the country, and 18s. When inLondon. Boulton's engagement of Murdock was amply justified by theresult. Beginning as an ordinary mechanic, he applied himselfdiligently and conscientiously to his work, and gradually becametrusted. More responsible duties were confided to him, and he stroveto perform them to the best of his power. His industry, skilfulness, and steady sobriety, soon marked him for promotion, and he rose fromgrade to grade until he became Boulton and Watt's most trustedco-worker and adviser in all their mechanical undertakings ofimportance. 

Watt himself had little confidence in Scotchmen as mechanics. He toldSir Waiter Scott that though many of them sought employment at hisworks, he could never get any of them to become first-rate workmen. They might be valuable as clerks and book-keepers, but they had aninsuperable aversion to toiling long at any point of mechanism, so asto earn the highest wages paid to the workmen. [4] The reason no doubtwas, that the working-people of Scotland were then only in course ofeducation as practical mechanics; and now that they have had acentury's discipline of work and technical training, the result isaltogether different, as the engine-shops and shipbuilding-yards of theClyde abundantly prove. Mechanical power and technical ability are theresult of training, like many other things. 

When Boulton engaged Murdock, as we have said, Watt was absent inCornwall, looking after the pumping-engines which had been erected atseveral of the mines throughout that county. The partnership had onlybeen in existence for three years, and Watt was still struggling withthe difficulties which he had to surmount in getting the steam engineinto practical use. His health was bad, and he was oppressed withfrightful headaches. He was not the man to fight the selfishness of theCornish adventurers. "A little more of this hurrying and vexation, " hesaid, "will knock me up altogether. " Boulton went to his helpoccasionally, and gave him hope and courage. And at length WilliamMurdock, after he had acquired sufficient knowledge of the business, was able to undertake the principal management of the engines inCornwall. 

We find that in 1779, when he was only twenty-five years old, he wasplaced in this important position. When he went into Cornwall, he gavehimself no rest until he had conquered the defects of the engines, andput them into thorough working order. 

He devoted himself to his duties with a zeal and ability thatcompletely won Watt's heart. When he had an important job in hand, hecould scarcely sleep. One night at his lodgings at Redruth, the peoplewere disturbed by a strange noise in his room. Several heavy blowswere heard upon the floor. They started from their beds, rushed toMurdock's room, and found him standing in his shirt, heaving at thebedpost in his sleep, shouting "Now she goes, lads! now she goes!"

Murdock became a most popular man with the mine owners. He also becamefriendly with the Cornish workmen and engineers. Indeed, he fought hisway to their affections. One day, some half-dozen of the miningcaptains came into his engine-room at Chacewater, and began to bullyhim. This he could not stand. He stript, selected the biggest, andput himself into a fighting attitude. They set to, and in a few minutesMurdock's powerful bones and muscles enabled him to achieve thevictory. The other men, who had looked on fairly, without interfering, seeing the temper and vigour of the man they had bullied, madeovertures of reconciliation. William was quite willing to be friendly. Accordingly they shook hands all round, and parted the best of friends. It is also said that Murdock afterwards fought a duel with CaptainTrevethick, because of a quarrel between Watt and the mining engineer, in which Murdock conceived his master to have been unfairly and harshlytreated. [5]

The uses of Watt's steam-engine began to be recognised as available formanufacturing purposes. It was then found necessary to invent somemethod by which continuous rotary motion should be secured, so as toturn round the moving machinery of mills. With this object Watt hadinvented his original wheel-engine. But no steps were taken tointroduce it into practical use. At length he prepared a model, inwhich he made use of a crank connected with the working beam of theengine, so as to produce the necessary rotary motion. 

There was no originality in this application. The crank was one of themost common of mechanical appliances. It was in daily use in everyspinning wheel, and in every turner's and knife-grinder's foot-lathe. Watt did not take out a patent for the crank, not believing it to bepatentable. But another person did so, thereby anticipating Watt inthe application of the crank for producing rotary motion. He hadtherefore to employ some other method, and in the new contrivance hehad the valuable help of William Murdock. Watt devised five differentmethods of securing rotary motion without using the crank, buteventually he adopted the "Sun-and-planet motion, " the invention ofMurdock. This had the singular property of going twice round for everystroke of the engine, and might be made to go round much oftenerwithout additional machinery. The invention was patented in February, 1782, five Years after Murdock had entered the service of Boulton andWatt. 

Murdock continued for many years busily occupied in superintending theCornish steam-engines. We find him described by his employers as"flying from mine to mine, " putting the engines to rights. If anythingwent wrong, he was immediately sent for. He was active, quick-sighted, shrewd, sober, and thoroughly trustworthy. Down to the year 1780, hiswages were only a pound a week; but Boulton made him a present of tenguineas, to which the owners of the United Mines added another ten, inacknowledgment of the admirable manner in which he bad erected theirnew engine, the chairman of the company declaring that he was "the mostobliging and industrious workman he had ever known. " That he securedthe admiration of the Cornish engineers may be obvious from the fact ofMr. Boaze having invited him to join in an engineering partnership; butMurdock remained loyal to the Birmingham firm, and in due time he hadhis reward. 

He continued to be the "right hand man" of the concern in Cornwall. Boulton wrote to Watt, towards the end of 1782: "Murdock hath beenindefatigable ever since he began. He has scarcely been in bed ortaken necessary food. After slaving night and day on Thursday andFriday, a letter came from Wheal Virgin that he must go instantly toset their engine to work, or they would let out the fire. He went andset the engine to work; it worked well for the five or six hours heremained. He left it, and returned to the Consolidated Mines abouteleven at night, and was employed about the engines till four thismorning, and then went to bed. I found him at ten this morning inPoldice Cistern, seeking for pins and castors that had jumped out, whenI insisted on his going home to bed. "

On one occasion, when an engine superintended by Murdock stoppedthrough some accident, the water rose in the mine, and the workmen were"drowned out. " Upon this occurring, the miners went "roaring at him"for throwing them out of work, and threatened to tear him to pieces. Nothing daunted, he went through the midst of the men, repaired theinvalided engine, and started it afresh. 

When he came out of the engine-house, the miners cheered himvociferously and insisted upon carrying him home upon their shouldersin triumph!

Steam was now asserting its power everywhere. It was pumping waterfrom the mines in Cornwall and driving the mills of the manufacturersin Lancashire. Speculative mechanics began to consider whether itmight not be employed as a means of land locomotion. The comprehensivemind of Sir Isaac Newton had long before, in his 'Explanation of theNewtonian Philosophy, ' thrown out the idea of employing steam for thispurpose; but no practical experiment was made. Benjamin Franklin, while agent in London for the United Provinces of America, had acorrespondence with Matthew Boulton, of Birmingham, and Dr. Darwin, ofLichfield, on the same subject. Boulton sent a model of a fire-engineto London for Franklin's inspection; but Franklin was too much occupiedat the time by grave political questions to pursue the subject further. Erasmus Darwin's speculative mind was inflamed by the idea of a "fierychariot, " and he urged his friend Boulton to prosecute the contrivanceof the necessary steam machinery. [6]

Other minds were at work. Watt, when only twenty-three years old, atthe instigation of his friend Robison, made a model locomotive, provided with two cylinders of tin plate; but the project was laidaside, and was never again taken up by the inventor. Yet, in hispatent of 1784, Watt included an arrangement by means of whichsteam-power might be employed for the purposes of locomotion. But nofurther model of the contrivance was made. 

Meanwhile, Cugnot, of Paris, had already made a road engine worked bysteam power. It was first tried at the Arsenal in 1769; and, being setin motion, it ran against a stone wall in its way and threw it down. The engine was afterwards tried in the streets of Paris. In one of theexperiments it fell over with a crash, and was thenceforward locked upin the Arsenal to prevent its doing further mischief. This firstlocomotive is now to be seen at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiersat Paris. 

Murdock had doubtless heard of Watt's original speculations, andproceeded, while at Redruth, during his leisure hours, to construct amodel locomotive after a design of his own. This model was of smalldimensions, standing little more than a foot and a half high, though itwas sufficiently large to demonstrate the soundness of the principle onwhich it was constructed. It was supported on three wheels, andcarried a small copper boiler, heated by a spirit lamp, with a fluepassing obliquely through it. The cylinder, of 3/4 inch diameter and2-inch stroke, was fixed in the top of the boiler, the piston-rod beingconnected with the vibratory beam attached to the connecting-rod whichworked the crank of the driving-wheel. This little engine worked bythe expansive force of steam only, which was discharged into theatmosphere after it had done its work of alternately raising anddepressing the piston in the cylinder. 

Mr. Murdock's son, while living at Handsworth, informed the presentwriter that this model was invented and constructed in 1781; but, afterperusing the correspondence of Boulton and Watt, we infer that it wasnot ready for trial until 1784. The first experiment was made inMurdock's own house at Redruth, when the little engine successfullyhauled a model waggon round the room, --the single wheel, placed infront of the engine and working in a swivel frame, enabling it to runround in a circle. 

Another experiment was made out of doors, on which occasion, smallthough the engine was, it fairly outran the speed of its inventor. Onenight, after returning from his duties at the mine at Redruth, Murdockwent with his model locomotive to the avenue leading to the church, about a mile from the town. The walk was narrow, straight, and level. Having lit the lamp, the water soon boiled, and off started the enginewith the inventor after it. Shortly after he heard distant shouts ofterror. It was too dark to perceive objects, but he found, onfollowing up the machine, that the cries had proceeded from the worthyvicar, who, while going along the walk, had met the hissing and fierylittle monster, which he declared he took to be the Evil One in propriapersona!

When Watt was informed of Murdock's experiments, he feared that theymight interfere with his regular duties, and advised theirdiscontinuance. Should Murdock still resolve to continue them, Watturged his partner Boulton, then in Cornwall, that, rather than loseMurdock's services, they should advance him 100L. ; and, if he succeededwithin a year in making an engine capable of drawing a post-chaisecarrying two passengers and the driver, at the rate of four miles anhour, that a locomotive engine business should be established, withMurdock as a partner. The arrangement, however, never proceeded anyfurther. Perhaps a different attraction withdrew Murdock from hislocomotive experiments. He was then paying attention to a young lady, the daughter of Captain Painter; and in 1785 he married her, andbrought her home to his house in Cross Street, Redruth. 

In the following year, --September, 1786--Watt says, in a letter toBoulton, "I have still the same opinion concerning the steam carriage, but, to prevent more fruitless argument about it, I have one of somesize under hand. In the meantime, I wish William could be brought todo as we do, to mind the business in hand, and let such as Symingtonand Sadler throw away their time and money in hunting shadows. " In asubsequent letter Watt expressed his gratification at finding "thatWilliam applies to his business. " From that time forward, Murdock aswell as Watt, dropped all further speculation on the subject, and leftit to others to work out the problem of the locomotive engine. Murdock's model remained but a curious toy, which he took pleasure inexhibiting to his intimate friends; and, though he long continued tospeculate about road locomotion, and was persuaded of itspracticability, he abstained from embodying his ideas of the necessaryengine in any complete working form. 

Murdock nevertheless continued inventing, for the man who is given toinvent, and who possesses the gift of insight, cannot rest. He livedin the midst of inventors. Watt and Boulton were constantly suggestingnew things, and Murdock became possessed by the same spirit. In 1791he took out his first patent. It was for a method of preserving ships'bottoms from foulness by the use of a certain kind of chemical paint. Mr. Murdock's grandson informs us that it was recently re-patented andwas the cause of a lawsuit, and that Hislop's patent for revivifyinggas-lime would have been an infringement, if it had not expired. 

Murdock is still better known by his invention of gas for lightingpurposes. Several independent inquirers into the constituents ofNewcastle coal had arrived at the conclusion that nearly one-third ofthe substance was driven off in vapour by the application of heat, andthat the vapour so driven off was inflammable. But no suggestion hadbeen made to apply this vapour for lighting purposes until Murdock tookthe matter in hand. Mr. M. S. Pearse has sent us the followinginteresting reminiscence: "Some time since, when in the West ofCornwall, I was anxious to find out whether any one remembered Murdock. I discovered one of the most respectable and intelligent men inCamborne, Mr. William Symons, who not only distinctly rememberedMurdock, but had actually been present on one of the first occasionswhen gas was used. Murdock, he says, was very fond of children, andnot unfrequently took them into his workshop to show them what he wasdoing. Hence it happened that on one occasion this gentleman, then aboy of seven or eight, was standing outside Murdock's door with someother boys, trying to catch sight of some special mystery inside, forDr. Boaze, the chief doctor of the place, and Murdock had been busy allthe afternoon. Murdock came out, and asked my informant to run down toa shop near by for a thimble. On returning with the thimble, the boypretended to have lost it, and, whilst searching in every pocket, hemanaged to slip inside the door of the workshop, and then produced thethimble. He found Dr. Boaze and Murdock with a kettle filled withcoal. The gas issuing from it had been burnt in a large metal case, such as was used for blasting purposes. Now, however, they had applieda much smaller tube, and at the end of it fastened the thimble, throughthe small perforations made in which they burned a continuous jet forsome time. "[7]

After numerous experiments, Murdock had his house in Cross Streetfitted up in 1792 for being lit by gas. The coal was subjected to heatin an iron retort, and the gas was conveyed in pipes to the offices andthe different rooms of the house, where it was burned at properapertures or burners. [8] Portions of the gas were also confined inportable vessels of tinned iron, from which it was burned whenrequired, thus forming a moveable gas-light. Murdock had a gas lanternin regular use, for the purpose of lighting himself home at nightacross the moors, from the mines where he was working, to his home atRedruth. This lantern was formed by filling a bladder with gas andfixing a jet to the mouthpiece at the bottom of a glass lantern, withthe bladder hanging underneath. 

Having satisfied himself as to the superior economy of coal gas, ascompared with oils and tallow, for the purposes of artificialillumination, Murdock mentioned the subject to Mr. James Watt, jun. , during a brief visit to Soho in 1794, and urged the propriety of takingout a patent. Watt was, however, indifferent to taking out any furtherpatents, being still engaged in contesting with the Cornish mine-ownershis father's rights to the user of the condensing steam-engine. Nothing definite was done at the time. Murdock returned to Cornwalland continued his experiments. At the end of the same year heexhibited to Mr. Phillips and others, at the Polgooth mine, hisapparatus for extracting gases from coal and other substances, showedit in use, lit the gas which issued from the burner, and showed its"strong and beautiful light. " He afterwards exhibited the sameapparatus to Tregelles and others at the Neath Abbey Company'sironworks in Glamorganshire. 

Murdock returned to Soho in 1798, to take up his permanent residence inthe neighbourhood. When the mine owners heard of his intention toleave Cornwall, they combined in offering him a handsome salaryprovided he would remain in the county; but his attachment to hisfriends at Soho would not allow him to comply with their request. Heagain urged the firm of Boulton and Watt to take out a patent for theuse of gas for lighting purposes. But being still embroiled in theirtedious and costly lawsuit, they were naturally averse to riskconnection with any other patent. Watt the younger, with whom Murdockcommunicated on the subject, was aware that the current of gas obtainedfrom the distillation of coal in Lord Dundonald's tar-ovens had beenoccasionally set fire to, and also that Bishop Watson and others hadburned gas from coal, after conducting it through tubes, or after ithad issued from the retort. Mr. Watt was, however, quite satisfiedthat Murdock was the first person who had suggested its economicalapplication for public and private uses. 

But he was not clear, after the legal difficulties which had beenraised as to his father's patent rights, that it would be safe to riska further patent for gas. 

Mr. Murdock's suggestion, accordingly, was not acted upon. But he wenton inventing in other directions. He thenceforward devoted himselfentirely to mechanical pursuits. Mr. Buckle has said of him:--"Therising sun often found him, after a night spent in incessant labour, still at the anvil or turning-lathe; for with his own hands he wouldmake such articles as he would not intrust to unskilful ones. " In 1799he took out a patent (No. 2340), embodying some very importantinventions. First, it included the endless screw working into atoothed-wheel, for boring steam-cylinders, which is still in use. Second, the casting of a steam-jacket in one cylinder, instead of beingmade in separate segments bolted together with caulked joints, as waspreviously done. Third, the new double-D slide-valve, by which theconstruction and working of the steam-engine was simplified, and theloss of steam saved, as well as the cylindrical valve for the samepurpose. And fourth, improved rotary engines. One of the latter wasset to drive the machines in his private workshop, and continued innearly constant work and in perfect use for about thirty years. 

In 1801, Murdock sent his two sons William and John to the Ayr Academy, for the benefit of Scotch education. In the summer-time they spenttheir vacation at Bellow Mill, which their grandfather still continuedto occupy. They fished in the river, and "caught a good many trout. "The boys corresponded regularly with their father at Birmingham. In1804, they seem to have been in a state of great excitement about theexpected landing of the French in Scotland. The volunteers of Ayramounted to 300 men, the cavalry to 150, and the riflemen to 50. "Theriflemen, " says John, "go to the seashore every Saturday to shoot at atarget. They stand at 70 paces distant, and out of 100 shots theyoften put in 60 bullets!" William says, "Great preparations are stillmaking for the reception of the French. Several thousand of pikes arecarried through the town every week; and all the volunteers andriflemen have received orders to march at a moment's warning. " Thealarm, however, passed away. At the end of 1804, the two boys receivedprizes; William got one in arithmetic and another in the Rector'scomposition class; and John also obtained two, one in the mathematicalclass, and the other in French. 

To return to the application of gas for lighting purposes. In 1801, aplan was proposed by a M. Le Blond for lighting a part of the streetsof Paris with gas. Murdock actively resumed his experiments; and onthe occasion of the Peace of Amiens in March, 1802, he made the firstpublic exhibition of his invention. The whole of the works at Sohowere brilliantly illuminated with gas. 

The sight was received with immense enthusiasm. There could now be nodoubt as to the enormous advantages of this method of producingartificial light, compared with that from oil or tallow. In thefollowing year the manufacture of gas-making apparatus was added to theother branches of Boulton and Watts' business, with which Murdock wasnow associated, --and as much as from 4000L. To 5000L. Of capital wereinvested in the new works. The new method of lighting speedily becamepopular amongst manufacturers, from its superior safety, cheapness, andilluminating power. The mills of Phillips and Lee of Manchester werefitted up in 1805; and those of Burley and Kennedy, also of Manchester, and of Messrs. Gott, of Leeds, in subsequent years. 

Though Murdock had made the uses of gas-lighting perfectly clear, itwas some time before it was proposed to light the streets by the newmethod. The idea was ridiculed by Sir Humphry Davy, who asked one ofthe projectors if he intended to take the dome of St. Paul's for agasometer! Sir Waiter Scott made many clever jokes about those whoproposed to "send light through the streets in pipes;" and evenWollaston, a well known man of science, declared that they "might aswell attempt to light London with a slice from the moon. " It has beenso with all new projects--with the steamboat, the locomotive, and theelectric telegraph. As John Wilkinson said of the first vessel of ironwhich he introduced, "it will be only a nine days' wonder, andafterwards a Columbus's egg. "

On the 25th of February, 1808, Murdock read a paper before the RoyalSociety "On the Application of Gas from Coal to economical purposes. "He gave a history of the origin and progress of his experiments, downto the time when he had satisfactorily lit up the premises of Phillipsand Lee at Manchester. The paper was modest and unassuming, likeeverything he did. 

It concluded:--"I believe I may, without presuming too much, claim boththe first idea of applying, and the first application of this gas toeconomical purposes. "[9] The Royal Society awarded Murdock their largeRumford Gold Medal for his communication. 

In the following year a German named Wintzer, or Winsor, appeared asthe promotor of a scheme for obtaining a royal charter with extensiveprivileges, and applied for powers to form a joint-stock company tolight part of London and Westminster with gas. Winsor claimed for hismethod of gas manufacture that it was more efficacious and profitablethan any then known or practised. The profits, indeed, were to beprodigious. Winsor made an elaborate calculation in his pamphletentitled 'The New Patriotic Imperial and National Light and HeatCompany, ' from which it appeared that the net annual profits "agreeableto the official experiments" would amount to over two hundred andtwenty-nine millions of pounds!--and that, giving over nine-tenths ofthat sum towards the redemption of the National Debt, there would stillremain a total profit of 570L. To be paid to the subscribers for every5L. Of deposit! Winsor took out a patent for the invention, and thecompany, of which he was a member, proceeded to Parliament for an Act. Boulton and Watt petitioned against the Bill, and James Watt, junior, gave evidence on the subject. Henry Brougham, who was the counsel forthe petitioners, made great fun of Winsor's absurd speculations, [10]and the Bill was thrown out. 

In the following year the London and Westminster Chartered Gas Lightand Coke Company succeeded in obtaining their Act. They were not verysuccessful at first. Many prejudices existed against the employment ofthe new light. It was popularly supposed that the gas was carriedalong the pipes on fire, and that the pipes must necessarily beintensely hot. When it was proposed to light the House of Commons withgas, the architect insisted on the pipes being placed several inchesfrom the walls, for fear of fire; and, after the pipes had been fixed, the members might be seen applying their gloved hands to them toascertain their temperature, and afterwards expressing the greatestsurprise on finding that they were as cool as the adjoining walls. 

The Gas Company was on the point of dissolution when Mr. Samuel Cleggcame to their aid. Clegg had been a pupil of Murdock's, at Soho. Heknew all the arrangements which Murdock had invented. He had assistedin fitting up the gas machinery at the mills of Phillips & Lee, Manchester, as well as at Lodge's Mill, Sowerby Bridge, near Halifax. He was afterwards employed to fix the apparatus at the Catholic Collegeof Stoneyhurst, in Lancashire, at the manufactory of Mr. Harris atCoventry, and at other places. In 1813 the London and Westminster GasCompany secured the services of Mr. Clegg, and from that time forwardstheir career was one of prosperity. In 1814 Westminster Bridge wasfirst lighted with gas, and shortly after the streets of St. Margaret's, Westminster. Crowds of people followed the lamplighter onhis rounds to watch the sudden effect of his flame applied to theinvisible stream of gas which issued from the burner. The lamplightersbecame so disgusted with the new light that they struck work, and Clegghimself had for a time to act as lamplighter. 

The advantages of the new light, however, soon became generallyrecognised, and gas companies were established in most of the largetowns. Glasgow was lit up by gas in 1817, and Liverpool and Dublin inthe following year. Had Murdock in the first instance taken out apatent for his invention, it could not fail to have proved exceedinglyremunerative to him; but he derived no advantage from the extended useof the new system of lighting except the honour of having inventedit. [11] He left the benefits of his invention to the public, andreturned to his labours at Soho, which more than ever completelyengrossed him. 

Murdock now became completely identified with the firm of Boulton &Watt. He assigned to them his patent for the slide-valve, the rotaryengine, and other inventions "for a good and valuable consideration. "Indeed his able management was almost indispensable to the continuedsuccess of the Soho foundry. Mr. Nasmyth, when visiting the worksabout thirty years after Murdock had taken their complete management inhand, recalled to mind the valuable services of that truly admirableyet modest mechanic. He observed the admirable system, which he hadinvented, of transmitting power from one central engine to other smallvacuum engines attached to the several machines which they wereemployed to work. "This vacuum method, " he says, "of transmittingpower dates from the time of Papin; but it remained a dead contrivancefor about a century until it received the masterly touch of Murdock. "

"The sight which I obtained" (Mr. Nasmyth proceeds) "of the vast seriesof workshops of that celebrated establishment, fitted with evidences ofthe presence and results of such master minds in design and execution, and the special machine tools which I believe were chiefly to beascribed to the admirable inventive power and common-sense genius ofWilliam Murdock, made me feel that I was indeed on classic ground inregard to everything connected with the construction of steam-enginemachinery. The interest was in no small degree enhanced by comingevery now and then upon some machine that had every historical claim tobe regarded as the prototype of many of our modern machine tools. Allthese had William Murdock's genius stamped upon them, by reason oftheir common-sense arrangements, which showed that he was one of thoseoriginal thinkers who had the courage to break away from the trammelsof traditional methods, and take short cuts to accomplish his objectsby direct and simple means. "

We have another recollection of William Murdock, from one who knew himwhen a boy. This is the venerable Charles Manby, F. R. S. , stillhonorary secretary of the Institute of Civil Engineers. He says(writing to us in September 1883), "I see from the public prints thatyou have been presiding at a meeting intended to do honour to thememory of William Murdock--a most worthy man and an old friend of mine. When he found me working the first slide valve ever introduced into anengine-building establishment at Horsley, he patted me on the head, andsaid to my father, 'Neighbour Manby, this is not the way to bring up agood workman--merely turning a handle, without any shoulder work. ' Heevidently did not anticipate any great results from my engineeringeducation. But we all know what machine tools are doing now, --andwhere should we be without them?"

Watt withdrew from the firm in 1800, on the expiry of his patent forthe condensing steam-engine; but Boulton continued until the year 1809, when he died full of years and honours. Watt lived on until 1819. Thelast part of his life was the happiest. During the time that he was inthe throes of his invention, he was very miserable, weighed down withdyspepsia and sick headaches. But after his patent had expired, he wasable to retire with a moderate fortune, and began to enjoy life. Before, he had "cursed his inventions, " now he could bless them. Hewas able to survey them, and find out what was right and what waswrong. He used his head and his hands in his private workshop, andfound many means of employing both pleasantly. Murdock continued to behis fast friend, and they spent many agreeable hours together. Theymade experiments and devised improvements in machines. Watt wished tomake things more simple. He said to Murdock, "it is a great thing toknow what to do without. We must have a book of blots--things to bescratched out. " One of the most interesting schemes of Watt towardsthe end of his life was the contrivance of a sculpture-making machine;and he proceeded so far with it as to to able to present copies ofbusts to his friends as "the productions of a young artist justentering his eighty-third year. " The machine, however, remainedunfinished at his death, and the remarkable fact is that it was Watt'sonly unfinished work. 

The principle of the machine was to carry a guide-point at one sideover the bust or alto-relievo to be copied, and at the other side tocarry a corresponding cutting-tool or drill over the alabaster, ivory, jet, or plaster of Paris to be executed. The machine worked, as itwere, with two hands, the one feeling the pattern, the other cuttingthe material into the required form. Many new alterations werenecessary for carrying out this ingenious apparatus, and Murdock wasalways at hand to give his old friend and master his best assistance. We have seen many original letters from Watt to Murdock, asking forcounsel and help. In one of these, written in 1808, Watt says: "I haverevived an idea which, if it answers, will supersede the frame andupright spindle of the reducing machine, but more of this when we meet. Meanwhile it will be proper to adhere to the frame, etc. , at present, until we see how the other alterations answer. " In another he says: "Ihave done a Cicero without any plaits--the different segments meetingexactly. The fitting the drills into the spindle by a taper of 1 in 6will do. They are perfectly stiff and will not unscrew easily. Fourguide-pullies answer, but there must be a pair for the other end, andto work with a single hand, for the returning part is always cut uponsome part or other of the frame. "

These letters are written sometimes in the morning, sometimes at noon, sometimes at night. There was a great deal of correspondence about"pullies, " which did not seem to answer at first. "I have made thetablets, " said Watt on one occasion, "slide more easily, and cancounterbalance any part of their weight which may be necessary; but thefirst thing to try is the solidity of the machine, which cannot be donetill the pullies are mounted. " Then again: "The bust-making must begiven up until we get a more solid frame. I have worked two days atone and spoiled it, principally from the want of steadiness. " ForWatt, it must be remembered, was now a very old man. 

He then proceeded to send Murdock the drawing of a "parallel motion forthe machine, " to be executed by the workmen at Soho. The truss bracesand the crosses were to be executed of steel, according to the detailshe enclosed. "I have warmed up, " he concludes, "an old idea, and canmake a machine in which the pentagraph and the leading screw will allbe contained in the beam, and the pattern and piece to be cut willremain at rest fixed upon a lath of cast iron or stout steel. " Watt isvery particular in all his details: "I am sorry, " he says in one note, "to trouble you with so many things; but the alterations on thisspindle and socket [he annexes a drawing] may wait your convenience. "In a further note, Watt says. "The drawing for the parallel lathe isready; but I have been sadly puzzled about the application of theleading screws to the cranes in the other. I think, however, I have nowgot the better of the difficulties, and made it more certain, as wellas more simple, than it was. I have done an excellent head of JohnHunter in hard white in shorter time than usual. I want to show it youbefore I repair it. "

At last Watt seems to have become satisfied: "The lathe, " he says, "isvery much improved, and you seem to have given the finishing blow tothe roofed frame, which appears perfectly stiff. I had some hours'intense thinking upon the machine last night, and have made up my mindon it at last. The great difficulty was about the application of theband, but I have settled it to be much as at present. "

Watt's letters to Murdock are most particular in details, especially asto screws, nuts, and tubes, with strengths and dimensions, alwaysillustrated with pen-and-ink drawings. And yet all this was donemerely for mechanical amusement, and not for any personal pecuniaryadvantage. While Watt was making experiments as to the propersubstances to be carved and drilled, he also desired Murdock to makesimilar experiments. "The nitre, " he said in one note, "seems to doharm; the fluor composition seems the best and hardest. Query, whatwould some calcined pipe-clay do? If you will calcine some fire-clayby a red heat and pound it, --about a pound, --and send it to me, I shalltry to make you a mould or two in Henning's manner to cast this and thesulphur acid iron in. I have made a screwing tool for wood that seemsto answer; also one of a one-tenth diameter for marble, which does verywell. " In another note, Watt says: "I find my drill readily makes 2400turns per minute, even with the large drill you sent last; if I bearlightly, a three-quarter ferril would run about 3000, and by an enginethat might be doubled. "

The materials to be drilled into medallions also required muchconsideration. "I am much obliged to you, " said Watt, "for the balls, etc. , which answer as well as can be expected. They make greatprogress in cutting the crust (Ridgways) or alabaster, and also cutmarble, but the harder sorts soon blunt them. At any rate, marble doesnot do for the medallions, as its grain prevents its being cut smooth, and its semi-transparence hurts the effect. I think Bristol lime, orshell lime, pressed in your manner, would have a good effect. When youare at leisure, I shall thank you for a few pieces, and if some of themare made pink or flesh colour, they will look well. I used the ballquite perpendicular, and it cut well, as most of the cutting issideways. I tried a fine whirling point, but it made little progress;another with a chisel edge did almost as well as the balls, but did notwork so pleasantly. I find a triangular scraping point the best, and Ithink from some trials it should be quite a sharp point. The wheelruns easier than it did, but has still too much friction. I wished tohave had an hour's consultation with you, but have been prevented bysundry matters among others by that plaguey stove, which is now in yourhands. "

Watt was most grateful to Murdock for his unvarying assistance. InJanuary, 1813, when Watt was in his seventy-seventh year, he wrote toMurdock, asking him to accept a present of a lathe "I have not heardfrom you, " he says, "in reply to my letter about the lathe; and, presuming you are not otherwise provided, I have bought it, and requestyour acceptance of it. At present, an alteration for the better ismaking in the oval chuck, and a few additional chucks, rest, etc. , aremaking to the lathe. When these are finished, I shall have it atBillinger's until you return, or as you otherwise direct. I am goingon with my drawings for a complete machine, and shall be glad to seeyou here to judge of them. "

The drawings were made, but the machine was never finished. "Invention, " said Watt, "goes on very slowly with me now. " Four yearslater, he was still at work; but death put a stop to his"diminishing-machine. " It is a remarkable testimony to the skill andperseverance of a man who had already accomplished so much, that it isalmost his only unfinished work. Watt died in 1819, in theeighty-third year of his age, to the great grief of Murdock, his oldestand most attached friend and correspondent. 

Meanwhile, the firm of Boulton and Watt continued. The sons of the twopartners carried it on, with Murdock as their Mentor. He was stillfull of work and inventive power. In 1802, he applied the compressedair of the Blast Engine employed to blow the cupolas of the SohoFoundry, for the purpose of driving the lathe in the pattern shop. Itworked a small engine, with a 12-inch cylinder and 18-inch stroke, connected with the lathe, the speed being regulated as required byvarying the admission of the blast. This engine continued in use forabout thirty-five years. 

In 1803 Murdock experimented on the power of high-pressure steam inpropelling shot, and contrived a steam-engine with which he made manytrials at Soho, thereby anticipating the apparatus contrived by Mr. Perkins many years later. 

In 1810 Murdock took out a patent for boring steam-pipes for water, andcutting columns out of solid blocks of stone, by means of a cylindricalcrown saw. The first machine was used at Soho, and afterwards at Mr. Rennie's Works in London, and proved quite successful. Among his otherinventions were a lift worked by compressed air, which raised andlowered the castings from the boring-mill to the level of the foundryand the canal bank. He used the same kind of power to ring the bellsin his house at Sycamore Hill, and the contrivance was afterwardsadopted by Sir Walter Scott in his house at Abbotsford. 

Murdock was also the inventor of the well-known cast-iron cement, soextensively used in engine and machine work. The manner in which hewas led to this invention affords a striking illustration of hisquickness of observation. Finding that some iron-borings andsal-ammoniac had got accidently mixed together in his tool-chest, andrusted his saw-blade nearly through, he took note of the circumstance, mixed the articles in various proportions, and at length arrived at thefamous cement, which eventually became an article of extensivemanufacture at the Soho Works. 

Murdock's ingenuity was constantly at work, even upon matters which layentirely outside his special vocation. The late Sir William Fairbairninformed us that he contrived a variety of curious machines forconsolidating peat moss, finely ground and pulverised, under immensepressure, and which, when consolidated, could be moulded into beautifulmedals, armlets, and necklaces. The material took the most brilliantpolish and had the appearance of the finest jet. 

Observing that fish-skins might be used as an economical substitute forisinglass, he went up to London on one occasion in order to explain tobrewers the best method of preparing and using them. He occupiedhandsome apartments, and, little regarding the splendour of thedrawing-room, he hung the fish-skins up against the walls. Hislandlady caught him one day when he was about to bang up a wet cod'sskin! He was turned out at once, with all his fish. While in town onthis errand, it occurred to him that a great deal of power was wastedin treading the streets of London! He conceived the idea of using thestreets and roadways as a grand tread-mill, under which the waste powermight be stored up by mechanical methods and turned to account. He hadalso an idea of storing up the power of the tides, and of runningwater, in the same way. The late Charles Babbage, F. R. S. , entertaineda similar idea about using springs of Ischia or of the geysers ofIceland as a power necessary for condensing gases, or perhaps for thestorage of electricity. [12] The latter, when perfected, will probablybe the greatest invention of the next half century. 

Another of Murdock's' ingenious schemes, was his proposed method oftransmitting letters and packages through a tube exhausted by anair-pump. This project led to the Atmospheric Railway, the success ofwhich, so far as it went, was due to the practical ability of Murdock'spupil, Samuel Clegg. Although the atmospheric railway was eventuallyabandoned, it is remarkable that the original idea was afterwardsrevived and practised with success by the London Pneumatic DispatchCompany. 

In 1815, while Murdock was engaged in erecting an apparatus of his owninvention for heating the water for the baths at Leamington, aponderous cast-iron plate fell upon his leg above his ankle, andseverely injured him. He remained a long while at Leamington, and whenit was thought safe to remove him, the Birmingham Canal Company kindlyplaced their excursion boat at his disposal, and he was conveyed safelyhomeward. So soon as he was able, he was at work again at the Sohofactory. 

Although the elder Watt had to a certain extent ignored the uses ofsteam as applied to navigation, being too much occupied with developingthe powers of the pumping and rotary engine, the young partners, withthe stout aid of Murdock, took up the question. They supplied Fulton in1807 with his first engine, by means of which the Clermont made herfirst voyage along the Hudson river. They also supplied Fulton andLivingston with the next two engines for the Car of Neptune and theParagon. From that time forward, Boulton and Watt devoted themselvesto the manufacture of engines for steamboats. Up to the year 1814, marine engines had been all applied singly in the vessel; but in thisyear Boulton and Watt first applied two condensing engines, connectedby cranks set at right angles on the shaft, to propel a steamer on theClyde. Since then, nearly all steamers are fitted with two engines. In making this important improvement, the firm were materially aided bythe mechanical genius of William Murdock, and also of Mr. Brown, thenan assistant, but afterwards a member of the firm. 

In order to carry on a set of experiments with respect to the mostimproved form of marine engine, Boulton and Watt purchased theCaledonia, a Scotch boat built on the Clyde by James Wood and Co. , ofPort Glasgow. The engines and boilers were taken out. The vessel wasfitted with two side lever engines, and many successive experimentswere made with her down to August, 1817, at an expense of about10, 000L. This led to a settled plan of construction, by which marineengines were greatly improved. James Watt, junior, accompanied theCaledonia to Holland and up the Rhine. The vessel was eventually soldto the Danish Government, and used for carrying the mails between Kieland Copenhagen. It is, however, unnecessary here to venture upon thefurther history of steam navigation. 

In the midst of these repeated inventions and experiments, Murdock wasbecoming an old man. Yet he never ceased to take an interest in theworks at Soho. At length his faculties experienced a gradual decay, and he died peacefully at his house at Sycamore Hill, on the 15th ofNovember, 1839, in his eighty-fifth year. He was buried near theremains of the great Boulton and Watt; and a bust by Chantrey served toperpetuate the remembrance of his manly and intelligent countenance. 

Footnotes for Chapter V. 

[1] Fletcher's Political Works, London, 1737, p. 149, [2] One of the Murdocks built the cathedral at Glasgow, as well asothers in Scotland. The famous school of masonry at Antwerp sent out anumber of excellent architects during the 11th, 12th, and 13thcenturies. One of these, on coming into Scotland, assumed the name ofMurdo. He was a Frenchman, born in Paris, as we learn from theinscription left on Melrose Abbey, and he died while building thatnoble work: it is as follows:--

"John Murdo sumtyme cait was I And born in Peryse certainly, An' had inkepyng all mason wark Sanct Andrays, the Hye Kirk o' Glasgo, Melroseand Paisley, Jedybro and Galowy. Pray to God and Mary baith, and sweetSaint John, keep this Holy Kirk frae scaith. "

[3] The discovery of the Black Band Ironstone by David Mushet in 1801, and the invention of the Hot Blast by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, will be found related in Industrial Biography, pp. 141-161. 

[4] Note to Lockhart's Life of Scott. 

[5] This was stated to the present writer some years ago by WilliamMurdock's son; although there is no other record of the event. 

[6] See Lives of Engineers (Boulton and Watt), iv. Pp. 182-4. Smalledition, pp. 130-2. 

[7] Mr. Pearse's letter is dated 23rd April, 1867, but has not beforebeen published. He adds that "others remembered Murdock, one who wasan apprentice with him, and lived with him for some time--a Mr. Vivian, of the foundry at Luckingmill. "

[8] Murdock's house still stands in Cross Street, Redruth; those stilllive who saw the gas-pipes conveying gas from the retort in the littleyard to near the ceiling of the room, just over the table; a hole forthe pipe was made in the window frame. The old window is now replacedby a new frame. "--Life of Richard Trevithick, i. 64. 

[9] Philosophical Transactions, 1808, pp. 124-132. 

[10] Winsor's family evidently believed in his great powers; for I aminformed by Francis Galton, Esq. , F. R. S. , that there is a fantasticalmonument on the right-hand side of the central avenue of the KensalGreen Cemetery, about half way between the lodge and the church, whichbears the following inscription:--"Tomb of Frederick Albert Winsor, sonof the late Frederick Albert Winsor, originator of public Gas-lighting, buried in the Cemetery of Pere la Chaise, Paris. At evening time itshall be light. "--Zachariah xiv. 7. "I am come a light into the world, that whoever believeth in Me shall not abide in darkness. "--John xii. 46. 

[11] Mr. Parkes, in his well known Chemical Essays (ed. 1841, p. 157), after referring to the successful lighting up by Murdock of themanufactory of Messrs. Phillips and Lee at Manchester in 1805, "withcoal gas issuing from nearly a thousand burners, " proceeds, "This grandapplication of the new principle satisfied the public mind, not only ofthe practicability, but also of the economy of the application; and asa mark of the high opinion they entertained of his genius andperseverance, and in order to put the question of priority of thediscovery beyond all doubt, the Council of the Royal Society in 1808awarded to Mr. Murdock the Gold Medal founded by the late CountRumford. "

[12] "Thus, " says Mr. Charles Babbage, "in a future age, power maybecome the staple commodity of the Icelanders, and of the inhabitantsof other volcanic districts; and possibly the very process by whichthey will procure this article of exchange for the luxuries of happierclimates may, in some measure, tame the tremendous element whichoccasionally devastates their provinces. "--Economy of Manufactures. 

CHAPTER VI. 

FREDERICK KOENIG: INVENTOR OF THE STEAM-PRINTING MACHINE. 

"The honest projector is he who, having by fair and plain principles ofsense, honesty, and ingenuity, brought any contrivance to a suitableperfection, makes out what he pretends to, picks nobody's pocket, putshis project in execution, and contents himself with the real produce asthe profit of his invention. "--De Foe. 

I published an article in 'Macmillan's Magazine' for December, 1869, under the above title. The materials were principally obtained fromWilliam and Frederick Koenig, sons of the inventor. 

Since then an elaborate life has been published at Stuttgart, under thetitle of "Friederich Koenig und die Erfindung Der Schnellpresse, EinBiographisches Denkmal. Von Theodor Goebel. " The author, in sending mea copy of the volume, refers to the article published in 'Macmillan, 'and says, "I hope you will please to accept it as a smallacknowledgment of the thanks, which every German, and especially thesons of Koenig, in whose name I send the book as well as in mine, oweto you for having bravely taken up the cause of the much wrongedinventor, their father--an action all the more praiseworthy, as you hadto write against the prejudices and the interests of your owncountrymen. "

I believe it is now generally admitted that Koenig was entitled to themerit of being the first person practically to apply the power of steamto indefinitely multiplying the productions of the printing-press; andthat no one now attempts to deny him this honour. It is true others, who followed him, greatly improved upon his first idea; but this wasthe case with Watt, Symington, Crompton, Maudslay, and many more. Thetrue inventor is not merely the man who registers an idea and takes apatent for it, or who compiles an invention by borrowing the idea ofanother, improving upon or adding to his arrangements, but the man whoconstructs a machine such as has never before been made, which executessatisfactorily all the functions it was intended to perform. And thisis what Koenig's invention did, as will be observed from the followingbrief summary of his life and labours. 

Frederick Koenig was born on the 17th of April, 1774, at Eisleben, inSaxony, the birthplace also of a still more famous person, MartinLuther. His father was a respectable peasant proprietor, described byHerr Goebel as Anspanner. But this word has now gone out of use. Infeudal times it described the farmer who was obliged to keep draughtcattle to perform service due to the landlord. The boy received asolid education at the Gymnasium, or public school of the town. At aproper age he was bound apprentice for five years to Breitkopf andHartel, of Leipzig, as compositor and printer; but after serving forfour and a quarter years, he was released from his engagement becauseof his exceptional skill, which was an unusual occurrence. 

During the later years of his apprenticeship, Koenig was permitted toattend the classes in the University, more especially those of ErnstPlatner, a physician, philosopher, and anthropologist. After that heproceeded to the printing-office of his uncle, Anton F. Rose, atGreifswald, an old seaport town on the Baltic, where he remained a fewyears. He next went to Halle as a journeyman printer, --German workmengoing about from place to place, during their wanderschaft, for thepurpose of learning their business. After that, he returned toBreitkopf and Hartel, at Leipzig, where he had first learnt his trade. During this time, having saved a little money, he enrolled himself fora year as a regular student at the University of Leipzig. 

According to Koenig's own account, he first began to devise ways andmeans for improving the art of printing in the year 1802, when he wastwenty-eight years old. Printing large sheets of paper by hand was avery slow as well as a very laborious process. One of the things thatmost occupied the young printer's mind was how to get rid of this"horse-work, " for such it was, in the business of printing. He wasnot, however, over-burdened with means, though he devised a machinewith this object. But to make a little money, he made translations forthe publishers. In 1803 Koenig returned to his native town ofEisleben, where he entered into an arrangement with Frederick Riedel, who furnished the necessary capital for carrying on the business of aprinter and bookseller. Koenig alleges that his reason for adoptingthis step was to raise sufficient money to enable him to carry out hisplans for the improvement of printing. 

The business, however, did not succeed, as we find him in the followingyear carrying on a printing trade at Mayence. Having sold thisbusiness, he removed to Suhl in Thuringia. Here he was occupied with astereotyping process, suggested by what he had read about the art asperfected in England by Earl Stanhope. He also contrived an improvedpress, provided with a moveable carriage, on which the types wereplaced, with inking rollers, and a new mechanical method of taking offthe impression by flat pressure. 

