Manual of Military Training (SECOND, REVISED EDITION) BY COLONEL JAMES A. MOSS UNITED STATES ARMY (Officially adopted by ONE HUNDRED AND FIVE [105] of our militaryschools and colleges. ) Intended, primarily, for use in connection with the instruction andtraining of Cadets in our military schools and colleges and of COMPANYofficers of the National Army, National Guard, and Officers' ReserveCorps; and secondarily, as a guide for COMPANY officers of the RegularArmy, the aim being to make efficient fighting COMPANIES and toqualify our Cadets and our National Army, National Guard and ReserveCorps officers for the duties and responsibilities of COMPANY officersin time of war. [Illustration] Price $2. 25 GENERAL AGENTS GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANYArmy and College PrintersMENASHA--WISCONSIN _Copyright 1917_ _By_ JAS. A. MOSS FIRST EDITION First impression (October, 1914) 10, 000 Second impression (September, 1915) 10, 000 Third impression (March, 1916) 10, 000 Fourth impression (July, 1916) 10, 000 Fifth impression (February, 1917) 3, 000 Sixth impression (April, 1917) 4, 000 SECOND EDITION First impression (May, 1917) 40, 000 Second impression (August, 1917) 30, 000 Third impression (November, 1917) 50, 000 ------- Total 167, 000 Publishers and General DistributersGEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING CO. , MENASHA, WIS. OTHER DISTRIBUTERS(Order from nearest one) =Boston, Mass. = The Harding Uniform and Regalia Co. , 22 School St. =Chicago, Ill. = A. C. McClurg & Co. =Columbus, Ohio. = The M. C. Lilley & Co. =Fort Leavenworth, Kan. = U. S. Cavalry Association. Book Dept. , Army Service Schools. =Fort Monroe, Va. = Journal U. S. Artillery. =Kalamazoo, Mich. = Henderson-Ames Co. =New York. = Baker & Taylor Co. , 4th Ave. Army and Navy Coöperative Co. , 16 East 42nd St. Ridabock & Co. , 140 West 36th St. Warnock Uniform Co. , 16 West 46th St. =Philadelphia, Pa. = Jacob Reed's Sons, 1424 Chestnut. =Portland, Ore. = J. K. Gill Co. =San Antonio, Tex. = Frank Brothers Alamo Plaza. =San Francisco, Cal. = B. Pasquale Co. , 115-117 Post St. =Washington, D. C. = Army and Navy Register, 511 Eleventh St. N. W. Meyer's Military Shops, 1331 F. St. N. W. U. S. Infantry Association, Union Trust Bldg. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: Philippine Education Co. , Manila, P. I. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS: Hawaiian News Co. , Honolulu, H. T. CANAL ZONE: Post Exchange, Empire, C. Z. NOTE In order to learn thoroughly the contents of this manual it issuggested that you use in connection with your study of the book thepamphlet, "QUESTIONS ON MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING, " which, by meansof questions, brings out and emphasizes every point mentioned in themanual. "QUESTIONS ON MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING" is especially useful tostudents of schools and colleges using the manual, as it enables them, as nothing else will, to prepare for recitations and examinations. The pamphlet can be gotten from the publishers, Geo. Banta PublishingCo. , Menasha, Wis. , or from any of the distributers of "MANUAL OFMILITARY TRAINING. " Price 50 cts. , postpaid. PREFATORY Not only does this manual cover all the subjects prescribed by WarDepartment orders for the Junior Division, and the Basic Course, Senior Division, of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps, but it alsocontains considerable additional material which broadens its scope, rounding it out and making it answer the purpose of a general, all-around book, complete in itself, for training and instruction inthe fundamentals of the art of war. The Company is the _basic fighting tactical unit_--it is thefoundation rock upon which an army is built--and the fightingefficiency of a COMPANY is based on systematic and thorough training. This manual is a presentation of MILITARY TRAINING as manifested inthe training and instruction of a COMPANY. The book contains all theessentials pertaining to the training and instruction of COMPANYofficers, noncommissioned officers and privates, and the officer whomasters its contents and who makes his COMPANY proficient in thesubjects embodied herein, will be in every way qualified, _without theassistance of a single other book_, to command with credit andsatisfaction, in peace and in war, a COMPANY that will be an_efficient fighting weapon_. This manual, as indicated below, is divided into a Prelude and nineParts, subjects of a similar or correlative nature being thus groupedtogether. PRELUDE. THE OBJECT AND ADVANTAGES OF MILITARY TRAINING. PART I. DRILLS, EXERCISES, CEREMONIES, AND INSPECTIONS. PART II. COMPANY COMMAND. PART III. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS PERTAINING TO COMPANY TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION. PART IV. RIFLE TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION. PART V. HEALTH AND KINDRED SUBJECTS. PART VI. MILITARY COURTESY AND KINDRED SUBJECTS. PART VII. GUARD DUTY. PART VIII. MILITARY ORGANIZATION. PART IX. MAP READING AND SKETCHING. A schedule of training and instruction covering a given period andsuitable to the local conditions that obtain in any given school orcommand, can be readily arranged by looking over the TABLE OFCONTENTS, and selecting therefrom such subjects as it is desired touse, the number and kind, and the time to be devoted to each, depending upon the time available, and climatic and other conditions. It is suggested that, for the sake of variety, in drawing up a programof instruction and training, when practicable a part of each day or apart of each drill time, be devoted to theoretical work and a part topractical work, theoretical work, when possible, being followed bycorresponding practical work, the practice (the _doing_ of a thing)thus putting a clincher, as it were, on the theory (the explaining ofa thing). The theoretical work, for example, could be carried on inthe forenoon and the practical work in the afternoon, or thetheoretical work could be carried on from, say, 8 to 9:30 a. M. , andthe practical work from 9:30 to 10:30 or 11 a. M. Attention is invited to the completeness of the Index, whereby one isenabled to locate at once any point covered in the book. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance received in therevision of this Manual in the form of suggestions from a large numberof officers on duty at our military schools and colleges, suggestionsthat enabled him not only to improve the Manual in subject-matter aswell as in arrangement, but that have also enabled him to give ourmilitary schools and colleges a textbook which, in a way, may be saidto represent the consensus of opinion of our Professors of MilitaryScience and Tactics as to what such a book should embody in bothsubject-matter and arrangement. Suggestions received from a number of Professors of Military Scienceand Tactics show conclusively that local conditions as to average ageand aptitude of students, interest taken in military training by thestudent body, support given by the school authorities, etc. , are sodifferent in different schools that it would be impossible to write abook for general use that would, in amount of material, arrangementand otherwise, just exactly fit, in toto, the conditions, and meet therequirements of each particular school. Therefore, the only practical, satisfactory solution of the problem isto produce a book that meets _all_ the requirements of the strictlymilitary schools, where the conditions for military training andinstruction are the most favorable, and the requirements the greatest, and then let other schools take only such parts of the book as arenecessary to meet their own particular local needs and requirements. "MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING" is such a book. [Illustration: (Signature) Jas. A. Moss] Camp Gaillard, C. Z. , March 4, 1917. TABLE OF CONTENTS PRELUDE OBJECT AND ADVANTAGES OF MILITARY TRAINING Par. No. =Object of:= Setting-Up Exercises, Calisthenics, Facings 1-23 and Marchings, Saluting, Manual of Arms, School of the Squad, Company Drill, Close Order, Extended Order, Ceremonies, Discipline--=Advantages:= Handiness, Self-Control, Loyalty, Orderliness, Self-Confidence, Self-Respect, Training Eyes, Teamwork, Heeding Law and Order, Sound Body. PART I CHAPTER I. =INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS=--Definitions-- 24-710 General Remarks--General Rules for Drills and Formations-- Orders, Commands, and Signals--School of the Soldier-- School of the Squad--School of the Company--School of the Battalion--Combat--Leadership--Combat Reconnaissance--Fire Superiority--Fire Direction and Control--Deployment-- Attack--Defense--Meeting Engagements--Machine Guns-- Ammunition Supply--Mounted Scouts--Night Operations-- Infantry Against Cavalry--Infantry Against Artillery-- Artillery Supports--Minor Warfare--Ceremonies--Inspections-- Muster--The Color--Manual of the Saber--Manual of Tent Pitching--Appendices A and B. CHAPTER II. =MANUAL OF THE BAYONET=--Nomenclature and 711-824 Description of the Bayonet--Instruction without the Rifle--Instruction with the Rifle--Instruction without the Bayonet--Combined Movements--Fencing Exercises--Fencing at Will--Lessons of the European War--The "Short point"-- The "Jab. " CHAPTER III. =MANUAL OF PHYSICAL TRAINING=--Methods-- 825-860 Commands--Setting-Up Exercises--Rifle Exercises. CHAPTER IV. =SIGNALING=--General Service Code--Wigwag-- 861-866 The Two-Arm Semaphore Code--Signaling with Heliograph, Flash Lanterns, and Searchlight--Sound Signals--Morse Code. PART II COMPANY COMMAND CHAPTER I. =GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF A 867-909 COMPANY=--Duties and Responsibilities of the Captain and the Lieutenants--Devolution of Work and Responsibility--Duties and Responsibilities of the First Sergeant and other Noncommissioned Officers--Contentment and Harmony--Efficacious Forms of Company Punishment--Property Responsibility--Books and Records. CHAPTER II. =DISCIPLINE=--Definition--Methods of 910-916 Attaining Good Discipline--Importance--Sound Discipline-- Punishment--General Principles. PART III MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS PERTAINING TO COMPANY TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION CHAPTER I. =GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPANY TRAINING AND 917-941 INSTRUCTION=--Object of Training and Instruction--Method and Progression--Individual Initiative--The Human Element-- Art of Instruction on the Ground--Ocular Demonstration. CHAPTER II. =GENERAL COMMON SENSE PRINCIPLES OF APPLIED 942-953 MINOR TACTICS=--Art of War Defined--Responsibilities of Officers and Noncommissioned Officers in War--General Rules and Principles of Map Problems, Terrain Exercises, the War Game, and Maneuvers--Estimating the Situation-- Mission. CHAPTER III. =GENERAL PLAN OF INSTRUCTION IN MAP PROBLEMS 954-958 FOR NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND PRIVATES--INSTRUCTION IN DELIVERING MESSAGES. = CHAPTER IV. =THE SERVICE OF INFORMATION=--General 959-1019 Principles of Patrolling--Sizes of Patrols--Patrol Leaders--Patrol Formations--Messages and Reports-- Suggestions for Gaining Information about the Enemy-- Suggestions for the Reconnaissance of Various Positions and Localities--Demolitions--Problems in Patrolling. CHAPTER V. =THE SERVICE OF SECURITY=--General 1020-1079 principles--Advance Guard--Advance Guard Problems-- Flank Guards--Rear Guard--Outposts--Formation of Outposts--Outguards--Flags of Truce--Detached Posts-- Examining Posts--Establishing the Outpost--Outpost Order--Intercommunication--Outpost Problems. CHAPTER VI. =THE COMPANY ON OUTPOST=--Establishing 1080 the Outpost. CHAPTER VII. =THE COMPANY IN SCOUTING AND PATROLLING= 1081-1090 --Requisites of a Good Scout--Eyesight and hearing-- Finding Way in Strange Country--What to do when Lost-- Landmarks--Concealment and Dodging--Tracking--The Mouse and Cat Contest--Flag Stealing Contest. CHAPTER VIII. =NIGHT OPERATIONS=--Importance--Training 1091-1108 of the Company--Individual Training--Collective Training--Outposts. CHAPTER IX. =FIELD ENGINEERING=--Bridges--Corduroying-- 1109-1139 Tascines--Hurdles--Brush Revetment--Gabions--Other Revetments--Knots--Lashings. CHAPTER X. =FIELD FORTIFICATIONS=--Object-- 1140-1172 Classification--Hasty Intrenchments--Lying Trench-- Kneeling Trench--Standing Trench--Deliberate Intrenchments--Fire Trenches--Traverses--Trench recesses; sortie steps--Parados--Head Cover--Notches and Loopholes--Cover Trenches--Dugouts--Communicating Trenches--Lookouts--Supporting Points--Example of Trench System--Location of Trenches--Concealment of Trenches-- Dummy Trenches--Length of Trench--Preparation of Foreground--Revetments--Drainage--Water Supply-- Latrines--Illumination of the foreground--Telephones-- Siege Works. CHAPTER XI. =OBSTACLES=--Object--Necessity for 1173-1193 Obstacles--Location--Abatis--Palisades--Fraises-- Cheveaux de Frise--Obstacles against Cavalry--Wire Entanglements--Time and Materials--Wire Fence--Military Pits or Trous de Loup--Miscellaneous Barricades-- Inundations--Obstacles in Front of Outguards--Lessons from the European War--Wire Cheveaux de Frise--Guarding Obstacles--Listening Posts--Automatic Alarms--Search Lights. CHAPTER XII. =TRENCH AND MINE WARFARE=--Asphyxiating 1194-1211 Gases--Protection against Gases--Liquid Fire-- Grenades--Bombs--Aerial Mines--Winged Torpedoes--Bombs from Air-Craft--Protection against Hand Grenades-- Tanks--Helmets--Masks--Periscopes--Sniperscopes--Aids to Firing--Mining--Countermining. CHAPTER XIII. =MARCHES=--Marching Principal Occupation 1212-1229 of Troops in Campaign-Physical Training Hardening New Troops--Long Marches Not to Be Made with Untrained Troops--A Successful March--Preparation--Starting-- Conduct of March--Rate--Marching Capacity--Halts-- Crossing Bridges and Fords--Straggling and Elongation of Column--Forced Marches--Night Marches--No Compliments Paid on March--Protection on March--Fitting of Shoes and Care of Feet. CHAPTER XIV. =CAMPS=--Selection of Camp Sites-- 1230-1240 Desirable Camp Sites--Undesirable Camp Sites--Form and Dimensions of Camps--Making Camp--Retreat in Camp-- Parade Ground--Windstorms--Making Tent Poles and Pegs Fast in Loose Soil--Trees. CHAPTER XV. =CAMP SANITATION=--Definition--Camp 1241-1255 Expedients--Latrines--Urinal Tubs--Kitchens--Kitchen Pits--Incinerators--Drainage--Avoiding Old Camp Sites-- Changing Camp Sites--Bunks--Wood--Water--Rules of Sanitation--Your Camp, Your Home. CHAPTER XVI. =INDIVIDUAL COOKING=--Making Fire-- 1256-1275 Recipes--Meats--Vegetables--Drinks--Hot Breads-- Emergency Ration. CHAPTER XVII. =CARE AND PRESERVATION OF CLOTHING AND 1276-1320 EQUIPMENT=--Clothing--Pressing--Removing Stains-- Shoes--Cloth Equipment--Washing--Shelter Tent--Mess Outfit--Leather Equipment--Points to Be Remembered. CHAPTER XVIII. =CARE AND DESCRIPTION OF THE RIFLE= 1321-1343 --Importance--Care of Bore--How to Remove Fouling--Care of Mechanism and Various Parts--How to Apply Oil--Army Regulation Paragraphs About Rifle--Nomenclature of Rifle. PART IV RIFLE TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION Object and Explanation of Our System of Instruction-- 1344-1450 Individual Instruction--Theory of Sighting--Kinds of Sights--Preliminary Drills--Position and Aiming Drills-- Deflection and Elevation Correction Drills--Gallery Practice--Range Practice--Use of Sling--Designation of Winds--Zero of Rifle--Estimating Distances--Wind-- Temperature--Light--Mirage--Combat Practice--Fire Discipline--Technical Principles of Firing--Ballistic Qualities of the Rifle--Cone of Fire--Shot Group--Center of Impact--Beaten Zone--Zone of Effective Fire-- Effectiveness of Fire--Influence of Ground--Grazing Fire--Ricochet Shots--Occupation of Ground--Adjustment of Fire--Determination of Range--Combined Sights-- Auxiliary Aiming Points--Firing at Moving Targets-- Night Firing--Fire Direction and Control--Distribution of Fire--Individual Instruction in Fire Distribution-- Designation of Targets--Exercises in Ranging, Target Designation Communication, etc. PART V CARE OF HEALTH AND KINDRED SUBJECTS CHAPTER I. =CARE OF THE HEALTH=--Importance of Good 1451-1469 Health--Germs--The Five Ways of Catching Disease-- Diseases Caught by Breathing in Germs--Diseases Caught by Swallowing Germs--Disease Caught by Touching Germs-- Diseases Caught from Biting Insects. CHAPTER II. =PERSONAL HYGIENE=--Keep the Skin Clean-- 1470-1477 Keep the Body Properly Protected against the Weather-- Keep the Body Properly Fed--Keep the Body Supplied with Fresh Air--Keep the Body well Exercised--Keep the Body Rested by Sufficient Sleep--Keep the Body Free of Wastes. CHAPTER III. =FIRST AID TO THE SICK AND INJURED= 1478-1522 --Objectof Teaching First Aid--Asphyxiation by Gas-- Bite of Dog--Bite of Snake--Bleeding--Broken Bones (Fractures)--Burns--Bruises--Cuts--Dislocations-- Drowning--Electric Shock--Fainting--Foreign Body in Eye, in Ear--Freezing--Frost Bite--Headache--Heat Exhaustion-- Poison--Sprains--Sunburn--Sunstroke--Wounds--Improvised Litters. PART VI MILITARY COURTESY AND KINDRED SUBJECTS CHAPTER I. =MILITARY DEPORTMENT AND APPEARANCE-- 1523-1531 PERSONAL CLEANLINESS--FORMS OF SPEECH--DELIVERY OF MESSAGES. = CHAPTER II. =MILITARY COURTESY=--Its Importance--Nature 1532-1575 of Salutes and Their Origin--Whom to Salute--When and How to Salute--Usual Mistakes in Saluting--Respect to Be Paid the National Anthem, the Colors and Standards. PART VII GUARD DUTY Importance--Respect for Sentinels--Classification of 1576-1857 Guards--General Rules--The Commanding Officer--The Officer of the Day--The Commander of the Guard--Sergeant of the Guard--Corporal of the Guard--Musicians of the Guard--Orderlies and Color Sentinels--Privates of the Guard--Countersigns and Paroles--Guard Patrols-- Compliments from Guards--General Rules Concerning Guard Duty--Stable Guards--Troop Stable Guards--Reveille and Retreat Gun--Formal Guard Mounting--Informal Guard Mounting. PART VIII MILITARY ORGANIZATION Composition of Infantry, Cavalry and Field Artillery 1858 Units up to and Including the Regiment. PART IX MAP READING AND SKETCHING CHAPTER I. =MAP READING=--Definition of Map--Ability to 1859-1877 Read a Map--Scales--Methods of Representing Scales-- Construction of Scales--Scale Problems--Scaling Distances from a Map--Contours--Map Distances--Slopes-- Meridians--Determination of Positions of Points on Map-- Orientation--Conventional Signs--Visibility. CHAPTER II. =MILITARY SKETCHING=--The Different Methods 1878-1893 of Sketching--Location of Points by Intersection-- Location of points by Resection--Location of Points by Traversing--Contours--Form Lines--Scales--Position Sketching--Outpost Sketching--Road Sketching--Combined Sketching--Points for Beginners to Remember. PRELUDE THE OBJECT AND ADVANTAGES OF MILITARY TRAINING =1. Prelude. = We will first consider the object and advantages ofmilitary training, as they are the natural and logical prelude to thesubject of military training and instruction. Object =2. The object of all military training is to win battles. = Everything that you do in military training is done with someimmediate object in view, which, in turn, has in view the _final_object of winning battles. For example: =3. Setting-up exercises. = The object of the setting-up exercises, asthe name indicates, is to give the new men the _set-up_, --the bearingand carriage, --of the military man. In addition these exercises serve to loosen up his muscles and preparethem for his later experiences and development. =4. Calisthenics. = Calisthenics may be called the big brother, thegrown-up form, of the setting-up exercise. The object of calisthenics is to develop and strengthen all parts andmuscles of the human body, --the back, the legs, the arms, the lungs, the heart and all other parts of the body. First and foremost a fighting man's work depends upon his physicalfitness. To begin with, a soldier's mind must always be on the alert and equalto any strain, and no man's mind can be at its best when he ishandicapped by a weak or ailing body. The work of the fighting man makes harsh demands on his body. It mustbe strong enough to undergo the strain of marching when every musclecries out for rest; strong enough to hold a rifle steady under fatigueand excitement; strong enough to withstand all sorts of weather, andthe terrible nervous and physical strain of modern battle; and more, it must be strong enough to resist those diseases of campaign whichkill more men than do the bullets of the enemy. Hence the necessity of developing and strengthening every part andmuscle of the body. =5. Facings and Marchings. = The object of the facings and marchings isto give the soldier complete control of his body in drills, so that hecan get around with ease and promptness at every command. The marchings, --the military walk and run, --also teach the soldier howto get from one place to another in campaign with the least amount ofphysical exertion. Every man knows how to walk and run, but few of them how to do sowithout making extra work of it. One of the first principles intraining the body of the soldier is to make each set of muscles do itsown work and save the strength of the other muscles for their work. Thus the soldier marches in quick time, --walks, --with his legs, keeping the rest of his body as free from motion as possible. Hemarches in double time, --runs, --with an easy swinging stride whichrequires no effort on the part of the muscles of the body. The marchings also teach the soldier to walk and run at a steady gait. For example, in marching in quick time, he takes 120 steps eachminute; in double time, he takes 180 per minute. Furthermore, the marchings teach the soldier to walk and run withothers, --that is, in a body. =6. Saluting. = The form of salutation and greeting for the civilianconsists in raising the hat. The form of salutation and greeting for the military man consists inrendering the military salute, --a form of salutation which marks youas a member of the Fraternity of Men-at-arms, men banded together fornational defense, bound to each other by love of country and pledgedto the loyal support of its symbol, the Flag. For the fullsignificance of the military salute see paragraph 1534. =7. Manual of Arms. = The rifle is the soldier's fighting weapon and hemust become so accustomed to the _feel_ of it that he handles itwithout a thought, --just as he handles his arms or legs without athought, --and this is what the manual of arms accomplishes. The different movements and positions of the rifle are the ones thatexperience has taught are the best and the easiest to accomplish theobject in view. =8. School of the Squad. = The object of squad drill is to teach thesoldier his first lesson in _team-work_, --and team-work is the thingthat wins battles. In the squad the soldier is associated with seven other men with whomhe drills, eats, sleeps, marches, and fights. The squad is the unit upon which all of the work of the companydepends. Unless the men of each squad work together as a singleman, --unless there is _team-work_, --the work of the company is almostimpossible. =9. Company Drill. = Several squads are banded together into acompany, --the basic fighting unit. In order for a company to be ableto comply promptly with the will of its commander, it must be like apliable, easily managed instrument. And in order to win battles acompany on the firing line must be able to comply promptly with thewill of its commander. The object of company drill is to get such team-work amongst thesquads that the company will at all times move and act like a pliable, easily managed whole. =10. Close Order. = In close order drill the strictest attention ispaid to all the little details, all movements being executed with thegreatest precision. The soldiers being close together, --in _closeorder_, --they form a compact body that is easily managed, andconsequently that lends itself well to teaching the soldier habits ofattention, precision, team-work and instant obedience to the voice ofhis commander. In order to control and handle bodies of men quickly and withoutconfusion, they must be taught to group themselves in an orderlyarrangement and to move in an orderly manner. For example, soldiersare grouped or formed in line, in column of squads, column of files, etc. In close order drill soldiers are taught to move in an orderly mannerfrom one group or formation to another; how to stand, step off, march, halt and handle their rifles all together. This practice makes the soldier feel perfectly at home and at ease inthe squad and company. He becomes accustomed to working side by sidewith the man next to him, and, unconsciously, both get into the habitof working together, thus learning the first principles of_team-work_. =11. Extended Order. = This is the fighting drill. Modern fire arms have such great penetration that if the soldiers wereall bunched together a single bullet might kill or disable several menand the explosion of a single shell might kill or disable a wholecompany. Consequently, soldiers must be scattered, --_extendedout_, --to fight. In extended order not only do the soldiers furnish a smaller targetfor the enemy to shoot at, but they also get room in which to fightwith greater ease and freedom. The object of extended order drill is to practice the squads inteam-work by which they are welded into a single fighting machine thatcan be readily controlled by its commander. =12. Parades, reviews, and other ceremonies. = Parades, reviews andother ceremonies, with their martial music, the presence ofspectators, etc. , are intended to stimulate the interest and excitethe military spirit of the command. Also, being occasions for whichthe soldiers dress up and appear spruce and trim, they inculcatehabits of tidiness, --they teach a lesson in cleanliness of body andclothes. While it is true it may be said that parades, reviews and otherceremonies form no practical part of the fighting man's training forbattle, they nevertheless serve a very useful purpose in his generaltraining. In these ceremonies in which soldiers march to martial musicwith flags flying, moving and going through the manual of arms withperfect precision and unison, there results a concerted movement thatproduces a feeling such as we have when we dance or when we sing inchorus. In other words, ceremonies are a sort of "get-together"exercise which pulls men together in spite of themselves, giving thema shoulder-to-shoulder feeling of solidity and power that helps tobuild up that confidence and spirit which wins battles. =13. Discipline. = By discipline we mean the _habit_ of observing allrules and regulations and of obeying promptly all orders. By observingday after day all rules and regulations and obeying promptly allorders, it becomes second nature, --a fixed habit, --to do these things. Of course, in the Army, like in any other walk of life, there must belaw and order, which is impossible unless everyone obeys the rules andregulations gotten up by those in authority. When a man has cultivated the habit of obeying, --when obedience hasbecome second nature with him, --he obeys the orders of his leadersinstinctively, even when under the stress of great excitement, such aswhen in battle, his own reasoning is confused and his mind is notworking. In order to win a battle the _will_ of the commander as expressedthrough his subordinates down the line from the second in command tothe squad leaders, must be carried out by everyone. Hence the vitalimportance of prompt, instinctive obedience on the part of everybody, and of discipline, which is the mainspring of obedience and also thefoundation rock of law and order. And so could we go on indefinitely pointing out the object of each andevery requirement of military training, for there is none that has noobject and that answers no useful purpose, although the object andpurpose may not always be apparent to the young soldier. _And remember that the final object of all military training is to winbattles. _ Advantages of Military Training The following are the principal advantages of military training: =14. Handiness. = The average man does one thing well. He is more orless apt to be clumsy about doing other things. The soldier isconstantly called upon to do all sorts of things, and he has to do allof them well. His hands thus become trained and useful to him, and hismind gets into the habit of making his hands do what is required ofthem, --that is to say, the soldier becomes handy. Handy arms are a valuable asset. =15. Self-control. = In the work of the soldier, control does not stopwith the hands. The mind reaches out, --control of the body becomes a habit. The feet, legs, arms and body gradually come under the sway of the mind. In theposition of the soldier, for instance, the mind holds the bodymotionless. In marching, the mind drives the legs to machine-likeregularity. In shooting, the mind assumes command of the arms, hands, fingers and eye, linking them up and making them work in harmony. Control of the body, together with the habit of discipline that thesoldier acquires, leads to control of the mind, --that is, to_self-control_. Self-control is an important factor in success in any walk of life. =16. Loyalty. = Loyalty to his comrades, to his company, to hisbattalion, to his regiment becomes a religion with the soldier. Theyare a part of his life. Their reputation is his; their good name, hisgood name; their interests, his interests, --so, loyalty to them is butnatural, and this loyalty soon extends to loyalty in general. When you say a man is loyal the world considers that you have paid hima high tribute. =17. Orderliness. = In the military service order and system arewatchwords. The smooth running of the military machine depends onthem. The care and attention that the soldier is required to give at alltimes to his clothes, accouterments, equipment and other belongings, instill in him habits of orderliness. Orderliness increases the value of a man. =18. Self-confidence and self-respect. = Self-confidence is founded onone's ability to do things. The soldier is taught to defend himselfwith his rifle, and to take care of himself and to do things in almostany sort of a situation, all of which gives him confidence inhimself, --_self-confidence_. Respect for constituted authority, which is a part of the soldier'screed, teaches him respect for himself, --_self-respect_. Self-confidence and self-respect are a credit to any man. =19. Eyes trained to observe. = Guard duty, outpost duty, patrolling, scouting and target practice, train both the eye and the mind toobserve. Power of observation is a valuable faculty for a man to possess. =20. Teamwork. = In drilling, patrolling, marching, maneuvers and inother phases of his training and instruction, the soldier is taughtthe principles of team-work, --coöperation, --whose soul is _loyalty_, atrait of every good soldier. Teamwork, --coöperation, --leads to success in life. =21. Heeding law and order. = The cardinal habit of the soldier isobedience. To obey orders and regulations is a habit with the soldier. And this habit of obeying orders and regulations teaches him to heedlaw and order. The man who heeds law and order is a welcome member of any community. =22. Sound body. = Military training, with its drills, marches, andother forms of physical exercise, together with its regular habits andoutdoor work, keeps a man physically fit, giving him a sound body. A sound body, with the physical exercise and outdoor life of thesoldier, means good digestion, strength, hardiness and endurance. A sound body is, indeed, one of the greatest blessings of life. The Trained Soldier =23. = Look at the trained soldier on the following page; study himcarefully from top to bottom, and see what military training does fora man. [Illustration: THE TRAINED SOLDIER WHAT DO YOU THINK OF HIM, EH?] PART I DRILLS, EXERCISES, CEREMONIES AND INSPECTIONS CHAPTER I INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS (To include Changes No. 20, Aug. 18, 1917. ) DEFINITIONS (The numbers following the paragraphs are those of the Drill Regulations, and references in the text to certain paragraph numbers refer to these numbers and not to the numbers preceding the paragraphs. ) (NOTE. --Company drills naturally become monotonous. The monotony, however, can be greatly reduced by repeating the drills under varying circumstances. In the manual of arms, for instance, the company may be brought to open ranks and the officers and sergeants directed to superintend the drill in the front and rear ranks. As the men make mistakes they are fallen out and drilled nearby by an officer or noncommissioned officer. Or, the company may be divided into squads, each squad leader drilling his squad, falling out the men as they make mistakes, the men thus fallen out reporting to a designated officer or noncommissioned officer for drill. The men who have drilled the longest in the different squads are then formed into one squad and drilled and fallen out in like manner. The variety thus introduced stimulates a spirit of interest and rivalry that robs the drill of much of its monotony. It is thought the instruction of a company in drill is best attained by placing special stress on squad drill. The noncommissioned officers should be thoroughly instructed, practically and theoretically, by one of the company officers and then be required to instruct their squads. The squads are then united and drilled in the school of the company. --Author. ) DEFINITIONS =24. Alignment:= A straight line upon which several elements areformed, or are to be formed; or the dressing of several elements upona straight line. [Illustration: Fig. 1 NOTE. --The line A-B, on which a body of troops is formed or is to beformed, or the act of dressing a body of troops on the line, is calledan alignment. --Author. ] =25. Base:= The element on which a movement is regulated. =26. Battle sight:= The position of the rear sight when the leaf islaid down. [Illustration: Fig. 2] [Illustration: Fig. 3] =27. Center:= The middle point or element of a command. (See Figs. 2, 3 and 5. ) (The designation "center company, " indicates the rightcenter or the actual center company, according as the number ofcompanies is even or odd. --Par. 298. ) =28. Column:= A formation in which the elements are placed one behindanother. (See Figs. 4, 5, 6. ) =29. Deploy:= To extend the front. In general to change from column toline, or from close order to extended order. =30. Depth:= The space from head to rear of any formation, includingthe leading and rear elements. The depth of a man is assumed to be 12inches. (See Figs. 4, 5, 6. ) =31. Distance:= Space between elements in the direction of depth. Distance is measured from the back of the man in front to the breastof the man in rear. The distance between ranks is 40 inches in bothline and column. (See Figs. 4, 5, 6. ) [Illustration: Fig. 4] [Illustration: Fig. 5] [Illustration: Fig. 6] =32. Element:= A file, squad, platoon, company, or larger body, forming part of a still larger body. =33. File:= Two men, the front-rank man and the corresponding man ofthe rear rank. The front-rank man is the file leader. A file which hasno rear-rank man is a blank file. The term file applies also to asingle man in a single-rank formation. =34. File closers:= Such officers and noncommissioned officers of acompany as are posted in rear of the line. For convenience, all menposted in the line of file closers. =35. Flank:= The right or left of a command in line or in column; alsothe element on the right or left of the line. (See Figs. 2, 3 and 4. ) =36. Formation:= Arrangement of the elements of a command. The placingof all fractions in their order in line, in column, or for battle. =37. Front:= The space, in width, occupied by an element, either inline or in column. The front of a man is assumed to be 22 inches. Front also denotes the direction of the enemy. (See Figs. 2, 3 and 5). =38. Guide:= An officer, noncommissioned officer, or private upon whomthe command or elements thereof regulates its march. =39. Head:= The leading element of a column. (See Figs. 4, 5 and 6. ) =40. Interval:= Space between elements of the same line. The intervalbetween men in ranks is 4 inches and is measured from elbow to elbow. Between companies, squads, etc. , it is measured from the left elbow ofthe left man or guide of the group on the right, to the right elbow ofthe right man or guide of the group on the left. (See Fig. 3. ) =41. Left:= The left extremity or element of a body of troops. =42. Line:= A formation in which the different elements are abreast ofeach other. (See Figs. 2 and 3. ) =43. Order, close:= The formation in which the units, in double rank, are arranged in line or in column with normal intervals and distances. =44. Order, extended:= The formation in which the units are separatedby intervals greater than in close order. =45. Pace:= Thirty inches; the length of the full step in quick time. =46. Point of rest:= The point at which a formation begins. Specifically, the point toward which units are aligned in successivemovements. =47. Rank:= A line of men placed side by side. =48. Right:= The right extremity or element of a body of troops. =49. = NOTE. In view of the fact that the word "Echelon" is a term ofsuch common usage, the following definition is given: By echelon wemean a formation in which the subdivisions are placed one behindanother, extending beyond and unmasking one another either wholly orin part. --Author. [Illustration: BATTALION IN ECHELON: COMPANIES UNMASKING WHOLLY] [Illustration: BATTALION IN ECHELON: COMPANIES UNMASKING IN PART] INTRODUCTION =50. Object of military training. = Success in battle is the ultimateobject of all military training; success may be looked for only whenthe training is intelligent and thorough. (1) =51. Commanding officers accountable for proper training oforganizations; field efficiency; team-work. = Commanding officers areaccountable for the proper training of their respective organizationswithin the limits prescribed by regulations and orders. (2) The excellence of an organization is judged by its field efficiency. The field efficiency of an organization depends primarily upon itseffectiveness as a whole. Thoroughness and uniformity in the trainingof the units of an organization are indispensable to the efficiency ofthe whole; it is by such means alone that the requisite team-work maybe developed. =52. Simple movements and elastic formations. = Simple movements andelastic formations are essential to correct training for battle. (3) =53. Drill Regulations a Guide; their interpretation. = The DrillRegulations are furnished as a guide. They provide the principles fortraining and for increasing the probability of success in battle. (4) In the interpretation of the regulations, the spirit must be sought. Quibbling over the minutiae of form is indicative of failure to graspthe spirit. =54. Combat principles. = The principles of combat are considered inPars. 50-363. They are treated in the various schools included in PartI of the Drill Regulations only to the extent necessary to indicatethe functions of the various commanders and the division ofresponsibility between them. The amplification necessary to a properunderstanding of their application is to be sought in Pars. 364-613. (5) =55. Drills at attention, ceremonies, extended order, field exercisesand combat exercises. = The following important distinctions must beobserved: (a) Drills executed at =attention= and the ceremonies are=disciplinary exercises= designed to teach precise and soldierlymovement, and to inculcate that prompt and subconscious obediencewhich is essential to proper military control. To this end, smartnessand precision should be exacted in the execution of every detail. Suchdrills should be frequent, but short. (b) The purpose of =extended order drill= is to teach the =mechanism=of deployment of the firing, and, in general, of the employment oftroops in combat. Such drills are in the nature of disciplinaryexercises and should be frequent, thorough, and exact, in order tohabituate men to the firm control of their leaders. Extended orderdrill is executed =at ease=. The company is the largest unit whichexecutes extended order drill. (c) =Field exercises= are for instruction in the duties incident tocampaign. Assumed situations are employed. Each exercise shouldconclude with a discussion, on the ground, of the exercise andprinciples involved. (d) The =combat exercise, a form of field exercise= of the company, battalion, and larger units, consists of the =application of tacticalprinciples= to assumed situations, employing in the execution theappropriate formations and movements of close and extended order. Combat exercises must simulate, as far as possible, the battleconditions assumed. In order to familiarize both officers and men withsuch conditions, companies and battalions will frequently beconsolidated to provide war-strength organizations. Officers andnoncommissioned officers not required to complete the full quota ofthe units participating are assigned as observers or umpires. The firing line can rarely be controlled by the voice alone; thoroughtraining to insure the proper use of prescribed signals is necessary. The exercise should be followed by a brief drill at attention in orderto restore smartness and control. (6) =56. Imaginary, outlined and represented enemy. = In field exercisesthe enemy is said to be =imaginary= when his position and force aremerely assumed; =outlined= when his position and force are indicatedby a few men; =represented= when a body of troops acts as such. (7) General Rules for Drills and Formations =57. Arrangement of elements of preparatory command. = When the=preparatory= command consists of more than one part, its elements arearranged as follows: (1) For movements to be executed successively by the subdivisions orelements of an organization: (a) Description of the movement; (b) howexecuted, or on what element executed. (For example: =1. Column of Companies, first company, squads right. 2. March. =--Author. ) (2) For movements to be executed simultaneously by the subdivisions ofan organization: (a) The designation of the subdivisions; (b) Themovement to be executed. (For example: =1. Squads right. 2. March. =--Author. ) (8) =58. Movements executed toward either flank explained toward but oneflank. = Movements that may be executed toward either flank areexplained as toward but one flank, it being necessary to substitutethe word "left" for "right, " and the reverse, to have the explanationof the corresponding movement toward the other flank. The commands aregiven for the execution of the movements toward either flank. Thesubstitute word of the command is placed within parentheses. (9) =59. Any movement may be executed from halt or when marching unlessotherwise prescribed. = Any movement may be executed either from thehalt or when marching, unless otherwise prescribed. If at a halt, thecommand for movements involving marching need not be prefaced by=forward=, as =1. Column right (left), 2. MARCH=. (10) =60. Any movement may be executed in double time unless speciallyexcepted. = Any movement not specially excepted may be executed indouble time. If at a halt, or if marching in quick time, the command =double time=precedes the command of execution. (11) =61. Successive movements executed in double time. = In successivemovements executed in double time the leading or =base= unit marchesin =quick time= when not otherwise prescribed; the other units marchin =double time= to their places in the formation ordered and thenconform to the gait of the leading or base unit. If marching in doubletime, the command =double time= is omitted. The leading or base unitmarches in =quick time=; the other units continue at double time totheir places in the formation ordered and then conform to the gait ofthe leading or base unit. (12) =62. To hasten execution of movement begun in quick time. = To hastenthe execution of a movement begun in quick time, the command: =1. Double time, 2. MARCH=, is given. The leading or base unit continuesto march in quick time, or remains at halt, if already halted; theother units complete the execution of the movement in double time andthen conform to the gait of the leading or base unit. (13) =63. To stay execution of movement when marching, for correction oferrors. = To stay the execution of a movement when marching, for thecorrection of errors, the command: =1. In place, 2. HALT=, is given. All halt and stand fast without changing the position of the pieces. To resume the movement the command: =1. Resume, 2. MARCH=, is given. (14) =64. To revoke preparatory command or begin anew movement improperlybegun. = To revoke a preparatory command, or, being at a halt, to beginanew a movement improperly begun, the command, =AS YOU WERE=, isgiven, at which the movement ceases and the former position isresumed. (15) =65. Guide. = Unless otherwise announced, the guide of a company orsubdivision of a company in line is =right=; of a battalion in line orline of subdivisions or of a deployed line, =center=; of a rank incolumn of squads, toward the side of the guide of the company. To march with guide other than as prescribed above, or to change theguide: =Guide (right, left, or center). = In successive formations into line, the guide is toward the point ofrest; in platoons or larger subdivisions it is so announced. The announcement of the guide, when given in connection with amovement follows the command of execution for that. Exception: =1. Asskirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH. = (16) =66. Turn on fixed and moving pivots. = The turn on the fixed pivot bysubdivisions is used in all formations from line into column and thereverse. The turn on the =moving pivot= is used by subdivisions of a column inexecuting changes of direction. (17) =67. Partial changes of direction. = Partial changes of direction maybe executed: By interpolating in the preparatory command the word =half, as Columnhalf right (left), or Right (left) half turn=. A change of directionof 45° is executed. By the command: =INCLINE TO THE RIGHT (LEFT). = The guide, or guidingelement, moves in the indicated direction and the remainder of thecommand conforms. This movement effects slight changes of direction. (18) =68. Line of platoons, companies, etc. = The =designations line ofplatoons, line of companies, line of battalions=, etc. , refer to theformations in which the platoons, companies, battalions, etc. , each incolumn of squads, are in line. (19) =69. Full distance in column of subdivisions; guide of leadingsubdivision charged with step and direction. = Full distance in columnof subdivisions is such that in forming line to the right or left thesubdivisions will have their proper intervals. In column of subdivisions the guide of the leading subdivision ischarged with the step and direction; the guides in rear preserve thetrace, step, and distance. (20) =70. Double rank, habitual close order formation; uniformity ofinterval between files obtained by placing hand on hip. = In closeorder, all details, detachments, and other bodies of troops arehabitually formed in double rank. To insure uniformity of interval between files when falling in, and inalignments, each man places the palm of the left hand upon the hip, fingers pointing downward. In the first case, the hand is dropped bythe side when the next man on the left has his interval; in the secondcase, at the command front. (21) =71. Posts of officers, noncommissioned officers, and special units;duties of file closers. = The posts of officers, noncommissionedofficers, special units (such as band or machine-gun company), etc. , in the various formations of the company, battalion, or regiment, areshown in plates. In all changes from one formation to another involving a change ofpost on the part of any of these, posts are promptly taken by the mostconvenient route as soon as practicable after the command of executionfor the movement; officers and noncommissioned officers who haveprescribed duties in connection with the movement ordered, take theirnew posts when such duties are completed. As instructors, officers and noncommissioned officers go wherevertheir presence is necessary. As file closers it is their duty torectify mistakes and insure steadiness and promptness in the ranks. (22) =72. Special units have no fixed posts except at ceremonies. = Except at ceremonies, the special units have no fixed places. Theytake places as directed; in the absence of directions, they conform asnearly as practicable to the plates, and in subsequent movementsmaintain their relative positions with respect to the flank or end ofthe command on which they were originally posted. (23) [Illustration] =73. General, field and staff officers habitually mounted; formationof staff; drawing and returning saber. = General, field, and staffofficers are habitually mounted. The staff of any officer forms insingle rank, 3 paces in rear of him, the right of the rank extending 1pace to the right of a point directly in rear of him. Members of thestaff are arranged in order from right to left as follows: Generalstaff officers, adjutant, aids, other staff officers, arranged in eachclassification in order of rank, the senior on the right. The flag ofthe general officer and the orderlies are 3 paces in rear of thestaff, the flag on the right. When necessary to reduce the front ofthe staff and orderlies, each line executes =twos right or foursright=, as explained in the Cavalry Drill Regulations, and follows thecommander. When not otherwise prescribed, staff officers draw and return saberwith their chief. (24) =74. Mounted officer turns to left in executing about; when commanderfaces about to give commands, staff and others stand fast. = In makingthe about, an officer, mounted, habitually turns to the left. When the commander faces to give commands, the staff, flag, andorderlies do not change position. (25) =75. Saluting when making and receiving reports; saluting on meeting. =When making or receiving official reports, or on meeting out of doors, all officers will salute. Military courtesy requires the junior to salute first, but when thesalute is introductory to a report made at a military ceremony orformation, to the representative of a common superior (as, forexample, to the adjutant, officer of the day, etc. ), the officermaking the report, whatever his rank, will salute first; the officerto whom the report is made will acknowledge by saluting that he hasreceived and understood the report. (26) =76. Formation of mounted enlisted men for ceremonies. = Forceremonies, all mounted enlisted men of a regiment or smaller unit, except those belonging to the machine-gun organizations, areconsolidated into a detachment; the senior present commands if noofficer is in charge. The detachment is formed as a platoon or squadof cavalry in line or column of fours; noncommissioned staff officersare on the right or in the leading ranks. (27) =77. Post of dismounted noncommissioned staff officers forceremonies. = For ceremonies, such of the noncommissioned staffofficers as are dismounted are formed 5 paces in rear of the color, inorder of rank from right to left. In column of squads they march asfile closers. (28) =78. Post of noncommissioned staff officers and orderlies other thanfor ceremonies. = Other than for ceremonies, noncommissioned staffofficers and orderlies accompany their immediate chiefs unlessotherwise directed. If mounted, the noncommissioned staff officers areordinarily posted on the right or at the head of the orderlies. (29) =79. Noncommissioned officer commanding platoon or company, carryingof piece and taking of post. = In all formations and movements anoncommissioned officer commanding a platoon or company carries hispiece as the men do, if he is so armed, and takes the same post as anofficer in like situation. When the command is formed in line forceremonies, a noncommissioned officer commanding a company takes poston the right of the right guide after the company has been aligned. (30) ORDERS, COMMANDS, AND SIGNALS =80. When commands, signals, and orders are used. = =Commands= only areemployed in drill at attention. Otherwise either a =command, signal, or order= is employed, as best suits the occasion, or one may be usedin conjunction with another. (31) =81. Instruction in use of signals; use of headdress, etc. , in makingsignals. = =Signals= should be freely used in instruction, in orderthat officers and men may readily know them. In making arm signals, the saber, rifle, or headdress may be held in the hand. (32) =82. Fixing of attention; a signal includes command of preparation andof execution. = Officers and men fix their attention at the first wordof command, the first note of the bugle or whistle, or the firstmotion of the signal. A signal includes both the preparatory commandand the command of execution; the movement commences as soon as thesignal is understood, unless otherwise prescribed. (33) =83. Repeating orders, commands and signals; officers, platoonleaders, guides and musicians equipped with whistles; whistles withdifferent tones. = Except in movements executed at =attention=, commanders or leaders of subdivisions repeat orders, commands, orsignals whenever such repetition is deemed necessary to insure=prompt= and correct execution. Officers, battalion noncommissioned staff officers, platoon leaders, guides, and musicians are equipped with whistles. The Major and his staff will use a whistle of distinctive tone; thecaptain and company musicians a second and distinctive whistle; theplatoon leaders and guides a third distinctive whistle. (34) =84. Limitation of prescribed signals; special prearranged signals. =Prescribed signals are limited to such as are essential as asubstitute for the voice under conditions which render the voiceinadequate. Before or during an engagement special signals may be agreed upon tofacilitate the solution of such special difficulties as the particularsituation is likely to develop, but it must be remembered thatsimplicity and certainty are indispensable qualities of a signal. (35) Orders =85. Orders defined; when employed. = In these regulations an =order=embraces instructions or directions given orally or in writing interms suited to the particular occasion and not prescribed herein. =Orders= are employed only when the =commands= prescribed herein donot sufficiently indicate the will of the commander. Orders are more fully described in paragraphs 378 to 383, inclusive. (36) Commands =86. Command defined. = In these regulations a =command= is the will ofthe commander expressed in the phraseology prescribed herein. (37) =87. Kinds of commands; how given. = There are two kinds of commands: The =preparatory= command, such as =forward=, indicates the movementthat is to be executed. The command of =execution=, such as =MARCH=, =HALT=, or =ARMS=, causesthe execution. =Preparatory= commands are distinguished by =italics=; those ofexecution by =CAPITALS=. Where it is not mentioned in the text who gives the commandsprescribed, they are to be given by the commander of the unitconcerned. The =preparatory= command should be given at such an interval of timebefore the command of =execution= as to admit of being properlyunderstood; the command of =execution= should be given at the instantthe movement is to commence. The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loudnessproportioned to the number of men for whom it is intended. Each =preparatory= command is enunciated distinctly, with a risinginflection at the end, and in such manner that the command of=execution= may be more energetic. The command of =execution= is firm in tone and brief. (38) =88. Battalion and higher commanders repeat commands of superiors;battalion largest unit executing movement at command of itscommander. = Majors and commanders of units larger than a battalionrepeat such commands of their superiors as are to be executed by theirunits, facing their units for that purpose. The battalion is thelargest unit that executes a movement at the command of execution ofits commander. (39) =89. Facing troops and avoiding indifference when giving commands. =When giving commands to troops it is usually best to face toward them. Indifference in giving commands must be avoided as it leads to laxityin execution. Commands should be given with spirit at all times. (40) Bugle Signals =90. Bugle signals that may be used on and off the field of battle. =The authorized bugle signals are published in Part V of theseregulations. The following bugle signals may be used off the battlefield, when notlikely to convey information to the enemy: =Attention:= Troops are brought to attention. =Attention to orders:= Troops to fix their attention. =Forward, march:= Used also to execute quick time from double time. =Double time, march. = =To the rear, march:= In close order, execute =squads right about=. =Halt. = =Assemble, march. = The following bugle signals may be used on the battlefield: =Fix bayonets. = =Charge. = =Assemble, march. = These signals are used only when intended for the entire firing line;hence they can be authorized only by the commander of a unit (forexample, a regiment or brigade) which occupies a distinct section ofthe battlefield. Exception: =Fix bayonet. = (See par. 355. ) The following bugle signals are used in exceptional cases on thebattlefield. Their principal uses are in field exercises and practicefiring. =Commence firing:= Officers charged with fire direction and controlopen fire as soon as practicable. When given to a firing line, thesignal is equivalent to =fire at will=. =Cease firing:= All parts of the line execute =cease firing= at once. These signals are not used by units smaller than a regiment, exceptwhen such unit is independent or detached from its regiment. (41) Whistle Signals =91. Attention to orders. = A =short blast= of the whistle. This signalis used on the march or in combat when necessary to fix the attentionof troops, or of their commanders or leaders, preparatory to givingcommands, orders, or signals. When the firing line is firing, each squad leader suspends firing andfixes his attention at a =short blast= of his platoon leader'swhistle. The platoon leader's subsequent commands or signals arerepeated and enforced by the squad leader. If a squad leader'sattention is attracted by a whistle other than that of his platoonleader, or if there are no orders or commands to convey to his squad, he resumes firing at once. =Suspend firing. = A =long blast= of the whistle. All other whistlesignals are prohibited. (42) Arm Signals =92. = The following arm signals are prescribed. In making signalseither arm may be used. Officers who receive signals on the firingline "repeat back" at once to prevent misunderstanding. [Illustration] =Forward, MARCH. = Carry the hand to the shoulder; straighten and holdthe arm horizontally, thrusting it in the direction of march. This signal is also used to execute quick time from double time. [Illustration] =Halt. = Carry the hand to the shoulder; thrust the hand upward andhold the arm vertically. =Double time, MARCH. = Carry the hand to the shoulder; rapidly thrustthe hand upward the full extent of the arm several times. [Illustration] =Squads right, MARCH. = Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carryit to a vertical position above the head and swing it several timesbetween the vertical and horizontal positions. [Illustration] =Squads left, MARCH. = Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carryit downward to the side and swing it several times between thedownward and horizontal positions. [Illustration] =Squads right about, MARCH= (if in close order) or, =To the rear, MARCH= (if in skirmish line). Extend the arm vertically above thehead; carry it laterally downward to the side and swing it severaltimes between the vertical and downward positions. [Illustration] =Change direction or Column right (left), MARCH. = The hand on the sidetoward which the change of direction is to be made is carried acrossthe body to the opposite shoulder, forearm horizontal; then swing in ahorizontal plane, arm extended, pointing in the new direction. [Illustration] =As skirmishers, MARCH. = Raise both arms laterally until horizontal. [Illustration] =As skirmishers, guide center, MARCH. = Raise both arms laterally untilhorizontal; swing both simultaneously upward until vertical and returnto the horizontal; repeat several times. [Illustration] =As skirmishers, guide right (left), MARCH. = Raise both arms laterallyuntil horizontal; hold the arm on the side of the guide steadily inthe horizontal position: swing the other upward until vertical andreturn it to the horizontal; repeat several times. [Illustration] =Assemble, March. = Raise the arm vertically to full extent anddescribe horizontal circles. [Illustration] =Range or Change elevation. = To announce range, extend the arm towardthe leaders or men for whom the signal is intended, fist closed; bykeeping the fist closed battle sight is indicated; [Illustration] by opening and closing the fist, expose thumb and fingers to a numberequal to the hundreds of yards; [Illustration] to add yards describe a short horizontal line with forefinger. [Illustration] =To change elevation=, indicate the =amount of increase or decrease=by fingers as above; point upward to indicate increase and downward toindicate decrease. [Illustration] =What range are you using?= or =What is the range?= Extend the armstoward the person addressed, one hand open, palm to the front, restingon the other hand, fist closed. [Illustration] =Are you ready?