Koenig brought his new machine under the notice of the leading printersin Germany, but they would not undertake to use it. The plan seemed tothem too complicated and costly. He tried to enlist men of capital inhis scheme, but they all turned a deaf ear to him. He went from townto town, but could obtain no encouragement whatever. Besides, industrial enterprise in Germany was then in a measure paralysed by theimpending war with France, and men of capital were naturally averse torisk their money on what seemed a merely speculative undertaking. 

Finding no sympathisers or helpers at home, Koenig next turned hisattention abroad. England was then, as now, the refuge of inventorswho could not find the means of bringing out their schemes elsewhere;and to England he wistfully turned his eyes. In the meantime, however, his inventive ability having become known, an offer was made to him bythe Russian Government to proceed to St. Petersburg and organise theState printing-office there. The invitation was accepted, and Koenigproceeded to St. Petersburg in the spring of 1806. But the officialdifficulties thrown in his way were very great, and so disgusted him, that he decided to throw up his appointment, and try his fortune inEngland. He accordingly took ship for London, and arrived there in thefollowing November, poor in means, but rich in his great idea, then hisonly property. 

As Koenig himself said, when giving an account of hisinvention:--"There is on the Continent no sort of encouragement for anenterprise of this description. The system of patents, as it exists inEngland, being either unknown, or not adopted in the ContinentalStates, there is no inducement for industrial enterprise; andprojectors are commonly obliged to offer their discoveries to someGovernment, and to so licit their encouragement. I need hardly addthat scarcely ever is an invention brought to maturity under suchcircumstances. The well-known fact, that almost every invention seeks, as it were, refuge in England, and is there brought to perfection, though the Government does not afford any other protection to inventorsbeyond what is derived from the wisdom of the laws, seems to indicatethat the Continent has yet to learn from her the best manner ofencouraging the mechanical arts. I had my full share in the ordinarydisappointments of Continental projectors; and after having lost inGermany and Russia upwards of two years in fruitless applications, I atlast resorted to England. "[1]

After arriving in London, Koenig maintained himself with difficulty byworking at his trade, for his comparative ignorance of the Englishlanguage stood in his way. But to work manually at the printer's"case, " was not Koenig's object in coming to England. His idea of aprinting machine was always uppermost in his mind, and he lost noopportunity of bringing the subject under the notice of master printerslikely to take it up. He worked for a time in the printing office ofRichard Taylor, Shoe Lane, Fleet Street, and mentioned the matter tohim. Taylor would not undertake the invention himself, but hefurnished Koenig with an introduction to Thomas Bensley, the well-knownprinter of Bolt Court, Fleet Street. On the 11th of March, 1807, Bensley invited Koenig to meet him on the subject of their recentconversation about "the discovery;" and on the 31st of the same month, the following agreement was entered into between Koenig and Bensley:--

"Mr. Koenig, having discovered an entire new Method of Printing byMachinery, agrees to communicate the same to Mr. Bensley under thefollowing conditions:--that, if Mr. Bensley shall be satisfied theInvention will answer all the purposes Mr. Koenig has stated in theParticulars he has delivered to Mr. Bensley, signed with his name, heshall enter into a legal Engagement to purchase the Secret from Mr. Koenig, or enter into such other agreement as may be deemed mutuallybeneficial to both parties; or, should Mr. Bensley wish to declinehaving any concern with the said Invention, then he engages not to makeany use of the Machinery, or to communicate the Secret to any personwhatsoever, until it is proved that the Invention is made use of by anyone without restriction of Patent, or other particular agreement on thepart of Mr. Koenig, under the penalty of Six Thousand Pounds. 

 "(Signed) T. Bensley, "Friederich Konig. "Witness--J. Hunneman. "

Koenig now proceeded to put his idea in execution. He prepared hisplans of the new printing machine. It seems, however, that theprogress made by him was very slow. Indeed, three years passed beforea working model could be got ready, to show his idea in actualpractice. In the meantime, Mr. Walter of The Times had been seen byBensley, and consulted on the subject of the invention. On the 9th ofAugust, 1809, more than two years after the date of the aboveagreement, Bensley writes to Koenig: "I made a point of calling uponMr. Walter yesterday, who, I am sorry to say, declines our propositionaltogether, having (as he says) so many engagements as to prevent himentering into more. "

It may be mentioned that Koenig's original plan was confined to animproved press, in which the operation of laying the ink on the typeswas to be performed by an apparatus connected with the motions of thecoffin, in such a manner as that one hand could be saved. As littlecould be gained in expedition by this plan, the idea soon suggesteditself of moving the press by machinery, or to reduce the severaloperations to one rotary motion, to which the first mover might beapplied. Whilst Koenig was in the throes of his invention, he wasjoined by his friend Andrew F. Bauer, a native of Stuttgart, whopossessed considerable mechanical power, in which the inventor himselfwas probably somewhat deficient. At all events, these two togetherproceeded to work out the idea, and to construct the first actualworking printing machine. 

A patent was taken out, dated the 29th of March, 1810, which describesthe details of the invention. The arrangement was somewhat similar tothat known as the platen machine; the printing being produced by twoflat plates, as in the common hand-press. It also embodied aningenious arrangement for inking the type. Instead of theold-fashioned inking balls, which were beaten on the type by handlabour, several cylinders covered with felt and leather were used, andformed part of the machine itself. Two of the cylinders revolved inopposite directions, so as to spread the ink, which was thentransferred by two other inking cylinders alternately applied to the"forme" by the action of spiral springs. The movement of all the partsof the machine were to be derived from a steam-engine, or other firstmover. 

"After many obstructions and delays, " says Koenig himself, indescribing the history of his invention, "the first printing machinewas completed exactly upon the plan which I have described in thespecification of my first patent. It was set to Work in April, 1811. The sheet (H) of the new Annual Register for 1810, 'PrincipalOccurrences, ' 3000 copies, was printed with it; and is, I have nodoubt, the first part of a book ever printed with a machine. Theactual use of it, however, soon suggested new ideas, and led to therendering it less complicated and more powerful"[2]

Of course! No great invention was ever completed at one effort. Itwould have been strange if Koenig had been satisfied with his firstattempt. It was only a beginning, and he naturally proceeded with theimprovement of his machine. It took Watt more than twenty years toelaborate his condensing steam-engine; and since his day, owing to theperfection of self-acting tools, it has been greatly improved. Thepower of the Steamboat and the Locomotive also, as well as of all otherinventions, have been developed by the constantly succeedingimprovements of a nation of mechanical engineers. 

Koenig's experiment was only a beginning, and he naturally proceededwith the improvement of his machine. Although the platen machine ofKoenig's has since been taken up a new, and perfected, it was notconsidered by him sufficiently simple in its arrangements as to beadapted for common use; and he had scarcely completed it, when he wasalready revolving in his mind a plan of a second machine on a newprinciple, with the object of ensuring greater speed, economy, andsimplicity. 

By this time, other well-known London printers, Messrs. Taylor andWoodfall, had joined Koenig and Bensley in their partnership for themanufacture and sale of printing machines. The idea which now occurredto Koenig was, to employ a cylinder instead of a flat Platen machine, for taking the impressions off the type, and to place the sheet roundthe cylinder, thereby making it, as it were, part of the periphery. Asearly as the year 1790, one William Nicholson had taken out a patentfor a machine for printing "on paper, linen, cotton, woollen, and otherarticles, " by means of "blocks, forms, types, plates, and originals, "which were to be "firmly imposed upon a cylindrical surface in the samemanner as common letter is imposed upon a flat stone. "[3] From themention of "colouring cylinder, " and "paper-hangings, floor-cloths, cottons, linens, woollens, leather, skin, and every other flexiblematerial, " mentioned in the specification, it would appear as ifNicholson's invention were adapted for calico-printing andpaper-hangings, as well as for the printing of books. But it was neverused for any of these purposes. It contained merely the register of anidea, and that was all. It was left for Adam Parkinson, of Manchester, to invent and make practical use of the cylinder printing machine forcalico in the year 1805, and this was still further advanced by theinvention of James Thompson, of Clitheroe, in 1813; while it was leftfor Frederick Koenig to invent and carry into practical operation thecylinder printing press for newspapers. 

After some promising experiments, the plans for a new machine on thecylindrical principle were proceeded with. Koenig admitted throughoutthe great benefit he derived from the assistance of his friend Bauer. "By the judgment and precision, " he said, "with which he executed myplans, he greatly contributed to my success. " A patent was taken outon October 30th, 1811; and the new machine was completed in December, 1812. The first sheets ever printed with an entirely cylindricalpress, were sheets G and X of Clarkson's 'Life of Penn. ' The papers ofthe Protestant Union were also printed with it in February and March, 1813. Mr. Koenig, in his account of the invention, says that "sheet Mof Acton's 'Hortus Kewensis, ' vol. V. , will show the progress ofimprovement in the use of the invention. Altogether, there are about160, 000 sheets now in the hands of the public, printed with thismachine, which, with the aid of two hands, takes off 800 impressions inthe hour"[4]

Koenig took out a further patent on July 23rd, 1813, and a fourth (thelast) on the 14th of March, 1814. The contrivance of these variousarrangements cost the inventor many anxious days and nights of studyand labour. But he saw before him only the end he wished to compass, and thought but little of himself and his toils. It may be mentionedthat the principal feature of the invention was the printing cylinderin the centre of the machine, by which the impression was taken fromthe types, instead of by flat plates as in the first arrangement. Theforme was fixed in a cast-iron plate which was carried to and fro on atable, being received at either end by strong spiral springs. A doublemachine, on the same principle, --the forme alternately passing underand giving an impression at one of two cylinders at either end of thepress, --was also included in the patent of 1811. 

How diligently Koenig continued to elaborate the details of hisinvention will be obvious from the two last patents which he took out, in 1813 and 1814. In the first he introduced an important improvementin the inking arrangement, and a contrivance for holding and carryingon the sheet, keeping it close to the printing cylinder by means ofendless tapes; while in the second, he added the following newexpedients: a feeder, consisting of an endless web, --an improvedarrangement of the endless tapes by inner as well as outerfriskets, --an improvement of the register (that is, one page fallingexactly on the back of another), by which greater accuracy ofimpression was also secured; and finally, an arrangement by which thesheet was thrown out of the machine, printed by the revolving cylinderon both sides. 

The partners in Koenig's Patents had established a manufactory inWhitecross Street for the production of the new machines. The workmenemployed were sworn to secrecy. They entered into an agreement bywhich they were liable to forfeit 100L. If they communicated to othersthe secret of the machines, either by drawings or description, or ifthey told by whom or for whom they were constructed. This was to avoidthe hostility of the pressmen, who, having heard of the new invention, were up in arms against it, as likely to deprive them of theiremployment. And yet, as stated by Johnson in his 'Typographia, ' themanual labour of the men who worked at the hand press, was so severeand exhausting, "that the stoutest constitutions fell a sacrifice to itin a few years. " The number of sheets that could be thrown off was alsoextremely limited. 

With the improved press, perfected by Earl Stanhope, about 250impressions could be taken, or 125 sheets printed on both sides in anhour. Although a greater number was produced in newspaper printingoffices by excessive labour, yet it was necessary to have duplicatepresses, and to set up duplicate forms of type, to carry on such extrawork; and still the production of copies was quite inadequate tosatisfy the rapidly increasing demand for newspapers. The time wastherefore evidently ripe for the adoption of such a machine as that ofKoenig. Attempts had been made by many inventors, but every one ofthem had failed. Printers generally regarded the steam-press asaltogether chimerical. 

Such was the condition of affairs when Koenig finished his improvedprinting machine in the manufactory in Whitecross Street. The partnersin the invention were now in great hopes. When the machine had been gotready for work, the proprietors of several of the leading Londonnewspapers were invited to witness its performances. Amongst them wereMr. Perry of the Morning chronicle, and Mr. Walter of The Times. Mr. Perry would have nothing to do with the machine; he would not even goto see it, for he regarded it as a gimcrack. [5] On the contrary, Mr. Walter, though he had five years before declined to enter into anyarrangement with Bensley, now that he heard the machine was finished, and at work, decided to go and inspect it. It was thoroughlycharacteristic of the business spirit of the man. He had been veryanxious to apply increased mechanical power to the printing of hisnewspaper. He had consulted Isambard Brunel--one of the cleverestinventors of the day--on the subject; but Brunel, after studying thesubject, and labouring over a variety of plans, finally gave it up. Hehad next tried Thomas Martyn, an ingenious young compositor, who had ascheme for a self-acting machine for working the printing press. But, although Mr. Walter supplied him with the necessary funds, his schemenever came to anything. Now, therefore, was the chance for Koenig!

After carefully examining the machine at work, Mr. Walter was at oncesatisfied as to the great value of the invention. He saw it turningout the impressions with unusual speed and great regularity. This wasthe very machine of which he had been in search. But it turned out theimpressions printed on one side only. Koenig, however, having brieflyexplained the more rapid action of a double machine on the sameprinciple for the printing of newspapers, Mr. Walter, after a fewminutes' consideration, and before leaving the premises, ordered twodouble machines for the printing of The Times newspaper. Here, atlast, was the opportunity for a triumphant issue out of Koenig'sdifficulties. 

The construction of the first newspaper machine was still, however, awork of great difficulty and labour. It must be remembered thatnothing of the kind had yet been made by any other inventor. Thesingle-cylinder machine, which Mr. Walter had seen at work, wasintended for bookwork only. Now Koenig had to construct adouble-cylinder machine for printing newspapers, in which many of thearrangements must necessarily be entirely new. With the assistance ofhis leading mechanic, Bauer, aided by the valuable suggestions of Mr. Walter himself, Koenig at length completed his plans, and proceededwith the erection of the working machine. The several parts wereprepared at the workshop in Whitecross Street, and taken from thence, in as secret a way as possible, to the premises in Printing HouseSquare, adjoining The Times office, where they were fitted together anderected into a working machine. Nearly two years elapsed before thepress was ready for work. Great as was the secrecy with which theoperations were conducted, the pressmen of The Times office obtainedsome inkling of what was going on, and they vowed vengeance to theforeign inventor who threatened their craft with destruction. Therewas, however, always this consolation: every attempt that hadheretofore been made to print newspapers in any other way than bymanual labour had proved an utter failure!

At length the day arrived when the first newspaper steam-press wasready for use. The pressmen were in a state of great excitement, forthey knew by rumour that the machine of which they had so long beenapprehensive was fast approaching completion. One night they were toldto wait in the press-room, as important news was expected from abroad. At six o'clock in the morning of the 29th November, 1814, Mr. Walter, who had been watching the working of the machine all through the night, suddenly appeared among the pressmen, and announced that "The Times isalready printed by steam!" Knowing that the pressmen had vowedvengeance against the inventor and his invention, and that they hadthreatened "destruction to him and his traps, " he informed them that ifthey attempted violence, there was a force ready to suppress it; butthat if they were peaceable, their wages should be continued to everyone of them until they could obtain similar employment. This provedsatisfactory so far, and he proceeded to distribute several copies ofthe newspaper amongst them--the first newspaper printed by steam! Thatpaper contained the following memorable announcement:--

"Our Journal of this day presents to the Public the practical result ofthe greatest improvement connected with printing since the discovery ofthe art itself. The reader of this paragraph now holds in his hand oneof the many thousand impressions of The Times newspaper which weretaken off last night by a mechanical apparatus. A system of machineryalmost organic has been devised and arranged, which, while it relievesthe human frame of its most laborious' efforts in printing, far exceedsall human powers in rapidity and dispatch. That the magnitude of theinvention may be justly appreciated by its effects, we shall inform thepublic, that after the letters are placed by the compositors, andenclosed in what is called the forme, little more remains for man to dothan to attend upon and to watch this unconscious agent in itsoperations. The machine is then merely supplied with paper: itselfplaces the forme, inks it, adjusts the paper to the forme newly inked, stamps the sheet, and gives it forth to the hands of the attendant, atthe same time withdrawing the forme for a fresh coat of ink, whichitself again distributes, to meet the ensuing sheet now advancing forimpression; and the whole of these complicated acts is performed withsuch a velocity and simultaneousness of movement, that no less than1100 sheets are impressed in one hour. 

"That the completion of an invention of this kind, not the effect ofchance, but the result of mechanical combinations methodically arrangedin the mind of the artist, should be attended with many obstructionsand much delay, may be readily imagined. Our share in this event has, indeed, only been the application of the discovery, under an agreementwith the patentees, to our own particular business; yet few canconceive--even with this limited interest--the various disappointmentsand deep anxiety to which we have for a long course of time beensubjected. 

"Of the person who made this discovery we have but little to add. SirChristopher Wren's noblest monument is to be found in the buildingwhich he erected; so is the best tribute of praise which we are capableof offering to the inventor of the printing machine, comprised in thepreceding description, which we have feebly sketched, of the powers andutility of his invention. It must suffice to say further, that he is aSaxon by birth; that his name is Koenig; and that the invention hasbeen executed under the direction of his friend and countryman, Bauer. "

The machine continued to work steadily and satisfactorily, notwithstanding the doubters, the unbelievers, and the threateners ofvengeance. The leading article of The Times for December 3rd, 1814, contains the following statement:--

"The machine of which we announced the discovery and our adoption a fewdays ago, has been whirling on its course ever since, with improvingorder, regularity, and even speed. The length of the debates onThursday, the day when Parliament was adjourned, will have beenobserved; on such an occasion the operation of composing and printingthe last page must commence among all the journals at the same moment;and starting from that moment, we, with our infinitely superiorcirculation, were enabled to throw off our whole impression many hoursbefore the other respectable rival prints. The accuracy and clearnessof the impression will likewise excite attention. 

"We shall make no reflections upon those by whom this wonderfuldiscovery has been opposed, --the doubters and unbelievers, --howeveruncharitable they may have been to us; were it not that the efforts ofgenius are always impeded by drivellers of this description, and thatwe owe it to such men as Mr. Koenig and his Friend, and all futurepromulgators of beneficial inventions, to warn them that they will haveto contend with everything that selfishness and conceited ignorance candevise or say; and if we cannot clear their way before them, we wouldat least give them notice to prepare a panoply against its dirt andfilth. 

"There is another class of men from whom we receive dark and anonymousthreats of vengeance if we persevere in the use of this machine. Theseare the Pressmen. They well know, at least should well know, that suchmenace is thrown away upon us. There is nothing that we will not do toassist and serve those whom we have discharged. They themselves canseethe greater rapidity and precision with which the paper is printed. What right have they to make us print it slower and worse for theirsupposed benefit? A little reflection, indeed, would show them that itis neither in their power nor in ours to stop a discovery now made, ifit is beneficial to mankind; or to force it down if it is useless. Theyhad better, therefore, acquiesce in a result which they cannot alter;more especially as there will still be employment enough for the oldrace of pressmen, before the new method obtains general use, and no newones need be brought up to the business; but we caution them seriouslyagainst involving themselves and their families in ruin, by becomingamenable to the laws of their country. It has always been matter ofgreat satisfaction to us to reflect, that we encountered and crushedone conspiracy; and we should be sorry to find our work half done. 

"It is proper to undeceive the world in one particular; that is, as tothe number of men discharged. We in fact employ only eight fewerworkmen than formerly; whereas more than three times that number havebeen employed for a year and a half in building the machine. "

On the 8th of December following, Mr. Koenig addressed an advertisement"To the Public" in the columns of The Times, giving an account of theorigin and progress of his invention. We have already cited severalpassages from the statement. After referring to his two last patents, he says: "The machines now printing The Times and Mail are upon thesame principle; but they have been contrived for the particular purposeof a newspaper of extensive circulation, where expedition is the greatobject. 

"The public are undoubtedly aware, that never, perhaps, was a newinvention put to so severe a trial as the present one, by being used onits first public introduction for the printing of newspapers, and will, I trust, be indulgent with respect to the many defects in theperformance, though none of them are inherent in the principle of themachine; and we hope, that in less than two months, the whole will becorrected by greater adroitness in the management of it, so far atleast as the hurry of newspaper printing will at all admit. 

"It will appear from the foregoing narrative, that it was incorrectlystated in several newspapers, that I had sold my interest to two otherforeigners; my partners in this enterprise being at present twoEnglishmen, Mr. Bensley and Mr. Taylor; and it is gratifying to myfeelings to avail myself of this opportunity to thank those gentlemenpublicly for the confidence which they have reposed in me, for the aidof their practical skill, and for the persevering support which theyhave afforded me in long and very expensive experiments; thus riskingtheir fortunes in the prosecution of my invention. 

"The first introduction of the invention was considered by some as adifficult and even hazardous step. The Proprietor of The Times havingmade that his task, the public are aware that it is in good hands. "

One would think that Koenig would now feel himself in smooth water, andreceive a share of the good fortune which he had so laboriouslyprepared for others. Nothing of the kind! His merits were disputed;his rights were denied; his patents were infringed; and he neverreceived any solid advantages for his invention, until he left thecountry and took refuge in Germany. It is true, he remained for a fewyears longer, in charge of the manufactory in Whitecross Street, butthey were years to him of trouble and sorrow. 

In 1816, Koenig designed and superintended the construction of a singlecylinder registering machine for book-printing. This was supplied toBensley and Son, and turned out 1000 sheets, printed on both sides, inthe hour. Blumenbach's 'Physiology' was the first entire book printedby steam, by this new machine. It was afterwards employed, in 1818, inworking off the Literary Gazette. A machine of the same kind wassupplied to Mr. Richard Taylor for the purpose of printing the'Philosophical Magazine, ' and books generally. This was afterwardsaltered to a double machine, and employed for printing the WeeklyDispatch. 

But what about Koenig's patents? They proved of little use to him. They only proclaimed his methods, and enabled other ingenious mechanicsto borrow his adaptations. Now that he had succeeded in makingmachines that would work, the way was clear for everybody else tofollow his footsteps. It had taken him more than six years to inventand construct a successful steam printing press; but any clevermechanic, by merely studying his specification, and examining hismachine at work, might arrive at the same results in less than a week. 

The patents did not protect him. New specifications, embodying somemodification or alteration in detail, were lodged by other inventorsand new patents taken out. New printing machines were constructed indefiance of his supposed legal rights; and he found himself stripped ofthe reward that he had been labouring for during so many long andtoilsome years. He could not go to law, and increase his own vexationand loss. He might get into Chancery easy enough; but when would heget out of it, and in what condition?

It must also be added, that Koenig was unfortunate in his partnerBensley. While the inventor was taking steps to push the sale of hisbook-printing machines among the London printers, Bensley, who washimself a book-printer, was hindering him in every way in hisnegotiations. Koenig was of opinion that Bensley wished to retain theexclusive advantage which the possession of his registering bookmachine gave him over the other printers, by enabling him to print morequickly and correctly than they could, and thus give him an advantageover them in his printing contracts. 

When Koenig, in despair at his position, consulted counsel as to theinfringement of his patent, he was told that he might instituteproceedings with the best prospect of success; but to this end aperfect agreement by the partners was essential. When, however, Koenigasked Bensley to concur with him in taking proceedings in defence ofthe patent right, the latter positively refused to do so. Indeed, Koenig was under the impression that his partner had even entered intoan arrangement with the infringers of the patent to share with them theproceeds of their piracy. 

Under these circumstances, it appeared to Koenig that only twoalternatives remained for him to adopt. One was to commence anexpensive, and it might be a protracted, suit in Chancery, in defenceof his patent rights, with possibly his partner, Bensley, against him;and the other, to abandon his invention in England without furtherstruggle, and settle abroad. He chose the latter alternative, and leftEngland finally in August, 1817. 

Mr. Richard Taylor, the other partner in the patent, was an honourableman; but he could not control the proceedings of Bensley. In a memoirpublished by him in the 'Philosophical Magazine, ' "On the Invention andFirst Introduction of Mr. Koenig's Printing Machine, " in which hehonestly attributes to him the sole merit of the invention, he says, "Mr. Koenig left England, suddenly, in disgust at the treacherousconduct of Bensley, always shabby and overreaching, and whom he foundto be laying a scheme for defrauding his partners in the patents of allthe advantages to arise from them. Bensley, however, while hedestroyed the prospects of his partners, outwitted himself, andgrasping at all, lost all, becoming bankrupt in fortune as well as incharacter. "[6]

Koenig was badly used throughout. His merits as an inventor weredenied. On the 3rd of January, 1818, after he had left England, Bensley published a letter in the Literary Gazette, in which he speaksof the printing machine as his own, without mentioning a word ofKoenig. The 'British Encyclopaedia, ' in describing the inventors ofthe printing machine, omitted the name of Koenig altogether. The'Mechanics Magazine, ' for September, 1847, attributed the invention tothe Proprietors of The Times, though Mr. Walter himself had said thathis share in the event had been "only the application of thediscovery;" and the late Mr. Bennet Woodcroft, usually a fair man, inhis introductory chapter to 'Patents for Inventions in Printing, 'attributes the merit to William Nicholson's patent (No. 1748), which, he said, "produced an entire revolution in the mechanism of the art. "In other publications, the claims of Bacon and Donkin were put forward, while those of the real inventor were ignored. The memoir of Koenig byMr. Richard Taylor, in the 'Philosophical Magazine, ' was honest andsatisfactory; and should have set the question at rest. 

It may further be mentioned that William Nicholson, --who was a patentagent, and a great taker out of patents, both in his own name and inthe names of others, --was the person employed by Koenig as his agent totake the requisite steps for registering his invention. When Koenigconsulted him on the subject, Nicholson observed that "seventeen yearsbefore he had taken out a patent for machine printing, but he hadabandoned it, thinking that it wouldn't do; and had never taken it upagain. " Indeed, the two machines were on different principles. Nordid Nicholson himself ever make any claim to priority of invention, when the success of Koenig's machine was publicly proclaimed by Mr. Walter of The Times some seven years later. 

When Koenig, now settled abroad, heard of the attempts made in Englandto deny his merits as an inventor, he merely observed to his friendBauer, "It is really too bad that these people, who have already robbedme of my invention, should now try to rob me of my reputation. " Had hemade any reply to the charges against him, it might have been comprisedin a very few words: "When I arrived in England, no steam printingmachine had ever before been seen; when I left it, the only printingmachines in actual work were those which I had constructed. " ButKoenig never took the trouble to defend the originality of hisinvention in England, now that he had finally abandoned the field toothers. 

There can be no question as to the great improvements introduced in theprinting machine by Mr. Applegath and Mr. Cowper; by Messrs. Hoe andSons, of New York; and still later by the present Mr. Walter of TheTimes, which have brought the art of machine printing to anextraordinary degree of perfection and speed. But the original meritsof an invention are not to be determined by a comparison of the firstmachine of the kind ever made with the last, after some sixty years'experience and skill have been applied in bringing it to perfection. Were the first condensing engine made at Soho--now to be seen at theMuseum in South Kensington--in like manner to be compared with the lastimproved pumping-engine made yesterday, even the great James Watt mightbe made out to have been a very poor contriver. It would be muchfairer to compare Koenig's steam-printing machine with the hand-pressnewspaper printing machine which it superseded. Though there were steamengines before Watt, and steamboats before Fulton, and steamlocomotives before Stephenson, there were no steam printing pressesbefore Koenig with which to compare them, Koenig's was undoubtedly thefirst, and stood unequalled and alone. 

The rest of Koenig's life, after he retired to Germany, was spent inindustry, if not in peace and quietness. He could not fail to be castdown by the utter failure of his English partnership, and the loss ofthe fruits of his ingenious labours. But instead of brooding over histroubles, he determined to break away from them, and begin the worldanew. He was only forty-three when he left England, and he might yetbe able to establish himself prosperously in life. He had his own headand hands to help him. 

Though England was virtually closed against him, the whole continent ofEurope was open to him, and presented a wide field for the sale of hisprinting machines. 

While residing in England, Koenig had received many communications frominfluential printers in Germany. Johann Spencer and George Deckerwrote to him in 1815, asking for particulars about his invention; butfinding his machine too expensive, [7] the latter commissioned Koenig tosend him a Stanhope printing press--the first ever introduced intoGermany--the price of which was 95L. Koenig did this service for hisfriend, for although he stood by the superior merits of his owninvention, he was sufficiently liberal to recognise the merits of theinventions of others. Now that he was about to settle in Germany, hewas able to supply his friends and patrons on the spot. 

The question arose, where was he to settle? He made enquiries aboutsites along the Rhine, the Neckar, and the Main. At last he wasattracted by a specially interesting spot at Oberzell on the Main, nearWurzburg. It was an old disused convent of the Praemonstratensianmonks. The place was conveniently situated for business, being nearlyin the centre of Germany. The Bavarian Government, desirous of givingencouragement to so useful a genius, granted Koenig the use of thesecularised monastery on easy terms; and there accordingly he began hisoperations in the course of the following year. Bauer soon joined him, with an order from Mr. Walter for an improved Times machine; and thetwo men entered into a partnership which lasted for life. 

The partners had at first great difficulties to encounter in gettingtheir establishment to work. Oberzell was a rural village, containingonly common labourers, from whom they had to select their workmen. Every person taken into the concern had to be trained and educated tomechanical work by the partners themselves. With indescribablepatience they taught these labourers the use of the hammer, the file, the turning-lathe, and other tools, which the greater number of themhad never before seen, and of whose uses they were entirely ignorant. The machinery of the workshop was got together with equal difficultypiece by piece, some of the parts from a great distance, --themechanical arts being then at a very low ebb in Germany, which wasstill suffering from the effects of the long continental war. 

At length the workshop was fitted up, the old barn of the monasterybeing converted into an iron foundry. 

Orders for printing machines were gradually obtained. The first camefrom Brockhaus, of Leipzig. By the end of the fourth year two othersingle-cylinder machines were completed and sent to Berlin, for use inthe State printing office. By the end of the eighth year sevendouble-cylinder steam presses had been manufactured for the largestnewspaper printers in Germany. The recognised excellence of Koenig andBauer's book-printing machines--their perfect register, and the qualityof the work they turned out--secured for them an increasing demand, andby the year 1829 the firm had manufactured fifty-one machines for theleading book printers throughout Germany. The Oberzell manufactory wasnow in full work, and gave regular employment to about 120 men. 

A period of considerable depression followed. As was the case inEngland, the introduction of the printing machine in Germany excitedconsiderable hostility among the pressmen. In some of the principaltowns they entered into combinations to destroy them, and severalprinting machines were broken by violence and irretrievably injured. But progress could not be stopped; the printing machine had been fairlyborn, and must eventually do its work for mankind. These combinations, however, had an effect for a time. They deterred other printers fromgiving orders for the machines; and Koenig and Bauer were under thenecessity of suspending their manufacture to a considerable extent. Tokeep their men employed, the partners proceeded to fit up a papermanufactory, Mr. Cotta, of Stuttgart, joining them in the adventure;and a mill was fitted up, embodying all the latest improvements inpaper-making. 

Koenig, however, did not live to enjoy the fruits or all his study, labour, toil, and anxiety; for, while this enterprise was still inprogress, and before the machine trade had revived, he was taken ill, and confined to bed. He became sleepless; his nerves were unstrung;and no wonder. Brain disease carried him off on the 17th of January, 1833; and this good, ingenious, and admirable inventor was removed fromall further care and trouble. 

He died at the early age of fifty-eight, respected and beloved by allwho knew him. 

His partner Bauer survived to continue the business for twenty yearslonger. It was during this later period that the Oberzell manufactoryenjoyed its greatest prosperity. The prejudices of the workmengradually subsided when they found that machine printing, instead ofabridging employment, as they feared it would do, enormously increasedit; and orders accordingly flowed in from Berlin, Vienna, and all theleading towns and cities of Germany, Austria, Denmark, Russia, andSweden. The six hundredth machine, turned out in 1847, was capable ofprinting 6000 impressions in the hour. In March, 1865, the thousandthmachine was completed at Oberzell, on the occasion of the celebrationof the fifty years' jubilee of the invention of the steam press byKoenig. 

The sons of Koenig carried on the business; and in the biography byGoebel, it is stated that the manufactory of Oberzell has now turnedout no fewer than 3000 printing machines. The greater number have beensupplied to Germany; but 660 were sent to Russia, 61 to Asia, 12 toEngland, and 11 to America. The rest were despatched to Italy, Switzerland, Sweden, Spain, Holland, and other countries. 

It remains to be said that Koenig and Bauer, united in life, were notdivided by death. Bauer died on February 27, 1860, and the remains ofthe partners now lie side by side in the little cemetery at Oberzell, close to the scene of their labours and the valuable establishmentwhich they founded. 

Footnotes for Chapter VI. 

[1] Koenig's letter in The Times, 8th December, 1814

[2] Koenig's letter in The Times, 8th December, 1814. 

[3] Date of Patent, 29th April, 1790, No. 1748, [4] Koenig's letter in The Times, 8th December, 1814. 

[5] Mr. Richard Taylor, one of the partners in the patent, says, "Mr. Perry declined, alleging that he did not consider a newspaper worth somany years' purchase as would equal the cost of the machine. "

[6] Mr. Richard Taylor, F. S. A. , memoir in 'Philosophical Magazine' forOctober 1847, p. 300. 

[7] The price of a single cylinder non-registering machine wasadvertised at 900L. ; of a double ditto, 1400L. ; and of a cylinderregistering machine, 2000L. ; added to which was 250L. , 350L. , and 500L. Per annum for each of these machines so long as the patent lasted, oran agreed sum to be paid down at once. 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE WALTERS OF THE TIMES: INVENTION OF THE WALTER PRESS. 

"Intellect and industry are never incompatible. There is more wisdom, and will be more benefit, in combining them than scholars like tobelieve, or than the common world imagine. Life has time enough forboth, and its happiness will be increased by the union. "--SHARON TURNER. 

"I have beheld with most respect the man Who knew himself, and knew theways before him, And from among them chose considerately, With a clearforesight, not a blindfold courage; And, having chosen, with asteadfast mind Pursued his purpose. " HENRY TAYLOR--Philip van Artevelde. 

The late John Walter, who adopted Koenig's steam printing press inprinting The Times, was virtually the inventor of the modern newspaper. The first John Walter, his father, learnt the art of printing in theoffice of Dodsley, the proprietor of the 'Annual Register. ' Heafterwards pursued the profession of an underwriter, but his fortuneswere literally shipwrecked by the capture of a fleet of merchantmen bya French squadron. Compelled by this loss to return to his trade, hesucceeded in obtaining the publication of 'Lloyd's List, ' as well asthe printing of the Board of Customs. He also established himself as apublisher and bookseller at No. 8, Charing Cross. But his principalachievement was in founding The Times newspaper. 

The Daily Universal Register was started on the 1st of January, 1785, and was described in the heading as "printed logographically. " Thetype had still to be composed, letter by letter, each placed alongsideof its predecessor by human fingers. Mr. Walter's invention consistedin using stereotyped words and parts of words instead of separate metalletters, by which a certain saving of time and labour was effected. The name of the 'Register' did not suit, there being many otherpublications bearing a similar title. Accordingly, it was re-named TheTimes, and the first number was issued from Printing House Square onthe 1st of January, 1788. 

The Times was at first a very meagre publication. It was not muchbigger than a number of the old 'Penny Magazine, ' containing a singleshort leader on some current topic, without any pretensions toexcellence; some driblets of news spread out in large type; half acolumn of foreign intelligence, with a column of facetious paragraphsunder the heading of "The Cuckoo;" while the rest of each numberconsisted of advertisements. Notwithstanding the comparative innocenceof the contents of the early numbers of the paper, certain passageswhich appeared in it on two occasions subjected the publisher toimprisonment in Newgate. The extent of the offence, on one occasion, consisted in the publication of a short paragraph intimating that theirRoyal Highnesses the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York had "sodemeaned themselves as to incur the just disapprobation of hisMajesty!" For such slight offences were printers sent to gaol in thosedays. 

Although the first Mr. Walter was a man of considerable businessability, his exertions were probably too much divided amongst a varietyof pursuits to enable him to devote that exclusive attention to TheTimes which was necessary to ensure its success. 

He possibly regarded it, as other publishers of newspapers then did, mainly as a means of obtaining a profitable business in job-printing. Hence, in the elder Walter's hands, the paper was not only unprofitablein itself, but its maintenance became a source of gradually increasingexpenditure; and the proprietor seriously contemplated itsdiscontinuance. 

At this juncture, John Walter, junior, who had been taken into thebusiness as a partner, entreated his father to entrust him with thesole conduct of the paper, and to give it "one more trial. " This wasat the beginning of 1803. The new editor and conductor was then onlytwenty-seven years of age. He had been trained to the manual work of aprinter "at case, " and passed through nearly every department in theoffice, literary and mechanical. But in the first place, he hadreceived a very liberal education, first at Merchant Taylors' School, and afterwards at Trinity College, Oxford, where he pursued hisclassical studies with much success. He was thus a man ofwell-cultured mind; he had been thoroughly disciplined to work; he was, moreover, a man of tact and energy, full of expedients, and possessedby a passion for business. His father, urged by the young man'sentreaties, at length consented, although not without misgivings, toresign into his hands the entire future control of The Times. 

Young Walter proceeded forthwith to remodel the establishment, and tointroduce improvements into every department, as far as the scantycapital at his command would admit. Before he assumed the direction, The Times did not seek to guide opinion or to exercise politicalinfluence. It was a scanty newspaper--nothing more, Any politicalmatters referred to were usually introduced in "Letters to the Editor, "in the form in which Junius's Letters first appeared in the PublicAdvertiser. The comments on political affairs by the Editor weremeagre and brief, and confined to a mere statement of supposed facts. 

Mr. Walter, very much to the dismay of his father, struck out anentirely new course. He boldly stated his views on public affairs, bringing his strong and original judgment to bear upon the politicaland social topics of the day. He carefully watched and closely studiedpublic opinion, and discussed general questions in all their bearings. He thus invented the modern Leading Article. The adoption of anindependent line of politics necessarily led him to canvass freely, andoccasionally to condemn, the measures of the Government. Thus, he hadonly been about a year in office as editor, when the SidmouthAdministration was succeeded by that of Mr. Pitt, under whom LordMelville undertook the unfortunate Catamaran expedition. HisLordship's malpractices in the Navy Department had also been brought tolight by the Commissioners of Naval Inquiry. On both these topics Mr. Walter spoke out freely in terms of reprobation; and the result was, that the printing for the Customs and the Government advertisementswere at once removed from The Times office. 

Two years later Mr. Pitt died, and an Administration succeeded whichcontained a portion of the political chiefs whom the editor hadformerly supported on his undertaking the management of the paper. Hewas invited by one of them to state the injustice which had been doneto him by the loss of the Customs printing, and a memorial to theTreasury was submitted for his signature, with a view to its recovery. But believing that the reparation of the injury in this manner waslikely to be considered as a favour, entitling those who granted it toa certain degree of influence over the politics of the journal, Walterrefused to sign it, or to have any concern in presenting the memorial. He did more; he wrote to those from whom the restoration of theemployment was expected to come, disavowing all connection with theproceeding. The matter then dropped, and the Customs printing wasnever restored to the office. 

This course was so unprecedented, and, as his father thought, was sovery wrong-headed, that young Walter had for some time considerabledifficulty in holding his ground and maintaining the independentposition he had assumed. But with great tenacity of purpose he held onhis course undismayed. He was a man who looked far ahead, --not so muchtaking into account the results at the end of each day or of each year, but how the plan he had laid down for conducting the paper would workout in the long run. And events proved that the high-minded course hehad pursued with so much firmness of purpose was the wisest courseafter all. 

Another feature in the management which showed clear-sightedness andbusiness acuteness, was the pains which the Editor took to ensuregreater celerity of information and dispatch in printing. The expensewhich he incurred in carrying out these objects excited the seriousdispleasure of his father, who regarded them as acts of juvenile follyand extravagance. Another circumstance strongly roused the old man'swrath. It appears that in those days the insertion of theatrical puffsformed a considerable source of newspaper income; and yet young Walterdetermined at once to abolish them. It is not a little remarkable thatthese earliest acts of Mr. Walter--which so clearly marked hisenterprise and high-mindedness--should have been made the subject ofpainful comments in his father's will. 

Notwithstanding this serious opposition from within, the power andinfluence of the paper visibly and rapidly grew. The new Editorconcentrated in the columns of his paper a range of information such ashad never before been attempted, or indeed thought possible. Hisvigilant eye was directed to every detail of his business. He greatlyimproved the reporting of public meetings, the money market, and otherintelligence, --aiming at greater fulness and accuracy. In thedepartment of criticism his labours were unwearied. He sought toelevate the character of the paper, and rendered it more dignified byinsisting that it should be impartial. He thus conferred the greatestpublic service upon literature, the drama, and the fine arts, byprotecting them against the evil influences of venal panegyric on theone hand, and of prejudiced hostility on the other. 

But the most remarkable feature of The Times that which emphaticallycommended it to public support and ensured its commercial success--wasits department of foreign intelligence. At the time that Walterundertook the management of the journal, Europe was a vast theatre ofwar; and in the conduct of commercial affairs--not to speak ofpolitical movements--it was of the most vital importance that earlyinformation should be obtained of affairs on the Continent. The Editorresolved to become himself the purveyor of foreign intelligence, and atgreat expense he despatched his agents in all directions, even in thetrack of armies; while others were employed, under various disguisesand by means of sundry pretexts, in many parts of the Continent. Theseagents collected information, and despatched it to London, often atconsiderable risks, for publication in The Times, where it usuallyappeared long in advance of the government despatches. 

The late Mr. Pryme, in his 'Autobiographic Recollections, ' mentions avisit which he paid to Mr. Walter at his seat at Bearwood. "Hedescribed to me, " says Mr. Pryme, "the cause of the large extension inthe circulation of The Times. He was the first to establish a foreigncorrespondent. This was Henry Crabb Robinson, at a salary of 300L. Ayear.... Mr. Walter also established local reporters, instead ofcopying from the country papers. His father doubted the wisdom of sucha large expenditure, but the son prophesied a gradual and certainsuccess, which has actually been realised. "

Mr. Robinson has described in his Diary the manner in which he becameconnected with the foreign correspondence. "In January, 1807, " hesays, "I received, through my friend J. D. Collier, a proposal from Mr. Walter that I should take up my residence at Altona, and become TheTimes correspondent. I was to receive from the editor of the'Hamburger Correspondenten' all the public documents at his disposal, and was to have the benefit also of a mass of information, of which therestraints of the German Press did not permit him to avail himself. The honorarium I was to receive was ample with my habits of life. Igladly accepted the offer, and never repented having done so. Myacquaintance with Mr. Walter ripened into friendship, and lasted aslong as he lived. "[1]

Mr. Robinson was forced to leave Germany by the Battle of Friedland andthe Treaty of Tilsit, which resulted in the naval coalition againstEngland. Returning to London, he became foreign editor of The Timesuntil the following year, when he proceeded to Spain as foreigncorrespondent. Mr. Walter had also an agent in the track of the armyin the unfortunate Walcheren expedition; and The Times announced thecapitulation of Flushing forty-eight hours before the news had arrivedby any other channel. By this prompt method of communicating publicintelligence, the practice, which had previously existed, ofsystematically retarding the publication of foreign news by officialsat the General Post Office, who made gain by selling them to theLombard Street brokers, was effectually extinguished. 

This circumstance, as well as the independent course which Mr. Walteradopted in the discussion of foreign politics, explains in some measurethe opposition which he had to encounter in the transmission of hisdespatches. As early as the year 1805, when he had come into collisionwith the Government and lost the Customs printing, The Times despatcheswere regularly stopped at the outports, whilst those for theMinisterial journals were allowed to proceed. This might have crusheda weaker man, but it did not crush Walter. Of course he expostulated. He was informed at the Home Secretary's office that he might bepermitted to receive his foreign papers as a favour. But as thisimplied the expectation of a favour from him in return, the proposalwas rejected; and, determined not to be baffled, he employed specialcouriers, at great cost, for the purpose of obtaining the earliesttransmission of foreign intelligence. 

These important qualities--enterprise, energy, business tact, andpublic spirit--sufficiently account for his remarkable success. Tothese, however, must be added another of no smallimportance--discernment and knowledge of character. Though himself thehead and front of his enterprise, it was necessary that he shouldsecure the services and co-operation of men of first-rate ability; andin the selection of such men his judgment was almost unerring. By hisdiscernment and munificence, he collected round him some of the ablestwriters of the age. These were frequently revealed to him in thecommunications of correspondents--the author of the letters signed"Vetus" being thus selected to write in the leading columns of thePaper. But Walter himself was the soul of The Times. It was he whogave the tone to its articles, directed its influence, andsuperintended its entire conduct with unremitting vigilance. 

Even in conducting the mechanical arrangements of the paper--a businessof no small difficulty--he had often occasion to exercise promptnessand boldness of decision in cases of emergency. Printers in those dayswere a rather refractory class of work men, and not unfrequently tookadvantage of their position to impose hard terms on their employers, especially in the daily press, where everything must be promptly donewithin a very limited time. Thus on one occasion, in 1810, thepressmen made a sudden demand upon the proprietor for an increase ofwages, and insisted upon a uniform rate being paid to all hands, whether good or bad. Walter was at first disposed to make concessionsto the men; but having been privately informed that a combination wasalready entered into by the compositors, as well as by the pressmen, toleave his employment suddenly, under circumstances that would havestopped the publication of the paper, and inflicted on him the mostserious injury, he determined to run all risks, rather than submit towhat now appeared to him in the light of an extortion. 

The strike took place on a Saturday morning, when suddenly, and withoutnotice, all the hands turned out. Mr. Walter had only a few hours'notice of it, but he had already resolved upon his course. Hecollected apprentices from half a dozen different quarters, and a fewinferior workmen, who were glad to obtain employment on any terms. Hehimself stript to his shirt-sleeves, and went to work with the rest;and for the next six-and-thirty hours he was incessantly employed atcase and at press. On the Monday morning, the conspirators, who hadassembled to triumph over his ruin, to their inexpressible amazementsaw The Times issue from the publishing office at the usual hour, affording a memorable example of what one man's resolute energy mayaccomplish in a moment of difficulty. 

The journal continued to appear with regularity, though the printersemployed at the office lived in a state of daily peril. Theconspirators, finding themselves baffled, resolved upon trying anothergame. They contrived to have two of the men employed by Walter ascompositors apprehended as deserters from the Royal Navy. The men weretaken before the magistrate; but the charge was only sustained by thetestimony of clumsy, perjured witnesses, and fell to the ground. Theturn-outs next proceeded to assault the new hands, when Mr. Walterresolved to throw around them the protection of the law. By the adviceof counsel, he had twenty-one of the conspirators apprehended andtried, and nineteen of them were found guilty and condemned to variousperiods of imprisonment. From that moment combination was at an end inPrinting House Square. 

Mr. Walter's greatest achievement was his successful application ofsteam power to newspaper printing. Although he had greatly improvedthe mechanical arrangements after he took command of the paper, therate at which the copies could be printed off remained almoststationary. It took a very long time indeed to throw off, by thehand-labour of pressmen, the three or four thousand copies which thenconstituted the ordinary circulation of The Times. On the occasion ofany event of great public interest being reported in the paper, it wasfound almost impossible to meet the demand for copies. Only about 300copies could be printed in the hour, with one man to ink the types andanother to work the press, while the labour was very severe. Thus ittook a long time to get out the daily impression, and very often theevening papers were out before The Times had half supplied the demand. 

Mr. Walter could not brook the tedium of this irksome and laboriousprocess. To increase the number of impressions, he resorted to variousexpedients. The type was set up in duplicate, and even in triplicate;several Stanhope presses were kept constantly at work; and still theinsatiable demands of the newsmen on certain occasions could not bemet. Thus the question was early forced upon his consideration, whether he could not devise machinery for the purpose of expediting theproduction of newspapers. Instead of 300 impressions an hour, hewanted from 1500 to 2000. Although such a speed as this seemed quiteas chimerical as propelling a ship through the water against wind andtide at fifteen miles an hour, or running a locomotive on a railway atfifty, yet Mr. Walter was impressed with the conviction that a muchmore rapid printing of newspapers was feasible than by the slowhand-labour process; and he endeavoured to induce several ingeniousmechanical contrivers to take up and work out his idea. 

The principle of producing impressions by means of a cylinder, and ofinking the types by means of a roller, was not new. We have seen, inthe preceding memoir, that as early as 1790 William Nicholson hadpatented such a method, but his scheme had never been brought intopractical operation. Mr. Walter endeavoured to enlist Marc IsambardBrunel--one of the cleverest inventors of the day--in his proposedmethod of rapid printing by machinery; but after labouring over avariety of plans for a considerable time, Brunel finally gave up theprinting machine, unable to make anything of it. Mr. Walter next triedThomas Martyn, an ingenious young compositor, who had a scheme for aself-acting machine for working the printing press. He was suppliedwith the necessary funds to enable him to prosecute his idea; but Mr. Walter's father was opposed to the scheme, and when the funds becameexhausted, this scheme also fell to the ground. 

As years passed on, and the circulation of the paper increased, thenecessity for some more expeditious method of printing became stillmore urgent. Although Mr. Walter had declined to enter into anarrangement with Bensley in 1809, before Koenig had completed hisinvention of printing by cylinders, it was different five years later, when Koenig's printing machine was actually at work. In the precedingmemoir, the circumstances connected with the adoption of the inventionby Mr. Walter are fully related; as well as the announcement made inThe Times on the 29th of November, 1814--the day on which the firstnewspaper printed by steam was given to the world. 

But Koenig's printing machine was but the beginning of a great newbranch of industry. After he had left this country in disgust, itremained for others to perfect the invention; although the ingeniousGerman was entitled to the greatest credit for having made the firstsatisfactory beginning. Great inventions are not brought forth at aheat. They are begun by one man, improved by another, and perfected bya whole host of mechanical inventors. Numerous patents were taken outfor the mechanical improvement of printing. Donkin and Bacon contriveda machine in 1813, in which the types were placed on a revolving prism. One of them was made for the University of Cambridge, but it was foundtoo complicated; the inking was defective; and the project wasabandoned. 

In 1816, Mr. Cowper obtained a patent (No. 3974) entitled, "A Method ofPrinting Paper for Paper Hangings, and Other Purposes. "

The principal feature of this invention consisted in the curving orbending of stereotype plates for the purpose of being printed in thatform. A number of machines for printing in two colours, in exactregister, was made for the Bank of England, and four millions of OnePound notes were printed before the Bank Directors determined toabolish their further issue. The regular mode of producing stereotypeplates, from plaster of Paris moulds, took so much time, that theycould not then be used for newspaper printing. 

Two years later, in 1818, Mr. Cowper invented and patented (No. 4194)his great improvements in printing. It may be mentioned that he wasthen himself a printer, in partnership with Mr. Applegath, hisbrother-in-law. His invention consisted in the perfect distribution ofthe ink, by giving end motion to the rollers, so as to get adistribution crossways, as well as lengthways. This principle is atthe very foundation of good printing, and has been adopted in everymachine since made. The very first experiment proved that theprinciple was right. Mr. Cowper was asked by Mr. Walter to alterKoenig's machine at The Times office, so as to obtain gooddistribution. He adopted two of Nicholson's single cylinders and flatformes of type. Two "drums" were placed betwixt the cylinders toensure accuracy in the register, --over and under which the sheet wasconveyed in it s progress from one cylinder to the other, --the sheetbeing at all times firmly held between two tapes, which bound it to thecylinders and drums. This is commonly called, in the trade, a"perfecting machine;" that is, it printed the paper on both sidessimultaneously, and is still much used for "book-work, " whilst singlecylinder machines are often used for provincial newspapers. 

After this, Mr. Cowper designed the four cylinder machine for TheTimes, --by means of which from 4000 to 5000 sheets could be printedfrom one forme in the hour. In 1823, Mr. Applegath invented animprovement in the inking apparatus, by placing the distributingrollers at an angle across the distributing table, instead of forcingthem endways by other means. 

Mr. Walter continued to devote the same unremitting attention to hisbusiness as before. He looked into all the details, was familiar withevery department, and, on an emergency, was willing to lend a hand inany work requiring more than ordinary despatch. 

Thus, it is related of him that, in the spring of 1833, shortly afterhis return to Parliament as Member for Berkshire, he was at The Timesoffice one day, when an express arrived from Paris, bringing the speechof the King of the French on the opening of the Chambers. The expressarrived at 10 A. M. , after the day's impression of the paper had beenpublished, and the editors and compositors had left the office. It wasimportant that the speech should be published at once; and Mr. Walterimmediately set to work upon it. He first translated the document;then, assisted by one compositor, he took his place at the type-case, and set it up. To the amazement of one of the staff, who dropped inabout noon, he "found Mr. Walter, M. P. For Berks, working in hisshirt-sleeves!" The speech was set and printed, and the second editionwas in the City by one o'clock. Had he not "turned to" as he did, thewhole expense of the express service would have been lost. And it isprobable that there was not another man in the whole establishment whocould have performed the double work--intellectual and physical--whichhe that day executed with his own head and hands. 

Such an incident curiously illustrates his eminent success in life. Itwas simply the result of persevering diligence, which shrank from noeffort and neglected no detail; as well as of prudence allied toboldness, but certainly not "of chance;" and, above all, of highmindedintegrity and unimpeachable honesty. It is perhaps unnecessary to addmore as to the merits of Mr. Walter as a man of enterprise in business, or as a public man and a Member of Parliament. The great work of hislife was the development of his journal, the history of which forms thebest monument to his merits and his powers. 

The progressive improvement of steam printing machinery was notaffected by Mr. Walter's death, which occurred in 1847. He had givenit an impulse which it never lost. In 1846 Mr. Applegath patentedcertain important improvements in the steam press. The generaldisposition of his new machine was that of a vertical cylinder 200inches in circumference, holding on it the type and distributingsurfaces, and surrounded alternately by inking rollers and pressingcylinders. Mr. Applegath estimated in his specification that in hisnew vertical system the machine, with eight cylinders, would printabout 10, 000 sheets per hour. The new printing press came into use in1848, and completely justified the anticipations of its projector. 

Applegath's machine, though successfully employed at The Times office, did not come into general use. It was, to a large extent, supersededby the invention of Richard M. Hoe, of New York. Hoe's processconsisted in placing the types upon a horizontal cylinder, againstwhich the sheets were pressed by exterior and smaller cylinders. Thetypes were arranged in segments of a circle, each segment forming aframe that could be fixed on the cylinder. These printing machineswere made with from two to ten subsidiary cylinders. The first pressessent by Messrs. Hoe & Co. To this country were for Lloyd's WeeklyNewspaper, and were of the six-cylinder size. These were followed bytwo ten-cylinder machines, ordered by the present Mr. Walter, for TheTimes. Other English newspaper proprietors--both in London and theprovinces--were supplied with the machines, as many as thirty-fivehaving been imported from America between 1856 and 1862. It may bementioned that the two ten-cylinder Hoes made for The Times were drivenat the rate of thirty-two revolutions per minute, which gives aprinting rate of 19, 200 per hour, or about 16, 000 including stoppages. 

Much of the ingenuity exercised both in the Applegath and Hoe Machineswas directed to the "chase, " which had to hold securely upon its curvedface the mass of movable type required to form a page. And now theenterprise of the proprietor of The Times again came to the front. Thechange effected in the art of newspaper-printing, by the process ofstereotypes, is scarcely inferior to that by which the late Mr. Walterapplied steam-power to the printing press, and certainly equal to thatby which the rotary press superseded the reciprocatory action of theflat machine. 

Stereotyping has a curious history. Many attempts were made to obtainsolid printing-surfaces by transfer from similar surfaces, composed, inthe first place, of movable types. The first who really succeeded wasone Ged, an Edinburgh goldsmith, who, after a series of difficultexperiments, arrived at a knowledge of the art of stereotyping. Thefirst method employed was to pour liquid stucco, of the consistency ofcream, over the types; and this, when solid, gave a perfect mould. Into this the molten metal was poured, and a plate was produced, accurately resembling the page of type. As long ago as 1730, Gedobtained a privilege from the University of Cambridge for printingBibles and Prayer-books after this method. But the workmen were deadagainst it, as they thought it would destroy their trade. Thecompositors and the pressmen purposely battered the letters in theabsence of their employers. In consequence of this interference Gedwas ruined, and died in poverty. 

The art had, however, been born, and could not be kept down. It wasrevived in France, in Germany, and in America. Fifty years after thediscovery of Ged, Tilloch and Foulis, of Glasgow, patented a similarinvention, without knowing anything of what Ged had done; and aftergreat labour and many experiments, they produced plates, theimpressions from which could not be distinguished from those takenfrom the types from which they were cast. Some years afterwards, LordStanhope, to whom the art of printing is much indebted, greatlyimproved the art of stereotyping, though it was still quiteinapplicable to newspaper printing. The merit of this latter inventionis due to the enterprise of the present proprietor of The Times. 

Mr. Walter began his experiments, aided by an ingenious Italian foundernamed Dellagana, early in 1856. It was ascertained that whenpapier-mache matrices were rapidly dried and placed in a mould, separate columns might be cast in them with stereotype metal, typehigh, planed flat, and finished with sufficient speed to get up theduplicate of a forme of four pages fitted for printing. Steps weretaken to adapt these type-high columns to the Applegath Presses, thenworked with polygonal chases. When the Hoe machines were introduced, instead of dealing with the separate columns, the papier-mache matrixwas taken from the whole page at one operation, by roller-pressesconstructed for the purpose. The impression taken off in this manneris as perfect as if it had been made in the finest wax. The matrix israpidly dried on heating surfaces, and then accurately adjusted in acasting machine curved to the exact circumference of the main drum ofthe printing press, and fitted with a terra-cotta top to secure acasting of uniform thickness. On pouring stereotype metal into thismould, a curved plate was obtained, which, after undergoing a certainamount of trimming at two machines, could be taken to press and set towork within twenty-five minutes from the time at which the processbegan. 

Besides the great advantages obtained from uniform sets of the plates, which might be printed on different machines at the rate of 50, 000impressions an hour, or such additional number as might be required, there is this other great advantage, that there is no wear and tear oftype in the curved chases by obstructive friction; and that the fount, instead of wearing out in two years, might last for twenty; for theplates, after doing their work for one day, are melted down into a newimpression for the next day's printing. At the same time, the originaltype-page, safe from injury, can be made to yield any number of copiesthat may be required by the exigencies of the circulation. It will besufficiently obvious that by the multiplication of stereotype platesand printing machines, there is practically no limit to the number ofcopies of a newspaper that may be printed within the time which theprocess now usually occupies. 

This new method of newspaper stereotyping was originally employed onthe cylinders of the Applegath and Hoe Presses. But it is equallyapplicable to those of the Walter Press, a brief description of whichwe now subjoin. As the construction of the first steam newspapermachine was due to the enterprise of the late Mr. Walter, so theconstruction of this last and most improved machine is due in likemanner to the enterprise of his son. The new Walter Press is not, likeApplegath and Cowper's, and Hoe's, the improvement of an existingarrangement, but an almost entirely original invention. 

In the Reports of the Jurors on the "Plate, Letterpress, and othermodes of Printing, " at the International Exhibition of 1862, thefollowing passage occurs:--"It is incumbent on the reporters to pointout that, excellent and surprising as are the results achieved by theHoe and Applegath Machines, they cannot be considered satisfactorywhile those machines themselves are so liable to stoppages in working. No true mechanic can contrast the immense American ten-cylinder pressesof The Times with the simple calico-printing machine, without feelingthat the latter furnishes the true type to which the mechanism fornewspaper printing should as much as possible approximate. "

On this principle, so clearly put forward, the Inventors of the WalterPress proceeded in the contrivance of the new machine. It is true thatWilliam Nicholson, in his patent of 1790, prefigured the possibility ofprinting on "paper, linen, cotton, woollen, and other articles, " bymeans of type fixed on the outer surface of a revolving cylinder; butno steps were taken to carry his views into effect. Sir Rowland Hillalso, before he became connected with Post Office reform, revived thecontrivance of Nicholson, and referred to it in his patent of 1835 (No. 6762); and he also proposed to use continuous rolls of paper, whichFourdrinier and Donkin had made practicable by their invention of thepaper-making machine about the year 1804; but both Nicholson's andHill's patents remained a dead letter. [2]

It may be easy to conceive a printing machine, or even to make a modelof one; but to construct an actual working printing press, that must besure and unfailing in its operations, is a matter surrounded withdifficulties. At every step fresh contrivances have to be introduced;they have to be tried again and again; perhaps they are eventuallythrown aside to give place to new arrangements. Thus the head of theinventor is kept in a state of constant turmoil. Sometimes the wholemachine has to be remodelled from beginning to end. One step is gainedby degrees, then another; and at last, after years of labour, the newinvention comes before the world in the form of a practical workingmachine. 

In 1862 Mr. Walter began in The Times office, with tools and machineryof his own, experiments for constructing a perfecting press whichshould print the paper from rolls of paper instead of from sheets. Like his father, Mr. Walter possessed an excellent discrimination ofcharacter, and selected the best men to aid him in his importantundertaking. Numerous difficulties had, of course, to be surmounted. Plans were varied from time to time; new methods were tried, altered, and improved, simplification being aimed at throughout. Six long yearspassed in this pursuit of the possible. At length the clear lightdawned. In 1868 Mr. Walter ventured to order the construction of threemachines on the pattern of the first complete one which had been made. By the end of 1869 these were finished and placed in a room bythemselves; and a fourth was afterwards added. There the printing ofThe Times is now done, in less than half the time it previouslyoccupied, and with one-fifth the number of hands. 

The most remarkable feature in the Walter Press is its wonderfulsimplicity of construction. Simplicity of arrangement is always thebeau ideal of the mechanical engineer. This printing press is not onlysimple, but accurate, compact, rapid, and economical. 

While each of the ten-feeder Hoe Machines occupies a large and loftyroom, and requires eighteen men to feed and work it, the new WalterMachine occupies a space of only about 14 feet by 5, or less than anynewspaper machine yet introduced; and it requires only three lads totake away, with half the attention of an overseer, who easilysuperintends two of the machines while at work. The Hoe Machine turnsout 7000 impressions printed on both sides in the hour, whereas theWalter Machine turns out 12, 000 impressions completed in the same time. 

The new Walter Press does not in the least resemble any existingprinting machine, unless it be the calendering machine which furnishedits type. At the printing end it looks like a collection of smallcylinders or rollers. The first thing to be observed is the continuousroll of paper four miles long, tightly mounted on a reel, which, whenthe machine is going, flies round with immense rapidity. The web ofpaper taken up by the first roller is led into a series of small hollowcylinders filled with water and steam, perforated with thousands ofminute holes. By this means the paper is properly damped before theprocess of printing is begun. The roll of paper, drawn by nippingrollers, next flies through to the cylinder on which the stereotypeplates are fixed, so as to form the four pages of the ordinary sheet ofThe Times; there it is lightly pressed against the type and printed;then it passes downwards round another cylinder covered with cloth, andreversed; next to the second type-covered roller, where it takes theimpression exactly on the other side of the remaining four pages. Itnext reaches one of the most ingenious contrivances of theinvention--the cutting machinery, by means of which the paper isdivided by a quick knife into the 5500 sheets of which the entire webconsists. The tapes hurry the now completely printed newspaper up aninclined plane, from which the divided sheets are showered down in acontinuous stream by an oscillating frame, where they are met by twoboys, who adjust the sheets as they fall. The reel of four miles longis printed and divided into newspapers complete in about twenty-fiveminutes. 

The machine is almost entirely self-acting, from the pumping-up of theink into the ink-box out of the cistern below stairs, to theregistering of the numbers as they are printed in the manager's roomabove. It is always difficult to describe a machine in words. Nothingbut a series of sections and diagrams could give the reader an idea ofthe construction of this unrivalled instrument. The time to see it andwonder at it is when the press is in full work. And even then you cansee but little of its construction, for the cylinders are wheelinground with immense velocity. The rapidity with which the machine worksmay be inferred from the fact that the printing cylinders (round whichthe stereotyped plates are fixed), while making their impressions onthe paper, travel at the surprising speed of 200 revolutions a minute, or at the rate of about nine miles an hour!

Contrast this speed with the former slowness. Go back to the beginningof the century. Before the year 1814 the turn-out of newspapers wasonly about 300 single impressions in an hour--that is, impressionsprinted on only one side of the paper. Koenig by his inventionincreased the issue to 1100 impressions. Applegath and Cowper by theirfour-cylinder machine increased the issue to 4000, and by theeight-cylinder machine to 10, 000 an hour. But these were onlyimpressions printed on one side of the paper. The first perfectingpress--that is, printing simultaneously the paper on both sides--wasthe Walter, the speed of which has been raised to 12, 000, though, ifnecessary, it can produce excellent work at the rate of 17, 000 completecopies of an eight-page paper per hour. Then, with the new method ofstereotyping--by means of which the plates can be infinitely multipliedand by the aid of additional machines, the supply of additionalimpressions is absolutely unlimited. 

The Walter Press is not a monopoly. It is manufactured at The Timesoffice, and is supplied to all comers. Among the other daily papersprinted by its means in this country are the Daily News, the Scotsmam, and the Birmingham Daily Post. The first Walter Press was sent toAmerica in 1872, where it was employed to print the Missouri Republicanat St. Louis, the leading newspaper of the Mississippi Valley. Anengineer and a skilled workman from The Times office accompanied themachinery. On arriving at St. Louis--the materials were unpacked, lowered into the machine-room, where they were erected and ready forwork in the short space of five days. 

The Walter Press was an object of great interest at the CentennialExhibition held at Philadelphia in 1876, where it was shown printingthe New Fork Times one of the most influential journals in America. The press was surrounded with crowds of visitors intently watching itsperfect and regular action, "like a thing of life. " The New York Timessaid of it: "The Walter Press is the most perfect printing press yetknown to man; invented by the most powerful journal of the Old World, and adopted as the very best press to be had for its purposes by themost influential journal of the New World.... It is an honour to GreatBritain to have such an exhibit in her display, and a lasting benefitto the printing business, especially to newspapers.... The firstprinting press run by steam was erected in the year 1814 in the officeof The Times by the father of him who is the present proprietor of thatworld-famous journal. The machine of 1814 was described in The Timesof the 29th November in that year, and the account given of it closedin these words: 'The whole of these complicated acts is performed withsuch a velocity and simultaneosness of movement that no less than 1100sheets are impressed in one hour. ' Mirabile dictu! And the WalterPress of to-day can run off 17, 000 copies an hour printed on bothsides. This is not bad work for one man's lifetime. "

It is unnecessary to say more about this marvellous machine. Itscompletion forms the crown of the industry which it represents, and ofthe enterprise of the journal which it prints. 

Footnotes for Chapter VII. 

[1] Diary, Reminiscences, and Correspondence of Henry Crabb Robinson, Barrister-at-Law, F. S. A. , i. 231. 

[2] After the appearance of my article on the Koenig and Walter Pressesin Macmillan's Magazine for December, 1869, I received the followingletter from Sir Rowland Hill:--

"Hampstead" January 5th, 1870. 

"My dear sir, "In your very interesting article in Macmillan's Magazine on thesubject of the printing machine, you have unconsciously done me someinjustice. To convince yourself of this, you have only to read theenclosed paper. The case, however, will be strengthened when I tellyou that as far back as the year 1856, that is, seven years after theexpiry of my patent, I pointed out to Mr. Mowbray Morris, the managerof The Times, the fitness of my machine for the printing of thatjournal, and the fact that serious difficulties to its adoption hadbeen removed. I also, at his request, furnished him with a copy of thedocument with which I now trouble you. Feeling sure that you wouldlike to know the truth on any subject of which you may treat, I shouldbe glad to explain the matter more fully, and for this purpose will, with your permission, call upon you at any time you may do me thefavour to appoint. "Faithfully yours, "Rowland Hill. "

On further enquiry I obtained the Patent No. 6762; but found thatnothing practical had ever come of it. The pamphlet enclosed by SirRowland Hill in the above letter is entitled 'The Rotary PrintingMachine. ' It is very clever and ingenious, like everything he did. Butit was still left for some one else to work out the invention into apractical working printing-press. The subject is fully referred to inthe 'Life of Sir Rowland Hill' (i. 224, 525). In his final word on thesubject, Sir Rowland "gladly admits the enormous difficulty of bringinga complex machine into practical use, " a difficulty, he says, which"has been most successfully overcome by the patentees of the WalterPress. "

CHAPTER VIII. 

WILLIAM CLOWES: INTRODUCER OF BOOK-PRINTING BY STEAM. 

"The Images of men's wits and knowledges remain in Books, exempted fromthe wrong of time, and capable of perpetual renovation. Neither arethey fitly to be called Images, because they generate still, and casttheir seeds in the minds of others, provoking and causing infiniteactions and opinions in succeeding ages; so that, if the invention ofthe Ship was thought so noble, which carrieth riches and commoditiesfrom place to place, and consociateth the most remote Regions inparticipation of their Fruits, how much more are letters to bemagnified, which, as Ships, pass through the vast Seas of time, andmake ages so distant to participate of the wisdom, illuminations, andinventions, the one of the other?"--Bacon, On the Proficience andAdvancement of Learning. 

Steam has proved as useful and potent in the printing of books as inthe printing of newspapers. Down to the end of last century, "thedivine art, " as printing was called, had made comparatively littleprogress. That is to say, although books could be beautifully printedby hand labour, they could not be turned out in any large numbers. 

The early printing press was rude. It consisted of a table, alongwhich the forme of type, furnished with a tympan and frisket, waspushed by hand. The platen worked vertically between standards, andwas brought down for the impression, and raised after it, by a commonscrew, worked by a bar handle. The inking was performed by ballscovered with skin pelts; they were blacked with ink, and beaten down onthe type by the pressman. The inking was consequently irregular. 

In 1798, Earl Stanhope perfected the press that bears his name. He didnot patent it, but made his invention over to the public. In 1818, Mr. Cowper greatly improved the inking of formes used in the Stanhope andother presses, by the use of a hand roller covered with a compositionof glue and treacle, in combination with a distributing table. The inkwas thus applied in a more even manner, and with a considerabledecrease of labour. With the Stanhope Press, printing was as faradvanced as it could possibly be by means of hand labour. About 250impressions could be taken off, on one side, in an hour. 

But this, after all, was a very small result. When books could beproduced so slowly, there could be no popular literature. Books werestill articles for the few, instead of for the many. Steam power, however, completely altered the state of affairs. When Koenig inventedhis steam press, he showed by the printing of Clarkson's 'Life ofPenn'--the first sheets ever printed with a cylindrical press--thatbooks might be printed neatly, as well as cheaply, by the new machine. Mr. Bensley continued the process, after Koenig left England; and in1824, according to Johnson in his 'Typographia, ' his son was "drivingan extensive business. "

In the following year, 1825, Archibald Constable, of Edinburgh, propounded his plan for revolutionising the art of bookselling. Insteadof books being articles of luxury, he proposed to bring them intogeneral consumption. He would sell them, not by thousands, but byhundreds of thousands, "ay, by millions;" and he would accomplish thisby the new methods of multiplication--by machine printing and by steampower. Mr. Constable accordingly issued a library of excellent books;and, although he was ruined--not by this enterprise, but the otherspeculations into which he entered--he set the example which otherenterprising minds were ready to follow. Amongst these was CharlesKnight, who set the steam presses of William Clowes to work, for thepurposes of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. 

William Clowes was the founder of the vast printing establishment fromwhich these sheets are issued; and his career furnishes anotherstriking illustration of the force of industry and character. He wasborn on the 1st of January, 1779. His father was educated at Oxford, and kept a large school at Chichester; but dying when William was butan infant, he left his widow, with straitened means, to bring up herfamily. At a proper age William was bound apprentice to a printer atChichester; and, after serving him for seven years, he came up toLondon, at the beginning of 1802, to seek employment as a journeyman. He succeeded in finding work at a small office on Tower Hill, at asmall wage. The first lodgings he took cost him 5s. A week; butfinding this beyond his means he hired a room in a garret at 2s. 6d. , which was as much as he could afford out of his scanty earnings. 

The first job he was put to, was the setting-up of a largeposter-bill--a kind of work which he had been accustomed to execute inthe country; and he knocked it together so expertly that his master, Mr. Teape, on seeing what he could do, said to him, "Ah! I find you arejust the fellow for me. " The young man, however, felt so strange inLondon, where he was without a friend or acquaintance, that at the endof the first month he thought of leaving it; and yearned to go back tohis native city. But he had not funds enough to enable him to followhis inclinations, and he accordingly remained in the great City, towork, to persevere, and finally to prosper. He continued at Teape'sfor about two years, living frugally, and even contriving to save alittle money. 

He then thought of beginning business on his own account. The smallscale on which printing was carried on in those days enabled him tomake a start with comparatively little capital. By means of his ownsavings and the help of his friends, he was enabled to take a littleprinting-office in Villiers Street, Strand, about the end of 1803; andthere he began with one printing press, and one assistant. His stockof type was so small, that he was under the necessity of working itfrom day to day like a banker's gold. When his first job came in, hecontinued to work for the greater part of three nights, setting thetype during the day, and working it off at night, in order that thetype might be distributed for resetting on the following morning. Hesucceeded, however, in executing his first job to the entiresatisfaction of his first customer. 

His business gradually increased, and then, with his constantly savedmeans, he was enabled to increase his stock of type, and to undertakelarger jobs. Industry always tells, and in the long-run leads toprosperity. He married early, but he married well. He was onlytwenty-four when he found his best fortune in a good, affectionatewife. Through this lady's cousin, Mr. Winchester, the young printerwas shortly introduced to important official business. His punctualexecution of orders, the accuracy of his work, and the despatch withwhich he turned it out soon brought him friends, and his obliging andkindly disposition firmly secured them. Thus, in a few years, thehumble beginner with one press became a printer on a large scale. 

The small concern expanded into a considerable printing-office inNorthumberland Court, which was furnished with many presses and a largestock of type. The office was, unfortunately, burnt down; but a largeroffice rose in its place. 

What Mr. Clowes principally aimed at, in carrying on his business, wasaccuracy, speed, and quantity. He did not seek to produce editions deluxe in limited numbers, but large impressions of works in populardemand--travels, biographies, histories, blue-books, and officialreports, in any quantity. For this purpose, he found the process ofhand-printing too tedious, as well as too costly; and hence he earlyturned his attention to book printing by machine presses, driven bysteam power, --in this matter following the example of Mr. Walter of theTimes, who had for some years employed the same method for newspaperprinting. 

Applegath & Cowper's machines had greatly advanced the art of printing. They secured perfect inking and register; and the sheets were printedoff more neatly, regularly, and expeditiously; and larger sheets couldbe printed on both sides, than by any other method. In 1823, accordingly, Mr. Clowes erected his first steam presses, and he soonfound abundance of work for them. But to produce steam requiresboilers and engines, the working of which occasions smoke and noise. Now, as the printing-office, with its steam presses, was situated inNorthumberland Court, close to the palace of the Duke ofNorthumberland, at Charing Cross, Mr. Clowes was required to abate thenuisance, and to stop the noise and dirt occasioned by the use of hisengines. This he failed to do, and the Duke commenced an actionagainst him. 

The case was tried in June, 1824, in the Court of Common Pleas. It wasludicrous to hear the extravagant terms in which the counsel for theplaintiff and his witnesses described the nuisance--the noise made bythe engine in the underground cellar, some times like thunder, at othertimes like a thrashing-machine, and then again like the rumbling ofcarts and waggons. The printer had retained the Attorney-general, Mr. Copley, afterwards Lord Lyndhurst, who conducted his case withsurpassing ability. The cross-examination of a foreign artist, employedby the Duke to repaint some portraits of the Cornaro family by Titian, is said to have been one of the finest things on record. The sly andpungent humour, and the banter with which the counsel derided andlaughed down this witness, were inimitable. The printer won his case;but he eventually consented to remove his steam presses from theneighbourhood, on the Duke paying him a certain sum to be determined bythe award of arbitrators. 

It happened, about this period, that a sort of murrain fell upon theLondon publishers. After the failure of Constable at Edinburgh, theycame down one after another, like a pack of cards. Authors are not theonly people who lose labour and money by publishers; there are alsocases where publishers are ruined by authors. Printers also now lostheavily. In one week, Mr. Clowes sustained losses through the failureof London publishers to the extent of about 25, 000L. Happily, thelarge sum which the arbitrators awarded him for the removal of hisprinting presses enabled him to tide over the difficulty; he stood hisground unshaken, and his character in the trade stood higher than ever. 

In the following year Mr. Clowes removed to Duke Street, Blackfriars, to premises until then occupied by Mr. Applegath, as a printer; andmuch more extensive buildings and offices were now erected. There hisbusiness transactions assumed a form of unprecedented magnitude, andkept pace with the great demand for popular information which set inwith such force about fifty years ago. In the course of ten years--aswe find from the 'Encyclopaedia Metropolitana'--there were twenty ofApplegath & Cowper's machines, worked by two five-horse engines. Fromthese presses were issued the numerous admirable volumes andpublications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; thetreatises on 'Physiology, ' by Roget, and 'Animal Mechanics, ' by CharlesBell; the 'Elements of Physics, ' by Neill Arnott; 'The Pursuit ofKnowledge under Difficulties, ' by G. L. Craik, a most fascinating book;the Library of Useful Knowledge; the 'Penny Magazine, ' the firstillustrated publication; and the 'Penny Cyclopaedia, ' that admirablecompendium of knowledge and science. 

These publications were of great value. Some of them were printed inunusual numbers. The 'Penny Magazine, ' of which Charles Knight waseditor, was perhaps too good, because it was too scientific. Nevertheless, it reached a circulation of 200, 000 copies. The 'PennyCyclopaedia' was still better. It was original, and yet cheap. Thearticles were written by the best men that could be found in theirspecial departments of knowledge. The sale was originally 75, 000weekly; but, as the plan enlarged, the price was increased from 1d. To2d. , and then to 4d. At the end of the second year, the circulationhad fallen to 44, 000; and at the end of the third year, to 20, 000. 

It was unfortunate for Mr. Knight to be so much under the influence ofhis Society. Had the Cyclopaedia been under his own superintendence, it would have founded his fortune. As it was, he lost over 30, 000L. Bythe venture. The 'Penny Magazine' also went down in circulation, untilit became a non-paying publication, and then it was discontinued. Itis curious to contrast the fortunes of William Chambers of Edinburghwith those of Charles Knight of London. 'Chambers's Edinburgh Journal'was begun in February, 1832, and the 'Penny Magazine' in March, 1832. 

Chambers was perhaps shrewder than Knight. His journal was as good, though without illustrations; but he contrived to mix up amusement withuseful knowledge. It may be a weakness, but the public like to beentertained, even while they are feeding upon better food. HenceChambers succeeded, while Knight failed. The 'Penny Magazine' wasdiscontinued in 1845, whereas 'Chambers's Edinburgh Journal' hasmaintained its popularity to the present day. Chambers, also, likeKnight, published an 'Encyclopaedia, ' which secured a largecirculation. But he was not trammelled by a Society, and the'Encyclopaedia' has become a valuable property. 

The publication of these various works would not have been possiblewithout the aid of the steam printing press. When Mr. Edward Cowperwas examined before a Committee of the House of Commons, he said, "Theease with which the principles and illustrations of Art might bediffused is, I think, so obvious that it is hardly necessary to say aword about it. Here you may see it exemplified in the 'PennyMagazine. ' Such works as this could not have existed without theprinting machine. " He was asked, "In fact, the mechanic and thepeasant, in the most remote parts of the country, have now anopportunity of seeing tolerably correct outlines of form which theynever could behold before?" To which he answered, "Exactly; andliterally at the price they used to give for a song. " "Is there not, therefore, a greater chance of calling genius into activity?" "Yes, "he said, "not merely by books creating an artist here and there, but bythe general elevation of the taste of the public. "

Mr. Clowes was always willing to promote deserving persons in hisoffice. One of these rose from step to step, and eventually became oneof the most prosperous publishers in London. He entered the service asan errand-boy, and got his meals in the kitchen. Being fond ofreading, he petitioned Mrs. Clowes to let him sit somewhere, apart fromthe other servants, where he might read his book in quiet. Mrs. Clowesat length entreated her husband to take him into the office, for"Johnnie Parker was such a good boy. " He consented, and the boy tookhis place at a clerk's desk. He was well-behaved, diligent, andattentive. As he advanced in years, his steady and steadfast conductshowed that he could be trusted. Young fellows like this always maketheir way in life; for character invariably tells, not only in securingrespect, but in commanding confidence. Parker was promoted from onepost to another, until he was at length appointed overseer over theentire establishment. 

A circumstance shortly after occurred which enabled Mr. Clowes toadvance him, though greatly to his own inconvenience, to anotherimportant post. The Syndics of Cambridge were desirous that Mr. Clowesshould go down there to set their printing-office in order; theyoffered him 400L. A year if he would only appear occasionally, and seethat the organisation was kept complete. He declined, because themagnitude of his own operations had now become so great that theyrequired his unremitting attention. He, however strongly recommendedParker to the office, though he could ill spare him. But he would notstand in the young man's way, and he was appointed accordingly. He didhis work most effectually at Cambridge, and put the University Pressinto thorough working order. 

As the 'Penny Magazine' and other publications of the Society of UsefulKnowledge were now making their appearance, the clergy became desirousof bringing out a religious publication of a popular character, andthey were in search for a publisher. Parker, who was well known atCambridge, was mentioned to the Bishop of London as the most likelyperson. An introduction took place, and after an hour's conversationwith Parker, the Bishop went to his friends and said, "This is the veryman we want. " An offer was accordingly made to him to undertake thepublication of the 'Saturday Magazine' and the other publications ofthe Christian Knowledge Society, which he accepted. It is unnecessaryto follow his fortunes. His progress was steady; he eventually becamethe publisher of 'Fraser's Magazine' and of the works of John StuartMill and other well-known writers. Mill never forgot his appreciationand generosity; for when his 'System of Logic' had been refused by theleading London publishers, Parker prized the book at its rightful valueand introduced it to the public. 

To return to Mr. Clowes. In the course of a few years, the originalhumble establishment of the Sussex compositor, beginning with one pressand one assistant, grew up to be one of the largest printing-offices inthe world. It had twenty-five steam presses, twenty-eighthand-presses, six hydraulic presses, and gave direct employment to overfive hundred persons, and indirect employment to probably more than tentimes that number. Besides the works connected with hisprinting-office, Mr. Clowes found it necessary to cast his own types, to enable him to command on emergency any quantity; and to this heafterwards added stereotyping on an immense scale. He possessed thepower of supplying his compositors with a stream of new type at therate of about 50, 000 pieces a day. In this way, the weight of type inordinary use became very great; it amounted to not less than 500 tons, and the stereotyped plates to about 2500 tons the value of the latterbeing not less than half a million sterling. 

Mr. Clowes would not hesitate, in the height of his career, to havetons of type locked up for months in some ponderous blue-book. Toprint a report of a hundred folio pages in the course of a day orduring a night, or of a thousand pages in a week, was no uncommonoccurrence. From his gigantic establishment were turned out not fewerthan 725, 000 printed sheets, or equal to 30, 000 volumes a week. Nearly45, 000 pounds of paper were printed weekly. The quantity printed onboth sides per week, if laid down in a path of 22 1/4 inches broad, would extend 263 miles in length. 

About the year 1840, a Polish inventor brought out a composing machine, and submitted it to Mr. Clowes for approval. But Mr. Clowes wasgetting too old to take up and push any new invention. 

He was also averse to doing anything to injure the compositors, havingonce been a member of the craft. At the same time he said to his sonGeorge, "If you find this to be a likely machine, let me know. Ofcourse we must go with the age. If I had not started the steam presswhen I did, where should I have been now?" On the whole, the composingmachine, though ingenious, was incomplete, and did not come into use atthat time, nor indeed for a long time after. Still, the idea had beenborn, and, like other inventions, became eventually developed into auseful working machine. Composing machines are now in use in manyprinting-offices, and the present Clowes' firm possesses several ofthem. Those in The Times newspaper office are perhaps the most perfectof all. 

Mr. Clowes was necessarily a man of great ability, industry, andenergy. Whatever could be done in printing, that he would do. He wouldnever admit the force of any difficulty that might be suggested to hisplans. When he found a person ready to offer objections, he would say, "Ah! I see you are a difficulty-maker: you will never do for me. "

Mr. Clowes died in 1847, at the age of sixty-eight. There still remaina few who can recall to mind the giant figure, the kindly countenance, and the gentle bearing of this "Prince of Printers, " as he was styledby the members of his craft. His life was full of hard and usefulwork; and it will probably be admitted that, as the greatest multiplierof books in his day, and as one of the most effective practicallabourers for the diffusion of useful knowledge, his name is entitledto be permanently associated, not only with the industrial, but alsowith the intellectual development of our time. 

CHAPTER IX. 

CHARLES BIANCONI: A LESSON OF SELF-HELP IN IRELAND. 

"I beg you to occupy yourself in collecting biographical noticesrespecting the Italians who have honestly enriched themselves in otherregions, particularly referring to the obstacles of their previouslife, and to the efforts and the means which they employed forvanquishing them, as well as to the advantages which they secured forthemselves, for the countries in which they settled, and for thecountry to which they owed their birth. "--GENERAL MENABREA, Circular toItalian Consuls. 

When Count Menabrea was Prime Minister of Italy, he caused a despatchto be prepared and issued to Italian Consuls in all parts of the world, inviting them to collect and forward to him "biographical noticesrespecting the Italians who have honourably advanced themselves inforeign countries. "

His object, in issuing the despatch, was to collect information as tothe lives of his compatriots living abroad, in order to bring out abook similar to 'Self-help, ' the examples cited in which were to bedrawn exclusively from the lives of Italian citizens. Such a work, heintimated, "if it were once circulated among the masses, could not failto excite their emulation and encourage them to follow the examplestherein set forth, " while "in the course of time it might exercise apowerful influence on the increased greatness of our country. "

We are informed by Count Menabrea that, although no special work hasbeen published from the biographical notices collected in answer to hisdespatch, yet that the Volere e Potere ('Will is Power') of ProfessorLessona, issued a few years ago, sufficiently answers the purpose whichhe contemplated, and furnishes many examples of the patient industryand untiring perseverance of Italians in all parts of the world. Manyimportant illustrations of life and character are necessarily omittedfrom Professor Lessona's interesting work. Among these may bementioned the subject of the following pages, --a distinguished Italianwho entirely corresponds to Count Menabrea's description--one who, inthe face of the greatest difficulties, raised himself to an eminentpublic position, at the same time that he conferred the greatestbenefits upon the country in which he settled and carried on hisindustrial operations. We mean Charles Bianconi, and his establishmentof the great system of car communication through out Ireland. [1]

Charles Bianconi was born in 1786, at the village of Tregolo, situatedin the Lombard Highlands of La Brianza, about ten miles from Como. Thelast elevations of the Alps disappear in the district; and the greatplain of Lombardy extends towards the south. The region is known forits richness and beauty; the inhabitants being celebrated for thecultivation of the mulberry and the rearing of the silkworm, the finestsilk in Lombardy being produced in the neighbourhood. Indeed, Bianconi's family, like most of the villagers, maintained themselves bythe silk culture. 

Charles had three brothers and one sister. When of a sufficient age, he was sent to school. The Abbe Radicali had turned out some goodscholars; but with Charles Bianconi his failure was complete. The newpupil proved a tremendous dunce. He was very wild, very bold, and veryplucky; but he learned next to nothing. 

Learning took as little effect upon him as pouring water upon a duck'sback. Accordingly, when he left school at the age of sixteen, he wasalmost as ignorant as when he had entered it; and a great deal morewilful. 

Young Bianconi had now arrived at the age at which he was expected todo something for his own maintenance. His father wished to throw himupon his own resources; and as he would soon be subject to theconscription, he thought of sending him to some foreign country inorder to avoid the forced service. Young fellows, who had any love oflabour or promptings of independence in them, were then accustomed toleave home and carry on their occupations abroad. It was a commonpractice for workmen in the neighbourhood of Como to emigrate toEngland and carry on various trades; more particularly the manufactureand sale of barometers, looking-glasses, images, prints, pictures, andother articles. 

Accordingly, Bianconi's father arranged with one Andrea Faroni to takethe young man to England and instruct him in the trade ofprint-selling. Bianconi was to be Faroni's apprentice for eighteenmonths; and in the event of his not liking the occupation, he was to beplaced under the care of Colnaghi, a friend of his father's, who wasthen making considerable progress as a print-seller in London; and whoafterwards succeeded in achieving a considerable fortune and reputation. 

Bianconi made his preparations for leaving home. A little festiveentertainment was given at a little inn in Como, at which the wholefamily were present. It was a sad thing for Bianconi's mother to takeleave of her boy, wild though he was. On the occasion of this partingceremony, she fainted outright, at which the young fellow thought thatthings were assuming a rather serious aspect. As he finally left thefamily home at Tregolo, the last words his mother said to him werethese--words which he never forgot: "When you remember me, think of meas waiting at this window, watching for your return. "

Besides Charles Bianconi, Faroni took three other boys under hischarge. One was the son of a small village innkeeper, another the sonof a tailor, and the third the son of a flax-dealer. This party, undercharge of the Padre, ascended the Alps by the Val San Giacomo road. From the summit of the pass they saw the plains of Lombardy stretchingaway in the blue distance. They soon crossed the Swiss frontier, andthen Bianconi found himself finally separated from home. He now felt, that without further help from friends or relatives, he had his own wayto make in the world. 