= or =I am ready. = Raise the hand, fingers extended andjoined, palm toward the person addressed. [Illustration] =Commence firing. = Move the arm extended in full length, hand palmdown, several times through a horizontal arc in front of the body. =Fire faster. = Execute rapidly the signal, "Commence Firing. " =Fire slower. = Execute slowly the signal, "Commence Firing. " [Illustration] =Swing the cone of fire to the right, or left. = Extend the arm in fulllength to the front, palm to the right (left); swing the arm to right(left), and point in the direction of the new target. [Illustration] [Illustration] =Fix Bayonet. = Simulate the movement of the right hand in "Fixbayonet. " (See par. 142. ) [Illustration] =Suspend firing. = Raise and hold the forearm steadily in a horizontalposition in front of the forehead, palm of the hand to the front. =Cease firing. = Raise the forearm as in =suspend firing= and swing itup and down several times in front of the face. [Illustration] =Platoon. = Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon leader;describe small circles with the hand. (See par. 93. ) [Illustration] =Squad. = Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon leader; swingthe hand up and down from the wrist. (See par. 93. ) =Rush. = Same as =double time=. (43) =93. Use of signals "platoon" and "squad. "= The signals =platoon= and=squad= are intended primarily for communication between the captainand his platoon leaders. The signal platoon or squad indicates thatthe platoon commander is to cause the signal which follows to beexecuted by platoon or squad. =Note. =--The following signals, while not prescribed, are veryconvenient: =Combined Sights. = Extend the arm toward the leaders for whom thesignal is intended, hand open and turn hand rapidly from right to lefta number of times. Then indicate ranges in the manner prescribed, giving the mean of the two ranges. (For example: If the combinedsights are 1050 and 1150, indicate a range of 1100 yards. The leaderswho give the oral commands, give the command, "Range 1050 and 1150, "whereupon every man in the front rank, before deployment, fixes hissight at 1150, and every man in the rear rank, before deployment, fixes his sight at 1050. ) =Company. = Bring the hand up near the shoulder and then thrust to thefront, snapping fingers in usual way; repeat several times. =Contract fire. = Extend both arms horizontally, fingers extended, armsparallel, palms facing each other; bring hands together =once=, andhold them so and look at the leader concerned. =Disperse fire. = Bring hands together, fingers extended, pointing indirection of leader concerned, arms extended horizontally; swing armsoutward once, and hold them so and look at the leader concerned. =Platoon column. = Raise both arms vertically, full length, armsparallel, fingers joined and extended, palms to the front. =Prepare to rush. = Cross the arms horizontally several times. =Squad Column. = Raise both arms vertically from elbows, elbows at sideof body, fingers joined and extended, palms to the front. --Author. (44) Flag Signals =94. Signal flags carried by company musicians; description of flags. =The signal Hags described below are carried by the company musiciansin the field. In a regiment in which it is impracticable to make the permanentbattalion division alphabetically, the flags of a battalion are asshown; flags are assigned to the companies alphabetically, withintheir respective battalions, in the order given below. First battalion: Company A. Red field, white square. Company B. Red field, blue square. Company C. Red field, white diagonals. Company D. Red field, blue diagonals. Second battalion: Company E. White field, red square. Company F. White field, blue square. Company G. White field, red diagonals. Company H. White field, blue diagonals. Third battalion: Company I. Blue field, red square. Company K. Blue field, white square. Company L. Blue field, red diagonals. Company M. Blue field, white diagonals. =Note. =--An analysis of the above system of signal flags will show: 1. The color of the field indicates the battalion and the colors run in the order that is so natural to us all, viz: =Red=, =White= and =Blue=. Hence =red= field indicates the =first= battalion; =white= field, the =second=; =blue= field, the =third=. 2. The =squares= indicate the first two companies of each battalion, and the =diagonals=, the second two. Hence, +-----------+----------------+ | Companies | Indicated by | |-----------+----------------+ | A | E | I | Squares | | B | F | K | | |-----------+----------------+ | C | G | L | Diagonals | | D | H | M | | +-----------+----------------+ 3. The colors of the squares and diagonals in combination with those of the fields, run in the order that is so natural to us all, viz. : =Red=, =White= and =Blue=, the color of any given field being, of course, omitted from the squares and diagonals, as a white square for instance, would not show on a white field, nor would a blue diagonal show on a blue field. For example, with a =red= field we would have =white= and =blue= for the square and diagonal colors; with a =white= field, =red= and =blue= for the square and diagonal colors; with a =blue= field, =red= and =white= for the square and diagonal colors. 4. From what has been said, the following table explains itself: +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ | Battalion | Field | Co. | Squares | Diagonals | +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ | First | Red | A | White | | | | | B | Blue | | | | | C | | White | | | | D | | Blue | +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ | Second | White | E | Red | | | | | F | Blue | | | | | G | | Red | | | | H | | Blue | +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ | Third | Blue | I | Red | | | | | K | White | | | | | L | | Red | | | | M | | White | +-----------+-------+-----+---------+-----------+ Note how the square and diagonal colors always follow in the natural order of =red=, =white=, and =blue=, with the color of the field omitted. --Author. (45) =95. Signal flags used to mark assembly point of company, etc. = Inaddition to their use in visual signaling, these flags serve to markthe assembly point of the company when disorganized by combat, and tomark the location of the company in bivouac and elsewhere, when suchuse is desirable. (46) =96. Signals used between firing line and reserve or commander inrear. = (1) For communication between the firing line and the reserveor commander in the rear, the subjoined signals (Signal Corps codes)are prescribed and should be memorized. In transmission, theirconcealment from the enemy's view should be insured. In the absence ofsignal flags, the headdress or other substitute may be used. (See par. 863 for the semaphore code and par. 861 for the General Service, orInternational Morse Code. ) (47) ---------------+---------------------------+---------------------------- Letter of | If signaled from the rear | If signaled from the firing alphabet | to the firing line | line to the rear ---------------+---------------------------+---------------------------- A M | Ammunition going forward. | Ammunition required. | | C C C | Charge (mandatory at all | Am about to charge if no | times). | instructions to the | | contrary. | | C F | Cease firing. | Cease firing. | | D T | Double time or "rush. " | Double time or "rush. " | | F | Commence firing. | Commence firing. | | F B | Fix bayonets. | Fix bayonets. | | F L | Artillery fire is causing | Artillery fire is causing | us losses. | us losses. | | G | Move forward. | Preparing to move forward. | | H H H | Halt. | Halt. | | K | Negative. | Negative. | | L T | Left. | Left. | | O | What is the (R. N. Etc. )? | What is the (R. N. Etc. )? (Ardois and | Interrogatory. | Interrogatory. Semaphore | | only. ) | | ---------------| | (All methods | What is the (R. N. Etc. )? | What is the (R. N. Etc. )? but ardois | Interrogatory. | Interrogatory. And semaphore. )| | | | P | Affirmative. | Affirmative. | | R | Acknowledgment. | Acknowledgment. | | R N | Range. | Range. | | R T | Right. | Right. | | S S S | Support going forward. | Support needed. | | S U F | Suspend firing. | Suspend firing. | | T | Target. | Target. ---------------+---------------------------+---------------------------- For the semaphore signals, see par. 863. SCHOOL OF THE SOLDIER =97. Duties of instructor. = The instructor explains briefly eachmovement, first executing it himself if practicable. He requires therecruits to take the proper positions unassisted and does not touchthem for the purpose of correcting them, except when they are unableto correct themselves. He avoids keeping them too long at the samemovement, although each should be understood before passing toanother. He exacts by degrees the desired precision and uniformity. (48) =98. Grouping of recruits according to proficiency. = In order that allmay advance as rapidly as their abilities permit, the recruits aregrouped according to proficiency as instruction progresses. Those wholack aptitude and quickness are separated from the others and placedunder experienced drill masters. (49) Instruction Without Arms =98a. Formation of squad for preliminary instruction. = For preliminaryinstruction a number of recruits, usually not exceeding three or four, are formed as a squad in single rank. (50) Position of the Soldier, or Attention =99. = Heels on the same line and as near each other as theconformation of the man permits. Feet turned out equally and forming an angle of about 45°. =Knees straight without stiffness. = Hips level and drawn back slightly; body erect and resting equally onhips; chest lifted and arched; shoulders square and falling equally. Arms and hands hanging naturally, thumb along the seam of thetrousers. Head erect and squarely to the front, chin drawn in so that the axisof the head and neck is vertical; eyes straight to the front. Weight of the body resting equally upon the heels and balls of thefeet. (51) The Rests =100. = Being at a halt, the commands are: =FALL OUT; REST; AT EASE=;and, =1. Parade, 2. REST=. At the command =fall out=, the men may leave the ranks, but arerequired to remain in the immediate vicinity. They resume their formerplaces, at attention, at the command =fall in=. At the command =rest= each man keeps one foot in place, but is notrequired to preserve silence or immobility. At the command =at ease= each man keeps one foot in place and isrequired to preserve silence but =not= immobility. (52) [Illustration] =101. 1. Parade, 2. REST. = Carry the right foot 6 inches straight tothe rear, left knee slightly bent; clasp the hands, withoutconstraint, in front of the center of the body, fingers joined, lefthand uppermost, left thumb clasped by the thumb and forefinger of theright hand; preserve silence and steadiness of position. (53) =102. = To resume the attention: =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. = The men take the position of the soldier. (54) Eyes Right or Left =103. 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT (LEFT), 3. FRONT. = [Illustration] At the command =right=, turn the head to the right oblique, eyes fixedon the line of eyes of the men in, or supposed to be in, the samerank. At the command =front=, turn the head and eyes to the front. (55) Facings =104. To the flank: 1. Right (left), 2. FACE. = Raise slightly the left heel and right toe; face to the right, turningon the right heel, assisted by a slight pressure on the ball of theleft foot; place the left foot by the side of the right. Left face isexecuted on the left heel in the corresponding manner. =Right (left) half face= is executed similarly, facing 45°. "To face in marching" and advance, turn on the ball of either foot andstep off with the other foot in the new line of direction; to face inmarching without gaining ground in the new direction, turn on the ballof either foot and mark time. (56) =105. = To the rear: =1. About, 2. FACE. = Carry the toe of the right foot about a half foot-length to the rearand slightly to the left of the left heel without changing theposition of the left foot; face to the rear, turning to the right onthe left heel and right toe; place the right heel by the side of theleft. (57) Salute with the Hand =106. 1. Hand, 2. SALUTE. = [Illustration] Raise the right hand smartly till the tip of the forefinger touchesthe lower part of the headdress or forehead above the right eye, thumband fingers extended and joined palm to the left, forearm inclined atabout 45°, hand and wrist straight; =at the same time look toward theperson saluted=. (=TWO=) Drop the arm smartly by the side. (58) (For rules governing salutes, see "Military Courtesy, " Chapter XI, Part II. ) Steps and Marchings =107. Steps and marchings begin with left foot. = All steps andmarchings executed from a halt, except right step, begin with the leftfoot. (59) =108. Length and cadence of full step; indicating cadence. = The lengthof the full step in quick time is 30 inches, measured from heel toheel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 steps per minute. The length of the full step in double time is 36 inches; the cadenceis at the rate of 180 steps per minute. The instructor, when necessary, indicates the cadence of the step bycalling =one, two, three, four=, or =left, right=, the instant theleft and right foot, respectively, should be planted. (60) =109. Steps and marchings and movements involving marchings habituallyexecuted in quick time. = All steps and marchings and movementsinvolving march are executed in =quick time= unless the squad bemarching in =double time=, or =double time= be added to the command;in the latter case double time is added to the preparatory command. Example: =1. Squad right, double time, 2. MARCH= (School of theSquad). (61) Quick Time =110. = Being at a halt, to march forward in quick time: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH. = At the command =forward=, shift the weight of the body to the rightleg, left knee straight. At the command =march=, move the left foot smartly straight forward 30inches from the right, sole near the ground, and plant it withoutshock; next in like manner, advance the right foot and plant it asabove; continue the march. The arms swing naturally. (62) =111. = Being at a halt, or in march in quick time, to march in doubletime: =1. Double time, 2. MARCH. = If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body to theright leg. At the command =march=, raise the forearms, fingers closed, to a horizontal position along the waist line; take up an easy runwith the step and cadence of double time, allowing a natural swingingmotion to the arms. If marching in quick time, at the command march, given as either footstrikes the ground, take one step in quick time, and then step off indouble time. (63) To resume the quick time: =1. Quick time, 2. MARCH. = At the command =march=, given as either foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the other foot in double time; resume the quicktime, dropping the hands by the sides. (64) To Mark Time =112. = Being in march: =1. Mark time, 2. MARCH. = At the command =march=, given as either foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the other foot; bring up the foot in rear andcontinue the cadence by alternately raising each foot about 2 inchesand planting it on line with the other. Being at a halt, at the command march, raise and plant the feet asdescribed above. (65) The Half Step =113. 1. Half step, 2. MARCH. = Take steps of 15 inches in quick time, 18 inches in double time. (66) =Forward=, =half step=, =halt=, and =mark time= may be executed onefrom the other in quick or double time. To resume the full step from half step or mark time: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH. = (67) Side Step =114. = Being at a halt or mark time: =1. Right (left) step, 2. MARCH. = Carry and plant the right foot 15 inches to the right; bring the leftfoot beside it and continue the movement in the cadence of quick time. The side step is used for short distances only and is not executed indouble time. If at order arms, the side step is executed at trail without command. (68) Back Step =115. = Being at a halt or mark time: =1. Backward, 2. MARCH. = Take steps of 15 inches straight to the rear. The back step is used for short distances only and is not executed indouble time. If at order arms, the back step is executed at trail without command. (69) To Halt =116. = To arrest the march in quick or double time: =1. Squad, 2. HALT. = At the command =halt=, given as either foot strikes the ground, plantthe other foot as in marching; raise and place the first foot by theside of the other. If in double time, drop the hands by the sides. (70) To March by the Flank =117. = Being in march: =1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH. = At the command =march=, given as the right foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the left foot; then face to the right in marchingand step off in the new direction with the right foot. (71) To March to the Rear =118. = Being in march: =1. To the rear, 2. MARCH. = At the command =march= given as the right foot strikes the groundadvance and plant the left foot; turn to the right about on the ballsof both feet and immediately step off with the left foot. If marching in double time, turn to the right about, taking four stepsin place, keeping the cadence, and then step off with the left foot. (72) Change Step =119. = Being in march: =1. Change step, 2. MARCH. = At the command =march=, given as the right foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the left foot; plant the toe of the right foot nearthe heel of the left and step off with the left foot. The change on the right foot is similarly executed, the command marchbeing given as the left foot strikes the ground. (73) MANUAL OF ARMS =120. Instruction of recruit in use of rifle, manual of arms, etc. = Assoon as practicable the recruit is taught the use, nomenclature, andcare of his rifle. (See "The Care, Description, and Management of theRifle, " Chapter XIV, Part II. ); when fair progress has been made inthe instruction without arms, he is taught the manual of arms;instruction without arms and that with arms alternate. (74) =121. Rules governing carrying of piece. = The following rulesgoverning the carrying of the piece: First. =Piece habitually carried without cartridges in chamber ormagazine. = The piece is not carried with cartridges in either thechamber or the magazine except when specifically ordered. When soloaded, or supposed to be loaded, it is habitually carried locked;that is, with the =safety lock= turned to the "safe. " At all othertimes it is carried unlocked, with the trigger pulled. Second. =Inspection of pieces when troops are formed and whendismissed. = Whenever troops are formed under arms, pieces areimmediately inspected at the commands: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Order (Right shoulder port), 4. ARMS=, which are executed as explainedin pars. 145-146. A similar inspection is made immediately before dismissal. If cartridges are found in the chamber or magazine they are removedand placed in the belt. Third. =Cut-off habitually turned "off. "= The cut-off is kept turned"off" except when cartridges are actually used. Fourth. =Bayonet habitually not carried fixed. = The bayonet is notfixed (See par. 142), except in bayonet exercise, on guard, or forcombat. Fifth. ="Fall in" executed at order; "attention" resumed at order. =Fall in is executed with the piece at the order arms. =Fall out=, =rest=, and =at ease= are executed as without arms, as explained inpar. 100. On resuming =attention= the position of order arms is taken. Sixth. =If at order, pieces brought to right shoulder at command"march"; execution of movements at trail; piece brought to trail incertain movements executed from order. = If at the order, unlessotherwise prescribed, the piece is brought to the right shoulder atthe command march, the three motions corresponding with the firstthree steps. Movements may be executed at the trail by prefacing thepreparatory command with the words =at trail=; as, =1. At trail, forward, 2. MARCH=; the trail is taken at the command =march=. When the facings, alignments, open and close ranks, taking interval ordistance, and assemblings are executed from the order, raise the pieceto the trail while in motion and resume the order on halting. Seventh. =Piece brought to order on halting. = The piece is brought tothe order on halting. The execution of the order begins when the haltis completed. Eighth. =Holding disengaged hand in double time. = A disengaged hand indouble time is held as when without arms. (75) =122. Rules governing manual of arms. = The following rules govern theexecution of the manual of arms: First. =Position of left hand at balance. = In all positions of theleft hand at the balance (center of gravity, bayonet unfixed) thethumb clasps the piece; the sling is included in the grasp of thehand. Second. =Positions of piece "diagonally across the body. "= In allpositions of the piece "diagonally across the body" the position ofthe piece, left arm and hand are the same as in port arms. (See par. 125. ) [Illustration] Third. =Next to last motion in resuming order from any position; pieceto strike ground gently. = In resuming the order from any position inthe manual, the motion next to the last concludes with the butt of thepiece about 3 inches from the ground, barrel to the rear, the lefthand above and near the right, steadying the piece, fingers extendedand joined, forearm and wrist straight and inclining downward, allfingers of the right hand grasping the piece. To complete the order, lower the piece gently to the ground with the right hand, drop theleft quickly by the side, and take the position of order arms. Allowing the piece to drop through the right hand to the ground, orother similar abuse of the rifle to produce effect in executing themanual is prohibited. Fourth. =Cadence of motions; at first attention to be paid to detailsof motion. = The cadence of the motions is that of quick time; therecruits are first required to give their whole attention to thedetails of the motions, the cadence being gradually acquired as theybecome accustomed to handling their pieces. The instructor may requirethem to count aloud in cadence with the motions. Fifth. =Execution of manual "by the numbers. "= The manual is taught ata halt and the movements are for the purpose of instruction, dividedinto motions and executed in detail; in this case the command of=execution= determines the prompt execution of the first motion, andthe commands, =two, three, four=, that of the other motions. To execute the movements in detail, the instructor first cautions: =Bythe numbers=; all movements divided into motions are then executed asabove explained until he cautions: =Without the numbers=; or commandsmovements other than those in the manual of arms. Sixth. =Regular positions assumed without regard to previouspositions; carrying rifle in any position. = Whenever circumstancesrequire, the regular positions of the manual of arms and the firingsmay be ordered without regard to the previous position of the piece. Under the exceptional conditions of weather or fatigue the rifle maybe carried in any manner directed. (76) [Illustration] =123. Position of order arms standing:= The butt rests evenly on theground, barrel to the rear, toe of the butt on a line with toe of, andtouching, the right shoe, arms and hands hanging naturally, right handholding the piece between the thumb and fingers. (77) =124. = Being at order arms: =1. Present, 2. ARMS. = [Illustration] With the right hand carry the piece in front of the center of thebody, barrel to the rear and vertical, grasp it with the left hand atthe balance, forearm horizontal and resting against the body. (=TWO=)Grasp the small of the stock with the right hand. (78) =125. = Being at order arms: =1. Port, 2. ARMS. = [Illustration] With the right hand raise and throw the piece diagonally across thebody, grasp it smartly with both hands; the right, palm down, at thesmall of the stock: the left, palm up, at the balance; barrel up, sloping to the left and crossing opposite the junction of the neckwith the left shoulder; right forearm horizontal; left forearm restingagainst the body; the piece in a vertical plane parallel to the front. (79) =126. = Being at present arms: =1. Port, 2. ARMS. = Carry the piece =diagonally across= the body and take the position ofport arms. (80) =127. = Being at port arms: =1. Present, 2. ARMS. = Carry the piece to a vertical position in front of the center of thebody and take the position of present arms. (81) =128. = Being at present or port arms: =1. Order, 2. ARMS. = Let go with the right hand; lower and carry the piece to the rightwith the left hand: regrasp it with the right hand just above thelower band; let go with the left hand, and take the next to the lastposition in coming to the order. (=TWO=) Complete the order. (82) =129. = Being at order arms: =1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS. = [Illustration] With the right hand raise and throw the piece diagonally across thebody; carry the right hand quickly to the butt, embracing it, the heelbetween the first two fingers. (=TWO=) Without changing the grasp ofthe right hand, place the piece on the right shoulder, barrel up andinclined at an angle of about 45° from the horizontal, trigger guardin the hollow of the shoulder, right elbow near the side, the piece ina vertical plane perpendicular to the front; carry the left hand, thumb and fingers extended and joined, to the small of the stock, tipof the forefinger touching the cocking piece, wrist straight and elbowdown. (=THREE=) Drop the left hand by the side. (83) =130. = Being at right shoulder arms: =1. Order, 2. ARMS. = Press the butt down quickly and throw the piece diagonally across thebody, the right hand retaining the grasp of the butt. (=TWO=), (=THREE=) Execute order arms as described from port arms. (84) =131. = Being at port arms: =1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS. = Change the right hand to the butt. (=TWO=), (=THREE=) As in rightshoulder arms from order arms. (85) =132. = Being at right shoulder arms: =1. Port, 2. ARMS. = Press the butt down quickly and throw the piece diagonally across thebody, the right hand retaining its grasp of the butt. (=TWO=) Changethe right hand to the small of the stock. (86) =133. = Being at right shoulder arms: =1. Present, 2. ARMS. = Execute port arms. (=THREE=) execute present arms. (87) =134. = Being at present arms: =1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS. = Execute port arms. (=TWO=), (=THREE=), (=FOUR=) Execute right shoulderarms as from port arms. (88) =135. = Being at port arms: =1. Left shoulder, 2. ARMS. = [Illustration] Carry the piece with the right hand and place it on the left shoulder, barrel up, trigger guard in the hollow of the shoulder; at the sametime grasp the butt with the left hand, heel between first and secondfingers, thumb and fingers closed on the stock. (=TWO=) Drop the righthand by the side. =136. = Being at left shoulder arms: =1. Port, 2. ARMS. = Grasp the piece with the right hand at the small of the stock. (=TWO=)Carry the piece to the right with the right hand, =regrasp= it withthe left, and take the position of port arms. =Left shoulder arms= may be ordered directly from the order, rightshoulder or present, or the reverse. At the command =arms= executeport arms and continue in cadence to the position ordered. (89) =137. = Being at order arms: =1. Parade, 2. REST. = [Illustration] Carry the right foot 6 inches straight to the rear, left knee slightlybent; carry the muzzle in front of the center of the body, barrel tothe left; grasp the piece with the left hand just below the stackingswivel, and with the right hand below and against the left. =138. = Being at parade rest: =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. = Resume the order, the left hand quitting the piece opposite the righthip. (90) =139. = Being at order arms: =1. Trail, 2. ARMS. = [Illustration] Raise the piece, right arm slightly bent, and incline the muzzleforward so that the barrel makes an angle of about 30° with thevertical. When it can be done without danger or inconvenience to others, thepiece may be grasped at the balance and the muzzle lowered until thepiece is horizontal; a similar position in the left hand may be used. (91) =140. = Being at trail arms: =1. Order, 2. ARMS. = Lower the piece with the right hand and resume the order. (92) Rifle Salute =141. = Being at right shoulder arms: =1. Rifle, 2. SALUTE. = [Illustration] Carry the left hand smartly to the small of the stock, forearmhorizontal, palm of hand down, thumb and fingers extended and joined, forefinger touching end of cocking piece; look toward the personsaluted. (=TWO=) Drop left hand by the side; turn head and eyes to thefront. (93) Being at order or trail arms: =1. Rifle, 2. SALUTE. = [Illustration] Carry the left hand smartly to the right side, palm of the hand down, thumb and fingers extended and joined, forefinger against piece nearthe muzzle; look toward the person saluted. (=TWO=) Drop the left handby the side; turn the head and eyes to the front. For rules governing salutes, see "Military Courtesy, " Chapter XI, PartII. The Bayonet =142. = Being at order arms: =1. Fix, 2. BAYONET. = If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Execute parade rest;grasp the bayonet with the right hand, back of hand toward the body;draw the bayonet from the scabbard and fix it on the barrel, glancingat the muzzle; resume the order. If the bayonet is carried on the haversack: Draw the bayonet with theleft hand and fix it in the most convenient manner. (95) =143. = Being at our arms: =1. Unfix, 2. BAYONET. = If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Execute parade rest;grasp the handle of the bayonet firmly with the right hand, pressingthe spring with the forefinger of the right hand; raise the bayonetuntil the handle is about 12 inches above the muzzle of the piece;drop the point to the left, back of the hand toward the body, and, glancing at the scabbard, return the bayonet, the blade passingbetween the left arm and the body; regrasp the piece with the righthand and resume the order. If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the haversack: Take the bayonetfrom the rifle with the left hand and return it to the scabbard in themost convenient manner. If marching or lying down, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed in themost expeditious and convenient manner and the piece returned to theoriginal position. =Fix= and =unfix= bayonet are executed with promptness and regularitybut not in cadence. (For unfixing bayonet with Krag rifle, see Par. 697. ) (96) =144. CHARGE BAYONET. = Whether executed at halt or in motion, thebayonet is held toward the opponent as in the position of =guard= inthe Manual for Bayonet Exercise. Exercises for instruction in bayonet combat are prescribed in theManual for Bayonet Exercise. (97) The Inspection [Illustration] =145. = Being at order arms: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS. = At the second command take the position of port arms. (=TWO=) Seizethe bolt handle with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, turnthe handle up, draw the bolt back, and glance at the chamber. Havingfound the chamber empty, or having emptied it, raise the head and eyesto the front. (For inspection of arms with Krag rifle see par. 698. )(98) =146. = Being at inspection arms: =1. Order (Right shoulder, port), 2. ARMS. = At the preparatory command push the bolt forward, turn the handledown, pull the trigger, and resume =port arms=. At the command =arms=, complete the movement ordered. (To execute with Krag rifle see par. 699. ) (99) To Dismiss the Squad =147. = Being at halt: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Port, 4. ARMS, 5. DISMISSED. = (100) SCHOOL OF THE SQUAD =148. Grouping into Squads. = Soldiers are grouped into squads forpurposes of instruction, discipline, control, and order. (101) =149. Composition of squad; object of squad movements. = The squadproper consists of a corporal and seven privates. The movements in the School of the Squad are designed to make thesquad a fixed unit and to facilitate the control and movement of thecompany. If the number of men grouped is more than 3 and less than 12, they are formed as a squad of 4 files, the excess above 8 being postedas file closers. If the number grouped is greater than 11, 2 or moresquads are formed and the group is termed a platoon. For the instruction of recruits, these rules may be modified. (102) =150. Squad leader; his post. = The corporal is the squad leader, andwhen absent is replaced by a designated private. If no private isdesignated, the senior in length of service acts as leader. The corporal, when in ranks, is posted as the left man in the frontrank of the squad. When the corporal leaves the ranks to lead his squad, his rear rankman steps into the front rank, and the file remains blank until thecorporal returns to his place in ranks, when his rear rank man stepsback into the rear rank. (103) =151. Preservation of integrity of squads in battle. = In battleofficers and sergeants endeavor to preserve the integrity of squads;they designate new leaders to replace those disabled, organize newsquads when necessary, and see that every man is placed in a squad. Men are taught the necessity of remaining with the squad to which theybelong and, in case it be broken up or they become separatedtherefrom, to attach themselves to the nearest squad and platoonleaders, whether these be of their own or of another organization. (104) =152. Certain movements executed by squad as in School of theSoldier. = The squad executes the =halt= (See par. 116), =rests= (Seepar. 100-101), =facings= (See pars. 104-105), =steps and marchings=(See pars. 107-119), and the =manual of arms= (See pars. 120-147), asexplained in the School of the Soldier. (105) To Form the Squad =153. = To form the squad the instructor places himself 3 paces infront of where the center is to be and commands: =FALL IN. = The men assemble at attention, pieces at the order, and are arrangedby the corporal in double rank, as nearly as practicable in order ofheight from right to left, each man dropping his left hand as soon asthe man in his left has his interval. The rear rank forms withdistance of 40 inches. The instructor then commands: =COUNT OFF. = At this command all except the right file execute eyes right, andbeginning on the right, the men in each rank count =one, two, three, four=; each man turns his head and eyes to the front as he counts. Pieces are then inspected. (106) Alignments =154. = To align the squad, the base file or files having beenestablished: =1. Right (Left), 2. DRESS, 3. FRONT. = At the command front, given when the ranks are aligned, each hip(whether dressing to the right or left); each man, except the basefile, when on or near the new line executes =eyes right=, and takingsteps of 2 or 3 inches, places himself so that his right arm restslightly against the arm of the man on his right, and so that his eyesand shoulders are in line with those of the men on his right; the rearrank men cover in file. The instructor verifies the alignment of both ranks from the rightflank and orders up or back such men as may be in rear, or in advance, of the line; only the men designated move. At the command =dress= all men place the left hand upon the man turnshis head and eyes to the front and drops his left hand by his side. In the first drills the basis of the alignment is established on, orparallel to, the front of the squad; afterwards, in obliquedirections. Whenever the position of the base file or files necessitates aconsiderable movement by the squad, such movement will be executed bymarching to the front or oblique, to the flank or backward, as thecase may be, without other command, and at the trail. (107) =155. = To preserve the alignment when marching: =GUIDE RIGHT (LEFT). = The men preserve their intervals from the side of the guide, yieldingto pressure from that side and resisting pressure from the oppositedirection; they recover intervals, if lost, by gradually opening outor closing in; they recover alignment by slightly lengthening orshortening the step; the rear-rank men cover their file leaders at 40inches. In double rank, the front-rank man on the right, or designated flank, conducts the march; when marching faced to the flank, the leading manof the front rank is the guide. (108) To Take Intervals and Distances =156. = Being in line at a halt: =1. Take interval, 2. To the right(left), 3. MARCH, 4. Squad, 5. HALT. = [Illustration] Being in line at a halt. =1. Take interval, 2. To the right (left)= [Illustration] At the second command the rear-rank men march backward 4 steps andhalt; =3. MARCH= [Illustration] At the command =march= all face to the right and the leading man ofeach rank steps off; the other men step off in succession, eachfollowing the preceding man at 4 paces, rear-rank men marching abreastof their file leaders. =4. Squad, 5. HALT= [Illustration] At the command =halt=, given when all have their intervals, all haltand face to the front. (109) [Illustration: (AT INTERVALS)] =157. Being at intervals, to assemble the squad:= =1. Assemble, to the right (left), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration: (ASSEMBLE)] The front-rank man on the right stands fast, the rear rank man on theright closes to 40 inches. The other men face to the right, close bythe shortest line, and face to the front. (110) [Illustration: (ASSEMBLED)] =158. = Being in line at a halt and having counted off: =1. Takedistance, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. = [Illustration] At the command =March= No. 1 of the front rank moves straight to thefront; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the front rank and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 ofthe rear rank, in the order named, move straight to the front, eachstepping off so as to follow the preceding man at 4 paces. The command=halt= is given when all have their distances. In case more than one squad is in line, each squad executes themovement as above. The guide of each rank of numbers is right. (111) =159. = Being at distances, to assemble the squad: =1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] No. 1 of the front rank stands fast; the other numbers move forward totheir proper places in line. (112) To Stack and Take Arms [Illustration] =160. = Being in line at a halt: =STACK ARMS. = Each =even= number ofthe =front= rank grasps his piece with the left hand at the upperband [Illustration] and rests the butt between his feet, barrel to the front, muzzleinclined slightly to the front and opposite the center of the intervalon his right, the thumb and forefinger raising the stacking swivel;each =even= number of the =rear= rank then passes his piece, barrel tothe rear, to his file leader, who grasps it between the bands with hisright hand [Illustration] and throws the butt about 2 feet in advance of that of his own pieceand opposite the right of the interval, the right hand slipping to theupper band, the thumb and forefinger raising the stacking swivel, which he engages with that of his own piece; [Illustration] each =odd= number of the =front= rank raises his piece with the righthand, carries it well forward, barrel to the front; the left hand, guiding the stacking swivel, [Illustration] engages the lower hook of the swivel of his own piece with the freehook of that of the even number of the rear rank; he then turns thebarrel outward into the angle formed by the other two pieces andlowers the butt to the ground, =to the right= and =against the toe= ofhis right shoe. The stacks made, the loose pieces are laid on them by the =even=numbers of the front rank. When each man has finished handling pieces, he takes the position of the soldier. (113) =161. = Being in line behind the stacks: =TAKE ARMS. = (See preceding illustration. ) The loose pieces are returned by the =even= numbers of the =front=rank; each even number of the front rank grasps his own piece with theleft hand, the piece of his rear rank man with his right hand, grasping both between the bands; each =odd= number of the =front= rankgrasps his piece in the same way with the right hand; disengages it byraising the butt from the ground and then turning the piece to theright, detaches it from the stack; each =even= number of the frontrank disengages and detaches his piece by turning it to the left, [Illustration] and, then passes the piece of his rear-rank man to him, and all resumethe order. (114) Should any squad have Nos. 2 and 3 blank files, No. 1 rear rank takesthe place of No. 2 rear rank in making and breaking the stack; thestacks made or broken, he resumes his post. Pieces not used in making the stacks are termed =loose pieces=. Pieces are never stacked with the bayonet fixed. (115) The Oblique March =162. = For the instruction of recruits, the squad being in column orcorrectly aligned, the instructor causes the squad to face half rightor half left, points out to the men their relative positions, andexplains that these are to be maintained in the oblique march. (116) =163. Right (Left) oblique, 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] Each man steps off in a direction 45° to the right of his originalfront. He preserves his relative position, keeping his shouldersparallel to those of the guide (the man on the right front of the lineor column), and so regulates his steps that the ranks remain parallelto their original front. At the command =halt= the men halt faced to front. To resume the original direction: =1. Forward 2. MARCH. = The men half face to the left in marching and then move straight tothe front. If at =halfstep= or =mark time= while obliquing, the oblique march isresumed by the commands: =1. Oblique, 2. MARCH. = (117) To Turn on Moving Pivot =164. = Being in line: =1. Right (Left) turn, 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] The movement is executed by each rank successively and on the sameground. At the second command, the pivot man of the front rank facesto the right in marching and takes the half step; the other men of therank oblique to the right until opposite their places in line, thenexecute a second right oblique and take the half step on arrivingabreast of the pivot man. All glance toward the marching flank whileat half step and take the full step without command as the last manarrives on the line. =Right (Left) half turn= is executed in a similar manner. The pivotman makes a half change of direction to the right and the other menmake quarter changes in obliquing. (118) To Turn on Fixed Pivot =165. = Being in line, to turn and march: =1. Squad right (left), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] At the second command, the right flank man in the front rank faces tothe right in marching and marks time; the other front rank men obliqueto the right, place themselves abreast of the pivot, and mark time. Inthe rear rank the third man from the right, followed in column by thesecond and first, move straight to the front [Illustration] until in rear of his front-rank man, [Illustration] when all face to the right in marching and mark time; the other numberof the rear rank moves straight to the front four paces and placeshimself abreast of the man on his right. Men on the new line glancetoward the marching flank while marking time and, as the last manarrives on the line, both ranks execute =forward, MARCH=, withoutcommand. (119) =166. = Being in line, to turn and halt: =1. Squad right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. = The third command is given immediately after the second. The turn isexecuted as prescribed in the preceding paragraph except that all men, on arriving on the new line, mark time until the fourth command isgiven, when all halt. The fourth command should be given as the lastman arrives on the line. (120) =167. = Being in line, to turn about and march: =1. Squad right (left)about, 2. MARCH. = At the second command, the front rank twice executes squad rightinitiating the second squad right when the man on the marching flankhas arrived abreast of the rank. In the rear rank the third man fromthe right, followed by the second and first in column, moves straightto the front until on the prolongation of the line to be occupied bythe rear rank; changes direction to the right; moves in the newdirection until in rear of his front-rank man, when all face to theright in marching, mark time, and glance toward the marching flank. The fourth man marches on the left of the third to his new position;as he arrives on the line, both ranks execute =forward, MARCH=, without command. (121) =168. = Being in line, to turn about and halt: =1. Squad right (left)about, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. = The third command is given immediately after the second. The turn isexecuted as prescribed in the preceding paragraph except that all men, on arriving on the new line, mark time until the fourth command isgiven, when all halt. The fourth command should be given as the lastman arrives on the line. (122) To Follow the Corporal [Illustration: (IN LINE)] =169. = Being assembled or deployed, to march the squad withoutunnecessary commands, the corporal places himself in front of it andcommands: =FOLLOW ME. = [Illustration: (AS SKIRMISHERS)] If in line or skirmish line, No. 2 of the front rank follows in thetrace of the corporal at about 3 paces; the other men conform to themovements of No. 2, guiding on him and maintaining their relativepositions. [Illustration: (IN COLUMN)] If in column, the head of the column follows the corporal. (123) To Deploy as Skirmishers [Illustration] =170. = Being in any formation, assembled: =1. As skirmishers, 2. MARCH. = The corporal places himself in front of the squad, if not alreadythere. Moving at a run, the men place themselves abreast of thecorporal at half-pace intervals, Nos. 1 and 2 on his right, Nos. 3and 4 on his left, rear rank men on the right of their file leaders, extra men on the left of No. 4; all then conform to the corporal'sgait. [Illustration] When the squad is acting alone, skirmish line is similarly formed onNo. 2 of the front rank, who stands fast or continues the march, asthe case may be; the corporal places himself in front of the squadwhen advancing and in rear when halted. [Illustration] When deployed as skirmishers, the men march at ease, pieces at thetrail unless otherwise ordered. The corporal is the guide when in the line; otherwise No. 2 front rankis the guide. (124) =171. = The normal interval between skirmishers is one-half pace, resulting practically in one man per yard of front. The front of asquad thus deployed as skirmishers is about 10 paces. (125) To Increase or Diminish Intervals =172. = If assembled, and it is desired to deploy at greater than thenormal interval; or if deployed, and it is desired to increase ordecrease the internal: =1. As skirmishers, (so many) paces, 2. MARCH. = Intervals are taken at the indicated number of paces. If alreadydeployed, the men move by the flank toward or away from the guide. (126) The Assembly =173. = Being deployed: =1. Assemble. 2. MARCH. = The men move toward the corporal and form in their proper places. If the corporal continues to advance, the men move in double time, form, and follow him. The assembly while marching to the rear is not executed. (127) Kneeling and Lying Down =174. = If standing: =KNEEL. = Half face to the right; carry the right toe about 1 foot to the leftrear of the left heel; kneel on right knee, sitting as nearly aspossible on the right heel; left forearm across left thigh; pieceremains in position of order arms, right hand grasping it above lowerband. (128) [Illustration] =175. = If standing or kneeling: =LIE DOWN. = [Illustration] Kneel, but with right knee against left heel: [Illustration] carry back the left foot and lie flat on the belly, inclining bodyabout 35° to the right [Illustration] piece horizontal, barrel up, muzzle off the ground and pointed to thefront; elbows on the ground; left hand at the balance, right handgrasping the small of the stock opposite the neck. This is theposition of order arms, lying down. (129) =176. = If kneeling or lying down: =RISE. = If kneeling, stand up, faced to the front, on the ground marked by theleft heel. If lying down, raise body on both knees; stand up, faced to the front, on the ground marked by the knees. (130) =177. = If lying down: =KNEEL. = Raise the body on both knees; take the position of kneel. (131) =178. = In double rank, the positions of kneeling and lying down areordinarily used only for the better utilization of cover. When deployed as skirmishers, a sitting position may be taken in lieuof the position kneeling. (132) Loadings and Firings =179. = The commands for loading and firing are the same whetherstanding, kneeling, or lying down. The firings are always executed ata halt. When kneeling or lying down in double rank, the rear rank does notload, aim, or fire. The instruction in firing will be preceded by a command for loading. Loadings are executed in line and skirmish line only. (133) =180. = Pieces having been ordered loaded are kept loaded withoutcommand until the command =unload=, or =inspection arms=, fresh clipsbeing inserted when the magazine is exhausted. (To execute with Kragrifle see par. 700. ) (134) =181. = The aiming point or target is carefully pointed out. This maybe done before or after announcing the sight setting. Both areindicated before giving the command for firing, but may be omittedwhen the target appears suddenly and is unmistakable; in such casebattle sight is used if no sight setting is announced. (135) =182. = The target or aiming point having been designated and the sightsetting announced, such designation or announcement need not berepeated until a change of either or both is necessary. Troops are trained to continue their fire upon the aiming point ortarget designated, and at the sight setting announced, until a changeis ordered. (136) =183. = If the men are not already in the position of load, thatposition is taken at the announcement of the sight setting; if theannouncement is omitted, the position is taken at the first commandfor firing. (137) =184. = When deployed, the use of the sling as an aid to accuratefiring is discretionary with each man. (138) To Load =185. = Being in line or skirmish line at halt: =1. With dummy (blank or ball) cartridges, 2. LOAD. = [Illustration] At the command load each front-rank man or skirmisher faces half rightand carries the right foot to the right, about 1 foot, to suchposition as will insure the greatest firmness and steadiness of thebody; raises, or lowers, the piece and drops it into the left hand atthe balance, the left thumb extended along the stock, muzzle at theheight of the breast, and turns the cut-off up. [Illustration] With the right hand he turns and draws the bolt back, [Illustration] takes a loaded clip and inserts the end in the clip slots, places thethumb on the powder space of the top cartridge, the fingers extendingaround the piece and tips resting on the magazine floor plate; forcesthe cartridges into the magazine by pressing down with the thumb;without removing the clip, thrusts the bolt home, turning down thehandle; turns the safety lock to the "=safe=, " [Illustration] and carries the hand to the small of the stock. [Illustration] Each rear rank man moves to the right front, takes a similar positionopposite the interval to the right of his front rank man, muzzle ofthe piece extending beyond the front rank and loads. A skirmish line may load while moving, the pieces being held as nearlyas practicable in the position of =load=. [Illustration] If kneeling or sitting, the position of the piece is similar; ifkneeling, the left forearm rests on the left thigh; [Illustration] if sitting the elbows are supported by the knees. [Illustration] If lying down, the left hand steadies and supports the piece at thebalance, the toe of the butt resting on the ground, the muzzle off theground. For reference, these positions (standing, kneeling, and lying down)are designated as that of =load=. (For Krag rifle as prescribed in701. ) (139) =186. = For instruction in loading: =1. Simulate, 2. LOAD. = Executed as above described except that the cut-off remains "off" andthe handling of cartridges is simulated. The recruits are first taught to =simulate= loading and firing; aftera few lessons dummy cartridges may be used. Later, blank cartridgesmay be used. (140) The rifle may be used as a single loader by turning the magazine"off. " The magazine may be filled in whole or in part while "off" or"on" by pressing cartridges singly down and back until they are in theproper place. The use of the rifle as a single loader is, however, tobe regarded as exceptional. (Explained for Krag rifle in par. 702. )(141) To Unload =187. UNLOAD. = Take the position of load, turn the safety lock up and move boltalternately back and forward until all the cartridges are ejected. After the last cartridge is ejected the chamber is closed by firstthrusting the bolt slightly forward to free it from the stud holdingit in place when the chamber is open, pressing the follower down andback to engage it under the bolt and then thrusting the bolt home; thetrigger is pulled. The cartridges are then picked up, cleaned, andreturned to the belt and the piece is brought to the order. (Explainedin par. 703 for Krag rifle. ) (142) To Set the Sight =188. RANGE, ELEVEN HUNDRED (EIGHT-FIFTY, etc. )=, or =BATTLE SIGHT=. The sight is set at the elevation indicated. The instructor explainsand verifies sight settings. (143) To Fire by Volley =189. 