The party of travellers duly reached England; but Faroni, withoutstopping in London, took them over to Ireland at once. They reachedDublin in the summer of 1802, and lodged in Temple Bar, near EssexBridge. It was some little time before Faroni could send out the boysto sell pictures. First he had the leaden frames to cast; then theyhad to be trimmed and coloured; and then the pictures--mostly of sacredsubjects, or of public characters--had to be mounted. The flowers;which were of wax, had also to be prepared and finished, ready for saleto the passers-by. 

When Bianconi went into the streets of Dublin to sell his mountedprints, he could not speak a word of English. He could only say, "Buy, buy!" Everybody spoke to him an unknown tongue. When asked the price, he could only indicate by his fingers the number of pence he wanted forhis goods. At length he learned a little English, --at least sufficient"for the road;" and then he was sent into the country to sell hismerchandize. He was despatched every Monday morning with about fortyshillings' worth of stock, and ordered to return home on Saturdays, oras much sooner as he liked, if he had sold all the pictures. The onlymoney his master allowed him at starting was fourpence. When Bianconiremonstrated at the smallness of the amount, Faroni answered, "Whileyou have goods you have money; make haste to sell your goods!"

During his apprenticeship, Bianconi learnt much of the country throughwhich he travelled. He was constantly making acquaintances with newpeople, and visiting new places. At Waterford he did a good trade insmall prints. Besides the Scripture pieces, he sold portraits of theRoyal Family, as well as of Bonaparte and his most distinguishedgenerals. "Bony" was the dread of all magistrates, especially inIreland. At Passage, near Waterford, Bianconi was arrested for havingsold a leaden framed picture of the famous French Emperor. He wasthrown into a cold guard-room, and spent the night there without bed, or fire, or food. Next morning he was discharged by the magistrate, but cautioned that he must not sell any more of such pictures. 

Many things struck Bianconi in making his first journeys throughIreland. He was astonished at the dram-drinking of the men, and thepipe-smoking of the women. The violent faction-fights which took placeat the fairs which he frequented, were of a kind which he had neverbefore observed among the pacific people of North Italy. Thesefaction-fights were the result, partly of dram-drinking, and partly ofthe fighting mania which then prevailed in Ireland. There were alsonumbers of crippled and deformed beggars in every town, --quarrellingand fighting in the streets, --rows and drinkings at wakes, --gambling, duelling, and riotous living amongst all classes of the people, --thingswhich could not but strike any ordinary observer at the time, but whichhave now, for the most part, happily passed away. 

At the end of eighteen months, Bianconi's apprenticeship was out; andFaroni then offered to take him back to his father, in compliance withthe original understanding. But Bianconi had no wish to return toItaly. Faroni then made over to him the money he had retained on hisaccount, and Bianconi set up business for himself. He was now abouteighteen years old; he was strong and healthy, and able to walk with aheavy load on his back from twenty to thirty miles a day. He bought alarge case, filled it with coloured prints and other articles, andstarted from Dublin on a tour through the south of Ireland. Hesucceeded, like most persons who labour diligently. The curly-hairedItalian lad became a general favourite. He took his native politenesswith him everywhere; and made many friends among his various customersthroughout the country. 

Bianconi used to say that it was about this time when he was carryinghis heavy case upon his back, weighing at least a hundred pounds--thatthe idea began to strike him, of some cheap method of conveyance beingestablished for the accommodation of the poorer classes in Ireland. Ashe dismantled himself of his case of pictures, and sat wearied andresting on the milestones along the road, he puzzled his mind with thethought, "Why should poor people walk and toil, and rich people rideand take their ease? Could not some method be devised by which poorpeople also might have the opportunity of travelling comfortably?"

It will thus be seen that Bianconi was already beginning to think aboutthe matter. When asked, not long before his death, how it was that hehad first thought of starting his extensive Car establishment, heanswered, "It grew out of my back!" It was the hundred weight ofpictures on his dorsal muscles that stimulated his thinking faculties. But the time for starting his great experiment had not yet arrived. 

Bianconi wandered about from town to town for nearly two years. Thepicture-case became heavier than ever. For a time he replaced it witha portfolio of unframed prints. Then he became tired of the wanderinglife, and in 1806 settled down at Carrick-on-Suir as a print-seller andcarver and gilder. He supplied himself with gold-leaf from Waterford, to which town he used to proceed by Tom Morrissey's boat. Although thedistance by road between the towns was only twelve miles, it was abouttwenty-four by water, in consequence of the windings of the river Suir. Besides, the boat could only go when the state of the tide permitted. Time was of little consequence; and it often took half a day to makethe journey. In the course of one of his voyages, Bianconi got himselfso thoroughly soaked by rain and mud that he caught a severe cold, which ran into pleurisy, and laid him up for about two months. He wascarefully attended to by a good, kind physician, Dr. White, who wouldnot take a penny for his medicine and nursing. 

Business did not prove very prosperous at Carrick-on-suir; the town wassmall, and the trade was not very brisk. Accordingly, Bianconiresolved, after a year's ineffectual trial, to remove to Waterford, amore thriving centre of operations. He was now twenty-one years old. He began again as a carver and gilder; and as business flowed in uponhim, he worked very hard, sometimes from six in the morning until twohours after midnight. As usual, he made many friends. Among the bestof them was Edward Rice, the founder of the "Christian Brothers" inIreland. Edward Rice was a true benefactor to his country. He devotedhimself to the work of education, long before the National Schools wereestablished; investing the whole of his means in the foundation andmanagement of this noble institution. 

Mr. Rice's advice and instruction set and kept Bianconi in the rightroad. He helped the young foreigner to learn English. Bianconi was nolonger a dunce, as he had been at school; but a keen, active, enterprising fellow, eager to make his way in the world. Mr. Riceencouraged him to be sedulous and industrious, urged him to carefulnessand sobriety, and strengthened his religions impressions. The help andfriendship of this good man, operating upon the mind and soul of ayoung man, whose habits of conduct and whose moral and religiouscharacter were only in course of formation, could not fail to exercise, as Bianconi always acknowledged they did, a most powerful influenceupon the whole of his after life. 

Although "three removes" are said to be "as bad as a fire, " Bianconi, after remaining about two years at Waterford, made a third removal in1809, to Clonmel, in the county of Tipperary. Clonmel is the centre ofa large corn trade, and is in water communication, by the Suir, withCarrick and Waterford. Bianconi, therefore, merely extended hisconnection; and still continued his dealings with his customers in theother towns. He made himself more proficient in the mechanical part ofhis business; and aimed at being the first carver and gilder in thetrade. Besides, he had always an eye open for new business. At thattime, when the war was raging with France, gold was at a premium. Theguinea was worth about twenty-six or twenty-seven shillings. Bianconitherefore began to buy up the hoarded-up guineas of the peasantry. Theloyalists became alarmed at his proceedings, and began to circulate thereport that Bianconi, the foreigner, was buying up bullion to sendsecretly to Bonaparte! The country people, however, parted with theirguineas readily; for they had no particular hatred of "Bony, " butrather admired him. 

Bianconi's conduct was of course quite loyal in the matter; he merelybought the guineas as a matter of business, and sold them at a profitto the bankers. 

The country people had a difficulty in pronouncing his name. His shopwas at the corner of Johnson Street, and instead of Bianconi, he cameto be called "Bian of the Corner. " He was afterwards known as "Bian. "

Bianconi soon became well known after his business was established. Hebecame a proficient in the carving and gilding line, and was lookedupon as a thriving man. He began to employ assistants in his trade, and had three German gilders at work. While they were working in theshop he would travel about the country, taking orders and deliveringgoods--sometimes walking and sometimes driving. 

He still retained a little of his old friskiness and spirit ofmischief. He was once driving a car from Clonmel to Thurles; he hadwith him a large looking-glass with a gilt frame, on which about afortnight's labour had been bestowed. In a fit of exuberant humour hebegan to tickle the horse under his tail with a straw! In an instantthe animal reared and plunged, and then set off at a gallop down hill. The result was, that the car was dashed to bits and the looking-glassbroken into a thousand atoms!

On another occasion, a man was carrying to Cashel on his back one ofBianconi's large looking-glasses. An old woman by the wayside, seeingthe odd-looking, unwieldy package, asked what it was; on whichBianconi, who was close behind the man carrying the glass, answeredthat it was "the Repeal of the Union!" The old woman's delight wasunbounded! She knelt down on her knees in the middle of the road, asif it had been a picture of the Madonna, and thanked God for havingpreserved her in her old age to see the Repeal of the Union!

But this little waywardness did not last long. Bianconi's wild oatswere soon all sown. He was careful and frugal. As he afterwards usedto say, "When I was earning a shilling a day at Clonmel, I lived uponeightpence. " He even took lodgers, to relieve him of the charge of hishousehold expenses. But as his means grew, he was soon able to have aconveyance of his own. He first started a yellow gig, in which hedrove about from place to place, and was everywhere treated withkindness and hospitality. He was now regarded as "respectable, " and asa person worthy to hold some local office. He was elected to a Societyfor visiting the Sick Poor, and became a Member of the House ofIndustry. He might have gone on in the same business, winning his wayto the Mayoralty of Clonmel, which he afterwards held; but that the oldidea, which had first sprung up in his mind while resting wearily onthe milestones along the road, with his heavy case of pictures by hisside, again laid hold of him, and he determined now to try whether hisplan could not be carried into effect. 

He had often lamented the fatigue that poor people had to undergo intravelling with burdens from place to place upon foot, and wonderedwhether some means might not be devised for alleviating theirsufferings. Other people would have suggested "the Government!" Whyshould not the Government give us this, that, and the other, --give usroads, harbours, carriages, boats, nets, and so on. This, of course, would have been a mistaken idea; for where people are too much helped, they invariably lose the beneficent practice of helping themselves. Charles Bianconi had never been helped, except by advice andfriendship. He had helped himself throughout; and now he would try tohelp others. 

The facts were patent to everybody. There was not an Irishman who didnot know the difficulty of getting from one town to another. Therewere roads between them, but no conveyances. There was an abundance ofhorses in the country, for at the close of the war an unusual number ofhorses, bred for the army, were thrown upon the market. Then a tax hadbeen levied upon carriages, which sent a large number of jaunting-carsout of employment. 

The roads of Ireland were on the whole good, being at that time quiteequal, if not superior, to most of those in England. The facts of theabundant horses, the good roads, the number of unemployed outside cars, were generally known; but until Bianconi took the enterprise in hand, there was no person of thought, or spirit, or capital in the country, who put these three things together horses, roads, and cars and dreamtof remedying the great public inconvenience. 

It was left for our young Italian carver and gilder, a struggling manof small capital, to take up the enterprise, and show what could bedone by prudent action and persevering energy. Though the car systemoriginally "grew out of his back, " Bianconi had long been turning thesubject over in his mind. His idea was, that we should never despisesmall interests, nor neglect the wants of poor people. He saw themail-coaches supplying the requirements of the rich, and enabling themto travel rapidly from place to place. "Then, " said he to himself, "would it not be possible for me to make an ordinary two-wheeled carpay, by running as regularly for the accommodation of poor districtsand poor people?"

When Mr. Wallace, chairman of the Select Committee on Postage, in 1838, asked Mr. Bianconi, "What induced you to commence the carestablishment?" his answer was, "I did so from what I saw, after comingto this country, of the necessity for such cars, inasmuch as there wasno middle mode of conveyance, nothing to fill up the vacuum thatexisted between those who were obliged to walk and those who posted orrode. My want of knowledge of the language gave me plenty of time fordeliberation, and in proportion as I grew up with the knowledge of thelanguage and the localities, this vacuum pressed very heavily upon mymind, till at last I hit upon the idea of running jaunting-cars, andfor that purpose I commenced running one between Clonmel and Cahir. "[2]

What a happy thing it was for Bianconi and Ireland that he could notspeak with facility, --that he did not know the language or the mannersof the country! In his case silence was "golden. " Had he been able totalk like the people about him, he might have said much and donelittle, --attempted nothing and consequently achieved nothing. He mighthave got up a meeting and petitioned Parliament to provide the cars, and subvention the car system; or he might have gone amongst hispersonal friends, asked them to help him, and failing their help, givenup his idea in despair, and sat down grumbling at the people and theGovernment. 

But instead of talking, he proceeded to doing, thereby illustratingLessona's maxim of Volere e potere. After thinking the subject fullyover, he trusted to self-help. He found that with his own means, carefully saved, he could make a beginning; and the beginning oncemade, included the successful ending. 

The beginning, it is true, was very small. It was only an ordinaryjaunting-car, drawn by a single horse, capable of accommodating sixpersons. The first car ran between Clonmel and Cahir, a distance ofabout twelve miles, on the 5th of July, 1815--a memorable day forBianconi and Ireland. Up to that time the public accommodation forpassengers was confined to a few mail and day coaches on the greatlines of road, the fares by which were very high, and quite beyond thereach of the poorer or middle-class people. 

People did not know what to make of Bianconi's car when it firststarted. There were, of course, the usual prophets of disaster, whodecided that it "would never do. " Many thought that no one would payeighteen-pence for going to Cahir by car when they could walk there fornothing? There were others who thought that Bianconi should have stuckto his shop, as there was no connection whatever betweenpicture-gilding and car-driving!

The truth is, the enterprise at first threatened to be a failure!Scarcely anybody would go by the car. People preferred trudging onfoot, and saved their money, which was more valuable to them than theirtime. The car sometimes ran for weeks without a passenger. Anotherman would have given up the enterprise in despair. But this was notthe way with Bianconi. He was a man of tenacity and perseverance. What should he do but start an opposition car? Nobody knew of it buthimself; not even the driver of the opposition car. However, the rivalcar was started. The races between the car-drivers, the free liftsoccasionally given to passengers, the cheapness of the fare, and theexcitement of the contest, attracted the attention of the public. Thepeople took sides, and before long both cars came in full. Fortunatelythe "great big yallah horse" of the opposition car broke down, andBianconi had all the trade to himself. 

The people became accustomed to travelling. They might still walk toCahir; but going by car saved their legs, saved their brains, and savedtheir time. They might go to Cahir market, do their business there, and be comfortably back within the day. Bianconi then thought ofextending the car to Tipperary and Limerick. In the course of the sameyear, 1815, he started another car between Clonmel, Cashel, andThurles. Thus all the principal towns of Tipperary were, in the firstyear of the undertaking, connected together by car, besides being alsoconnected with Limerick. 

It was easy to understand the convenience of the car system to businessmen, farmers, and even peasants. Before their establishment, it took aman a whole day to walk from Thurles to Clonmel, the second day to dohis business, and the third to walk back again; whereas he could, inone day, travel backwards and forwards between the two towns, and havefive or six intermediate hours for the purpose of doing his business. Thus two clear days could be saved. 

Still carrying out his scheme, Bianconi, in the following year (1816), put on a car from Clonmel to Waterford. Before that time there was nocar accommodation between Clonmel and Carrick-on-Suir, about half-wayto Waterford; but there was an accommodation by boat between Carrickand Waterford. The distance between the two latter places was, byroad, twelve miles, and by the river Suir twenty-four miles. TomMorrissey's boat plied two days a week; it carried from eight to tenpassengers at 6 1/2d. Of the then currency; it did the voyage in fromfour to five hours, and besides had to wait for the tide to float it upand down the river. When Bianconi's car was put on, it did thedistance daily and regularly in two hours, at a fare of two shillings. 

The people soon got accustomed to the convenience of the cars. Theyalso learned from them the uses of punctuality and the value of time. They liked the open-air travelling and the sidelong motion. The newcars were also safe and well-appointed. They were drawn by good horsesand driven by good coachmen. Jaunting-car travelling had before beenrather unsafe. The country cars were of a ramshackle order, and thedrivers were often reckless. "Will I pay the pike, or drive at it, plaise your honour?" said a driver to his passenger on approaching aturnpike-gate. Sam Lover used to tell a story of a car-driver, who, after driving his passenger up-hill and down-hill, along a very badroad, asked him for something extra at the end of his journey. 

"Faith, " said the driver, "its not putting me off with this ye'd be, ifye knew but all. " The gentleman gave him another shilling. "And nowwhat do you mean by saying, 'if ye knew but all?'" "That I druv yerhonor the last three miles widout a linch-pin!"

Bianconi, to make sure of the soundness and safety of his cars, set upa workshop to build them for himself. He could thus depend upon theirsoundness, down even to the linch-pin itself. He kept on his carvingand gilding shop until his car business had increased so much that itrequired the whole of his time and attention; and then he gave it up. In fact, when he was able to run a car from Clonmel to Waterford--adistance of thirty-two miles--at a fare of three-and-sixpence, hiseventual triumph was secure. 

He made Waterford one of the centres of his operations, as he hadalready made Clonmel. In 1818 he established a car between Waterfordand Ross, in the following year a car between Waterford and Wexford, and another between Waterford and Enniscorthy. A few years later heestablished other cars between Waterford and Kilkenny, and Waterfordand Dungarvan. From these furthest points, again, other cars wereestablished in communication with them, carrying the line furthernorth, east, and west. So much had the travelling between Clonmel andWaterford increased, that in a few years (instead of the eight or tenpassengers conveyed by Tom Morrissey's boat on the Suir) there washorse and car power capable of conveying a hundred passengers dailybetween the two places. 

Bianconi did a great stroke of business at the Waterford election of1826. Indeed it was the turning point of his fortunes. He was atfirst greatly cramped for capital. The expense of maintaining andincreasing his stock of cars, and of foddering his horses was verygreat; and he was always on the look-out for more capital. When theWaterford election took place, the Beresford party, then all-powerful, engaged all his cars to drive the electors to the poll. The popularparty, however, started a candidate, and applied to Bianconi for help. But he could not comply, for his cars were all engaged. The morningafter his refusal of the application, Bianconi was pelted with mud. One or two of his cars and horses were heaved over the bridge. 

Bianconi then wrote to Beresford's agent, stating that he could nolonger risk the lives of his drivers and his horses, and desiring to bereleased from his engagement. The Beresford party had no desire toendanger the lives of the car-drivers or their horses, and they setBianconi free. He then engaged with the popular party, and enabledthem to win the election. For this he was paid the sum of a thousandpounds. This access of capital was greatly helpful to him under thecircumstances. He was able to command the market, both for horses andfodder. He was also placed in a position to extend the area of his carroutes. 

He now found time, amidst his numerous avocations, to get married! Hewas forty years of age before this event occurred. He married ElizaHayes, some twenty years younger than himself, the daughter of PatrickHayes, of Dublin, and of Henrietta Burton, an English-woman. Themarriage was celebrated on the 14th of February, 1827; and the ceremonywas performed by the late Archbishop Murray. Mr. Bianconi must nowhave been in good circumstances, as he settled two thousand pounds uponhis wife on their marriage-day. His early married life was dividedbetween his cars, electioneering, and Repeal agitation--for he wasalways a great ally of O'Connell. Though he joined in the Repealmovement, his sympathies were not with it; for he preferred Imperial toHome Rule. But he could never deny himself the pleasure of followingO'Connell, "right or wrong. "

Let us give a picture of Bianconi now. The curly-haired Italian boyhad grown a handsome man. His black locks curled all over his headlike those of an ancient Roman bust. His face was full of power, hischin was firm, his nose was finely cut and well-formed; his eyes werekeen and sparkling, as if throwing out a challenge to fortune. He wasactive, energetic, healthy, and strong, spending his time mostly in theopen air. He had a wonderful recollection of faces, and rarely forgotto recognise the countenance that he had once seen. He even knew allhis horses by name. He spent little of his time at home, but wasconstantly rushing about the country after business, extending hisconnections, organizing his staff, and arranging the centres of histraffic. 

To return to the car arrangements. A line was early opened fromClonmel--which was at first the centre of the entire connection--toCork; and that line was extended northward, through Mallow andLimerick. Then, the Limerick car went on to Tralee, and from thence toCahirciveen, on the south-west coast of Ireland. The cars were alsoextended northward from Thurles to Roscrea, Ballinasloe, Athlone, Roscommon, and Sligo, and to all the principal towns in the north-westcounties of Ireland. 

The cars interlaced with each other, and plied, not so much incontinuous main lines, as across country, so as to bring all importanttowns, but especially the market towns, into regular dailycommunication with each other. Thus, in the course of about thirtyyears, Bianconi succeeded in establishing a system of internalcommunication in Ireland, which traversed the main highways andcross-roads from town to town, and gave the public a regular and safecar accommodation at the average rate of a penny-farthing per mile. 

The traffic in all directions steadily increased. The first car usedwas capable of accommodating only six persons. This was betweenClonmel and Cahir. But when it went on to Limerick, a larger car wasrequired. The traffic between Clonmel and Waterford was also begunwith a small-sized car. But in the course of a few years, there werefour large-sized cars, travelling daily each way, between the twoplaces. And so it was in other directions, between Cork in the south;and Sligo and Strabane in the north and north-west; between Wexford inthe east, and Galway and Skibbereen in the west and south-west. 

Bianconi first increased the accommodation of these cars so as to carryfour persons on each side instead of three, drawn by two horses. Butas the two horses could quite as easily carry two additionalpassengers, another piece was added to the car so as to carry fivepassengers. Then another four-wheeled car was built, drawn by threehorses, so as to carry six passengers on each side. And lastly, afourth horse was used, and the car was further enlarged, so as toaccommodate seven, and eventually eight passengers on each side, withone on the box, which made a total accommodation for seventeenpassengers. The largest and heaviest of the long cars, on four wheels, was called "Finn MacCoul's, " after Ossian's Giant; the fast cars, of alight build, on two wheels, were called "Faugh-a-ballagh, " or "clearthe way"; while the intermediate cars were named "Massey Dawsons, "after a popular Tory squire. 

When Bianconi's system was complete, he had about a hundred vehicles atwork; a hundred and forty stations for changing horses, where from oneto eight grooms were employed; about a hundred drivers, thirteenhundred horses, performing an average distance of three thousand eighthundred miles daily; passing through twenty-three counties, andvisiting no fewer than a hundred and twenty of the principal towns andcities in the south and west and midland counties of Ireland. Bianconi's horses consumed on an average from three to four thousandtons of hay yearly, and from thirty to forty thousand barrels of oats, all of which were purchased in the respective localities in which theywere grown. 

Bianconi's cars--or "The Bians"--soon became very popular. Everybodywas under obligations to them. They greatly promoted the improvementof the country. People could go to market and buy or sell their goodsmore advantageously. It was cheaper for them to ride than to walk. They brought the whole people of the country so much nearer to eachother. They virtually opened up about seven-tenths of Ireland tocivilisation and commerce, and among their other advantages, theyopened markets for the fresh fish caught by the fishermen of Galway, Clifden, Westport, and other places, enabling them to be soldthroughout the country on the day after they were caught. They alsoopened the magnificent scenery of Ireland to tourists, and enabled themto visit Bantry Bay, Killarney, South Donegal, and the wilds ofConnemara in safety, all the year round. 

Bianconi's service to the public was so great, and it was done with somuch tact, that nobody had a word to say against him. Everybody was hisfriend. Not even the Whiteboys would injure him or the mails hecarried. He could say with pride, that in the most disturbed times hiscars had never been molested. Even during the Whiteboy insurrection, though hundreds of people were on the roads at night, the traffic wenton without interference. At the meeting of the British Association in1857, Bianconi said: "My conveyances, many of them carrying veryimportant mails, have been travelling during all hours of the day andnight, often in lonely and unfrequented places; and during the longperiod of forty-two years that my establishment has been in existence, the slightest injury has never been done by the people to my property, or that entrusted to my care; and this fact gives me greater pleasurethan any pride I might feel in reflecting upon the other rewards of mylife's labour. "

Of course Bianconi's cars were found of great use for carrying themails. The post was, at the beginning of his enterprise, very badlyserved in Ireland, chiefly by foot and horse posts. When the first carwas run from Clonmel to Cahir, Bianconi offered to carry the mail forhalf the price then paid for "sending it alternately by a mule and abad horse. " The post was afterwards found to come regularly instead ofirregularly to Cahir; and the practice of sending the mails byBianconi's cars increased from year to year. Dispatch won its way topopularity in Ireland as elsewhere, and Bianconi lived to see all thecross-posts in Ireland arranged on his system. 

The postage authorities frequently used the cars of Bianconi as a meansof competing with the few existing mail-coaches. For instance, theyasked him to compete for carrying the post between Limerick and Tralee, then carried by a mail-coach. Before tendering, Bianconi called on thecontractor, to induce him to give in to the requirements of the PostOffice, because he knew that the postal authorities only desired tomake use of him to fight the coach proprietors. But having beeninformed that it was the intention of the Post Office to discontinuethe mail-coach whether Bianconi took the contract or not, he at lengthsent in his tender, and obtained the contract. 

He succeeded in performing the service, and delivered the mail muchearlier than it had been done before. But the former contractor, finding that he had made a mistake, got up a movement in favour ofre-establishing the mail-coach upon that line of road; and heeventually induced the postage authorities to take the mail contractout of the hands of Bianconi, and give it back to himself, as formerly. Bianconi, however, continued to keep his cars upon the road. He hadbefore stated to the contractor, that if he once started his cars, hewould not leave it, even though the contract were taken from him. Bothcoach and car therefore ran for years upon the road, each losingthousands of pounds. "But, " said Bianconi, when asked about the matterby the Committee on Postage in 1838, "I kept my word: I must eitherlose character by breaking my word, or lose money. I prefer losingmoney to giving up the line of road. "

Bianconi had also other competitors to contend with, especially fromcoach and car proprietors. No sooner had he shown to others the way tofortune, than he had plenty of imitators. But they did not possess hisrare genius for organisation, nor perhaps his still rarer principles. They had not his tact, his foresight, his knowledge, nor hisperseverance. When Bianconi was asked by the Select Committee onPostage, "Do the opposition cars started against you induce you toreduce your fares?" his answer was, "No; I seldom do. Our fares are soclose to the first cost, that if any man runs cheaper than I do, hemust starve off, as few can serve the public lower and better than Ido. "[3]

Bianconi was once present at a meeting of car proprietors, called forthe purpose of uniting to put down a new opposition coach. Bianconiwould not concur, but protested against it, saying, "If car proprietorshad united against me when I started, I should have been crushed. Butis not the country big enough for us all?" The coach proprietors, after many angry words, threatened to unite in running down Bianconihimself. "Very well, " he said, "you may run me off the road--that ispossible; but while there is this" (pulling a flower out of his coat)"you will not put me down. " The threat merely ended in smoke, thecourage and perseverance of Bianconi having long since become generallyrecognised. 

We have spoken of the principles of Mr. Bianconi. They were mosthonourable. His establishment might be spoken of as a school ofmorality. In the first place, he practically taught and enforced thevirtues of punctuality, truthfulness, sobriety, and honesty. He alsotaught the public generally the value of time, to which, in fact, hisown success was in a great measure due. While passing through Clonmelin 1840, Mr. And Mrs. S. C. Hall called upon Bianconi and went over hisestablishment, as well as over his house and farm, a short distancefrom the town. The travellers had a very pressing engagement, andcould not stay to hear the story of how their entertainer had contrivedto "make so much out of so little. " "How much time have you?" heasked. "Just five minutes. " "The car, " says Mr. Hall, "had conveyedus to the back entrance. Bianconi instantly rang the bell, and said tothe servant, 'Tell the driver to bring the car round to the front, 'adding, 'that will save one minute, and enable me to tell you allwithin the time. ' This was, in truth the secret of his success, makingthe most of time. "[4]

But the success of Bianconi was also due to the admirable principles onwhich his establishment was conducted. His drivers were noted as beingamong the most civil and obliging men in Ireland, besides beingpleasant companions to boot. They were careful, punctual, truthful, and honest; but all this was the result of strict discipline on thepart of their master. 

The drivers were taken from the lowest grades of the establishment, andpromoted to higher positions according to their respective merits asopportunity offered. "Much surprise, " says Bianconi, "has often beenexpressed at the high order of men connected with my car establishmentand at its popularity; but parties thus expressing themselves forget tolook at Irish society with sufficient grasp. For my part, I cannotbetter compare it than to a man merging to convalescence from a seriousattack of malignant fever, and requiring generous nutrition in place ofmedical treatment"[5]

To attach the men to the system, as well as to confer upon them the duereward for their labour, he provided for all the workmen who had beeninjured, worn out, or become superannuated in his service. The driverscould then retire upon a full pension, which they enjoyed during therest of their lives. They were also paid their full wages duringsickness, and at their death Bianconi educated their children, who grewup to manhood, and afterwards filled the situations held by theirdeceased parents. 

Every workman had thus a special interest in his own good conduct. They knew that nothing but misbehaviour could deprive them of thebenefits they enjoyed; and hence their endeavours to maintain theirpositions by observing the strict discipline enjoined by their employer. 

Sobriety was, of course, indispensable--a drunken car-driver beingamongst the most dangerous of servants. The drivers must also betruthful, and the man found telling a lie, however venial, wasinstantly dismissed. Honesty was also strongly enforced, not only forthe sake of the public, but for the sake of the men themselves. Hencehe never allowed his men to carry letters. If they did so, he finedthem in the first instance very severely, and in the second instancedismissed them. "I do so, " he said, "because if I do not respect otherinstitutions (the Post Office), my men will soon learn not to respectmy own. Then, for carrying letters during the extent of their trip, themen most probably would not get money, but drink, and hence becomedissipated and unworthy of confidence. "

Thus truth, accuracy, punctuality, sobriety, and honesty being strictlyenforced, formed the fundamental principle of the entire management. At the same time, Bianconi treated his drivers with every confidenceand respect. He made them feel that, in doing their work well, theyconferred a greater benefit on him and on the public than he did onthem by paying them their wages. 

When attending the British Association at Cork, Bianconi said that, "inproportion as he advanced his drivers, he lowered their wages. ""Then, " said Dr. Taylor, the Secretary, "I wouldn't like to serve you. ""Yes, you would, " replied Bianconi, "because in promoting my drivers Iplace them on a more lucrative line, where their certainty of receivingfees from passengers is greater. "

Bianconi was as merciful to his horses as to his men. He had muchgreater difficulty at first in finding good men than good horses, because the latter were not exposed to the temptations to which theformer were subject. Although the price of horses continued to rise, he nevertheless bought the best horses at increased prices, and he tookcare not to work them overmuch. He gave his horses as well as his mentheir seventh day's rest. "I find by experience, " he said, "that I canwork a horse eight miles a day for six days in the week, easier than Ican work six miles for seven days; and that is one of my reasons forhaving no cars, unless carrying a mail, plying upon Sundays. "

Bianconi had confidence in men generally. The result was that men hadconfidence in him. Even the Whiteboys respected him. At the close ofa long and useful life he could say with truth, "I never yet attemptedto do an act of generosity or common justice, publicly or privately, that I was not met by manifold reciprocity. "

By bringing the various classes of society into connection with eachother, Bianconi believed, and doubtless with truth, that he was themeans of making them respect each other, and that he thereby promotedthe civilisation of Ireland. At the meeting of the social ScienceCongress, held at Dublin in 1861, he said: "The state of the roads wassuch as to limit the rate of travelling to about seven miles an hour, and the passengers were often obliged to walk up hills. Thus allclasses were brought together, and I have felt much pleasure inbelieving that the intercourse thus created tended to inspire thehigher classes with respect and regard for the natural good qualitiesof the humbler people, which the latter reciprocated by a becomingdeference and an anxiety to please and oblige. Such a moral benefitappears to me to be worthy of special notice and congratulation. "

Even when railways were introduced, Bianconi did not resist them, butwelcomed them as "the great civilisers of the age. " There was, in hisopinion, room enough for all methods of conveyance in Ireland. WhenCaptain Thomas Drummond was appointed Under-Secretary for Ireland in1835, and afterwards chairman of the Irish Railway Commission, he hadoften occasion to confer with Mr. Bianconi, who gave him everyassistance. Mr. Drummond conceived the greatest respect for Bianconi, and often asked him how it was that he, a foreigner, should haveacquired so extensive an influence and so distinguished a position inIreland?

"The question came upon me, " said Bianconi, "by surprise, and I did notat the time answer it. But another day he repeated his question, and Ireplied, 'Well, it was because, while the big and the little werefighting, I crept up between them, carried out my enterprise, andobliged everybody. '" This, however, did not satisfy Mr. Drummond, whoasked Bianconi to write down for him an autobiography, containing theincidents of his early life down to the period of his great Irishenterprise. Bianconi proceeded to do this, writing down his pasthistory in the occasional intervals which he could snatch from theimmense business which he still continued personally to superintend. But before the "Drummond memoir" could be finished Mr. Drummond himselfhad ceased to live, having died in 1840, principally of overwork. Whathe thought of Bianconi, however, has been preserved in his Report ofthe Irish Railway Commission of 1838, written by Mr. Drummond himself, in which he thus speaks of his enterprising friend in starting andconducting the great Irish car establishment:--

"With a capital little exceeding the expense of outfit he commenced. Fortune, or rather the due reward of industry and integrity, favouredhis first efforts. He soon began to increase the number of his carsand multiply routes, until his establishment spread over the whole ofIreland. These results are the more striking and instructive as havingbeen accomplished in a district which has long been represented as thefocus of unreclaimed violence and barbarism, where neither life norproperty can be deemed secure. Whilst many possessing a personalinterest in everything tending to improve or enrich the country havebeen so misled or inconsiderate as to repel by exaggerated statementsBritish capital from their doors, this foreigner chose Tipperary as thecentre of his operations, wherein to embark all the fruits of hisindustry in a traffic peculiarly exposed to the power and even to thecaprice of the peasantry. The event has shown that his confidence intheir good sense was not ill-grounded. 

"By a system of steady and just treatment he has obtained a completemastery, exempt from lawless intimidation or control, over the variousservants and agents employed by him, and his establishment is popularwith all classes on account of its general usefulness and the fairliberal spirit of its management. The success achieved by this spiritedgentleman is the result, not of a single speculation, which might havebeen favoured by local circumstances, but of a series of distinctexperiments, all of which have been successful. "

When the railways were actually made and opened, they ran right throughthe centre of Bianconi's long-established systems of communication. They broke up his lines, and sent them to the right and left. But, though they greatly disturbed him, they did not destroy him. In hisenterprising hands the railways merely changed the direction of thecars. He had at first to take about a thousand horses off the road, with thirty-seven vehicles, travelling 2446 miles daily. But heremodelled his system so as to run his cars between therailway-stations and the towns to the right and left of the main lines. 

He also directed his attention to those parts of Ireland which had notbefore had the benefit of his conveyances. And in thus stillcontinuing to accommodate the public, the number of his horses andcarriages again increased, until, in 1861, he was employing 900 horses, travelling over 4000 miles daily; and in 1866, when he resigned hisbusiness, he was running only 684 miles daily below the maximum run in1845, before the railways had begun to interfere with his traffic. 

His cars were then running to Dungarvan, Waterford, and Wexford in thesouth-west of Ireland; to Bandon, Rosscarbery, Skibbereen, andCahirciveen, in the south; to Tralee, Galway, Clifden, Westport, andBelmullet in the west; to Sligo, Enniskillen, Strabane, and Letterkennyin the north; while, in the centre of Ireland, the towns of Thurles, Kilkenny, Birr, and Ballinasloe were also daily served by the cars ofBianconi. 

At the meeting of the British Association, held in Dublin in 1857, Mr. Bianconi mentioned a fact which, he thought, illustrated the increasingprosperity of the country and the progress of the people. It was, thatalthough the population had so considerably decreased by emigration andother causes, the proportion of travellers by his conveyances continuedto increase, demonstrating not only that the people had more money, butthat they appreciated the money value of time, and also the advantagesof the car system established for their accommodation. 

Although railways must necessarily have done much to promote theprosperity of Ireland, it is very doubtful whether the generalpassenger public were not better served by the cars of Bianconi than bythe railways which superseded them. Bianconi's cars were on the wholecheaper, and were always run en correspondence, so as to meet eachother; whereas many of the railway trains in the south of Ireland, under the competitive system existing between the several companies, are often run so as to miss each other. The present working of theIrish railway traffic provokes perpetual irritation amongst the Irishpeople, and sufficiently accounts for the frequent petitions presentedto Parliament that they should be taken in hand and worked by the State. 

Bianconi continued to superintend his great car establishment untilwithin the last few years. He had a constitution of iron, which heexpended in active daily work. He liked to have a dozen irons in thefire, all red-hot at once. At the age of seventy he was still a man inhis prime; and he might be seen at Clonmel helping, at busy times, toload the cars, unpacking and unstrapping the luggage where it seemed tobe inconveniently placed; for he was a man who could never stand by andsee others working without having a hand in it himself. Even when wellon to eighty, he still continued to grapple with the immense businessinvolved in working a traffic extending over two thousand five hundredmiles of road. 

Nor was Bianconi without honour in his adopted country. He began hisgreat enterprise in 1815, though it was not until 1831 that he obtainedletters of naturalisation. His application for these privileges wassupported by the magistrates of Tipperary and by the Grand Jury, andthey were at once granted. In 1844 he was elected Mayor of Clonmel, and took his seat as Chairman at the Borough Petty Sessions to dispensejustice. 

The first person brought before him was James Ryan, who had been drunkand torn a constable's belt. "Well, Ryan, " said the magistrate, "whathave you to say?" "Nothing, your worship; only I wasn't drunk. " "Whotore the constable's belt?" "He was bloated after his Christmasdinner, your worship, and the belt burst!" "You are so very pleasant, "said the magistrate, "that you will have to spend forty-eight hours ingaol. "

He was re-elected Mayor in the following year, very much against hiswish. He now began to buy land, for "land hunger" was strong upon him. In 1846 he bought the estate of Longfield, in the parish of Boherlahan, county of Tipperary. It consisted of about a thousand acres of goodland, with a large cheerful house overlooking the river Suir. He wenton buying more land, until he became possessor of about eight thousandEnglish acres. 

One of his favourite sayings was: "Money melts, but land holds whilegrass grows and water runs. " He was an excellent landlord, builtcomfortable houses for his tenantry, and did what he could for theirimprovement. Without solicitation, the Government appointed him ajustice of the peace and a Deputy-lientenant for the county ofTipperary. Everything that he did seemed to thrive. He was honest, straightforward, loyal, and law-abiding. 

On first taking possession of his estate at Longfield, he was met by aprocession of the tenantry, who received him with great enthusiasm. Inhis address to them, he said, amongst other things: "Allow me toimpress upon you the great importance of respecting the laws. The lawsare made for the good and the benefit of society, and for thepunishment of the wicked. No one but an enemy would counsel you tooutrage the laws. Above all things, avoid secret and unlawfulsocieties. Much of the improvement now going on amongst us is owing tothe temperate habits of the people, to the mission of my much respectedfriend, Father Mathew, and to the advice of the Liberator. Follow theadvice of O'Connell; be temperate, moral, peaceable; and you willadvance your country, ameliorate your condition, and the blessing ofGod will attend all your efforts. "

Bianconi was always a great friend of O'Connell. From an early periodhe joined him in the Catholic Emancipation movement. He took part withhim in founding the National Bank in Ireland. In course of time thetwo became more intimately related. Bianconi's son married O'Connell'sgranddaughter; and O'Connell's nephew, Morgan John, married Bianconi'sdaughter. Bianconi's son died in 1864, leaving three daughters, but nomale heir to carry on the family name. The old man bore the blow ofhis son's premature death with fortitude, and laid his remains in themortuary chapel, which he built on his estate at Longfield. 

In the following year, when he was seventy-eight, he met with a severeaccident. He was overturned, and his thigh was severely fractured. Hewas laid up for six months, quite incapable of stirring. He wasafterwards able to get about in a marvellous way, though quitecrippled. As his life's work was over, he determined to retire finallyfrom business; and he handed over the whole of his cars, coaches, horses, and plant, with all the lines of road he was then working, tohis employes, on the most liberal terms. 

My youngest son met Mr. Bianconi, by appointment, at the Roman Catholicchurch at Boherlahan, in the summer of 1872. Although the oldgentleman had to be lifted into and out of his carriage by his twomen-servants, he was still as active-minded as ever. Close to thechurch at Boherlahan is Bianconi's mortuary chapel, which he built as asort of hobby, for the last resting-place of himself and his family. The first person interred in it was his eldest daughter, who died inItaly; the second was his only son. A beautiful monument with abas-relief has been erected in the chapel by Benzoni, an Italiansculptor, to the memory of his daughter. 

"As we were leaving the chapel, " my son informs me, "we passed a longIrish car containing about sixteen people, the tenants of Mr. Bianconi, who are brought at his expense from all parts of the estate. He isvery popular with his tenantry, regarding their interests as his own;and he often quotes the words of his friend Mr. Drummond, that'property has its duties as well as its rights. ' He has rebuilt nearlyevery house on his extensive estates in Tipperary. 

"On our way home, the carriage stopped to let me down and see thestrange remains of an ancient fort, close by the roadside. It consistsof a high grass-grown mound, surrounded by a moat. It is one of theso-called Danish forts, which are found in all parts of Ireland. If itbe true that these forts were erected by the Danes, they must at onetime have had a strong hold of the greater part of Ireland. 

"The carriage entered a noble avenue of trees, with views of prettilyenclosed gardens on either side. Mr. Bianconi exclaimed, 'Welcome tothe Carman's Stage!' Longfield House, which we approached, is a fineold-fashioned house, situated on the river Suir, a few miles south ofCashel, one of the most ancient cities in Ireland. Mr. Bianconi andhis family were most hospitable; and I found him most lively andcommunicative. He talked cleverly and with excellent choice oflanguage for about three hours, during which I learnt much from him. 

"Like most men who have accomplished great things, and overcome manydifficulties, Mr. Bianconi is fond of referring to the past events inhis interesting life. The acuteness of his conversation is wonderful. He hits off a keen thought in a few words, sometimes full of wit andhumour. I thought this very good: 'Keep before the wheels, young man, or they will run over you: always keep before the wheels!' He readover to me the memoir he had prepared at the suggestion of Mr. Drummond, relating to the events of his early life; and this opened theway for a great many other recollections not set down in the book. 

"He vividly remembered the parting from his mother, nearly seventyyears ago, and spoke of her last words to him: 'When you remember me, think of me as waiting at this window, watching for your return. ' Thisled him to speak of the great forgetfulness and want of respect whichchildren have for their parents nowadays. 'We seem, ' he said, 'to havefallen upon a disrespectful age. '

"'It is strange, ' said he, 'how little things influence one's mind andcharacter. When I was a boy at Waterford, I bought an old second-handbook from a man on the quay, and the maxim on its title-page fixeditself deeply on my memory. It was, "Truth, like water, will find itsown level. "' And this led him to speak of the great influence which theexample and instruction of Mr. Rice, of the Christian Brothers, had hadupon his mind and character. 'That religions institution, ' said he, 'of which Mr. Rice was one of the founders, has now spread itself overthe country, and, by means of the instruction which the members haveimparted to the poorer ignorant classes, they have effected quite arevolution in the south of Ireland. '

"'I am not much of a reader, ' said Mr. Bianconi; 'the best part of myreading has consisted in reading way-bills. But I was oncecomplimented by Justice Lefroy upon my books. He remarked to me what awonderful education I must have had to invent my own system ofbook-keeping. Yes, ' said he, pointing to his ledgers, 'there theyare. ' The books are still preserved, recording the progress of thegreat car enterprise. They show at first the small beginnings, andthen the rapid growth--the tens growing to hundreds, and the hundredsto thousands--the ledgers and day-books containing, as it were, thewhole history of the undertaking--of each car, of each man, of eachhorse, and of each line of road, recorded most minutely. 

"'The secret of my success, ' said he, 'has been promptitude, fairdealing, and good humour. And this I will add, what I have often saidbefore, that I never did a kind action but it was returned to metenfold. My cars have never received the slightest injury from thepeople. Though travelling through the country for about sixty years, the people have throughout respected the property intrusted to me. Mycars have passed through lonely and unfrequented places, and they havenever, even in the most disturbed times, been attacked. That, I think, is an extraordinary testimony to the high moral character of the Irishpeople. '

"'It is not money, but the genius of money that I esteem, ' saidBianconi; 'not money itself, but money used as a creative power. '

And he himself has furnished in his own life the best possibleillustration of his maxim He created a new industry, gave employment toan immense number of persons, promoted commerce, extended civilisation;and, though a foreigner, proved one of the greatest of Ireland'sbenefactors. "

About two years after the date of my son's visit, Charles Bianconipassed away, full of years and honours; and his remains were laidbeside those of his son and daughter, in the mortuary chapel atBoherlahan. He died in 1875, in his ninetieth year. Well might SignorHenrico Mayer say, at the British Association at Cork in 1846, that "hefelt proud as an Italian to hear a compatriot so deservedly eulogised;and although Ireland might claim Bianconi as a citizen, yet theItalians should ever with pride hail him as a countryman, whoseindustry and virtue reflected honour on the country of his birth. "

Footnotes for Chapter IX. 