1. Ready, 2. AIM, 3. Squad, 4. FIRE. = [Illustration] At the command =ready= turn the safety lock to the "ready"; [Illustration] at the command =aim= raise the piece with both hands and support thebutt firmly against the hollow of the right shoulder, right thumbclasping the stock, barrel horizontal, left elbow well under thepiece, right elbow as high as the shoulder; incline the head slightlyforward and a little to the right, cheek against the stock, [Illustration] left eye closed, right eye looking through the notch of the rear sightso as to perceive the object aimed at, second joint of the forefingerresting lightly against the front of the trigger and taking up theslack; top of front sight is carefully raised into, and held in, theline of sight. [Illustration] Each rear-rank man aims through the interval to the right of his fileleader and leans slightly forward to advance the muzzle of his piecebeyond the front rank. [Illustration] In aiming kneeling, the left elbow rests on the left knee, point ofelbow in front of kneecap. [Illustration] In aiming sitting, the elbows are supported by the knees. [Illustration] In aiming, lying down, raise the piece with both hands; rest on bothelbows and press the butt firmly against the right shoulder. At the command =fire= press the finger against the trigger; firewithout deranging the aim and without lowering or turning the piece;lower the piece in the position of =load= and load. (144) To continue the firing: =1. AIM, 2. Squad, 3. FIRE. = Each command is executed as previously explained. =Load= (frommagazine) is executed by drawing back and thrusting home the bolt withthe right hand, leaving the safety lock at the "ready. " (145) To Fire at Will =190. FIRE AT WILL. = Each man, independently of the others, comes to the =ready=, aimscarefully and deliberately at the aiming point or target, =fires=, =loads=, and continues the firing until ordered to =suspend= or =ceasefiring=. (146) =191. = To increase (decrease) the rate of fire in progress theinstructor shouts: =FASTER (SLOWER). = Men are trained to fire at the rate of about three shots per minute ateffective ranges and five or six at close ranges, devoting the minimumof time to loading and the maximum to deliberate aiming. To illustratethe necessity for deliberation, and to habituate men to combatconditions, small and comparatively indistinct targets are designated. (147) To Fire by Clip =192. CLIP FIRE. = Executed in the same manner as =fire at will=, except that each man, after having exhausted the cartridges then in the piece, =suspendsfiring=. (For Krag rifle see par. 704. ) (148) To Suspend Firing =193. = The instructor blows a =long blast= of the whistle and repeatssame, if necessary, or commands: =SUSPEND FIRING. = Firing stops; pieces are held, loaded and locked, in a position ofreadiness for instant resumption of firing, rear sights unchanged. Themen continue to observe the target or aiming point, or the place atwhich the target disappeared, or at which it is expected to reappear. This whistle signal may be used as a preliminary to =cease firing=. (149) To Cease Firing =194. CEASE FIRING. = Firing stops; pieces not already there are brought to the position ofload; those not loaded, are loaded; sights are laid, pieces are lockedand brought to the order. =Cease firing= is used for long pauses, to prepare for changes ofposition, or to steady the men. (For Krag rifle see par. 705. ) (150) Commands for suspending or ceasing fire may be given at any time afterthe preparatory command for firing whether the firing has actuallycommenced or not. (151) The Use of Cover =195. Individual instruction; things to be impressed upon therecruit. = The recruit should be given careful instruction in theindividual use of cover. (152) It should be impressed upon him that, in taking advantage of naturalcover, he must be able to fire easily and effectively upon the enemy;if advancing on an enemy, he must do so steadily and as rapidly aspossible; he must conceal himself as much as possible while firing andwhile advancing. While setting his sight he should be under cover orlying prone. =196. Practice in simulated firing from behind hillocks, trees, etc. ;firing around right side of concealment. = To teach him to fire easilyand effectively, at the same time concealing himself from the view ofthe enemy, he is practiced in simulated firing in the prone, sitting, kneeling, and crouching positions, from behind hillocks, trees, heapsof earth or rocks, from depressions, gullies, ditches, doorways, orwindows. He is taught to fire around the right side of his concealmentwhenever possible, or, when this is not possible, to rise enough tofire over the top of his concealment. When these details are understood, he is required to select cover withreference to an assumed enemy and to place himself behind it in properposition for firing. (153) =197. Evil of remaining too long in one place; advancing from cover tocover by running, crawling, etc. = The evil of remaining too long inone place, however good the concealment, should be explained. Heshould be taught to advance from cover to cover, selecting cover inadvance before leaving his concealment. It should be impressed upon him that a man running rapidly toward anenemy furnishes a poor target. He should be trained in springing froma prone position behind concealment, running at top speed to cover andthrowing himself behind it. He should also be practiced in advancingfrom cover to cover by crawling, or by lying on the left side, riflegrasped in the right hand, and pushing himself forward with the rightleg. (154) =198. Action when fired on while acting independently. = He should betaught that, when fired on while acting independently, he should dropto the ground, seek cover, and then endeavor to locate his enemy. (155) =199. Proper advance and effectiveness of fire of greater importancethan cover. = The instruction of the recruit in the use of cover iscontinued in the combat exercises of the company, but he must then betaught that the proper advance of the platoon or company and theeffectiveness of its fire is of greater importance than the questionof cover for individuals. He should also be taught that he may notmove about or shift his position in the firing line except the betterto see the target. (156) Observation =200. Importance of observation; training of recruit. = The ability touse his eyes accurately is of great importance to the soldier. Therecruit should be trained in observing his surroundings from positionsand when on the march. He should be practiced in pointing out and naming military features ofthe ground; in distinguishing between living beings; in countingdistant groups of objects or beings; in recognizing colors and forms. (157) =201. Training in mechanism of firing line and estimating distance. =In the training of men in the mechanism of the firing line, theyshould be practiced in repeating to one another target and aimingpoint designations and in quickly locating and pointing out adesignated target. They should be taught to distinguish, from a proneposition, distant objects, particularly troops, both with the nakedeye and with field glasses. Similarly, they should be trained inestimating distances. (158) SCHOOL OF THE COMPANY =202. Captain responsible for instruction of officers andnoncommissioned officers. = The captain is responsible for thetheoretical and practical instruction of his officers andnoncommissioned officers, not only in the duties of their respectivegrades, but in those of the next higher grades. (159) =203. Formation of company in double rank, according to height;division into squads. = The company in line is formed in double rankwith the men arranged, as far as practicable, according to height fromright to left, the tallest on the right. The original division into squads is effected by the command: =COUNTOFF=. The squads, successively, from the right, count off as in theSchool of the Squad, as explained in par. 153, corporals placingthemselves as Nos. 4 of the front rank. If the left squad containsless than six men, it is either increased to that number by transfersfrom other squads or is broken up and its members assigned to othersquads and posted in the line of file closers. These squadorganizations are maintained, by transfers if necessary, until thecompany becomes so reduced in numbers as to necessitate a new divisioninto squads. No squad will contain less than six men. (160) =204. Division of company into platoons. = The company is furtherdivided into two, three or four platoons, each consisting of not lessthan two, nor more than four squads. In garrison or ceremonies thestrength of platoons may exceed four squads. (161) =205. Designation of squads and platoons. = At the formation of thecompany the platoons or squads are numbered consecutively from rightto left and these designations do not change. For convenience in giving commands and for reference, thedesignations, =right, center, left=, when in line, and =leading, center, rear=, when in column, are applied to platoons or squads. These designations apply to the actual right, left, center, head, orrear, in whatever direction the company may be facing. The =centersquad= is the middle or right middle squad of the company. The designation "So-and-so's" squad or platoon may also be used. (162) =206. Assignment of platoons; assignment of guides. = Platoons areassigned to the lieutenants and noncommissioned officers, in order ofrank, as follows: 1, right; 2, left; 3, center (right center); 4, leftcenter. [Illustration: Plate II] The noncommissioned officers next in rank are assigned as guides, oneto each platoon. If sergeants still remain, they are assigned toplatoons as additional guides. When the platoon is deployed, itsguide, or guides, accompany the platoon leader. During battle, these assignments are not changed; vacancies are filledby noncommissioned officers of the platoon, or by the nearestavailable officers or noncommissioned officers arriving withreënforcing troops. (163) =207. Post of first sergeant, quartermaster sergeant and musicians. =The first sergeant is never assigned as a guide. When not commanding aplatoon, he is posted as a file closer opposite the third file fromthe outer flank of the first platoon; and when the company is deployedhe accompanies the captain. The quartermaster sergeant, when present, is assigned according to hisrank as a sergeant. Enlisted men below the grade of sergeant, armed with the rifle are inranks unless serving as guides; when not so armed they are posted inthe line of file closers. Musicians, when required to play, are at the head of the column. Whenthe company is deployed, they accompany the captain, and perform theduties laid down in par. 272. (164) =208. Certain movements executed by company and by platoon asprescribed in Schools of the Soldier and the Squad. = The companyexecutes the =halt=, =rests=, =facings=, =steps=, and =marchings=, =manual of arms=, =loadings=, and =firings=, takes =intervals= and=distances= and =assembles=, =increases= and =diminishes intervals=, resumes =attention=, =obliques=, resumes the direct march, preservesalignments, =kneels=, =lies down=, =rises=, =stacks=, and =takesarms=, as explained in the Schools of the Soldier and the Squad, substituting in the commands =company= for =squad=. The same rule applies to platoons, detachments, details, etc. , substituting their designation for =squad= in the commands. In thesame manner these execute the movements prescribed for the company, whenever possible, substituting their designation for =company= in thecommands. (165) =209. Depleted company led as platoon. = A company so depleted as tomake division into platoons impracticable is led by the captain as asingle platoon, but retains the designation of company. Thelieutenants and first sergeant assist in fire control; the othersergeants place themselves in the firing line as skirmishers. (166) CLOSE ORDER Rules =210. Platoon guides. = The guides of the right and left, or leadingand rear, platoons, are the right and left, or leading and rear, guides, respectively, of the company when it is in line or in columnof squads. Other guides are in the line of =file closers=. In platoon movements the post of the platoon guide is at the head ofthe platoon, if the platoon is in column, and on the guiding flank ifin line. When a platoon has two guides their original assignment toflanks of the platoon does not change. (167) =211. Guides of a column of squads; changing guides and file closersto opposite flank. = The guides of a column of squads place themselveson the flank opposite the file closers. To change the guides and fileclosers to the other flank, the captain commands: =1. File closers onleft (right) flank; 2. MARCH. = The file closers dart through thecolumn; the captain and guides change. In the column of squads, each rank preserves the alignment toward theside of the guide. (168) =212. File closers do not execute loadings or firings; execution ofmanual of arms and other movements. = Men in the line of file closersdo not execute the loadings or firings. Guides and enlisted men in the line of file closers execute the manualof arms during the drill unless specially excused, when they remain atthe order. During ceremonies they execute all movements. (169) =213. Action of guides in taking intervals and distances. = In takingintervals and distances, unless otherwise directed, the right and leftguides, at the first command, place themselves in the line of fileclosers, and, with them, take a distance of 4 paces from the rearrank. In taking intervals, at the command =march=, the file closersface to the flank and each steps off with the file nearest him. Inassembling the guides and file closers resume their position in line. (170) =214. Repetition of commands by platoon leaders in platoon drill. = Inmovements executed simultaneously by platoons (=as platoons right orplatoons, column right=), platoon leaders repeat the preparatorycommand (=platoon right=, etc. ), applicable to their respectiveplatoons. The command of execution is given by the captain only. (171) To Form the Company =215. = At the sounding of the assembly the first sergeant takesposition 6 paces in front of where the center of the company is to be, faces it, draws saber, and commands: =FALL IN. = The right guide of the company places himself, facing to the front, where the right of the company is to rest, and at such point that thecenter of the company will be 6 paces from and opposite the firstsergeant; the squads form in their proper places on the left of theright guide, superintended by the other sergeants, who then take theirposts. The first sergeant commands: =REPORT. = Remaining in position at theorder, the squad leaders, in succession from right, salute and report:=All present=; or, =Private(s) ---- absent. = The first sergeant doesnot return the salutes of the squad leaders; he then commands: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Order, 4. ARMS=, faces about, salutes thecaptain, reports: =Sir, all present or accounted for=, or the names ofthe unauthorized absentees, and, without command, takes his post. If the company can not be formed by squads, the first sergeantcommands: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Right shoulder, 4. ARMS=, andcalls the roll. Each man, as his name is called, answers here andexecutes order arms. The sergeant then effects the division intosquads and reports the company as prescribed above. The captain places himself 12 paces in front of the center of, andfacing, the company in time to receive the report of the firstsergeant, whose salute he returns, and then draws saber. The lieutenants take their posts when the first sergeant has reportedand draw saber with the captain. The company, if not under arms, isformed in like manner omitting reference to arms. (172) =216. = For the instruction of platoon leaders and guides, the company, when small, may be formed in single rank. In this formation closeorder movements only are executed. The single rank executes allmovements as explained for the front rank of a company. (173) To Dismiss the Company =217. = Being in line at a halt, the captain directs the firstsergeant: =Dismiss the company. = The officers fall out; the firstsergeant places himself faced to the front, 3 paces to the front and 2paces from the nearest flank of the company, salutes, faces towardopposite flank of the company and commands: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Port, 4. ARMS, 5. DISMISSED. = (174) Alignments =218. = The alignments are executed as prescribed in the School of theSquad, the guide being established instead of the flank file. Therear-rank man of the flank file keeps his head and eyes to the frontand covers his file leader. At each alignment the captain places himself in prolongation of theline, 2 paces from and facing the flank toward which the dress ismade, verifies the alignment, and commands: =FRONT. = Platoon leaders take a like position when required to verifyalignments. (175) Movements on the Fixed Pivot =219. = Being in line, to turn the company: =1. Company right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT;= or, =3. Forward, 4. MARCH. = At the second command the right-flank man[1] in the front rank facesto the right in marching and marks time; the other front-rank menoblique to the right, place themselves abreast of the pivot, and marktime; in the rear rank the third man from the right, followed incolumn by the second and first, moves straight to the front until inrear of his front-rank man, when all face to the right in marching andmark time; the remaining men of the rear rank move straight to thefront 4 paces, oblique to the right, place themselves abreast of thethird man, cover their file leaders, and mark time, the right guidesteps back, takes post on the flank, and marks time. [Illustration] The fourth command is given when the last man is 1 pace in rear of thenew line. The command =halt= may be given at any time after the movement begins;only those halt who are in the new position. Each of the others haltsupon arriving on the line, aligns himself to the right, and executes=front= without command. (176) =220. = Being in line, to form column of platoons, or the reverse: =1. Platoons right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT=; or, =3. Forward, 4. MARCH. = [Illustration: FROM LINE TO COLUMN OF PLATOONS. ] Executed by each platoon as described for the company. Before forming line the captain sees that the guides on the flanktoward which the movement is to be executed are covering. This iseffected by previously announcing the guide to that flank. (177) =221. = Being in line, to form column of squads, or the reverse; or, being in line of platoons, to form column of platoons, or the reverse:=1. Squads right (left), 2. MARCH=; or, =1. Squads right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT=. [Illustration: FROM LINE TO COLUMN OF SQUADS. ] [Illustration: FROM LINE OF PLATOONS TO COLUMN OF PLATOONS. ] Executed by each squad as described in the School of the Squad. If the company or platoons be formed in line toward the side of thefile closers, they dart through the column and take posts in rear ofthe company at the second command. If the column of squads be formedfrom line, the file closers take posts on the pivot flank, abreast ofand 4 inches from the nearest rank. (178) Movements on the Moving Pivot =222. = Being in line, to change direction: =1. Right (Left) turn, 2. MARCH, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. = [Illustration] Executed as described in the School of the Squad, except that the mendo not glance toward the marching flank and that all take the fullstep at the fourth command. The right guide is the pivot of the frontrank. Each rear-rank man obliques on the same ground as his fileleader. (179) =223. = Being in column of platoons, to change direction: =1. Columnright (left), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] At the first command the leader of the leading platoon commands:=Right turn. = At the command =march= the leading platoon turns to theright on moving pivot; its leader commands: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=, oncompletion of the turn. Rear =platoons= march squarely up to theturning point of the leading platoons =and turn= at command of theirleaders. (180) =224. = Being in column of squads, to change direction: =1. Columnright (left), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] At the second command the front rank of the leading squad turns to theright on moving pivot as in the School of the Squad; the other ranks, without command turn successively on the same ground and in a similarmanner. (181) =225. = Being in column of squads, to form line of platoons or thereverse: =1. Platoons, column right (left), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE OF PLATOONS. ] Executed by each platoon as described for the company. (182) =226. = Being in line, to form column of squads and change direction:=1. Squads right (left), column right (left), 2. MARCH=; or, =1. Right(Left) by squads, 2. MARCH. = In the first case the right squad initiates the =column right= as soonas it has completed the =squad right=. [Illustration: SQUADS RIGHT COLUMN RIGHT. ] In the second case, at the command =march=, the right squad marches=forward=; the remainder of the company executes =squads right=, =column left=, and follows the right squad. The right guide, when hehas posted himself in front of the squad, takes four short steps, thenresumes the full step; the right quad conforms. (183) [Illustration: RIGHT BY SQUADS. ] =227. = Being in line, to form line of platoons: =1. Squads right(left), platoons, column right (left), 2. MARCH=; or, =1. Platoons, right (left) by squads, 2. MARCH=. [Illustration: FROM LINE TO LINE OF PLATOONS. ] Executed by each platoon as described for the company in the precedingparagraph. (184) Facing or Marching to the Rear =228. = Being in line, line of platoons, or in column of platoons orsquads, to face or march to the rear: =1. Squads right (left) about, 2. MARCH=; or, =1. Squad right (left) about, 2. MARCH; 3. Company, 4. HALT. = Executed by each squad as described in the School of the Squad. If the company or platoons be in column of squads, the file closersturn about toward the column, and take their posts; if in line, eachdarts through the nearest interval between squads. (185). =229. = To march to the rear for a few paces: =1. About, 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. = If in line, the guides place themselves in the rear rank, now thefront rank; the file closers, on facing about, maintain their relativepositions. No other movement is executed until the line is faced tothe original front. (186) On Right (Left) Into Line =230. = Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line on right orleft: =1. On right (left) into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT, 5. FRONT. = [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF PLATOONS TO LINE ON RIGHT. ] At the first command the leader of the leading unit commands: =Rightturn. = The leaders of the other units command: =Forward=, if at ahalt. At the second command the leading unit turns to the right onmoving pivot. The command halt is given when the leading unit hasadvanced the desired distance in the new direction; it halts; itsleader then commands: =Right dress. = [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE ON RIGHT. ] The units in rear continue to march straight to the front; each, whenopposite the right of its place in line, executes right turn at thecommand of its leader; each is halted on the line at the command ofits leader, who then commands: =Right dress. = All dress on the firstunit in line. If executed in double time, the leading squad marches in double timeuntil halted. (187) Front Into Line =231. = Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line to thefront: =1. Right (Left) front into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT, 5. FRONT. = At the first command the leaders of the units in rear of the leadingone command: =Right oblique. = If at a halt, the leader of the leadingunit commands: =Forward. = At the second command the leading unit movesstraight forward; the rear units oblique as indicated. The command=halt= is given when the leading unit has advanced the desireddistance; it halts; its leader then commands: =Left dress. = Each ofthe rear units, when opposite its place in line, resumes the originaldirection at the command of its leader; each is halted on the line atthe command of its leader, who then commands: =Left dress. = All dresson the first unit in line. (188) =232. = Being in column of squads to form column of platoons, or beingline of platoons, to form the company in line: =1. Platoons, right(left) front into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT, 5. FRONT. = [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE TO THE FRONT. ] [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF PLATOONS TO LINE TO THE FRONT. ] Executed by each platoon as described for the company. In forming thecompany in line, the dress is on the left squad of the left platoon. If forming column of platoons, platoon leaders verify the alignmentbefore taking their posts; the captain commands =front= when thealignments have been verified. When =front into line= is executed in double time the commands forhalting and aligning are omitted and the guide is toward the side ofthe first unit in line. (189) At Ease and Route Step =233. = The column of squads is the habitual column of route, but=route step= and =at ease= are applicable to any marching formation. (190) To march at route step: =1. Route step, 2. MARCH. = Sabers are carried at will or in the scabbard; the men carry theirpieces at will, keeping the muzzles elevated; they are not required topreserve silence, nor to keep the step. The ranks cover and preservetheir distance. If halted from route step, the men stand =at rest=. (191) To march at ease: =1. At ease, 2. MARCH. = The company marches as in route step, except that silence ispreserved; when halted, the men remain =at ease=. (192) Marching at route step or at ease: =1. Company, 2. ATTENTION. = At the command =attention= the pieces are brought to the rightshoulder and the cadenced step in quick time is resumed. (193) To Diminish The Front of A Column of Squads =234. = Being in column of squads: =1. Right (left) by twos, 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] At the command =march= all files except the two right files of theleading squad execute =in place halt=; the two left files of theleading squad oblique to the right when disengaged and follow theright files at the shortest practicable distance. The remaining squadsfollow successively in like manner. (194) =235. = Being in column of squads or twos: =1. Right (Left) by file, 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] At the command =march=, all files execute =in place halt= except theright file of the leading two or squad. The left file or files of theleading two or squad oblique successively to the right when disengagedand each follows the file on its right at the shortest practicabledistance. The remaining twos or squads follow successively in likemanner. (195) Being in column of files or twos, to form column of squads; or, beingin column of files, to form column of twos: =1. Squads (Twos), right(left) front into line, 2. MARCH. = At the command =march=, the leading file or files halt. The remainderof the squad, or two, obliques to the right and halts on line with theleading file or files. The remaining squads or twos close up andsuccessively form in rear of the first in like manner. [Illustration] This diagram illustrates a squad executing =LEFT= front into line. The movement described in this paragraph will be ordered =right= or=left=, so as to restore the files to their normal relative positionsin the two or squad. (196) The movements prescribed in the three preceding paragraphs aredifficult of execution at attention and have no value as disciplinaryexercises. (197) EXTENDED ORDER Rules for Deployment =236. Designation of base squads. = The command =guide right= (=left=or =center=) indicates the base squad for the deployment; if in lineit designates the actual =right= (=left= or =center=) squad; if incolumn the command =guide right (left)= designates the =leading=squad, and the command =guide center= designates the =center= squad, as laid down in par. 205. After the deployment is completed, the guideis =center= without command, unless otherwise ordered. (199) =237. Action of squad leaders at preparatory command for formingskirmish line. = At the preparatory command for forming skirmish line, from either column of squads or line, each squad leader (except theleader of the base squad, when his squad does not advance) cautionshis squad, =follow me= or =by the right (left) flank=, as the case maybe; at the command march, he steps in front of his squad and leads itto its place in line, as explained in par. 169. (200) =238. Point on which base squad marches. = Having given the command forforming skirmish line, the captain, if necessary, indicates to thecorporal of the base squad the point on which the squad is to march;the corporal habitually looks to the captain for such directions. (201) =239. Deployment of the squads. = The base squad (par. 199) is deployedas soon as it has sufficient interval. The other squads are deployedas they arrive on the general line; each corporal halts in his placein line and commands or signals, as =skirmishers= (executed asprescribed in par. 170); the squad deploys and halts abreast of him. If tactical considerations demand it, the squad is deployed beforearriving on the line. (202) =240. Alignment of deployed lines; deployed line faces to front onhalting. = Deployed lines preserve a general alignment toward theguide, as prescribed in par. 65. Within their respective fronts, individuals or units march so as best to secure cover or to facilitatethe advance, but the general and orderly progress of the whole isparamount. On halting, a deployed line faces to the front (direction of theenemy) in all cases and takes advantage of cover, the men lying downif necessary. (203) =241. Certain movements in extended order executed by same commands asin close order. = The company in skirmish line =advances, halts=, moves=by the flank=, or =to the rear, obliques=, resumes =the directmarch=, passes from =quick to double time= and the reverse by the samecommands and in a similar manner as in close order; if at a halt, themovement by =the flank= or =to the rear= is executed by the samecommands as when marching. =Company right (left, half right, halfleft)= is executed as explained for the front rank (in par. 165)skirmish intervals being maintained. (See par. 171. ) (204) =242. Deployment of platoons and detachments. = A platoon or other partof the company is deployed and marched in the same manner as thecompany, substituting in the commands, =platoon= (=detachments=, etc. ), for =company=. (205) Deployments (See pars. 170-172. ) =243. = Being in line, to form skirmish line to the front: =1. Asskirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] If marching, the corporal of the base squad moves straight to thefront; when that squad has advanced the desired distance, the captaincommands: =1. Company, 2. HALT. = If the guide be =right (left)=, theother corporals move to the =left (right)= front, and, in successionfrom the base, place their squads on the line; if the guide be center, the other corporals move to the right or left front, according as theyare on the right or left of the center squad, and in succession fromthe center squad place their squads on the line. If at a halt, the base squad is deployed without advancing; the othersquads may be conducted to their proper places by the flank; interiorsquads may be moved when squads more distant from the base have gainedcomfortable marching distance. (206) =244. = Being in column of squads, to form skirmish line to the front:=1. As skirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration: GUIDE RIGHT. ] [Illustration: GUIDE CENTER (MARCHING). ] [Illustration: GUIDE CENTER (AT A HALT). ] If marching, the corporal of the base squad deploys it and movesstraight to the front; if at a halt, he deploys his squad withoutadvancing. If the guide be =right (left)=, the other corporals move tothe =left (right) front=, and, in succession from the base, placetheir squads on the line; if the guide be =center=, the corporals infront of the center squad move to the right (if at a halt, to theright rear), the corporals in rear of the center squad move to theleft front, and each, in succession from the base, places his squad onthe line. The column of twos or files is deployed by the same commands and inlike manner. (207) =245. Deployment in an oblique direction. = The company in line or incolumn of squads may be deployed in an oblique direction by the samecommands. The captain points out the desire direction; the corporal ofthe base squad moves in the direction indicated; the other corporalsconform. (208) =246. Deployment to flank or rear. = To form skirmish line to the flankor rear the line or the column of squads is turned by squads to theflank or rear and then deployed as described. (209) =247. Increasing or decreasing intervals. = The intervals between menare increased or decreased as described in the School of the Squad, asexplained in par. 172, adding to the preparatory command, =guide right(left or center)= if necessary, as explained in par. 236. (210) The Assembly =248. = The captain takes his post in front of, or designates, theelement on which the company is to assemble and commands: =1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. = If in skirmish line the men move promptly toward the designated pointand the company is reformed in line. If assembled by platoons, theseare conducted to the designated point by platoon leaders, and thecompany is reformed in line. Platoons may be assembled by the command: =1. Platoons, assemble, 2. MARCH. = Executed by each platoon as described for the company. One or more platoons may be assembled by the command: =1. Such platoon(s), assemble, 2. MARCH. = Executed by the designated platoon or platoons as described for thecompany. (211) The Advance =249. Methods of advancing. = The advance of a company into anengagement (whether for attack or defense) is conducted in closeorder, preferably column of squads, until the probability ofencountering hostile fire makes it advisable to deploy. Afterdeployment, and before opening fire, the advance of the company may becontinued in skirmish line or other suitable formation, depending uponcircumstances. The advance may often be facilitated, or betteradvantage taken of cover, or losses reduced by the employment of the=platoon= or =squad columns=, as laid down in pars. 250-251, or by theuse of a =succession of thin lines=, as explained in par. 255. Theselection of the method to be used is made by the captain or major, the choice depending upon conditions arising during the progress ofthe advance. If the deployment is found to be premature, it willgenerally be best to assemble the company and proceed in close order. Patrols are used to provide the necessary security against surprise. (212) =250. = Being in skirmish line: =1. Platoon columns, 2 MARCH. = [Illustration] The platoon leaders move forward through the center of theirrespective platoons; men to the right of the platoon leader march tothe left and follow him in file; those to the left march in likemanner to the right; each platoon leader thus conducts the march ofhis platoon in double column of files; platoon guides follow in rearof their respective platoons to insure prompt and orderly execution ofthe advance. (213) =251. = Being in skirmish line: =1. Squad columns, 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] Each squad leader moves to the front; the members of each squadoblique toward and follow their squad leader in single file at easymarching distances. (214) =252. = Platoon columns are profitably used where the ground is sodifficult or cover so limited as to make it desirable to takeadvantage of the few favorable routes; no two platoons should marchwithin the area of burst of a single shrapnel[2]. =Squad columns= areof value principally in facilitating the advance over rough orbrush-grown ground; they afford no material advantage in securingcover. (215) =253. = To deploy platoon or squad columns: =1. As skirmishers, 2. MARCH. = Skirmishers move to the right or left front and successively placethemselves in their original positions on the line. (216) [Illustration] =254. = Being in platoon or squad columns: =1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. = [Illustration: ASSEMBLY MADE ON RIGHT PLATOON. ] [Illustration: ASSEMBLY MADE ON RIGHT SQUAD. ] The platoon or squad leaders signal =assemble=. The men of eachplatoon or squad, as the case may be, advance and, moving to the rightand left, take their proper places in line, each unit assembling onthe leading element of the column and re-forming in line. The platoonor squad leaders conduct their units toward the element or pointindicated by the captain, and to their places in line; the company isreformed in line. (217) =255. = Being in skirmish line, to advance by a succession of =thinlines=: =1. (Such numbers), forward, 2. MARCH. = The captain points out in advance the selected position in front ofthe line occupied. The designated number of each squad moves to thefront; the line thus formed preserves the original intervals as nearlyas practicable; when this line has advanced a suitable distance(generally from 100 to 250 yards, depending upon the terrain and thecharacter of the hostile fire), a second is sent forward by similarcommands, and so on at irregular distances until the whole line hasadvanced. Upon arriving at the indicated position, the first line ishalted. Successive lines, upon arriving, halt on line with the firstand the men take their proper places in the skirmish line. Ordinarily each line is made up of one man per squad and the men of asquad are sent forward in order from right to left as deployed. Thefirst line is led by the platoon leader of the right platoon, thesecond by the guide of the right platoon, and so on in order fromright to left. The advance is conducted in quick time unless conditions demand afaster gait. The company having arrived at the indicated position, a furtheradvance by the same means may be advisable. (218) =256. Use and purpose of advance in succession of thin lines. = Theadvance in a succession of thin lines is used to cross a wide stretchswept, or likely to be swept, by artillery fire or heavy, long-rangerifle fire which cannot profitably be returned. Its purpose is thebuilding up of a strong skirmish line preparatory to engaging in afire fight. This method of advancing results in serious (thoughtemporary) loss of control over the company. Its advantage lies in thefact that it offers a less definite target, hence is less likely todraw fire. (219) =257. Improvised formations. = The above are suggestions. Other andbetter formations may be devised to fit particular cases. The bestformation is the one which advances the line farthest with the leastloss of men, time, and control. (220) The Fire Attack =258. Advance of firing line; advance by rushes. = The principlesgoverning the advance of the firing line in attack are considered inthe School of the Battalion. (See par. 342-356. ) When it becomes impracticable for the company to advance as whole byordinary means, it advances by rushes. (221) =259. Advancing by rushes. = Being in skirmish line: =1. By platoon(two platoons, squad, four men, etc. ), from the right (left), 2. RUSH. = The platoon leader on the indicated flank carefully arranges thedetails for a prompt and vigorous execution of the rush and puts itinto effect as soon as practicable. If necessary, he designates theleader for the indicated fraction. When about to rush, he causes themen of the fraction to cease firing and to hold themselves flat, butin readiness to spring forward instantly. The leader of the rush (atthe signal of the platoon leader, if the latter be not the leader ofthe rush) commands: Follow me, and running at top speed, leads thefraction to the new line, where he halts it and causes it to openfire. The leader of the rush selects the new line if it has not beenpreviously designated. The first fraction having established itself on the new line, the nextlike fraction is sent forward by its platoon leader, without furthercommand of the captain, and so on successively, until the entirecompany is on the line established by the first rush. If more than one platoon is to join in one rush, the junior platoonleader conforms to the action of the senior. A part of the line having advanced, the captain may increase ordecrease the size of the fractions to complete the movement. (222) =260. Rush of company as whole led by captain. = When the company formsa part of the firing line, the rush of the company as a whole isconducted by the captain, as described for a platoon in the precedingparagraph. The captain leads the rush; platoon leaders lead theirrespective platoons; platoon guides follow the line to insure promptand orderly execution of the advance. (223) =261. Advance by crawling or otherwise. = When the foregoing method ofrushing, by running, becomes impracticable, any method of advance that=brings the attack closer to the enemy=, such as crawling, should beemployed. For regulations governing the charge, see paragraphs 355 and 356. (224) (All rushes should be made with life and ginger, and all the men should start together. All rushes should be made under covering fire, and when a unit rushes forward the adjoining unit or units make up for the loss of fire thus caused by increasing the rate of their fire. A unit commander about to rush forward, will not do so until he sees that the adjoining unit or units have started to give him the protection of their covering fire and, if necessary, he will call to them to do so. Each unit must be careful not to advance until the last unit that rushed forward has had time to take up an effective fire. When sights have to be adjusted at the conclusion of a rush, the men should do so in the prone position even though it be necessary for the men to kneel for firing. The same as the men who rush should start simultaneously from the prone position, so should they stop simultaneously, all men dropping down to the ground together, wherever they may be, at the command "Down, " given by the unit commander when the leading men have reached the new position. The slower members who drop down in rear will crawl up to the line after the halt. So that the slower members may not be crowded out of the line, and also to prevent bunching, the faster men should leave room for them on the line. --Author. ) The Company in Support (Being part of a battalion) =262. Formations adopted by support. = To enable it to follow or reachthe firing line, the support adopts suitable formations, following theprinciples explained in paragraphs 249-255. The support should be kept assembled as long as practicable. If afterdeploying a favorable opportunity arises to hold it for some time inclose formation, it should be reassembled. It is redeployed whennecessary. (225) =263. Support controlled by major: size of reënforcement; captain onlook out for major's signals. = The movements of the support as a wholeand the dispatch of reënforcements from it to the firing line arecontrolled by the major. A reënforcement of less than one platoon has little influence and willbe avoided whenever practicable. (See par. 353. ) The captain of a company in support is constantly on the alert for themajor's signals or commands. (226) =264. Reënforcement to join firing line deployed as skirmishers andoccupy existing intervals. = A reënforcement sent to the firing linejoins it deployed as skirmishers. The leader of the reënforcementplaces it in an interval in the line, if one exists, and commands itthereafter as a unit. If no such suitable interval exists, thereënforcement is advanced with increased intervals betweenskirmishers; each man occupies the nearest interval in the firingline, and each then obeys the orders of the nearest squad leader andplatoon leader. (227) =265. Promptness in reënforcing firing line. = A reënforcement joinsthe firing line as quickly as possible without exhausting the men. (228) =266. Original platoon divisions to be maintained; duties of officersand sergeants upon joining firing line. = The original platoon divisionof the companies in the firing line should be maintained and shouldnot be broken up by the mingling of reënforcements. Upon joining the firing line, officers and sergeants accompanying areënforcement take over the duties of others of like grade who havebeen disabled, or distribute themselves so as best to exercise theirnormal functions. Conditions will vary and no rules can be prescribed. It is essential that all assist in mastering the increasingdifficulties of control. (229) The Company Acting Alone =267. Employed according to principles of battalion acting alone. = Ingeneral, the company, when acting alone, is employed according to theprinciples applicable to the battalion acting alone as laid down inpars. 327-363; the captain employs platoons as the major employscompanies, making due allowance for the difference in strength. The support may be smaller in proportion or may be dispensed with. (230) =268. Protection against surprise. = The company must be well protectedagainst surprise. Combat patrols on the flanks are especiallyimportant as explained in par. 410. Each leader of a flank platoondetails a man to watch for the signals of the patrol or patrols on hisflank. (231) FIRE =269. Issuing of ammunition and loading of pieces before deployment;firings in close order. = Ordinarily pieces are loaded and extraammunition is issued before the company deploys for combat. In close order the company executes the firings, as prescribed inpars. 179-194, at the command of the captain, who posts himself inrear of the center of the company. Usually the firings in close order consist of saluting volleys only. (See par. 189 for volley firing. ) (232) =270. Firing controlled by platoon leaders. = When the company isdeployed, the men execute the firings at the command of their platoonleaders; the latter give such commands as are necessary to carry outthe captain's directions, and, from time to time, add such furthercommands as are necessary to continue, correct, and control, the fireordered. (233) =271. Use of signals during firing. = The voice is generally inadequatefor giving commands during fire and must be replaced by signals ofsuch character that proper fire direction and control is assured. (Seepar. 92 for signals; pars. 285-286 for fire direction and pars. 287-290 for fire control. ) To attract attention, signals must usuallybe preceded by the whistle signal (short blast). A fraction of thefiring line about to rush should, if practicable, avoid using the longblast signal as an aid to cease firing. (See par. 91. ) Officers andmen behind the firing line can not ordinarily move freely along theline, but must depend on mutual watchfulness and the proper use of theprescribed signals. All should post themselves so as to see theirimmediate superiors and subordinates. (234) =272. Duties of musicians. = The musicians assist the captain byobserving the enemy, the target, and the fire-effect, by transmittingcommands or signals, and by watching for signals. (For posts ofmusicians see par. 207. ) (235) =273. Blank Cartridges. = Firing with blank cartridges at an outlinedor represented enemy (par. 7) at distances less than 100 yards isprohibited. (236) =274. Effect of fire and influence of ground. = The effect of fire andthe influence of the ground in relation thereto, and the individualand collective instruction in marksmanship, are treated in theSmall-Arms Firing Manual. (237) Ranges =275. Classification. = For convenience of reference, ranges areclassified as follows: 0 to 600 yards, close range. 600 to 1, 200 yards, effective range. 1, 200 to 2, 000 yards, long range. 2, 000 yards and over, distant range. (238) =276. Determination of distance to target. = The distance to the targetmust be determined as accurately as possible and the sights setaccordingly. Aside from training and morale, this is the mostimportant single factor in securing effective fire at the longerranges. (239) =277. Method of determining the range; estimators. = Except in a deliberately prepared defensive position, the mostaccurate and only practicable method of determining the range willgenerally be to take the mean of several estimates. Five or six officers or men, selected from the most accurateestimators in the company, are designated as _range estimators_ andare specially trained in estimating distances. Whenever necessary and practicable, the captain assembles the rangeestimators, points out the target to them, and adopts the mean oftheir estimates. The range estimators then take their customary posts. (240) Classes of Firing =278. Volley firing=, as explained in par. 189, has limitedapplication. In defense it may be used in the early stages of theaction if the enemy presents a large compact target. It may be used bytroops executing =fire of position=, as set forth in par. 438. Whenthe ground near the target is such that the strike of bullets can beseen from the firing line, =ranging volleys= may be used to correctthe sight setting. In combat, volley firing is executed habitually by platoon. (241) =279. Fire at will=, as explained in par. 190, is the class of firenormally employed in attack or defense. (242) =280. Clip fire= (see par. 192. ) has limited application. It isprincipally used: 1. In the early stages of combat, to steady the menby habituating them to brief pauses in firing. 2. To produce a shortburst of fire. (243) The Target =281. Assignment of target by major; change of target to be avoided;hostile firing line usual target. = Ordinarily the major will assign tothe company an objective in attack or sector in defense; the company'starget will lie within the limits so assigned. In the choice oftarget, tactical considerations are paramount; the nearest hostiletroops within the objective or sector will thus be the usual target. This will ordinarily be the hostile firing line; troops in rear areordinarily proper targets for artillery, machine guns, or, at times, infantry employing fire of position, as set forth in par. 438. Change of target should not be made without excellent reasonstherefor, such as the sudden appearance of hostile troops underconditions which make them more to be feared than the troopscomprising the former target. (244) =282. Distribution of fire; allotment of target to platoon leaders. =The distribution of fire over the entire target is of specialimportance. The captain allots a part of the target to each platoon, or eachplatoon leader takes as his target that part which corresponds to hisposition in the company. Men are so instructed that each fires onthat part of the target which is directly opposite him. (245) =283. All Parts of target equally important. = All parts of the targetare equally important. Care must be exercised that the men do notslight its less visible parts. A section of the target not covered byfire represents a number of the enemy permitted to fire coolly andeffectively. (246) =284. Use of aiming points in case of invisible targets. = If the target can not be seen with the naked eye, platoon leadersselect an object in front of or behind it, designate this as the_aiming target_, and direct a sight setting which will carry the coneof fire into the target. (247) Fire Direction[3] =285. Impracticability in combat of commanding company directly. = Whenthe company is large enough to be divided into platoons, it isimpracticable for the captain to command it directly in combat. Hisefficiency in managing the firing line is measured by his ability toenforce his will through the platoon leaders. Having indicated clearlywhat he desires them to do, he avoids interfering except to correctserious errors or omissions. (248) =286. Captain directs the fire. = The captain =directs= the fire of thecompany or of designated platoons. He designates the target, and, whenpracticable, allots a part of the target to each platoon, asprescribed in par. 340. Before beginning the fire action he determinesthe range, as explained in par. 277, announces the sight setting, asprescribed in par. 188, and indicates the class of fire to be employed(See par. 278) and the time to open fire. Thereafter, he observes thefire effect (See pars. 428-429), corrects material errors in sightsetting, prevents exhaustion of the ammunition supply, as explained inpar. 432-433, and causes the distribution of such extra ammunition asmay be received from the rear. (249) Fire Control =287. Platoon the fire unit. = In combat, the platoon is the fire unit. From 20 to 35 rifles are as many as one leader can controleffectively. (250) =288. Special duties of platoon leaders. = Each platoon leader putsinto execution the commands or directions of the captain, having firsttaken such precautions to insure correct sight setting and cleardescription of the target or aiming target as the situation permits orrequires; thereafter, he gives such additional commands or directionsas are necessary to exact compliance with the captain's will. Hecorrects the sight setting when necessary. He designates an aimingtarget when the target can not be seen with the naked eye. (251) =289. General duties of platoon leaders; duties of platoon guides andsquad leaders. = In general, =platoon leaders= observe the target andthe effect of their fire and are on the alert for the captain'scommands or signals; they observe and regulate the rate of fire, aslaid down in par. 191. The =platoon guides= watch the firing line andcheck every breach of fire discipline. (See pars. 291-294. ) =Squadleaders= transmit commands and signals when necessary, observe theconduct of their squads and abate excitement, assist in enforcing firediscipline and participate in the firing. (252) =290. Importance of fire control. = The best troops are those thatsubmit longest to fire control. Loss of control is an evil which robssuccess of its greatest results. To avoid or delay such loss should bethe constant aim of all. Fire control implies the ability to stop firing, change the sightsetting and target, and resume a well directed fire. (253) Fire Discipline =291. What fire discipline implies. = "Fire discipline implies, besidesa habit of obedience, a control of the rifle by the soldier, theresult of training, which will enable him in action to make hitsinstead of misses. It embraces taking advantage of the ground; care insetting the sight and delivery of fire; constant attention to theorders of the leaders, and careful observation of the enemy; anincrease of fire when the target is favorable, and a cessation of firewhen the enemy disappears; economy of ammunition. " (See pars. 432-433. ) (Small-Arms Firing Manual. ) In combat, shots which graze the enemy's trench or position and thusreduce the effectiveness of his fire have the approximate value ofhits; such shots only, or actual hits, contribute toward firesuperiority. Fire discipline implies that, in a firing line without leaders, eachman retains his presence of mind and directs effective fire upon theproper target. (254) =292. Rate of fire. = To create a correct appreciation of therequirements of fire discipline, men are taught that the rate of fire, as prescribed in par. 191, should be as rapid as is consistent withaccurate aiming; that the rate will depend upon the visibility, proximity, and size of the target; and that the proper rate willordinarily suggest itself to each trained man, usually renderingcautions or commands unnecessary. In attack the highest rate of fire is employed at the halt precedingthe assault, and in pursuing fire. (See pars. 490-494. ) (255) =293. Position fire in advance by rushes. = In an advance by rushes, asexplained in par. 259, leaders of troops in firing positions areresponsible for the delivery of heavy fire to cover the advance ofeach rushing fraction. Troops are trained to change slightly thedirection of fire so as not to endanger the flanks of advancedportions of the firing line. (256) =294. Action in defense, when target disappears. = In defense, when thetarget disappears behind cover, platoon leaders suspend fire, asprescribed in par. 193, prepare their platoons to fire upon the pointwhere it is expected to reappear, and greet its reappearance instantlywith vigorous fire. (257) SCHOOL OF THE BATTALION =295. Battalion a tactical unit; duties and responsibilities ofmajor. = The battalion being purely a tactical unit, the major's dutiesare primarily those of an instructor in drill and tactics and of atactical commander. He is responsible for the theoretical andpractical training of the battalion. He supervises the training ofthe companies of the battalion with a view to insuring thethoroughness and uniformity of their instruction. In the instruction of the battalion as a whole, his efforts will bedirected chiefly to the development of tactical efficiency, devotingonly such time to the mechanism of drill and to the ceremonies as maybe necessary in order to insure precision, smartness, and propercontrol. (258) =296. Movements explained for battalion of four companies. = Themovements explained herein are on the basis of a battalion of fourcompanies; they may be executed by a battalion of two or morecompanies, not exceeding six. (259) =297. Arrangement of companies in formations. = The companies aregenerally arranged from right to left according to the rank of thecaptains present at the formation. The arrangement of the companiesmay be varied by the major or higher commander. After the battalion is formed, no cognizance is taken of the relativeorder of the companies. (260) =298. Designation of companies. = In whatever direction the battalionfaces, the companies are designated numerically from right to left inline, and from head to rear in column, =first company=, =secondcompany=, etc. The terms =right= and =left= apply to actual right and left as theline faces; if the about by squads be executed when in line, the rightcompany becomes the left company and the right center becomes the leftcenter company. The designation center company indicates the right center or theactual center company according as the number of companies is even orodd. (261) =299. Post of special units. = The band and other special units, whenattached to the battalion, take the same post with respect to it as ifit were the nearest battalion. (262) CLOSE ORDER Rules =300. Repetition of commands by captains. = Captains repeat suchpreparatory commands as are to be immediately executed by theircompanies, as =forward=, =squads right=, etc. ; the men execute thecommands =march=, =halt=, etc. , if applying to their companies, whengiven by the major. In movements executed in route step or at ease thecaptains repeat the command of execution, if necessary. Captains donot repeat the major's commands in executing the manual of arms, northose commands which are not essential to the execution of a movementby their companies, as =column of squads=, =first company=, =squadsright=, etc. In giving commands or cautions captains may prefix the proper letterdesignations of their companies, as =A Company, HALT=; =B Company, squads right=, etc. (263) =301. Captains repeating command for guide. = At the command =guidecenter (right or left)=, captains command: =Guide right or left=, according to the positions of their companies. =Guide center=designates the left guide of the center company, as explained in 3dSec. Par. 298. (264) [Illustration: Plate III] =302. Position of captains in dressing companies; action of guides indressing. = When the companies are to be dressed, captains placethemselves on that flank toward which the dress is to be made, asfollows: The battalion in line: Besides the guide (or the flank file of thefront rank, if the guide is not in line) and facing to the front. The battalion in column of companies: Two paces from the guide, inprolongation of and facing down the line. Each captain, after dressing his company, commands: =FRONT=, and takeshis post. The battalion being in line and unless otherwise prescribed, at thecaptain's command =dress= or at the command =halt=, when it isprescribed that the company shall dress, the guide on the flank awayfrom the point of rest with his piece at right shoulder, dressespromptly on the captain and the companies beyond. During the dress hemoves, if necessary, to the right and left only; the captain dressesthe company on the line thus established. The guide takes the positionof order arms at the command =front=. (265) =303. Certain movements executed as in Schools of the Soldier, Squadand Company. = =The battalion executes the halt= (See par. 116), =rests= (See pars. 100-101), =facings= (See par. 104), =steps= and=marchings= (See pars. 107-109), =manual of arms= (See pars. 120-147), resumes =attention= (See par. 102), =kneels= (See pars. 174-177), =lies down= (See par. 175), =rises= (See par. 176), =stacks= and=takes arms= (See pars. 160-161), as explained in the Schools of theSoldier and Squad, substituting in the commands =battalion= for=squad=. The battalion executes =squads right (left)= (See par. 221), =squadsright (left) about= (See par. 228), =route step= and =at ease= (Seepar. 233), and =obliques= and resumes the =direct march= (See pars. 162-163), as explained in the School of the Company. (266) =304. Certain movements executed as in School of the Company. = Thebattalion in column of platoons, squads, twos, or files changesdirection. (See pars. 223-224); in column of squads, forms column oftwos or files and re-forms columns of twos or squads, as explained inthe School of the Company. (See pars. 234-235. ) (267) =305. Simultaneous execution by companies or platoons of movements inSchool of the Company. = When the formation admits of the simultaneousexecution by companies or platoons of movements in the School of theCompany the major may cause such movement to be executed by prefixing, when necessary, =companies (platoons)= to the commands prescribedtherein: As =1. Companies, right front into line, 2. MARCH. = Tocomplete such simultaneous movements, the commands =halt= or =march=, if prescribed, are given by the major. The command =front=, whenprescribed, is given by the captains. (See par. 302. ) (268) =306. Execution of loadings and firings by battalion. = The battalionas a unit executes the loadings and firings only in firing salutingvolleys. The commands are as for the company, substituting =battalion=for =company=. At the first command for loading, captains take post inrear of the center of their respective companies. At the conclusion ofthe firing, the captains resume their posts in line. On other occasions, when firing in close order is necessary, it isexecuted by company or other subdivision, under instructions from themajor, as prescribed in pars. 179-194. (269) To Form the Battalion =307. For purposes other than ceremonies:= The battalion is formed incolumn of squads. The companies having been formed, the adjutant postshimself so as to be facing the column, when formed, and 6 paces infront of the place to be occupied by the leading guide of thebattalion; he draws saber; =adjutant's call= is sounded or theadjutant signals =assemble=. The companies are formed, at attention, in column of squads in theirproper order. Each captain, after halting his company, salutes theadjutant; the adjutant returns the salute and, when the last captainhas saluted, faces the major and reports: =Sir, the battalion isformed. = He then joins the major. (270) =308. For ceremonies or when directed:= The battalion is formed inline. The companies having been formed, the adjutant posts himself so as tobe 6 paces to the right of the right company when line is formed, andfaces in the direction in which the line is to extend. He draws saber;=adjutant's call= is sounded; the band plays if present. The right company is conducted by its captain so as to arrive from therear, parallel to the line; its right and left guides precede it onthe line by about 20 paces, taking post facing to the right at orderarms, so that their elbows will be against the breasts of the rightand left files of their company when it is dressed. The guides of theother companies successively prolong the line to the left in likemanner and the companies approach their respective places in line asexplained for the right company. The adjutant, from his post, causesthe guides to cover. When about 1 pace in rear of the line, each company is halted anddressed to the right against the arms of the guides. (See par. 302. ) The band, arriving from the rear, takes its place in line when theright company is halted; it ceases playing when the left company hashalted. When the guides of the left company have been posted, the adjutant, moving by the shortest route, takes post facing the battalion midwaybetween the post of the major and the center of the battalion. The major, staff, noncommissioned staff, and orderlies take theirposts, as prescribed in pars. 73; 76-78. When all parts of the line have been dressed, and officers and othershave reached their posts, the adjutant commands: =1. Guides, 2. POSTS, 3. Present, 4. ARMS. = At the second command guides take their placesin the line. (Plate II, page 69. ) The adjutant then turns about asexplained in par. 74, and reports to the major: =Sir, the battalion isformed=, as prescribed in par. 75; the major directs the adjutant:=Take your post, Sir=; draws saber and brings the battalion to the=order=. The adjutant takes his post, passing to the right of themajor. (271) To Dismiss the Battalion =309. Dismiss your companies. = Staff and noncommissioned staff officers fall out; each captainmarches his company off and dismisses it, as laid down in par. 217. (272) To Rectify the Alignment =310. = Being in line at a halt, to align the battalion: =1. Center(right or left), 2. DRESS. = The captains dress their companies successively toward the center(right or left) guide of the battalion, each as soon as the captainnext toward the indicated guide commands: =FRONT. = The captains of thecenter companies (if the dress is =center=) dress them without waitingfor each other. (273) =311. = To give the battalion a new alignment: =1. Guides center (rightor left) company on the line, 2. Guides on the line, 3. Center (rightor left), 4. DRESS, 5. Guides, 6. POSTS. = At the first command, the designated guides place themselves on theline, as prescribed in par. 308, facing the center (right or left). The major establishes them in the direction he wishes to give thebattalion. At the second command, the guides of the other companies take posts, facing the center (right or left), so as to prolong the line. At the command =dress=, each captain dresses his company to the flanktoward which the guides of his company face, taking the positionsprescribed in par. 302. At the command =posts=, given when all companies have completed thedress, the guides return to their posts. (Plate II, page 69. ) (274) To Rectify the Column =312. = Being in column of companies, or in close column, at a halt, ifthe guides do not cover or have not their proper distances, and it isdesired to correct them, the major commands: =1. Right (left), 2. DRESS. = Captains of companies in rear of the first place their right guides soas to cover at the proper distance; each captain aligns his company tothe right and commands: =FRONT. = (See par. 302. ) (275) On Right (Left) Into Line =313. = Being in column of squads or companies: =1. On right (left)into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT. = Being in column of squads: At the first command, the captain of theleading company commands; =Squads right. = If at a halt each captain inrear commands: =Forward. = At the second command, the leading companymarches in line to the right; the companies in rear continue to marchto the front and form successively on the left, each, when oppositeits place, being marched in line to the right. [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE ON RIGHT. ] [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF COMPANIES TO LINE ON RIGHT. ] The fourth command is given when the first company has advanced thedesired distance in the new direction; it halts and is dressed to theright by its captain (par. 265); the others complete the movement, each being halted 1 pace in rear of the line established by the firstcompany, and then dressed to the right. Being in column of companies: At the first command, the captain of thefirst company commands: =Right turn. = If at a halt, each captain inrear commands: =Forward. = Each of the captains in rear of the leadingcompany gives the command: =1. Right turn=, in time to add, =2. MARCH=, when his company arrives opposite the right of its place inline. The fourth command is given and the movement completed as explainedabove. Whether executed from column of squads or column of companies, eachcaptain places himself so as to march beside the right guide after hiscompany forms line or changes direction to the right. If executed in double time, the leading company marches in double timeuntil halted. (276) Front into Line =314. = Being in column of squads or companies: =1. Right (left) frontinto line, 2. MARCH. = Being in column of squads: At the first command, the captain of theleading company commands: =Column right=; the captain of the companiesin rear: =column half right. = At the second command the leadingcompany executes =column right=, and, as the last squad completes thechange of direction, is formed in line to the left, as prescribed inpar. 221, halted and dressed to the left. (See par. 302. ) Each of thecompanies in rear is conducted by the most convenient route to therear of the right of the preceding company, thence to the right, parallel to and 1 pace in rear of the new line; when opposite itsplace, it is formed in line to the left, halted, and dressed to theleft. [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS TO LINE TO THE FRONT. ] [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF COMPANIES TO LINE TO THE FRONT. ] Being in column of companies: If marching, the captain of the leadingcompany gives the necessary commands to halt his company at the secondcommand; if at a halt the leading company stands fast. At the firstcommand, the captain of each company in rear commands: =Squads right=, or =Right by squads=, and after the second command conducts hiscompany by the most convenient route to its place in line, asdescribed above. Whether executed from column of squads or column of companies, eachcaptain halts when opposite, or at the point, where the left of hiscompany is to rest. (277) To Form Column of Companies Successively to the Right or Left =315. = Being in column of squads: =1. Column of companies, firstcompany, squads right (left), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] The leading company executes =squads right= and moves forward. Theother companies move forward in column of squads and successivelymarch in line the right on the same ground as the leading company andin such manner that the guide covers the guide of the precedingcompany. (278) To Form Column of Squads Successively to the Right or Left =316. = Being in column of companies (Plate III, page 90): =1. Columnof squads, first company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] The leading company executes =squads right= and moves forward. Theother companies move forward in column of companies and successivelymarch in column of squads to the right on the same ground as theleading company. (279) To Change Direction =317. = Being in column of companies or close column. (Plate III, page90); =1. Column right (left), 2. MARCH. = [Illustration] The captain of the first company commands: =Right turn. = The leading company turns to the right on moving pivot, the captainadding: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=, upon its completion. The other companies march squarely up to the turning point; eachchanges direction by the same commands and means as the first and insuch manner that the guide covers the guide of the preceding company. (280) =318. = Being in line of companies or close line. (Plate III, page 90):=1. Battalion right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT. = [Illustration] The right company changes direction to the right, as prescribed inpar. 224; the other companies are conducted by the shortest line totheir places abreast of the first. The fourth command is given when the right company has advanced thedesired distance in the new direction; that company halts; the othershalt successively upon arriving on the line. (281) =319. = Being in column of squads, the battalion changes direction bythe same commands and in the manner prescribed for the company, asexplained in par. 224. (282) Mass Formations [Illustration: FROM LINE. ] =319a. = Being in column of squads, to form a line of columns ofcompanies or company subdivisions, facing in any desired direction, atany desired interval, on the right or left of the leading element ofthe battalion: =1. Line of companies (half companies, platoons), at(so many) paces, guide right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT. = [Illustration: FROM LINE OF COMPANIES. ] The leading company (or subdivision) marches in the directionpreviously indicated by the major until the command halt is given andthen halts. Each succeeding company (or subdivision) marches by themost direct route to its place at the prescribed intervals on the left(right) of the next preceding company (or subdivision), halting whenit is abreast of the leading element of the battalion. [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF SQUADS. ] If the battalion be in any formation other than column of squads, themajor indicates the desired direction to the leading element. Theentire command forms column of squads and executes a movement inconformity with the principles indicated above. (282-1/2) [Illustration: FROM COLUMN OF COMPANIES. ] =320. = Being in line, line of companies, or column of companies. (Plate III, page 90): =1. Close on first (fourth) company, 2. MARCH. = If at a halt, the indicated company stands fast; if marching, it ishalted; each of the other companies is conducted toward it and ishalted in proper order in close column. If the battalion is in line, companies form successively in rear ofthe indicated company; if in column of squads, companies in rear ofthe leading company form on the left of it. In close column formed line on the first company, the left guidescover; formed on the fourth company, right guides cover. If formed onthe leading company, the guide remains as before the formation. Inclose line, the guides are halted abreast of the guide of the leadingcompany. The battalion in column closes on the leading company only. (283) (In closing from line of companies and in extending from close line, the companies other than the base one, may be moved either by the commands, (a) =1. Squads, right (left), 2. MARCH=; (b) =1. Right (left) oblique, 2. MARCH=; (c) =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=; (d) =1. Squads left (right) 2. MARCH=; (e) =1. Company, 2. HALT=; or, (a) =1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH=; (b) =1. Company, 2. HALT=; (c) =1. Left (right), 2. FACE=; or if at a halt by the commands, (a) =1. Right (left), 2. FACE=; (b) =1. At Trail, 2. Forward, 3. MARCH=; (c) =1. Company, 2. HALT=; (d) =1. Left (right), 2. FACE. = In some commands it is customary to use one method while in other commands another is used. For the sake of uniformity all companies of a given command should use the same method. --Author. ) To Extend the Mass =321. = Being in close column or in close line; =1. Extend on first(fourth) company, 2. MARCH. = [Illustration: FROM CLOSE COLUMN. ] Being in close line: if at a halt, the indicated company stands fast;if marching, it halts; each of the other companies is conducted awayfrom the indicated company and is halted in its proper order in lineof companies. Being in close column, the extension is made on the fourth companyonly. If marching, the leading company continues to march; companiesin rear are halted and successively resume the march in time to followat full distance. If at halt, the leading company marches; companiesin rear successively march in time to follow at full distance. Close column is not extended in double time. (See author's note, par. 320. ) (284) =322. = Being in close column: =1. Right (left) front into line, 2. MARCH. = Executed as from column of companies, as explained in par. 314. (285) =323. = Being in close column: =1. Column of squads, first (fourth)company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH. = The designated company marches in column of squads to the right. Eachof the other companies executes the same movement in time to followthe preceding company in column. (286) =324. = Being in close line: =1. Column of squads, first (fourth)company, forward, 2. MARCH. = [Illustration: FROM CLOSE LINE. ] The designated company moves forward. The other companies (halting ifin march) successively take up the march and follow in column. (287) Route Step and at Ease =325. = The battalion marches in =route step= and =at ease= asprescribed in the School of the Company. (See par. 233. ) When marchingin column of companies or platoons, the guides maintain the trace anddistance. In route marches the major marches at the head of the column; whennecessary, the file closers may be directed to march at the head andrear of their companies. (288) Assembly =326. = The battalion being wholly or partially deployed, or thecompanies being separated: =1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. = The major places himself opposite to or designates the element orpoint on which the battalion is to assemble. Companies are assembled, as explained in par. 248, and marched to the indicated point. As thecompanies arrive the major or adjutant indicates the formation to betaken. (289) COMBAT PRINCIPLES Orders =327. = The following references to orders are applicable to attack ordefense: (290) =328. Use of prescribed commands; "tactical orders, " "orders" and"commands. "= In extended order, the company is the largest unit toexecute movements by prescribed commands or means. The major, assembling his captains if practicable, directs the disposition of thebattalion by means of =tactical orders=. He controls its subsequentmovements by such =orders= or =commands= as are suitable to theoccasion. (291) =329. Major's order making disposition of battalion for combat; basecompany in attack. = In every disposition of the battalion for combatthe major's order should give subordinates sufficient information ofthe enemy, of the position of supporting and neighboring troops, andof the object sought to enable them to conform intelligently to thegeneral plan. The order should then designate the companies which are to constitutethe =firing line= and those which are to constitute the =support=. Inattack, it should designate the direction or the objective, the orderand front of the companies on the firing line, and should designatethe right or left company as base company. In defense, it shoulddescribe the front of each company and, if necessary, the sector to beobserved by each, as prescribed in 281-284. (292) =330. Reconnaissance and protection of flanks. = When the battalion isoperating alone, the major provides for the reconnaissance andprotection of his flanks; if part of a larger force, the major makessimilar provisions, when necessary, without orders from higherauthority, unless such authority has specifically directed othersuitable reconnaissance and protection. (293) =331. Issue of extra ammunition when battalion is deployed. = When thebattalion is deployed upon the initiative of the major, he willindicate whether extra ammunition shall be issued; if deployed inpursuance of orders of higher authority, the major will cause theissue of extra ammunition, unless such authority has given directionsto the contrary. (For ammunition supply see pars. 569-575. ) (294) Deployment (See pars. 456-462; 463-466. ) =332. = The following principles of deployment are applicable to attackor defense. (295) =333. Avoiding premature deployment. = A premature deployment involvesa long, disorganizing and fatiguing advance of the skirmish line, andshould be avoided. A greater evil is to be caught by heavy fire whenin dense column or other close order formation; hence advantage shouldbe taken of cover in order to retain the battalion in close orderformation until exposure to heavy hostile fire may reasonably beanticipated. (296) =334. Depth of deployment and density of firing line; companies anddetachments conducted to their places by their commanders. = The majorregulates the depth of the deployment and the extent and density ofthe firing line, subject to such restrictions as a senior may haveimposed. Companies or designated subdivisions and detachments are conducted bytheir commanders in such manner as best to accomplish the missionassigned to them under the major's orders. Companies designated forthe firing line march independently to the place of deployment, formskirmish line, and take up the advance. They conform, in general, tothe base company, as prescribed in Par. 329. (297) =335. Division of battalion into firing line and support. = Thecommander of a battalion, whether it is operating alone or as part ofa larger force, should hold a part of his command out of the =firingline=. By the judicious use of this force, the major can exert aninfluence not otherwise possible over his firing line and can control, within reasonable limits, an action once begun. So, if his battalionbe assigned to the =firing line=, the major will cause one, two, orthree companies to be deployed on the firing line, retaining theremaining companies or company as a support for that firing line. Thedivision of the battalion into firing line and support will dependupon the front to be covered and the nature and anticipated severityof the action. (298) =336. Size of support. = If the battalion be part of a larger command, the number of companies in the firing line will generally bedeterminable from the regimental commander's order; the remainderconstitutes the support, as prescribed in par. 335. If the battalionis acting alone, the support must be strong enough to maintain theoriginal fire power of the firing line, to protect the flanks, and toperform the functions of a reserve, whatever be the issue of theaction, as explained in par. 445. (299) =337. Position of support. = If the battalion is operating alone, thesupport may, according to circumstances, be held in one or two bodiesand placed behind the center, or one or both flanks of the firingline, or echeloned beyond a flank. If the battalion is part of alarger force, the support is generally held in one body. (300) =338. Distance between firing line and support. = The distance betweenthe firing line and the supporting group or groups will vary betweenwide limits; it should be as short as the necessity for protectionfrom heavy losses will permit. When cover is available, the supportshould be as close as 50 to 100 yards; when such cover is notavailable, it should not be closer than 300 yards. It may be as far as500 yards in rear if good cover is there obtainable and is notobtainable at a lesser distance. (301) =339. Placing entire battalion or regiment in firing line atbeginning. = In exceptional cases, as in a meeting engagement, it maybe necessary to place an entire battalion or regiment in the firingline at the initial deployment, the support being furnished by othertroops. Such deployment causes the early mingling of the larger units, thus rendering leadership and control extremely difficult. Thenecessity for such deployment will increase with the inefficiency ofthe commander and of the service of information. (302) Fire =340. Major apportions target. = Fire direction and fire control arefunctions of company and platoon commanders, as laid down in pars. 285-290. The major makes the primary apportionment of the target--indefense, by assigning sectors of fire, in attack, by assigning theobjective. In the latter case each company in the firing line takes asits target that part of the general objective which lies in its front. (303) =341. Major indicates where or when fire fight begins. = The majorshould indicate the point or time at which the fire fight is to open. He may do this in his order for deployment or he may follow the firingline close enough to do so at the proper time. If it be impracticablefor him to do either, the senior officer with the firing line, in eachbattalion, selects the time for opening fire. (304) Attack (See pars. 456-502. ) =342. Battalion the attack unit. = The battalion is the =attack unit=, whether operating alone or as part of a larger unit. (305) =343. Advance of battalion acting as one of several in firing line. =If his battalion be one of several in the firing line, the major, inexecuting his part of the attack, pushes his battalion forward asvigorously as possible within the front, or section, assigned to it. The great degree of independence allowed to him as to details demands, in turn, the exercise of good judgment on his part. Better leadership, better troops, and more favorable terrain enable one battalion toadvance more rapidly in attack than another less fortunate, and such abattalion will insure the further advance of the others. The leadingbattalion should not, however, become isolated; isolation may lead toits destruction. (306) =344. Close in on enemy as much as possible before opening fire. = Thedeployment having been made, the firing line advances without firing. The predominant idea must be to close with the enemy as soon aspossible without ruinous losses. The limited supply of ammunition andthe uncertainty of resupply, the necessity for securing firesuperiority in order to advance within the shorter ranges, and theimpossibility of accomplishing this at ineffective ranges, make itimperative that fire be not opened as long as the advance can becontinued without demoralizing losses. The attack which halts to openfire at extreme range (over 1, 200 yards) is not likely ever to reachits destination. Every effort should be made, by using cover orinconspicuous formations, or by advancing the firing line as a whole, to arrive within 800 yards of the enemy before opening fire. (Forexpenditure of ammunition see pars. 432-433; for advancing the attacksee par. 467. ) (307) =345. Fire to be directed against the hostile infantry. = Except whenthe enemy's artillery is able to effect an unusual concentration offire, its fire upon deployed infantry causes losses which areunimportant when compared with those inflicted by his infantry; hencethe attacking infantry should proceed to a position as describedabove, and from which an effective fire can be directed against thehostile infantry with a view to obtaining fire superiority. Theeffectiveness of the enemy's fire must be reduced so as to permitfurther advance. The more effective the fire to which the enemy issubjected the less effective will be his fire. (308) =346. The further advance of the firing line; size of rushing units. =Occasionally the fire of adjacent battalions, or of infantry employingfire of position, as explained in par. 438, or of supportingartillery, as explained in pars. 434-438, will permit the furtheradvance of the entire firing line from this point, but it willgenerally be necessary to advance by rushes, as laid down in par. 259, of fractions of the line. The fraction making the rush should be as large as the hostile fireand the necessity for maintaining fire superiority will permit. Depending upon circumstances, the strength of the fraction may varyfrom a company to a few men. The advance is made as rapidly as possible without losing firesuperiority. The smaller the fraction which rushes, the greater thenumber of rifles which continue to fire upon the enemy. On the otherhand, the smaller the fraction which rushes the slower will be theprogress of the attack. (309) =347. Size of rushing units. = Enough rifles must continue in action toinsure the success of each rush. Frequently the successive advances ofthe firing line must be effected by rushes of fractions of decreasedsize; that is, advances by rushes may first be made by company, laterby half company or platoon, and finally by squads or files; but no=subsequent opportunity= to =increase= the rate of advance, such asbetter cover or a decrease of the hostile fire, should be overlooked. (310) =348. The rush begun by a flank unit. = Whenever possible, the rush isbegun by a flank fraction of the firing line. In the absence ofexpress directions from the major, each captain of a flank companydetermines when an advance by rushes (par. 222) shall be attempted. Aflank company which inaugurates an advance by rushes becomes the basecompany, if not already the base. An advance by rushes having beeninaugurated on one flank, the remainder of the firing line conforms;fractions rush successively from that flank and halt on the lineestablished by the initial rush. The fractions need not be uniform in size; each captain indicates howhis company shall rush, having due regard to the ground and the stateof the fire fight. (311) =349. Fractions to advance under covering fire. = A fraction about torush is sent forward when the remainder of the line is firingvigorously; otherwise the chief advantage of this method of advancingis lost. The length of the rush will vary from 30 to 80 yards, depending uponthe existence of cover, positions for firing, and the hostile fire. (312) =350. Subsequent advances. = When the entire firing line of thebattalion has advanced to the new line, fresh opportunities to advanceare sought as before. (313) =351. Prearranged methods of advancing by rushes prohibited. = Twoidentical situations will never confront the battalion; hence at drillit is prohibited to arrange the details of an advance before thepreceding one has been concluded, or to employ a fixed or prearrangedmethod of advancing by rushes. (314) =352. Post of the major. = The major posts himself so as best to directthe reënforcing of the firing line from the support. When all ornearly all of the support has been absorbed by the firing line, hejoins, and takes full charge of, the latter. (315) =353. Size of reënforcements. = The reënforcing of the firing line bydriblets of a squad or a few men has no appreciable effect. The firingline requires either reënforcement or a strong one. Generally one ortwo platoons will be sent forward under cover of a heavy fire of thefiring line. (316) =354. Two methods of reënforcing the firing line. = To facilitatecontrol and to provide intervals in which reënforcements may beplaced, the companies in the firing line should be kept closed in ontheir centers as they become depleted by casualties during theadvance. When this is impracticable reënforcements must mingle with and thickenthe firing line. In battle the latter method will be the rule ratherthan the exception, and to familiarize the men with such conditionsthe combat exercises of the battalion should include both methods ofreënforcing. Occasionally, to provide the necessary intervals forreënforcing by either of these methods, the firing line should bethinned by causing men to drop out and simulate losses during thevarious advances. Under ordinary conditions the depletion of thefiring line for this purpose will be from one-fifth to one-half of itsstrength. (317) =355. Fixing bayonets. = The major or senior officer in the firing linedetermines when bayonets shall be fixed and gives the proper commandor signal. It is repeated by all parts of the firing line. Each manwho was in the front rank prior to deployment, as soon as herecognizes the command or signal, suspends firing, quickly fixes hisbayonet, and immediately resumes firing; after which the other mensuspend firing, fix bayonets, and immediately resume firing. Thesupport also fixes bayonets. The concerted fixing of the bayonet bythe firing line at drill does not simulate battle conditions andshould not be required. It is essential that there be no marked pausein the firing. Bayonets will be fixed generally before or during thelast, or second last, advance preceding the charge. (318) =356. The charge. = Subject to orders from higher authority, the majordetermines the point from which the charge is to be made. (See Pars. 478-489 regarding the charge. ) The firing line having arrived at thatpoint and being in readiness, the major causes the =charge= to besounded. The signal is repeated by the musicians of all parts of theline. The company officers lead the charge. The skirmishers springforward shouting, run with bayonets at charge, and close with theenemy. The further conduct of the charging troops will depend uponcircumstances; they may halt and engage in bayonet combat or inpursuing fire, as explained in par. 486; they may advance a shortdistance to obtain a field of fire or to drive the enemy from thevicinity; they may assemble or reorganize, etc. If the enemy vacateshis position every effort should be made to open fire at once on theretreating mass, reorganization of the attacking troops being ofsecondary importance to the infliction of further losses upon theenemy and to the increase of his confusion, as set forth in pars. 490-494. In combat exercises the major will assume a situation andterminate the assault accordingly. (319) Defense =357. Tactical unit best suited to defensive action. = In defense, asin attack, the battalion is the tactical unit best suited toindependent assignment. Defensive positions are usually divided intosections and a battalion assigned to each. (320) =358. Trenches. = The major locates such fire, communicating, and covertrenches and obstacles as are to be constructed. He assigns companiesto construct them and details the troops to occupy them. (See "FieldFortifications, " Chapter XVI, Part III. ) (321) =359. Reënforcement of firing line. = The major reënforces the firingline in accordance with the principles applicable to and explained inconnection with, the attack, in pars. 352-354, maintaining no morerifles in the firing line than are necessary to prevent the enemy'sadvance. (322) =360. Opening fire. = The supply of ammunition being usually ample, fire is opened as soon as it is possible to break up the enemy'sformation, stop his advance or inflict material loss, but this rulemust be modified to suit the ammunition supply. (323) =361. Fixing bayonets. = The major causes the firing line and supportto fix bayonets when an assault by the enemy is imminent. Captainsdirect this to be done if they are not in communication with the majorand the measure is deemed advisable. Fire alone will not stop a determined, skillfully conducted attack. The defender must have equal tenacity; if he can stay in his trench orposition and cross bayonets, he will at least have neutralized thehostile first line, and the combat will be decided by reserves. (324) =362. Support to cover withdrawal. = If ordered or compelled towithdraw under hostile infantry fire or in the presence of hostileinfantry, the support will be posted so as to cover the retirement ofthe firing line (325) =363. Support in case of battalion acting alone. = When the battalionis operating alone, the support must be strong and must be fedsparingly into the firing line, especially if a counter-attack isplanned. Opportunities for counter-attack should be sought at alltimes, as explained in pars. 525-530. (326) COMBAT INTRODUCTION =364. Scope of subject of combat tactics in this book. = Part II ofthese regulations treats only of the basic principles of combattactics as applied to infantry and to the special units, such asmachine guns and mounted scouts, which form a part of infantryregiments and battalions. The combat tactics of the arms combined are considered in FieldService Regulations. (350) =365. Demands of modern combat upon infantry; complicated maneuversimpracticable; success dependent upon leadership, etc. = Modern combatdemands the highest order of training, discipline, leadership, andmorale on the part of the infantry. Complicated maneuvers areimpracticable; efficient leadership and a determination to win bysimple and direct methods must be depended upon for success. (351) =366. Duties and quality of infantry. = The duties of infantry are manyand difficult. All infantry must be fit to cope with all conditionsthat may arise. Modern war requires but one kind of infantry--goodinfantry. (352) =367. Offensive necessary for decisive results; use of ground, fireefficiency, etc. ; local success. = The infantry must take the offensiveto gain decisive results. Both sides are therefore likely to attemptit, though not necessary at the same time or in the same part of along battle line. In the local combats which make up the general battle the betterendurance, use of ground, fire efficiency, discipline, and trainingwill win. It is the duty of the infantry to win the local successeswhich enable the commanding general to win the battle. (356) =368. Requisites of infantry; trained to bear heaviest burdens; goodinfantry can defeat vastly superior infantry of poor quality. = Theinfantry must have the tenacity to hold every advantage gained, theindividual and collective discipline and skill needed to master theenemy's fire, the determination to close with the enemy in attack, andto meet him with the bayonet in defense. Infantry must be trained tobear the heaviest burdens and losses, both of combat and march. Good infantry can defeat an enemy greatly superior in numbers, butlacking in training, discipline, leadership, and morale. (354) =369. Fixed forms and instructions covering all cases impossible;study and practice necessary; purposes of practical and theoreticalinstruction. = It is impossible to establish fixed forms or to givegeneral instructions that will cover all cases. Officers andnoncommissioned officers must be so trained that they can applysuitable means and methods to each case as it arises. Study andpractice are necessary to acquire proper facility in this respect. Theoretical instruction can not replace practical instruction; theformer supplies correct ideas and gives to practical work an interest, purpose, and definiteness not otherwise obtainable. (355) =370. Exercises in extended order to be in nature of combat exercises;all combat exercises to be conducted under assumed tacticalsituations. = After the mechanism of extended order drill has beenlearned with precision in the company, every exercise should be, asfar as practicable, in the nature of a maneuver (combat exercise)against an =imaginary=, =outlined=, or =represented= enemy. Company extended order drill may be conducted without reference to atactical situation, but a combat exercise, whatever may be the size ofthe unit employed, should be conducted under an assumed tacticalsituation. (356) =371. Effective method of conducting combat exercises. = An effectivemethod of conducting a combat exercise is to outline the enemy with afew men equipped with flags. The umpire or inspector states thesituation, and the commander leads his troops with due regard to theassumptions made. Changes in situation, the results of reconnaissance, the character ofartillery fire, etc. , are made known to the commander when necessaryby the umpire or inspector, who, in order to observe and influence theconduct of the exercise, remains in rear of the firing line. From thisposition he indicates, with the aid of prearranged signals, thecharacter of the fire and movements of the hostile infantry. Thesesignals are intended for the men outlining the enemy. These men repeatthe signals; all officers and men engaged in the exercise and in sightof the outlined enemy are thus informed of the enemy's action, and theexercise is conducted accordingly. Assistant umpires, about one for each company in the firing line, mayassist in indicating hostile fire and movements and in observing theconduct of the exercise. An outlined enemy may be made to attack or defend. Situations should be simple and natural. During or after the exercisethe umpire or inspector should call attention to any impropermovements or incorrect methods of execution. He will prohibit allmovements of troops or individuals that would be impossible if theenemy were real. The slow progress of events to be expected on thebattlefield can hardly be simulated, but the umpire or inspector willprevent undue haste and will attempt to enforce a reasonably slow rateof progress. The same exercise should not be repeated over the same ground andunder the same situation. Such repetitions lead to the adoption of afixed mode of attack or defense and develop mere drill masters. Fixedor prearranged systems are prohibited. (357) LEADERSHIP General Considerations =372. What constitutes art of leadership. = The art of leadershipconsists of applying sound tactical principles to concrete cases onthe battlefield. Self-reliance, initiative, aggressiveness, and a conception ofteam-work are the fundamental characteristics of successfulleadership. (358) =373. Basis of success; adherence to original plan. = A correct graspof the situation and a definite plan of action form the soundest basisfor a successful combat. A good plan once adopted and put into execution should not beabandoned unless it becomes clear that it can not succeed. Afterthoughts are dangerous, except as they aid in the execution ofdetails in the original plans. (359) =374. Avoid combats offering no chance of valuable results. = Combatsthat do not promise success or some real advantage to the generalissue should be avoided; they cause unnecessary losses, impair themorale of one's own troops, and raise that of the enemy. (360) =375. Avoid complicated maneuvers. = Complicated maneuvers are notlikely to succeed in war. All plans and the methods adopted forcarrying them into effect must be simple and direct. (361) =376. Order and cohesion necessary. = Order and cohesion must bemaintained within the units if success is to be expected. (362) =377. Officers to be true leaders. = Officers must show themselves tobe true leaders. They must act in accordance with the spirit of theirorders and must require of their troops the strictest discipline onthe field of battle. (363) =378. Units not to be broken up. = The best results are obtained whenleaders know the capacity and traits of those whom they command; hencein making detachments units should not be broken up, and a deploymentthat would cause an intermingling of the larger units in the firingline should be avoided. (364) =379. Leading deployed troops difficult; necessity for training, discipline and close order. = Leading is difficult when troops aredeployed. A high degree of training and discipline and the use ofclose order formations to the fullest extent possible are thereforerequired. (365) =380. Avoidance of unnecessary hardship; limit of endurance exactedwhen necessary. = In order to lighten the severe physical straininseparable from infantry service in campaign, constant efforts mustbe made to spare the troops unnecessary hardship and fatigue; but whennecessity arises, the limit of endurance must be exacted. (366) =381. Fighting troops not to carry back wounded. = When officers or menbelonging to fighting troops leave their proper places to carry back, or to care for, wounded during the progress of the action, they areguilty of skulking. This offense must be repressed with the utmostvigor. (367) =382. Complete equipment usually carried into action. = The completeequipment of the soldier is carried into action unless the weather orthe physical condition of the men renders such measure a severehardship. In any event, =only the pack[4] will be laid aside=. Thedetermination of this question rests with the regimental commander. The complete equipment affords to men lying prone considerableprotection against shrapnel. (368) =383. Post of commander; use of reserve in case of victory; whenfiring line is controlled by commander. = The post of the commandermust be such as will enable him to observe the progress of events andto communicate his orders. Subordinate commanders, in addition, mustbe in position to transmit the orders of superiors. Before entering an action, the commander should be as far to the frontas possible in order that he personally may see the situation, orderthe deployment, and begin the action strictly in accordance with hisown wishes. During the action, he must, as a rule, leave to the local leaders thedetailed conduct of the firing line, posting himself either with hisown reserve or in such a position that he is in constant, direct, andeasy communication with it. A commander takes full and direct charge of his firing line only whenthe line has absorbed his whole command. When their troops are victorious, all commanders should press forwardin order to clinch the advantage gained and to use their reserves tothe best advantage. (369) =384. Latitude allowed subordinates. = The latitude allowed to officersis in direct proportion to the size of their commands. Each should seeto the general execution of his task, leaving to the propersubordinates the supervision of details, and interfering only whenmistakes are made that threaten to seriously prejudice the generalplan. (370) Teamwork =385. Latitude allowed subordinates; success depends on coördinationof subordinates. = The comparatively wide fronts of deployed unitsincrease the difficulties of control. Subordinates must therefore begiven great latitude in the execution of their tasks. The success ofthe whole depends largely upon how well each subordinate coördinateshis work with the general plan. A great responsibility is necessarily thrown upon subordinates, butresponsibility stimulates the right kind of an officer. (371) =386. Initiative of subordinates; general plan to be furthered. = In agiven situation it is far better =to do any intelligent thing=consistent with the aggressive execution of the general plan, than tosearch hesitatingly for the ideal. This is the true rule of conductfor subordinates who are required to act upon their own initiative. A subordinate who is reasonably sure that his intended action is suchas would be ordered by the commander, were the latter present and inpossession of the facts, has enough encouragement to go aheadconfidently. He must possess the loyalty to carry out the plans of hissuperior and the keenness to recognize and to seize opportunities tofurther the general plan. (372) =387. But one supreme will in a battle; subordinates to coöperate. =Independence must not become license. Regardless of the number ofsubordinates who are apparently supreme in their own restrictedspheres, there is but one battle and but one supreme will to which allmust conform. Every subordinate must therefore work for the general result. He doesall in his power to insure coöperation between the subdivisions underhis command. He transmits important information to adjoining units orto superiors in rear and, with the assistance of information received, keeps himself and his subordinates duly posted as to the situation. (373) =388. Deviation from orders. = When circumstances render itimpracticable to consult the authority issuing an order, officersshould not hesitate to vary from such order when it is clearly basedupon an incorrect view of the situation, is impossible of execution, or has been rendered impracticable on account of changes which haveoccurred since its promulgation. In the application of this rule theresponsibility for mistakes rests upon the subordinate, butunwillingness to assume responsibility on proper occasions isindicative of weakness. Superiors should be careful not to censure an apparent disobediencewhere the act was done in the proper spirit and to advance the generalplan. (374) =389. Intermingling of units; duties of officers and guides. = When themen of two or more units intermingle in the firing line, all officersand men submit at once to the senior. Officers and platoon guides seekto fill vacancies caused by casualties. Each seizes any opportunity toexercise the functions consistent with his grade, and all assist inthe maintenance of order and control. Every lull in the action should be utilized for as completerestoration of order in the firing line as the ground or otherconditions permit. (375) =390. Separated officers and noncommissioned officers placingthemselves under nearest higher commander. = Any officer ornoncommissioned officer who becomes separated from his proper unit andcan not rejoin must at once place himself and his command at thedisposal of the nearest higher commander. (376) Anyone having completed an assigned task must seek to rejoin hisproper command. Failing in this, he should join the nearest troopsengaged with the enemy. =391. Duty of separated soldiers. = Soldiers are taught the necessityof remaining with their companies, but those who become detached mustjoin the nearest company and serve with it until the battle is over orreorganization is ordered. (377) Orders =392. Orders for deployment; combat orders of divisions and brigadesusually written. = Commands are deployed and enter the combat by theorders of the commander to the subordinate commanders. The initial combat orders of the division are almost invariablywritten; those of the brigade are generally so. The written order ispreferable and is used whenever time permits. If time permits, subsequent orders are likewise written, either asfield orders or messages. (378) =393. Combat orders of regiments and smaller units; verbal messages. =The initial combat orders of regiments and smaller units are givenverbally. For this purpose the subordinates for whom the orders areintended are assembled, if practicable, at a place from which thesituation and plan can be explained. Subsequent orders are verbal or in the form of verbal or writtenmessages. Verbal messages should not be used unless they are short andunmistakable. (379) =394. Initial combat orders; personal reconnaissance. = The initialcombat order of any commander or subordinate is based upon hisdefinite plan for executing the task confronting him. Whenever possible the formation of the plan is preceded by a personalreconnaissance of the terrain and a careful consideration of allinformation of the enemy. (380) =395. Composition of combat orders. = The combat order gives suchinformation of the enemy and of neighboring or supporting friendlytroops as will enable subordinates to understand the situation. The general plan of action is stated in brief terms, but enough of thecommander's intentions is divulged to guide the subsequent actions ofthe subordinates. Clear and concise instructions are given as to the action to be takenin the combat by each part of the command. In this way the commanderassigns tasks, fronts, objectives, sectors or areas, etc. , inaccordance with his plan. If the terms employed convey definite ideasand leave no loopholes, the conduct of subordinates will generally becorrespondingly satisfactory. Such miscellaneous matter relating to special troops, trains, ammunition, and future movements of the commander is added as concernsthe combat itself. Combat orders should prescribe communication, reconnaissance, flankprotection, etc. , when some special disposition is desired or when anomission on the part of a subordinate may reasonably be feared. (381) =396. Encroaching upon functions of subordinates prohibited; orders tobe definite. = When issuing orders, a commander should indicate clearly=what= is to be done by each subordinate, but not =how= it is to bedone. He should not encroach upon the functions of a subordinate byprescribing details of execution unless he has good reason to doubtthe ability or judgment of the subordinate, and cannot substituteanother. Although general in its terms, an order must be definite and must bethe expression of a fixed decision. Ambiguity or vagueness indicateseither a vacillation or the inability to formulate orders. (382) =397. Orders generally given subordinates through their immediatesuperiors. = Usually the orders of a commander are intended for, andare given to, the commanders of the next lower units, but in anemergency commander should not hesitate to give orders directly toany subordinate. In such case he should promptly inform theintermediate commander concerned. (383) Communication =398. Communication, how maintained. = Communication is maintained bymeans of staff officers, messengers, relay systems, connecting files, visual signals, telegraph, or telephone. (384) =399. Lines of communication established by signal corps. = The signalcorps troops of the division establish lines of information fromdivision to brigade headquarters. The further extension of lines ofinformation in combat by signal troops is exceptional. (385) =400. Lines of communication established by regiment; orderlies carrysignal flags. = Each regiment, employing its own personnel, isresponsible for the maintenance of communication from the colonel backto the brigade and forward to the battalions. For this purpose theregiment uses the various means which may be furnished it. The staffand orderlies, regimental and battalion, are practiced in the use ofthese means and in messenger service. Orderlies carry signal flags. (386) =401. Communication between firing line and major or colonel; companymusicians carry signal flags. = Connection between the firing line andthe major or colonel is practically limited to the prescribed flag, arm, and bugle signals. Other means can only be supplemental. Companymusicians carry company flags and are practiced in signaling. (387) =402. Communication by artillery with firing line by means of staffofficers or through agents. = The artillery generally communicates withthe firing line by means of its own staff officers or through an agentwho accompanies some unit in or near the front. The infantry keeps himinformed as to the situation and affords any reasonable assistance. When the infantry is dependent upon the artillery for fire support, perfect coördination through this representative is of greatimportance. (388) COMBAT RECONNAISSANCE =403. Importance of combat reconnaissance; avoidance of deployment onwrong lines. = Combat reconnaissance is of vital importance and mustnot be neglected. By proper preliminary reconnaissance, deployments onwrong lines, or in a wrong direction, and surprises may generally beprevented. (389) =404. Protection of troops by proper reconnaissance. = Troops deployedand under fire can not change front, and thus they suffer greatly whenenfiladed. Troops in close order formation may suffer heavy losses ina short time if subjected to hostile fire. In both formations troopsmust be protected by proper reconnaissance and warning. (390) =405. Difficulty of reconnaissance depends on extent of enemy'sscreen; strength of reconnoitering parties. = The difficulty ofreconnaissance increases in proportion to the measures adopted by theenemy to screen himself. The strength of the reconnoitering party is determined by thecharacter of the information desired and the nature of the hostilescreen. In exceptional cases as much as a battalion may be necessaryin order to break through the hostile screen and enable the commanderor officer in charge to reconnoiter in person. A large reconnoitering party is conducted so as to open the way forsmall patrols, to serve as a supporting force or rallying point forthem, and to receive and transmit information. Such parties maintainsignal communication with the main body if practicable. (391) =406. Each separate column to protect itself by reconnaissance. = Eachseparate column moving forward to deploy must reconnoiter to its frontand flank and keep in touch with adjoining columns. The extent of thereconnaissance to the flank depends upon the isolation of the columns. (392) =407. Reconnaissance before attacking. = Before an attack areconnaissance must be made to determine the enemy's position, thelocation of his flanks, the character of the terrain, the nature ofthe hostile field works, etc. , in order to prevent prematuredeployment and the resulting fatigue and loss of time. It will frequently be necessary to send forward a thin skirmish linein order to induce the enemy to open fire and reveal his position. (393) =408. Extent of reconnaissance. = It will frequently be impossible toobtain satisfactory information until after the action has begun. Thedelay that may be warranted for the purpose of reconnaissance dependsupon the nature of the attack and the necessity for promptness. Forexample, in a meeting engagement, and sometimes in a holding attack, the reconnaissance may have to be hasty and superficial, whereas in anattack against an enemy carefully prepared for defense there willgenerally be both time and necessity for thorough reconnaissance. (394) =409. Reconnaissance in defense. = In defense, reconnaissance must bekept up to determine the enemy's line of advance, to ascertain hisdispositions, to prevent his reconnaissance, etc. Patrols or parties posted to prevent hostile reconnaissance shouldrelieve the main body of the necessity of betraying its position byfiring on small bodies of the enemy. (395) =410. Duration of reconnaissance; protection of flanks. =Reconnaissance continues throughout the action. A firing or skirmish line can take care of its front, but its flanksare especially vulnerable to modern firearms. The moral effect offlanking fire is as great as the physical effect. Hence, combatpatrols to give warning or covering detachments to give security areindispensable on exposed flanks. This is equally true in attack ordefense. (396) =411. Responsibility of infantry commanders for reconnaissance;surprise unpardonable. = The fact that cavalry patrols are known to beposted in a certain direction does not relieve infantry commanders ofthe responsibility for reconnaissance and security. To be surprised by an enemy at short range is an unpardonable offense. (397) =412. Commander of flank battalion responsible for security of hisflank. = The commander of a battalion on a flank of a general lineinvariably provides for the necessary reconnaissance and security onthat flank unless higher authority has specifically ordered it. Inany event, he sends out combat patrols as needed. Where his battalion is on a flank of one section of the line and aconsiderable interval lies between his battalion and the next section, he makes similar provision. (398) =413. Patrols established by battalion commanders. = Battalioncommanders in the first line establish patrols to observe and reportthe progress or conduct of adjoining troops when these can not beseen. (399) FIRE SUPERIORITY PURPOSE AND NATURE (See par. 427) =414. Success in battle dependent upon fire superiority. = In adecisive battle success depends on gaining and maintaining firesuperiority. Every effort must be made to gain it early and then tokeep it. Attacking troops must first gain fire superiority in order to reachthe hostile position. Over open ground attack is possible only whenthe attacking force has a decided fire superiority. With suchsuperiority the attack is not only possible, but success is probableand without ruinous losses. Defending troops can prevent a charge only when they can master theenemy's fire and inflict heavy losses upon him. (400) =415. Volume and accuracy necessary to obtain fire superiority. = Toobtain fire superiority it is necessary to produce a heavy volume ofaccurate fire. Every increase in the effectiveness of the fire means acorresponding decrease in the effectiveness of the enemy's fire. The volume and accuracy of fire will depend upon severalconsiderations: =(a) The number of rifles employed. = On a given front the greatestvolume of fire is produced by a firing line having only sufficientintervals between men to permit the free use of their rifles. Themaximum density of a firing line is therefore about one man per yardof front. =(b)= The =rate= of fire affects its volume; an excessive rate reducesits accuracy. =(c) The character of the target influences both volume and accuracy. =Larger dimensions, greater visibility, and shorter range increase therate of fire; greater density increases =the effect=. =(d) Training and discipline= have an important bearing on the rate orvolume of fire, but their greatest influence is upon accuracy. The firing efficiency of troops is reduced by fatigue and adversepsychological influences. =(e) Fire direction and control improve collective accuracy. = Theimportance of fire direction increases rapidly with the range. Controlexerts a powerful influence at all ranges. (401) FIRE DIRECTION AND CONTROL Opening Fire =416. Long range fire, when effective. = Beyond effective rangesimportant results can be expected only when the target is large anddistinct and much ammunition is used. Long range fire is permissible in pursuit on account of the moraleffect of any fire under the circumstances. At other times such fireis of doubtful value. (402) =417. Opening fire in attack. = In attack, the desire to open fire whenlosses are first felt must be repressed. Considerations of time, target, ammunition, and morale make it imperative that the attackwithhold its fire and press forward to a first firing position closeto the enemy. The attacker's target will be smaller and fainter thanthe one he presents to the enemy. (403) =418. Opening fire in defense. = In defense, more ammunition isavailable, ranges are more easily determined, and the enemy usuallypresents a larger target. The defender may therefore open fire andexpect results at longer ranges than the attacker, and particularly ifthe defenders intend a delaying action only. If the enemy has a powerful artillery, it will often be best for thedefending infantry to withhold its fire until the enemy offers aspecially favorable target. Vigorous and well-directed bursts of fireare then employed. The troops should therefore be given as muchartificial protection as time and means permit, and at an agreedsignal expose themselves as much as necessary and open fire. (404) =419. Opening fire in unexpected, close encounters. = In unexpected, close encounters a great advantage accrues to the side which firstopens rapid and accurate fire with battle sight. (405) Use of Ground =420. Requisites of ground for cover. = The position of the firers mustafford a suitable field of fire. The ground should permit constant observation of the enemy, and yetenable the men to secure some cover when not actually firing. Troops whose target is for the moment hidden by unfavorable ground, either move forward to better ground or seek to execute cross fire onanother target. (406) =421. Skillful use of ground reduces visibility. = The likelihood of atarget being hit depends to a great extent upon its visibility. Byskillful use of ground, a firing line may reduce its visibilitywithout loss of fire power. Sky lines are particularly to be avoided. (407) Choice of Target =422. Target to be chosen. = The target chosen should be the hostiletroops most dangerous to the firers. These will usually be the nearesthostile infantry. When no target is specially dangerous, that oneshould be chosen which promises the most hits. (408) =423. Target not to be changed except for good reason. = Frequentchanges of target impair the fire effect. Random changes to small, unimportant targets impair fire discipline and accomplish nothing. Attention should be confined to the main target until substantialreason for change is apparent. (409) =424. Flanking fire to be delivered when opportunity offers. = Anopportunity to deliver flanking fire, especially against artilleryprotected in front by shields, is an example warranting change oftarget and should never be overlooked. Such fire demoralizes thetroops subjected to it, even if the losses inflicted are small. Inthis manner a relatively small number of rifles can produce importantresults. (410) The Range =425. Importance of correct sight setting. = Beyond close range, thecorrect setting of the rear sight is of primary importance, providedthe troops are trained and well in hand. The necessity for correctsight setting increases rapidly with the range. Its importancedecreases as the quality of the troops decrease, for the error insight setting, except possibly at very long ranges, becomesunimportant when compared with the error in holding and aiming. (411) =426. Determination of ranges. = In attack, distances must usually beestimated and corrections made as errors are observed. Mechanicalrange finders and ranging volleys are practicable at times. In defense, it is generally practicable to measure more accurately thedistances to visible objects and to keep a record of them for futureuse. (412) Distribution of Fire and Target =427. Purpose of fire superiority; distribution of fire and target. =The purpose of fire superiority is to get hits whenever possible, butat all events to keep down the enemy's fire and render it harmless. Toaccomplish this the target must be covered with fire throughout itswhole extent. Troops who are not fired upon will fire with nearlypeacetime accuracy. The target is roughly divided and a part is assigned to each unit. Nopart of the target is neglected. In attack, by a system of overlappingin assigning targets to platoons, the entire hostile line can be keptunder fire even during a rush. (Pars. 400-401. ) (413) Observation =428. Observation of target. = The correctness of the sight setting andthe distribution of fire over the target can be verified only bycareful observation of the target, the adjacent ground, and the effectupon the enemy. (414) =429. Observation determines whether fire fight is being properlyconducted. = Observation only can determine whether the fire fight isbeing properly conducted. If the enemy's fire is losing in accuracyand effect, the observer realizes that his side is gainingsuperiority. If the enemy's fire remains or becomes effective andpersistent, he realizes that corrective measures are necessary toincrease either volume or accuracy, or both. (415) Discipline =430. What discipline accomplishes. = Discipline makes good directionand control possible and is the distinguishing mark of trained troops. (416) =431. Communication on firing line by means of signals. = Thediscipline necessary in the firing line will be absent unless officersand noncommissioned officers can make their will known to the men. Inthe company, therefore, communication must be by simple signals which, in the roar of musketry, will attract the attention and convey thecorrect meaning. (417) Expenditure of Ammunition =432. Use of ammunition in attack. = In attack the supply is morelimited than in defense. Better judgment must be exercised inexpenditure. Ordinarily, troops in the firing line of an attack cannot expect to have that day more ammunition than they carry into thecombat, except such additions as come from the distribution ofammunition of dead and wounded and the surplus brought byreënforcements. (418) =433. True economy in expenditure of ammunition. = When a certain fireeffect is required, the necessary ammunition must be expended withouthesitation. Several hours of firing may be necessary to gain firesuperiority. True economy can be practiced only by closing on theenemy, as explained in par. 344, before first opening fire, andthereafter suspending fire when there is nothing to shoot at. (419) Supporting Artillery =434. Artillery fire principal aid of infantry. = Artillery fire is theprincipal aid to the infantry in gaining and keeping fire superiority, not only by its hits, but by the moral effect it produces on theenemy. (420) =435. Functions of artillery fire in attack and defense. = In attack, artillery assists the forward movement of the infantry. It keeps downthe fire of the hostile artillery and seeks to neutralize the hostileinfantry by inflicting losses upon it, destroying its morale, drivingit to cover, and preventing it from using its weapons effectively. In defense, it ignores the hostile artillery when the enemy's attackreaches a decisive stage and assists in checking the attack, joiningits fire power to that of the defending infantry. (421) =436. Fire of artillery over friendly troops. = Troops should beaccustomed to being fired over by friendly artillery and impressedwith the fact that the artillery should continue firing upon the enemyuntil the last possible moment. The few casualties resulting fromshrapnel bursting short are trifling compared with those that wouldresult from the increased effectiveness of the enemy's infantry firewere the friendly artillery to cease firing. Casualties inflicted by supporting artillery are not probable untilthe opposing infantry lines are less than 200 yards apart. (422) =437. When no longer safe for artillery to fire over friendly troops. =When the distance between the hostile infantry lines becomes so shortas to render further use of friendly artillery inadvisable, thecommander of the infantry firing line, using a preconcertedsignal, [5] informs the artillery commander. The latter usuallyincreases the range in order to impede the strengthening of theenemy's foremost line, as explained in pars. 345-346. (423) Fire of Position =438. Fire of position, when used. = Infantry is said to execute fireof position when it is posted so as to assist an attack by firing overthe heads, or off the flank, of the attacking troops and is not itselfto engage in the advance; or when, in defense, it is similarly postedto augment the fire of the main firing line. Machine guns serve a like purpose, as set forth in par. 555. In a decisive action, fire of position should be employed whenever theterrain permits and reserve infantry is available. (424) DEPLOYMENT =439. Formation of troops before and during deployment. = Troops aremassed preparatory to deployment when the nature of their deploymentcan not be foreseen or it is desirable to shorten the column or toclear the road. Otherwise, in the deployment of large commands, whether in march column, in bivouac, or massed, and whether forming, for attack or for defense, they are ordinarily first formed into aline of columns to facilitate the extension of the front prior todeploying. The rough line or lines of columns thus formed enable troops to takeadvantage of the terrain in advancing and shorten the time occupied informing the firing line. (425) =440. Action of brigade and regimental commanders in deployment ofdivision. = In deploying the division, each brigade is assigned adefinite task or objective. On receipt of his orders, the brigadecommander conducts his brigade in column or in line of regiments, until it is advisable that it be broken into smaller columns. He thenissues his order, assigning to each regiment its task, if practicable. In a similar manner the regimental commanders lead their regimentsforward in column, or in line of columns, until the time arrives forissuing the regimental order. It is seldom advisable to break up thebattalion before issuing orders for its deployment. (426) =441. Personal reconnaissance before deployment. = Each subordinatecommander, after receiving his order for the action, should precedehis command as far as possible, in order to reconnoiter the groundpersonally, and should prepare to issue his orders promptly. (427) =442. Each commander to guard his command against surprise. = Eachcommander of a column directs the necessary reconnaissance to frontand flanks; by this means and by a judicious choice of ground heguards against surprise. (428) =443. Premature formation of firing line to be avoided. = The prematureformation of the firing line causes unnecessary fatigue and loss oftime, and may result in a faulty direction being taken. Troops oncedeployed make even minor changes of direction with difficulty, andthis difficulty increases with the length of the firing line. (429) =444. Rectification of deployment in wrong direction. = In the largerunits, when the original deployment is found to be in the wrongdirection, it will usually be necessary to deploy the reserve on thecorrect front and withdraw and assemble the first line. (430) =445. Number of troops to be deployed in beginning. = To gain decisiveresults, it will generally be necessary to use all the troops at somestage of the combat. But in the beginning, while the situation isuncertain, care should be taken not to engage too large a proportionof the command. On the other hand, there is no greater error than toemploy too few and to sacrifice them by