[1] This article originally appeared in 'Good Words. ' A biography ofCharles Bianconi, by his daughter, Mrs. Morgan John O'Connell, hassince been published; but the above article is thought worthy ofrepublication, as its contents were for the most part taken principallyfrom Mr. Bianconi's own lips. 

[2] Minutes of Evidence taken before the Select Committee on Postage(Second Report), 1838, p. 284. 

[3] Evidence before the Select Committee on Postage, 1838. 

[4] Hall's 'Ireland, ' ii. 76. 

[5] Paper read before the British Association at Cork, 1843. 

CHAPTER X. 

INDUSTRY IN IRELAND: THROUGH CONNAUGHT AND ULSTER, TO BELFAST. 

"The Irish people have a past to boast of, and a future to create. "--J. F. O'Carrol. 

"One of the great questions is how to find an outlet for Irishmanufactures. We ought to be an exporting nation, or we never will beable to compete successfully with our trade rivals. "--E. D. Gray. 

"Ireland may become a Nation again, if we all sacrifice our parricidalpassions, prejudices, and resentments on the altar of our country. Then shall your manufactures flourish, and Ireland be free. "--DanielO'Connell. 

Further communications passed between my young friend, the Italiancount, and his father; and the result was that he accompanied me toIreland, on the express understanding that he was to send home a letterdaily by post assuring his friends of his safety. We went togetheraccordingly to Galway, up Lough Corrib to Cong and Lough Mask; by theromantic lakes and mountains of Connemara to Clifden and Letterfrack, and through the lovely pass of Kylemoor to Leenane; along the fiord ofKillury; then on, by Westport and Ballina to Sligo. Letters wereposted daily by my young friend; and every day we went forwards insafety. 

But how lonely was the country! We did not meet a single Americantourist during the whole course of our visit, and the Americans are themost travelling people in the world. Although the railway companieshave given every facility for visiting Connemara and the scenery of theWest of Ireland, we only met one single English tourist, accompanied byhis daughter. The Bianconi long car between Clifden and Westport hadbeen taken off for want of support. The only persons who seemed tohave no fear of Irish agrarianism were the English anglers, who areready to brave all dangers, imaginary or supposed, provided they canonly kill a big salmon! And all the rivers flowing westward into theAtlantic are full of fine fish. While at Galway, we looked down intothe river Corrib from the Upper Bridge, and beheld it literally blackwith the backs of salmon! They were waiting for a flood to enable themto ascend the ladder into Lough Corrib. While there, 1900 salmon weretaken in one day by nets in the bay. 

Galway is a declining town. It has docks, but no shipping; bondedwarehouses, but no commerce. It has a community of fishermen atCladdagh, but the fisheries of the bay are neglected. As one of thepoor men of the place exclaimed, "Poverty is the curse of Ireland. " Onlooking at Galway from the Claddagh side, it seems as if to havesuffered from a bombardment. Where a roof has fallen in, nothing hasbeen done to repair it. It was of no use. The ruin has been left togo on. The mills, which used to grind home-grown corn, are nowunemployed. The corn comes ready ground from America. Nothing isthought of but emigration, and the best people are going, leaving theold, the weak, and the inefficient at home. "The labourer, " said thelate President Garfield, "has but one commodity to sell--his day'swork, it is his sole reliance. He must sell it to-day, or it is lostfor-ever. " And as the poor Irishman cannot sell his day's labour, hemust needs emigrate to some other country, where his only commodity maybe in demand. 

While at Galway, I read with interest an eloquent speech delivered byMr. Parnell at the banquet held in the Great Hall of the Exhibition atCork. Mr. Parnell asked, with much reason, why manufactures should notbe established and encouraged in the South of Ireland, as in otherparts of the country. Why should not capital be invested, andfactories and workshops developed, through the length and breadth ofthe kingdom? "I confess, " he said, "I should like to give Ireland afair opportunity of working her home manufactures. We can each one ofus do much to revive the ancient name of our nation in those industrialpursuits which have done so much to increase and render glorious thosegreater nations by the side of which we live. I trust that before manyyears are over we shall have the honour and pleasure of meeting in evena more splendid palace than this, and of seeing in the interval thatthe quick-witted genius of the Irish race has profited by the lessonswhich this beautiful Exhibition must undoubtedly teach, and that muchwill have been done to make our nation happy, prosperous, and free. "

Mr. Parnell, in the course of his speech, referred to the manufactureswhich had at one time flourished in Ireland--to the flannels ofRathdrum, the linens of Bandon, the cottons of Cork, and the gloves ofLimerick. Why should not these things exist again? "We have a peoplewho are by nature quick and facile to learn, who have shown in manyother countries that they are industrious and laborious, and who havenot been excelled--whether in the pursuits of agriculture under amidday sun in the field, or amongst the vast looms in the factorydistricts--by the people of any country on the face of the globe. "[1]Most just and eloquent!

The only weak point in Mr. Parnell's speech was where he urged hisaudience "not to use any article of the manufacture of any othercountry except Ireland, where you can get up an Irish manufacture. "The true remedy is to make Irish articles of the best and cheapest, andthey will be bought, not only by the Irish, but by the English andpeople of all nations. Manufactures cannot be "boycotted. " They willfind their way into all lands, in spite even of the most restrictivetariffs. Take, for instance, the case of Belfast hereafter to bereferred to. If the manufacturing population of that town were to relyfor their maintenance on the demand for their productions at home, theywould simply starve. But they make the best and the cheapest goods oftheir kind, and hence the demand for them is world-wide. 

There is an abundant scope for the employment of capital and skilledlabour in Ireland. During the last few years land has been fallingrapidly out of cultivation. The area under cereal crops hasaccordingly considerably decreased. [2] Since 1868, not less than400, 000 acres have been disused for this purpose. [3] Wheat can bebought better and cheaper in America, and imported into Ireland groundinto flour. The consequence is, that the men who worked the soil, aswell as the men who ground the corn, are thrown out of employment, andthere is nothing left for them but subsistence upon the poor-rates, emigration to other countries, or employment in some new domesticindustry. 

Ireland is by no means the "poor Ireland" that she is commonly supposedto be. The last returns of the Postmaster-General show that she isgrowing in wealth. Irish thrift has been steadily at work during thelast twenty years. Since the establishment of the Post Office SavingsBanks, in 1861, the deposits have annually increased in value. At theend of 1882, more than two millions sterling had been deposited inthese banks, and every county participated in the increase. [4] Thelargest accumulations were in the counties of Dublin, Antrim, Cork, Down, Tipperary, and Tyrone, in the order named. Besides this amount, the sum of 2, 082, 413L. Was due to depositors in the ordinary SavingsBanks on the 20th of November, 1882; or, in all, more than fourmillions sterling, the deposits of small capitalists. At Cork, at theend of last year, it was found that the total deposits made in thesavings bank had been 76, 000L, or an increase of 6, 675L. Over thepreceding twelve months. But this is not all. The Irish middleclasses are accustomed to deposit most of their savings in the JointStock banks; and from the returns presented to the Lord Lieutenant, dated the 31st of January, 1883, we find that these had been more thandoubled in twenty years, the deposits and cash balances havingincreased from 14, 389, 000L. At the end of 1862, to 32, 746, 000L. At theend of 1882. During the last year they had increased by the sum of2, 585, 000L. "So large an increase in bank deposits and cash balances, "says the Report, "is highly satisfactory. " It may be added that theinvestments in Government and India Stock, on which dividends were paidat the Bank of Ireland, at the end of 1882, amounted to not less than31, 804, 000L. 

It is proper that Ireland should be bountiful with her increasingmeans. It has been stated that during the last eighteen years herpeople have contributed not less than six millions sterling for thepurpose of building places of worship, convents, schools, and colleges, in connection with the Roman Catholic Church, not to speak of theircontributions for other patriotic objects. 

It would be equally proper if some of the saved surplus capital ofIreland, as suggested by Mr. Parnell, were invested in theestablishment of Irish manufactures. This would not only giveprofitable occupation to the unemployed, but enable Ireland to becomean increasingly exporting nation. We are informed by an Irish banker, that there is abundance of money to be got in Ireland for any industrywhich has a reasonable chance of success. One thing, however, iscertain: there must be perfect safety. An old writer has said that"Government is a badge of lost innocence: the palaces of kings arebuilt upon the ruins of the bowers of paradise. " The main use ofgovernment is protection against the weaknesses and selfishness ofhuman nature. If there be no protection for life, liberty, property, and the fruits of accumulated industry, government becomescomparatively useless, and society is driven back upon its firstprinciples. 

Capital is the most sensitive of all things. It flies turbulence andstrife, and thrives only in security and freedom. It must havecomplete safety. If tampered with by restrictive laws, or hampered bycombinations, it suddenly disappears. "The age of glory of a nation, "said Sir Humphry Davy, "is the age of its security. The same dignifiedfeeling which urges men to gain a dominion over nature will preservethem from the dominion of slavery. Natural, and moral, and religionsknowledge, are of one family; and happy is the country and great itsstrength where they dwell together in union. "

Dublin was once celebrated for its shipbuilding, its timber-trade, itsiron manufactures, and its steam-printing; Limerick was celebrated forits gloves; Kilkenny for its blankets; Bandon for its woollen and linenmanufactures. But most of these trades were banished by strikes. [5]Dr. Doyle stated before the Irish Committee of 1830, that the almosttotal extinction of the Kilkenny blanket-trade was attributable to thecombinations of the weavers; and O'Connell admitted that Trades Unionshad wrought more evil to Ireland than absenteeism and Saxonmaladministration. But working men have recently become more prudentand thrifty; and it is believed that under the improved system ofmoderate counsel, and arbitration between employers and employed, amore hopeful issue is likely to attend the future of such enterprises. 

Another thing is clear. A country may be levelled down by idleness andignorance; it can only be levelled up by industry and intelligence. Itis easy to pull down; it is very difficult to build up. The hands thatcannot erect a hovel may demolish a palace. We have but to look toSwitzerland to see what a country may become which mixes its industrywith its brains. That little land has no coal, no seaboard by whichshe can introduce it, and is shut off from other countries by loftymountains, as well as by hostile tariffs; and yet Switzerland is one ofthe most prosperous nations in Europe, because governed and regulatedby intelligent industry. Let Ireland look to Switzerland, and she neednot despair. 

Ireland is a much richer country by nature than is generally supposed. In fact, she has not yet been properly explored. There is copper-ore inWicklow, Waterford, and Cork. The Leitrim iron-ores are famous fortheir riches; and there is good ironstone in Kilkenny, as well as inUlster. The Connaught ores are mixed with coal-beds. Kaolin, porcelain clay, and coarser clay, abound; but it is only at Belleekthat it has been employed in the pottery manufacture. But the seaabout Ireland is still less explored than the land. All round theAtlantic seaboard of the Irish coast are shoals of herring andmackerel, which might be food for men, but are at present only consumedby the multitudes of sea-birds which follow them. 

In the daily papers giving an account of the Cork Exhibition, appearedthe following paragraph: "An interesting exhibit will be a quantity ofpreserved herrings from Lowestoft, caught off the old head of Kinsale, and returned to Cork after undergoing a preserving process inEngland. "[6] Fish caught off the coast of Ireland by English fishermen, taken to England and cured, and then "returned to Cork" for exhibition!Here is an opening for patriotic Irishmen. Why not catch and preservethe fish at home, and get the entire benefit of the fish traffic? Willit be believed that there is probably more money value in the seasround Ireland than there is in the land itself? This is actually thecase with the sea round the county of Aberdeen. [7]

A vast source of wealth lies at the very doors of the Irish people. But the harvest of an ocean teeming with life is allowed to pass intoother hands. The majority of the boats which take part in the fisheryat Kinsale are from the little island of Man, from Cornwall, fromFrance, and from Scotland. The fishermen catch the fish, salt them, and carry them or send them away. While the Irish boats are diminishingin number, those of the strangers are increasing. In an East Lothianpaper, published in May 1881, I find the following paragraph, under thehead of Cockenzie:-. 

"Departure of Boats. --In the early part of this week, a number of theboats here have left for the herring-fishery at Kinsale, in Ireland. The success attending their labours last year at that place and atHowth has induced more of them than usual to proceed thither this year. "

It may not be generally known that Cockenzie is a little fishingvillage on the Firth of Forth, in Scotland, where the fishermen haveprovided themselves, at their own expense, with about fifty deckedfishing-boats, each costing, with nets and gear, about 500L. Withthese boats they carry on their pursuits on the coast of Scotland, England, and Ireland. In 1882, they sent about thirty boats toKinsale[8] and Howth. The profits of their fishing has been such as toenable them, with the assistance of Lord Wemyss, to build forthemselves a convenient harbour at Port Seaton, without any help fromthe Government. They find that self-help is the best help, and that itis absurd to look to the Government and the public purse for what theycan best do for themselves. 

The wealth of the ocean round Ireland has long been known. As long agoas the ninth and tenth centuries, the Danes established a fishery offthe western coasts, and carried on a lucrative trade with the south ofEurope. In Queen Mary's reign, Philip II. Of Spain paid 1000L. Annually in consideration of his subjects being allowed to fish on thenorth-west coast of Ireland; and it appears that the money was broughtinto the Irish Exchequer. In 1650, Sweden was permitted, as a favour, to employ a hundred vessels in the Irish fishery; and the Dutch in thereign of Charles I. Were admitted to the fisheries on the payment of30, 000L. In 1673, Sir W. Temple, in a letter to Lord Essex, says that"the fishing of Ireland might prove a mine under water as rich as anyunder ground. "[9]

The coasts of Ireland abound in all the kinds of fish in commonuse--cod, ling, haddock, hake, mackerel, herring, whiting, conger, turbot, brill, bream, soles, plaice, dories, and salmon. The banks offthe coast of Galway are frequented by myriads of excellent fish; yet, of the small quantity caught, the bulk is taken in the immediateneighbourhood of the shores. Galway bay is said to be the finestfishing ground in the world; but the fish cannot be expected to come onshore unsought: they must be found, followed, and netted. Thefishing-boats from the west of Scotland are very successful; and theyoften return the fish to Ireland, cured, which had been taken out ofthe Irish bays. "I tested this fact in Galway, " says Mr. S. C. Hall. "I had ordered fish for dinner; two salt haddocks were brought to me. On inquiry, I ascertained where they were bought, and learned from theseller that he was the agent of a Scotch firm, whose boats were at thattime loading in the bay. "[10] But although Scotland imports some 80, 000barrels of cured herrings annually into Ireland, that is not enough;for we find that there is a regular importation of cured herrings, cod, ling, and hake, from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, towards the food ofthe Irish people. [11]

The fishing village of Claddagh, at Galway, is more decaying than ever. It seems to have suffered from a bombardment, like the rest of thetown. The houses of the fishermen, when they fall in, are left inruins. While the French, and English, and Scotch boats leave the coastladen with fish, the Claddagh men remain empty-handed. They will onlyfish on "lucky days, " so that the Galway market is often destitute offish, while the Claddagh people are starving. On one occasion anEnglish company was formed for the purpose of fishing and curing fishat Galway, as is now done at Yarmouth, Grimsby, Fraserburgh, Wick, andother places. Operations were commenced, but so soon as the Englishfishermen put to sea in their boats, the Claddagh men fell upon them, and they were glad to escape with their lives. [12] Unfortunately, theCladdagh men have no organization, no fixed rules, no settleddetermination to work, unless when pressed by necessity. Theappearance of the men and of their cabins show that they are greatly inwant of capital; and fishing cannot be successfully performed without asufficiency of this industrial element. 

Illustrations of this neglected industry might be given to any extent. Herring fishing, cod fishing, and pilchard fishing, are alikeuntouched. The Irish have a strong prejudice against the pilchard;they believe it to be an unlucky fish, and that it will rot the netthat takes it. The Cornishmen do not think so, for they find thepilchard fishing to be a source of great wealth. The pilchards strikeupon the Irish coast first before they reach Cornwall. When Mr. Brady, Inspector of Irish Fisheries, visited St. Ives a few years ago, he sawcaptured, in one seine alone, nearly ten thousand pounds of this fish. 

Not long since; according to a northern local paper, [13] a large fleetof vessels in full sail was seen from the west coast of Donegal, evidently making for the shore. Many surmises were made about theunusual sight. Some thought it was the Fenians, others the HomeRulers, others the Irish-American Dynamiters. Nothing of the kind! Itwas only a fleet of Scotch smacks, sixty-four in number, fishing forherring between Torry Island and Horn Head. The Irish might say to theScotch fishermen, in the words of the Morayshire legend, "Rejoice, O mybrethren, in the gifts of the sea, for they enrich you without makingany one else the poorer!"

But while the Irish are overlooking their treasure of herring, theScotch are carefully cultivating it. The Irish fleet of fishing-boatsfell off from 27, 142 in 1823 to 7181 in 1878; and in 1882 they werestill further reduced to 6089. [14] Yet Ireland has a coast-line offishing ground of nearly three thousand miles in extent. 

The bights and bays on the west coast of Ireland--off Erris, Mayo, Connemara, and Donegal--swarm with fish. Near Achill Bay, 2000mackerel were lately taken at a single haul; and Clew Bay is oftenalive with fish. In Scull Bay and Crookhaven, near Cape Clear, theyare so plentiful that the peasants often knock them on the head withoars, but will not take the trouble to net them. 

These swarms of fish might be a source of permanent wealth. Agentleman of Cork one day borrowed a common rod and line from a Cornishminer in his employment, and caught fifty-seven mackerel from the jettyin Scull Bay before breakfast. Each of these mackerel was worthtwopence in Cork market, thirty miles off. Yet the people round about, many of whom were short of food, were doing nothing to catch them, butexpecting Providence to supply their wants. Providence, however, always likes to be helped. Some people forget that the Giver of allgood gifts requires us to seek for them by industry, prudence, andperseverance. [15]

Some cry for more loans; some cry for more harbours. It would be wellto help with suitable harbours, but the system of dependence uponGovernment loans is pernicious. The Irish ought to feel that the verybest help must come from themselves. This is the best method forteaching independence. Look at the little Isle of Man. The fishermenthere never ask for loans. They look to their nets and their boats;they sail for Ireland, catch the fish, and sell them to the Irishpeople. With them, industry brings capital, and forms the fertileseed-ground of further increase of boats and nets. Surely what isdone by the Manxmen, the Cornishmen, and the Cockenziemen, might bedone by the Irishmen. The difficulty is not to be got over bylamenting about it, or by staring at it, but by grappling with it, andovercoming it. It is deeds, not words, that are wanted. Employment forthe mass of the people must spring from the people themselves. Provided there is security for life and property, and an absence ofintimidation, we believe that capital will become invested in thefishing industry of Ireland; and that the result will be peace, food, and prosperity. 

We must remember that it is only of comparatively late years thatEngland and Scotland have devoted so much attention to the fishery ofthe seas surrounding our island. In this fact there is consolation andhope for Ireland. At the beginning of the seventeenth century SirWaiter Raleigh laid before the King his observations concerning thetrade and commerce of England, in which he showed that the Dutch werealmost monopolising the fishing trade, and consequently adding to theirshipping, commerce, and wealth. "Surely, " he says, "the stream isnecessary to be turned to the good of this kingdom, to whose sea-coastsalone God has sent us these great blessings and immense riches for usto take; and that every nation should carry away out of this kingdomyearly great masses of money for fish taken in our seas, and sold againby them to us, must needs be a great dishonour to our nation, andhindrance to this realm. "

The Hollanders then had about 50, 000 people employed in fishing alongthe English coast; and their industry and enterprise gave employment toabout 150, 000 more, "by sea and land, to make provision, to dress andtransport the fish they take, and return commodities; whereby they areenabled yearly to build 1000 ships and vessels. " The prosperity ofAmsterdam was then so great that it was said that Amsterdam was"founded on herring-bones. " Tobias Gentleman published in 1614 histreatise on 'England's Way to win Wealth, and to employ Ships andMarines, '[16] in which he urged the English people to vie with theDutch in fishing the seas, and thereby to give abundant employment, aswell as abundant food, to the poorer people of the country. 

"Look, " he said, "on these fellows, that we call the plump Hollanders;behold their diligence in fishing, and our own careless negligence!"The Dutch not only fished along the coasts near Yarmouth, but theirfishing vessels went north as far as the coasts of Shetland. What mostroused Mr. Gentleman's indignation was, that the Dutchmen caught thefish and sold them to the Yarmouth herring-mongers "for ready gold, sothat it amounteth to a great sum of money, which money doth never comeagain into England. " "We are daily scorned, " he says, "by theseHollanders, for being so negligent of our Profit, and careless of ourFishing; and they do daily flout us that be the poor Fishermen ofEngland, to our Faces at Sea, calling to us, and saying, 'Ya English, ya sall or oud scoue dragien;' which, in English, is this, 'YouEnglish, we will make you glad to wear our old Shoes!'"

Another pamphlet, to a similar effect, 'The Royal Fishing revived, '[17]was published fifty years later, in which it was set forward that theDutch "have not only gained to themselves almost the sole fishing inhis Majesty's Seas; but principally upon this Account have very nearbeat us out of all our other most profitable Trades in all Parts of theWorld. " It was even proposed to compel "all Sorts of begging Personsand all other poor People, all People condemned for less Crimes thanBlood, " as well as "all Persons in Prison for Debt, " to take part inthis fishing trade! But this was not the true way to force thetraffic. The herring fishery at Yarmouth and along the coast began tomake gradual progress with the growth of wealth and enterprisethroughout the country; though it was not until 1787--less than ahundred years ago--that the Yarmouth men began the deep-sea herringfishery. 

Before then, the fishing was all carried on along shore in littlecobles, almost within sight of land. The native fishery also extendednorthward, along the east coast of Scotland and the Orkney and ShetlandIsles, until now the herring fishery of Scotland forms one of thegreatest industries in the United Kingdom, and gives employment, directly or indirectly, to close upon half a million of people, or toone-seventh of the whole population of Scotland. 

Taking these facts into consideration, therefore, there is no reason todespair of seeing, before many years have elapsed, a large developmentof the fishing industry of Ireland. We may yet see Galway theYarmouth, Achill the Grimsby, and Killybegs the Wick of the West. Modern society in Ireland, as everywhere else, can only be transformedthrough the agency of labour, industry, and commerce--inspired by thespirit of work, and maintained by the accumulations of capital. Thefirst end of all labour is security, --security to person, possession, and property, so that all may enjoy in peace the fruits of theirindustry. For no liberty, no freedom, can really exist which does notinclude the first liberty of all--the right of public and privatesafety. 

To show what energy and industry can do in Ireland, it is onlynecessary to point to Belfast, one of the most prosperous andenterprising towns in the British Islands. The land is the same, theclimate is the same, and the laws are the same, as those which prevailin other parts of Ireland. Belfast is the great centre of Irishmanufactures and commerce, and what she has been able to do might bedone elsewhere, with the same amount of energy and enterprise. But itis not land, or climate, or altered laws that are wanted. It is men tolead and direct, and men to follow with anxious and perseveringindustry. It is always the Man society wants. 

The influence of Belfast extends far out into the country. As youapproach it from Sligo, you begin to see that you are nearing a placewhere industry has accumulated capital, and where it has been investedin cultivating and beautifying the land. After you pass Enniskillen, the fields become more highly cultivated. The drill-rows are moreregular; the hedges are clipped; the weeds no longer hide the crops, asthey sometimes do in the far west. The country is also adorned withcopses, woods, and avenues. A new crop begins to appear in thefields--a crop almost peculiar to the neighbourhood of Belfast. It isa plant with a very slender erect green stem, which, when full grown, branches at the top into a loose corymb of blue flowers. This is theflax plant, the cultivation and preparation of which gives employmentto a great number of persons, and is to a large extent the foundationof the prosperity of Belfast. 

The first appearance of the linen industry of Ireland, as we approachBelfast from the west, is observed at Portadown. Its position on theBann, with its water power, has enabled this town, as well as the otherplaces on the river, to secure and maintain their due share in thelinen manufacture. Factories with their long chimneys begin to appear. The fields are richly cultivated, and a general air of well-beingpervades the district. Lurgan is reached, so celebrated for itsdiapers; and the fields there about are used as bleaching-greens. Then comes Lisburn, a populous and thriving town, the inhabitants ofwhich are mostly engaged in their staple trade, the manufacture ofdamasks. This was really the first centre of the linen trade. ThoughLord Strafford, during his government of Ireland, encouraged the flaxindustry, by sending to Holland for flax-seed, and inviting Flemishand French artisans to settle in Ireland, it was not until theHuguenots, who had been banished from France by the persecutions ofLouis XIV. , settled in Ireland in such large numbers, that themanufacture became firmly established. The Crommelins, the Goyers, andthe Dupres, were the real founders of this great branch of industry. [18]

As the traveller approaches Belfast, groups of houses, factories, andworks of various kinds, appear closer and closer; long chimneys overboilers and steam-engines, and brick buildings three or four storieshigh; large yards full of workmen, carts, and lorries; and at length weare landed in the midst of a large manufacturing town. As we enter thestreets, everybody seems to be alive. What struck William Hutton whenhe first saw Birmingham, might be said of Belfast: "I was surprised atthe place, but more at the people. They possessed a vivacity I hadnever before beheld. I had been among dreamers, but now I saw menawake. Their very step along the street showed alacrity. Every manseemed to know what he was about. The town was large, and full ofinhabitants, and these inhabitants full of industry. The faces of othermen seemed tinctured with an idle gloom; but here with a pleasingalertness. Their appearance was strongly marked with the modes ofcivil life. "

Some people do not like manufacturing towns: they prefer old castlesand ruins. They will find plenty of these in other parts of Ireland. But to found industries that give employment to large numbers ofpersons, and enable them to maintain themselves and families upon thefruits of their labour--instead of living upon poor-rates levied fromthe labours of others, or who are forced, by want of employment, tobanish themselves from their own country, to emigrate and settle amongstrangers, where they know not what may become of them--is a mosthonourable and important source of influence, and worthy of everyencouragement. 

Look at the wonderfully rapid rise of Belfast, originating in theenterprise of individuals, and developed by the earnest and anxiousindustry of the inhabitants of Ulster!

"God save Ireland!" By all means. But Ireland cannot be saved withoutthe help of the people who live in it. God endowed men, there aselsewhere, with reason, will, and physical power; and it is by patientindustry only that they can open up a pathway to the enduringprosperity of the country. There is no Eden in nature. The earthmight have continued a rude uncultivated wilderness, but for humanenergy, power, and industry. These enable man to subdue thewilderness, and develop the potency of labour. "Possunt quia creduntposse. " They must conquer who will. 

Belfast is a comparatively modern town. It has no ancient history. About the beginning of the sixteenth century it was little better thana fishing village. There was a castle, and a ford to it across theLagan. A chapel was built at the ford, at which hurried prayers wereoffered up for those who were about to cross the currents of LaganWater. In 1575, Sir Henry Sydney writes to the Lords of the Council:"I was offered skirmish by MacNeill Bryan Ertaugh at my passage overthe water at Belfast, which I caused to be answered, and passed overwithout losse of man or horse; yet by reason of the extraordinaireRetorne our horses swamme and the Footmen in the passage waded verydeep. " The country round about was forest land. It was so thicklywooded that it was a common saying that one might walk to Lurgan "onthe tops of the trees. "

In 1612, Belfast consisted of about 120 houses, built of mud andcovered with thatch. The whole value of the land on which the town isbuilt, is said to have been worth only 5L. In fee simple. [19] "Ulster, "said Sir John Davies, "is a very desert or wilderness; the inhabitantsthereof having for the most part no certain habitation in any towns orvillages. " In 1659, Belfast contained only 600 inhabitants:Carrickfergus was more important, and had 1312 inhabitants. But about1660, the Long Bridge over the Lagan was built, and prosperity began todawn upon the little town. It was situated at the head of a navigablelough, and formed an outlet for the manufacturing products of theinland country. Ships of any burden, however, could not come near thetown. The cargoes, down even to a recent date, had to be dischargedinto lighters at Garmoyle. Streams of water made their way to theLough through the mud banks; and a rivulet ran through what is nowknown as the High Street. 

The population gradually increased. In 1788 Belfast had 12, 000inhabitants. But it was not until after the Union with Great Britainthat the town made so great a stride. At the beginning of the presentcentury it had about 20, 000 inhabitants. At every successive census, the progress made was extraordinary, until now the population ofBelfast amounts to over 225, 000. There is scarcely an instance of solarge a rate of increase in the British Islands, save in theexceptional case of Middlesborough, which was the result of the openingout of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, and the discovery ofironstone in the hills of Cleveland in Yorkshire. Dundee and Barroware supposed to present the next most rapid increases of population. 

The increase of shipping has also been equally great. Ships from otherports frequented the Lough for purposes of trade; but in course of timethe Belfast merchants supplied themselves with ships of their own. In1791 one William Ritchie, a sturdy North Briton, brought with him fromGlasgow ten men and a quantity of shipbuilding materials. He graduallyincreased the number of his workmen, and proceeded to build a fewsloops. He reclaimed some land from the sea, and made a shipyard andgraving dock on what was known as Corporation Ground. In November 1800the new graving dock, near the bridge, was opened for the reception ofvessels. It was capable of receiving three vessels of 200 tons each!In 1807 a vessel of 400 tons burthen was launched from Mr. Ritchie'sshipyard, when a great crowd of people assembled to witness thelaunching of "so large a ship"--far more than now assemble to see a3000-tonner of the White Star Line leave the slips and enter the water!

The shipbuilding trade has been one of the most rapidly developed, especially of late years. In 1805 the number of vessels frequentingthe port was 840; whereas in 1883 the number had been increased to7508, with about a million and a-half of tonnage; while the gross valueof the exports from Belfast exceeded twenty millions sterling annually. In 1819 the first steamboat of 100 tons was used to tug the vessels upthe windings of the Lough, which it did at the rate of three miles anhour, to the astonishment of everybody. Seven years later, thesteamboat Rob Roy was put on between Glasgow and Belfast. But thesevessels had been built in Scotland. It was not until 1826 that thefirst steamboat, the chieftain, was built in Belfast, by the sameWilliam Ritchie. Then, in 1838, the first iron boat was built in theLagan foundry, by Messrs. Coates and Young, though it was but a merecockle-shell compared with the mighty ocean steamers which are nowregularly launched from Queen's Island. In the year 1883 the largestshipbuilding firm in the town launched thirteen vessels, of over 30, 000tons gross, while two other firms launched twelve ships, of about10, 000 tons gross. 

I do not propose to enter into details respecting the progress of thetrades of Belfast. The most important is the spinning of fine linenyarn, which is for the most part concentrated in that town, over25, 000, 000 of pounds weight being exported annually. Towards the end ofthe seventeenth century the linen manufacture had made but littleprogress. In 1680 all Ireland did not export more than 6000L. Worthannually. Drogheda was then of greater importance than Belfast. Butwith the settlement of the persecuted Hugnenots in Ulster, andespecially through the energetic labours of Crommelin, Goyer, andothers, the growth of flax was sedulously cultivated, and itsmanufacture into linen of all sorts became an important branch of Irishindustry. In the course of about fifty years the exports of linenfabrics increased to the value of over 600, 000L. Per annum. 

It was still, however, a handicraft manufacture, and done for the mostpart at home. Flax was spun and yarn was woven by hand. Eventuallymachinery was employed, and the turn-out became proportionately largeand valuable. It would not be possible for hand labour to supply theamount of linen now turned out by the aid of machinery. It wouldrequire three times the entire population of Ireland to spin and weave, by the old spinning-wheel and hand-loom methods, the amount of linencloth now annually manufactured by the operatives of Belfast alone. There are now forty large spinning-mills in Belfast and theneighbourhood, which furnish employment to a very large number ofworking people. [20]

In the course of my visit to Belfast, I inspected the works of the YorkStreet flax-spinning mills, founded in 1830 by the Messrs. Mulholland, which now give employment, directly or indirectly, to many thousandpersons. I visited also, with my young Italian friend, the admirableprinting establishment of Marcus Ward and Co. , the works of the BelfastRope-work Company, and the shipbuilding works of Harland and Wolff. There we passed through the roar of the iron forge, the clang of theNasmyth hammer, and the intermittent glare of the furnaces--all tellingof the novel appliances of modern shipbuilding, and the power of themodern steam-engine. I prefer to give a brief account of this latterundertaking, as it exhibits one of the newest and most importantindustries of Belfast. It also shows, on the part of its proprietors, a brave encounter with difficulties, and sets before the friends ofIreland the truest and surest method of not only giving employment toits people, but of building up on the surest foundations the prosperityof the country. 

The first occasion on which I visited Belfast--the reader will excusethe introduction of myself--was in 1840; about forty-four years ago. Iwent thither on the invitation of the late Wm. Sharman Crawford, Esq. , M. P. , the first prominent advocate of tenant-right, to attend a publicmeeting of the Ulster Association, and to spend a few days with him athis residence at Crawfordsburn, near Bangor. Belfast was then a townof comparatively little importance, though it had already made a fairstart in commerce and industry. As our steamer approached the head ofthe Lough, a large number of labourers were observed--with barrows, picks, and spades--scooping out and wheeling up the slob and mud of theestuary, for the purpose of forming what is now known as Queen'sIsland, on the eastern side of the river Lagan. The work was conductedby William Dargan, the famous Irish contractor; and its object was tomake a straight artificial outlet--the Victoria Channel--by means ofwhich vessels drawing twenty-three feet of water might reach the portof Belfast. Before then, the course of the Lagan was tortuous anddifficult of navigation; but by the straight cut, which was completedin 1846, and afterwards extended further seawards, ships of largeburden were enabled to reach the quays, which extend for about a milebelow Queen's Bridge, on both sides of the river. 

It was a saying of honest William Dargan, that "when a thing is putanyway right at all, it takes a vast deal of mismanagement to make itgo wrong. " He had another curious saying about "the calf eating thecow's belly, " which, he said, was not right, "at all, at all. " Belfastillustrated his proverbial remarks. That the cutting of the VictoriaChannel was doing the "right thing" for Belfast, was clear, from theconstantly increasing traffic of the port. In course of time, severalextensive docks and tidal basins were added; while provision was made, in laying out the reclaimed land at the entrance of the estuary, fortheir future extension and enlargement. The town of Belfast was bythese means gradually placed in immediate connection by sea with theprincipal western ports of England and Scotland, --steamships of largeburden now leaving it daily for Liverpool, Glasgow, Fleetwood, Barrow, and Ardrossan. The ships entering the port of Belfast in 1883 were7508, of 1, 526, 535 tonnage; they had been more than doubled in fifteenyears. The town has risen from nothing, to exhibit a Customs revenue, in 1883, of 608, 781L. , infinitely greater than that of Leith, the portof Edinburgh, or of Hull, the chief port of Yorkshire. The populationhas also largely increased. When I visited Belfast in 1840, the towncontained 75, 000 inhabitants. They are now over 225, 006, or more thantrebled, --Belfast being the tenth town, in point of population, in theUnited Kingdom. 

The spirit and enterprise of the people are illustrated by the varietyof their occupations. They do not confine themselves to one branch ofbusiness; but their energies overflow into nearly every department ofindustry. Their linen manufacture is of world-wide fame; but much lessknown are their more recent enterprises. The production of aeratedwaters, for instance, is something extraordinary. In 1882 themanufacturers shipped off 53, 163 packages, and 24, 263 cwts. Of aeratedwaters to England, Scotland, Australia, New Zealand, and othercountries. While Ireland produces no wrought iron, though it containsplenty of iron-stone, --and Belfast has to import all the iron which itconsumes, --yet one engineering firm alone, that of Combe, Barbour, andCombe, employs 1500 highly-paid mechanics, and ships off its ironmachinery to all parts of the world. The printing establishment ofMarcus Ward and Co. Employs over 1000 highly skilled and ingeniouspersons, and extends the influence of learning and literature into allcivilised countries. We might add the various manufactures of roofingfelt (of which there are five), of ropes, of stoves, of stablefittings, of nails, of starch, of machinery; all of which have earned aworld-wide reputation. 

We prefer, however, to give an account of the last new industry ofBelfast--that of shipping and shipbuilding. Although, as we have said, Belfast imports from Scotland and England all its iron and all itscoal, [21] it nevertheless, by the skill and strength of its men, sendsout some of the finest and largest steamships which navigate theAtlantic and Pacific. It all comes from the power of individuality, and furnishes a splendid example for Dublin, Cork, Waterford, andLimerick, each of which is provided by nature with magnificentharbours, with fewer of those difficulties of access which Belfast hastriumphed over; and each of which might be the centre of some greatindustrial enterprise, provided only there were patriotic men willingto embark their capital, perfect protection for the property invested, and men willing to work rather than to strike. 

It was not until the year 1853 that the Queen's Island--raked out ofthe mud of the slob-land--was first used for shipbuilding purposes. Robert Hickson and Co. Then commenced operations by laying down theMary Stenhouse, a wooden sailing-ship of 1289 tons register; and thevessel was launched in the following year. 

The operations of the firm were continued until the year 1859, when theshipbuilding establishments on Queen's Island were acquired by Mr. E. J. Harland (afterwards Harland and Wolff), since which time thedevelopment of this great branch of industry in Belfast has been rapidand complete. 

From the history of this firm, it will be found that energy is the mostprofitable of all merchandise; and that the fruit of active work is thesweetest of all fruits. Harland and Wolff are the true Watt andBoulton of Belfast. At the beginning of their great enterprise, theirworks occupied about four acres of land; they now occupy overthirty-six acres. The firm has imported not less than two hundredthousand tons of iron; which have been converted by skill and labourinto 168 ships of 253, 000 total tonnage. These ships, if laid closetogether, would measure nearly eight miles in length. 

The advantage to the wage-earning class can only be shortly stated. Not less than 34 per cent. Is paid in labour on the cost of the shipsturned out. The number of persons employed in the works is 3920; andthe weekly wages paid to them is 4000L. , or over 200, 000L. Annually. Since the commencement of the undertaking, about two millions sterlinghave been paid in wages. 

All this goes towards the support of the various industries of theplace. That the working classes of Belfast are thrifty and frugal maybe inferred from the fact that at the end of 1882 they held deposits inthe Savings Bank to the amount of 230, 289L. , besides 158, 064L. In thePost Office Savings Banks. [22] Nearly all the better class workingpeople of the town live in separate dwellings, either rented or theirown property. There are ten Building Societies in Belfast, in whichindustrious people may store their earnings, and in course of timeeither buy or build their own houses. 

The example of energetic, active men always spreads. Belfast containstwo other shipbuilding yards, both the outcome of Harland and Wolff'senterprise; those of Messrs. Macilwaine and Lewis, employing about fourhundred men, and of Messrs. Workman and Clarke, employing about athousand. The heads of both these firms were trained in the parentshipbuilding works of Belfast. There is do feeling of rivalry betweenthe firms, but all work together for the good of the town. 

In Plutarch's Lives, we are told that Themistocles said on oneoccasion, "'Tis true that I have never learned how to tune a harp, orplay upon a lute, but I know how to raise a small and inconsiderablecity to glory and greatness. " So might it be said of Harland andWolff. They have given Belfast not only a potency for good, but aworld-wide reputation. Their energies overflow. Mr. Harland is theactive and ever-prudent Chairman of the most important of the localboards, the Harbour Trust of Belfast, and exerts himself to promote theextension of the harbour facilities of the port as if the benefits wereto be exclusively his own; while Mr. Wolff is the Chairman of one ofthe latest born industries of the place, the Belfast Rope-work Company, which already gives employment to over 600 persons. 

This last-mentioned industry is only about six years old. The worksoccupy over seven acres of ground, more than six acres of which areunder roofing. Although the whole of the raw material is imported fromabroad from Russia, the Philippine Islands, New Zealand, and CentralAmerica--it is exported again in a manufactured state to all parts ofthe world. 

Such is the contagion of example, and such the ever-branchingindustries with which men of enterprise and industry can enrich andbless their country. The following brief memoir of the career of Mr. Harland has been furnished at my solicitation; and I think that it willbe found full of interest as well as instruction. 

Footnotes for Chapter X. 

[1] Report in the Cork Examiner, 5th July, 1883. 

[2] In 1883, as compared with 1882, there was a decrease of 58, 022acres in the land devoted to the growth of wheat; there was a totaldecrease of 114, 871 acres in the land under tillage. --AgriculturalStatistics, Ireland, 1883. Parliamentary Return, c. 3768. 

[3] Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, 1883. 

[4] The particulars are these: deposits in Irish Post Office SavingsBanks, 31st December, 1882, 1, 925, 440; to the credit of depositors andGovernment stock, 125, 000L. ; together, 2, 050, 440L. 

The increase of deposits over those made in the preceding year, were:in Dublin, 31, 321L. ; in Antrim, 23, 328L. ; in Tyrone, 21, 315L. ; in Cork, 17, 034L. ; and in Down, 10, 382L. 

[5] The only thriving manufacture now in Dublin is that of intoxicatingdrinks--beer, porter, stout, and whisky. Brewing and distilling do notrequire skilled labour, so that strikes do not affect them. 

[6] Times, 11th June, 1883. 

[7] The valuation of the county of Aberdeen (exclusive of the city) wasrecently 866, 816L. , whereas the value of the herrings (748, 726 barrels)caught round the coast (at 25s. The barrel) was 935, 907L. , therebyexceeding the estimated annual rental of the county by 69, 091L. TheScotch fishermen catch over a million barrels of herrings annually, representing a value of about a million and a-half sterling. 

[8] A recent number of Land and Water supplies the followinginformation as to the fishing at Kinsale:--"The takes of fish have beenso enormous and unprecedented that buyers can scarcely be found, evenwhen, as now, mackerel are selling at one shilling per six score. Piles of magnificent fish lie rotting in the sun. The sides of KinsaleHarbour are strewn with them, and frequently, when they have become alittle 'touched, ' whole boat-loads are thrown overboard into the water. This great waste is to be attributed to scarcity of hands to salt thefish and want of packing-boxes. Some of the boats are said to havemade as much as 500L. This season. The local fishing company aremaking active preparations for the approaching herring fishery, and itis anticipated that Kinsale may become one of the centres of thisdescription of fishing. "

[9] Statistical Journal for March 1848. Paper by Richard Valpy on "TheResources of the Irish Sea Fisheries, " pp. 55-72. 

[10] HALL, Retrospect of a Long Life, ii. 324. 

[11] The Commissioners of Irish Fisheries, in one of their reports, observe:--"Notwithstanding the diminished population, the fish capturedround the coast is so inadequate to the wants of the population thatfully 150, 000L. Worth of ling, cod, and herring are annually importedfrom Norway, Newfoundland, and Scotland, the vessels bearing thesecargoes, as they approach the shores of Ireland, frequently sailingthrough large shoals of fish of the same description as they arefreighted with!"

[12] The following examination of Mr. J. Ennis, chairman of the Midlandand Great Western Railway, took place before the "Royal Commission onRailways, " as long ago as the year 1846:--

Chairman--"Is the fish traffic of any importance to your railway?"

Mr. Ennis--"of course it is, and we give it all the facilities that wecan.... But the Galway fisheries, where one would expect to findplenty of fish, are totally neglected. "

Sir Rowland Hill--"What is the reason of that?"

Mr. Ennis--"I will endeavour to explain. I had occasion a few nightsago to speak to a gentleman in the House of Commons with regard to anapplication to the Fishery Board for 2000L. To restore the pier atBuffin, in Clew Bay, and I said, 'Will you join me in the application?I am told it is a place that swarms with fish, and if we had a pierthere the fishermen will have some security, and they will go out. ' Theonly answer I received was, 'They will not go out; they pay noattention whatever to the fisheries; they allow the fish to come and gowithout making any effort to catch them.... '"

Mr. Ayrton--"Do you think that if English fishermen went to the westcoast of Ireland they would be able to get on in harmony with thenative fishermen?"

Mr. Ennis--"We know the fact to be, that some years ago, a company wasestablished for the purpose of trawling in Galway Bay, and what was theconsequence? The Irish fishermen, who inhabit a region in theneighbourhood of Galway, called Claddagh, turned out against them, andwould not allow them to trawl, and the Englishmen very properly wentaway with their lives. "

Sir Rowland Hill--"Then they will neither fish themselves nor allow anyone else to fish!"

Mr. Ennis--"It seems to be so. "--Minutes of Evidence, 175-6. 

[13] The Derry Journal. 

[14] Report of Inspectors of Irish Fisheries for 1882. 