driblets. (For division of thebattalion in attack see 335-339. ) (431) =446. Dense, well-directed, and controlled line of heavy fire givesfire superiority. = When it is intended to fight to a decision, firesuperiority is essential. To gain this, two things are necessary: Aheavy fire and a fire well-directed and controlled. Both of these arebest obtained when the firing line is as dense as practicable, whileleaving the men room for the free use of their rifles. If the men are too widely separated, direction and control are verydifficult, often impossible, and the intensity of fire is slight inproportion to the front occupied. (432) =447. Density of 1 man per yard; occupation of only sections of longlines. = In an attack or stubborn defense the firing line should have adensity of one man per yard of front occupied. Where the tactical situation demands the holding of a line too long tobe occupied throughout at this density, it is generally better todeploy companies or platoons at one man per yard, leaving gaps in theline between them, than to distribute the men uniformly at increasedintervals. (433) =448. Use of thin firing line. = A relatively thin firing line may beemployed when merely covering the movements of other forces; when onthe defensive against poor troops; when the final action to be takenhas not yet been determined; and, in general, when fire superiority isnot necessary. (434) =449. Length of firing line employed by whole force; strength ofsupports and reserves; density of charging line. = The length of thefiring line that the whole force may employ depends upon the densityof the line and the strength in rear required by the situation. Supports and reserves constitute the strength in rear. In a decisive attack they should be at least strong enough to replacea heavy loss in the original firing line and to increase the chargingline to a density of at least one and one-half men per yard and stillhave troops in rear for protection and for the other purposesmentioned above. (435) =450. Strength of reserve; troops deployed varying from 1 to 10 menper yard. = In the original deployment the strength of the reserve heldout by each commander comprises from one-sixth to two-thirds of hisunit, depending upon the nature of the service expected of thereserve. A small force in a covering or delaying action requires very littlestrength in rear, while a large force fighting a decisive battlerequires much. Therefore, depending upon circumstances, the originaldeployment, including the strength in rear, may vary from 1 to 10 menper yard. Against an enemy poorly disciplined and trained, or lackingin morale, a thinner deployment is permissible. (436) =451. Density of whole deployment varies with size of command. = Thedensity of the whole deployment increases with the size of thecommand, because the larger the command the greater the necessity forreserves. Thus, battalion acting alone may attack two men per yard offront, but a regiment, with three battalions, may only double thefront of the one battalion. (437) =452. Division of battle line into battle districts and density ofdeployment therein. = By the assignment of divisions or larger units toparts of a line of battle several miles long, a series ofsemi-independent battle, or local combat, districts are created. The general deployment for a long line of battle comprising severalbattle districts is not directly considered in these regulations. Thedeployments treated of herein are those of the infantry within suchdistricts. The density of deployment in these districts may vary greatly, depending upon the activity expected in each. Within these battledistricts, as well as in smaller forces acting alone, parts of theline temporarily of less importance may be held weakly, in order toeconomize troops and to have more at the decisive point. (438) =453. Extent of front occupied by a unit depends upon security offlanks. = The front that a unit may occupy when deployed depends alsoupon whether its flanks are secured. If both flanks are secured byother troops, the unit may increase its front materially by reducingits reserve or supports. If only one flank is so secured, the frontmay still be somewhat increased, but the exposed flank must be guardedby posting the supports or reserve toward that flank. Natural obstacles that secure the flanks have practically the sameeffect upon deployment. (439) =454. Regiments, battalions, and companies deployed side by side. =Except when assigned as supports or reserve, regiments in the brigade, battalions in the regiment, and companies in the battalion are, whenpracticable, deployed side by side. (440) =455. Battalions furnish firing line and supports; larger unitsfurnish reserves; employment of reserve. = In the deployment, battalions establish the firing line, each furnishing its own support. In each unit larger than the battalion a reserve is held out, itsstrength depending upon circumstances. In general, the reserve isemployed by the commander to meet or improve conditions brought aboutby the action of the firing line. It must not be too weak or too splitup. It must be posted where the commander believes it will be neededfor decisive action, or where he desires to bring about such action. When necessary, parts of it reënforce or prolong the firing line. (441) ATTACK (For the battalion in Attack, see pars. 342-346) =456. Fire superiority means success; how to obtain fire superiority. =An attack is bound to succeed if fire superiority is gained andproperly used. To gain this superiority generally requires that the attack employmore rifles than the defense; this in turn means a longer line, asboth sides will probably hold a strong firing line. (442) =457. When frontal attack may be successful. = With large forces, adirect frontal attack gives the attacker little opportunity to bringmore rifles to bear. However, if the enemy is unduly extended, afrontal attack may give very decisive results. (443) =458. When turning movements are allowable. = Owing to the difficultyof control and the danger of the parts being defeated in detail, wideturning movements are seldom allowable except in large forces. (444) =459. Advantages of enveloping attack. = If the attack can be sodirected that, while the front is covered, another fraction of thecommand strikes a flank more or less obliquely (an enveloping attack), the advantages gained are a longer line and more rifles in action;also a converging fire opposed to the enemy's diverging fire. (445) =460. Envelopment of both flanks. = An envelopment of both flanksshould never be attempted without a very decided superiority innumbers. (446) =461. Enveloping attacks result in local frontal attacks; advantage ofenvelopment. = The enveloping attack will nearly always result locallyin a frontal attack, for it will be met by the enemy's reserve. Theadvantage of envelopment lies in the longer concentric line, with itspreponderance of rifles and its converging fire. (447) =462. Coöperation between frontal and enveloping attacks; the twoattacks to be deployed considerable distance from hostile positions. =Coöperation between the frontal and enveloping attacks is essential tosuccess. Both should be pushed vigorously and simultaneously, andordinarily both should move simultaneously to the charge; but at thefinal stage of the attack conditions may sometimes warrant one incharging while the other supports it with fire. The envelopment of a flank is brought about with difficulty when madeby troops already deployed in another direction or by their reserves. The two attacks should be deployed at a suitable distance apart, withthe lines of attack converging in rear of the hostile position. Thetroops that are to make the enveloping attack should deploy in theproper direction at the start and should be given orders which enablethem to gain their point of deployment in the most direct andpractical manner. The enveloping attack is generally made the stronger, especially insmall forces. (448) DEPLOYMENT FOR ATTACK =463. Distance from hostile position at which deployment is made;foreground to be cleared of hostile detachments before deployment. =Where open terrain exposes troops to hostile artillery fire it may benecessary to make the deployment 2 miles or more from the hostileposition. The foreground should be temporarily occupied by covering troops. Ifthe enemy occupies the foreground with detachments, the coveringtroops must drive them back. (449) =464. Moving well forward and deploying at night. = To enable largeforces to gain ground toward the enemy, it may sometimes be cheaperand quicker in the end to move well forward and to deploy at night. Insuch case the area in which the deployment is to be made should, ifpracticable, be occupied by covering troops before dark. The deployment will be made with great difficulty unless the groundhas been studied by daylight. The deployment gains little unless itestablishes the firing line well within effective range of the enemy'smain position. (See Night Operations, par. 580-590. ) (450) =465. Each unit deploys on its direction line; intervals betweenbattalions on firing line. = Each unit assigned a task deploys when onits direction line, or opposite its objective, and when it has nolonger sufficient cover for advancing in close order. In the firingline, intervals of 25 to 50 yards should be maintained as long aspossible between battalions. In the larger units it may be necessaryto indicate on the map the direction or objective, but to battalioncommanders it should be pointed out on the ground. (451) =466. Post of reserve; reserve charged with flank protection. = Thereserve is kept near enough to the firing line to be on hand at thedecisive stage. It is posted with reference to the attack, or to thatpart of the attacking line, from which the greater results areexpected; it is also charged with flank protection, but should be keptintact. Supports are considered in paragraphs 262 to 265, inclusive, and 335to 339, inclusive. (452) ADVANCING THE ATTACK =467. Firing line to advance as far as possible before opening fire. =The firing line must ordinarily advance a long distance before it isjustified in opening fire. It can not combat the enemy's artillery, and it is at a disadvantage if it combats the defender's long-rangerifle fire. Hence it ignores both and, by taking full advantage ofcover and of the discipline of the troops, advances to a first firingposition at the shortest range possible, as explained in par. 344. Formations for crossing this zone with the minimum loss are consideredin paragraphs 249 to 257, inclusive. These and other methods ofcrossing such zones should be studied and practiced. (453) =468. Invisibility best protection while advancing. = The bestprotection against loss while advancing is to escape the enemy's view. (454) =469. Advance of battalions. = Each battalion finds its own firingposition, conforming to the general advance as long as practicableand taking advantage of the more advanced position of an adjacentbattalion in order to gain ground. The position from which the attack opens fire is further considered inparagraphs 343-345, inclusive. (455) =470. Infantry moving to the attack passing through deployedartillery. = It will frequently become necessary for infantry moving tothe attack to pass through deployed artillery. This should be done soas to interfere as little as possible with the latter's fire, andnever so as to cause that fire to cease entirely. As far aspracticable, advantage should be taken of intervals in the line, ifany. An understanding between artillery and infantry commanders shouldbe had, so as to effect the movement to the best advantage. (456) =471. Advanced elements of firing line not to open fire on mainhostile position. = In advancing the attack, advanced elements of thefiring line or detachments in front of it should not open fire exceptin defense or to clear the foreground of the enemy. Fire on thehostile main position should not be opened until all or nearly all ofthe firing line can join in the fire. (457) THE FIRE ATTACK (See pars. 414-438. ) =472. Fire superiority sought at first firing position, and to bemaintained until charging point is reached; size of rushing units. = Atthe first firing position the attack seeks to gain fire superiority. This may necessitate a steady, accurate fire a long time. The objectis to subdue the enemy's fire and keep it subdued so that theattacking troops may advance from this point to a favorable place nearthe enemy from which the charge may be made. Hence, in the advance byrushes, sufficient rifles must be kept constantly in action to keepdown the enemy's fire; this determines the size of the fractionrushing. (458) =473. Futility of advancing without fire superiority. = To advancewithout fire superiority against a determined defense would result insuch losses as to bring the attack to a standstill or to make theapparent success barren of results. (459) =474. Signs that fire superiority has been gained. = Diminution of theenemy's fire and a pronounced loss in effectiveness are the surestsigns that fire superiority has been gained and that a part of thefiring line can advance. (460) =475. Retiring under fire in daylight suicidal; intrenching. = The menmust be impressed with the fact that, having made a considerableadvance under fire and having been checked, it is suicidal to turnback in daylight. If they can advance no farther, they must intrench and hold on untilthe fall of darkness or a favorable turn in the situation develops. Intrenching is resorted to only when necessary. Troops who haveintrenched themselves under fire are moved forward again withdifficulty. (461) =476. Supports and reserves occupying trenches vacated by firing line, to improve same. = Supports and reserves occupying intrenchmentsvacated by the firing line should improve them, but they must not beheld back or diverted from their true missions on this account. (462) =477. Greater detail of conduct of fire attack. = Paragraphs 346 to354, inclusive, deal more in detail with the conduct of the fireattack. (463) THE CHARGE (See pars. 355-356) =478. What fire superiority accomplishes; psychological moment forcharge determined by tactical instinct. = Fire superiority beats downthe enemy's fire, destroys his resistance and morale, and enables theattacking troops to close on him, but an actual or threatenedoccupation of his position is needed to drive him out and defeat him. The psychological moment for the charge can not be determined far inadvance. The tactical instinct of the responsible officer must decide. (464) =479. When, and distance over which charge should be made. = The defenders, if subjugated by the fire attack, will frequently leavebefore the charge begins. On the other hand, it may be necessary tocarry the fire attack close to the position and follow it up with ashort dash and a bayonet combat. Hence the distance over which thecharge may be made will vary between wide limits. It may be from 25 to400 yards. The charge should be made at the earliest moment that promisessuccess; otherwise the full advance of victory will be lost. (465) =480. Charge to be made with approval of commander of attacking line;battalion commanders signal commander of line when ready to charge;charge to be made simultaneously. = The commander of the attacking lineshould indicate his approval, or give the order, before the charge ismade. Subordinate commanders, usually battalion commanders, whosetroops are ready to charge, signal that fact to the commander. It maybe necessary for them to wait until other battalions or other parts ofthe line are ready or until the necessary reserves arrive. At the signal for the charge the firing line and nearby supports andreserves rush forward. (See pars. 355 and 356. ) The charge is made simultaneously, if possible, by all the unitsparticipating therein, but once committed to the assault, battalionsshould be pushed with the utmost vigor and no restraint placed on theardor of charging troops by an attempt to maintain alignment. (466) =481. Charge not to be made without sufficient troops; reserves giveimpetus; avoiding too dense a mass. = Before ordering the charge thecommander should see that enough troops are on hand to make it asuccess. Local reserves joining the firing line in time to participatein the charge give it a strong impetus. Too dense a mass should beavoided. (467) =482. Line to be strengthened by prolongation. = The line should bestrengthened by prolongation, if practicable, and remaining troopskept in formation for future use; but rather than that the attackshould fail, the last formed body will be sent in, unless it is veryapparent that it can do no good. (468) =483. Additional force for pursuit. = To arrive in the hostile positionwith a very compact firing line and a few formed supports issufficient for a victory, but an additional force kept well in handfor pursuit is of inestimable value. (469) =484. Premature charge to be avoided; charging without authority fromthe rear. = A premature charge by a part of the line should be avoided, but if begun, the other parts of the line should join at once if thereis any prospect of success. Under exceptional conditions a part of theline may be compelled to charge without authority from the rear. Theintention to do so should be signaled to the rear. (470) =485. Confidence in ability to use bayonet. = Confidence in theirability to use the bayonet gives the assaulting troops the promise ofsuccess. (471) =486. Pursuing fire; disordered units not to pursue. = If the enemy hasleft the position when the charging troops reach it, the latter shouldopen a rapid fire upon the retreating enemy, if he is in sight. It isnot advisable for the mixed and disordered units to follow him, exceptto advance to a favorable firing position or to cover thereorganization of others. (472) =487. Pursuing troops; reorganization of charging line; preparationsto meet counter-attack. = The nearest formed bodies accompanying orfollowing the charge are sent instantly in pursuit. Under cover ofthese troops order is restored in the charging line. If the capturedposition is a part of a general line or is an advanced post, it shouldbe intrenched and occupied at once. The exhaustion of officers and men must not cause the neglect ofmeasures to meet a counter-attack. (473) =488. Steps to be taken when attack receives temporary setback. = Ifthe attack receives a temporary setback and it is intended tostrengthen and continue it, officers will make every effort to stopthe rearward movement and will reëstablish the firing line in acovered position as close as possible to the enemy. (474) =489. Steps to be taken if attack is abandoned. = If the attack must beabandoned, the rearward movement should continue with promptness untilthe troops reach a feature of the terrain that facilitates the task ofchecking and reorganizing them. The point selected should be so far tothe rear as to prevent interference by the enemy before the troops areready to resist. The withdrawal of the attacking troops should becovered by the artillery and by reserves, if any are available. (See Night Operations, pars. 580-590. ) (475) PURSUIT =490. Full fruits of victory reaped by pursuit. = To reap the fullfruits of victory a vigorous pursuit must be made. The naturalinclination to be satisfied with a successful charge must be overcome. The enemy must be allowed no more time to reorganize than ispositively unavoidable. (476) =491. Parts played in pursuit by reserve, artillery, and chargingtroops. = The part of the reserve that is still formed or is best undercontrol is sent forward in pursuit and vigorously attacks the enemy'smain body or covering detachments wherever found. The artillery delivers a heavy fire upon the retreating enemy; thedisordered attacking troops secure the position, promptly reform andbecome a new reserve. (477) =492. Strengthening of position captured, if section of general line. =If the captured position is a section of the general line, the breachshould be heavily occupied, made wider, and strongly secured bydrawing on all reserves in the vicinity. (478) =493. Pursuit by parallel roads. = After the pursuit from the immediatebattlefield, pursuit by parallel roads is especially effective wherelarge commands are concerned. (479) =494. Artillery and cavalry in pursuit. = Artillery and cavalry arevery effective in pursuit. (480) ATTACK OF FORTIFICATIONS =495. Modifications of attack in case of fortifications. = Fewmodifications enter into the problem of attacking fortifications. Suchas are to be considered relate chiefly to the greater time and laborof advancing, the more frequent use of darkness and the use of handgrenades to augment the fire. (481) =496. Approaching charging point under cover of darkness. = If theenemy is strongly fortified and time permits, it may be advisable towait and approach the charging point under cover of darkness. Thenecessary reconnaissance and arrangements should be made before dark. If the charge is not to be made at once, the troops intrench theadvanced position, using sand bags if necessary. Before daylight theforeground should be cleared of obstacles. (482) =497. Charging without fire preparation. = If the distance is short andother conditions are favorable, the charge may be made without firepreparation. If made, it should be launched with spirit and suddennessat the break of day. (See Night Operations pars. 580-590. ) (483) =498. Advancing to charging point by sapping. = In siege operationstroops are usually advanced to the charging point by sapping. Thismethod, however, presupposes that an early victory is not necessary, or that it is clearly inadvisable to attempt more direct methods. (484) HOLDING ATTACK =499. Requisites of the holding attack. = The holding attack must bevigorous enough to hold the enemy in position and must present a frontstrong enough to conceal the secondary nature of the attack. The holding attack need have comparatively little strength in rear, but conceals the fact by a firing line not distinguishable from thatof a decisive attack. (485) =500. Post and strength of supports and reserves. = Supports andreserves are kept at short distances. Their strength is less if theobject is merely to hold the enemy fast than if the object is, inaddition, to compel him to use up reserves. (486) =501. Holding attacks developing into decisive attacks. = Holdingattacks which may later develop into decisive attacks should becorrespondingly strong in rear. (487) =502. Feint attacks. = All feint attacks should employ dense firinglines. Their weakness is in rear and is concealed. (488) DEFENSE POSITIONS AND INTRENCHMENTS =503. Requirements of a good defensive position. = The firstrequirement of a good position is a clear field of fire and view tothe front and exposed flanks to a distance of 600 to 800 yards ormore. The length of front should be suitable to the size of thecommand and the flanks should be secure. The position should havelateral communication and cover for supports and reserves. It shouldbe one which the enemy can not avoid, but must attack or give up hismission. A position having all these advantages will rarely, if ever, be found. The one should be taken which conforms closest to the description. (489) =504. Utilization of natural cover; construction of fieldworks andobstacles. = The natural cover of the position should be fullyutilized. In addition, it should be strengthened by fieldworks andobstacles. The best protection is afforded by deep, narrow, inconspicuoustrenches. If little time is available, as much as practicable must bedone. That the fieldworks may not be needed should not cause theirconstruction to be omitted, and the fact that they have beenconstructed should not influence the action of a commander, ifconditions are found to be other than expected. (490) =505. Construction of communicating and cover trenches, head cover, etc. = When time and troops are available the preparations include thenecessary communicating and cover trenches, head cover, bombproofs, etc. The fire trenches should be well supplied with ammunition. The supports are placed close at hand in cover trenches when naturalcover is not available. (491) =506. Dummy trenches. = Dummy trenches frequently cause the hostileartillery to waste time and ammunition and to divert its fire. (492) =507. Location, extent, garrison, etc. , of fieldworks. = The location, extent, profile, garrison, etc. , of fieldworks are matters to bedecided by the infantry commanders. Officers must be able to chooseground and properly intrench it. (See "Field Fortifications, " ChapterXVI, Part III. ) (493) =508. Outlining trace of trenches in combat exercises. = In combatexercises, when it is impracticable to construct the trenchesappropriate to the exercise, their trace may be outlined by bayonets, sticks, or other markers, and the responsible officers required toindicate the profile selected, method and time of construction, garrisons, etc. (494) DEPLOYMENT FOR DEFENSE =509. Density of whole deployment. = The density of the wholedeployment depends upon the expected severity of the action, thecharacter of the enemy, the condition of the flanks, the field offire, the terrain, and the available artificial or natural protectionfor the troops. (495) =510. Density of firing line. = If exposed, the firing line should beas dense in defense as in attack. If the firing line is wellintrenched and has a good field of fire, it may be made thinner. Weaker supports are permissible. For the same number of troops thefront occupied on the defensive may therefore be longer than on theoffensive, the battalions placing more companies in the firing line. (496) =511. Strength in rear to be increased when change from defensive tooffensive is contemplated. = If it is intended only to delay the enemy, a fairly strong deployment is sufficient, but if decisive results aredesired, a change to the offensive must be contemplated and thecorresponding strength in rear provided. This strength is in thereserve, which should be as large as the demands of the firing lineand supports permit. Even in a passive defense the reserve should beas strong as in the attack; unless the flanks are protected by othermeans. (497) =512. Post of supports; cover for supports. = Supports are posted asclose to the firing line as practicable and reinforce the latteraccording to the principles explained in the attack. When naturalcover is not sufficient for the purpose, communicating and covertrenches are constructed. If time does not permit their construction, it is better to begin the action with a very dense firing line and noimmediate supports than to have supports greatly exposed in rear. (498) =513. Post of reserve. = The reserve should be posted so as to beentirely free to act as a whole, according to the developments. Thedistance from firing line to reserve is generally greater than in theattack. By reason of such a location the reserve is best able to meeta hostile enveloping attack; it has a better position from which tomake a counter attack; it is in a better position to cover awithdrawal and permit an orderly retreat. The distance from firing line to reserve increases with the size ofthe reserve. (499) =514. Post of reserve when situation is no longer in doubt. = When thesituation is no longer in doubt, the reserve should be held in rear ofthe flank which is most in danger or offers the best opportunity forcounter attack. Usually the same flank best suits both purposes. (500) =515. Detaching part of reserve to protect opposite flank. = Inexceptional cases, on broad fronts, it may be necessary to detach apart of the reserve to protect the opposite flank. This detachmentshould be the smallest consistent with its purely protective mission. (501) =516. Assignment of front to units. = The commander assigns tosubordinates the front to be occupied by them. These, in turn, subdivide the front among their next lower units in the firing line. (502) =517. Division of extended position into sections. = An extendedposition is so divided into sections that each has, if practicable, afield of fire naturally made distinct by the terrain. Unfavorable and unimportant ground will ordinarily cause gaps to existin the line. (503) =518. Size of units occupying sections; battalions to be kept intact. =The size of the unit occupying each section depends upon the latter'snatural strength, front, and importance. If practicable, battalionsshould be kept intact and assigned as units to sections or parts ofsections. (504) =519. Adjoining sections or machine guns to cover dead space. = Whereimportant dead space lies in front of one section, an adjoiningsection should be instructed to cover it with fire when necessary, ormachine guns should be concealed for the like purpose. (505) =520. Advanced posts and other dispersion to be avoided. = Advancedposts, or any other form of unnecessary dispersion, should be avoided. (506) =521. Position itself not fully occupied until infantry attackbegins. = Unless the difficulty of moving the troops into the positionbe great, most of the troops of the firing line are held in rear of ituntil the infantry attack begins. The position itself is occupied by asmall garrison only, with the necessary outguards or patrols in front. (507) =522. Fire alone unable to stop attack. = Fire alone can not bedepended upon to stop the attack. The troops must be determined toresort to the bayonet, if necessary. (508) =523. Steps to be taken if night attack is expected. = If a nightattack or close approach by the enemy is expected, troops in aprepared position should strengthen the outguards and firing line andconstruct as numerous and effective obstacles as possible. Supportsand local reserves should move close to the firing line and should, with the firing line, keep bayonets fixed. If practicable, the frontshould be illuminated, preferably from the flanks of the section. (509) =524. Short range fire and bayonet in night attack. = Only short rangefire is of any value in resisting night attacks. The bayonet is thechief reliance. (See Night Operations pars. 580-590. ) (510) COUNTER ATTACK =525. Passive defense; only offensive wins. = The passive defenseshould be assumed only when circumstances force it. Only the offensivewins. (511) =526. Active defense seeks favorable decision; counter attacknecessary. = An active defense seeks a favorable decision. A favorabledecision can not be expected without counter attack. (512) =527. Protection of flanks by natural obstacles necessary in passivedefense position. = A passive defense in a position whose flanks arenot protected by natural obstacles is generally out of the question. (513) =528. Post of troops for counter attack. = Where the defense is assumedwith a view to making a counter attack, the troops for the counterattack should be held in reserve until the time arrives for suchattack. The defensive line should be held by as few troops as possiblein order that the force for the offensive may be as large as possible. The force for the counter attack should be held echeloned in rear ofthe flank which offers it the greatest advantage for the proposedattack. (514) =529. Manner of making counter attack. = The counter attack should bemade vigorously and at the proper time. It will usually be made: By launching the reserve against the enemy's flank when his attack isin full progress. This is the most effective form of counter attack. Straight to the front by the firing line and supports after repulsingthe enemy's attack and demoralizing him with pursuing fire. Or, by the troops in rear of the firing line when the enemy hasreached the defensive position and is in disorder. (515) =530. Minor counter attacks. = Minor counter attacks are sometimesnecessary in order to drive the enemy from important positions gainedby him. (516) DELAYING ACTION =531. The important considerations in a delaying action. = When aposition is taken merely to delay the enemy and to withdraw beforebecoming closely engaged, the important considerations are: The enemy should be forced to deploy early. The field of fire shouldtherefore be good at distances from 500 to 1, 200 yards or more; a goodfield of fire at close range is not necessary. The ground in rear of the position should favor the withdrawal of thefiring line by screening the troops from the enemy's view and fire assoon as the position is vacated. (517) =532. Thin firing line answers purpose; purposes of supports andreserve. = A thin firing line using much ammunition will generallyanswer the purpose. Supports are needed chiefly to protect the flanks. The reserve should be posted well in rear to assist in the withdrawalof the firing line. (518) =533. Value of artillery. = Artillery is especially valuable to adelaying force. (519) MEETING ENGAGEMENTS =534. Characteristics of meeting engagements. = Meeting engagements arecharacterized by the necessity for hasty reconnaissance, or the almosttotal absence of reconnaissance; by the necessity for rapiddeployment, frequently under fire; and usually by the absence oftrenches or other artificial cover. These conditions give furtheradvantages to the offensive. (520) =535. General action on meeting enemy. = The whole situation willusually indicate beforehand the proper general action to be taken onmeeting the enemy. (521) =536. Meagerness of information; qualities of commander to be reliedupon. = Little fresh information can be expected. The boldness, initiative, and determination of the commander must be relied upon. (522) =537. Meeting engagement affords ideal opportunity to certaincommanders. = A meeting engagement affords an ideal opportunity to thecommander who has intuition and quick decision and who is willing totake long chances. His opponent is likely to be overcautious. (523) =538. The mission determines method of attack. = The amount ofinformation that the commander is warranted in awaiting before takingfinal action depends entirely upon his mission. One situation maydemand a blind attack; another may demand rapid, partial deploymentfor attack, but careful and time-consuming reconnaissance before theattack is launched. (524) =539. Advantage accrues to side deploying the faster. = A greatadvantage accrues to the side which can deploy the faster. Theadvantage of a close-order formation, favoring rapid deployment, becomes more pronounced with the size of the force. (525) =540. Advantages of first troops to deploy. = The first troops todeploy will be able to attack with longer firing lines and weakersupports than are required in the ordinary case. But if the enemysucceeds in deploying a strong defensive line, the attack must bestrengthened accordingly before it is wasted. (526) =541. Things to be done by the leading troops. = If the situationwarrants the advance, the leading troops seek to deploy faster thanthe enemy, to reach his flanks, check his deployment, and getinformation. In any event, they seek to cover the deployment of theirown troops in rear--especially the artillery--and to seize importantground. (527) =542. Post of commander of long column meeting enemy; function ofadvance guard; action of column. = The commander of a long column whichmeets the enemy should be with the advance guard to receiveinformation promptly and to reconnoiter. If he decides to fight, theadvance guard must hold the enemy while the commander formulates aplan of action, issues the necessary orders, and deploys the mainbody. Meantime, the column should be closing up, either in mass or toform line of columns, so that the deployment, when determined upon, may be made more promptly. (528) =543. Action of advance guard prior to receipt of orders. = The actionof the advance guard, prior to the receipt of orders, depends upon thesituation. Whether to attack determinedly or only as a feint, or toassume the defensive, depends upon the strength of the advance guard, the terrain, the character of the hostile force encountered, and themission and intentions of the commander of the whole. (529) =544. Main body should be used as a whole and not put into actionpiecemeal. = If the enemy is beforehand or more aggressive, or if theadvance guard is too weak, it may be necessary to put elements of themain body into action as fast as they arrive, in order to check him. This method should be avoided; it prevents the formation and executionof a definite plan and compels piecemeal action. The best results areobtained when the main body is used as a whole. (530) WITHDRAWAL FROM ACTION =545. Withdrawal generally effected at heavy cost; rear guard anddistance to be placed between enemy and defeated troops. = Thewithdrawal of a defeated force can generally be effected only at aheavy cost. When it is no longer possible to give the action afavorable turn and the necessity for withdrawal arises, every effortmust be made to place distance and a rear guard between the enemy andthe defeated troops. (531) =546. Use of artillery, machine guns, and cavalry. = Artillery givesespecially valuable assistance in the withdrawal. The long-range fireof machine guns should also be employed. Cavalry assists thewithdrawal by charging the pursuing troops or by taking flankpositions and using fire action. (532) =547. Use of reserve to check the pursuit. = If an intact reserveremains, it should be placed in a covering position, preferably on aflank, to check the pursuit and thus enable the defeated troops towithdraw beyond reach of hostile fire. The covering position of the reserve should be at some distance fromthe main action, but close enough to bring the withdrawing troopsquickly under the protection of its fire. It should have a good fieldof fire at effective and long ranges and should facilitate its ownsafe and timely withdrawal. (533) =548. Part of line to be withdrawn first; retreating troops to begotten under control as soon as possible. = If the general line isdivided, by terrain or by organization, into two or more parts, thefiring line of the part in the least danger from pursuit should bewithdrawn first. A continuous firing line, whose parts are dependentupon one another for fire support, should be withdrawn as a whole, retiring by echelon at the beginning of the withdrawal. Every effortmust be made to restore the organizations, regain control, and formcolumn of march as soon as the troops are beyond the reach of hostilefire. As fast as possible without delaying the march, companies, and thelarger units should be reformed, so that the command will again bewell in hand. (534) =549. Action taken by commander; selection of rendezvous point. = Thecommander of the whole, having given orders for withdrawal, should goto the rear, select a rendezvous point, and devote himself to thereorganization of his command. The rendezvous point is selected with regard to the natural channelsof movement approximately straight to the rear. It should be distantfrom the battlefield and should facilitate the gathering andprotection of the command. (535) SUMMARY =550. = 1. Avoid combats that offer no chance of victory or othervaluable results. 2. Make every effort for the success of the general plan and avoidspectacular plays that have no bearing on the general result. 3. Have a definite plan and carry it out vigorously. Do not vacillate. 4. Do not attempt complicated maneuvers. 5. Keep the command in hand; avoid undue extension and dispersion. 6. Study the ground and direct the advance in such a way as to takeadvantage of all available cover and thereby diminish losses. 7. Never deploy until the purpose and the proper direction are known. 8. Deploy enough men for the immediate task in hand; hold out the restand avoid undue haste in committing them to the action. 9. Flanks must be protected either by reserves, fortifications, or theterrain. 10. In a decisive action, gain and keep fire superiority. 11. Keep up reconnaissance. 12. Use the reserve, but not until needed or a very favorableopportunity for its use presents itself. Keep some reserve as long aspracticable. 13. Do not hesitate to sacrifice the command if the result is worththe cost. 14. Spare the command all unnecessary hardship and exertion. (536) MACHINE GUNS =551. Machine guns are weapons of emergency. = Machine guns must beconsidered as weapons of emergency. Their effectiveness combined withtheir mobility renders them of great value at critical, thoughinfrequent, periods of an engagement. (537) =552. Machine guns to be used for short periods, when opportunitiespresent themselves. = When operating against infantry only, they can beused to a great extent throughout the combat as circumstances mayindicate, but they are quickly rendered powerless by efficient fieldartillery and will promptly draw artillery fire whenever they open. Hence their use in engagements between large commands must be forshort periods and at times when their great effectiveness will be mostvaluable. (538) =553. Machine guns attached to advance guard; use in meetingengagements. = Machine guns should be attached to the advance guard. Inmeeting engagements they will be of great value in assisting their ownadvance, or in checking the advance of the enemy, and will haveconsiderable time to operate before hostile artillery fire can silencethem. Care must be taken not to leave them too long in action. (539) =554. Use of machine guns with rear guard. = They are valuable to arear guard which seeks to check a vigorous pursuit or to gain time. (540) =555. Machine guns in attack; fire of position. = In attack, if fire ofposition is practicable, they are of great value. In this case fireshould not be opened by the machine guns until the attack is welladvanced. At a critical period in the attack, such fire, if suddenlyand unexpectedly opened, will greatly assist the advancing line. Thefire must be as heavy as possible and must be continued until maskedby friendly troops or until the hostile artillery finds the machineguns. (541) =556. Machine guns in defense. = In the defense, machine guns should beused in the same general manner as described above for the attack. Concealment and patient waiting for critical moments and exceptionalopportunities are the special characteristics of the machine-gunservice in decisive actions. (542) =557. Machine guns as part of reserve; use in covering withdrawal. = Aspart of the reserve, machine guns have special importance. If they arewith the troops told off to protect the flanks, and if they are wellplaced, they will often produce decisive results against a hostileturning movement. They are especially qualified to cover a withdrawalor make a captured position secure. (543) =558. Machine guns not to form part of firing line of attack. = Machineguns should not be assigned to the firing line of an attack. Theyshould be so placed that fire directed upon them is not likely to fallupon the firing line. (544) =559. Effectiveness of machine guns against skirmish line, except whenlying down or crawling. = A skirmish line can not advance by walking orrunning when hostile machine guns have the correct range and are readyto fire. Machine-gun fire is not specially effective against troopslying on the ground or crawling. (545) =560. Silencing of machine guns by infantry. = When opposed by machineguns without artillery to destroy them, infantry itself must silencethem before it can advance. An infantry command that must depend upon itself for protectionagainst machine guns should concentrate a large number of rifles oneach gun in turn and until it has silenced it. (546) _In addition to the above, which the Infantry Drill Regulations giveson the subject of machine guns, the following, based on the use ofmachine guns in the European War, is given:_ =561. Machine guns essentially automatic rifles. = They are essentiallyautomatic rifles, designed to fire the ordinary rifle cartridge andcapable of delivering a stream of small bullets at a rate of as highas 600 per minute. Experience in the European war has determined thatthe rate of 400 shots per minute is the desirable maximum. Theirranges are the same as for the rifle. The fire of a machine gun hasbeen estimated as equal to that of 30 men. =562. Mounts. = Machine guns are usually mounted on tripods or wheels. The weight of certain types is such that they can readily be carriedby the soldier from one point to another. =563. Methods of transportation. = While machine guns are usuallydesigned to be carried or packed, they are easily adapted to variousmethods of transportation. In the European war we find them mounted onsleds during the winter campaign; on specially designed motor cycleswith side cars and accompanied by other motor cycles carryingammunition; on wheels; on wagons; on armored automobiles; aeroplanes;and finally in the powerful "tanks" of the English. =564. Concealment. = Machine guns while usually considered as _weaponsof emergency_ have been used in attack and defense in the European warin all stages. Their mobility and deadly effect have made them ofgreat value. Once their position is discovered they are quickly putout of action by artillery. Owing to this fact the armies in Europehave used alternative positions and have used every means to concealthe guns. Hedges, walls, and pits are used and every effort is used toconceal the flame of discharge. This is usually accomplished bykeeping the muzzle well in rear of its cover or loop hole. Machineguns almost invariably betray their positions as soon as they enterinto action. The present tendency seems to be to hold them concealedand place them into position in the trenches or emplacements at themoment of combat. Extraordinary means have been resorted to in hiding the guns untilthey are needed. In the German line, dugouts underground wereconstructed to conceal the machine guns and crews. Often theypermitted the first line of the attack to pass over them and thenappeared in rear and opened a deadly fire on the backs of the troops. =565. Use in villages. = In villages, machine guns were used withterrible effect, firing from cellars or windows. The only successfulmethod of destroying them was with hand grenades and even this wascostly. =566. Location on the defense. = On the _defense_ machine guns shouldbe mounted in salients and at points where cross fire can be obtained. This makes it more difficult for the enemy to locate the guns. Frontalfire is not so often successful. =567. Location in attack. = In the _attack_ it is accepted that machineguns must cover the Infantry at short and long ranges while othermachine guns must accompany the attacking troops to hold the positionsor trenches gained. The second or third line would seem to be the best position formachine guns when accompanying troops. [Illustration: Machine Gun Emplacement: Section aa] [Illustration: Machine Gun Emplacement: Plan with Cover Removed] =568. Economy of men. = Owing to its rapid and effective fire, and thecomparative ease with which it can be concealed, the machine gunpermits a great economy of men on a front and the concentrating of theforces thus freed for use in other parts of the field. This was doneon a large scale on the Russian front by the Germans in 1915. Theyconstructed miles of wire entanglements in front of positions occupiedwith an enormous number of machine guns and comparatively few men. Themain forces were thus free to be transported wherever dangerthreatened. In this manner the Germans replaced men by machine gunsand wire and were able to cope successfully with the immense RussianArmies. The above plate shows a typical machine gun emplacement, constructed in the field. Many elaborate emplacements have beenconstructed in the European war, using steel and concrete, but for ahasty cover in the field the simple emplacement shown in the figure isrecommended. (NOTE. --For a more detailed study of machine guns, see Subject XI, Machine Guns in Action, School of Musketry, Fort Sill, Oklahoma, and Combined Cavalry and Infantry Drill Regulations for Automatic Machine Rifle, cal. 30, 1909, War Department, 1915. ) AMMUNITION SUPPLY =569. Method of supplying ammunition to combat train. = The method ofsupply of ammunition to the combat trains is explained in FieldService Regulations. (547) =570. Combat train and the major's responsibility for its proper use;a rendezvous for each brigade. = The combat train is the immediatereserve supply of the battalion, and the major is responsible for itsproper use. He will take measures to insure the maintenance of theprescribed allowance at all times. In the absence of instructions, he will cause the train to marchimmediately in rear of his battalion, and, upon separating from it toenter an engagement, will cause the ammunition therein to be issued. When emptied, he will direct that the wagons proceed to the properrendezvous to be refilled. Ordinarily a rendezvous is appointed foreach brigade and the necessary number of wagons sent forward to itfrom the ammunition column. (548) =571. Destination of combat wagons when refilled. = When refilled, thecombat wagons will rejoin their battalions, or, if the latter beengaged, will join or establish communication with the regimentalreserve. (549) =572. Company commanders' responsibility for ammunition in belts;ammunition of dead and wounded. = Company commanders are responsiblethat the belts of the men in their companies are kept filled at alltimes, except when the ammunition is being expended in action. In thefiring line the ammunition of the dead and wounded should be securedwhenever practicable. (550) =573. Ammunition in bandoleers and 30 rounds in right pocket section. =Ammunition in the bandoleers will ordinarily be expended first. Thirtyrounds in the right pocket section of the belt will be held as areserve, to be expended only when ordered by an officer. (551) =574. Ammunition sent forward with reënforcements; men not to be sentback from firing line for ammunition. = When necessary to resupply thefiring line, ammunition will be sent forward with reënforcements, generally from the regimental reserve. (552) Men will never be sent back from the firing line for ammunition. Mensent forward with ammunition remain with the firing line. =575. Replenishment of ammunition after engagement. = As soon aspossible after an engagement the belts of the men and the combatwagons are resupplied to their normal capacities. Ammunition which cannot be reloaded on combat wagons will be piled up in a convenientplace and left under guard. (553) MOUNTED SCOUTS =576. Scouts to be trained in patrolling and reconnaissance; theiruse. = The mounted scouts should be thoroughly trained in patrollingand reconnaissance. They are used for communication with neighboringtroops, for patrolling off the route of march, for march outposts, outpost patrols, combat patrols, reconnaissance ahead of columns, etc. Their further use is, in general, confined to escort and messengerduty. They should be freely used for all these purposes, but for thesepurposes only. (554) =577. Use of mounted scouts for reconnoitering. = When infantry isacting alone, or when the cavalry of a mixed command has been sent toa distance, the mounted scouts are of special importance to coveringdetachments and should be used to make the reconnaissance which wouldotherwise fall to cavalry. (555) =578. Scouts to be used in reconnaissance in preference to othertroops; use for dismounted patrolling. = In reconnaissance, scoutsshould be used in preference to other troops as much as possible. Whennot needed for mounted duty, they should be employed for necessarydismounted patrolling. (556) =579. Training of battalion staff officers in patrolling. = Battalionstaff officers should be specially trained in patrolling andreconnaissance work in order that they may be available when a mountedofficer's patrol is required. (557) NIGHT OPERATIONS =580. Purposes of night operations. = By employing night operationstroops make use of the cover of darkness to minimize losses fromhostile fire or to escape observation. Night operations may also benecessary for the purpose of gaining time. Control is difficult andconfusion is frequently unavoidable. It may be necessary to take advantage of darkness in order to assaultfrom a point gained during the day, or to approach a point from whicha daylight assault is to be made, or to effect both the approach andthe assault. (558) =581. Practice in offensive and defensive operations; simpleformations. = Offensive and defensive night operations should bepracticed frequently in order that troops may learn to cover ground inthe dark and arrive at a destination quietly and in good order, andin order to train officers in the necessary preparation andreconnaissance. Only simple and well-appointed formations should be employed. Troops should be thoroughly trained in the necessary details--e. G. , night patrolling, night marching, and communication at night. (559) =582. Ground to be studied by day and night, cleared of hostiledetachments, etc. ; preparation of orders; distinctive badges. = Theground to be traversed should be studied by daylight and, ifpracticable, at night. It should be cleared of hostile detachmentsbefore dark, and, if practicable, should be occupied by coveringtroops. Orders must be formulated with great care and clearness. Each unitmust be given a definite objective and direction, and care must beexercised to avoid collision between units. Whenever contact with the enemy is anticipated, a distinctive badgeshould be worn by all. (560) =583. Secrecy of preparations; unfriendly guides; fire action to beavoided, relying upon bayonet. = Preparations must be made withsecrecy. When the movement is started, and not until then, theofficers and men should be acquainted with the general design, thecomposition of the whole force, and should be given such additionalinformation as will insure coöperation and eliminate mistakes. During the movement every precaution must be taken to keep secret thefact that troops are abroad. Unfriendly guides must frequently be impressed. These should besecured against escape, outcry, or deception. Fire action should be avoided in offensive operations. In general, pieces should not be loaded. Men must be trained to rely upon thebayonet and to use it aggressively. (561) =584. Night marches; advance and rear guards. = Long night marchesshould be made only over well-defined routes. March discipline must berigidly enforced. The troops should be marched in as compact aformation as practicable, with the usual covering detachments. Advanceand rear guard distances should be greatly reduced. They are shortestwhen the mission is an offensive one. The connecting files arenumerous. (562) =585. Night advance followed by attack by day. = A night advance madewith a view to making an attack by day usually terminates with thehasty construction of intrenchments in the dark. Such an advanceshould be timed so as to allow an hour or more of darkness forintrenching. An advance that is to terminate in an assault at the break of dayshould be timed so that the troops will not arrive long before theassault is to be made; otherwise, the advantage of partial surprisewill be lost, and the enemy will be allowed to reënforce thethreatened point. (563) =586. Night attacks, when employed; they require trained troops;compact formations; value of bayonet. = The night attack is ordinarilyconfined to small forces, or to minor engagements in a general battle, or to seizure of positions occupied by covering or advanceddetachments. Decisive results are not often obtained. Poorly disciplined and untrained troops are unfit for night attacks orfor night operations demanding the exercise of skill and care. Troops attacking at night can advance close to the enemy in compactformations and without suffering loss from hostile artillery orinfantry fire. The defender is ignorant of the strength or directionof the attack. A force which makes a vigorous bayonet charge in the dark will oftenthrow a much larger force into disorder. (564) =587. Reconnaissance; attack to be a surprise. = Reconnaissance shouldbe made to ascertain the position and strength of the enemy and tostudy the terrain to be traversed. Officers who are to participate inthe attack should conduct this reconnaissance. Reconnaissance at nightis especially valuable. Features that are distinguishable at nightshould be carefully noted, and their distances from the enemy, fromthe starting point of the troops, and from other important pointsshould be made known. Preparations should have in view as complete a surprise as possible. An attack once begun must be carried to its conclusion, even if thesurprise is not as complete as was planned or anticipated. (565) =588. Time of making attack depends upon object sought. = The time ofnight at which the attack should be made depends upon the objectsought. If a decisive attack is intended, it will generally yield thebest results if made just before daylight. If the object is merely togain an intrenched position for further operations, an earlier hour isnecessary in order that the position gained may be intrenched undercover of darkness. (566) =589. Formation; use of bayonet; preparations to repel counterattack. = The formation for attack must be simple. It should becarefully effected and the troops verified at a safe distance from theenemy. The attacking troops should be formed in compact lines and withstrong supports at short distances. The reserve should be far enoughin rear to avoid being drawn into the action until the commander sodesires. Bayonets are fixed, pieces are not loaded. Darkness causes fire to be wild and ineffective. The attacking troopsshould march steadily on the enemy without firing, but should beprepared and determined to fight vigorously with the bayonet. In advancing to the attack the aim should be to get as close aspossible to the enemy before being discovered, then trust to thebayonet. If the assault is successful, preparations must be made at once torepel a counter attack. (567) =590. Measures taken by defense to resist night attacks. = On thedefense, preparations to resist night attacks should be made bydaylight whenever such attacks are to be feared. Obstacles placed in front of a defensive position are especiallyvaluable to the defense at night. Many forms of obstacles which wouldgive an attacker little concern in the daytime become serioushindrances at night. After dark the foreground should be illuminated whenever practicableand strong patrols should be pushed to the front. When it is learned that the enemy is approaching, the trenches arefilled and the supports moved close to the firing line. Supports fix bayonets, but do not load. Whenever practicable andnecessary, they should be used for counter attacks, preferably againsta hostile flank. The defender should open fire as soon as results may be expected. Thisfire may avert or postpone the bayonet combat, and it warns allsupporting troops. It is not likely that fire alone can stop theattack. The defender must be resolved to fight with the bayonet. Ordinarily fire will not be effective at ranges exceeding 50 yards. A white rag around the muzzle of the rifle will assist in sighting thepiece when the front sight is not visible. See pars. 464, 496, 497, 523, 524. (568) INFANTRY AGAINST CAVALRY =591. Cavalry charge against infantry usually futile. = A cavalrycharge can accomplish little against infantry, even in inferiornumbers, unless the latter are surprised, become panic-stricken, runaway, or can not use their rifles. (569) =592. Measures to check charges from front and flank. = A charge fromthe front is easily checked by a well directed and sustained fire. If the charge is directed against the flank of the firing line, thesupports, reserves, or machine guns should stop it. If thisdisposition is impracticable, part of the line must meet the charge bya timely change of front. If the flank company, or companies, in thefiring line execute =platoons right=, the successive firing lines canordinarily break a charge against the flank. If the cavalry linepasses through the firing line, the latter will be little damaged ifthe men retain their presence of mind. They should be on the watch forsucceeding cavalry lines and leave those that have passed through tofriendly troops in rear. (570) =593. Standing position best to meet charge. = Men standing are in thebest position to meet a charge, but other considerations may compelthem to meet it lying prone. (571) =594. Rifle fire main dependence of infantry. = In a mêlée, theinfantryman with his bayonet has at least an even chance with thecavalryman, but the main dependence of infantry is rifle fire. Anyformation is suitable that permits the free use of the necessarynumber of rifles. Ordinarily there will be no time to change or set sights. Fire at willat battle sight should be used, whatever the range may be. It willusually be unwise to open fire at long ranges. (572) =595. Meeting of cavalry charge by infantry in column. = An infantrycolumn that encounters cavalry should deploy at once. If attacked fromthe head or rear of the column, and if time is pressing, it may form asuccession of skirmish lines. Infantry, by deploying 50 or 100 yardsin rear of an obstacle, may check cavalry and hold it under firebeyond effective pistol range. In any situation, to try to escape the issue by running is the worstand most dangerous course the infantry can adopt. (573) =596. Infantry attacking dismounted cavalry. = In attacking dismountedcavalry, infantry should close rapidly and endeavor to preventremounting. Infantry which adopts this course will not be seriouslychecked by delaying cavalry. Every effort should be made to locate and open fire on the led horses. (574) INFANTRY AGAINST ARTILLERY =597. Frontal attack against artillery usually futile; use of machineguns. = A frontal attack against artillery has little chance ofsucceeding unless it can be started from cover at comparatively shortrange. Beyond short range, the frontal fire of infantry has littleeffect against the artillery personnel because of their protectiveshields. Machine guns, because their cone of fire is more compact, will havegreater effect, but on the other hand they will have feweropportunities, and they are limited to fire attack only. As a rule, one's own artillery is the best weapon against hostileartillery. (575) =598. Flank attack against artillery effective. = Artillery attacked inflank by infantry can be severely damaged. Oblique or flank fire willbegin to have decisive effect when delivered at effective range from apoint to one side of the artillery's line of fire and distant from itby about half the range. Artillery is better protected on the side ofthe caisson. (576) =599. Action against guns out of ammunition. = Guns out of ammunition, but otherwise secure against infantry attack, may be immobilized byfire which will prevent their withdrawal, or by locating and drivingoff their limbers. Or they may be kept out of action by fire whichwill prevent the receipt of ammunition. (577) =600. Action against artillery limbering or coming into action; wheelhorses best targets. = Artillery when limbered is helpless againstinfantry fire. If caught at effective range while coming into actionor while limbering, artillery can be severely punished by infantryfire. In attacking artillery that is trying to escape, the wheel horses arethe best targets. (578) ARTILLERY SUPPORTS =601. Purpose of artillery support, usually consisting of infantry. =The purpose of the artillery support is to guard the artillery againstsurprise or attack. Artillery on the march or in action is ordinarily so placed as to beamply protected by the infantry. Infantry always protects artillery inits neighborhood. (579) =602. Detailing of supports. = The detail of a support is not necessaryexcept when the artillery is separated from the main body or occupiesa position in which its flanks are not protected. The detail of a special support will be avoided whenever possible. (580. ) =603. Formation of support on march. = The formation of an artillerysupport depends upon circumstances. On the march it may often benecessary to provide advance, flank, and rear protection. The countrymust be thoroughly reconnoitered by patrols within long rifle range. (581) =604. Formation and location of support in action. = In action, theformation and location of the support must be such as to gain and givetimely information of the enemy's approach and to offer actualresistance to the enemy beyond effective rifle range of theartillery's flanks. It should not be close enough to the artillery tosuffer from fire directed at the artillery. In most cases a positionsomewhat to the flank and rear best fulfills these conditions. (582) =605. Support charged only with protection of artillery. = The supportcommander is charged only with the protection of the artillery. Thetactical employment of each arm rests with its commander. The twoshould coöperate. (583) MINOR WARFARE =606. What minor warfare embraces; regular operations. = Minor warfareembraces both regular and irregular operations. Regular operations consist of minor actions involving small bodies oftrained and organized troops on both sides. The tactics employed are in general those prescribed for the smallerunits. (596) =607. Irregular operations. = Irregular operations consist of actionsagainst unorganized or partially organized forces, acting independentor semi independent bodies. Such bodies have little or only crudetraining and are under nominal and loose leadership and control. Theyassemble, roam about, and disperse at will. They endeavor to win bystealth or by force of superior numbers, employing ambuscades, suddendashes or rushes, and hand-to-hand fighting. (597) Troops operating against such an enemy usually do so in small units, such as platoons, detachments, or companies, and the tactics employedmust be adapted to meet the requirements of the situation. Frequentlythe enemy's own methods may be employed to advantage. In general, such operations should not be undertaken hastily; everypreparation should be made to strike suddenly and to inflict themaximum punishment. =608. March and bivouac formations to admit of rapid action in anydirection. = In general, the service of information will beinsufficient; adequate reconnaissance will rarely be practicable. March and bivouac formations must be such as to admit of rapiddeployment and fire action in any direction. (598) =609. Formation in open country. = In the open country, where surpriseis not probable, troops may be marched in column of squads preceded, within sight, by a squad as an advance party. (599) =610. Formation in close country. = In close country, where surprise ispossible, the troops must be held in a close formation. The use offlank patrols becomes difficult. Occasionally, an advance party--neverless than a squad--may be sent out. In general, however, such a partyaccomplishes little, since an enemy intent on surprise will permit itto pass unmolested and will fall upon the main body. Under such conditions, especially when the road or trail is narrow, the column of twos or files is a convenient formation, the officersplacing themselves in the column so as to divide it into nearly equalparts. If rushed from a flank, such a column will be in readiness toface and fire toward either or both flanks, the ranks being back toback; if rushed from the front, the head of the column may bedeployed, the rest of the column closing up to support it and toprotect its flanks and rear. In any event, the men should be taught totake some form of a closed back to back formation. (600) =611. Dividing column on march into two or more separate detachments. =The column may often be broken into two or more approximately equaldetachments separated on the march by distances of 50 to 100 yards. Asa rule the detachments should not consist of less than 25 men each. With this arrangement of the column, it will rarely be possible for anenemy to close simultaneously with all of the detachments, one or morebeing left unengaged and under control to support those engaged or toinflict severe punishment upon the enemy when he is repulsed. (601) =612. Selection of site for camp or bivouac; protection. = The site forcamp or bivouac should be selected with special reference toeconomical and effective protection against surprise. Double sentinelsare posted on the avenues of approach, and the troops sleep inreadiness for instant action. When practicable, troops should beinstructed in advance as to what they are to do in case of attack atnight. (602) =613. Night operations frequently advisable. = Night operations arefrequently advisable. With the small forces employed, control is notdifficult. Irregular troops rarely provide proper camp protection, andthey may frequently be surprised and severely punished by a properlyconducted night march and attack. (603) CEREMONIES General Rules for Ceremonies =614. Order in which troops are arranged for ceremonies; commanderfaces command; subordinates face to front. = The order in which thetroops of the various arms are arranged for ceremonies is prescribedby Army Regulations. When forming for ceremonies the companies of the battalion and thebattalions of the regiment are posted from right to left in line andfrom head to rear in column, in the order of rank of their respectivecommanders present in the formation, the senior on the right or at thehead. The commander faces the command; subordinate commanders face to thefront. (708) =615. Saluting by lieutenant colonel and staffs. = At the commandpresent arms, given by the colonel, the lieutenant colonel, and thecolonel's staff salute; the major's staff salute at the major'scommand. Each staff returns to the carry or order when the command=order arms= is given by its chief. (709) =616. Formation of companies, battalion and regiment. = At the=assembly= for a ceremony companies are formed on their own paradesand informally inspected, as prescribed in par. 646. At =adjutant's call=, except for ceremonies involving a singlebattalion, each battalion is formed on its own parade, reports arereceived, and the battalion presented to the major, as laid down inpar. 308. At the second sounding of adjutant's call the regiment isformed. (710) REVIEWS General Rules =617. Indication of points where column changes direction; flank topass 12 paces from reviewing officer; post of reviewing officer andothers. = The adjutant posts men or otherwise marks the points wherethe column changes direction in such manner that its flank in passingwill be about 12 paces from the reviewing officer. The post of the reviewing officer, usually opposite the center of theline, is indicated by a marker. Officers of the same or higher grade, and distinguished personagesinvited to accompany the reviewing officer, place themselves on hisleft; their staffs and orderlies place themselves respectively on theleft of the staff and orderlies of the reviewing officer; all otherswho accompany the reviewing officer place themselves on the left ofhis staff, their orderlies in rear. A staff officer is designated toescort distinguished personages and to indicate to them their properpositions, as prescribed in par. 73. (711) =618. Riding around the troops; saluting the color; reviewing officerreturns only salute of commanding officer of troops. = While ridingaround the troops, the reviewing officer may direct his staff, flagand orderlies to remain at the post of the reviewing officer, or thatonly his personal staff and flag shall accompany him; in either casethe commanding officer alone accompanies the reviewing officer. If thereviewing officer is accompanied by his entire staff, the staffofficers of the commander place themselves on the right of the staffof the reviewing officer. The reviewing officer and others at the reviewing stand salute thecolor as it passes; when passing around the troops, the reviewingofficer and those accompanying him salute the color when passing infront of it. The reviewing officer returns the salute of the commanding officer ofthe troops only. Those who accompany the reviewing officer do notsalute. (712) =619. Saluting by staffs. = In passing in review, each staff saluteswith its commander. (713) =620. Turning out of column by commanding officer of troops andstaff. = After saluting the reviewing officer, the commanding officerof the troops turns out of the column, takes post on the right of thereviewing officer, and returns saber; the members of his staffaccompanying him take post on the right of the reviewing officer'sstaff and return saber. When the rear element of his command haspassed, without changing his position, the commanding officer of thetroops salutes the reviewing officer; he and the members of his staffaccompanying him then draw saber and rejoin his command. Thecommanding officer of the troops and the members of his staff are theonly ones who turn out of the column. (714) =621. Turning out of column by commanding officer of troops andstaff. = If the person reviewing the command is not mounted, thecommanding officer and his staff on turning out of the column afterpassing the reviewing officer dismount preparatory to taking post. Insuch case, the salute of the commanding officer, prior to rejoininghis command, is made with the hand before remounting. (715) =622. Salute by regimental color. = When the rank of the reviewingofficer entitles him to the honor, each regimental color salutes atthe command =present arms=, given or repeated by the major of thebattalion with which it is posted; and again in passing in review. (716) =623. The band. = The band of an organization plays while the reviewingofficer is passing in front of and in rear of the organization. Each band, immediately after passing the reviewing officer, turns outof the column, takes post in front of and facing him, continues toplay until its regiment has passed, then ceases playing and follows inrear of its regiment; the band of the following regiment commences toplay as soon as the preceding band has ceased. While marching in review but one band in each brigade plays at a time, and but one band at a time when within 100 paces of the reviewingofficer. (717) =624. The national air, to the color, march, flourishes orruffles, --when played. = If the rank of the reviewing officer entitleshim to the honor, the band plays the prescribed =national air=, or thefield music sounds =to the color=, =march=, =flourishes= or =ruffles=when arms are presented. When passing in review at the moment theregimental color salutes, the musicians halted in front of thereviewing officer, sound =to the color=, =march=, =flourishes= or=ruffles=. (718) =625. Modifications of the review. = The formation for review may bemodified to suit the ground, and the =present arms= and the ridearound the line by the reviewing officer may be dispensed with. (719) =626. When post of reviewing officer is on left of column. = If thepost of the reviewing officer is on the left of the column, the troopsmarch in review with the guide left; the commanding officer and hisstaff turn out of the column to the left, taking post as prescribedabove, but to the left of the reviewing officer; in saluting, thecaptains give the command: =1. Eyes, 2. LEFT. = (720) =627. Cadence at which troops pass in review. = Except in the review ofa single battalion, the troops pass in review in quick time only. (721) =628. Reviews of brigades or larger commands; action of battalionsafter passing reviewing officer. = In reviews of brigades or largercommands, each battalion, after the rear has passed the reviewingofficer 50 paces, takes the double time for 100 yards in order not tointerfere with the march of the column in rear; if necessary, it thenturns out of the column and returns to camp by the most practicableroute; the leading battalion of each regiment is followed by the otherunits of the regiment. (722) =629. Standing "at ease, " "rest, " etc. , in review of brigade or largercommand. = In a brigade or larger review a regimental commander maycause his regiment to stand =at ease=, =rest=, or =stack arms= and=fall out= and =resume attention=, so as not to interfere with theceremony. (723) =630. Review by inspector junior to commanding officer. = When anorganization is to be reviewed before an inspector junior in rank tothe commanding officer, the commanding officer receives the reviewand is accompanied by the inspector, who takes post on his left. (724) Battalion Review =631. Presenting battalion to reviewing officer; passing aroundbattalion; battalion passing in review at quick time. = The battalionhaving been formed in line, the major faces to the front; thereviewing officer moves a few paces toward the major and halts; themajor turns about and commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS=, and again turnsabout and salutes. The reviewing officer returns the salute; the major turns about, brings the battalion to order arms, and again turns to the front. The reviewing officer approaches to about 6 paces from the major, thelatter salutes, takes post on his right, and accompanies him around, the battalion. The band plays. The reviewing officer proceeds to theright of the band, passes in front of the captain to the left of theline and returns to the right, passing in rear of the file closers andthe band. (See par. 625. ) On arriving again at the right of the line, the major salutes, halts, and when the reviewing officer and staff have passed, moves directlyto his post in front of the battalion, faces it, and commands: =1. Pass in review, 2. Squads right, 3. MARCH. = At the first command the band changes direction if necessary, andhalts. At the third command, given when the band has changed direction, thebattalion moves off, the band playing; without command from the majorthe column changes direction at the points indicated, and column ofcompanies at full distance is formed successively to the left at thesecond change of direction; the major takes his post 20 paces in frontof the band immediately after the second change; the band havingpassed the reviewing officer, turns to the left of the column, takespost in front of and facing the reviewing officer, and remains thereuntil the review terminates. The major and staff salute, turn the head as in =eyes right=, and looktoward the reviewing officer when the major is 6 paces from him; theyreturn to the carry and turn the head and eyes to the front when themajor has passed 6 paces beyond him. Without facing about, each captain or special unit commander, exceptthe drum major, commands: =1. Eyes=, in time to add, =2. RIGHT=, whenat 6 paces from the reviewing officer, and commands =front= when at 6paces beyond him. At the command =eyes= the company officers armedwith the saber execute the first motion of present saber; at thecommand =right= all turn head and eyes to the right, the companyofficers complete =present saber=, and the noncommissioned officersarmed with the saber execute the first motion of present saber; at thecommand =front= all turn head and eyes to the front, and officers andnoncommissioned officers armed with the saber resume the carry saber;without arms in hand, the first motion of the hand salute is made atthe command =right=, and the second motion not made until the command=front=. Noncommissioned staff officers, noncommissioned officers in command ofsubdivisions, and the drum major salute, turn the head and eyes, return to the front, resume the carry or drop the hand, at the pointsprescribed for the major. Officers and dismounted noncommissionedofficers in command of subdivisions, with arms in hand, render therifle or saber salute. Guides charged with the step, trace, anddirection do not execute =eyes right=. If the reviewing officer is entitled to a salute from the color theregimental color salutes when at 6 paces from him, and is raised whenat 6 paces beyond him. The major, having saluted, takes post on the right of the reviewingofficer, returns saber and remains there until the rear of thebattalion has passed, then salutes and rejoins his battalion. The bandceases to play when the column has completed its second change ofdirection after passing the reviewing officer. (725) =632. Passing in review at double time. = When the battalion arrives atits original position in column, the major commands: =1. Double time, 2. MARCH. = The band plays in double time. The battalion passes in review as before, except that in double timethe command =eyes right= is omitted and there is no saluting except bythe major when he leaves the reviewing officer. The review terminates when the rear company has passed the reviewingofficer: the band then ceases to play, and, unless otherwise directedby the major, returns to the position it occupied before marching inreview, or is dismissed; the major rejoins the battalion and brings itto =quick time=. The battalion then executes such movements as thereviewing officer may have directed, or is marched to its paradeground and dismissed. Marching past in double time may, in the discretion of the reviewingofficer, be omitted; the review terminates when the major rejoins hisbattalion. (726) =633. Major and staff may be dismounted. = At battalion review themajor and his staff may be dismounted in the discretion of thecommanding officer. (727) PARADES General Rules =634. Position assumed by reviewing officer and staff while band issounding off. = If dismounted, the officer reviewing the parade, andhis staff, stand at parade rest, with arms folded, while the band issounding off; they resume attention with the adjutant. If mounted, they remain at attention. (732) =635. Reports by captains and majors. = At the command =report=, givenby a battalion adjutant, the captains in succession from the rightsalute and report: =A= (or =other=) =company=, =present= or =accountedfor=; or =A= (or =other=) =company, (so many) officers= or =enlistedmen absent=, and resume the order saber; at the same command given bythe regimental adjutant, the majors similarly =report= theirbattalions. (733) Battalion Parade =636. At adjutant's call= the battalion is formed in line, asexplained in par. 308, but not presented. Lieutenants take their postsin front of the center of their respective platoons at the captain'scommand for dressing his company on the line, as explained in par. 302. The major takes post at a convenient distance in front of thecenter and facing the battalion. The adjutant from his post in front of the center of the battalion, after commanding: =1. Guides, 2. POSTS=, adds: =1. Parade, 2. REST=;the battalion executes parade rest. The adjutant directs the band:=SOUND OFF. = The band, playing in quick time, passes in front of the line ofofficers to the left of the line and back to its post on the right, when it ceases playing. At evening parade, when the band ceasesplaying, =retreat= is sounded by the field music and, following thelast note and while the flag is being lowered, the band plays the=Star Spangled Banner=. Just before the last note of retreat, the adjutant comes to attentionand, as the last note ends commands: =1. Battalion, 2. Attention, 3. Present, 4. Arms=, and salutes retaining that position until the lastnote of the National Anthem. He then turns about and reports: =Sir, the parade is formed. = The major directs the adjutant: =Take yourpost, Sir. = The adjutant moves at a trot (if dismounted, in quicktime), passes by the major's right, and takes his post. The major draws saber and commands: =1. Order, 2. ARMS=, and adds suchexercises in the manual of arms as he may desire. Officers, noncommissioned officers commanding companies or armed with the saber, and the color guard, having once executed order arms, remain in thatposition during the exercises in the manual. The major then directs the adjutant: =Receive the reports, Sir. = Theadjutant, passing by the major's right, advances at a trot (ifdismounted, in quick time) toward the center of the line, halts midwaybetween it and the major, and commands: =REPORT. = (See par. 635. ) The reports received, the adjutant turns about, and reports: =Sir, allare present or accounted for=; or =Sir, (so many) officers or enlistedmen are absent=, including in the list of absentees those from theband and field music reported to him by the drum major prior to theparade. The major directs: =Publish the orders, Sir. = The adjutant turns about and commands: =Attention to orders=; he thenreads the orders, and commands: =1. Officers, 2. CENTER, 3. MARCH. = At the command =center=, the company officers carry saber and face tothe center. At the command =march=, they close to the center and faceto the front; the adjutant turns about and takes his post. The officers having closed and faced to the front, the seniorcommands: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH. = The officers advance, the bandplaying; the left officer of the center or right center company is theguide, and marches on the major; the officers are halted at 6 pacesfrom the major by the senior, who commands: =1. Officers, 2. HALT. =They halt and salute, returning to the carry saber with the major. Themajor then gives such instructions as he deems necessary, andcommands: =1. Officers, 2. POSTS, 3. MARCH. = At the command =posts=, company officers face about. At the command =march=, they step off with guide as before, and thesenior commands: =1. Officers, 2. HALT=, so as to halt 3 paces fromthe line; he then adds: =1. POSTS, 2. MARCH. = At the command =posts=, officers face outward and, at the command=march=, step off in succession at 4 paces distance, resume theirposts and order saber; the lieutenants march directly to their postsin rear of their companies. The music ceases when all officers have resumed their posts. The major then commands: =1. Pass in review, 2. Squads right, 3. MARCH=, and returns saber. The battalion marches according to the principles of review; when thelast company has passed, the ceremony is concluded, as explained inpars. 617; 631. The band continues to play while the companies are in march upon theparade ground. Companies are formed in column of squads, withouthalting, and are marched to their respective parades by theircaptains. When the company officers have saluted the major, he may direct themto form line with the staff, in which case they individually move tothe front, passing to the right and left of the major and staff, halton the line established by the staff, face about, and stand atattention. The music ceases when the officers join the staff. Themajor causes the companies to pass in review under the command oftheir first sergeants by the same commands as before. The companyofficers return saber with the major and remain at attention. (734) ESCORTS Escort of the Color =637. By a company. = The regiment being in line or line of masses, thecolonel details a company, other than the color company, to receiveand escort the national color to its place. During the ceremony theregimental color remains with the color guard at its post with theregiment. The band moves straight to its front until clear of the line of fieldofficers, changes direction to the right, and is halted; thedesignated company forms column of platoons in rear of the band, thecolor bearer or bearers between the platoons. The escort then marches without music to the colonel's office orquarters and is formed in line facing the entrance, the band on theright, the color bearer in the line of file closers. The color bearer, preceded by the first lieutenant and followed by asergeant of the escort, then goes to obtain the color. When the color bearer comes out, followed by the lieutenant andsergeant, he halts before the entrance, facing the escort; thelieutenant places himself on the right, the sergeant on the left ofthe color bearer; the escort presents arms, and the field music sounds=to the color=; the first lieutenant and sergeant salute. Arms are brought to the order; the lieutenant and sergeant return totheir posts; the company is formed in column of platoons, the bandtaking post in front of the column; the color bearer places himselfbetween the platoons; the escort marches in quick time, with guideleft, back to the regiment, the band playing; the march is soconducted that when the escort arrives at 50 paces in front of theright of the regiment, the direction of the march shall be parallel toits front; when the color arrives opposite its place in line, theescort is formed in line to the left; the color bearer, passingbetween the platoons, advances and halts 12 paces in front of thecolonel. The color bearer having halted, the colonel, who has taken post 30paces in front of the center of the regiment, faces about, commands:=1. Present, 2. ARMS=, resumes his front, and salutes; the field musicsounds to the color; and the regimental color bearer executes thecolor salute at the command =present arms=. The colonel then faces about, brings the regiment to the order, atwhich the color bearer resumes the carry and takes his post with thecolor company. The escort presents arms and comes to the order with the regiment, atthe command of the colonel, after which the captain forms it again incolumn of platoons, and, preceded by the band, marches it to itsplace, passing around the left flank of the regiment. The band plays until the escort passes the left of the line, when itceases playing and returns to its post on the right, passing in rearof the regiment. The regiment may be brought to a rest when the escort passes the leftof the line. (736) =638. By a battalion. = Escort of the color is executed by a battalionaccording to the same principles. (737) Escorts of Honor =639. = Escorts of honor are detailed for the purpose of receiving andescorting personages of high rank, civil or military. The troops forthis purpose are selected for their soldierly appearance and superiordiscipline. The escort forms in line, opposite the place where the personagepresents himself, the band on the flank of the escort toward which itwill march. On the appearance of the personage, he is received withthe honors due to his rank. The escort is formed into column ofcompanies, platoons or squads, and takes up the march, the personageand his staff or retinue taking positions in rear of the column; whenhe leaves the escort, line is formed and the same honors are paid asbefore. When the position of the escort is at a considerable distance from thepoint where the personage is to be received, as for instance, where acourtyard or wharf intervenes, a double line of sentinels is postedfrom that point to the escort, facing inward; the sentinelssuccessively salute as he passes and are then relieved and join theescort. An officer is appointed to attend him and bear such communication ashe may have to make to the commander of the escort. (738) Funeral Escort =640. Composition and strength, formation, presenting arms, marching, etc. = The composition and strength of the escort are prescribed inArmy Regulations. The escort is formed opposite the quarters of the deceased; the bandon that flank of the escort toward which it is to march. Upon the appearance of the coffin, the commander commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS=, and the band plays an appropriate air; arms arethen brought to the order. The escort is next formed into column of companies, platoons, orsquads. If the escort be small, it may be marched in line. Theprocession is formed in the following order: =1. Music, 2. Escort, 3. Clergy, 4. Coffin and pallbearers, 5. Mourners, 6. Members of theformer command of the deceased, 7. Other officers and enlisted men, 8. Distinguished persons, 9. Delegations, 10. Societies, 11. Civilians. =Officers and enlisted men (Nos. 6 and 7), with side arms, are in theorder of rank, seniors in front. The procession being formed, the commander of the escort puts it inmarch. The escort marches slowly to solemn music; the column having arrivedopposite the grave, line is formed facing it. The coffin is then carried along the front of the escort to the grave;arms are presented, the music plays an appropriate air; the coffinhaving been placed over the grave, the music ceases and arms arebrought to the order. The commander next commands: =1. Parade, 2. REST. = The escort executes=parade rest=, officers and men inclining the head. When the funeral services are completed and the coffin lowered intothe grave, the commander causes the escort to resume attention andfire three rounds of blank cartridges, the muzzles of the pieces beingelevated. When the escort is greater than a battalion, one battalionis designated to fire the volley. A musician then sounds =taps=. The escort is then formed into column, marched in quick time to thepoint where it was assembled, and dismissed. The band does not play until it has left the inclosure. When the distance to the place of interment is considerable, theescort, after having left the camp or garrison, may march =at ease= inquick time until it approaches the burial ground, when it is broughtto attention. The music does not play while marching =at ease=. In marching at attention, the field music may alternate with the bandin playing. (739) =641. Funeral of general officer; playing national air, soundingruffles, etc. , as honor. = When arms are presented at the funeral of aperson entitled to any of the following honors, the band plays theprescribed =national air=, or the field music sounds to the =color=, =march=, =flourishes=, or =ruffles=, according to the rank of thedeceased, after which the band plays an appropriate air. The commanderof the escort, in forming column, gives the appropriate commands forthe different arms. (740) =642. Funeral of mounted officer or soldier. = At the funeral of amounted officer or enlisted man, his horse, in mourning caparison, follows the hearse. (741) =643. When hearse, cavalry, and artillery are unable to entercemetery. = Should the entrance of the cemetery prevent the hearseaccompanying the escort till the latter halts at the grave, the columnis halted at the entrance long enough to take the coffin from thehearse, when the column is again put in march. The Cavalry andArtillery, when unable to enter the inclosure, turn out of the column, face the column, and salute the remains as they pass. (742) =644. Escorting remains from quarters to church before funeralservices. = When necessary to escort the remains from the quarters ofthe deceased to the church before the funeral service, arms arepresented upon receiving the remains at the quarters and also as theyare borne into the church. (743) =645. Instructions to clergyman and pallbearers. = The commander of theescort, previous to the funeral, gives the clergyman and pallbearersall needful directions. (744) Company Inspection =646. = Being in line at a halt: =1. Open ranks, 2. MARCH. = At the command =march= the front rank executes =right dress=; the rearrank and the file closers march backward 4 steps, halt, and executeright dress; the lieutenants pass around their respective flanks andtake post, facing to the front, 3 paces in front of the center oftheir respective platoons. The captain aligns the front rank, rearrank, and file closers, takes post 3 paces in front of the rightguide, facing to the left, and commands: =1. FRONT, 2. PREPARE FORINSPECTION. = At the second command the lieutenants carry saber; the captain returnssaber and inspects them, after which they face about, order saber, andstand at ease; upon the completion of the inspection they carry saber, face about, and order saber. The captain may direct the lieutenants toaccompany or assist him, in which case they return saber and, at theclose of the inspection, resume their posts in front of the company, draw and carry saber. Having inspected the lieutenants, the captain proceeds to the right ofthe company. Each man, as the captain approaches him, executes=inspection arms=. The captain takes the piece, grasping it with his right hand justabove the rear sight, the man dropping his hands. The captain inspectsthe piece, and, with the hand and piece in the same position as inreceiving it, hands it back to the man, who takes it with the lefthand at the balance and executes =order arms=. As the captain returns the piece, the next man executes =inspectionarms=, and so on through the company. Should the piece be inspected without handling, each man executes=order arms= as soon as the captain passes to the next man. [Illustration: Plate VI] The inspection is from right to left in front, and from left to rightin the rear, of each rank and of the line of file closers. When approached by the captain, the first sergeant executes=inspection saber=. Enlisted men armed with the pistol execute=inspection pistol= by drawing the pistol from the holster and holdingit diagonally across the body, barrel up, and 6 inches in front of theneck, muzzle pointing up and to the left. The pistol is returned tothe holster as soon as the captain passes. Upon completion of the inspection, the captain takes post facing tothe left in front of the right guide and on line with the lieutenantsand commands: =1. Close ranks, 2. MARCH. = At the command =march= the lieutenants resume their posts in line; therear rank closes to 40 inches, each man covering his file leader; thefile closers close to 2 paces from the rear rank. (745) =647. Inspection of quarters or camp. = If the company is dismissed, rifles are put away. In quarters, headdress and accouterments areremoved, and the men stand near their respective bunks; in camp, theystand covered, but without accouterments, in front of their tents. If the personal field equipment has not been inspected in ranks andits inspection in quarters or camp is ordered, each man will arrangethe prescribed articles on his bunk, if in quarters or permanent camp, or in front of his half of the tent, if in shelter tent camp, in thesame relative order as directed in paragraph 648. The captain, accompanied by the lieutenants, then inspects thequarters or camp. The first sergeant precedes the captain and callsthe men to attention on entering each squad room or on approaching thetents; the men stand at attention, but do not salute. (746) =648. When inspection includes examination of equipment. = If theinspection is to include an examination of the equipment while inranks, the captain, after closing ranks, causes the company to stackarms, to march backward until 4 paces in rear of the stacks and totake intervals. He then commands: =1. UNSLING EQUIPMENT, 2. OPEN PACKS. = At the first command each man unslings his equipment and places it onthe ground at his feet, haversack to the front, end of the pack 1 footin front of toes. At the second command, pack carriers are unstrapped, packs removed andunrolled, the longer edge of the pack along the lower edge of thecartridge belt. Each man exposes shelter-tent pins; removes meat can, knife, fork, and spoon from the meat-can pouch, and places them on theright of the haversack, knife, fork, and spoon in the open meat can;removes the canteen and cup from the cover and places them on the leftside of the haversack; unstraps and spreads out haversack so as toexpose its contents; folds up the carrier to uncover the cartridgepockets; opens same; unrolls toilet articles and places them on theouter flap of the haversack; places underwear carried in pack on theleft half of the open pack, with round fold parallel with front edgeof pack; opens first-aid pouch and exposes contents to view. Specialarticles carried by individual men, such as flag kit, field glasses, compass, steel tape, notebook, etc. , will be arranged on the righthalf of the open pack. Each man then resumes the attention. Plate VI(Page 151) shows the relative position of all articles exceptunderwear and special articles. The captain then passes along the ranks and file closers, as before, inspects the equipment, returns to the right, and commands: =CLOSEPACKS. = Each man rolls up his toilet articles and underwear, straps up hishaversack and its contents, replaces the meat can, knife, fork, andspoon, and the canteen and cup; closes cartridge pockets and first-aidpouch; restores special articles to their proper receptacles; rolls upand replaces pack in carrier, and, leaving the equipment in itsposition on the ground, resumes the attention. All equipments being packed, the captain commands: =SLING EQUIPMENT. = The equipments are slung and belts fastened. The captain then causes the company to assemble and take arms. Theinspection is completed as already explained. (747) =649. When the inspector is other than the captain. = Should theinspector be other than the captain, the latter, after commanding=front=, adds =REST=, and faces to the front. When the inspectorapproaches, the captain faces to the left, brings the company toattention, faces to the front, and salutes. The salute acknowledged, the captain carries saber, faces to the left, commands: =PREPARE FORINSPECTION=, and again faces to the front. The inspection proceeds as before; the captain returns saber andaccompanies the inspector as soon as the latter passes him. (748) Battalion Inspection =650. Inspection may precede or follow review; the inspection up totime the companies are inspected. = If there be both inspection andreview, the inspection may either precede or follow the review. The battalion being in column of companies at full distance, allofficers dismounted, the major commands: =1. Prepare for inspection, 2. MARCH. = At the first command each captain commands: =Open ranks. = At the command =march= the ranks are opened in each company, as in theinspection of the company, as prescribed in par. 646. The field musicians join their companies. The drum major conducts the band to a position 30 paces in rear of thecolumn, if not already there, and opens ranks. The major takes post facing to the front and 20 paces in front of thecenter of the leading company. The staff takes post as if mounted. Thecolor takes post 5 paces in rear of the staff. Field and staff officers senior in rank to the inspector do not takepost in front of the column, but accompany him. The inspector inspects the major, and, accompanied by the latter, inspects the staff officers. The major then commands: =REST=, returns saber, and, with his staff, accompanies the inspector. If the major is the inspector he commands: =REST=, returns saber, andinspects his staff, which then accompanies him. The inspector, commencing at the head of the column, then makes aminute inspection of the color guard, the noncommissioned staff, andthe arms, accouterments, dress and ammunition of each soldier of theseveral companies in succession, and inspects the band. The adjutant gives the necessary commands for the inspection of thecolor guard, noncommissioned staff, and band. The color guard and noncommissioned staff may be dismissed as soon asinspected. (749) =651. Inspection of the companies. = As the inspector approaches eachcompany, its captain commands: =1. Company, 2. ATTENTION, 3. PREPAREFOR INSPECTION=, and faces to the front; as soon as inspected hereturns saber and accompanies the inspector. The inspection proceedsas in company inspection, as explained in pars. 646-649. At itscompletion the captain closes ranks and commands: =REST. = Unlessotherwise directed by the inspector, the major directs that thecompany be marched to its parade and dismissed. (750) =652. When inspection lasts long time. = If the inspection willprobably last a long time the rear companies may be permitted to stackarms and fall out; before the inspector approaches, they fall in andtake arms. (751) =653. The band. = The band plays during the inspection of thecompanies. When the inspector approaches the band the adjutant commands: =PREPAREFOR INSPECTION. = As the inspector approaches him each man raises his instrument infront of the body, reverses it so as to show both sides, and thenreturns it. Company musicians execute inspection similarly. (752) =654. Inspection of quarters or camp. = At the inspection of quartersor camp the inspector is accompanied by the captain, followed by theother officers or by such of them as he may designate. The inspectionis conducted as described in the company inspection, as laid down inpars. 646-649. MUSTER Regimental, Battalion, or Company Muster =655. Inspection and review; muster rolls; lists of absentees. = Musteris preceded by an inspection, and, when practicable, by a review. The adjutant is provided with the muster roll of the field, staff, andband, the surgeon with the hospital roll; each captain with the rollof his company. A list of absentees, alphabetically arranged, showingcause and place of absence, accompanies each roll. (755) =656. Calling the names; verifying presence of absentees. = Being incolumn of companies at open ranks, each captain, as the musteringofficer approaches, brings his company to right shoulder arms, andcommands: =ATTENTION TO MUSTER. = The mustering officer or captain then calls the names on the roll;each man, as his name is called, answers =Here= and brings his pieceto order arms. After muster, the mustering officer, accompanied by the companycommanders and such other officers as he may designate, verifies thepresence of the men reported in hospital, on guard, etc. (756) =657. Muster of company on company parade. = A company may be musteredin the same manner on its own parade ground, the muster to follow thecompany inspection. (757) THE COLOR =658. Meaning of "Color;" Army Regulations. = The word "color" impliesthe national color; it includes the regimental color when both arepresent. The rules prescribing the colors to be carried by regiments andbattalions on all occasions are contained in Army Regulations. (766) =659. Where the colors are kept; "cased" defined. = In garrison thecolors, when not in use, are kept in the office or quarters of thecolonel, and are escorted thereto and therefrom by the color guard. Incamp the colors, when not in use, are in front of the colonel's tent. From reveille to retreat, when the weather permits, they are displayeduncased; from retreat to reveille and during inclement weather theyare cased. Colors are said to be cased when furled and protected by the oil clothcovering. (767) =660. Regimental and national colors--salutes by. = The regimentalcolor salutes in the ceremony of escort of the color, and whensaluting an officer entitled to the honor, but in no other case. If marching, the salute is executed when at 6 paces from the officerentitled to the salute; the carry is resumed when 6 paces beyond him. The national color renders no salute. (768) The Color Guard =661. Composition of color guard; carrying of regimental and nationalcolors. = The color guard consists of two color sergeants, who are thecolor bearers, and two experienced privates selected by the colonel. The senior color sergeant carries the national color; the junior colorsergeant carries the regimental color. The regimental color, whencarried, is always on the left of the national color, in whateverdirection they may face. (769) =662. Formation and marching of color guard. = The color guard isformed and marched in one rank, the color bearers in the center. It ismarched in the same manner and by the same commands as a squad, substituting, when necessary, guard for squad. (770) =663. Color company defined; color guard remains with it. = The colorcompany is the center or right center company of the center or rightcenter battalion. The color guard remains with that company unlessotherwise directed. (771) =664. Post of color guard in various formations. = In line, the colorguard is in the interval between the inner guides of the right andleft center companies. In line of columns or in close line, the color guard is midway betweenthe right and left center companies and on line with the captains. In column of companies or platoons, the color guard is midway betweenthe color company and the company in rear of the color company andequidistant from the flanks of the column. In close column, the color guard is on the flank of the color company. In column of squads, the color guard is in the column between thecolor company and the company originally on its left. When the regiment is formed in line of masses for ceremonies, thecolor guard forms on the left of the leading company of the center(right center) battalion. It rejoins the color company when theregiment changes from line of masses. (772) =665. In battle color guard joins reserve. = The color guard, when witha battalion that takes the battle formation, joins the regimentalreserve, whose commander directs the color guard to join a certaincompany of the reserve. (773) =666. Loadings, firings, manual of arms, and movements by colorguard. = The color guard executes neither loadings nor firings; inrendering honors, it executes all movements in the manual; in drill, all movements unless specially excused. (774) To Receive the Color =667. Receiving the color by color guard. = The color guard, by commandof the senior color sergeant, presents arms on receiving and partingwith the color. After parting with the color, the color guard isbrought to order arms by command of the senior member, who is placedas the right man of the guard. (775) =668. Receiving the color by color company. = At drills and ceremonies, excepting escort of the color, the color, if present, is received bythe color company after its formation. The formation of the color company completed, the captain faces to thefront; the color guard, conducted by the senior sergeant, approachesfrom the front and halts at a distance of 10 paces from the captain, who then faces about, brings the company to the =present=, faces tothe front, salutes, again faces about and brings the company to the=order=. The color guard comes to the =present= and =order= at thecommand of the captain, and is then marched by the color sergeantdirectly to its post on the left of the color company. (776) =669. Escorting color to office or quarters of colonel. = When thebattalion is dismissed the color guard escorts the color to the officeor quarters of the colonel. (777) Manual of the Color =670. = At the =carry=, the heel of the pike rests in the socket of thesling; the right hand grasps the pike at the height of the shoulder. At the =order=, the heel of the pike rests on the ground near theright toe, the right hand holding the pike in a vertical position. At =parade rest=, the heel of the pike is on the ground, as at the=order=; the pike is held with both hands in front of the center ofthe body, left hand uppermost. The =order= is resumed at the command =attention=. The left hand assists the right when necessary. The =carry= is the habitual position when the troops are at ashoulder, port, or trail. The =order= and =parade rest= are executed with the troops. =The color salute:= Being at a carry, slip the right hand up the piketo the height of the eye, then lower the pike by straightening the armto the front. (778) Manual of the Saber =671. Drawing saber; position of carry saber dismounted; unhookingscabbard before mounting; on foot carrying scabbard hooked up. = =1. Draw, 2. SABER. = At the command =draw=, unhook the saber with the thumb and first twofingers of the left hand, thumb on the end of the hook, fingerslifting the upper ring; grasp the scabbard with the left hand at theupper band, bring the hilt a little forward, seize the grip with theright hand, and draw the blade 6 inches out of the scabbard, pressingthe scabbard against the thigh with the left hand. At the command =saber=, draw the saber quickly, raising the arm to itsfull extent, to the right front, at an angle of about 45° with thehorizontal, the saber, edge down, in a straight line with the arm;make a slight pause and bring the back of the blade against theshoulder, edge to the front, arm nearly extended, hand by the side, elbow back, third and fourth fingers back of the grip; at the sametime hook up the scabbard with the thumb and first two fingers of theleft hand, thumb through the upper ring, fingers supporting it; dropthe left hand by the side. =This is the position of carry saber dismounted. = Officers and noncommissioned officers armed with the saber unhook thescabbard before mounting; when mounted, in the first motion of =drawsaber= they reach with the right hand over the bridle hand and withoutthe aid of the bridle hand draw the saber as before; the right hand atthe carry rests on the right thigh. On foot the scabbard is carried hooked up. (782) =672. Holding of saber in publishing orders, etc. ; use of saber knot. =When publishing orders, calling the roll, etc. , the saber is heldsuspended from the right wrist by the saber knot; when the saber knotis used it is placed on the wrist before drawing saber and taken offafter returning saber. (783) =673. Presenting saber from carry or order; execution of the salute inrendering honors. = Being at the order or carry: =1. Present, 2. SABER= (or =ARMS=). At the command =present=, raise and carry the saber to the front, baseof the hilt as high as the chin and 6 inches in front of the neck, edge to the left, point 6 inches farther to the front than the hilt, thumb extended on the left of the grip, all fingers grasping the grip. At the command =saber=, or =arms=, lower the saber, point inprolongation of the right foot and near the ground, edge to the left, hand by the side, thumb on left of grip, arm extended. If mounted, thehand is held behind the thigh, point a little to the right and frontof the stirrup. In rendering honors with troops, officers execute the first motion ofthe salute at the command =present=, the second motion at the command=arms=; enlisted men with the saber execute the first motion at thecommand arms and omit the second motion. (784) =674. Coming to order from carry; executing order or carry frompresent, depending upon command; coming to order saber when arms arebrought to order. = Being at a carry: =1. Order, 2. SABER= (or =ARMS=). Drop the point of the saber directly to the front, point on or nearthe ground, edge down, thumb on back of grip. Being at the =present saber=, should the next command be =order arms=, officers and noncommissioned officers armed with the saber =ordersaber=; if the command be other than =order arms=, they execute =carrysaber=. When arms are brought to the order, the officers or enlisted men withsaber drawn =order saber=. (785) =675. Position of saber in giving commands, etc. ; bringing saber tocarry from order. = The saber is held at the carry while givingcommands, marching at attention, or changing position in quick time. When at the order, sabers are brought to the carry when arms arebrought to any position except the =present= or =parade rest=. (786) =676. Parade rest from order. = Being at the order: =1. Parade, 2. REST. = Take the position of parade rest except that the left hand isuppermost and rests on the right hand, point of saber on or near theground in front of the center of the body, edge to the right. At the command =attention=, resume the order saber and the position ofthe soldier. (787) =677. Position of saber at double time. = In marching in double timethe saber is carried diagonally across the breast, edge to the front;the left hand steadies the scabbard. (788) =678. On duty under arms sabers to be drawn and returned withoutcommand; commands given with saber drawn. = Officers andnoncommissioned officers armed with the saber, on all duties underarms draw and return saber without waiting for command. All commandsto soldiers under arms are given with the saber drawn. (789) =679. Returning saber from carry. = Being at a carry: =1. Return, 2. SABER. = At the command =return=, carry the right hand opposite to and 6 inchesfrom the left shoulder, saber vertical, edge to the left; at the sametime unhook and lower the scabbard with the left hand and grasp it atthe upper band. At the command =saber= drop the point to the rear and pass the bladeacross and along the left arm; turn the head slightly to the left, fixing the eyes on the opening of the scabbard, raise the right hand, insert and return the blade; free the wrist from the saber knot (ifinserted in it), turn the head to the front, drop the right hand bythe side; hook up the scabbard with the left hand, drop the left handby the side. Officers and noncommissioned officers armed with the saber, whenmounted, return saber without using the left hand; the scabbard ishooked up on dismounting. (790) =680. Enlisted men with saber drawn at inspection. = At inspectionenlisted men with the saber drawn execute the first motion of =presentsaber= and turn the wrist to show both sides of the blade, resumingthe carry when the inspector has passed. (791) [Illustration] Shelter Tents =681. = Being in line or in column of platoons, the captain commands:=FORM FOR SHELTER TENTS. = The officers, first sergeant, and guides fall out; the cooks form afile on the flank of the company nearest the kitchen, the firstsergeant and right guide fall in, forming the right file of thecompany; blank files are filled by the file closers, or by men takenfrom the front rank; the remaining guide, or guides, and file closersform on a convenient flank. Before forming column or platoons, preparatory to pitching tents, thecompany may be redivided into two or more platoons, regardless of thesize of each. (792) =682. = The captain then causes the company to take intervals asdescribed in the School of the Squad (See par. 156. ), and commands:=PITCH TENTS. = At the command =pitch tents=, each man steps off obliquely to theright with the right foot and lays his rifle on the ground, the buttof the rifle near the toe of the right foot, muzzle to the front, barrel to the left, and steps back into his place; each front-rank manthen draws his bayonet and sticks it in the ground by the outside ofthe right heel. Equipments are unslung, packs opened, shelter half and pins removed;each man then spreads his shelter half, small triangle to the rear, flat upon the ground the tent is to occupy, the rear-rank man's halfon the right. The halves are then buttoned together; the guy loops atboth ends of the lower half are passed through the buttonholesprovided in the lower and upper halves; the whipped end of the guyrope is then passed through both guy loops and secured, this at bothends of the tent. Each front-rank man inserts the muzzle of his rifleunder the front end of the ridge and holds the rifle upright, sling tothe front, heel of butt on the ground, beside the bayonet. Hisrear-rank man pins down the front corners of the tent on the line ofbayonets, stretching the tent taut; he then inserts a pin in the eyeof the front guy rope and drives the pin at such a distance in frontof the rifle as to held the rope taut; both men go to the rear of thetent, each pins down a corner, stretching the sides and rear of thetent before securing; the rear-rank man then inserts an intrenchingtool, or a bayonet in its scabbard, under the rear end of the ridgeinside the tent, the front-rank man pegging down the end of the rearguy ropes; the rest of the pins are then driven by both men, therear-rank man working on the right. The front flaps of the tent are not fastened down, but thrown back onthe tent. As soon as the tent is pitched each man arranges his equipment and thecontents of his pack in the tent and stands at attention in front ofhis own half on line with the front guy-rope pin. To have a uniform slope when the tents are pitched, the guy ropesshould all be of the same length. In shelter-tent camps, in localities where suitable material isprocurable, tent poles may be improvised and used in lieu of the rifleand bayonet or intrenching tool as supports for the shelter tent. (793) =683. = When the pack is not carried, the company is formed for sheltertents, as prescribed in par. 681, intervals are taken, arms are laidaside or on the ground, the men are dismissed and proceed to thewagon, secure their packs, return to their places, and pitch tents asheretofore described, in par. 682. (794) =684. = Double shelter tents may be pitched by first pitching one tentas heretofore described, then pitching a second tent against theopening of the first, using one rifle to support both tents, andpassing the front guy ropes over and down the sides of the oppositetents. The front corner of one tent is not pegged down, but is thrownback to permit an opening into the tent. (795) Single Sleeping Bag =685. = Spread the poncho on the ground, buttoned end at the feet, buttoned side to the left; fold the blanket once across its shortdimension and lay it on the poncho, folded side along the right sideof the poncho; tie the blanket together along the left side by meansof the tapes provided; fold the left half of the poncho over theblanket and button it together along the side and bottom. (For theposition, number, and length of tapes with which blankets should beprovided, see Par. II, G. O. 11; W. D. '12--Author. ) (796) Double Sleeping Bag =686. = Spread one poncho on the ground, buttoned end at the feet, buttoned side to the left; spread the blankets on top of the poncho;tie the edges of the blankets together with the tapes provided; spreada second poncho on top of the blankets, buttoned end at the feet, buttoned side to the right; button the two ponchos together along bothsides and across the end. (797) To Strike Shelter Tents =687. = The men standing in front of their tents: =STRIKE TENTS. = Equipments and rifles are removed from the tent; the tents arelowered, packs made up, and equipments slung, and the men stand atattention in the places originally occupied after taking intervals. (798) To Pitch All Types of Tents, Except Shelter and Conical Wall =688. = To pitch all types of Army tents, except shelter and conicalwall tents: Mark line of tents by driving a wall pin on the spot to beoccupied by the right (or left) corner of each tent. For pyramidaltents the interval between adjacent pins should be about 30 feet, which will give a passage of two feet between tents. Spread tripod onthe ground where the center of tent is to be, if tripod is used. Spread the tent on the ground to be occupied, door to the front, andplace the right (or left) front wall loop over the pin. The door (ordoors, if more than one) being fastened and held together at thebottom, the left (or right) corner wall loop is carried to the left(or right) as far as it will go and a wall pin driven through it, thepin being placed in line with the right (or left) corner pins alreadydriven. At the same time the rear corner wall loops are pulled to therear and outward so that the rear wall of the tent is stretched tocomplete the rectangle. Wall pins are then driven through these loops. Each corner pin should be directly in rear of the corresponding frontcorner pin, making a rectangle. Unless the canvas be wet, a smallamount of slack should be allowed before the corner pins are driven. According to the size of the tent one or two men, crawling under thetent if necessary, fit each pole or ridge or upright into the ring orridge pole holes, and such accessories as hood, fly, and brace ropesare adjusted. If a tripod be used an additional man will go under thetent to adjust it. The tent steadied by the remaining men, one at eachcorner guy rope, will then be raised. If the tent is a ward or storagetype, corner poles will now be placed at the four corners. The fourcorner guy ropes are then placed over the lower notches of the largepins driven in prolongation of the diagonals at such distance as tohold the walls and ends of the tent vertical and smooth when the guyropes are drawn taut. A wall pin is then driven through each remainingwall loop and a large pin for each guy rope is driven in line with thecorner guy pins already driven. The guy ropes of the tent are placedover the lower notches, while the guy ropes of the fly are placed overthe upper notches, and are then drawn taut. Brace ropes when used, arethen secured to stakes or pins suitably placed. (709) Conical Wall Tent =689. = Drive the door pin and center pin 8 feet 3 inches apart. Usingthe hood lines, with center pin as center, describe two concentriccircles with radii 8 feet 3 inches and 11 feet 3 inches. In the outercircle drive two door guy pins 3 feet apart. At intervals of about 3feet drive the other guy pins. In other respects conical tents are erected practically as in the caseof pyramidal tents, as explained in par. 688. (801) To Strike Common, Wall, Pyramidal, and Conical Wall Tents =690. STRIKE TENTS. = The men first remove