[15] The Report of the Inspectors of Irish Fisheries on the Sea andInland Fisheries of Ireland for 1882, gives a large amount ofinformation as to the fish which swarm round the Irish coast. Mr. Bradyreports on the abundance of herring and other fish all round the coast. Shoals of herrings "remained off nearly the entire coast of Irelandfrom August till December. " "Large shoals of pilchards" were observedon the south and south-west coasts. Off Dingle, it is remarked, "thesupply of all kinds of fish is practically inexhaustible. "

"Immense shoals of herrings off Liscannor and Loop Head;" "themackerel is always on this coast, and can be captured at any time ofthe year, weather permitting. " At Belmullet, "the shoals of fish offthe coast, particularly herring and mackerel, are sometimes enormous. "The fishermen, though poor, are all very orderly and well conducted. They only want energy and industry. 

[16] The Harleian Miscellany, iii. 378-91. 

[17] The Harleian Miscellany, iii. 392. 

[18] See The Huguenots in England and Ireland. A Board of Traders, forthe encouragement and promotion of the hemp and flax manufacture inIreland, was appointed by an Act of Parliament at the beginning of lastcentury (6th October, 1711), and the year after the appointment of theBoard the following notice was placed on the records of theinstitution:--"Louis Crommelin and the Huguenot colony have beengreatly instrumental in improving and propagating the flaxenmanufacture in the north of this Kingdom, and the perfection to whichthe same is brought in that part of the country has been greatly owingto the skill and industry of the said Crommelin. " In a history of thelinen trade, published at Belfast, it is said that "the dignity whichthat enterprising man imparted to labour, and the halo which hisexample cast around physical exertion, had the best effect in raisingthe tone of popular feeling, as well among the patricians as among thepeasants of the north of Ireland. This love of industry did much tobreak down the national prejudice in favour of idleness, and castdoubts on the social orthodoxy of the idea then so popular with thesquirearchy, that those alone who were able to live without employmenthad any rightful claim to the distinctive title of gentleman.... Apatrician by birth and a merchant by profession, Crommelin proved, byhis own life, his example, and his enterprise, that an energeticmanufacturer may, at the same time, take a high place in theconventional world. "

[19] Benn's History of Belfast, p. 78. 

[20] From the Irish Manufacturers' Almanack for 1883 I learn thatnearly one-third of the spindles used in Europe in the linen trade, andmore than one-fourth of the power-looms, belong to Ireland, that "theIrish linen and associated trades at present give employment to 176, 303persons; and it is estimated that the capital sunk in spinning andweaving factories, and the business incidental thereto, is about100, 000, 000L. , and of that sum 37, 000, 000L. Is credited to Belfastalone. "

[21] The importation of coal in 1883 amounted to over 700, 000 tons. 

[22] We are indebted to the obliging kindness of the Right Hon. Mr. Fawcett, Postmaster-General for this return. The total number ofdepositors in the Post Office Savings banks in the Parliamentaryborough of Belfast is 10, 827 and the amount of their deposits, including the interest standing to their credit, on the 31st December, 1882, was 158, 064L. 0s. 1d. 

An important item in the savings of Belfast, not included in the abovereturns, consists in the amounts of deposits made with the variousLimited Companies, as well as with the thriving Building Societies inthe town and neighbourhood. 

CHAPTER XI. 

SHIPBUILDING IN BELFAST--ITS ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 

BY SIR E. J. HARLAND, ENGINEER AND SHIPBUILDER. 

"The useful arts are but reproductions or new combinations by the artof man, of the same natural benefactors. He no longer waits forfavouring gales, but by means of steam he realises the fable ofAEolus's bag, and carries the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of hisboat. "--Emerson. 

"The most exquisite and the most expensive machinery is brought intoplay where operations on the most common materials are to be performed, because these are executed on the widest scale. This is the meaning ofthe vast and astonishing prevalence of machine work in this country:that the machine, with its million fingers, works for millions ofpurchasers, while in remote countries, where magnificence and savagerystand side by side, tens of thousands work for one. There Art laboursfor the rich alone; here she works for the poor no less. There themultitude produce only to give splendour and grace to the despot or thewarrior, whose slaves they are, and whom they enrich; here the man whois powerful in the weapons of peace, capital, and machinery, uses themto give comfort and enjoyment to the public, whose servant he is, andthus becomes rich while he enriches others with his goods. "--WilliamWhewell, D. D. 

I was born at Scarborough in May, 1831, the sixth of a family of eight. My father was a native of Rosedale, half-way between Whitby andPickering: his nurse was the sister of Captain Scoresby, celebrated asan Arctic explorer. Arrived at manhood, he studied medicine, graduatedat Edinburgh, and practised in Scarborough until nearly his death in1866. He was thrice Mayor and a Justice of the Peace for the borough. Dr. Harland was a man of much force of character, and displayed greatoriginality in the treatment of disease. Besides exercising skill inhis profession, he had a great love for mechanical pursuits. He spenthis leisure time in inventions of many sorts; and, in conjunction withthe late Sir George Cayley of Brompton, he kept an excellent mechanicconstantly at work. 

In 1827 he invented and patented a steam-carriage for running on commonroads. Before the adoption of railways, the old stage coaches werefound slow and insufficient for the traffic. A working model of thesteam-coach was perfected, embracing a multitubular boiler for quicklyraising high-pressure steam, with a revolving surface condenser forreducing the steam to water again, by means of its exposure to the colddraught of the atmosphere through the interstices of extremely thinlaminations of copper plates. The entire machinery, placed under thebottom of the carriage, was borne on springs; the whole being of anelegant form. This model steam-carriage ascended with perfect ease thesteepest roads. Its success was so complete that Dr. Harland designeda full-sized carriage; but the demands upon his professional skill wereso great that he was prevented going further than constructing the pairof engines, the wheels, and a part of the boiler, --all of whichremnants I still preserve, as valuable links in the progress of steamlocomotion. 

Other branches of practical science--such as electricity, magnetism, and chemical cultivation of the soil--received a share of hisattention. He predicted that three or four powerful electric lampswould yet light a whole city. He was also convinced of the feasibilityof an electric cable to New York, and calculated the probable cost. Asan example to the neighbourhood, he successfully cultivated a tract ofmoorland, and overcame difficulties which before then were thoughtinsurmountable. 

When passing through Newcastle, while still a young man, on one of hisjourneys to the University at Edinburgh, and being desirous ofwitnessing the operations in a coal-mine, a friend recommended him tovisit Killingworth pit, where he would find one George Stephenson, amost intelligent workman, in charge. My father was introduced to Mr. Stephenson accordingly; and after rambling over the undergroundworkings, and observing the pumping and winding engines in fulloperation, a friendship was made, which afterwards proved of thegreatest service to myself, by facilitating my being placed as a pupilat the great engineering works of Messrs. Robert Stephenson and Co. , atNewcastle. 

My mother was the daughter of Gawan Pierson, a landed proprietor ofGoathland, near Rosedale. She, too, was surprisingly mechanical in hertastes; and assisted my father in preparing many of his plans, besidesattaining considerable proficiency in drawing, painting, and modellingin wax. Toys in those days were poor, as well as very expensive topurchase. But the nursery soon became a little workshop under herdirections; and the boys were usually engaged, one in making a cart, another in carving out a horse, and a third in cutting out a boat;while the girls were making harness, or sewing sails, or cutting outand making perfect dresses for their dolls--whose houses werecompletely furnished with everything, from the kitchen to the attic, all made at home. 

It was in a house of such industry and mechanism that I was brought up. As a youth, I was slow at my lessons; preferring to watch and assistworkmen when I had an opportunity of doing so, even with the certaintyof having a thrashing from the schoolmaster for my neglect. Thus I gotto know every workshop and every workman in the town. At any rate Ipicked up a smattering of a variety of trades, which afterwards provedof the greatest use to me. The chief of these was wooden shipbuilding, a branch of industry then extensively carried on by Messrs. William andRobert Tindall, the former of whom resided in London; he was one of thehalf-dozen great shipbuilders and owners who founded "Lloyd's. "Splendid East Indiamen, of some 1000 tons burden, were then built atScarborough; and scarcely a timber was moulded, a plank bent, a sparlined off, or launching ship-ways laid, without my being present towitness them. And thus, in course of time, I was able to make formyself the neatest and fastest of model yachts. 

At that time, I attended the Grammar School. Of the rudiments taught, I was fondest of drawing, geometry, and Euclid. Indeed, I went twicethrough the first two books of the latter before I was twelve yearsold. At this age I was sent to the Edinburgh Academy, my eldestbrother William being then a medical student at the University. Iremained at Edinburgh two years. My early progress in mathematicswould have been lost in the classical training which was then insistedupon at the academy, but for my brother who was not only a goodmathematician but an excellent mechanic. He took care to carry on myinstruction in that branch of knowledge, as well as to teach me to makemodels of machines and buildings, in which he was himself proficient. I remember, in one of my journeys to Edinburgh, by coach fromDarlington, that a gentleman expressed his wonder what a screwpropeller could be like; for the screw, as a method of propulsion, wasthen being introduced. I pointed out to him the patent tail of awindmill by the roadside, and said, "It is just like that!"

In 1844 my mother died; and shortly after, my brother having becomeM. D. , and obtained a prize gold medal, we returned to Scarborough. Itwas intended that he should assist my father; but he preferred goingabroad for a few years. I may mention further, with relation to him, that after many years of scientific research and professional practice, he died at Hong Kong in 1858, when a public monument was erected to hismemory, in what is known as the "Happy Valley. "

I remained for a short time under the tuition of my old master. But asthe time was rapidly approaching when I too must determine what I was"to be" in life. I had no hesitation in deciding to be an engineer, though my father wished me to be a barrister. But I kept constant to myresolution; and eventually he succeeded, through his early acquaintancewith George Stephenson, in gaining for me an entrance to theengineering works of Robert Stephenson and Co. , at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. I started there as a pupil on my fifteenth birthday, for anapprenticeship of five years. I was to spend the first four years inthe various workshops, and the last year in the drawing-office. 

I was now in my element. The working hours, it is true, were verylong, --being from six in the morning until 8. 15 at night; excepting onSaturday, when we knocked off at four. However, all this gave me somuch the more experience; and, taking advantage of it, I found that, when I had reached the age of eighteen, I was intrusted with the fullcharge of erecting one side of a locomotive. I had to accomplish thesame amount of work as my mate on the other side, one Murray Playfair, a powerful, hard-working Scotchman. My strength and endurance weresometimes taxed to the utmost, and required the intervals of my labourto be spent in merely eating and sleeping. 

I afterwards went through the machine-shops. I was fortunate enough toget charge of the best screw-cutting and brass-turning lathe in theshop; the former occupant, Jack Singleton, having just been promoted toa foreman's berth at the Messrs. Armstrong's factory. He afterwardsbecame superintendent of all the hydraulic machinery of the Mersey DockTrust at Liverpool. After my four years had been completed, I went intothe drawing-office, to which I had looked forward with pleasure; and, having before practised lineal as well as free-hand drawing, I soonsucceeded in getting good and difficult designs to work out, andeventually finished drawings of the engines. Indeed, on visiting theworks many years after, one of these drawings was shown to me as a"specimen;" the person exhibiting it not knowing that it was my ownwork. 

In the course of my occasional visits to Scarborough, my attention wasdrawn to the imperfect design of the lifeboats of the period; thefrequent shipwrecks along the coast indicating the necessity for theirimprovement. After considerable deliberation, I matured a plan for ametal lifeboat, of a cylindrico-conical or chrysalis form, to bepropelled by a screw at each end, turned by sixteen men inside, seatedon water-ballast tanks; sufficient room being left at the ends insidefor the accommodation of ten or twelve shipwrecked persons; while amate near the bow, and the captain near the stern in charge of therudder, were stationed in recesses in the deck about three feet deep. The whole apparatus was almost cylindrical, and watertight, save in theself-acting ventilators, which could only give access to the smallestportion of water. I considered that, if the lifeboat fully manned werelaunched into the roughest seas, or off the deck of a vessel, it would, even if turned on its back, immediately right itself, without any ofthe crew being disturbed from their positions, to which they were tohave been strapped. 

It happened that at this time (the summer of 1850) his Grace the lateDuke of Northumberland, who had always taken a deep interest in theLifeboat Institution, offered a prize of one hundred guineas for thebest model and design of such a craft; so I determined to complete myplans and make a working model of my lifeboat. I came to theconclusion that the cylindrico-conical form, with the frames to becarried completely round and forming beams as well, and the two screws, one at each end, worked off the same power, by which one or other ofthem would always be immersed, were worth registering in the PatentOffice. I therefore entered a caveat there; and continued working atmy model in the evenings. I first made a wooden block model, on thescale of an inch to the foot. I had some difficulty in procuringsheets of copper thin enough, so that the model should draw only thecorrect amount of water; but at last I succeeded, through finding theman at Newcastle who had supplied my father with copper plates for hisearly road locomotive. 

The model was only 32 inches in length, and 8 inches in beam; and inorder to fix all the internal fittings, of tanks, seats, crank handles, and pulleys, I had first to fit the shell plating, and then, by finallysecuring one strake of plates on, and then another, after all insidewas complete, I at last finished for good the last outside plate. Inexecuting the job, my early experience of all sorts of handiwork cameserviceably to my aid. After many a whole night's work--for theevenings alone were not sufficient for the purpose--I at lengthcompleted my model; and triumphantly and confidently took it to sea inan open boat; and then cast it into the waves. The model either rodeover them or passed through them; if it was sometimes rolled over, itrighted itself at once, and resumed its proper attitude in the waters. After a considerable trial I found scarcely a trace of water inside. Such as had got there was merely through the joints in the slidinghatches; though the ventilators were free to work during theexperiments. 

I completed the prescribed drawings and specifications, and sent them, together with the model, to Somerset House. Some 280 schemes oflifeboats were submitted for competition; but mine was not successful. I suspect that the extreme novelty of the arrangement deterred theadjudicators from awarding in its favour. Indeed, the scheme was sounprecedented, and so entirely out of the ordinary course of things, that there was no special mention made of it in the report afterwardspublished, and even the description there given was incorrect. Theprize was awarded to Mr. James Beeching, of Great Yarmouth, whose planswere afterwards generally adopted by the Lifeboat Society. I havepreserved my model just as it was; and some of its features have sincebeen introduced with advantage into shipbuilding. [1]

The firm of Robert Stephenson and Co. Having contracted to build forthe Government three large iron caissons for the Keyham Docks, and asthese were very similar in construction to that of an ordinary ironship, draughtsmen conversant with that class of work were speciallyengaged to superintend it. The manager, knowing my fondness for ships, placed me as his assistant at this new work. After I had mastered it, I endeavoured to introduce improvements, having observed certaindefects in laying down the lines--I mean by the use of graduated curvescut out of thin wood. In lieu of this method, I contrived thin taperedlaths of lancewood, and weights of a particular form, with steel clawsand knife edges attached, so as to hold the lath tightly down to thepaper, yet capable of being readily adjusted, so as to produce any formof curve, along which the pen could freely and continuously travel. This method proved very efficient, and it has since come into generaluse. 

The Messrs. Stephenson were then also making marine engines, as well aslarge condensing pumping engines, and a large tubular bridge to beerected over the river Don. The splendid high-level bridge over theTyne, of which Robert Stephenson was the engineer, was also in courseof construction. With the opportunity of seeing these great works inprogress, and of visiting, during my holidays and long evenings, mostof the manufactories and mines in the neighbourhood of Newcastle, Icould not fail to pick up considerable knowledge, and an acquaintancewith a vast variety of trades. There were about thirty other pupils inthe works at the same time with myself; some were there either throughfavour or idle fancy; but comparatively few gave their full attentionto the work, and I have since heard nothing of them. Indeed, unless ayoung fellow takes a real interest in his work, and has a genuine lovefor it, the greatest advantages will prove of no avail whatever. 

It was a good plan adopted at the works, to require the pupils to keepthe same hours as the rest of the men, and, though they paid a premiumon entering, to give them the same rate of wages as the rest of thelads. Mr. William Hutchinson, a contemporary of George Stephenson, wasthe managing partner. He was a person of great experience, and had themost thorough knowledge of men and materials, knowing well how tohandle both to the best advantage. 

His son-in-law, Mr. William Weallans, was the head draughtsman, andvery proficient, not only in quickness but in accuracy and finish. Ifound it of great advantage to have the benefit of the example and thetraining of these very clever men. 

My five years apprenticeship was completed in May 1851, on my twentiethbirthday. Having had but very little "black time, " as it was called, beyond the half-yearly holiday for visiting my friends, and having only"slept in" twice during the five years, I was at once entered on thebooks as a journeyman, on the "big" wage of twenty shillings a week. Orders were, however, at that time very difficult to be had. 

Railway trucks, and even navvies' barrows, were contracted for in orderto keep the men employed. It was better not to discharge them, and tofind something for them to do. At the same time it was not veryencouraging for me, under such circumstances, to remain with the firm. I therefore soon arranged to leave; and first of all I went to seeLondon. It was the Great Exhibition year of 1851. I need scarcely saywhat a rich feast I found there, and how thoroughly I enjoyed it all. I spent about two months in inspecting the works of art and mechanicsin the Exhibition, to my own great advantage. I then returned home;and, after remaining in Scarborough for a short time, I proceeded toGlasgow with a letter of introduction to Messrs. J. And G. Thomson, marine engine builders, who started me on the same wages which I hadreceived at Stephenson's, namely twenty shillings a week. 

I found the banks of the Clyde splendid ground for gaining furthermechanical knowledge. There were the ship and engine works on bothsides of the river, down to Govan; and below there, at Renfrew, Dumbarton, Port Glasgow, and Greenock--no end of magnificent yards--sothat I had plenty of occupation for my leisure time on Saturdayafternoons. The works of Messrs. Robert Napier and Sons were then atthe top of the tree. The largest Cunard steamers were built andengined there. Tod and Macgregor were the foremost in screwsteamships--those for the Peninsular and Oriental Company beingsplendid models of symmetry and works of art. Some of the fine woodenpaddle-steamers built in Bristol for the Royal Mail Company were sentround to the Clyde for their machinery. I contrived to board all theseships from time to time, so as to become well acquainted with theirrespective merits and peculiarities. 

As an illustration of how contrivances, excellent in principle, butdefective in construction, may be discarded, but again taken up undermore favourable circumstances, I may mention that I saw a Hall's patentsurface-condensor thrown to one side from one of these steamers, theprincipal difficulty being in keeping it tight. And yet, in the courseof a very few years, by the simplest possible contrivance--inserting anindiarubber ring round each end of the tube (Spencer's patent)--surfacecondensation in marine engines came into vogue; and there is probablyno ocean-going steamer afloat without it, furnished with every varietyof suitable packings. 

After some time, the Messrs. Thomson determined to build their ownvessels, and an experienced naval draughtsman was engaged, to whom Iwas "told off" whenever he needed assistance. In the course of time, more and more of the ship work came in my way. Indeed, I seemed toobtain the preference. Fortunately for us both, my superior obtainedan appointment of a similar kind on the Tyne, at superior pay, and Iwas promoted to his place. The Thomsons had now a very fineshipbuilding-yard, in full working order, with several large steamerson the stocks. I was placed in the drawing-office as head draughtsman. At the same time I had no rise of wages; but still went on enjoying mytwenty shillings a week. I was, however, gaining information andexperience, and knew that better pay would follow in due course oftime. And without solicitation I was eventually offered an engagementfor a term of years, at an increased and increasing salary, with threemonths' notice on either side. 

I had only enjoyed the advance for a short time, when Mr. ThomasToward, a shipbuilder on the Tyne, being in want of a manager, madeapplication to the Messrs. Stephenson for such a person. They mentionedmy name, and Mr. Toward came over to the Clyde to see me. The resultwas, that I became engaged, and it was arranged that I should enter onmy enlarged duties on the Tyne in the autumn of 1853. It was with nosmall reluctance that I left the Messrs. Thomson. They werefirst-class practical men, and had throughout shown me every kindnessand consideration. But a managership was not to be had every day; andbeing the next step to the position of a master, I could not neglectthe opportunity for advancement which now offered itself. 

Before leaving Glasgow, however, I found that it would be necessary tohave a new angle and plate furnace provided for the works on the Tyne. Now, the best man in Glasgow for building these important requisitesfor shipbuilding work was scarcely ever sober; but by watching andcoaxing him, and by a liberal supply of Glenlivat afterwards, Icontrived to lay down on paper, from his directions, what he consideredto be the best class of furnace; and by the aid of this I wasafterwards enabled to construct what proved to be the best furnace onthe Tyne. 

To return to my education in shipbuilding. My early efforts inship-draughting at Stephensons' were further developed and matured atThomsons' on the Clyde. Models and drawings were more carefully workedout on the 1/4-in. Scale than heretofore. The stern frames were laidoff and put up at once correctly, which before had been first shaped byfull-sized wooden moulds. I also contrived a mode of quickly andcorrectly laying off the frame-lines on a model, by laying it on aplane surface, and then, with a rectangular block traversing it--apencil in a suitable holder being readily applied over the curvedsurface. This method is now in general use. 

Even at that time, competition as regards speed in the Clyde steamerswas very keen. Foremost among the competitors was the late Mr. DavidHutchinson, who, though delighted with the Mountaineer, built by theThomsons in 1853, did not hesitate to have her lengthened forward tomake her sharper, so as to secure her ascendency in speed during theensuing season. The results were satisfactory; and his steamers grewand grew, until they developed into the celebrated Iona and Cambria, which were in later years built for him by the same firm. I maymention that the Cunard screw steamer Jura was the last heavy job withwhich I was connected while at Thomsons'. 

I then proceeded to the Tyne, to superintend the building of ships andmarine boilers. The shipbuilding yard was at St. Peter's, about twoand a-half miles below Newcastle. I found the work, as practisedthere, rough and ready; but by steady attention to all the details, andby careful inspection when passing the "piece-work" (a practice much invogue there, but which I discouraged), I contrived to raise thestandard of excellence, without a corresponding increase of price. Myobject was to raise the quality of the work turned out; and, as we hadorders from the Russian Government, from China, and the Continent, aswell as from shipowners at home, I observed that quality was a veryimportant element in all commercial success. My master, Mr. ThomasToward, was in declining health; and, being desirous of spending hiswinters abroad, I was consequently left in full charge of the works. But as there did not appear to be a satisfactory prospect, under thecircumstances, for any material development of the business, a triflingcircumstance arose, which again changed the course of my career. 

An advertisement appeared in the papers for a manager to conduct ashipbuilding yard in Belfast. I made inquiries as to the situation, and eventually applied for it. I was appointed, and entered upon myduties there at Christmas, 1854. The yard was a much larger one thanthat on the Tyne, and was capable of great expansion. It was situatedon what was then well known as the Queen's Island; but now, like theIsle of Dogs, it has been attached by reclamation. The yard, aboutfour acres in extent, was held by lease from the Belfast HarbourCommissioners. It was well placed, alongside a fine patent slip, withclear frontage, allowing of the largest ships being freely launched. Indeed, the first ship built there, the Mary Stenhouse, had only justbeen completed and launched by Messrs. Robert Hickson and Co. , then theproprietors of the undertaking. They were also the owners of the ElizaStreet Iron Works, Belfast, which were started to work up old ironmaterials. But as the works were found to be unremunerative, they wereshortly afterwards closed. 

On my entering the shipbuilding yard I found that the firm had an orderfor two large sailing ships. One of these was partly in frame; and Iat once tackled with it and the men. Mr. Hickson, the acting partner, not being practically acquainted with the business, the wholeproceeding connected with the building of the ships devolved upon me. I had been engaged to supersede a manager summarily dismissed. Although he had not given satisfaction to his employers, he was a greatfavourite with the men. Accordingly, my appearance as manager in hisstead was not very agreeable to the employed. On inquiry I found thatthe rate of wages paid was above the usual value, whilst the quantityas well as quality of the work done were below the standard. Iproceeded to rectify these defects, by paying the ordinary rate ofwages, and then by raising the quality of the work done. I was met bythe usual method--a strike. The men turned out. They were abetted bythe former manager; and the leading hands hung about the townunemployed, in the hope of my throwing up the post in disgust. 

But, nothing daunted, I went repeatedly over to the Clyde for thepurpose of enlisting fresh hands. When I brought them over, however, in batches, there was the greatest difficulty in inducing them to work. They were intimidated, or enticed, or feasted, and sent home again. The late manager had also taken a yard on the other side of the river, and actually commenced to build a ship, employing some of his oldcomrades; but beyond laying the keel, little more was ever done. A fewmonths after my arrival, my firm had to arrange with its creditors, whilst I, pending the settlement, had myself to guarantee the wages toa few of the leading hands, whom I had only just succeeded in gatheringtogether. In this dilemma, an old friend, a foreman on the Clyde, cameover to Belfast to see me. After hearing my story, and considering thedifficulties I had to encounter, he advised me at once to "throw up thejob!" My reply was, that "having mounted a restive horse, I would ridehim into the stable. "

Notwithstanding the advice of my friend, I held on. The comparativelyfew men in the works, as well as those out, no doubt observed mydetermination. The obstacles were no doubt great; the financialdifficulties were extreme; and yet there was a prospect of profit fromthe work in hand, provided only the men could be induced to settlesteadily down to their ordinary employment. I gradually gatheredtogether a number of steady workmen, and appointed suitable foremen. Iobtained a considerable accession of strength from Newcastle. On thedeath of Mr. Toward, his head foreman, Mr. William Hanston, with anumber of the leading hands, joined me. From that time forward theworks went on apace; and we finished the ships in hand to the perfectsatisfaction of the owners. 

Orders were obtained for several large sailing ships as well as screwvessels. We lifted and repaired wrecked ships, to the materialadvantage of Mr. Hickson, then the sole representative of the firm. After three years thus engaged, I resolved to start somewhere as ashipbuilder on my own account. I made inquiries at Garston, Birkenhead, and other places. When Mr. Hickson heard of my intentions, he said he had no wish to carry on the concern after I left, and made asatisfactory proposal for the sale to me of his holding of the Queen'sIsland Yard. So I agreed to the proposed arrangement. The transferand the purchase were soon completed, through the kind assistance of myold and esteemed friend Mr. G. G. Schwabe, of Liverpool; whose nephew, Mr. G. W. Wolff, had been with me for a few months as my privateassistant. 

It was necessary, however, before commencing for myself, that I shouldassist Mr. Hickson in finishing off the remaining vessels in hand, aswell as to look out for orders on my own account. Fortunately, I hadnot long to wait; for it had so happened that my introduction to theMessrs. Thomson of Glasgow had been made through the instrumentality ofmy good friend Mr. Schwabe, who induced Mr. James Bibby (of J. Bibby, Sons & Co. , Liverpool) to furnish me with the necessary letter. Whilein Glasgow, I had endeavoured to assist the Messrs. Bibby in thepurchase of a steamer; so I was now intrusted by them with thebuilding of three screw steamers the Venetian, Sicilian, and Syrian, each 270 feet long, by 34 feet beam, and 22 feet 9 inches hold; andcontracted with Macnab and Co. , Greenock, to supply the requisitesteam-engines. 

This was considered a large order in those days. It required manyadditions to the machinery, plant, and tools of the yard. I invitedMr. Wolff, then away in the Mediterranean as engineer of a steamer, toreturn and take charge of the drawing office. Mr. Wolff had served hisapprenticeship with Messrs. Joseph Whitworth and Co. , of Manchester, and was a most able man, thoroughly competent for the work. Everythingwent on prosperously; and, in the midst of all my engagements, I foundtime to woo and win the hand of Miss Rosa Wann, of Vermont, Belfast, towhom I was married on the 26th of January, 1860, and by her greatenergy, soundness of judgment, and cleverness in organization, I wassoon relieved from all sources of care and anxiety, excepting thoseconnected with business. 

The steamers were completed in the course of the following year, doubtless to the satisfaction of the owners, for their delivery wasimmediately followed by an order for two larger vessels. As I requiredfrequently to go from home, and as the works must be carefully attendedto during my absence, on the 1st of January, 1862, I took Mr. Wolff inas a partner; and the firm has since continued under the name ofHarland and Wolff. I may here add that I have throughout received themost able advice and assistance from my excellent friend and partner, and that we have together been enabled to found an entirely new branchof industry in Belfast. 

It is necessary for me here to refer back a little to a screw steamerwhich was built on the Clyde for Bibby and Co. By Mr. John Read, andengined by J. And G. Thomson while I was with them. That steamer wascalled the Tiber. She was looked upon as of an extreme length, being235 feet, in proportion to her beam, which was 29 feet. Seriousmisgivings were thrown out as to whether she would ever stand a heavysea. Vessels of such proportions were thought to be crank, and evendangerous. Nevertheless, she seemed to my mind a great success. Fromthat time, I began to think and work out the advantages anddisadvantages of such a vessel, from an owner's as well as from abuilder's point of view. The result was greatly in favour of theowner, though entailing difficulties in construction as regards thebuilder. These difficulties, however. I thought might easily beovercome. 

In the first steamers ordered of me by the Messrs. Bibby, I thought itmore prudent to simply build to the dimensions furnished, although theywere even longer than usual. But, prior to the precise dimensionsbeing fixed for the second order, I with confidence proposed my theoryof the greater carrying power and accommodation, both for cargo andpassengers, that would be gained by constructing the new vessels ofincreased length, without any increase of beam. I conceived that theywould show improved qualities in a sea-way, and that, notwithstandingthe increased accommodation, the same speed with the same power wouldbe obtained, by only a slight increase in the first cost. The resultwas, that I was allowed to settle the dimensions; and the followingwere then decided on: Length, 310 feet; beam, 34 feet; depth of hold, 24 feet 9 inches; all of which were fully compensated for by making theupper deck entirely of iron. In this way, the hull of the ship wasconverted into a box girder of immensely increased strength, and was, Ibelieve, the first ocean steamer ever so constructed. The rig too wasunique. The four masts were made in one continuous length, withfore-and-aft sails, but no yards, --thereby reducing the number of handsnecessary to work them. And the steam winches were so arranged as tobe serviceable for all the heavy hauls, as well as for the rapidhandling of the cargo. 

In the introduction of so many novelties, I was well supported by Mr. F. Leyland, the junior partner of Messrs. Bibby's firm, and by theintelligent and practical experience of Captain Birch, the overlooker, and Captain George Wakeham, the Commodore of the company. Unsuccessfulattempts had been made many years before to condense the steam from theengines by passing it into variously formed chambers, tubes, &c. , to bethere condensed by surfaces kept cold by the circulation of sea-waterround them, so as to preserve the pure water and return it to theboilers free of salt. In this way, "salting up" was avoided, and aconsiderable saving of fuel and expenses in repairs was effected. 

Mr. Spencer had patented an improvement on Hall's method of surfacecondensation, by introducing indiarubber rings at each end of thetubes. This had been tried as an experiment on shore, and we advisedthat it should be adopted in one of Messrs. Bibby's smallest steamers, the Frankfort. The results were found perfectly satisfactory. Some 20per cent. Of fuel was saved; and, after the patent right had beenbought, the method was adopted in all the vessels of the company. 

When these new ships were first seen at Liverpool, the "old salts" heldup their hands. They were too long! they were too sharp! they wouldbreak their backs! They might, indeed, get out of the Mersey, but theywould never get back! The ships, however, sailed; and they made rapidand prosperous voyages to and from the Mediterranean. They fulfilledall the promises which had been made. They proved the advantages ofour new build of ships; and the owners were perfectly satisfied withtheir superior strength, speed, and accommodation. The Bibbys werewise men in their day and generation. They did not stop, but went onordering more ships. After the Grecian and the Italian had made two orthree voyages to Alexandria, they sent us an order for three morevessels. By our advice, they were made twenty feet longer than theprevious ones, though of no greater beam; in other respects, they werealmost identical. This was too much for "Jack. " "What!" he exclaimed, "more Bibby's coffins?" Yes, more and more; and in the course of time, most shipowners followed our example. 

To a young firm, a repetition of orders like these was a greatadvantage, --not only because of the novel design of the ships, but alsobecause of their constructive details. We did our best to fit up theEgyptian, Dalmatian, and Arabian, as first-rate vessels. Those engagedin the Mediterranean trade finding them to be serious rivals, partlybecause of the great cargos which they carried, but principally fromthe regularity with which they made their voyages with suchsurprisingly small consumption of coal. They were not, however, what"Jack" had been accustomed to consider "dry ships. " The ship builtDutchman fashion, with her bluff ends, is the driest of all ships, butthe least steady, because she rises to every sea. But the new ships, because of their length and sharpness, precluded this; for, though theyrose sufficiently to an approaching wave for all purposes of safety, they often went through the crest of it, and, though shipping a littlewater, it was not only easier for the vessel, but the shortest road. 

Nature seems to have furnished us with the finest design for a vesselin the form of the fish: it presents such fine lines--is so clean, sotrue, and so rapid in its movements. The ship, however, must float;and to hit upon the happy medium of velocity and stability seems to methe art and mystery of shipbuilding. In order to give large carryingcapacity, we gave flatness of bottom and squareness of bilge. Thisbecame known in Liverpool as the "Belfast bottom;" and it has beengenerally adopted. This form not only serves to give stability, butalso increases the carrying power without lessening the speed. 

While Sailor Jack and our many commercial rivals stood aghast andwondered, our friends gave us yet another order for a still longership, with still the same beam and power. The vessel was named thePersian; she was 360 feet long, 34 feet beam, 24 feet 9 inches hold. More cargo was thus carried, at higher speed. It was only a furtherdevelopment of the fish form of structure. Venice was an important portto call at. The channel was difficult to navigate, and the Venetianclass (270 feet long) was supposed to be the extreme length that couldbe handled here. But what with the straight stem, --by cutting theforefoot away, and by the introduction of powerful steering-gear, worked amidships, --the captain was able to navigate the Persian, 90feet longer than the Venetian, with much less anxiety and inconvenience. 

Until the building of the Persian, we had taken great pride in themodelling and finish of the old style of cutwater and figurehead, withbowsprit and jib-boom; but in urging the advantages of greater lengthof hull, we were met by the fact of its being simply impossible incertain docks to swing vessels of any greater length than those alreadyconstructed. Not to be beaten, we proposed to do away with all theseoverhanging encumbrances, and to adopt a perpendicular stem. In thisway the hull might be made so much longer; and this was, I believe, thefirst occasion of its being adopted in this country in the case of anocean steamer; though the once celebrated Collins Line of paddlesteamers had, I believe, such stems. The iron decks, iron bulwarks, and iron rails, were all found very serviceable in our later vessels, there being no leaking, no caulking of deck-planks or waterways, norany consequent damaging of cargo. Having found it impossible tocombine satisfactorily wood with iron, each being so differentlyaffected by temperature and moisture, I secured some of these noveltiesof construction in a patent, by which filling in the spaces betweenframes, &c. , with Portland cement, instead of chocks of wood, andcovering the iron plates with cement and tiles, came into practice, andthis has since come into very general use. 

The Tiber, already referred to, was 235 feet in length when firstconstructed by Read, of Glasgow, and was then thought too long; but shewas now placed in our hands to be lengthened 39 feet, as well as tohave an iron deck added, both of which greatly improved her. We alsolengthened the Messrs. Bibby's Calpe--also built by Messrs. Thomsonwhile I was there--by no less than 93 feet. The advantage oflengthening ships, retaining the same beam and power, having becomegenerally recognised, we were in trusted by the Cunard Company tolengthen the Hecla, Olympus, Atlas, and Marathon, each by 63 feet. TheRoyal Consort P. S. , which had been lengthened first at Liverpool, wasagain lengthened by us at Belfast. 

The success of all this heavy work, executed for successful owners, puta sort of backbone into the Belfast shipbuilding yard. While otherconcerns were slack, we were either lengthening or building steamers aswell as sailing-ships for firms in Liverpool, London, and Belfast. Many acres of ground were added to the works. The HarbourCommissioners had now made a fine new graving-dock, and connected theQueen's Island with the mainland. The yard, thus improved andextended, was surveyed by the Admiralty, and placed on the first-classlist. We afterwards built for the Government the gun vessels Lynx andAlgerine, as well as the store and torpedo ship Hecla, of 3360 tons. 

The Suez Canal being now open, our friends the Messrs. Bibby gave us anorder for three steamers of very large tonnage, capable of beingadapted for trade with the antipodes if necessary. In these newvessels there was no retrograde step as regards length, for they were390 feet keel by 37 feet beam, square-rigged on three of the masts, with the yards for the first time fitted on travellers, as to enablethem to be readily sent down; thus forming a unique combination of bigfore-and-aft sails, with handy square sails. These ships were namedthe Istrian, Iberian, and Illyrian, and in 1868 they went to sea; soonafter to be followed by three more ships--the Bavarian, Bohemian, andBulgarian--in most respects the same, though ten feet longer, with thesame beam. They were first placed in the Mediterranean trade, but wereafterwards transferred to the Liverpool and Boston trade, for cattleand emigrants. These, with three smaller steamers for the Spanishcattle trade, and two larger steamers for other trades, made togethertwenty steam-vessels constructed for the Messrs. John Bibby, Sons, &Co. ; and it was a matter of congratulation that, after a great deal ofheavy and constant work, not one of them had exhibited the slightestindication of weakness, --all continuing in first-rate working order. 

The speedy and economic working of the Belfast steamers, compared withthose of the ordinary type, having now become well known, a scheme wasset on foot in 1869 for employing similar vessels, though of largersize, for passenger and goods accommodation between England andAmerica. Mr. T. H. Ismay, of Liverpool, the spirited shipowner, thenformed, in conjunction with the late Mr. G. H. Fletcher, the OceanicSteam Navigation Company, Limited; and we were commissioned by them tobuild six large Transatlantic steamers, capable of carrying a heavycargo of goods, as well as a full complement of cabin and steeragepassengers, between Liverpool and New York, at a speed equal, if notsuperior, to that of the Cunard and Inman lines. The vessels were tobe longer than any we had yet constructed, being 420 feet keel and 41feet beam, with 32 feet hold. 

This was a great opportunity, and we eagerly embraced it. The workswere now up to the mark in point of extent and appliances. The men inour employment were mostly of our own training: the foremen had beenpromoted from the ranks; the manager, Mr. W. H. Wilson, and the headdraughtsman, Mr. W. J. Pirrie (since become partners), having, aspupils, worked up through all the departments, and ultimately won theirhonourable and responsible positions by dint of merit only--bycharacter, perseverance, and ability. We were therefore in a positionto take up an important contract of this kind, and to work it out withheart and soul. 

As everything in the way of saving of fuel was of first-rateimportance, we devoted ourselves to that branch of economic working. It was necessary that buoyancy or space should be left for cargo, atthe same time that increased speed should be secured, with as littleconsumption of coal as possible. The Messrs. Elder and Co. , ofGlasgow, had made great strides in this direction with the paddlesteam-engines which they had constructed for the Pacific Company on thecompound principle. They had also introduced them on some of theirscrew steamers, with more or less success. Others were trying the sameprinciple in various forms, by the use of high-pressure cylinders, andso on; the form of the boilers being varied according to circumstances, for the proper economy of fuel. The first thing absolutely wanted was, perfectly reliable information as to the actual state of the compoundengine and boiler up to the date of our inquiry. To ascertain thefacts by experience, we dispatched Mr. Alexander Wilson, youngerbrother of the manager who had been formerly a pupil of Messrs. Macnaband Co. , of Greenock, and was thoroughly able for the work--to make anumber of voyages in steam vessels fitted with the best examples ofcompound engines. 

The result of this careful inquiry was the design of the machinery andboilers of the Oceanic and five sister-ships. They were constructed onthe vertical overhead "tandem" type, with five-feet stroke (at thattime thought excessive), oval single-ended transverse boilers, with aworking pressure of sixty pounds. We contracted with Messrs. Maudslay, Sons, and Field, of London, for three of these sets, and with Messrs. George Forrester and Co. , of Liverpool, for the other three; and as wefound we could build the six vessels in the same time as the machinerywas being constructed; and, as all this machinery had to be conveyed toBelfast to be there fitted on board, whilst the vessels were beingotherwise finished, we built a little screw-steamer, the Camel, ofextra strength, with very big hatchways, to receive these large massesof iron; and this, in course of time, was found to work with greatadvantage; until eventually we constructed our own machinery. 

We were most fortunate in the type of engine we had fixed upon, for itproved both economical and serviceable in all ways; and, with butslight modifications, we repeated it in the many subsequent vesselswhich we built for the White Star Company. Another feature of noveltyin these vessels consisted in placing the first-class accommodationamidships, with the third-class aft and forward. In all previous oceansteamers, the cabin passengers had been berthed near the stern, wherethe heaving motion of the vessel was far greater than in the centre, and where that most disagreeable vibration inseparable from proximityto the propeller was ever present. The unappetising smells from thegalley were also avoided. And last, but not least, a commodioussmoking-saloon was fitted up amidships, contrasting most favourablywith the scanty accommodation provided in other vessels. The saloon, too, presented the novelty of extending the full width of the vessel, and was lighted from each side. Electric bells were for the first timefitted on board ship. The saloon and entire range of cabins werelighted by gas, made on board, though this has since given place to theincandescent electric light. A fine promenade deck was provided overthe saloon, which was accessible from below in all weathers by thegrand staircase. 

These, and other arrangements, greatly promoted the comfort andconvenience of the cabin passengers; while those in the steerage foundgreat improvements in convenience, sanitation, and accommodation. "Jack" had his forecastle well ventilated and lighted, and aturtle-back over his head when on deck, with winches to haul for him, and a steam-engine to work the wheel; while the engineers and firemenberthed as near their work as possible, never needing to wet a jacketor miss a meal. In short, for the first time perhaps, ocean-voyaging, even in the North Atlantic, was made not only less tedious and dreadfulto all, but was rendered enjoyable and even delightful to many. Beforethe Oceanic, the pioneer of the new line, was even launched, rivalcompanies had already consigned her to the deepest place in the ocean. Her first appearance in Liverpool was therefore regarded with muchinterest. Mr. Ismay, during the construction of the vessel, took everypains to suggest improvements and arrangements with a view to thecomfort and convenience of the travelling public. He accompanied thevessel on her first voyage to New York in March, 1871, under command ofCaptain, now Sir Digby Murray, Brt. Although severe weather wasexperienced, the ship made a splendid voyage, with a heavy cargo ofgoods and passengers. The Oceanic thus started the Transatlantictraffic of the Company, with the house-flag of the White Star proudlyflying on the main. 

It may be mentioned that the speed of the Oceanic was at least a knotfaster per hour than had been heretofore accomplished across theAtlantic. The motion of the vessel was easy, without any indication ofweakness or straining, even in the heaviest weather. The onlyinducement to slow was when going head to it (which often meant headthrough it), to avoid the inconvenience of shipping a heavy body of"green sea" on deck forward. A turtle-back was therefore provided tothrow it off, which proved so satisfactory, as it had done on theHolyhead and Kingstown boats, that all the subsequent vessels weresimilarly constructed. Thus, then, as with the machinery, so was thehull of the Oceanic, a type of the succeeding vessels, which afterintervals of a few months took up their stations on the Transatlanticline. 

Having often observed, when at sea in heavy weather, how the pitchingof the vessel caused the weights on the safety-valves to actirregularly, thus letting puffs of steam escape at every heave, and ashigh pressure steam was too valuable a commodity to be so wasted, wedetermined to try direct-acting spiral springs, similar to those usedin locomotives, in connection with the compound engine. But as no suchexperiment was possible in any vessels requiring the Board of Tradecertificate, the alternative of using the Camel as an experimentalvessel was adopted. The spiral springs were accordingly fitted uponthe boiler of that vessel, and with such a satisfactory result that theBoard of Trade allowed the use of the same contrivance on all theboilers of the Oceanic and every subsequent steamer, and thecontrivance has now come into general use. 

It would be too tedious to mention in detail the other ships built forthe White Star line. The Adriatic and Celtic were made 17 feet 6inches longer than the Oceanic, and a little sharper, being 437 feet 6inches keel, 41 feet beam, and 32 feet hold. The success of the Companyhad been so great under the able management of Ismay, Imrie and Co. , and they had secured so large a share of the passengers and cargo, aswell as of the mails passing between Liverpool and New York, that itwas found necessary to build two still larger and faster vessels--theBritannic and Germanic: these were 455 feet in length; 45 feet in beam;and of 5000 indicated horse-power. The Britannic was in the firstinstance constructed with the propeller fitted to work below the lineof keel when in deep water, by which means the "racing" of the engineswas avoided. When approaching shallow water, the propeller was raisedby steam-power to the ordinary position without any necessity forstopping the engines during the operation. Although there was anincrease of speed by this means through the uniform revolutions of themachinery in the heaviest sea, yet there was an objectionable amount ofvibration at certain parts of the vessel, so that we found it necessaryto return to the ordinary fixed propeller, working in the line ofdirection of the vessel. Comfort at sea is of even more importancethan speed; and although we had succeeded in four small steamersworking on the new principle, it was found better to continue in thelarger ships to resort to the established modes of propulsion. It mayhappen that at some future period the new method may yet be adoptedwith complete success. 