all pins except those of the four corner guyropes, or the four quadrant guy ropes in the case of the conical walltent. The pins are neatly piled or placed in their receptacle. One man holds each guy, and when the ground is clear the tent islowered, folded, or rolled and tied, the poles or tripod and polefastened together, and the remaining pins collected. (802) To Fold Tents =691. For folding common, wall, hospital, and storage tents:= Spreadthe tent flat on the ground, folded at the ridge so that bottoms ofside walls are even, ends of tents forming triangles to the right andleft; fold the triangular ends of the tent in toward the middle, making it rectangular in shape; fold the top over about 9 inches; foldthe tent in two by carrying the top fold over clear to the foot; foldagain in two from the top to the foot; throw all guys on tent exceptthe second from each end; fold the ends in so as to cover abouttwo-thirds of the second cloths; fold the left end over to meet theturned-in edge of the right end, then fold the right end over the top, completing the bundle; tie with two exposed guys. =For folding pyramidal tents:= The tent is thrown toward the rear andthe back wall and roof canvas pulled out smooth. This may be mosteasily accomplished by leaving the rear corner wall pins in the groundwith the wall loops attached, one man at each rear-corner guy, and oneholding the square iron in a perpendicular position and pulling thecanvas to its limit away from the former front of the tent. Thisleaves the three remaining sides of the tent on top of the rear side, with the door side in the middle. Now carry the right-front corner over and lay it on the left-rearcorner. Pull all canvas smooth, throw guys toward square iron, andpull bottom edges even. Then take the right-front corner and return tothe right, covering the right-rear corner. This folds the right sideof the tent on itself, with the crease in the middle and under thefront side of the tent. Next carry the left-front corner to the right and back as describedabove; this, when completed, will leave the front and rear sides ofthe tent lying smooth and flat and the two side walls folded inward, each on itself. Place the hood in the square iron which has been folded downwardtoward the bottom of tent, and continue to fold around the square ironas a core, pressing all folds down flat and smooth, and parallel withthe bottom of the tent. If each fold is compactly made and the canvaskept smooth, the last fold will exactly cover the lower edge of thecanvas. Lay all exposed guys along the folded canvas except the two onthe center-width, which should be pulled out and away from bottom edgeto their extreme length for tying. Now, beginning at one end, foldtoward the center on the first seam (that joining the first and secondwidths) and fold again toward the center so that the already foldedcanvas will come to within about three inches of the middle width. Then fold over to the opposite edge of middle width of canvas. Thenbegin folding from opposite end, folding the first width in half, thenmaking a second fold to come within about 4 or 5 inches of thatalready folded, turn this fold entirely over that already folded. Takethe exposed guys and draw them taut across each other, turn bundleover on the under guy, cross guys on top of bundle drawing tight. Turnbundle over on the crossed guys and tie lengthwise. When properly tied and pressed together this will make a package 11 by23 by 34 inches, requiring about 8, 855 cubic inches to store or pack. Stencil the organization designation on the lower half of the middlewidth of canvas in the back wall. (803) Warning Calls =692. First call, guard mounting, full dress, overcoats, drill, stable, water, = and =boots and saddles= precede the =assembly= by suchinterval as may be prescribed by the commanding officer. =Mess, church, and fatigue=, classed as service calls, may also beused as warning calls. =First call= is the first signal for formation for roll call and forall ceremonies except guard mounting. =Guard mounting= is the first signal for guard mounting. The field music assembles at =first call= and =guard mounting=. In a mixed command, =boots and saddles= is the signal to mountedtroops that their formation is to be mounted; for mounted guardmounting or mounted drill, it immediately follows the signal =guardmounting= or drill. When full dress or overcoats are to be worn, the =full dress= or=overcoat= call immediately follows =first call=, =guard mounting=, or=boots and saddles=. (804) Formation Calls =693. Assembly:= The signal for companies or details to fall in. =Adjutant's call:= The signal for companies to form battalion; alsofor the guard details to form for guard mounting on the camp orgarrison parade ground; it follows the =assembly= at such interval asmay be prescribed by the commanding officer. It is also used as a signal for the battalions to form regiment, following the first =adjutant's call= at such interval as thecommanding officer may prescribe. =To the color:= Is sounded when the color salutes. (805) Alarm Calls =694. Fire call:= The signal for the men to fall in, without arms, toextinguish fire. =To arms:= The signal for the men to fall in, under arms, on theircompany's parade grounds as quickly as possible. =To horse:= The signal for mounted men to proceed under arms to theirhorses, saddle, mount and assemble at a designated place as quickly aspossible. In extended order this signal is used to remount troops. (806) Service Calls =695. Tattoo, taps, mess, sick, church, recall, issue, officers', captains', first sergeants', fatigue, school=, and =the general=. =The general= is the signal for striking tents and loading wagonspreparatory to marching. =Reveille= precedes the =assembly= for roll call; =retreat= followsthe =assembly=, the interval between being only that required forformation and roll call, except when there is parade. =Taps= is the signal for extinguishing lights; it is usually precededby =call to quarters= by such interval as prescribed by ArmyRegulations. =Assembly, reveille, retreat, adjutant's call, to the color, theflourishes, ruffles=, and the =marches= are sounded by all the fieldmusic united; the other calls, as a rule, are sounded by the musicianof the guard or orderly musician; he may also sound the =assembly=when the musicians are not united. The morning gun is fired at the first note of =reveille=, or, ifmarches be played before =reveille=, it is fired at the commencementof the first march. The evening gun is fired at the last note of =retreat=. (807) APPENDIX A War Department, Office of the Chief of Staff, Washington, December 2, 1911. The Infantry Drill Regulations, 1911, have been prepared for the useof troops armed with the United States magazine rifle, model 1903. Forthe guidance of organizations armed with the United States magazinerifle, model 1898, the following alternative paragraphs are publishedand will be considered as substitute paragraphs for the correspondingparagraphs in the text: 75 (in part), 96, 98, 99, 134, 139, 141, 142, 148 and 150. By order of the Secretary of War: LEONARD WOOD, Major General, Chief of Staff. =Note. = The paragraph numbers 75, 96, 98, etc. , given above, followthe paragraphs below. =696. = * * * Third. The cut-off is kept turned down, except when using the magazine. (75) * * * * * =697. = Being at order arms: =1. Unfix, BAYONET. = If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Take the position ofparade rest, grasp the handle on the bayonet firmly with the righthand, press the spring with the forefinger of the left hand, raise thebayonet until the handle is about 6 inches above the muzzle of thepiece, drop the point to the left, back of hand toward the body, andglancing at the scabbard, return the bayonet, the blade passingbetween the left arm and body; regrasp the piece with the right handand resume the order. If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the haversack: Take the bayonetfrom the rifle with the left hand and return it to the scabbard in themost convenient manner. If marching or lying down, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed in themost expeditious and convenient manner and the piece returned to theoriginal position. Fix and unfix bayonet are executed with promptness and regularity, butnot in cadence. (96) =698. = Being at order arms: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS. = At the second command, take the position of port arms. (=TWO. =) Withthe right hand open the magazine gate, turn the bolt handle up, drawthe bolt back and glance at the magazine and chamber. Having foundthem empty, or having emptied them, raise the head and eyes to thefront. (98) =699. = Being at inspection arms: =1. Order (Right shoulder, port), 2. ARMS. = At the preparatory command, push the bolt forward, turn the handledown, close the magazine gate, pull the trigger, and resume port arms. At the command =arms=, complete the movement ordered. (99) =700. = Pieces being loaded and in the position of load, to executeother movements with the pieces loaded: =1. Lock, 2. PIECES. = At the command =pieces= turn the safety lock fully to the right. The safety lock is said to be at the "ready" when turned to the left, and at the "safe" when turned to the right. The cut-off is said to be "on" when turned up and "off" when turneddown. (134) =701. = Being in line or skirmish line at halt: =1. With dummy (blankor ball) cartridges, 2. LOAD. = At the command =load= each front-rank man or skirmisher faces halfright and carries the right foot to the right, about one foot, to suchposition as will insure the greatest firmness and steadiness of thebody; raises or lowers the piece and drops it into the left hand atthe balance, left thumb extended along the stock, muzzle at the heightof the breast. With the right hand he turns and draws the bolt back, takes a cartridge between the thumb and first two fingers and placesit in the receiver; places palm of the hand against the back of thebolt handle; thrusts the bolt home with a quick motion, turning downthe handle, and carries the hand to the small of the stock. Eachrear-rank man moves to the right front, takes a similar positionopposite the interval to the right of his front-rank man, muzzle ofthe piece extending beyond the front rank, and loads. A skirmish line may load while moving, the pieces being held as nearlyas practicable in the position of load. If kneeling or sitting, the position of the piece is similar; ifkneeling, the left forearm rests on the left thigh; if sitting, theelbows are supported by the knees. If lying down, the left handsteadies and supports the piece at the balance, the toe of the buttresting on the ground, the muzzle off the ground. For reference, these positions (standing, kneeling, and lying down)are designated as that of =load=. (139) =702. FILL MAGAZINE. = Take the position of load, if not already there, open the gate of themagazine with the right thumb, take five cartridges from the box orbelt, and place them, with the bullets to the front, in the magazine, turning the barrel slightly to the left to facilitate the insertion ofthe cartridges; close the gate and carry the right hand to the smallof the stock. To load from the magazine the command =from magazine= will be givenpreceding that of =load=; the =cut-off= will be turned up on coming tothe position of =load=. To resume loading from the belt the command from belt will be givenpreceding the command =load=; the =cut-off= will be turned down oncoming to the position of =load=. The commands =from magazine= and =from belt=, indicating the change inthe manner of loading, will not be repeated in subsequent commands. The words =from belt= apply to cartridge box as well as belt. In loading from the magazine care should be taken to push the boltfully forward and turn the handle down before drawing the bolt back, as otherwise the extractor will not catch the cartridge in thechamber, and jamming will occur with the cartridge following. To fire from the magazine, the command =magazine fire= may be given atany time. The cut-off is turned up and an increased rate of fire isexecuted. After the magazine is exhausted the cut-off is turned downand the firing continued, loading from the belt. =Magazine fire= is employed only when, in the opinion of the platoonleader or company commander, the maximum rate of fire becomesnecessary. (141) =703. UNLOAD. = All take the position of load, turn the =cut-off= up, if not alreadythere, turn the safety lock to the left, and alternately open andclose the chamber until all the cartridges are ejected. After the lastcartridge is ejected the chamber is closed and the trigger pulled. Thecartridges are then picked up, cleaned, and returned to the box orbelt, and the piece brought to the order. (142) =704. CLIP FIRE. = Turn the cut-off up; =fire at will= (reloading from the magazine)until the cartridges in the piece are exhausted; turn the cut-offdown; fill magazine; reload and take the position of =suspend firing=. (148) =705. CEASE FIRING. = Firing stops; pieces not already there are brought to the position ofload, the cut-off turned down if firing from magazine, the cartridgeis drawn or the empty shell is ejected, the trigger is pulled, sightsare laid down, and the piece is brought to the order. =Cease firing= is used for long pauses to prepare for changes ofposition or to steady the men. (150) APPENDIX B War Department, Office of the Chief of Staff, Washington, December 2, 1911. Paragraphs 747, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, and 798, Infantry DrillRegulations, 1911, apply only to troops equipped with the InfantryEquipment, model 1910. For troops equipped under General Orders, No. 23, War Department, 1906, and orders amendatory thereof, thealternative paragraphs published herewith will govern. By order of the Secretary of War: LEONARD WOOD, Major General, Chief of Staff. Note. The paragraph numbers 747, 792, etc. , given above, follow theparagraphs below. =706. = If the inspection is to include an examination of the blanketrolls, the captain, before dismissing the company and afterinspecting the file closers, directs the lieutenants to remain inplace, closes ranks, stacks arms, dresses the company back to fourpaces from the stacks, takes intervals, and commands: =1. Unsling, 2. PACKS, 3. Open, 4. PACKS. = At the second command, each man unslings his roll and places it on theground at his feet, rounded end to the front, square end of shelterhalf to the right. At the fourth command, the rolls are untied, laid perpendicular to thefront with the triangular end of the shelter half to the front, opened, and unrolled to the left; each man prepares the contents ofhis roll for inspection and resumes the attention. The captain then returns saber, passes along the ranks and fileclosers as before, inspects the rolls, returns to the right, drawssaber and commands: =1. Close, 2. PACKS. = At the second command each man, with his shelter half smoothly spreadon the ground with buttons up and triangular end to the front, foldshis blanket once across its length and places it upon the shelterhalf, fold toward the bottom edge one-half inch from the square end, the same amount of canvas uncovered at the top and bottom. He thenplaces the parts of the pole on the side of the blanket next thesquare end of shelter half, near and parallel to the fold, end of poleabout 6 inches from the edge of the blanket; nests the pins similarlynear the opposite edge of the blanket and distributes the otherarticles carried in the roll; folds the triangular end and then theexposed portion of the bottom of the shelter half over the blanket. The two men in each file roll and fasten first the roll of the frontand then of the rear rank man. The file closers work similarly two andtwo, or with the front rank man of a blank file. Each pair stands onthe folded side, rolls the blanket roll closely and buckles thestraps, passing the end of the strap through both keeper and buckle, back over the buckle and under the keeper. With the roll so lying onthe ground that the edge of the shelter half can just be seen whenlooking vertically downward, one end is bent upward and over to meetthe other, a clove hitch is taken with the guy rope first around theend to which it is attached and then around the other end, adjustingthe length of rope between hitches to suit the wearer. As soon as a file completes its two rolls each man places his roll inthe position it was in after being unslung and stands at attention. All the rolls being completed, the captain commands: =1. Sling, 2. PACKS. = At the second command the rolls are slung, the end containing the poleto the rear. The company is assembled, takes arms, and the captain completes theinspection as before. (747) =707. = Being in line or in column of platoons, the captain commands:=FORM FOR SHELTER TENTS. = The officers, first sergeant, and guides fall out; the cooks form afile on the flank of the company nearest the kitchen, the firstsergeant and right guide fall in, forming the right file of thecompany; blank files are filled by the file closers or by men takenfrom the front rank; the remaining guide or guides, and file closersform on a convenient flank. Before forming column of platoons, preparatory to pitching tents, thecompany may be redivided into two or more platoons, regardless of thesize of each. (792) =708. = The captain then causes the company to take intervals asdescribed in the School of the Squad, and commands: =PITCH TENTS. = At the command =pitch tents=, each man steps off obliquely to theright with the right foot and lays his rifle on the ground, the buttof the rifle near the toe of the right foot, muzzle to the front, barrel to the left, and steps back into his place; each front-rank manthen draws his bayonet and sticks it in the ground by the outside ofthe right heel. All unsling and open the blanket rolls and take outthe shelter half, poles, and pins. Each then spreads his shelter half, triangle to the rear, flat upon the ground the tent is to occupy, rear-rank man's half on the right. The halves are then buttonedtogether. Each front-rank man joins his pole, inserts the top in theeyes of the halves, and holds the pole upright beside the bayonetplaced in the ground; his rear-rank man, using the pins in front, pinsdown the front corners of the tent on the line of bayonets, stretchingthe canvas taut; he then inserts a pin in the eye of the rope anddrives the pin at such distance in front of the pole as to hold therope taut. Both then go to the rear of the tent; the rear-rank manadjusts the pole and the front-rank man drives the pins. The rest ofthe pins are then driven by both men, the rear-rank man working on theright. As soon as the tent is pitched each man arranges the contents of theblanket roll in the tent and stands at attention in front of his ownhalf on line with the front guy rope pin. The guy ropes, to have a uniform slope when the shelter tents arepitched, should all be of the same length. (793) =709. = When the blanket roll is not carried, intervals are taken asdescribed above; the position of the front pole is marked with abayonet and equipments are laid aside. The men then proceed to thewagon, secure their rolls, return to their places, and pitch tents asheretofore described. (794) =710. = To pitch double shelter tent, the captain gives the samecommands as before, except =Take half interval= is given instead of=Take interval=. In taking interval, each man follows the precedingman at 2 paces. The captain then commands: =PITCH DOUBLE TENTS. = The first sergeant places himself on the right of the right guide andwith him pitches a single shelter tent. Only the odd numbers of the front rank mark the line with the bayonet. The tent is formed by buttoning together the square ends of two singletents. Two complete tents, except one pole, are used. Two guy ropesare used at each end, the guy pins being placed in front of the cornerpins. The tents are pitched by numbers 1 and 2, front and rear rank; and bynumbers 3 and 4, front and rear rank; the men falling in on the leftare numbered, counting off if necessary. All the men spread their shelter halves on the ground the tent is tooccupy. Those of the front rank are placed with the triangular ends tothe front. All four halves are then buttoned together, first theridges and then the square ends. The front corners of the tent arepinned by the front-rank men, the odd number holding the poles, theeven number driving the pins. The rear-rank men similarly pin the rearcorners. While the odd numbers steady the poles, each even number of the frontrank takes his pole and enters the tent, where, assisted by the evennumber of the rear rank, he adjusts the pole to the center eyes of theshelter halves in the following order: (1) The lower half of the fronttent; (2) the lower half of the rear tent; (3) the upper half of thefront tent; (4) the upper half of the rear tent. The guy ropes arethen adjusted. The tents having been pitched, the triangular ends are turned back, contents of the rolls arranged, and the men stand at =attention=, eachopposite his own shelter half and facing out from the tent. (795) FOOTNOTES: [1] No. 1 of the first squad. [2] Ordinarily about 20 yards wide. [3] By Fire Direction is meant prescribing and generally directing thefiring. --Author. [4] The "pack" includes blanket, poncho, and shelter tent. [5] With a 4-foot white and red regimental signal flag. CHAPTER II MANUAL OF THE BAYONET (The numbers following the paragraphs are those of the Manual of the Bayonet, U. S. Army. ) =711. = The infantry soldier relies mainly on fire action to disablethe enemy, but he should know that personal combat is often necessaryto obtain success. Therefore, he must be instructed in the use of therifle and bayonet in hand-to-hand encounters. (1) =712. = The object of this instruction is to teach the soldier how tomake effective use of the rifle and bayonet in personal combat; tomake him quick and proficient in handling his rifle; to give him anaccurate eye and a steady hand; and to give him confidence in thebayonet in offense and defense. When skill in these exercises has beenacquired, the rifle will still remain a most formidable weapon atclose quarters should the bayonet be lost or disabled. (2) =713. = Efficiency of organizations in bayonet fighting will be judgedby the skill shown by individuals in personal combat. For this purposepairs or groups of opponents, selected at random from among recruitsand trained soldiers, should engage in assaults, using the fencingequipment provided for the purpose. (3) =714. = Officers and specially selected and thoroughly instructednoncommissioned officers will act as instructors. (4) =715. = Instruction in bayonet combat should begin as soon as thesoldier is familiar with the handling of his rifle and will progress, as far as practicable, in the order followed in the text. (5) =716. = Instruction is ordinarily given on even ground, but practiceshould also be had on uneven ground, especially in the attack anddefense of intrenchments. (6) =717. = These exercises will not be used as a calisthenic drill. (7) =718. = The principles of the commands are the same as those given inparagraphs 58, 64, and 87. Intervals and distances will be taken as inparagraphs 156 and 158, except that, in formations for bayonetexercises, the men should be at least four paces apart in everydirection. (8) =719. = Before requiring soldiers to take a position or execute amovement for the first time, the instructor executes the same for thepurpose of illustration, after which he requires the soldiers toexecute the movement individually. Movements prescribed in this manualwill not be executed in cadence as the attempt to do so results inincomplete execution and lack of vigor. Each movement will be executedcorrectly as quickly as possible by every man. As soon as themovements are executed accurately, the commands are given rapidly, asexpertness with the bayonet depends chiefly upon quickness of motion. (9) =720. = The exercises will be interrupted at first by short andfrequent rests. The rests will be less frequent as proficiency isattained. Fatigue and exhaustion will be specially guarded against asthey prevent proper interest being taken in the exercises and delaythe progress of the instruction. Rests will be given from the positionof order arms in the manner prescribed in Infantry Drill Regulations. (10) THE BAYONET NOMENCLATURE AND DESCRIPTION =721. = The bayonet is a cutting and thrusting weapon consisting ofthree principal parts, viz, the blade, guard, and grip. (11) [Illustration: Fig. 1] =722. = The blade has the following parts: Edge, false edge, back, grooves, point, and tang. The length of the blade from guard to pointis 16 inches, the edge 14. 5 inches, and the false edge 5. 6 inches. Length of the rifle, bayonet fixed, is 59. 4 inches. The weight of thebayonet is 1 pound; weight of rifle without bayonet is 8. 69 pounds. The center of gravity of the rifle, with bayonet fixed, is just infront of the rear sight. (12) I. INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE RIFLE =723. = The instructor explains the importance of good footwork andimpresses on the men the fact that quickness of foot and suppleness ofbody are as important for attack and defense as is the ability toparry and deliver a strong point or cut. (13) =724. = All foot movements should be made from the position of _guard_. As far as practicable, they will be made on the balls of the feet toinsure quickness and agility. No hard and fast rule can be laid downas to the length of the various foot movements; this depends entirelyon the situations occurring in combat. (14) =725. = The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructorcommands: =1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD. = At the command =guard=, half face to the right, carry back and placethe right foot about once and a half its length to the rear and about3 inches to the right, the feet forming with each other an angle ofabout 60°, weight of the body balanced equally on the balls of thefeet, knees slightly bent, palms of hands on hips, fingers to thefront, thumbs to the rear, head erect, head and eyes straight to thefront. (15) =726. = To resume the attention, =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. = The men takethe position of the soldier and fix their attention. (16) =727. ADVANCE. = Advance the left foot quickly about once its lengthfollow immediately with the right foot the same distance. (17) =728. RETIRE. = Move the right foot quickly to the rear about once itslength, follow immediately with the left foot the same distance. (18) =729. 1. Front, 2. PASS. = Place the right foot quickly about once itslength in front of the left, advance the left foot to its properposition in front of the right. (19) =730. 1. Rear, 2. PASS. = Place the left foot quickly about once itslength in rear of the right, retire the right foot to its properposition in rear of the left. The passes are used to get quickly within striking distance or towithdraw quickly therefrom. (20) =731. 1. Right, 2. STEP. = Step to the right with the right foot aboutonce its length and place the left foot in its proper relativeposition. (21) =732. 1. Left, 2. STEP. = Step to the left with the left foot aboutonce its length and place the right foot in its proper relativeposition. These steps are used to circle around an enemy, to secure a morefavorable line of attack, or to avoid the opponent's attack. Betterground or more favorable light may be gained in this way. In bayonetfencing and in actual combat the foot first moved in stepping to theright or left is the one which at the moment bears the least weight. (22) II. INSTRUCTION WITH THE RIFLE =733. = The commands for and the execution of the foot movements arethe same as already given for movements without the rifle. (23) =734. = The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructorcommands: =1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD. = At the second command take the position of guard (see par. 15); at thesame time throw the rifle smartly to the front, grasp the rifle withthe left hand just below the lower band, fingers between the stock andgun sling, barrel turned slightly to the left, the right hand graspingthe small of the stock about 6 inches in front of the right hip, elbows free from the body, bayonet point at the height of the chin. (24) (See Fig. 2) =735. 1. Order, 2. ARMS. = Bring the right foot up to the left and the rifle to the position oforder arms, at the same time resuming the position of attention. (25) =736. = During the preliminary instruction, attacks and defenses willbe executed from guard until proficiency is attained, after which theymay be executed from any position in which the rifle is held. (26) ATTACKS =737. 1. THRUST. = Thrust the rifle quickly forward to the full length of the left arm, turning the barrel to the left, and direct the point of the bayonetat the point to be attacked, butt covering the right forearm. At thesame time straighten the right leg vigorously and throw the weight ofthe body forward and on the left leg, the ball of the right footalways on the ground. Guard is resumed immediately without command. [Illustration: Fig. 2] [Illustration: Fig. 3] The force of the thrust is delivered principally with the right arm, the left being used to direct the bayonet. The points at which theattack should be directed are, in order of their importance, stomach, chest, head, neck, and limbs. (27) =738. 1. LUNGE. = Executed in the same manner as the thrust, except that the left footis carried forward about twice its length. The left heel must alwaysbe in rear of the left knee. Guard is resumed immediately withoutcommand. Guard may also be resumed by advancing the right foot if, forany reason, it is desired to hold the ground gained in lunging. In thelatter case, the preparatory command =forward= will be given. Eachmethod should be practiced. (28) =739. 1. Butt, 2. STRIKE. = Straighten right arm and right leg vigorously and swing butt of rifleagainst point of attack, pivoting the rifle in the left hand at aboutthe height of the left shoulder, allowing the bayonet to pass to therear on the left side of the head. Guard is resumed without command. The points of attack in their order of importance are, head, neck, stomach, and crotch. (29) [Illustration: Fig. 4] [Illustration: Fig. 5] =740. 1. Cut, 2. DOWN. = Execute a quick downward stroke, edge of bayonet directed at point ofattack. Guard is resumed without command. (30) =741. 1. Cut, 2. RIGHT (LEFT). = With a quick extension of the arms execute a cut to the right (left), directing the edge toward the point attacked. Guard is resumed withoutcommand. The cuts are especially useful against the head, neck, and hands of anenemy. In executing left cut it should be remembered that the false, or back edge, is only 5. 6 inches long. The cuts can be executed incontinuation of strokes, thrusts, lunges, and parries. (31) =742. = To direct an attack to the right, left, or rear the soldierwill change front as quickly as possible in the most convenientmanner, for example: =1. To the right rear, 2. Cut, 3. DOWN;= =1. Tothe right, 2. LUNGE;= =1. To the left, 2. THRUST=, etc. Whenever possible the impetus gained by the turning movement of thebody should be thrown into the attack. In general this will be bestaccomplished by turning on the ball of the right foot. These movements constitute a change of front in which the position ofguard is resumed at the completion of the movement. (32) =743. = Good judgment of distance is essential. Accuracy in thrustingand lunging is best attained by practicing these attacks against ringsor other convenient openings, about 3 inches in diameter, suitablysuspended at desired heights. (33) [Illustration: Fig. 6. ] =744. = The thrust and lunges at rings should first be practiced byendeavoring to hit the opening looked at. This should be followed bydirecting the attack against one opening while looking at another. (34) =745. = The soldier should also experience the effect of actualresistance offered to the bayonet and the butt of the rifle inattacks. This will be taught by practicing attacks against a dummy. (35) =746. = Dummies should be constructed in such a manner as to permit theexecution of attacks without injury to the point or edge of thebayonet or to the barrel or stock of the rifle. A suitable dummy canbe made from pieces of rope about 5 feet in length plaited closelytogether into a cable between 6 and 12 inches in diameter. Old rope ispreferable. Bags weighted and stuffed with hay, straw, shavings, etc. , are also suitable. (36) [Illustration: Fig. 7. ] DEFENSES =747. = In the preliminary drills in the defenses the position of guardis resumed, by command, after each parry. When the men have becomeproficient, the instructor will cause them to resume the position ofguard instantly without command after the execution of each parry. (37) =748. 1. Parry, 2. RIGHT. = Keeping the right hand in the guard position, move the rifle sharplyto the right with the left arm, so that the bayonet point is about 6inches to the right. (38) =749. 1. Parry, 2. LEFT. = Move the rifle sharply to the left front with both hands so as tocover the point attacked. (39) =750. 1. Parry, 2. HIGH. = Raise the rifle with both hands high enough to clear the line ofvision, barrel downward, point of the bayonet to the left front. When necessary to raise the rifle well above the head, it may besupported between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. Thisposition will be necessary against attacks from higher elevations, such, as men mounted or on top of parapets. (40) [Illustration: Fig. 8] [Illustration: Fig. 9] =751. 1. Low parry, 2. RIGHT (LEFT). = Carry the point of the bayonet down until it is at the height of theknee, moving the point of the bayonet sufficiently to the right (left)to keep the opponent's attacks clear of the point threatened. =752. = These parries are rarely used, as an attack below the waistleaves the head and body exposed. (41) [Illustration: Fig. 10] [Illustration: Fig. 11] =753. = Parries must not be too wide or sweeping, but sharp, shortmotions, finished with a jerk or quick catch. The hands should, as faras possible, be kept in the line of attack. Parries against =buttstrike= are made by quickly moving the guard so as to cover the pointattacked. (42) =754. = To provide against attack from the right, left, or rear thesoldier will change front as quickly as possible in the mostconvenient manner, for example, =1. To the left rear, 2. Parry, 3. HIGH;= =1. To the right, 2. Parry, 3. RIGHT=, etc. These movements constitute a change of front in which the position ofguard is resumed at the completion of the movement. In changing front for the purpose of attack or defense, if there isdanger of wounding a comrade, the rifle should first be brought to avertical position. (43) III. INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE BAYONET =755. 1. Club rifle, 2 SWING. = Being at order arms at the preparatory command quickly raise and turnthe rifle, regrasping it with both hands between the rear sight andmuzzle, barrel down, thumbs around the stock and toward the butt; atthe sane time raise the rifle above shoulder farthest from theopponent, butt elevated and to the rear, elbows slightly bent andknees straight. Each individual takes such position of the feet, shoulders, and hands as best accords with his natural dexterity. =SWING. = Tighten the grasp of the hands and swing the rifle to thefront and downward, directing it at the head of the opponent andimmediately return to the position of =club rifle= by completing theswing of the rifle downward and to the rear. Repeat by the command. =SWING. = The rifle should be swung with sufficient force to break through anyguard or parry that may be interposed. Being at =club rifle=, order arms is resumed by command. The use of this attack against dummies or in fencing is prohibited. (44) [Illustration: Fig. 12] =756. = The position of club rifle may be taken from any position ofthe rifle prescribed in the Manual of Arms. It will not be taken inpersonal combat unless the emergency is such as to preclude the use ofthe bayonet. (45) IV. COMBINED MOVEMENTS =757. = The purpose of combined movements is to develop more vigorousattacks and more effective defenses than are obtained by the singlemovements; to develop skill in passing from attack to defense and thereverse. Every movement to the front should be accompanied by anattack, which is increased in effectiveness by the forward movement ofthe body. Every movement to the rear should ordinarily be accompaniedby a parry and should always be followed by an attack. Movements tothe right or left may be accompanied by =attacks= or =defenses=. (46) =758. = Not more than three movements will be used in any combination. The instructor should first indicate the number of movements that areto be combined as =two movements= or =three movements=. The executionis determined by one command of execution, and the position of guardis taken upon the completion of the last movement only. EXAMPLES =Front pass and LUNGE. = =Right step and THRUST. = =Left step and low parry RIGHT. = =Rear pass, parry left and LUNGE. = =Lunge and cut RIGHT. = =Parry right and parry HIGH. = =Butt strike and cut DOWN. = =Thrust and parry HIGH. = =Parry high and LUNGE. = =Advance, thrust and cut RIGHT. = =Right step, parry left and cut DOWN. = =To the left, butt strike and cut DOWN. = =To the right rear, cut down and butt STRIKE. = (47) =759. = Attacks against dummies will be practiced. The approach will bemade against the dummies both in quick time and double time. (48) V. PRACTICAL BAYONET COMBAT =760. = The principles of practical bayonet combat should be taught asfar as possible during the progress of instruction in bayonetexercises. (49) =761. = The soldier must be continually impressed with the extremeimportance of the offensive due to its moral effect. Should an attackfail, it should be followed immediately by another attack before theopponent has an opportunity to assume the offensive. Keep the opponenton the defensive. If, due to circumstances, it is necessary to takethe defensive, constantly watch for an opportunity to assume theoffensive and take immediate advantage of it. (50) =762. = Observe the ground with a view to obtaining the best footing. Time for this will generally be too limited to permit more than asingle hasty glance. (51) =763. = In personal combat watch the opponent's eyes if they can beplainly seen, and do not fix the eyes on his weapon nor upon thepoint of your attack. If his eyes can not be plainly seen, as innight attacks, watch the movements of his weapon and of his body. (52) =764. = Keep the body well covered and deliver attacks vigorously. Thepoint of the bayonet should always be kept as nearly as possible inthe line of attack. The less the rifle is moved upward, downward, tothe right, or to the left, the better prepared the soldier is forattack or defense. (53) =765. = Constantly watch for a chance to attack the opponent's lefthand. His position of guard will not differ materially from thatdescribed in paragraph 24. If his bayonet is without a cutting edge, he will be at a great disadvantage. (34) =766. = The butt is used for close and sudden attacks. It isparticularly useful in riot duty. From the position of port arms asentry can strike a severe blow with the butt of the rifle. (55) =767. = Against a man on foot, armed with a sword, be careful that themuzzle of the rifle is not grasped. All the swordsman's energies willbe directed toward getting past the bayonet. Attack him with shortstabbing thrusts, and keep him beyond striking distance of his weapon. (56) =768. = The adversary may attempt a greater extension in the thrust andlunge by quitting the grasp of his piece with the left hand andadvancing the right as far as possible. When this is done, a sharpparry may cause him to lose control of his rifle, leaving him exposedto a counter-attack, which should follow promptly. (57) =769. = Against odds a small number of men can fight to best advantageby grouping themselves so as to prevent their being attacked frombehind. (58) =770. = In fighting a mounted man armed with a saber every effort mustbe made to get on his near or left side, because here his reach ismuch shorter and his parries much weaker. If not possible to disablesuch an enemy, attack his horse and then renew the attack on thehorseman. (59) =771. = In receiving night attacks the assailant's movements can bebest observed from the kneeling or prone position, as his approachgenerally brings him against the sky line. When he arrives withinattacking distance rise quickly and lunge well forward at the middleof his body. (60) VI. FENCING EXERCISES =772. = Fencing exercises in two lines consist of combinations ofthrusts, parries, and foot movements executed at command or at will, the opponent replying with suitable parries and returns. (61) =773. = The instructor will inspect the entire fencing equipment beforethe exercise begins and assure himself that everything is in suchcondition as will prevent accidents. (62) =774. = The men equip themselves and form in two lines at the order, facing each other, with intervals of about 4 paces between files and adistance of about 2 paces between lines. One line is designated asnumber 1; the other, number 2. Also as attack and defense. (63) =775. = The opponents being at the order facing each other, theinstructor commands: =SALUTE. = Each man, with eyes on his opponent, carries the left hand smartly tothe right side, palm of the hand down, thumb and fingers extended andjoined, forearm horizontal, forefinger touching the bayonet. (Two)Drop the arm smartly by the side. This salute is the fencing salute. All fencing exercises and all fencing at will between individuals willbegin and terminate with the formal courtesy of the fencing salute. (64) =776. = After the fencing salute has been rendered the instructorcommands: =1. Fencing exercise, 2. GUARD. = At the command =guard= each man comes to the position of =guard=, heretofore defined, bayonets crossed, each man's bayonet bearinglightly to the right against the corresponding portion of theopponent's bayonet. The position is known as the engage or engageright. (65) =777. = Being at the =engage right: ENGAGE LEFT=. The attack drops the point of his bayonet quickly until clear of hisopponent's rifle and describes a semicircle with it upward and to theright; bayonets are crossed similarly as in the engaged position, eachman's bayonet bearing lightly to the left against the correspondingportion of the opponent's bayonet. (66) =778. = Being at =engage left: ENGAGE RIGHT=. The attack quickly drops the point of his bayonet until clear of hisopponent's rifle and describes a semicircle with it upward and to theleft and =engages=. (67) =779. = Being =engaged: ENGAGE LEFT AND RIGHT=. The attack =engages left= and then immediately =engages right=. (68) =780. = Being =engaged left: ENGAGE RIGHT AND LEFT=. The attack =engages right= and then immediately =engages left=. (69) =781. 1. Number one, ENGAGE RIGHT (LEFT); 2. Number two, COUNTER. = Number one executes the movement ordered, as above; number two quicklydrops the point of his bayonet and circles it upward to the originalposition. (70) =782. = In all fencing while maintaining the pressure in the engage, acertain freedom of motion of the rifle is allowable, consisting of theplay, or up-and-down motion, of one bayonet against the other. This isnecessary to prevent the opponent from divining the intended attack. It also prevents his using the point of contact as a pivot for hisassaults. In changing from one engage to the other the movement iscontrolled by the left hand, the right remaining stationary. (71) =783. = After some exercise in =engage=, =engage left=, and =counter=, exercises will be given in the =assaults=. (72) ASSAULTS =784. = The part of the body to be attacked will be designated by nameas head, neck, chest, stomach, legs. No attacks will be made below theknees. The commands are given and the movements for each line arefirst explained thoroughly by the instructor; the execution begins atthe command =assault=. Number one executes the attack, and number twoparries; conversely, at command, number two attacks and number oneparries. (73) =785. = For convenience in instruction assaults are divided into=simple attacks=, =counter-attacks=, =attack on the rifle=, and=feints=. (74) SIMPLE ATTACKS =786. = Success in these attacks depends on quickness of movement. There are three simple attacks--the =straight=, the =disengagement=, and the =counter disengagement=. They are not preceded by a feint. (75) =787. = In the =straight= the bayonet is directed straight at anopening from the engaged position. Contact with the opponent's riflemay, or may not, be abandoned while making it. If the opening be highor low, contact with the rifle will usually be abandoned on commencingthe attack. If the opening be near his guard, the light pressure usedin the engage may be continued in the attack. Example: Being at the =engage right=, =1. Number one=, at neck (head, chest, right leg, etc. ), =thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 3. ASSAULT. = (76) =788. = In the =disengagement= contact with the opponent's rifle isabandoned and the point of the bayonet is =circled under= or =over=his bayonet or rifle and directed into the opening attacked. Thisattack is delivered by one continuous spiral movement of the bayonetfrom the moment contact is abandoned. Example: Being at the =engage right=, =1. Number one=, at stomach(left chest, left leg, etc. ), =thrust, 2. Number two, parry left=(etc. ); =3. ASSAULT. = (77) =789. = In the =counter disengagement= a swift attack is made into theopening disclosed while the opponent is attempting to change theengagement of his rifle. It is delivered by one continuous spiralmovement of the bayonet into the opening. Example: Being at the =engage right=, =1. Number two, engage left; 2. Number one=, at chest, =thrust; 3. Number two, parry left; 4. ASSAULT. = Number two initiates the movement, number one thrusts as soon as theopening is made, and number two then attempts to parry. (78) =790. = A =counter-attack= or =return= is one made instantly after orin continuation of a parry. The parry should be as narrow as possible. This makes it more difficult for the opponent to recover and counterparry. The counter-attack should also be made at, or just before, thefull extension of the opponent's attack, as when it is so made, asimple extension of the arms will generally be sufficient to reach theopponent's body. Example: Being at =engage=, =1. Number two=, at chest, =lunge; 2. Number one, parry right=, and at stomach (chest, head, etc. ), =thrust;3. ASSAULT. = (79) ATTACKS ON THE RIFLE =791. = These movements are made for the purpose of forcing ordisclosing an opening into which an attack can be made. They are the=press=, the =beat=, and the =twist=. (80) =792. = In the =press= the attack quickly presses against theopponent's bayonet or rifle with his own and continues the pressure asthe attack is delivered. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, press=, and at chest, =thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 3. ASSAULT. = (81) =793. = The attack by =disengagement= is particularly effectivefollowing =the press=. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, press=, and atstomach, =thrust; 2. Number two, low parry left; 3. ASSAULT. = (82) =794. = The =beat= is an attack in which a sharp blow struck againstthe opponent's rifle for the purpose of forcing him to expose anopening into which an attack immediately follows. It is used whenthere is but slight opposition or no contact of rifles. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, beat= and at stomach(chest, etc. ), =thrust; 2. Number two, parry left; 3. ASSAULT. = (83) =795. = In the =twist= the rifle is crossed over the opponent's rifleor bayonet and his bayonet forced downward with a circular motion anda straight attack made into the opening. It requires superior strengthon the part of the attack. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, twist=, and atstomach, =thrust; 2. Number two, low parry, left; 3. ASSAULT. = (84) FEINTS =796. = Feints are movements which threaten or simulate attacks and aremade with a view to inducing an opening or parry that exposes thedesired point of attack. They are either single or double, accordingto the number of such movements made by the attack. (85) =797. = In order that the attack may be changed quickly, as littleforce as possible is put into a feint. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, feint= head =thrust=at stomach, =lunge; 2. Number two, parry right and low parry right; 3. ASSAULT. = Number one executes the feint and then the attack. Number two executesboth parries. (86) =798. = In double feints first one part of the body and then another isthreatened and a third attacked. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, feint straight thrust=at chest; =disengagement= at chest; at stomach, =lunge; 2. Number two, parry right, parry left, = and =low parry left; 3. ASSAULT. = (87) =799. = An opening may be offered or procured by opposition, as in the=press= or =beat=. (88) =800. = In fencing exercises every feint should at first be parried. When the defense is able to judge or divine the character of theattack the feint is not necessarily parried, but may be nullified by acounter feint. (89) =801. = A =counter feint= is a feint following the opponent's feint orfollowing a parry of his attack and generally occurs in combinedmovements. (90) COMBINED MOVEMENTS =802. = When the men have become thoroughly familiar with the variousfoot movements, parries, guards, attacks, feints, etc. , the instructorcombines several of them and gives the commands in quick succession, increasing the rapidity and number of movements as the men become moreskillful. Opponents will be changed frequently. 1. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, by disengagement=at chest, =thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, right step= (left footfirst), and =lunge; 3. ASSAULT. = 2. Example: Being at =engage left=, =1. Number one, press and lunge;2. Number two, parry right, left step, = and =thrust; 3. ASSAULT. = 3. Example: Being at the =engage=, =1. Number one, by disengagement=at chest, =thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, front pass=, and at head=butt strike; 3. Number one, right step; 4. ASSAULT. = (91) =803. = Examples 1 and 2 are typical of movements known as =crosscounters=, and example No. 3 of movements known as =close counters=. (92) =804. = A =chancery= is an attack by means of which the opponent isdisarmed, which causes him to lose control of his rifle, or whichdisables his weapon. (93) =805. = When the different combinations are executed with sufficientskill the instructor will devise series of movements to be memorizedand executed at the command assault. The accuracy and celerity of themovements will be carefully watched by the instructor, with a view tothe correction of faulty execution. (94) =806. = It is not intended to restrict the number of movements, but toleave to the discretion of company commanders and the ingenuity ofinstructors the selection of such other exercises as accord with theobject of the drill. (95) VII. FENCING AT WILL =807. = As satisfactory progress is made the instructor will proceed tothe exercises at will, by which is meant assaults between two men, each endeavoring to hit the other and to avoid being hit himself. Fencing at will should not be allowed to degenerate into randomattacks and defenses. (96) =808. = The instructor can supervise but one pair of combatants at atime. Frequent changes should be made so that the men may learndifferent methods of attack and defense from each other. (97) =809. = The contest should begin with simple, careful movements, with aview to forming a correct opinion of the adversary; afterwardseverything will depend on coolness, rapid and correct execution of themovements and quick perception of the adversary's intentions. (98) =810. = Continual retreat from the adversary's attack and frequentdodging to escape attacks should be avoided. The offensive should becontinually encouraged. (99) =811. = In fencing at will, when no commands are given, opponentsfacing each other at the position of order arms, salute. They thenimmediately and simultaneously assume the position of guard, riflesengaged. Neither man may take the position of guard before hisopponent has completed his salute. The choice of position is decidedbefore the salute. (100) =812. = The opponents being about two paces apart and the fencingsalute having been rendered, the instructor commands, =1. At will, 2. ASSAULT=, after which either party has the right to attack. Tointerrupt the contest the instructor will command =HALT=, at which thecombatants will immediately come to the order. To terminate thecontest the instructor will command, =1. Halt, 2. SALUTE=, at whichthe combatants will immediately come to the order, salute, and removetheir masks. (101) =813. = When men have acquired confidence in fencing at will, oneopponent should be required to advance upon the other in quick time at=charge bayonet=, from a distance not to exceed 10 yards, and deliveran attack. As soon as a hit is made by either opponent the instructorcommands, =HALT=, and the assault terminates. Opponents alternate inassaulting. The assailant is likewise required to advance at doubletime from a distance not exceeding 20 yards and at a run from adistance not exceeding 30 yards. (102) =814. = The instructor will closely observe the contest and decidedoubtful points. He will at once stop the contest upon the slightestindication of temper. After conclusion of the combat he will commenton the action of both parties, point out errors and deficiencies andexplain how they may be avoided in the future. (103) [Illustration: Fig. 13] =815. = As additional instruction, the men may be permitted to wieldthe rifle left handed, that is on the left side of the body, left handat the small of the stock. Many men will be able to use this methodto advantage. It is also of value in case the left hand is wounded. (104) =816. = After men have fenced in pairs, practice should be given infencing between groups, equally and unequally divided. Whenpracticable, intrenchments will be used in fencing of this character. In group fencing it will be necessary to have a sufficient number ofumpires to decide hits. An individual receiving a hit is withdrawn atonce from the bout, which is decided in favor of the group having thenumerical superiority at the end. The fencing salute is not requiredin group fencing. (105) RULES FOR FENCING AT WILL =817. = 1. Hits on the legs below the knees will not be counted. No hitcounts unless, in the opinion of the instructor, it has sufficientforce to disable. 2. Upon receiving a hit, call out "hit. " 3. After receiving a fair hit a counter-attack is not permitted. Aposition of engage is taken. 4. A second or third hit in a combined attack will be counted onlywhen the first hit was not called. 5. When it is necessary to stop the contest--for example, because ofbreaking of weapons or displacement of means of protection--take theposition of the order. 6. When it is necessary to suspend the assault for any cause, it willnot be resumed until the adversary is ready and in condition to defendhimself. 7. Attacks directed at the crotch are prohibited in fencing. 