Meanwhile competition went on with other companies. Monopoly cannotexist between England and America. Our plans were followed; andsharper boats and heavier power became the rule of the day. Butincrease of horse-power of engines means increase of heating surfaceand largely increased boilers, when we reach the vanishing point ofprofit, after which there is nothing left but speed and expense. Itmay be possible to fill a ship with boilers, and to save a few hours inthe passage from Liverpool to New York by a tremendous expenditure ofcoal; but whether that will answer the purpose of any body ofshareholders must be left for the future to determine. 

"Brute force" may be still further employed. It is quite possible thatrecent "large strides" towards a more speedy transit across theAtlantic may have been made "in the dark. "

The last ships we have constructed for Ismay, Imrie and Co. Have beenof comparatively moderate dimensions and power--the Arabic and Coptic, 430 feet long; and the Ionic and Boric, 440 feet long, all of 2700indicated horse-power. These are large cargo steamers, with a moderateamount of saloon accommodation, and a large space for emigrants. Someof these are now engaged in crossing the Pacific, whilst others areengaged in the line from London to New Zealand; the latter beingspecially fitted up for carrying frozen meat. 

To return to the operations of the Belfast shipbuilding yard. Aserious accident occurred in the autumn of 1867 to the mailpaddle-steamer the Wolf, belonging to the Messrs. Burns, of Glasgow. When passing out of the Lough, about eight miles from Belfast, she wasrun into by another steamer. She was cut down and sank, and there shelay in about seven fathoms of water; the top of her funnel and mastsbeing only visible at low tide. She was in a dangerous position forall vessels navigating the entrance to the port, and it was necessarythat she should be removed, either by dynamite, gunpowder, or someother process. Divers were sent down to examine the ship, and theinjury done to her being found to be slight, the owners conferred withus as to the possibility of lifting her and bringing her into port. Though such a process had never before been accomplished, yet knowingher structure well, and finding that we might rely upon smooth waterfor about a week or two in summer, we determined to do what we could tolift the sunken vessel to the surface. 

We calculated the probable weight of the vessel, and had a number ofair-tanks expressly built for her floatation. These were secured tothe ship with chains and hooks, the latter being inserted through theside lights in her sheer strake. Early in the following summereverything was ready. The air-tanks were prepared and rafted together. Powerful screws were attached to each chain, with hand-pumps foremptying the tanks, together with a steam tender fitted with cookingappliances, berths and stores, for all hands engaged in the enterprise. We succeeded in attaching the hooks and chains by means of divers; thechains being ready coiled on deck. But the weather, which beforeseemed to be settled, now gave way. No sooner had we got the pair ofbig tanks secured to the after body, than a fierce north-north-easterlygale set in, and we had to run for it, leaving the tanks partly filled, in order to lessen the strain on everything. 

When the gale had settled, we returned again, and found that no harmhad been done. The remainder of the hooks were properly attached tothe rest of the tanks, the chains were screwed tightly up, and thetanks were pumped clear. Then the tide rose; and before high water wehad the great satisfaction of getting the body of the vessel underweigh, and towing her about a cable's length from her old bed. At eachtide's work she was lifted higher and higher, and towed into shallowerwater towards Belfast; until at length we had her, after eight days, safely in the harbour, ready to enter the graving dock, --not moreready, however, than we all were for our beds, for we had neitherundressed nor shaved during that anxious time. Indeed, our friendsscarcely recognised us on our return home. 

The result of the enterprise was this. The clean cut made into the bowof the ship by the collision was soon repaired. The crop of oysterswith which she was incrusted gave place to the scraper and thepaintbrush. The Wolf came out of the dock to the satisfaction both ofthe owners and underwriters; and she was soon "ready for the road, "nothing the worse for her ten months' immersion. [2]

Meanwhile the building of new iron ships went on in the Queen's Island. We were employed by another Liverpool Company--the British Shipowners'Company, Limited--to supply some large steamers. The British Empire, of 3361 gross tonnage, was the same class of vessel as those of theWhite Star line, but fuller, being intended for cargo. Thoughoriginally intended for the Eastern trade, this vessel was eventuallyplaced on the Liverpool and Philadelphia line; and her working provedso satisfactory that five more vessels were ordered like her, whichwere chartered to the American Company. 

The Liverpool agents, Messrs. Richardson, Spence, and Co. , havingpurchased the Cunard steamer Russia, sent her over to us to belengthened 70 feet, and entirely refitted--another proof of the rapidchange which owners of merchant ships now found it necessary to adoptin view of the requirements of modern traffic. 

Another Liverpool firm, the Messrs. T. And J. Brocklebank, ofworld-wide repute for their fine East Indiamen, having given upbuilding for themselves at their yard at Whitehaven, commissioned us tobuild for them the Alexandria, and Baroda, which were shortly followedby the Candahar and Tenasserim. And continuing to have a faith in thefuture of big iron sailing ships, they further employed us to build forthem two of yet greater tonnage, the Belfast and the Majestic. 

Indeed, there is a future for sailing ships, notwithstanding the recentdevelopment of steam power. Sailing ships can still hold their own, especially in the transport of heavy merchandise for great distances. They can be built more cheaply than steamers; they can be worked moreeconomically, because they require no expenditure on coal, nor on wagesof engineers; besides, the space occupied in steamers by machinery isentirely occupied by merchandise, all of which pays its quota offreight. Another thing may be mentioned: the telegraph enables thefact of the sailing of a vessel, with its cargo on board, to becommunicated from Calcutta or San Francisco to Liverpool, and from thatmoment the cargo becomes as marketable as if it were on the spot. There are cases, indeed, where the freight by sailing ship is evengreater than by steamer, as the charge for warehousing at home issaved, and in the meantime the cargo while at sea is negotiable. 

We have accordingly, during the last few years, built some of thelargest iron and steel sailing ships that have ever gone to sea. Theaim has been to give them great carrying capacity and fair speed, witheconomy of working; and the use of steel, both in the hull and therigging, facilitates the attainment of these objects. In 1882 and1883, we built and launched four of these steel and iron sailingships--the Waiter H. Wilson, the W. J. Pirrie, the Fingal, and the LordWolseley--each of nearly 3000 tons register, with four masts, --theowners being Mr. Lawther, of Belfast; Mr. Martin, of Dublin; and theIrish Shipowners Company. 

Besides these and other sailing ships, we have built for Messrs. Ismay, Imrie and Co. The Garfield, of 2347 registered tonnage; for Messrs. Thomas Dixon and Son, the Lord Downshire (2322); and for Messrs. Bullock's Bay Line, the Bay of Panama (2365). 

In 1880 we took in another piece of the land reclaimed by the BelfastHarbour Trust; and there, in close proximity to the ship-yard, wemanufacture all the machinery required for the service of the steamersconstructed by our firm. In this way we are able to do everything"within ourselves"; and the whole land now occupied by the workscomprises about forty acres, with ten building slips suitable for thelargest vessels. 

It remains for me to mention a Belfast firm, which has done so much forthe town. I mean the Messrs. J. P. Corry and Co. , who have always beenamongst our best friends. We built for them their first iron sailingvessel, the Jane Porter, in 1860, and since then they have never failedus. They successfully established their "Star" line of sailingclippers from London to Calcutta, all of which were built here. Theysubsequently gave us orders for yet larger vessels, in the Star ofFrance and the Star of Italy. In all, we have built for that firmeleven of their well-known "Star" ships. 

We have built five ships for the Asiatic Steam Navigation Company, Limited, each of from 1650 to 2059 tons gross; and we are now buildingfor them two ships, each of about 3000 tons gross. In 1883 we launchedthirteen iron and steel vessels, of a registered tonnage of over 30, 000tons. Out of eleven ships now building, seven are of steel. 

Such is a brief and summary account of the means by which we have beenenabled to establish a new branch of industry in Belfast. It has beenaccomplished simply by energy and hard work. We have beenwell-supported by the skilled labour of our artisans; we have beenbacked by the capital and the enterprise of England; and we believethat if all true patriots would go and do likewise, there would benothing to fear for the prosperity and success of Ireland. 

Footnotes for Chapter XI. 

[1] Although Mr. Harland took no further steps with his lifeboat, theproject seems well worthy of a fair trial. We had lately the pleasureof seeing the model launched and tried on the lake behind Mr. Harland'sresidence at Ormiston, near Belfast. The cylindrical lifeboat keptperfectly water-tight, and though thrown into the water in manydifferent positions--sometimes tumbled in on its prow, at other timeson its back (the deck being undermost), it invariably righted itself. The screws fore and aft worked well, and were capable of being turnedby human labour or by steam power. Now that such large freights ofpassengers are carried by ocean-going ships, it would seem necessarythat some such method should be adopted of preserving life at sea; forordinary lifeboats, which are so subject to destructive damage, areoften of little use in fires or shipwrecks, or other accidents on theocean. 

[2] A full account is given in the Illustrated London News of the 21stof October, 1868, with illustrations, of the raising of the Wolf; andanother, more scientific, is given in the Engineer of the 16th ofOctober, of the same year. 

CHAPTER XII. 

ASTRONOMERS AND STUDENTS IN HUMBLE LIFE:

A NEW CHAPTER IN THE 'PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE UNDER DIFFICULTIES. '

"I first learnt to read when the masons were at work in your house. Iapproached them one day, and observed that the architect used a ruleand compass, and that he made calculations. I inquired what might bethe meaning and use of these things, and I was informed that there wasa science called Arithmetic. I purchased a book of arithmetic, and Ilearned it. I was told there was another science called Geometry; Ibought the necessary books, and I learned Geometry. By reading, Ifound there were good books in these two sciences in Latin; I bought adictionary, and I learned Latin. I understood, also, that there weregood books of the same kind in French; I bought a dictionary, and Ilearned French. It seems to me that one does not need to know anythingmore than the twenty-four letters to learn everything else that onewishes. "--Edmund Stone to the Duke of Argyll. ('Pursuit of Knowledgeunder Difficulties. ')

"The British Census proper reckons twenty-seven and a half million inthe home countries. What makes this census important is the quality ofthe units that compose it. They are free forcible men, in a countrywhere life is safe, and has reached the greatest value. They give thebias to the current age; and that not by chance or by mass, but bytheir character, and by the number of individuals among them ofpersonal ability. "--Emerson: English Traits. 

From Belfast to the Highlands of Scotland is an easy route by steamersand railways. While at Birnam, near Dunkeld, I was reminded of someremarkable characters in the neighbourhood. After the publication ofthe 'Scotch Naturalist' and 'Robert Dick, ' I received numerous lettersinforming me of many self-taught botanists and students of nature, quite as interesting as the subjects of my memoirs. Among others, there was John Duncan, the botanist weaver of Aberdeen, whoseinteresting life has since been done justice to by Mr. Jolly; and JohnSim of Perth, first a shepherd boy, then a soldier, and towards theclose of his life a poet and a botanist, whose life, I was told, was"as interesting as a romance. "

There was also Alexander Croall, Custodian of the Smith Institute atStirling, an admirable naturalist and botanist. He was originally ahard-working parish schoolmaster, near Montrose. During his holidaywanderings he collected plants for his extensive herbarium. Hisaccomplishments having come under the notice of the late Sir WilliamHooker, he was selected by that gentleman to prepare sets of the Plantsof Braemar for the Queen and Prince Albert, which he did to theirentire satisfaction. He gave up his school-mastership for an ill-paidbut more congenial occupation, that of Librarian to the Derby Museumand Herbarium. Some years ago, he was appointed to his present positionof Custodian to the Smith Institute--perhaps the best provincial museumand art gallery in Scotland. 

I could not, however, enter into the history of these remarkablepersons; though I understand there is a probability of Mr. Croallgiving his scientific recollections to the world. He has alreadybrought out a beautiful work, in four volumes, 'British Seaweeds, Nature-printed;' and anything connected with his biography will belooked forward to with interest. 

Among the other persons brought to my notice, years ago, wereAstronomers in humble life. For instance, I received a letter fromJohn Grierson, keeper of the Girdleness Lighthouse, near Aberdeen, mentioning one of these persons as "an extraordinary character. ""William Ballingall, " he said, "is a weaver in the town of Lower Largo, Fifeshire; and from his early days he has made astronomy the subject ofpassionate study. I used to spend my school vacation at Largo, andhave frequently heard him expound upon his favourite subject. Ibelieve that very high opinions have been expressed by scientificgentlemen regarding Ballingall's attainments. They were no doubtsurprised that an individual with but a very limited amount ofeducation, and whose hours of labour were from five in the morninguntil ten or eleven at night, should be able to acquire so muchknowledge on so profound a subject. Had he possessed a fair amount ofeducation, and an assortment of scientific instruments and books, theworld would have heard more about him. Should you ever find yourself, "my correspondent concludes, "in his neighbourhood, and have a few hoursto spare, you would have no reason to regret the time spent in hiscompany. " I could not, however, arrange to pay the proposed visit toLargo; but I found that I could, without inconvenience, visit anotherastronomer in the neighbourhood of Dunkeld. 

In January 1879 I received a letter from Sheriff Barclay, of Perth, tothe following effect: "Knowing the deep interest you take in geniusand merit in humble ranks, I beg to state to you an extraordinary case. John Robertson is a railway porter at Coupar Angus station. From earlyyouth he has made the heavens his study. Night after night he looksabove, and from his small earnings he has provided himself with atelescope which cost him about 30L. He sends notices of hisobservations to the scientific journals, under the modest initials of'J. R. ' He is a great favourite with the public; and it is said that hehas made some observations in celestial phenomena not before noticed. It does occur to me that he should have a wider field for his favouritestudy. In connection with an observatory, his services would beinvaluable. "

Nearly five years had elapsed since the receipt of this letter, and Ihad done nothing to put myself in communication with the Coupar Angusastronomer. Strange to say, his existence was again recalled to mynotice by Professor Grainger Stewart, of Edinburgh. He said that if Iwas in the neighbourhood I ought to call upon him, and that he wouldreceive me kindly. His duty, he said, was to act as porter at thestation, and to shout the name of the place as the trains passed. Iwrote to John Robertson accordingly, and received a reply stating thathe would be glad to see me, and inclosing a photograph, in which Irecognised a good, honest, sensible face, with his person inclosed inthe usual station porter's garb, "C. R. 1446. "

I started from Dunkeld, and reached Coupar Angus in due time. As Iapproached the station, I heard the porter calling out, "Coupar Angus!change here for Blairgowrie!"[1] It was the voice of John Robertson. 

I descended from the train, and addressed him at once: after thephotograph there could be no mistaking him. An arrangement for ameeting was made, and he called upon me in the evening. I invited himto such hospitality as the inn afforded; but he would have nothing. "Iam much obliged to you, " he said; "but it always does me harm. " I knewat once what the "it" meant. Then he invited me to his house inCausewayend Street. I found his cottage clean and comfortable, presided over by an evidently clever wife. He took me into hissitting-room, where I inspected his drawings of the sun-spots, made incolour on a large scale. In all his statements he was perfectly modestand unpretending. The following is his story, so far as I canrecollect, in his own words:--

"Yes; I certainly take a great interest in astronomy, but I have donenothing in it worthy of notice. I am scarcely worthy to be called aday labourer in the science. I am very well known hereabouts, especially to the travelling public; but I must say that they think agreat deal more of me than I deserve. 

"What made me first devote my attention to the subject of astronomy?Well, if I can trace it to one thing more than another, it was to someevening lectures delivered by the late Dr. Dick, of Broughty Ferry, tothe men employed at the Craigs' Bleachfield Works, near Montrose, whereI then worked, about the year 1848. Dr. Dick was an excellentlecturer, and I listened to him with attention. His instructions werefully impressed upon our minds by Mr. Cooper, the teacher of theevening school, which I attended. After giving the young lads employedat the works their lessons in arithmetic, he would come out with usinto the night--and it was generally late when we separated--and showus the principal constellations, and the planets above the horizon. Itwas a wonderful sight; yet we were told that these hundreds uponhundreds of stars, as far as the eye could see, were but a mere vestigeof the creation amidst which we lived. I got to know the names of someof the constellations the Greater Bear, with 'the pointers' whichpointed to the Pole Star, Orion with his belt, the Twins, the Pleiades, and other prominent objects in the heavens. It was a source ofconstant wonder and surprise. 

"When I left the Bleachfield Works, I went to Inverury, to the North ofScotland Railway, which was then in course of formation; and for manyyears, being immersed in work, I thought comparatively little ofastronomy. It remained, however, a pleasant memory. It was only aftercoming to this neighbourhood in 1854, when the railway to Blairgowriewas under construction, that I began to read up a little, during myleisure hours, on the subject of astronomy. I got married the yearafter, since which time I have lived in this house. 

"I became a member of a reading-room club, and read all the works ofDr. Dick that the library contained: his 'Treatise on the SolarSystem, ' his 'Practical Astronomer, ' and other works. There were alsosome very good popular works to which I was indebted for amusement aswell as instruction: Chambers's 'Information for the People, 'Cassell's 'Popular Educator, ' and a very interesting series of articlesin the 'Leisure Hour, ' by Edwin Dunkin of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. These last papers were accompanied by maps of the chiefconstellations, so that I had a renewed opportunity of becoming alittle better acquainted with the geography of the heavens. 

"I began to have a wish for a telescope, by means of which I might beable to see a little more than with my naked eyes. But I found that Icould not get anything of much use, short of 20L. I could not for along time feel justified in spending so much money for my own personalenjoyment. My children were then young and dependent upon me. Theyrequired to attend school--for education is a thing that parents mustnot neglect, with a view to the future. However, about the year 1875, my attention was called to a cheap instrument advertised bySolomon--what he called his '5L. Telescope. ' I purchased one, and ittantalised me; for the power of the instrument was such as to teach menothing of the surface of the planets. After using it for about twoyears, I sold it to a student, and then found that I had accumulatedenough savings to enable me to buy my present instrument. Will youcome into the next room and look at it?"

I went accordingly into the adjoining room, and looked at the newtelescope. It was taken from its case, put upon its tripod, and lookedin beautiful condition. It is a refractor, made by Cooke and Sons ofYork. The object glass is three inches; the focal length forty-threeinches; and the telescope, when drawn out, with the pancratic eyepieceattached, is about four feet. It was made after Mr. Robertson'sdirections, and is a sort of combination of instruments. 

"Even that instrument, " he proceeded, "good as it is for the money, tantalises me yet. A look through a fixed equatorial, such as everylarge observatory is furnished with is a glorious view. I shall neverforget the sight that I got when at Dunecht Observatory, to which I wasinvited through the kindness of Dr. Copeland, the Earl of Crawford andBalcarres' principal astronomer. 

"You ask me what I have done in astronomical research? I am sorry tosay I have been able to do little except to gratify my own curiosity;and even then, as I say, I have been much tantalised. I have watchedthe spots on the sun from day to day through obscured glasses, sincethe year 1878, and made many drawings of them. Mr. Rand Capron, theastronomer, of Guildown, Guildford, desired to see these drawings, andafter expressing his satisfaction with them, he sent them to Mr. Christie, Astronomer Royal, Greenwich. Although photographs of thesolar surface were preferred, Mr. Capron thought that my sketches mightsupply gaps in the partially cloudy days, as well as details whichmight not appear on the photographic plates. I received a very kindletter from Mr. Christie, in which he said that it would be verydifficult to make the results obtained from drawings, however accurate, at all comparable with those derived from photographs; especially asregards the accurate size of the spots as compared with the diameter ofthe sun. And no doubt he is right. 

"What, do I suppose, is the cause of these spots in the sun? Well, thatis a very difficult question to answer. Changes are constantly goingon at the sun's surface, or, I may rather say, in the sun's interior, and making themselves apparent at the surface. Sometimes they go onwith enormous activity; at other times they are more quiet. They recuralternately in periods of seven or eight weeks, while these again arealso subject to a period of about eleven years--that is, the shortrecurring outbursts go on for some years, when they attain a maximum, from which they go on decreasing. I may say that we are now (August1883) at, or very near, a maximum epoch. There is no doubt that thisperiod has an intimate connection with our auroral displays; but Idon't think that the influence sun-spots have on light or heat isperceptible. Whatever influence they possess would be felt alike onthe whole terrestrial globe. We have wet, dry, cold, and warm years, but they are never general. The kind of season which prevails in onecountry is often quite reversed in another perhaps in the adjacent one. Not so with our auroral displays. They are universal on both sides ofthe globe; and from pole to pole the magnetic needle trembles duringtheir continuance. Some authorities are of opinion that theseeleven-year cycles are subject to a larger cycle, but sun-spotobservations have not existed long enough to determine this point. Formyself, I have a great difficulty in forming an opinion. I have verylittle doubt that the spots are depressions on the surface of the sun. This is more apparent when the spot is on the limb. I have often seenthe edge very rugged and uneven when groups of large spots were aboutto come round on the east side. I have communicated some of myobservations to 'The Observatory, ' the monthly review of astronomy, edited by Mr. Christie, now Astronomer Royal, [2] as well as to TheScotsmam, and some of our local papers. [3]

"I have also taken up the observation of variable stars in a limitedportion of the heavens. That, and 'hunting for comets' is about allthe real astronomical work that an amateur can do nowadays in ourclimate, with a three-inch telescope. I am greatly indebted to theEarl of Crawford and Balcarres, who regularly sends me circulars of allastronomical discoveries, both in this and foreign countries. I willgive an instance of the usefulness of these circulars. On the morningof the 4th of October, 1880, a comet was discovered by Hartwig, ofStrasburg, in the constellation of Corona. He telegraphed it toDunecht Observatory, fifteen miles from Aberdeen. The circularsannouncing the discovery were printed and despatched by post to variousastronomers. My circular reached me by 7 P. M. , and, the night beingfavourable, I directed my telescope upon the part of the heavensindicated, and found the comet almost at once--that is, within fifteenhours of the date of its discovery at Strasburg. 

"In April, 1878, a large meteor was observed in broad daylight, passingfrom south to north, and falling it was supposed, about twenty milessouth of Ballater. Mr. A. S. Herschel, Professor of Physics in theCollege of Science, 'Newcastle-on-Tyne, published a letter in TheScotsmam, intimating his desire to be informed of the particulars ofthe meteor's flight by those who had seen it. As I was one of those whohad observed the splendid meteor flash northwards almost under the faceof the bright sun (at 10. 25 A. M. ), I sent the Professor a full accountof what I had seen, for which he professed his strong obligations. This led to a very pleasant correspondence with Professor Herschel. After this, I devoted considerable attention to meteors, and sent manycontributions to 'The Observatory' on the subject. [4]

"You ask me what are the hours at which I make my observations? I amdue at the railway station at six in the morning, and I leave at six inthe evening; but I have two hours during the day for meals and rest. Sometimes I get a glance at the heavens in the winter mornings when thesky is clear, hunting for comets. My observations on the sun areusually made twice a day during my meal hours, or in the early morningor late at evening in summer, while the sun is visible. Yes, you areright; I try and make the best use of my time. It is much too shortfor all that I propose to do. My evenings are my own. When theheavens are clear, I watch them; when obscured, there are my books andletters. 

"Dr. Alexander Brown, of Arbroath, is one of my correspondents. I havesent him my drawings of the rings of Saturn, of Jupiter's belt andsatellites. Dr. Ralph Copeland, of Dunecht, is also a very good friendand adviser. Occasionally, too, I send accounts of solar disturbances, comet a within sight, eclipses, and occultations, to the Scotsman, theDundee Evening Telegraph and Evening News, or to the BlairgowrieAdvertiser. Besides, I am the local observer of meteorology, andcommunicate regularly with Mr. Symons. These things entirely fill upmy time. 

"Do I intend always to remain a railway porter? Oh, yes; I am verycomfortable! The company are very kind to me, and I hope I serve themfaithfully. It is true Sheriff Barclay has, without my knowledge, recommended me to several well-known astronomers as an observer. Butat my time of life changes are not to be desired. I am quite satisfiedto go on as I am doing. My young people are growing up, and arewilling to work for themselves. But come, sir, " he concluded, "comeinto the garden, and look at the moon through my telescope. "

We went into the garden accordingly, but a cloud was over the moon, andwe could not see it. At the top of the garden was the self-registeringbarometer, the pitcher to measure the rainfall, and the other apparatusnecessary to enable the "Diagram of barometer, thermometer, rain, andwind" to be conducted, so far as Coupar Angus is concerned. This Mr. Robertson has done for four years past. As the hour was late, and as Iknew that my entertainer must be up by six next morning, I took myleave. 

A man's character often exhibits itself in his amusements. One musthave a high respect for the character of John Robertson, who looks atthe manner in which he spends his spare time. His astronomical work isaltogether a labour of love. It is his hobby; and the working man mayhave his hobby as well as the rich. In his case he is never less idlethan when idle. Some may think that he is casting his bread upon thewaters, and that he may find it after many days. But it is not withthis object that he carries on his leisure-hour pursuits. Some havetried--sheriff Barclay among others[5]--to obtain appointments for himin connection with astronomical observation; others to secureadvancement for him in his own line. But he is a man who is satisfiedwith his lot--one of the rarest things on earth. Perhaps it is bylooking so much up to the heavens that he has been enabled to obtainhis portion of contentment. 

Next morning I found him busy at the station, making arrangements forthe departure of the passenger train for Perth, and evidently upon thebest of terms with everybody. And here I leave John Robertson, thecontented Coupar Angus astronomer. 

Some years ago I received from my friend Mr. Nasmyth a letter ofintroduction to the late Mr. Cooke of York, while the latter was stillliving. I did not present it at the time; but I now proposed to visit, on my return homewards, the establishment which he had founded at Yorkfor the manufacture of telescopes and other optical instruments. Indeed, what a man may do for himself as well as for science, cannot bebetter illustrated than by the life of this remarkable man. 

Mr. Nasmyth says that he had an account from Cooke himself of his smallbeginnings. He was originally a shoemaker in a small country village. Many a man has risen to distinction from a shoemaker's seat. Bulwer, in his 'What will He do with It?' has discussed the difference betweenshoemakers and tailors. "The one is thrown upon his own resources, theother works in the company of his fellows: the one thinks, the othercommunicates. Cooke was a man of natural ability, and he made the bestuse of his powers. Opportunity, sooner or later, comes to nearly allwho work and wait, and are duly persevering. Shoemaking was not foundvery productive; and Cooke, being fairly educated as well asself-educated, opened a village school. He succeeded tolerably well. He taught himself geometry and mathematics, and daily application madehim more perfect in his studies. In course of time an extraordinaryambition took possession of him: no less than the construction of areflecting telescope of six inches diameter. The idea would not lethim rest until he had accomplished his purpose. He cast and polishedthe speculum with great labour; but just as he was about to finish it, the casting broke! What was to be done? About one-fifth had brokenaway, but still there remained a large piece, which he proceeded togrind down to a proper diameter. His perseverance was rewarded by thepossession of a 3 1/2 inch speculum, which by his rare skill he workedinto a reflecting telescope of very good quality. 

He was, however, so much annoyed by the treacherously brittle nature ofthe speculum metal that he abandoned its use, and betook himself toglass. He found that before he could make a good achromatic telescopeit was necessary that he should calculate his curves from datadepending upon the nature of the glass. He accordingly proceeded tostudy the optical laws of refraction, in which his knowledge ofgeometry and mathematics greatly helped him. And in course of time, byhis rare and exquisite manipulative skill, he succeeded in constructinga four-inch refractor, or achromatic telescope, of admirable definingpower. 

The excellence of his first works became noised abroad. Astronomicalobservers took an interest in him; and friends began to gather roundhim, amongst others the late Professor Phillips and the Rev. VernonHarcourt, Dean of York. Cooke received an order for a telescope likehis own; then he received other orders. At last he gave up teaching, and took to telescope making. He advanced step by step; and like apractical, thoughtful man, he invented special tools and machinery forthe purpose of grinding and polishing his glasses. He opened a shop inYork, and established himself as a professed maker of telescopes. Headded to this the business of a general optician, his wife attending tothe sale in the shop, while he himself attended to the workshop. 

Such was the excellence of his work that the demand for his telescopeslargely increased. They were not only better manufactured, but greatlycheaper than those which had before been in common use. Three of theLondon makers had before possessed a monopoly of the business; but nowthe trade was thrown open by the enterprise of Cooke of York. Heproceeded to erect a complete factory--the Buckingham Street works. His brother took charge of the grinding and polishing of the lenses, while his sons attended to the mechanism of the workshop; but Cookehimself was the master spirit of the whole concern. Everything that hedid was good and accurate. His clocks were about the best that couldbe made. He carried out his clock-making business with the same zealthat he devoted to the perfection of his achromatic telescopes. Hiswork was always first-rate. There was no scamping about it. Everything that he did was thoroughly good and honest. His 4 1/4-inchequatorials are perfect gems; and his admirable achromatics, many ofthem of the largest class, are known all over the world. Altogether, Thomas Cooke was a remarkable instance of the power of Self-Help. 

Such was the story of his Life, as communicated by Mr. Nasmyth. I wasafterwards enabled, through the kind assistance of his widow, Mrs. Cooke, whom I saw at Saltburn, in Yorkshire, to add a few particularsto his biography. 

"My husband, " she said, "was the son of a working shoemaker atPocklington, in the East Riding. He was born in 1807. His father'scircumstances were so straitened that he was not able to do much forhim; but he sent him to the National school, where he received someeducation. He remained there for about two years, and then he was putto his father's trade. But he greatly disliked shoemaking, and longedto get away from it. He liked the sun, the sky, and the open air. Hewas eager to be a sailor, and, having heard of the voyages of CaptainCook, he wished to go to sea. He spent his spare hours in learningnavigation, that he might be a good seaman. But when he was ready toset out for Hull, the entreaties and tears of his mother prevailed onhim to give up the project; and then he had to consider what he shoulddo to maintain himself at home. 

"He proceeded with his self-education, and with such small aids as hecould procure, he gathered together a good deal of knowledge. Hethought that he might be able to teach others. Everybody liked him, forhis diligence, his application, and his good sense. At the age ofseventeen he was employed to teach the sons of the neighbouringfarmers. He succeeded so well that in the following year he opened avillage school at Beilby. He went on educating himself, and learnt alittle of everything. He next removed his school to Kirpenbeck, nearStamford Bridge; and it was there, " proceeded Mrs. Cooke, "that I gotto know him, for I was one of his pupils. "

"He first learned mathematics by buying an old volume at a bookstall, with a spare shilling. That was before he began to teach. He also gotodd sheets, and read other books about geometry and mathematics, beforehe could buy them; for he had very little to spare. He studied andlearnt as much as he could. 

He was very anxious to get an insight into knowledge. He studiedoptics before he had any teaching. Then he tried to turn his knowledgeto account. While at Kirpenbeck he made his first object-glass out ofa thick tumbler bottom. He ground the glass cleverly by hand; then hegot a piece of tin and soldered it together, and mounted theobject-glass in it so as to form a telescope. 

"He next got a situation at the Rev. Mr. Shapkley's school inMicklegate, York, where he taught mathematics. He also taught inladies' schools in the city, and did what he could to make a littleincome. Our intimacy had increased, and we had arranged to getmarried. He was twenty-four, and I was nineteen, when we were happilyunited. I was then his pupil for life. 

"Professor Phillips saw his first telescope, with the object-glass madeout of the thick tumbler bottom, and he was so much pleased with itthat my husband made it over to him. But he also got an order foranother, from Mr. Gray, solicitor, more by way of encouragement thanbecause Mr. Gray wanted it, for he was a most kind man. Theobject-glass was of four-inch aperture, and when mounted the definingpower was found excellent. My husband was so successful with histelescopes that he went on from smaller to greater, and at length hebegan to think of devoting himself to optics altogether. His knowledgeof mathematics had led him on, and friends were always ready toencourage him in his pursuits. 

"During this time he had continued his teaching at the school in theday-time; and he also taught on his own account the sons of gentlemenin the evening: amongst others the sons of Dr. Wake and Dr. Belcomb, both medical men. He was only making about 100L. A year, and hisfamily was increasing. It was necessary to be very economical, and Iwas careful of everything. At length my uncle Milner agreed to advanceabout 100L. As a loan. A shop was taken in Stonegate in 1836, andprovided with optical instruments. I attended to the shop, while myhusband worked in the back premises. To bring in a little ready money, I also took in lodgers. 

"My husband now devoted himself entirely to telescope making andoptics. But he took in other work. His pumps were consideredexcellent; and he furnished all those used at the pump-room, Harrogate. His clocks, telescope-driving[6] and others, were of the best. Hecommenced turret-clock making in 1852, and made many improvements inthem. We had by that time removed to Coney Street; and in 1855 theBuckingham Works were established, where a large number of first-rateworkmen were employed. A place was also taken in Southampton Street, London, in 1868, for the sale of the instruments manufactured at York. "

Thus far Mrs. Cooke. It may be added that Thomas Cooke revived the artof making refracting telescopes in England. Since the discovery byDollond, in 1758, of the relation between the refractive and dispersivepowers of different kinds of glass, and the invention by thatdistinguished optician of the achromatic telescope, the manufacture ofthat instrument had been confined to England, where the best flintglass was made. But through the short-sighted policy of theGovernment, an exorbitant duty was placed upon the manufacture of flintglass, and the English trade was almost entirely stamped out. We hadaccordingly to look to foreign countries for the further improvement ofthe achromatic telescope, which Dollond had so much advanced. 

A humble mechanic of Brenetz, in the Canton of Neufchatel, Switzerland, named Guinaud, having directed his attention to the manufacture offlint glass towards the close of last century, at length succeeded, after persevering efforts, in producing masses of that substanceperfectly free from stain, and therefore adapted for the constructionof the object-glasses of telescopes. 

Frauenhofer, the Bavarian optician, having just begun business, heardof the wonderful success of Guinaud, and induced the Swiss mechanic toleave Brenetz and enter into partnership with him at Munich in 1805. 

The result was perfectly successful; and the new firm turned out someof the largest object-glasses which had until then been made. With oneof these instruments, having an aperture of 9. 9 inches, Struve, theRussian astronomer, made some of his greatest discoveries. Frauenhoferwas succeeded by Merz and Mahler, who carried out his views, and turnedout the famous refractors of Pulkowa Observatory in Russia, and ofHarvard University in the United States. These last two telescopescontained object-glasses of fifteen inches aperture. 

The pernicious impost upon flint glass having at length been removed bythe English Government, an opportunity was afforded to our nativeopticians to recover the supremacy which they had so long lost. It isto Thomas Cooke, more than to any other person, that we owe therecovery of this manufacture. Mr. Lockyer, writing in 1878, says: "Thetwo largest and most perfectly mounted refractors on the German form atpresent in existence are those at Gateshead and Washington, U. S. Theformer belongs to Mr. Newall, a gentleman who, connected with those whowere among the first to recognise the genius of our great Englishoptician, Cooke, did not hesitate to risk thousands of pounds in onegreat experiment, the success of which will have a most importantbearing upon the astronomy of the future. "[7]

The progress which Mr. Cooke made in his enterprise was slow butsteady. Shortly after he began business as an optician, he becamedissatisfied with the method of hand-polishing, and made arrangementsto polish the object-glasses by machinery worked by steam power. Bythis means he secured perfect accuracy of figure. He was also able toturn out a large quantity of glasses, so as to furnish astronomers inall parts of the world with telescopes of admirable defining power, ata comparatively moderate price. In all his works he endeavoured tointroduce simplicity. He left his mark on nearly every astronomicalinstrument. He found the equatorial comparatively clumsy; he left itnearly perfect. His beautiful "dividing machine, " for markingdivisions on the circles, four feet in diameter and altogetherself-acting--which divides to five minutes and reads off to fiveseconds is not the least of his triumphs. 

The following are some of his more important achromatic telescopes. In1850, when he had been fourteen years in business, he furnished hisearliest patron, Professor Phillips, with an equatorial telescope of 61/4 inches aperture. His second (of 6 1/8) was supplied two yearslater, to James Wigglesworth of Wakefield. William Gray, Solicitor, ofYork, one of his earliest friends, bought a 6 1/2-inch telescope in1853. In the following year, Professor Pritchard of Oxford was suppliedwith a 6 1/2-inch. The other important instruments were as follows: in1854, Dr. Fisher, Liverpool, 6 inches; in 1855, H. L. Patterson, Gateshead, 7 1/4 inches; in 1858, J. G. Barclay, Layton, Essex, 7 1/4inches; in 1857, Isaac Fletcher, Cockermouth, 9 1/4 inches; in 1858, Sir W. Keith Murray, Ochtertyre, Crieff, 9 inches; in 1859, CaptainJacob, 9 inches; in 1860, James Nasmyth, Penshurst, 8 inches; in 1861, another telescope to J. G. Barclay, 10 inches; in 1864, the Rev. W. R. Dawes, Haddenham, Berks, 8 inches; and in 1867, Edward Crossley, Bermerside, Halifax, 9 3/8 inches. 

In 1855 Mr. Cooke obtained a silver medal at the first Paris Exhibitionfor a six-inch equatorial telescope. [8] This was the highest prizeawarded. A few years later he was invited to Osborne by the latePrince Albert, to discuss with his Royal Highness the particulars of anequatorial mounting with a clock movement, for which he subsequentlyreceived the order. On its completion he superintended the erection ofthe telescope, and had the honour of directing it to several of thecelestial objects for the Queen and the Princess Alice, and answeredtheir many interesting questions as to the stars and planets withinsight. 

Mr. Cooke was put to his mettle towards the close of his life. Acontest had long prevailed among telescope makers as to who should turnout the largest refracting instrument. The two telescopes of fifteeninches aperture, prepared by Merz and Mahler, of Munich, were thelargest then in existence. Their size was thought quite extraordinary. But in 1846, Mr. Alvan Clark, of Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, U. S. , spent his leisure hour's in constructing small telescopes. [9] He wasnot an optician, nor a mathematician, but a portrait painter. Hepossessed, however, enough knowledge of optics and of mechanics, toenable him to make and judge a telescope. He spent some ten years ingrinding lenses, and was at length enabled to produce objectives equalin quality to any ever made. 

In 1853, the Rev. W. E. Dawes--one of Mr. Cooke's customers--purchasedan object-glass from Mr. Clark. It was so satisfactory that he orderedseveral others, and finally an entire telescope. The American artistthen began to be appreciated in his own country. In 1860 he receivedan order for a refractor of eighteen inches aperture, three inchesgreater than the largest which had up to that time been made. Thistelescope was intended for the Observatory of Mississippi; but theCivil War prevented its being removed to the South; and the telescopewas sold to the Astronomical Society of Chicago and mounted in theObservatory of that city. 

And now comes in the rivalry of Mr. Cooke of York, or rather of hispatron, Mr. Newall of Gateshead. At the Great Exhibition of London, in1862, two large circular blocks of glass, about two inches thick andtwenty-six inches in diameter, were shown by the manufacturers, Messrs. Chance of Birmingham. These discs were found to be of perfect quality, and suitable for object-glasses of the best kind. At the close of theExhibition, they were purchased by Mr. Newall, and transferred to theworkshops of Messrs. Cooke and Sons at York. To grind and polish andmount these discs was found a work of great labour and difficulty. Mr. Lockyer says, "such an achievement marks an epoch in telescopicastronomy, and the skill of Mr. Cooke and the munificence of Mr. Newallwill long be remembered. "

When finished, the object-glass had an aperture of nearly twenty-fiveinches, and was of much greater power than the eighteen-inch Chicagoinstrument. The length of the tube was about thirty-two feet. Thecast-iron pillar supporting the whole was nineteen feet in height fromthe ground, and the weight of the whole instrument was about six tons. In preparing this telescope, nearly everything, from its extraordinarysize, had to be specially arranged. [10] The great anxiety involved inthese arrangements, and the constant study and application told heavilyupon Mr. Cooke, and though the instrument wanted only a few touches tomake it complete, his health broke down, and he died on the 19th ofOctober, 1868, at the comparatively early age of sixty-two. 

Mr. Cooke's death was felt, in a measure, to be a national loss. Hisscience and skill had restored to England the prominent position shehad held in the time of Dollond; and, had he lived, even more mighthave been expected from him. We believe that the Gold Medal andFellowship of the Royal Society were waiting for him; but, as one ofhis friends said to his widow, "neither worth nor talent avails whenthe great ordeal is presented to us. " In a letter from ProfessorPritchard, he said: "Your husband has left his mark upon his age. Nooptician of modern times has gained a higher reputation; and I for onedo not hesitate to call his loss national; for he cannot be replaced atpresent by any one else in his own peculiar line. I shall carry therecollection of the affectionate esteem in which I held Thomas Cookewith me to my grave. Alas! that he should be cut off just at themoment when he was about to reap the rewards due to his unrivalledexcellence. I have said that F. R. S. And medals were to be his. But heis, we fondly trust, in a better and higher state than that of earthlydistinction. Best assured, your husband's name must ever be associatedwith the really great men of his day. Those who knew him will evercherish his memory. "

Mr. Cooke left behind him the great works which he founded inBuckingham Street, York. They still give employment to a large numberof skilled and intelligent artizans. There I found many importantworks in progress, --the manufacture of theodolites, of prismaticcompasses (for surveying), of Bolton's range finder, and of telescopesabove all. In the factory yard was the commencement of the Observatoryfor Greenwich, to contain the late Mr. Lassell's splendid two feetNewtonian reflecting telescope, which has been presented to the nation. Mr. Cooke's spirit still haunts the works, which are carried on withthe skill, the vigour, and the perseverance, transmitted by him to hissons. 

While at York, I was informed by Mr. Wigglesworth, the partner ofMessrs. Cooke, of an energetic young astronomer at Bainbridge, in themountain-district of Yorkshire, who had not only been able to make atelescope of his own, but was an excellent photographer. He was not yetthirty years of age, but had encountered and conquered manydifficulties. This is a sort of character which is more often to bemet with in remote country places than in thickly-peopled cities. Inthe country a man is more of an individual; in a city he is only one ofa multitude. The country boy has to rely upon himself, and has to workin comparative solitude, while the city boy is distracted byexcitements. Life in the country is full of practical teachings;whereas life in the city may be degraded by frivolities and pleasures, which are too often the foes of work. Hence we have usually to go toout-of-the-way corners of the country for our hardest brain-workers. Contact with the earth is a great restorer of power; and it is to thecountry folks that we must ever look for the recuperative power of thenation as regards health, vigour, and manliness. 

Bainbridge is a remote country village, situated among the high landsor Fells on the north-western border of Yorkshire. The mountains theresend out great projecting buttresses into the dales; and the watersrush down from the hills, and form waterfalls or Forces, which Turnerhas done so much to illustrate. The river Bain runs into the Yore atBainbridge, which is supposed to be the site of an old Roman station. Over the door of the Grammar School is a mermaid, said to have beenfound in a camp on the top of Addleborough, a remarkable limestone hillwhich rises to the south-east of Bainbridge. It is in thisgrammar-school that we find the subject of this little autobiography. He must be allowed to tell the story of his life--which he describes as'Work: Good, Bad, and Indifferent--in his own words:

"I was born on November 20th, 1853. In my childhood I suffered fromill-health. My parents let me play about in the open air, and did notput me to school until I had turned my sixth year. One day, playing inthe shoemaker's shop, William Farrel asked me if I knew my letters. Ianswered 'No. ' He then took down a primer from a shelf, and began toteach me the alphabet, at the same time amusing me by likening theletters to familiar objects in his shop. I soon learned to read, andin about six weeks I surprised my father by reading from an easy bookwhich the shoemaker had given me. 

"My father then took me into the school, of which he was master, and myeducation may be said fairly to have begun. My progress, however, wasvery slow partly owing to ill-health, but more, I must acknowledge, tocarelessness and inattention. In fact, during the first four years Iwas at school, I learnt very little of anything, with the exception ofreciting verses, which I seemed to learn without any mental effort. Mymemory became very retentive. I found that by attentively reading halfa page of print, or more, from any of the school-books, I could repeatthe whole of it without missing a word. I can scarcely explain how Idid it; but I think it was by paying strict attention to the words aswords, and forming a mental picture of the paragraphs as they weregrouped in the book. Certain, I am, that their sense never made muchimpression on me, for, when questioned by the teacher, I was alwayssent to the bottom of the class, though apparently I had learned myexercise to perfection. 

"When I was twelve years old, I made the acquaintance of a veryingenious boy, who came to our school. Samuel Bridge was a bornmechanic. Though only a year older than myself, such was his abilityin the use of tools, that he could construct a model of any machinethat he saw. He awakened in me a love of mechanical construction, andtogether we made models of colliery winding-frames, iron-rolling mills, trip-hammers, and water-wheels. Some of them were not mere toys, butconstructed to scale, and were really good working models. This loveof mechanical construction has never left me, and I shall alwaysremember with affection Samuel Bridge, who first taught me to use thehammer and file. The last I heard of him was in 1875, when he passedhis examination as a schoolmaster, in honours, and was at the head ofhis list. 

"During the next two years, when between twelve and fourteen, I madecomparatively slow progress at school. I remember having to write outthe fourth commandment from memory. The teacher counted twenty-threemistakes in ten lines of my writing. It will be seen from this, that, as regards learning, I continued heedless and backward. About thistime, my father, who was a good violinist, took me under his tuition. He made me practice on the violin about an hour and a half a day. Icontinued this for a long time. But the result was failure. I hatedthe violin, and would never play unless compelled to do so. I supposethe secret was that I had no 'ear. '

"It was different with subjects more to my mind. Looking over myfather's books one day, I came upon Gregory's 'Handbook of InorganicChemistry, ' and began reading it. I was fascinated with the book, andstudied it morning, noon, and night--in fact, every time when I couldsnatch a few minutes. I really believe that at one time I could haverepeated the whole of the book from memory. Now I found the value ofarithmetic, and set to work in earnest on proportion, vulgar anddecimal fractions, and, in fact, everything in school work that I couldturn to account in the science of chemistry. The result of this suddenapplication was that I was seized with an illness. For some months Ihad incessant headache; my hair became dried up, then turned grey, andfinally came off. Weighing myself shortly after my recovery, at theage of fifteen, I found that I just balanced fifty-six pounds. I tookup mensuration, then astronomy, working at them slowly, but giving thebulk of my spare time to chemistry. 

"In the year 1869, when I was sixteen years old, I came across CuthbertBede's book, entitled 'Photographic Pleasures. ' It is an amusing book, giving an account of the rise and progress of photography, and at thesame time having a good-natured laugh at it. I read the bookcarefully, and took up photography as an amusement, using someapparatus which belonged to my father, who had at one time dabbled inthe art. I was soon able to take fair photographs. I then decided totry photography as a business. I was apprenticed to a photographer, and spent four years with him--one year at Northallerton, and three atDarlington. When my employer removed to Darlington, I joined theSchool of Art there. 

"Having read an account of the experiments of M. E. Becquerel, a Frenchsavant, on photographing in the colours of nature, my curiosity wasawakened. I carefully repeated his experiments, and convinced myselfthat he was correct. I continued my experiments in heliochromy for aperiod of about two years, during which time I made many photographs incolours, and discovered a method of developing the coloured image, which enabled me to shorten the exposure to one-fortieth of thepreviously-required time. During these experiments, I came upon somecurious results, which, I think, might puzzle our scientific men toaccount for. For instance, I proved the existence of black light, orrays of such a nature as to turn the rose-coloured surface of thesensitive-plate black--that is, rays reflected from the black paint ofdrapery, produced black in the picture, and not the effect of darkness. I was, like Becquerel, unable to fix the coloured image withoutdestroying the colours; though the plates would keep a long while inthe dark, and could be examined in a subdued, though not in a stronglight. The coloured image was faint, but the colours came out withgreat truth and delicacy. 

"I began to attend the School of Art at Darlington on the 6th of March, 1872. I found, on attempting to draw, that I had naturally a correcteye and hand; and I made such progress, that when the students'drawings were examined, previously to sending them up to SouthKensington, all my work was approved. I was then set to draw from thecast in chalk, although I had only been at the school for a month. Itried for all the four subjects at the May examination, and wasfortunate enough to pass three of them, and obtained as a prizePackett's 'Sciography. ' I worked hard during the next year, and sent upseventeen works; for one of these, the 'Venus de Milo, ' I gained astudentship. 

"I then commenced the study of human anatomy, and began water-colourpainting, reading all the works upon art on which I could lay my hand. At the May examination of 1873, I completed my second-gradecertificate, and at the end of the year of my studentship, I acceptedthe office of teacher in the School of Art. This art-training createdin me a sort of disgust for photography, as I saw that the science ofphotography had really very little genuine art in it, and was moreallied to a mechanical pursuit than to an artistic one. Now, when Ilook back on my past ideas, I clearly see that a great deal of thisdisgust was due to my ignorance and self-conceit. 

"In 1874, I commenced painting in tempora, and then in oil, copying thepictures lent to the school from the South Kensington Art Library. Iworked also from still life, and began sketching from nature in oil andwater-colours, sometimes selling my work to help me to buy materialsfor art-work and scientific experiments. I was, however, able to dovery little in the following year, as I was at home suffering fromsciatica. For nine months I could not stand erect, but had to hobbleabout with a stick. This illness caused me to give up my teachership. 

"Early in 1876 I returned to Darlington. I went on with my art studiesand the science of chemistry; though I went no further in heliochromy. I pushed forward with anatomy. I sent about fifteen works to SouthKensington, and gained as my third-grade prize in list A the'Dictionary of Terms used in Art' by Thomas Fairholt, which I found avery useful work. Towards the end of the year, my father, whose healthwas declining, sent for me home to assist him in the school. I nowcommenced the study of Algebra and Euclid in good earnest, but found ittough work. My father, though a fair mathematician, was unable to giveme any instruction; for he had been seized with paralysis, from whichhe never recovered. Before he died, he recommended me to try for aschoolmaster's certificate; and I promised him that I would. Iobtained a situation as master of a small village school, not underGovernment inspection; and I studied during the year, and obtained asecond class certificate at the Durham Diocesan College at Christmas, 1877. Early in the following year, the school was placed underGovernment inspection, and became a little more remunerative. 

"I now went on with chemical analysis, making my own apparatus. Requiring an intense heat on a small scale, I invented a furnace thatburnt petroleum oil. It was blown by compressed air. After manyfailures, I eventually succeeded in bringing it to such perfection thatin 7 1/2 minutes it would bring four ounces of steel into a perfectlyliquefied state. I next commenced the study of electricity andmagnetism; and then acoustics, light, and heat. I constructed all myapparatus myself, and acquired the art of glass-blowing, in order tomake my own chemical apparatus, and thus save expense. 

"I then went on with Algebra and Euclid, and took up planetrigonometry; but I devoted most of my time to electricity andmagnetism. I constructed various scientific apparatus--a syren, telephones, microphones, an Edison's megaphone, as well as anelectrometer, and a machine for covering electric wire with cotton orsilk. A friend having lent me a work on artificial memory, I began tostudy it; but the work led me into nothing but confusion, and I soonfound that if I did not give it up, I should be left with no memory atall. I still went an sketching from Nature, not so much as a study, but as a means of recruiting my health, which was far from being good. At the beginning of 1881 I obtained my present situation as assistantmaster at the Yorebridge Grammar School, of which the Rev. W. Balderston, M. A. , is principal. 

"Soon after I became settled here, I spent some of my leisure time inreading Emerson's 'Optics, ' a work I bought at an old bookstall. I wasnot very successful with it, owing to my deficient mathematicalknowledge. On the May Science Examinations of 1881 taking place atNewcastle-on-Tyne, applied for permission to sit, and obtained fourtickets for the following subjects:--Mathematics, Electricity andMagnetism, Acoustics, Light and Heat, and Physiography. During thepreceding month I had read up the first three subjects, but, beingpressed for time, I gave up the idea of taking physiography. However, on the last night of the examinations, I had some conversation with oneof the students as to the subjects required for physiography. He said, 'You want a little knowledge of everything in a scientific way, andnothing much of anything. ' I determined to try, for 'nothing much ofanything' suited me exactly. I rose early next morning, and as soon asthe shops were open I went and bought a book on the subject, 'Outlinesof Physiography, ' by W. Lawson, F. R. G. S. I read it all day, and atnight sat for the examination. The results of my examinations were, failure in mathematics, but second class advanced grade certificates inall the others. I do not attach any credit to passing in physiography, but merely relate the circumstance as curiously showing what can bedone by a good 'cram. '

"The failure in mathematics caused me to take the subject 'by thehorns, ' to see what I could do with it. I began by going overquadratic equations, and I gradually solved the whole of those given inTodhunter's larger 'Algebra. ' Then I re-read the progressions, permutations, combinations; the binomial theorem, with indices andsurds; the logarithmic theorem and series, converging and diverging. Igot Todhunter's larger 'Plane Trigonometry, ' and read it, with thetheorems contained in it; then his 'Spherical Trigonometry;' his'Analytical Geometry, of Two Dimensions, ' and 'Conics. ' I next obtainedDe Morgan's 'Differential and Integral Calculus, ' then Woolhouse's, andlastly, Todhunter's. I found this department of mathematics difficultand perplexing to the last degree; but I mastered it sufficiently toturn it to some account. This last mathematical course representseighteen months of hard work, and I often sat up the whole nightthrough. One result of the application was a permanent injury to mysight. 

"Wanting some object on which to apply my newly-acquired mathematicalknowledge, I determined to construct an astronomical telescope. I gotAiry's 'Geometrical Optics, ' and read it through. Then I searchedthrough all my English Mechanic (a scientific paper that I take), andprepared for my work by reading all the literature on the subject thatI could obtain. I bought two discs of glass, of 6 1/2 inches diameter, and began to grind them to a spherical curve 12 feet radius. I gotthem hollowed out, but failed in fining them through lack of skill. This occurred six times in succession; but at the seventh time thepolish came up beautifully, with scarcely a scratch upon the surface. Stopping my work one night, and it being starlight, I thought I wouldtry the mirror on a star. I had a wooden frame ready for the purpose, which the carpenter had made for me. Judge of my surprise and delightwhen I found that the star disc enlarged nearly in the same manner fromeach side of the focal point, thus making it extremely probable that Ihad accidentally hit on a near approach to the parabola in the curve ofmy mirror. And such proved to be the case. I have the mirror still, and its performance is very good indeed. 

"I went no further with this mirror, for fear or spoiling it. It isvery slightly grey in the centre, but not sufficiently so as tomaterially injure its performance. I mounted it in a wooden tube, placed it on a wooden stand, and used it for a time thus mounted; butgetting disgusted with the tremor and inconvenience I had to put upwith, I resolved to construct for it an iron equatorial stand. I mademy patterns, got them cast, turned and fitted them myself, grinding allthe working parts together with emery and oil, and fitted atangent-screw motion to drive the instrument in right ascension. Now Ifound the instrument a pleasure to use; and I determined to add to itdivided circles, and to accurately adjust it to the meridian. I mademy circles of well-seasoned mahogany, with slips of paper on theiredges, dividing them with my drawing instruments, and varnishing themto keep out the wet. I shall never forget that sunny afternoon uponwhich I computed the hour-angle for Jupiter, and set the instrument sothat by calculation Jupiter should pass through the field of theinstrument at 1h. 25m. 15s. With my watch in my hand, and my eye tothe eye-piece, I waited for the orb. When his glorious face appeared, almost in a direct line for the centre of the field, I could notcontain my joy, but shouted out as loudly as I could, --greatly to theastonishment of old George Johnson, the miller, who happened to be inthe field where I had planted my stand!

"Now, though I had obtained what I wanted--a fairly goodinstrument, --still I was not quite satisfied; as I had produced it by afortunate chance, and not by skill alone. I therefore set to workagain on the other disc of glass, to try if I could finish it in such away as to excel the first one. After nearly a year's work I found thatI could only succeed in equalling it. But then, during this time, I hadremoved the working of mirrors from mere chance to a fair amount ofcertainty. By bringing my mathematical knowledge to bear on thesubject, I had devised a method of testing and measuring my work which, I am happy to say, has been fairly successful, and has enabled me toproduce the spherical, elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic curve in mymirrors, with almost unvarying success. The study of the practicalworking of specula and lenses has also absorbed a good deal of my sparetime during the last two years, and the work involved has been scarcelyless difficult. Altogether, I consider this last year (1882-3) to markthe busiest period of my life. 

"It will be observed that I have only given an account of thosebranches of study in which I have put to practical test the deductionsfrom theoretical reasoning. I am at present engaged on the theory ofthe achromatic object-glass, with regard to spherical chromatism--asubject upon which, I believe, nearly all our text-books are silent, but one nevertheless of vital importance to the optician. I can onlyproceed very slowly with it, on account of having to grind and figurelenses for every step of the theory, to keep myself in the right track;as mere theorizing is apt to lead one very much astray, unless it bechecked by constant experiment. For this particular subject, lensesmust be ground firstly to spherical, and then to curves of conicsections, so as to eliminate spherical aberration from each lens; sothat it will be observed that this subject is not without itsdifficulties. 

"About a month ago (September, 1883), I determined to put to the testthe statement of some of our theorists, that the surface of a rotatingfluid is either a parabola or a hyperbola. I found by experiment thatit is neither, but an approximation to the tractrix (a modification ofthe catenary), if anything definite; as indeed one, on thinking overthe matter, might feel certain it would be--the tractrix being thecurve of least friction. 

"In astronomy, I have really done very little beyond mere algebraicalworking of the fundamental theorems, and a little casual observation ofthe telescope. So far, I must own, I have taken more pleasure in thetheory and construction of the telescope, than in its use. "

Such is Samuel Lancaster's history of the growth and development of hismind. I do not think there is anything more interesting in the'Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties. ' His life has been a gallantendeavour to win further knowledge, though too much at the expense of aconstitution originally delicate. He pursues science with patience anddetermination, and wooes truth with the ardour of a lover. Eulogy ofhis character would here be unnecessary; but, if he takes due care ofhis health, we shall hear more of him. [11]

More astronomers in humble life! There seems to to be no end of them. There must be a great fascination in looking up to the heavens, andseeing those wondrous worlds careering in the far-off infinite. Let melook back to the names I have introduced in this chapter ofautobiography. First, there was my worthy porter friend at CouparAngus station, enjoying himself with his three-inch object-glass. Thenthere was the shoemaker and teacher, and eventually the first-ratemaker of achromatic instruments. Look also at the persons whom hesupplied with his best telescopes. Among them we find princes, baronets, clergymen, professors, doctors, solicitors, manufacturers, and inventors. Then we come to the portrait painter, who acquired thehighest supremacy in the art of telescope making; then to Mr. Lassell, the retired brewer, whose daughters presented his instrument to thenation; and, lastly, to the extraordinary young schoolmaster ofBainbridge, in Yorkshire. And now before I conclude this last chapter, I have to relate perhaps the most extraordinary story of all--that ofanother astronomer in humble life, in the person of a slate counter atPort Penrhyn, Bangor, North Wales. 

While at Birnam, I received a letter from my old friend the Rev. Charles Wicksteed, formerly of Leeds, calling my attention to thiscase, and inclosing an extract from the letter of a young lady, one ofhis correspondents at Bangor. In that letter she said: "What you writeof Mr. Christmas Evans reminds me very much of a visit I paid a fewevenings ago to an old man in Upper Bangor. He works on the Quay, buthas a very decided taste for astronomy, his leisure time being spent inits study, with a great part of his earnings. I went there with somefriends to see an immense telescope, which he has made almost entirelywithout aid, preparing the glasses as far as possible himself, andsending them away merely to have their concavity changed. He showed usall his treasures with the greatest delight, explaining in English, butsubstituting Welsh when at a loss. He has scarcely ever been atschool, but has learnt English entirely from books. Among other thingshe showed us were a Greek Testament and a Hebrew Bible, both of whichhe can read. His largest telescope, which is several yards long, hehas named 'Jumbo, ' and through it he told us he saw the snowcap on thepole of Mars. He had another smaller telescope, made by himself, andhad a spectroscope in process of making. He is now quite old, but hisdelight in his studies is still unbounded and unabated. It seems so sadthat he has had no right opportunity for developing his talent. "

Mr. Wicksteed was very much interested in the case, and called myattention to it, that I might add the story to my repertory ofself-helping men. While at York I received a communication from MissGrace Ellis, the young lady in question, informing me of the name ofthe astronomer--John Jones, Albert Street, Upper Bangor--and intimatingthat he would be glad to see me any evening after six. As railwayshave had the effect of bringing places very close together in point oftime--making of Britain, as it were, one great town--and as the autumnwas brilliant, and the holiday season not at an end, I had nodifficulty in diverging from my journey, and taking Bangor on my wayhomeward. Starting from York in the morning, and passing through Leeds, Manchester, and Chester, I reached Bangor in the afternoon, and had myfirst interview with Mr. Jones that very evening. 

I found him, as Miss Grace Ellis had described, active, vigorous, andintelligent; his stature short, his face well-formed, his eyes keen andbright. I was first shown into his little parlour downstairs, furnished with his books and some of his instruments; I was then takento his tiny room upstairs, where he had his big reflecting telescope, by means of which he had seen, through the chamber window, the snowcapof Mars. He is so fond of philology that I found he had no fewer thantwenty-six dictionaries, all bought out of his own earnings. "I amfond of all knowledge, " he said--"of Reuben, Dan, and Issachar; but Ihave a favourite, a Benjamin, and that is Astronomy. I would sell allof them into Egypt, but preserve my Benjamin. " His story is briefly asfollows:--

"I was born at Bryngwyn Bach, Anglesey, in 1818, and I am sixty-fiveyears old. I got the little education I have, when a boy. Owen Owen, who was a cousin of my mother's, kept a school at a chapel in thevillage of Dwyrain, in Anglesey. It was said of Owen that he never hadmore than a quarter of a year's schooling, so that he could not teachme much. I went to his school at seven, and remained with him about ayear. Then he left; and some time afterwards I went for a short periodto an old preacher's school, at Brynsieneyn chapel. There I learnt butlittle, the teacher being negligent. He allowed the children to playtogether too much, and he punished them for slight offences, makingthem obstinate and disheartened. But I remember his once saying to theother children, that I ran through my little lesson 'like a coach. 'However, when I was about twelve years old, my father died, and inlosing him I lost almost all the little I had learnt during the shortperiods I had been at school. Then I went to work for the farmers. 

"In this state of ignorance I remained for years, until the time camewhen on Sunday I used to saddle the old black mare for CadwalladrWilliams, the Calvinist Methodist preacher, at Pen Ceint, Anglesey; andafter he had ridden away, I used to hide in his library during thesermon, and there I learnt a little that I shall not soon forget. Inthat way I had many a draught of knowledge, as it were, by stealth. Having a strong taste for music, I was much attracted by choralsinging; and on Sundays and in the evenings I tried to copy out airsfrom different books, and accustomed my hand a little to writing. Thistendency was, however, choked within me by too much work with thecattle, and by other farm labour. In a word, I had but little fairweather in my search for knowledge. One thing enticed me from another, to the detriment of my plans; some fair Eve often standing with anapple in hand, tempting me to taste of that. 

"The old preacher's books at Pen Ceint were in Welsh. I had not yetlearned English, but tried to learn it by comparing one line in theEnglish New Testament with the same line in the Welsh. This was theHamiltonian method, and the way in which I learnt most languages. Ifirst got an idea of astronomy from reading 'The Solar System, ' by Dr. Dick, translated into Welsh by Eleazar Roberts of Liverpool. That bookI found on Sundays in the preacher's library; and many a sublimethought it gave me. It was comparatively easy to understand. 

"When I was about thirty I was taken very ill, and could no longerwork. I then went to Bangor to consult Dr. Humphrys. After I gotbetter I found work at the Port at 12s. A week. I was employed incounting the slates, or loading the ships in the harbour from therailway trucks. I lodged in Fwn Deg, near where Hugh Williams, Gatehouse, then kept a navigation school for young sailors. I learntnavigation, and soon made considerable progress. I also learnt alittle arithmetic. At first nearly all the young men were moreadvanced than myself; but before I left matters were different, and theScripture words became verified--"the last shall be first. " I remainedwith Hugh Williams six months and a half. During that time I wenttwice through the 'Tutor's Assistant, ' and a month before I left I wastaught mensuration. That is all the education I received, and thegreater part of it was during my by-hours. 

"I got to know English pretty well, though Welsh was the language ofthose about me. From easy books I went to those more difficult. I washelped in my pronunciation of English by comparing the words with thephonetic alphabet, as published by Thomas Gee of Denbigh, in 1853. With my spare earnings I bought books, especially when my wages beganto rise. Mr. Wyatt, the steward, was very kind, and raised my pay fromtime to time at his pleasure. I suppose I was willing, correct, andfaithful. I improved my knowledge by reading books on astronomy. Igot, amongst others, 'The Mechanism of the Heavens, ' by DenisonOlmstead, an American; a very understandable book. Learning English, which was a foreign language to me, led me to learn other languages. Itook pleasure in finding out the roots or radixes of words, and fromtime to time I added foreign dictionaries to my little library. But Itook most pleasure in astronomy. 

"The perusal of Sir John Herschel's 'Outlines of Astronomy, ' and of his'Treatise on the Telescope, ' set my mind on fire. I conceived the ideaof making a telescope of my own, for I could not buy one. Whilereading the Mechanics' Magazine I observed the accounts of men who madetelescopes. Why should not I do the same? Of course it was a matterof great difficulty to one who knew comparatively little of the use oftools. But I had a willing mind and willing hands. So I set to work. I think I made my first telescope about twenty years ago. It wasthirty-six inches long, and the tube was made of pasteboard. I got theglasses from Liverpool for 4s. 6d. Captain Owens, of the ship Talacra, bought them. He also bought for me, at a bookstall, the Greek Lexiconand the Greek New Testament, for which he paid 7s. 6d. With my newtelescope I could see Jupiter's four satellites, the craters on themoon, and some of the double stars. It was a wonderful pleasure to me. 

"But I was not satisfied with the instrument. I wanted a bigger and amore perfect one. I sold it and got new glasses from Solomon ofLondon, who was always ready to trust me. I think it was about theyear 1868 that I began to make a reflecting telescope. I got a roughdisc of glass, from St. Helens, of ten inches diameter. It took mefrom nine to ten days to grind and polish it ready for parabolising andsilvering. I did this by hand labour with the aid of emery, butwithout a lathe. I finally used rouge instead of emery in grindingdown the glass, until I could see my face in the mirror quite plain. Ithen sent the 8 3/16 inch disc to Mr. George Calver, of Chelmsford, toturn my spherical curve to a parabolic curve, and to silver the mirror, for which I paid him 5L. I mounted this in my timber tube; the focuswas ten feet. When everything was complete I tried my instrument onthe sky, and found it to have good defining power. The diameter of theother glass I have made is a little under six inches. 

"You ask me if their performance satisfies me? Well; I have comparedmy six-inch reflector with a 4 1/4 inch refractor, through my window, with a power of 100 and 140. I can't say which was the best. But ifout on a clear night I think my reflector would take more power thanthe refractor. However that may be, I saw the snowcap on the planetMars quite plain; and it is satisfactory to me so far. With respect tothe 8 3/16 inch glass, I am not quite satisfied with it yet; but I ammaking improvements, and I believe it will reward my labour in the end. "

Besides these instruments John Jones has an equatorial which is mountedon a tripod stand, made by himself. It contains the right ascension, declination, and azimuth index, all neatly carved upon slate. In hisspectroscope he makes his prisms out of the skylights used in vessels. These he grinds down to suit his purpose. I have not been able to gointo the complete detail of the manner in which he effects the grindingof his glasses. It is perhaps too technical to be illustrated in words, which are full of focuses, parabolas, and convexities. But enough maybe gathered from the above account to give an idea of the wonderfultenacity of this aged student, who counts his slates into the ships byday, and devotes his evenings to the perfecting of his astronomicalinstruments. But not only is he an astronomer and a philologist; he isalso a bard, and his poetry is much admired in the district. He writesin Welsh, not in English, and signs himself "Ioan, of Bryngwyn Bach, "the place where he was born. Indeed, he is still at a loss for wordswhen he speaks in English. He usually interlards his conversation withpassages in Welsh, which is his mother-tongue. A friend has, however, done me the favour to translate two of John Jones's poems into English. The first is 'The Telescope':--

 "To Heaven it points, where rules the Sun In golden gall'ries bright; And the pale Moon in silver rays Makes dalliance in the night. 

 "It sweeps with eagle glances The sky, its myriad throng, That myriad throng to marshal And bring to us their song. 

 "Orb upon orb it follows As oft they intertwine, And worlds in vast processions As if in battle line. 

 "It loves all things created, To follow and to trace; And never fears to penetrate The dark abyss of space. "

The next is to 'The Comet':--

 "A maiden fair, with light of stars bedecked, Starts out of space at Jove's command; With visage wild, and long dishevelled hair, Speeds she along her starry course; The hosts of heaven regards she not, -- Fain would she scorn them all except her father Sol, Whose mighty influence her headlong course doth all control. "

The following translation may also be given: it shows that the bard isnot without a spice of wit. A fellow-workman teased him to write somelines; when John Jones, in a seemingly innocent manner, put somequestions, and ascertained that he had once been a tailor. Accordinglythis epigram was written, and appeared in the local paper the weekafter: "To a quondam Tailor, now a Slate-teller":--

 "To thread and needle now good-bye, With slates I aim at riches; The scissors will I ne'er more ply, Nor make, but order, breeches. "[12]

The bi-lingual speech is the great educational difficulty of Wales. Toget an entrance into literature and science requires a knowledge ofEnglish; or, if not of English, then of French or German. But theWelsh language stands in the way. Few literary or scientific works aretranslated into Welsh. Hence the great educational difficultycontinues, and is maintained from year to year by patriotism andEisteddfods. 

Possibly the difficulties to be encountered may occasionally evokeunusual powers of study; but this can only occur in exceptional cases. While at Bangor Mr. Cadwalladr Davies read to me the letter of astudent and professor, whose passion for knowledge is of anextraordinary character. While examined before the ParliamentaryCommittee appointed to inquire into the condition of intermediate andhigher education in Wales and Monmouthshire, Mr. Davies gave evidencerelating to this and other remarkable cases, of which the following isan abstract, condensed by himself:--

"The night schools in the quarry districts have been doing a very greatwork; and, if the Committee will allow me, I will read an extract froma letter which I received from Mr. Bradley Jones, master of the BoardSchools at Llanarmon, near Mold, Flintshire, who some years ago kept avery flourishing night school in the neighbourhood. He says: 'Duringthe whole of the time (fourteen years) that I was at Carneddi, Icarried on these schools, and I believe I have had more experience ofsuch institutions than any teacher in North Wales. For several yearsabout 120 scholars used to attend the Carneddi night school in thewinter months, four evenings a week. Nearly all were quarrymen, fromfourteen to twenty-one years of age, and engaged at work from 7 A. M. To5. 30 P. M. So intense was their desire for education that some of themhad to walk a distance of two or even three miles to school. These, besides working hard all day, had to walk six miles in the one case andnine in the other before school-time, in addition to the walk homeafterwards. Several of them used to attend all the year round, evencoming to me for lessons in summer before going to work, as well as inthe evening. Indeed, so anxious were some of them, that they wouldoften come for lessons as early as five o'clock in the morning. Thismay appear almost incredible, but any of the managers of the CarneddiSchool could corroborate the statement. '

"I have now in my mind's eye, " continues Mr. Bradley, "several of theseyoung men, who, by dint of indefatigable labour and self-denial, ultimately qualified themselves for posts in which a good education isa sine qua non. Some of them are to-day quarry managers, professionalmen, certificated teachers, and ministers of the Gospel. Five of themare at the present time students at Bala College. One got a situationin the Glasgow Post Office as letter-carrier. During his leisure hourshe attended the lectures at one of the medical schools of that city, and in course of time gained his diploma. He is now practising as asurgeon, and I understand with signal success. This gentleman workedin the Penrhyn Quarry until he was twenty years old. I could give manymore instances of the resolute and self-denying spirit with which theyoung quarrymen of Bethesda sought to educate themselves. The teachersof the other schools in that neighbourhood could give similar examples, for during the winter months there used to be no less than 300 eveningscholars under instruction in the different schools. The Bethesdabooksellers could tell a tale that would surprise our English friends. I have been informed by one of them that he has sold to young quarrymenan immense number of such works as Lord Macaulay's, Stuart Mill's, andProfessor Fawcett's; and it is no uncommon sight to find these andsimilar works read and studied by the young quarrymen during the dinnerhour. "

"I can give, " proceeds Mr. Cadwalladr Davies, "one remarkable instanceto show the struggles which young Welshmen have to undertake in orderto get education. The boy in question, the son of 'poor but honestparents, ' left the small national school of his native village when hewas 12 1/2 years of age, and then followed his father's occupation ofshoemaking until he was 16 1/2 years of age. After working hard at histrade for four years, he, his brother, and two fellow apprentices, formed themselves into a sort of club to learn shorthand, the wholematter being kept a profound secret. They had no teachers, and theymet at the gas-works, sitting opposite the retorts on a bench supportedat each end with bricks. They did not penetrate far into the mysteriesof Welsh shorthand; they soon abandoned the attempt, and induced thevillage schoolmaster to open a night school. 

"This, however, did not last long. The young Crispin was returninglate one night from Llanrwst in company with a lad of the same age, andboth having heard much of the blessings of education from a Scotch ladywho took a kindly interest in them, their ambition was inflamed, andthey entered into a solemn compact that they would thenceforward devotethemselves body and soul to the attainment of an academical degree. Yet they were both poor. One was but a shoemaker's apprentice, whilethe other was a pupil teacher earning but a miserable weekly pittance. One could do the parts of speech; the other could not. One hadstruggled with the pans asinorum; the other had never seen it. I maymention that the young pupil teacher is now a curate in the Church ofEngland. He is a graduate of Cambridge University and a prizeman ofClare College. But to return to the little shoemaker. 

"After returning home from Llanrwst, he disburthened his heart to hismother, and told her that shoemaking, which until now he had pursuedwith extraordinary zest, could no longer interest him. His mother, whowas equal to the emergency, sent the boy to a teacher of the oldschool, who had himself worked his way from the plough. After theexercise of considerable diplomacy, an arrangement was arrived atwhereby the youth was to go to school on Mondays, Wednesdays, andFridays, and make shoes during the remaining days of the week. Thissuited him admirably. That very night he seized upon a geography, andbegan to learn the counties of England and Wales. The fear of failurenever left him for two hours together, except when he slept. The planof work was faithfully kept; though by this time shoemaking had lostits charms. He shortened his sleeping hours, and rose at any momentthat he awoke--at two, three, or four in the morning. He got hisbrother, who had been plodding with him over shorthand, to studyhorticulture, and fruit and vegetable culture; and that brother shortlyafter took a high place in an examination held by the RoyalHorticultural Society. For a time, however, they worked together; andoften did their mother get up at four o'clock in the depth of winter, light their fire, and return to bed after calling them up to the workof self-culture. Even this did not satisfy their devouring ambition. There was a bed in the workshop, and they obtained permission to sleepthere. Then they followed their own plans. The young gardener wouldsit up till one or two in the morning, and wake his brother, who hadgone to bed as soon as he had given up work the night before. 

Now he got up and studied through the small hours of the morning untilthe time came when he had to transfer his industry to shoemaking, or goto school on the appointed days after the distant eight o'clock hadcome. His brother had got worn out. Early sleep seemed to be the best. They then both went to bed about eight o'clock, and got the policemanto call them up before retiring himself. 

"So the struggle went on, until the faithful old schoolmaster thoughtthat his young pupil might try the examination at the Bangor NormalCollege. He was now eighteen years of age; and it was eighteen monthssince the time when he began to learn the counties of England andWales. He went to Bangor, rigged out in his brother's coat andwaistcoat, which were better than his own; and with his brother's watchin his pocket to time himself in his examinations. He went through hisexamination, but returned home thinking he had failed. Nevertheless, he had in the meantime, on the strength of a certificate which he hadobtained six months before, in an examination held by the Society ofArts and Sciences in Liverpool, applied for a situation as teacher in agrammar-school at Ormskirk in Lancashire. He succeeded in hisapplication, and had been there for only eight days when he received aletter from Mr. Rowlands, Principal of the Bangor Normal College, informing him that he had passed at the head of the list, and was thehighest non-pupil teacher examined by the British and Foreign Society. Having obtained permission from his master to leave, he packed hisclothes and his few books. He had not enough money to carry him home;but, unasked, the master of the school gave him 10s. He arrived homeabout three o'clock on a Sunday morning, after a walk of eleven milesover a lonely road from the place where the train had stopped. Hereeled on the way, and found the country reeling too. He had beensleeping eight nights in a damp bed. Six weeks of the Bangor Sessionpassed, and during that time he had been delirious, and was too weak tosit up in bed. But the second time he crossed the threshold of hishome he made for Bangor and got back his "position, " which was allimportant to him, and he kept it all through. 

"Having finished his course at Bangor he went to keep a school atBrynaman; he endeavoured to study but could not. After two years hegave up the school, and with 60L. Saved he faced the world once more. There was a scholarship of the value of 40L. A year, for three years, attached to one of the Scotch Universities, to be competed for. Heknew the Latin Grammar, and had, with help, translated one of the booksof Caesar. Of Greek he knew nothing, save the letters and the firstdeclension of nouns; but in May he began to read in earnest at afarmhouse. He worked every day from 6 A. M. To 12 P. M. With only anhour's intermission. He studied the six Latin and two Greek booksprescribed; he did some Latin composition unaided; brushed up hismathematics; and learnt something of the history of Greece and Rome. In October, after five months of hard work, he underwent an examinationfor the scholarship, and obtained it; beating his opponent bytwenty-eight marks in a thousand. He then went up to the ScotchUniversity and passed all the examinations for his ordinary M. A. Degreein two years and a half. On his first arrival at the University hefound that he could not sleep; but he wearily yet victoriously ploddedon; took a prize in Greek, then the first prize in philosophy, thesecond prize in logic, the medal in English literature, and a few otherprizes. 

"He had 40L. When he first arrived in Scotland; and he carried awaywith him a similar sum to Germany, whither he went to study for honoursin philosophy. He returned home with little in his pocket, borrowingmoney to go to Scotland, where he sat for honours and for thescholarship. He got his first honours, and what was more important atthe time, money to go on with. He now lives on the scholarship whichhe took at that time; is an assistant professor; and, in a fortnight, will begin a course of lectures for ladies in connection with hisuniversity. Writing to me a few days ago, [13] he says, 'My health, broken down with my last struggle, is quite restored, and I live withthe hope of working on. Many have worked more constantly, but few haveworked more intensely. I found kindness on every hand always, but hadI failed in a single instance I should have met with entire bankruptcy. The failure would have been ruinous.... I thank God for the struggle, but would not like to see a dog try it again. There are droves of ladsin Wales that would creep up but they cannot. Poverty has too heavy ahand for them. '"

The gentleman whose brief history is thus summarily given by Mr. Davies, is now well known as a professor of philosophy; and, if hishealth be spared, he will become still better known. He is the authorof several important works on 'Moral Philosophy, ' published by aleading London firm; and more works are announced from his pen. Thevictorious struggle for knowledge which we have recounted mightpossibly be equalled, but it could not possibly be surpassed. Thereare, however, as Mr. Davies related to the Parliamentary Committee, many instances of Welsh students--most of them originallyquarrymen--who keep themselves at school by means of the savingseffected from manual labour, "in frequent cases eked out and helped bythe kindness of friends and neighbours, " who struggle up through manydifficulties, and eventually achieve success in the best sense of theterm. "One young man"--as the teacher of a grammar-school, within twomiles of Bangor, related to Mr. Davies--"who came to me from the quarrysome time ago, was a gold medallist at Edinburgh last winter;" andcontributions are readily made by the quarrymen to help forward anyyoung man who displays an earnest desire for knowledge in science andliterature. 

It is a remarkable fact that the quarrymen of Carnarvonshire havevoluntarily contributed large sums of money towards the establishmentof the University College in North Wales--the quarry districts in thatcounty having contributed to that fund, in the course of three years, mostly in half-crown subscriptions, not less than 508L. 4s. 4d. --"afact, " says Mr. Davies, "without its parallel in the history of theeducation of any country;" the most striking feature being, that thesecollections were made in support of an institution from which thequarrymen could only very remotely derive any benefit. 

While I was at Bangor, on the 24th of August, 1883, the news arrivedthat the Committee of Selection had determined that Bangor should bethe site for the intended North Wales University College. The newsrapidly spread, and great rejoicings prevailed throughout the borough, which had just been incorporated. The volunteer band played throughthe streets; the church bells rang merry peals; and gay flags weredisplayed from nearly every window. There never was such a triumphantdisplay before in the cause of University education. 

As Mr. Cadwalladr Davies observed at the banquet, which took place onthe following day: "The establishment of the new institution will markthe dawn of a new era in the history of the Welsh people. He looked toit, not only as a means of imparting academical knowledge to thestudents within its walls, but also as a means of raising theintellectual and moral tone of the whole people. They were fond ofquoting the saying of a great English writer, that there was somethingGrecian in the Celtic race, and that the Celtic was the refiningelement in the British character; but such remarks, often accompaniedas they were with offensive comparisons from Eisteddfod platforms, would in future be put to the test, for they would, with their neweducational machinery, be placed on a footing of perfect equality withthe Scotch and the Irish people. "

And here must come to an end the character history of my autumn tour inIreland, Scotland, Yorkshire, and Wales. I had not the remotestintention when setting out of collecting information and writing downmy recollections of the journey. But the persons I met, and theinformation I received, were of no small interest--at least to myself;and I trust that the reader will derive as much pleasure from perusingmy observations as I have had in collecting and writing them down. Ido think that the remarkable persons whose history and characters Ihave endeavoured, however briefly, to sketch, will be found to affordmany valuable and important lessons of Self-Help; and to illustrate howthe moral and industrial foundations of a country may be built up andestablished. 

Footnotes for Chapter XII. 

[1] A "poet, " who dates from "New York, March 1883, " has publishedseven stanzas, entitled "Change here for Blairgowrie, " from which wetake the following:--

 "From early morn till late at e'en, John's honest face is to be seen, Bustling about the trains between, Be 't sunshine or be 't showery; And as each one stops at his door, He greets it with the well-known roar Of 'Change here for Blairgowrie. ' Even when the still and drowsy night Has drawn the curtains of our sight, John's watchful eyes become more bright, And take another glow'r aye Thro' yon blue dome of sparkling stars Where Venus bright and ruddy Mars Shine down upon Blairgowrie. He kens each jinkin' comet's track, And when it's likely to come back, When they have tails, and when they lack-- In heaven the waggish power aye; When Jupiter's belt buckle hings, And the Pyx mark on Saturn's rings, He sees from near Blairgowrie. "

[2] The Observatory, No. 61, p. 146; and No. 68, p. 371. 

[3] In an article on the subject in the Dundee Evening Telegraph, Mr. Robertson observes: "If our finite minds were more capable ofcomprehension, what a glorious view of the grandeur of the Deity wouldbe displayed to us in the contemplation of the centre and source oflight and heat to the solar system. The force requisite to pour suchcontinuous floods to the remotest parts of the system must ever bafflethe mind of man to grasp. But we are not to sit down in indolence: ourduty is to inquire into Nature's works, though we can never exhaust thefield. Our minds cannot imagine motion without some Power movingthrough the medium of some subordinate agency, ever acting on the sun, to send such floods of light and heat to our otherwise cold and darkterrestrial ball; but it is the overwhelming magnitude of such powerthat we are incapable of comprehending. The agency necessary to throwout the floods of flame seen during the few moments of a total eclipseof the sun, and the power requisite to burst open a cavity in itssurface, such as could entirely engulph our earth, will ever set allthe thinking capacity of man at nought. "

[4] The Observatory, Nos. 34, 42, 45, 49, and 58. 

[5] We regret to say that Sheriff Barclay died a few months ago, greatly respected by all who knew him. 

[6] Sir E. Denison Beckett, in his Rudimentary Treatise on clocks andWatches and Bells, has given an instance or the telescope-drivingclock, invented by Mr. Cooke (p. 213). 

[7] J. Norman Lockyer, F. R. S. --Stargazing, Past and Present, p. 302. 

[8] This excellent instrument is now in the possession of myson-in-law, Dr. Hartree, of Leigh, near Tunbridge. 

[9] An interesting account of Mr. Alvan Clark is given in ProfessorNewcomb's 'Popular Astronomy, ' p. 137. 

[10] A photographic representation of this remarkable telescope isgiven as the frontispiece to Mr. Lockyer's Stargazing, Past andPresent; and a full description of the instrument is given in the textof the same work. This refracting telescope did not long remain thelargest. Mr. Alvan Clark was commissioned to erect a larger equatorialfor Washington Observatory; the object-glass (the rough disks of whichwere also furnished by Messrs. Chance of Birmingham) exceeding inaperture that of Mr. Cooke's by only one inch. This was finished andmounted in November, 1873. Another instrument of similar size andpower was manufactured by Mr. Clark for the University of Virginia. But these instruments did not long maintain their supremacy. In 1881, Mr. Howard Grubb, of Dublin, manufactured a still larger instrument forthe Austrian Government--the object-glass being of twenty-seven inchesaperture. But Mr. Alvan Clark was not to be beaten. In 1882, hesupplied the Russian Government with the largest refracting telescopein existence the object-glass being of thirty inches diameter. Eventhis, however, is to be surpassed by the lens which Mr. Clark has inhand for the Lick Observatory (California), which is to have a clearaperture of three feet in diameter. 

[11] Since the above passage was written and in type, I have seen (inSeptember 1884) the reflecting telescope referred to at pp. 357-8. Itwas mounted on its cast-iron equatorial stand, and at work in the fieldadjoining the village green at Bainbridge, Yorkshire. The mirror ofthe telescope is 8 inches in diameter; its focal length, 5 feet; andthe tube in which it is mounted, about 6 feet long. The instrumentseemed to me to have an excellent defining power. 

But Mr. Lancaster, like every eager astronomer, is anxious for furtherimprovements. He considers the achromatic telescope the king ofinstruments, and is now engaged in testing convex optical surfaces, with a view to achieving a telescope of that description. The chiefdifficulty is the heavy charge for the circular blocks of flint glassrequisite for the work which he meditates. "That, " he says, "is thegreat difficulty with amateurs of my class. " He has, however, alreadycontrived and constructed a machine for grinding and polishing thelenses in an accurate convex form, and it works quite satisfactorily. Mr. Lancaster makes his own tools. From the raw material, whether ofglass or steel, he produces the work required. As to tools, all thathe requires is a bar of steel and fire; his fertile brain and busyhands do the rest. I looked into the little workshop behind hissitting-room, and found it full of ingenious adaptations. The turninglathe occupies a considerable part of it; but when he requires morespace, the village smith with his stithy, and the miller with hiswater-power, are always ready to help him. His tools, though notshowy, are effective. His best lenses are made by himself: thosewhich he buys are not to be depended upon. The best flint glass isobtained from Paris in blocks, which he divides, grinds, and polishesto perfect form. 

I was attracted by a newly made machine, placed on a table in thesitting-room; and on inquiry found that its object was to grind andpolish lenses. Mr. Lancaster explained that the difficulty to beovercome in a good machine, is to make the emery cut the surfaceequally from centre to edge of the lens, so that the lens will neitherlengthen nor shorten the curve during its production. To quote hiswords: "This really involves the problem of the 'three bodies, ' ordisturbing forces so celebrated in dynamical mathematics, and it isfurther complicated by another quantity, the 'coefficient ofattrition, ' or work done by the grinding material, as well as themischief done by capillary attraction and nodal points of superimposedcurves in the path of the tool. These complications tend to causerings or waves of unequal wear in the surface of the glass, and ruinthe defining power of the lens, which depends upon the uniformity ofits curve. As the outcome of much practical experiment, combined withmathematical research, I settled upon the ratio of speed between thesheave of the lens-tool guide and the turn-table; between whose limitsthe practical equalization of wear (or cut of the emery) might with thegreater facility be adjusted, by means of varying the stroke andeccentricity of the tool. As the result of these considerations in theconstruction of the machine, the surface of the glass 'comes up'regularly all over the lens; and the polishing only takes a fewminutes' work--thus keeping the truth of surface gained by using arigid tool. "

The machine in question consists of a revolving sheave or ring, with asliding strip across its diameter; the said strip having a slot andclamping screw at one end, and a hole towards the other, through whichpasses the axis of the tool used in forming the lens, --the slot in thestrip allowing the tool to give any stroke from 0 to 1. 25 inch. Thelens is carried on a revolving turn-table, with an arrangement to allowthe axis of the lens to coincide with the axis of the table. The ratioof speed between the sheave and turn-table is arranged by belt andproperly sized pulleys, and the whole can be driven either by hand orby power. The sheave merely serves as a guide to the tool in its path, and the lens may either be worked on the turn-table or upon a chuckattached to the tool rod. The work upon the lens is thus to a greatextent independent of the error of the machine through shaking, or badfitting, or wear; and the only part of the machine which requiresreally first-class work is the axis of the turn-table, which (in thismachine) is a conical bearing at top, with steel centre below, --thebearing turned, hardened, and then ground up true, and run inanti-friction metal. Other details might be given, but these areprobably enough for present purposes. We hope, at some future time, for a special detail of Mr. Lancaster's interesting investigations, from his own mind and pen. 

[12] The translations are made by W. Cadwalladr Davies, Esq. 

[13] This evidence was given by Mr. W. Cadwalladr Davies on the 28thOctober, 1880.