8. Stepping out of bounds, when established, counts as a hit. (106) SUGGESTIONS FOR FENCING AT WILL =818. = When engaging in an assault, first study the adversary'sposition and proceed by false attacks, executed with speed, todiscover, if possible, his instinctive parries. In order to draw theadversary out and induce him to expose that part of the body at whichthe attack is to be made, it is advisable to simulate an attack by afeint and then make the real attack. (107) =819. = Return attacks should be frequently practiced, as they aredifficult to parry, and the opponent is within easier reach and moreexposed. The return can be made a continuation of the parry, as thereis no previous warning of its delivery, although it should always beexpected. Returns are made without lunging if the adversary can bereached by thrusts or cuts. (108) =820. = Endeavor to overcome the tendency to make a return withoutknowing where it will hit. Making returns blindly is a bad habit andleads to instinctive returns--that is, habitual returns with certainattacks from certain parries--a fault which the skilled opponent willsoon discover. (109) =821. = Do not draw the rifle back preparatory to thrusting and lunging(110) =822. = The purpose of fencing at will is to teach the soldier as manyforms of simple, effective attacks and defenses as possible. Complicated and intricate movements should not be attempted. (111) HINTS FOR INSTRUCTORS =823. = The influence of the instructor is great. He must be master ofhis weapon, not only to show the various movements, but also to leadin the exercises at will. He should stimulate the zeal of the men andarouse pleasure in the work. Officers should qualify themselves asinstructors by fencing with each other. (112) LESSONS OF THE EUROPEAN WAR =824. Modification of our system of bayonet combat suggested. = Theabove gives, in toto, the system of bayonet exercises and combat atpresent prescribed by the War Department in the =Manual of theBayonet=. However, the use of the bayonet in the present European war, which has given that weapon an importance and prominence heretoforeunheard of, suggests, as indicated below, certain modifications of oursystem. (a) _Attack not to be directed against chest. _ The attack should bedirected at the adversary's neck or stomach, and not against hischest; for, if the bayonet is driven into the chest, there willprobably be difficulty in withdrawing it, and while your bayonet isbeing so held, imbedded in your adversary's chest, you are at themercy of any other enemy soldier free to strike you. (b) _Mêlée on parapet. _ When the first wave of an attacking linereaches the enemy's trench, it is usually met outside the trench, themêlée taking place on the parapet, and fortunate is the man who isskilled in handling his bayonet. Such a man has a much greater chanceto live through the mêlée than the one who is not skillful in usinghis bayonet. In the excitement and confusion of this mêlée thegreatest possible care must be taken not to stab some of your own menin the back. (c) _Position of feet. _ The British have been teaching their men tokeep both feet pointing toward the enemy instead of having the rightfoot turned to the right, as in our system. Note the position of thefeet in Figs. 15-18. (d) _The "Short point" (or "Short thrust") and the "Jab. "_ There aretwo attacks used by European troops which we might learn with profit. They are the "Short point" (or "Short thrust") and the "Jab. " POSITION OF GUARD [Illustration: Fig. 14] (e) _The short point (or short thrust). _ The _short point_ (or _shortthrust_) is taken from the position of guard (Fig. 14), by slippingthe left hand up to the grip of the bayonet, grasping it and thebarrel, as shown in this figure: [Illustration: Fig. 15] The rifle is then drawn back to the fullest extent of the right arm, thus: [Illustration: Fig. 16] and a vigorous thrust is made at the objective (Fig. 15), immediatelyafter which the bayonet is withdrawn vigorously, the left hand relaxedand the position of guard (Fig. 14) is resumed by pushing the riflesmartly forward until the left hand is in its proper place. It should be practiced on sand bags or other targets in positions atthe height of the rifle, above it and below it. (f) _The jab. _ The jab is taken from the first position of the "Shortpoint" (Fig. 15), by slipping the right hand up to the left as therifle is drawn back to make the "Short thrust" (Fig. 17). [Illustration: Fig. 17] Then make a vigorous _upward_ thrust (Fig. 18) which should be aimedat the adversary's throat. [Illustration: Fig. 18] This may be practiced combined with the short thrust or the ordinarythrust. It may also be practiced with a run toward the target. It is auseful attack at close quarters. (g) _The butt. _ The rifle butt is used with great effect at closequarters, the blows being directed against an adversary's jaw or inthe region of the heart. (h) _Tripping adversary. _ The men are taught how to trip up an enemyand how to use their knees in throwing their opponents off theirbalance. (i) _Withdrawing the bayonet. _ After driving the bayonet into anopponent, then the first consideration is to get it out of his body. This may be done by slipping the left hand up to the bayonet grip andexerting a _vigorous_ pull, which is immediately followed by a returnto the position of guard. (j) _Points in training. _ In the first stages of training, specialattention is paid to a firm grip and proper handling of arms; then thegreatest attention is given to "direction" when thrusting, lunging, and parrying. Until these essentials have been thoroughly mastered, quickness shouldnot be insisted upon. Confidence comes after continued practice, and quickness and vigorwill come with confidence. After the men are taught to make all the attacks as individuals theyshould be given practice in them as groups. Sandbags with discs marked on them to provide targets are used ininstructing the British armies. These bags are suspended from trees or trestles, or are put intotrenches or pits, and are also placed on the ground. An excellent scheme is used in teaching the men what the shock of acharge is like. The men are divided into two or more groups and areequipped with fencing outfits. One group is designated as the defenseand is placed in trenches. The other groups are the attackers. Theymay be sent forward in waves or in one line. To make their advancemore realistic they have to get over or around obstacles. To take inall phases the attackers are made stronger than the defense and thedefense retires--whereupon the attackers endeavor to disable them bythrusting at the kidneys. Likewise the defense is made strong enoughto drive off the offense. In the charge the men are taught to run at the "High Port" (the rifleis held as in "Port arms, " but is carried well above the head). Therifle is brought down to guard just before the enemy is met. APPENDIX D SEPTEMBER 15, 1917 INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS, 1911. Paragraphs 120, 143, 146, 185, 187, 189, 194, 646, Infantry DrillRegulations, 1911, apply only to troops armed with the United Statesrifle, Model 1903. For troops armed with the United States rifle, Model 1917 (Enfield), the alternative paragraphs published herewithwill govern. By order of the Secretary of War: =120. = The following rules govern the carrying of the piece: First. The piece is not carried with cartridges in either the chamberor the magazine except when especially ordered. When so loaded, orsupposed to be loaded, it is habitually carried locked; that is, withsafety lock turned to the "=Safe. =" At all other times it is carriedunlocked, with the trigger pulled. Second. Whenever troops are formed under arms, pieces are immediatelyinspected at the commands: =1. INSPECTION, 2. ARMS, 3. ORDER (Rightshoulder port), 4. ARMS. = A similar inspection is made immediately before dismissal. If cartridges are found in the chamber or magazine they are removedand placed in the belt. Third. The bayonet is not fixed except in bayonet exercise, on guard, or for combat. Fourth. =Fall in= is executed with the piece at the order arms. =Fallout=, =rest=, and =at ease= are executed as without arms. On resumingattention the position of order arms is taken. Fifth. If at the order, unless otherwise prescribed, the piece isbrought to the right shoulder, at the command =MARCH=, the threemotions corresponding with the first three steps. Movements may beexecuted at the trail by prefacing the preparatory command with thewords =at trail=; as =1. AT TRAIL, FORWARD, 2. MARCH. = The trail istaken at the command =MARCH=. When the facings, alignments, open and close ranks, taking interval ordistance, and assemblings are executed from the order, raise the pieceto the trail while in motion and resume the order on halting. Sixth. The piece is brought to the order on halting. The execution ofthe order begins when the halt is completed. Seventh. A disengaged hand in double time is held as when withoutarms. =143. = Being at order arms: =1. UNFIX, 2. BAYONET. = If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Execute parade rest;grasp the handle of the bayonet firmly with the right hand, pressingthe spring with the forefinger of the left hand; raise the bayonetuntil the handle is about 12 inches above the muzzle of the piece; thepoint to the left, back of the hand toward the body, and glancing atthe scabbard, return the bayonet, the blade passing between the leftarm and the body; regrasp the piece with the right hand and resume theorder. If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the haversack: Take the bayonetfrom the rifle with the left hand and return it to the scabbard in themost convenient manner. If marching or lying down, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed in themost expeditious and convenient manner and the piece returned to theoriginal position. Fix and unfix bayonet are executed with promptness and regularity, butnot in cadence. =146. = Being at inspection arms: =1. ORDER (Right shoulder, port), 2. ARMS. = At the preparatory command press the follower down with the fingers ofthe left hand, then push the bolt forward just enough to engage thefollower, raise the fingers of the left hand, push the bolt forward, turn the handle down, pull the trigger, and resume =port arms=. At thecommand =ARMS=, complete the movement ordered. To Load =185. = Being in line or skirmish line at halt: =1. WITH DUMMY (Blankor ball) CARTRIDGES, 2. LOAD. = At the command =load= each front rank man or skirmisher faces halfright and carries the right foot to the right, about 1 foot, to such aposition as will insure the greatest firmness and steadiness of thebody; raises or lowers the piece and drops it into the left hand atthe balance, left thumb extended along the stock and muzzle at theheight of the breast. With the right hand he turns and draws the boltback, takes a loaded clip and inserts the end in the clip slots, places the thumb on the powder space at the top cartridge, the fingersextending around the piece and tips resting on the magazine floorplate; forces the cartridges into the magazine by pressing down withthe thumb; without removing the clip, thrusts the bolt home, turningdown the handle; turns the safety lock to the "Safe" and carries thehand to the small of the stock. Each rear rank man moves to the rightfront, takes a similar position opposite the interval to the right ofhis front rank man, muzzle of the piece extending beyond the frontrank, and loads. A skirmish line may load while moving, the pieces being held as nearlyas practicable in the position of load. If kneeling or sitting, the position of the piece is similar; ifkneeling, the left forearm rests on the left thigh; if sitting, theelbows are supported by the knees. If lying down, the left handsteadies and supports the piece at the balance, the toe of the buttresting on the ground, the muzzle off the ground. For reference, these positions (standing, kneeling, and lying down)are designated as that of =load=. =186. = For purposes of simulating firing, =1. SIMULATE, 2. LOAD=, raise the bolt handle as in the preceding paragraph, draw the boltback until the cocking piece engages, then close the bolt, and turnthe bolt handle down. The recruits are first taught to simulate loading and firing; after afew lessons dummy cartridges are used. Later, blank cartridges may beused. Omit last paragraph. =187. Unload:= Take the position of load, turn the safety lock up andmove the bolt alternately backward and forward until all thecartridges are ejected. After the last cartridge is ejected thechamber is closed by pressing the follower down with the fingers ofthe left hand, to engage it under the bolt, and then thrusting thebolt home. The trigger is pulled. The cartridges are then picked up, cleaned, and returned to the belt and the piece is brought to theorder. =189. = [Last paragraph]. To continue the firing: =1. AIM, 2. SQUAD, 3. FIRE. = Each command is executed as previously explained. =Load= is executedby drawing back and thrusting home the bolt with the right hand, leaving the safety lock at the "Ready. " =194. Cease firing:= Firing stops; pieces are loaded and locked; thesights are laid down and the piece is brought to the order. Ceasefiring is used for long pauses to prepare for changes of position orto steady the men. Company Inspection =646. = Being in line at halt: =1. OPEN RANKS, 2. MARCH. = At the command =march= the front rank executes right dress; the rearrank and the file closers march backward 4 steps, halt, and executeright dress; the lieutenants pass around their respective flanks andtake post, facing to the front, 3 paces in front of the center oftheir respective platoons. The captain aligns the front rank, rearrank, and file closers, takes post 3 paces in front of the rightguide, facing to the left and commands: =1. FRONT, 2. PREPARE FORINSPECTION. = At the second command the lieutenants carry saber; the captain returnssaber and inspects them, after which they face about, order saber, andstand at ease; upon the completion of the inspection they carry saber, face about, and order saber. The captain may direct the lieutenants toaccompany or assist him, in which case they return saber and, at theclose of the inspection, resume their posts in front of the company, draw and carry saber. Having inspected the lieutenants, the captain proceeds to the right ofthe company. Each man, as the captain approaches him executes=inspection arms=. The captain takes the piece, grasping it with his right hand justbelow the lower band, the man dropping his hands; the captain inspectsthe piece, and, with the hand and piece in the same position as inreceiving it, hands it back to the man, who takes it with the lefthand at the balance and executes =order arms=. As the captain returns the piece the next man executes =inspectionarms=, and so on through the company. Should the piece be inspected without handling, each man executes=order arms= as soon as the captain passes to the next man. The inspection is from right to left in front, and from left to rightin rear of each rank and of the line of file closers. When approached by the captain the first sergeant executes =inspectionsaber=. Enlisted men armed with the pistol execute =inspection pistol=by drawing the pistol from the holster and holding it diagonallyacross the body, barrel up, and 6 inches in front of the neck, muzzlepointing up and to the left. The pistol is returned to the holster assoon as the captain passes. Upon completion of the inspection the captain takes post facing to theleft in front of the right guide and on line with the lieutenants andcommands: =1. CLOSE RANKS, 2. MARCH. = At the command march the lieutenants resume their posts in line; therear rank closes to 40 inches, each man covering his file leader; thefile closers close to 2 paces from the rear rank. CHAPTER III MANUAL OF PHYSICAL TRAINING (EXTRACTS) METHODS =825. = In the employment of the various forms of physical training itis necessary that well-defined methods should be introduced in orderthat the object of this training may be attained in the most thoroughand systematic manner. Whenever it is possible this work should beconducted out of doors. In planning these methods the followingfactors must be considered: (_a_) The condition and physical aptitude of the men. (_b_) The facilities. (_c_) The time. The question of the _physical aptitude_ and _general condition_, etc. , of the men is a very important one, and it should always determine thenature and extent of the task expected of them; never should the workbe made the determining factor. In general, it is advisable to dividethe men into three classes, viz. , the recruit class, the intermediateclass, and the advanced class. The work for each class should fit thecapabilities of the members of that class and in every class it shouldbe arranged progressively. _Facilities_ are necessarily to be considered in any plan ofinstruction, but as most posts are now equipped with better thanaverage facilities the plan laid down in this Manual will answer allpurposes. _Time_ is a decidedly important factor, and no plan can be made unlessthose in charge of this work know exactly how much time they have attheir disposal. During the suspension of drills five periods a week, each of 45 minutes duration, should be devoted to physical training;during the drill period a 15-minute drill in setting-up exercisesshould be ordered on drill days. The time of day, too, is important. _When possible, these drills should be held in the morning about twohours after breakfast, and at no time should they be held immediatelybefore or after a meal. _ Insist upon accurate and precise execution of every movement. By doingso those other essential qualities, besides strength andendurance--activity, agility, gracefulness, and accuracy--will also bedeveloped. Exercises which require activity and agility, rather than those thatrequire strength only, should be selected. It should be constantly borne in mind that these exercises are themeans and not the end; and if there be a doubt in the mind of theinstructor as to the effect of an exercise, it is always well to errupon the side of safety. _Underdoing is rectifiable; overdoing isoften not. _ The object of this work is not the development of expertgymnasts, but the development of physically sound men by means of asystem in which the chances of bodily injury are reduced to a minimum. When individuals show a special aptitude for gymnastics they may beencouraged, within limits, to improve this ability, but never at theexpense of their fellows. The drill should be made as attractive as possible, and this can bestbe accomplished by employing the mind as well as the body. Themovements should be as varied as possible, thus constantly offeringthe men something new to make them keep their minds on their work. Amovement many times repeated presents no attraction and is executed ina purely mechanical manner, which should always be discountenanced. Short and frequent drills should be given in preference to long ones, which are liable to exhaust all concerned, and exhaustion means lackof interest and benefit. All movements should be carefully explained, and, if necessary, illustrated by the instructor. The lesson should begin with the less violent exercises, graduallyworking up to those that are more so, then gradually working back tothe simpler ones, so that the men at the close of the drill will be inas nearly a normal condition as possible. When one portion of the body is being exercised, care should be takenthat the other parts remain quiet as far as the conformation of thebody will allow. The men must learn to exercise any one part of thebody independent of the other part. Everything in connection with physical training should be such thatthe men look forward to it with pleasure, not with dread, for the mindexerts more influence over the human body than all the gymnasticparaphernalia that was ever invented. Exercise should be carried on as much as possible in the open air; atall times in pure, dry air. Never exercise the men to the point of exhaustion. If there isevidence of panting, faintness, fatigue, or pain, the exercise shouldbe stopped at once, for it is nature's way of saying "too much. " By constant practice the men should learn to breathe slowly throughthe nostrils during all exercises, especially running. A fundamental condition of exercise is unimpeded respiration. Properbreathing should always be insisted upon; "holding the breath" andbreathing only when it can no longer be held is injurious. Everyexercise should be accompanied by an unimpeded and, if possible, by anuninterrupted act of respiration, the inspiration and respiration ofwhich depends to a great extent upon the nature of the exercise. Inhalation should always accompany that part of an exercise whichtends to elevate and distend the thorax--as raising arms over headlaterally, for instance; while that part of an exercise which exerts apressure against the walls of the chest should be accompanied byexhalation, as for example, lowering arms laterally from shoulders oroverhead. If after exercising, the breathing becomes labored and distressed, itis an unmistakable sign that the work has been excessive. Suchexcessiveness is not infrequently the cause of serious injury to theheart and lungs or to both. In cases where exercise producespalpitation, labored respiration, etc. , it is advisable to recommendabsolute rest, or to order the execution of such exercises as willrelieve the oppressed and overtaxed organ. Leg exercises slowlyexecuted will afford great relief. By drawing the blood from the upperto the lower extremities they equalize the circulation, therebylessening the heart's action and quieting the respiration. _Never exercise immediately after a meal_; digestion is more importantat this time than extraneous exercise. _Never eat or drink immediately after exercise_; allow the body torecover its normal condition first, and the most beneficial resultswill follow. If necessary, pure water, not too cold, may be taken insmall quantities, but the exercise should be continued, especially ifin a state of perspiration. Never, if at all possible, allow the underclothing to dry on the body. Muscular action produces an unusual amount of bodily heat; this shouldbe lost gradually, otherwise the body will be chilled; hence, afterexercise, never remove clothing to cool off, but, on the contrary, wear some wrap in addition. In like manner, be well wrapped on leavingthe gymnasium. Cold baths, especially when the body is heated, as in the case afterexercising violently, should be discouraged. In individual instancessuch baths may appear apparently beneficial, or at least notinjurious; in a majority of cases, however, they can not be used withimpunity. Tepid baths are recommended. When impossible to bathe, theflannels worn while exercising should be stripped off; the bodysponged with tepid water, and then rubbed thoroughly with coarsetowels. After such a sponge the body should be clothed in clean, warmclothing. Flannel is the best material to wear next to the body during physicaldrill, as it absorbs the perspiration, protects the body againstdrafts and, in a mild manner, excites the skin. When the conditionspermit it the men may be exercised in the ordinary athletic costume, sleeveless shirt, flappers, socks, and gymnasium shoes. COMMANDS--SETTING-UP EXERCISES COMMANDS =826. = There are two kinds of commands: The preparatory indicates the movement to be executed. The command of execution causes the execution. In the command: =1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE=, the words =Arms forward=constitute the preparatory command, and =RAISE= the command ofexecution. Preparatory commands are printed in =bold face=, and thoseof execution in =CAPITALS=. The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loudnessproportioned to the number of men for whom it is intended. The various movements comprising an exercise are executed by commandsand, unless otherwise indicated, the continuation of an exercise iscarried out by repeating the command, which usually takes the form ofnumerals the numbers depending upon the number of movements, that anexercise comprises. Thus, if an exercise consists of two movements, the counts will be one, two; or if it consists of eight movements, thecounts will be correspondingly increased; thus every movement isdesignated by a separate command. Occasionally, especially in exercises that are to be executed slowly, words rather than numerals are used, and these must be indicative ofthe nature of the various movements. In the continuation of an exercise the preparatory command isexplanatory, the command of execution causes the execution and the_continuation is caused by a repetition of numerals_ denoting thenumber of movements required, or of words describing the movements ifwords are used. The numerals or words preceding the command =halt=should always be given with a rising inflection on the first numeralor word of command of the last repetition of the exercise in order toprepare the men for the command =halt=. For example: =1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. Thrust arms upward, 4. EXERCISE, ONE, TWO, ONE, TWO, ONE, HALT=; the rising inflection preparatory to thecommand halt being placed on the "one" preceding the "=halt=. " Each command must indicate, by its tone, how that particular movementis to be executed; thus, if an exercise consists of two movements, oneof which is to be energized, the command corresponding to thatmovement must be emphasized. Judgment must be used in giving commands, for rarely is the cadence oftwo movements alike; and a command should not only indicate thecadence of an exercise, but also the nature of its execution. Thus, many of the arm exercises are short and snappy; hence thecommand should be given in a smart tone of voice, and the intervalbetween the commands should be short. The leg exercises can not be executed as quickly as those of the arms;therefore, the commands should be slightly drawn out and follow oneanother in slow succession. The trunk exercises, owing to the deliberateness of execution, shouldbe considerably drawn out and follow one another in slow succession. The antagonistic exercises, where one group of muscles is made toantagonize another, tensing exercises, the commands are drawn stillmore. In these exercises words are preferable to numerals. In fact itshould be the object of the instructor to convey to the men, by themanner of his command, exactly the nature of the exercise. All commands should be given in a clear and distinct tone of voice, articulation should be distinct, and an effort should be made tocultivate a voice which will inspire the men with enthusiasm and tendto make them execute the exercises with willingness, snap, andprecision. It is not the volume, but the quality, of the voice whichis necessary to successful instruction. THE POSITION OF ATTENTION =827. = This is the position an unarmed dismounted soldier assumes whenin ranks. During the setting-up exercises, it is assumed whenever thecommand attention is given by the instructor. Having allowed his men to rest, the instructor commands: =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. = Figs. A and B. [Illustration: Fig. A] [Illustration: Fig. B] The words =class=, =section=, or =company= may be substituted for theword "squad. " At the command =attention=, the men will quickly assume and retain thefollowing position: Heels on same line and as near each other as the conformation of theman permits. Feet turned out equally and forming an angle of about 45 degrees. Knees straight without stiffness. The body erect on the hips, the spine extended throughout its entirelength. The shoulders falling naturally, are forced back until they aresquare. Chest arched and slightly raised. The arms hang naturally; thumbs along seams of trousers; back of handsout and elbows turned back. Head erect, chin drawn in so that the axis of the head and neck isvertical; eyes straight to the front and, when the nature of theterrain permits it, fixed on an object at their own height. Too much attention can not be given to this position, and instructorsare cautioned to insist that the men accustom themselves to it. As arule, it is so exaggerated that it not only becomes ridiculous, butpositively harmful. The men must be taught to assume a natural andgraceful position, one from which all rigidity is eliminated and fromwhich action is possible without first relaxing muscles that have beenconstrained in an effort to maintain the position of attention. Inother words, coördination rather than strength should be dependedupon. In the position described the weight rests principally upon the ballsof the feet, the heels resting lightly upon the ground. The knees are extended easily, but never locked. The body is now inclined forward until the front of the thighs isdirectly over the point of the toes; the hips are square and the waistis extended by the erection of the entire spine, but never to such adegree that mobility of the waist is lost. In extending the spine, the chest is naturally arched and the abdomenis drawn in, but never to the extent where it interferes withrespiration. In extending the spinal column, the shoulders must not be raised, butheld loosely in normal position and forced back until the points ofthe shoulders are at right angles with an anterior-posterior planerunning through the shoulders. The chin should be square; i. E. , horizontal and forced back enough tobring the neck in a vertical plane; the eyes fixed to the front andthe object on which they are fixed must be at their own heightwhenever the nature of the terrain permits it. When properly assumed, a vertical line drawn from the top of the headshould pass in front of the ear, just in front of the shoulder and ofthe thigh, and find its base at the balls of the feet. All muscles should be contracted only enough to maintain thisposition, which at all times should be a lithesome one, that can bemaintained for a long period without fatigue--one that makes foractivity and that is based upon a correct anatomical and physiologicalbasis. Instructors will correct the position of attention of every manindividually and they will ascertain, when the position has beenproperly assumed, whether the men are "on their toes, " i. E. , carryingthe weight on the balls of the feet, whether they are able to respireproperly, and whether they find a strain across the small of the back, which should be as flat as possible. This should be repeated until themen are able to assume the position correctly without restraint orrigidity. At the command =rest= or =at ease= the men, while carrying out theprovisions of the drill regulations, should be cautioned to avoidassuming any position that has a tendency to nullify the object of theposition of attention; standing on leg for instance; allowing theshoulders to slope forward; drooping the head; folding arms acrosschest, etc. The weight should always be distributed equally upon bothlegs; the head, trunk, and shoulders remain erect and the arms held ina position that does not restrict the chest or derange the shoulders. The positions illustrated here have been found most efficacious. Figs. C. And D. [Illustration: Fig. C] [Illustration: Fig. D] FORMATIONS =828. = The men form in a single or double rank, the tallest men on theright. The instructor commands: =1. Count off. = At this command, all except the right file execute "=eyes right=" and, beginning on the right, the men in each rank count 1, 2, 3, 4; eachman turns his head and eyes to the front as he counts. The instructor then commands: =1. Take distance, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. = At the command =march=, No. 1 of the front rank moves straight to thefront; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the front and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of therear rank in the order named move straight to the front, each steppingoff, so as to follow the preceding man at four paces; the command haltis given when all have their distances. If it is desired that a less distance than four paces be taken, thedistance desired should be indicated in the preparatory command. Themen of the squad may be caused to cover No. 1 front rank by commandcover. The instructor then commands: =1. Right (left), 2. FACE, 3. COVER. = At these commands the men face in the direction indicated and cover infile. To assemble the squad the instructor commands: =1. Right (left), 2. FACE, 3. Assemble, 4. MARCH. = After facing and at command march, No. 1 of the front rank standsfast, the other members of both ranks resuming their originalpositions, or for convenience in the gymnasium they may be assembledto the rear, in which case the assemblage is made on No. 4 of the rearrank. Unless otherwise indicated, the guide is =always right=. SPECIAL TRAINING =829. = In addition to the regular squad or class work instructorsshould, when they notice a physical defect in any man, recommend someexercise which will tend to correct it. The most common physical defects and corresponding correctiveexercises are noted here. DROOPING HEAD =830. = Exercise the muscles of the neck by bending, turning, andcircling the head, muscles tense. ROUND AND STOOPED SHOULDERS =831. = Stretch arms sideward from front horizontal, turning palmsupward, muscles tense. Swing arms forward and backward, muscles relaxed. Circle arms forward and backward slowly, energize backward motion, muscles tense; forward motion with muscles relaxed. Circle shoulders backward, move them forward first, then raise them, then move them backward as far as possible in the raised position, muscles tense, and then lower to normal position, muscles relaxed. WEAK BACK =832. = Bend trunk forward as far as possible and erect it slowly. Bend trunk forward, back arched and head thrown back. Bend trunk sideward, without moving hips out of normal position, rightand left. Lie on floor, face down, and raise head and shoulders. WEAK ABDOMEN =833. = Circle trunk right or left. Bend trunk backward or obliquely backward. Bend head and trunk backward without moving hips out of normal plane. Lie on floor, face up, and raise head and shoulders slightly; or tositting position or raise legs slightly; or to a vertical position. _To increase depth and width of chest_ Arm stretchings, sideward and upward, muscles tense. Same, with deep inhalations. Arm swings and arm circles outward, away from the body. Raise extended arms over head laterally and cross them behind thehead. Breathing exercises in connection with arm and shoulder exercises. STARTING POSITIONS =834. = In nearly all the arm exercises it is necessary to hold thearms in some fixed position from which the exercises can be mostadvantageously executed, and to which position the arms are againreturned upon completing the exercise. These positions are termed=starting positions=; and though it may not be absolutely necessary toassume one of them before or during the employment of any otherportion of the body, it is advisable to do so, since they give to theexercise a finished, uniform, and graceful appearance. In the following positions, at the command =down=, resume the=attention=. Practice in assuming the starting position may be had byrepeating the commands of execution, such as =raise, down=. =835. = While the exercises given below have been grouped forconvenient reference, into arm exercises, trunk exercises, legexercises, etc. , one entire group _must not_ be given and then thenext and so on. _Always bear in mind that the best results are obtained when thoseexercises which affect the extensor muscles chiefly are followed bythose affecting the flexors; i. E. , flexion should always be followedby extension, or vice versa. It is also advisable that a movementrequiring a considerable amount of muscular exertion should befollowed by one in which this exertion is reduced to a minimum. As arule, especially in the setting-up exercises, one portion of the bodyshould not be exercised successively; thus, arm exercises should befollowed by a trunk exercise, and that in turn by a leg, shoulder, andneck exercise. _ ARM EXERCISES =836. = Intervals having been taken and attention assumed, theinstructor commands: =1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. = Fig. 1. [Illustration: Fig. 1] At the command =raise=, raise the arms to the front smartly, extendedto their full length, till the hands are in front of and at the heightof the shoulders, palms down, fingers extended and joined, thumbsunder forefingers. At =Arms, DOWN=, resume position of attention. =1. Arms upward 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. = Fig. 2. [Illustration: Fig. 2] At the command =raise=, raise the arms from the sides, extended totheir full length, with the forward movement, until they arevertically overhead, backs of hands turned outward, fingers as in 1. This position may also be assumed by raising the arms laterally untilvertical. The instructor cautions which way he desires it done. =1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. = Fig. 3. [Illustration: Fig. 3] At the command =cross=, the arms are folded across the back; handsgrasping forearms. =1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. = Fig. 4. [Illustration: Fig. 4] At the command =raise=, raise the forearms to the front untilhorizontal, elbow forced back, upper arms against the chest, handstightly closed, knuckles down. =1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. = Fig. 5. [Illustration: Fig. 5] At the command =place=, place the hands on the hips, the finger tipsin line with trouser seams; fingers extended and joined, thumbs to therear, elbows pressed back. _Combination of arm exercises_ =1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. THRUST ARMS FORWARD; SWING THEMSIDEWARD, FORWARD, AND BACK TO POSITION. = Four counts; repeat 8 to 10 times. The arms are thrust forward, then relaxed and swung sideward, thenforward and finally brought back to position, pressing elbows well tothe rear; execute moderately fast; exhale on the first and third andinhale on the second and fourth counts. SETTING-UP EXERCISES =837. = As has been stated previously, the setting-up exercises formthe basis upon which the entire system of physical training in theservice is founded. Therefore too much importance can not be attachedto them. Through the number and variety of movements they offer it ispossible to develop the body harmoniously with little if any danger ofinjurious results. They develop the muscles and impart vigor and toneto the vital organs and assist them in their functions; they developendurance and are important factors in the development of smartness, grace, and precision. They should be assiduously practiced. The factthat they require no apparatus of any description makes it possible todo this out of doors or even in the most restricted room, propersanitary conditions being the only adjunct upon which their success isdependent. No physical training drill is complete without them. Theyshould always precede the more strenuous forms of training, as theyprepare the body for the greater exertion these forms demand. At the discretion of instructors these exercises may be substituted byothers of a similar character. Instructors are cautioned, however, toemploy all the parts of the body in every lesson and to suit theexercise as far as practicable to the natural function of theparticular part of the body which they employ. In these lessons only the preparatory command is given here; thecommand of execution, which is invariably =Exercise=, and the commandsof continuance, as well as the command to discontinue, having beenexplained are omitted. Every preparatory command should convey a definite description of theexercise required; by doing so long explanations are avoided and themen will not be compelled to memorize the various movements. RECRUIT INSTRUCTION _First Series_ Position of attention, from =at ease= and =rest=. Starting position, Figs. 1 to 5. TRUNK EXERCISES =838. 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. QUARTER BEND TRUNK FORWARD. = Two counts; repeat 8 to 10 times, Fig. 6. [Illustration: Fig. 6] The trunk is inclined forward at the waist about 45° and then extendedagain; the hips are as perpendicular as possible; execute slowly;exhale on first and inhale and raise chest on second count. By substituting the words _half_ or _full_ for the word quarter inthe command, the half bend, Fig. 7, and full bend exercise can begiven. [Illustration: Fig. 7] =1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. BEND TRUNK BACKWARD. = Two counts; repeat 6 to 8 times, Fig. 8. [Illustration: Fig. 8] The trunk is bent backward as far as possible; head and shouldersfixed; knees extended; feet firmly on the ground; hips as nearlyperpendicular as possible; in recovering care should be taken not tosway forward; execute slowly; inhale on first and exhale on secondcount. =1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. BEND TRUNK SIDEWARD, RIGHT OR LEFT. = Two counts; repeat 6 to 8 times, Fig. 9. [Illustration: Fig. 9] The trunk, stretched at the waist, is inclined sideward as far aspossible; head and shoulders fixed; knees extended and feet firmly onthe ground; execute slowly; inhale on first and exhale on secondcount. If an additional exercise is desired, by commanding: =CIRCLE TRUNKRIGHT or LEFT= a combination of the above trunk exercises is obtained. LEG EXERCISES =839. 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. QUARTER BEND KNEES. = Two counts; repeat 8 to 10 times, Fig. 10. [Illustration: Fig. 10] The knees are flexed until the point of the knee is directly over thetoes; whole foot remains on ground; heels closed; head and body erect;execute moderately fast, emphasizing the extension; breathe naturally. By substituting the words _half_ or _full_ for the word quarter in thecommand the half bend and full bend, Fig. 11, exercises can be given. [Illustration: Fig. 11] =1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. RAISE KNEE. = Two counts; repeat 10 to 12 times. Fig. 12. [Illustration: Fig. 12] The thigh and knee are flexed until they are at right angles, thighhorizontal: toes depressed; the right knee is raised at =one= and theleft at =two=; trunk and head erect; execute in cadence of quick time;breathe naturally. SHOULDER EXERCISE =840. 1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. MOVE SHOULDERS FORWARD, UP, BACK, AND DOWN. = Four counts; repeat 8 to 10 times. The shoulders are relaxed and brought forward; in that position theyare raised: then they are forced back without lowering them; and thenthey are dropped back to position; execute slowly; exhale on thefirst; inhale on the second and third and exhale on the last count. NECK EXERCISE =841. 1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. TURN HEAD RIGHT, OR LEFT. = Two counts; repeat 6 to 10 times, Fig. 13. [Illustration: Fig. 13] The head, chin square, is turned to the right, or left as far aspossible, muscles of the neck being stretched; shoulders remainsquare; execute slowly: breathe naturally. To vary this exercise the head may be _bent forward and to the rear_by substituting the proper commands. BREATHING EXERCISE =842. 1. Breathing exercise, 2. INHALE, 3. EXHALE. = At =inhale= the arms are stretched forward overhead and the lungs areinflated; at =exhale= the arms are lowered laterally and the lungsdeflated; execute slowly; repeat four times. TOE EXERCISE =843. 1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS, 3. RISE ON TOES. = Two counts; repeat 8 to 10 times, Fig. 14. [Illustration: Fig. 14] The body is raised smartly until the toes and ankles are extended asmuch as possible; heels closed; head and trunk erect; in recoveringposition heels are lowered gently; breathe naturally. COMBINATION EXERCISE =844. = This exercise brings into play practically all of the musclesthat have been used in the preceding exercises. =1. LEANING REST IN FOUR COUNTS. = Repeat 6 to 8 times, Figs. 15, 16. [Illustration: Fig. 15] [Illustration: Fig. 16] At =one= knees are bent to squatting position, hands on the groundbetween knees; at =two= the legs are extended backward to the leaningrest; at =three= the first position is resumed, and at =four= theposition of attention; hands should be directly under shoulders; backarched; knees straight; head fixed; execute moderately fast; breathenaturally. WALKING AND MARCHING =845. = The length of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, measured from heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120steps per minute. Proper posture and carriage have ever been considered very importantin the training of soldiers. In marching, the head and trunk shouldremain immobile, but without stiffness; as the left foot is carriedforward the right forearm is swung forward and inward obliquely acrossthe body until the thumb, knuckles being turned out, reaches a pointabout the height of the belt plate. The upper arm does not move beyondthe perpendicular plane while the forearm is swung forward, though thearm hangs loosely from the shoulder joint. The forearm swing endsprecisely at the moment the left heel strikes the ground; the arm isthen relaxed and allowed to swing down and backward by its own weightuntil it reaches a point where the thumb is about the breadth of ahand to the rear of the buttocks. As the right arm swings back, theleft arm is swung forward with the right leg. The forward motion ofthe arm assists the body in marching by throwing the weight forwardand inward upon the opposite foot as it is planted. The head is helderect; body well stretched from the waist; chest arched; and thereshould be no rotary motion of the body about the spine. As the leg is thrown forward the knee is smartly extended, the heelstriking the ground first. The instructor having explained the principles and illustrated thestep and arm swing, commands: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=--and to halt thesquad he commands: =1. Squad, 2. HALT. = In executing the setting-up exercises on the march the cadence shouldat first be given slowly and gradually increased as the men becomemore expert; some exercises require a slow and others a faster pace;it is best in these cases to allow the cadence of the exercise todetermine the cadence of the step. The men should march in a single file at proved intervals. The commandthat causes and discontinues the execution should be given as the leftfoot strikes the ground. On the march, to discontinue the exercise, command: =1. Quick time, 2. MARCH=, instead of =HALT=, as when at rest. All of the arm, wrist, finger, and shoulder exercises, and some of thetrunk and neck, may be executed on the march by the same commands andmeans as when at rest. The following leg and foot exercises are executed at the commandmarch; the execution always beginning with the left leg or foot. 1. =1. On toes, 2. MARCH. = 2. =1. On heels, 2. MARCH. = 3. =1. On right heel and left toe, 2. MARCH. = 4. =1. On left heel and right toe, 2. MARCH. = 5. =1. On toes with knees stiff, 2. MARCH. = 6. =1. Swing extended leg forward, ankle high, 2. MARCH. = 7. =1. Swing extended leg forward, knee high, 2. MARCH. = 8. =1. Swing extended leg forward, waist high, 2. MARCH. = 9. =1. Swing extended leg forward, shoulder high, 2. MARCH. = 10. =1. Raise heels, 2. MARCH. = 11. =1. Raise knees, thigh horizontal, 2. MARCH. = 12. =1. Raise knees, chest high, 2. MARCH. = 13. =1. Circle extended leg forward, ankle high, 2. MARCH. = 14. =1. Circle extended leg forward, knee high, 2. MARCH. = 15. =1. Circle extended leg forward, waist high, 2. MARCH. = 16. =1. Swing extended leg backward, 2. MARCH. = 17. =1. Swing extended leg sideward, 2. MARCH. = 18. =1. Raise knee and extend leg forward, 2. MARCH. = 19. =1. Raise heels and extend leg forward, 2. MARCH. = DOUBLE TIMING =846. = The length of the step in double time is 36 inches; the cadenceis at the rate of 180 steps per minute. To march in double time theinstructor commands: =1. Double time, 2. MARCH. = If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body to theright leg. At the command =march= raise the forearms, fingers closed;to a horizontal position along the waist line; take up an easy runwith the step and cadence of double time, allowing a natural swingingmotion to the arms inward and upward in the direction of the oppositeshoulder. In marching in quick time, at the command =march=, given as eitherfoot strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, and then stepoff in double time. When marching in double time and in running the men breathe as much aspossible through the nose, keeping the mouth closed. A few minutes at the beginning of the setting-up exercises should bedevoted to double timing. From lasting only a few minutes at the startit may be gradually increased, so that daily drills should enable themen at the end of five or six months to double time 15 or 20 minuteswithout becoming fatigued or distressed. After the double time the men should be marched for several minutes atquick time; after this the instructor should command: =1. Route step, 2. MARCH. = In marching at route step, the men are not required to preservesilence nor keep the step; if marching at proved intervals, the latteris preserved. To resume the cadence step in quick time, the instructor commands: =1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. = Great care must be exercised concerning the duration of the doubletime and the speed and duration of the run. The demands made Upon themen should be increased gradually. When exercise rather than distance is desired, the running should bedone on the balls of the feet, heels raised from the ground. DOUBLE TIMING EXERCISES While the men are double timing the instructor may vary the positionof the arms by commanding: 1. =1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE. = 2. =1. Arms sideward, 2. RAISE. = 3. =1. Arms upward, 2. RAISE. = 4. =1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE. = 5. =1. Hands on shoulders, 2. PLACE. = 6. =1. Arms forward, 2. CROSS. = 7. =1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS. = At the command =down=, the double-time position for the arms and handsis resumed. RIFLE EXERCISES =847. = The object of these exercises, which may also be performed withwands or bar bells, is to develop the muscles of the arms, shoulders, and back so that the men will become accustomed to the weight of thepiece and learn to wield it with that "handiness" so essential to itssuccessful use. When these exercises are combined with movements ofthe various other parts of the body, they serve as a splendid, thoughrather strenuous, method for the all-round development of the men. Asthe weight of the piece is considerable, instructors are cautioned tobe reasonable in their demands. Far better results are obtained ifthese exercises are performed at commands than when they are groupedand performed for spectacular purposes. All the exercises start from the starting position, which is the lowextended arm horizontal position in front of the body, arms straight;the right hand grasping the small of the stock and the left hand thebarrel; the knuckles turned to the front and the distance between thehands slightly greater than the width of the shoulders. Fig. 17. [Illustration: Fig. 17] This position is assumed at the command: =1. Starting, 2. POSITION=;at the command =position= the piece is brought to the port and loweredto the front horizontal snappily. To recover the position of order, command: =1. Order, 2. Arms=; thepiece is first brought to the port and then to the order. RIFLE DRILL COMBINATION The following exercises consist of four movements, the third positionalways corresponding to the first position and the fourth to thestarting position. When performed as a musical drill, the instructionslaid down in that lesson are applicable here. All exercises begin and end with the first or starting position. Fig. 17. The form of command is, for example: (Being at the starting position) =1. First group, 2. FIRST, EXERCISE=; =1. Second group, 2. THIRD, EXERCISE=; Etc. , Etc. FIRST GROUP =848. = _First Exercise_ Counts 1-2. Raise piece to bent arm front horizontal, shoulder high, andstride forward right, Fig. 18; [Illustration: Fig. 18] 3-4. Face to the left on both heels and extend piece upward, Fig. 19; [Illustration: Fig. 19] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. =849. = _Second Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to extended high horizontal, and stride sidewardright, Fig. 20; [Illustration: Fig. 20] 3-4. Bend right knee and lower piece to left horizontal, Fig. 21; [Illustration: Fig. 21] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. =850. = _Third Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to high side perpendicular on the left, left hand up, and stride backward right, Fig. 22; [Illustration: Fig. 22] 3-4. Face about on heels and swing piece down and up to high sideperpendicular on the right, Fig. 23; [Illustration: Fig. 23] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. =851. = _Fourth Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to extended high horizontal, and stride obliquelyforward right, Fig. 24; [Illustration: Fig. 24] 3-4. Face about on heels and lower piece to horizontal on shoulders;Fig. 25; [Illustration: Fig. 25] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. SECOND GROUP =852. = _First Exercise_ 1-2. Lower piece to front extended horizontal and bend trunk forward, Fig. 26; [Illustration: Fig. 26] 3-4. Lunge obliquely forward right and raise piece to right oblique, left hand at shoulder, Fig. 27; [Illustration: Fig. 27] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. =853. = _Second Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to high perpendicular on the left, left hand up, andbend trunk sideward right, Fig. 28; [Illustration: Fig. 28] 3-4. Lunge sideward right and swing piece down and up to right highperpendicular, right hand up, Fig. 29; [Illustration: Fig. 29] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. =854. = _Third Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to high extended arm horizontal and bend trunkbackward, Fig. 30; [Illustration: Fig. 30] 3-4. Lunge forward right, and swing piece to side horizontal, lefthand to the rear, Fig. 31; [Illustration: Fig. 31] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. =855. = _Fourth Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to right high perpendicular and side step positionleft, Fig. 32; [Illustration: Fig. 32] 3-4. Lunge sideward left and swing piece to left high perpendicular, Fig. 33; [Illustration: Fig. 33] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. THIRD GROUP =856. = _First Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to front bent horizontal, arms crossed, left overright; lunge sideward right and bend trunk sideward right, Fig. 34; [Illustration: Fig. 34] 3-4. Extend right knee and bend trunk to the left, bending left kneeand recrossing arms, left over right, Fig. 35; [Illustration: Fig. 35] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. =857. = _Second Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to bent arm horizontal; face right and lunge forwardright and bend trunk forward, Fig. 36; [Illustration: Fig. 36] 3-4. Raise trunk and turn to the left on both heels and extend pieceoverhead, Fig. 37; [Illustration: Fig. 37] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. =858. = _Third Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to left high horizontal; lunge forward right, Fig. 38; [Illustration: Fig. 38] 3-4. Bend trunk forward and swing piece to extended low horizontal, Fig. 39; [Illustration: Fig. 39] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. =859. = _Fourth Exercise_ 1-2. Raise piece to high extended horizontal and hop to side straddleposition, Fig. 40; [Illustration: Fig. 40] 3-4. Bend trunk forward and swing piece to extended low horizontal, left hand between legs, right hand forward, Fig. 41; [Illustration: Fig. 41] 5-6. Resume first position; 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. GYMNASTIC CONTESTS =860. = These exercises are those in which the benefits are lost sightof in the pleasure their attainment provides, which in the case ofthese contests is the vanquishing of an opponent. The men are pittedagainst each other in pairs; age, height, weight, and general physicalaptitude being the determining factors in the selection. In the contests in which superiority is dependent upon skill andagility no restrictions need be placed upon the efforts of thecontestants; but in those that are a test of strength and endurance itis well to call a contest a "draw, " when the men are equally matchedand the contest is likely to be drawn out to the point of exhaustionof one or both contestants. It is recommended that these contests be indulged in once or twice amonth and then at the conclusion of the regular drill. Contests that require skill and agility should alternate with thosethat depend upon force and endurance. In order to facilitate theinstruction a number of pairs should be engaged at the same time. 1. Cane wrestling: The cane to be about an inch in diameter and a yardlong, ends rounded. It is grasped with the right hand at the end, knuckles down, and with the left hand, knuckles up, inside of andclose to the opponent's right hand. Endeavor is then made to wrest thecane from the opponent. Loss of grip with either hand loses the bout. 2. Cane twisting. Same cane as in 1. Contestants grasp it as in 1, only the knuckles of both hands are up, and the arms are extendedoverhead. Object: The contestants endeavor to make the cane revolve intheir opponent's hand without allowing it to do so in their own. Thecane must be forced down. 3. Cane pulling: Contestants sit on the ground, facing each other, legs straight and the soles of the feet in contact. The cane isgrasped as in 2 but close to the feet. Object: To pull the opponent tohis feet. The legs throughout the contest must be kept rigid. 4. "Bucked" contest: Contestants sit on the ground "bucked"; i. E. , the cane is passed under the knees, which are drawn up, and the armspassed under the cane with the fingers laced in front of the ankles. Object: To get the toes under those of the opponent and roll him over. 5. Single pole pushing: Contestants grasp end of pole, 6 feet long and2 inches thick, and brace themselves. Object: To push the opponent outof position. 6. Double pole pushing: The poles are placed under the arms close tothe arm pits, ends projecting. Object: Same as in 5. 7. Double pole pulling: Position as in 6 but standing back to back. Object: To pull the opponent out of position. 8. "Cock fight": Contestants hop on one leg with the arms foldedclosely over the chest. Object: by butting with the fleshy part of theshoulder without raising the arms, or by dodging to make the opponentchange his feet or touch the floor with his hand or other part of hisbody. 9. One-legged tug of war: Contestants hop on one leg and grasp handsfirmly. Object: To pull the opponent forward or make him place theraised foot on the floor. 10. The "siege": One contestant stands with one foot in a circle 14inches in diameter, the other foot outside, and the arms folded as in8. Two other contestants, each hopping on one leg, endeavor todislodge the one in the circle by butting him with the shoulder. Thebesieged one is defeated in case he raises the foot in the circle, orremoves it entirely from the circle. The besiegers are defeated incase they change feet or touch the floor as in 8. As soon as either ofthe latter is defeated his place is immediately filled, so that thereare always two of them. The besieged should resort to volting, ducking, etc. , rather than to depend upon his strength. 11. One-armed tug: Contestants stand facing each other; right handsgrasped, feet apart. Object: Without moving feet, to pull the opponentforward. Shifting the feet loses the bout. 12. "Tug royal": Three contestants stand facing inward and grasp eachother's wrists securely with their feet outside a circle about threefeet in diameter. Object: by pulling or pushing to make one of thecontestants step inside of the circle. 13. Indian wrestling: Contestants lie upon the ground face up, rightshoulders in close contact, right elbows locked; at one the right legis raised overhead and lowered, this is repeated at two, and at threethe leg is raised quickly and locked with the opponent's right leg. Object: to roll him over by forcing his leg down. 14. Medicine ball race. Teams of five or six men are organized and atrack for each team is marked out. This track consists of marks on thefloor or ground at distances of 4 yards. On each of these marks standsa man with legs apart, the team forming a column of files. At "ready, ""get set, " the contestants prepare for the race, and at "go, " thefirst man in the column rolls a medicine ball, which he has on thefloor in front of him, through his legs to No. 2, he in turn rolls itto 3, etc. , when it reaches the last man he picks it up and runs tothe starting place with it and, the others all having shifted back onemark, the rolling is repeated. This continues until the first manbrings the ball back to the starting place and every man is in hisoriginal position. The ball should be kept rolling: each man, as itcomes to him, pushing it on quickly. Any ball about 9 inches indiameter will answer; it may be made of strong cloth and stuffed withcotton waste. CHAPTER IV SIGNALING Signals and Codes _General Service Code. (International Morse Code. )_ =861. = Used for all visual and sound signaling, radiotelegraphy, andon cables using siphon recorders, used in communicating with Navy. A · - B - · · · C - · - · D - · · E · F · · - · G - - · H · · · · I · · J · - - - K - · - L · - · · M - - N - · O - - - P · - - · Q - - · - R · - · S · · · T - U · · - V · · · - W · - - X - · · - Y - · - - Z - - · · NUMERALS 1 · - - - - 2 · · - - - 3 · · · - - 4 · · · · - 5 · · · · · 6 - · · · · 7 - - · · · 8 - - - · · 9 - - - - · 0 - - - - - PUNCTUATION Period · · · · · · Comma · - · - · - · Interrogation · · - - · · THE MORE IMPORTANT CONVENTIONAL FLAG SIGNALS For communication between the firing line and the reserve or commanderin rear. In transmission, their concealment from the enemy's viewshould be insured. In the absence of signal flags the headdress orother substitute may be used. (See par. 96 for the signals. ) Wigwag _Signaling by flag, torch, hand lantern, or beam of searchlight(without shutter)_[6] =862. = 1. There is one position and there are three motions. The position iswith flag or other appliance held vertically, the signalman facingdirectly toward the station with which it is desired to communicate. The first motion (the dot) is to the right of the sender, and willembrace an arc of 90°, starting with the vertical and returning to it, and will be made in a plane at right angles to the line connectingthe two stations. The second motion (the dash) is a similar motion tothe left of the sender. The third motion (front) is downward directlyin front of the sender and instantly returned upward to the firstposition. This is used to indicate a pause or conclusion. 2. The beam of the searchlight, though ordinarily used with theshutter like the heliograph, may be used for long-distance signaling, when no shutter is suitable or available, in a similar manner to theflag or torch, the first position being a vertical one. A movement ofthe beam 90° to the right of the sender indicates a dot, a similarmovement to the left indicates a dash; the beam is lowered verticallyfor front. 3. To use the torch or hand lantern, a footlight must be employed as apoint of reference to the motion. The lantern is more convenientlyswung out upward to the right of the footlight for a dot, to the leftfor a dash, and raised vertically for front. 4. To call a station, make the call letter until acknowledged, atintervals giving the call or signal of the calling station. If thecall letter of a station is unknown, wave flag until acknowledged. Inusing the searchlight without shutter throw the beam in a verticalposition and move it through an arc of 180° in a plane at right anglesto the line connecting the two stations until acknowledged. Toacknowledge a call, signal "Acknowledgment (or) I understand(----front)" followed by the call letter of the acknowledging station. _Notes on Wig-wagging_ 5. In order to avoid the flag wrapping itself about the staff, standfacing the receiving station, with feet apart. Hold the staff with theleft hand at butt and right hand 24 inches from end. In moving flag tothe right, bring it down with an outward and inward sweep, and thenreturn it to the vertical. When the tip is farthest down the staffinclines to the right front and as the flag is brought upward it isswept inward and upwards and as it approaches the vertical position itsweeps forward slightly. In moving to the left the motion issimilar, --at the lowest point the staff inclines to the left front. Acombination of right and left is made with a figure-of-eight motion. In making "front" the flag is lowered and moved very slightly to theleft front and then swept slightly to the right front, making afigure-of-eight. The body should be twisted and bent at the waist in making the lightand left motions. Care should be exercised in keeping the flag in front of the body inmaking "front, " the figure-of-eight is necessarily very flat. Do not make letters in a careless slipshod manner. The Two-arm Semaphore Code (See Plates I and II) =863. = Semaphore signaling may be done with or without flags. Withoutflags it is rarely dependable beyond 600 yards. In sending stand with feet apart, squarely facing the receiver. In making letters which require the use of both arms on the same sideof body, twist the body to that side and bend at waist, so as tothrow both arms well away from body. But be careful to keep arms inplane of original position of body. When a letter repeats--bring both hands (if a two-armed letter) tochest after first, then make second. Do not try to send rapidly so as to exhibit your ability. Rememberthat the receiver's ability determines the speed to be used. Anyonecan send faster than he himself can receive. If you want to displayyour skill have some one send rapidly to you. In receiving, if you miss a letter--let it go and get the others. Ifyou miss a word signal--"O" (waving flags or arms) and signal the lastword you have received. _Rapidity_ is secondary to _accuracy_. Take the positions for the various letters _accurately_. Thehorizontal position should not incline upward nor downward. In makingan "L, " for example, if the left arm is midway between its properposition and the horizontal it is difficult to tell whether it is L orM. In making D, J, K, P, T, and V, the arm in the vertical positionshould be brought exactly in front of the body by carrying theshoulder in almost under the chin, twisting the elbow in until it isdirectly before the eyes, and the forearm held in the verticalposition with the palm to the rear. When so done there is nopossibility of this position being mistaken for any other. "Manila Milkman" may be sent without changing the position of theright hand. In making I, be sure to twist body well to the right inorder that the left arm may be seen in the upper slanting position tothe right. City and similar words may be so made. D may be made with either hand. Be sure how next letter is made before moving hands. Make no falsemotions. Acquire accuracy; then try for speed. "CHOP-CHOP. " The "chop-chop" signal is made by placing _both_ arms atthe right horizontal (that is, by bringing the _left_ arm up to theposition of the _right_ arm as in the figure for letter "B"), and thenmoving each up and down, several times, in opposite direction, makinga cutting motion. END OF WORD. After each word the "Interval" signal is made. END OF SENTENCE. After each sentence the chop signal is made twice. END OF MESSAGE. At the end of a message the chop signal is made threetimes. ERROR. Signal "A" several times quickly, followed by interval; thenrepeat the word. TO BREAK IN. Signal "Attention. " NUMERALS. Numbers are always preceded by the signal, "Numerals. " After"Numerals" has been signaled, everything that follows will be numbersuntil "Interval" is signaled, after which what follows will beletters. [Illustration: The Two-arm Semaphore Code Plate I] [Illustration: The Two-arm Semaphore Code Plate II] _Signaling with heliograph, flash lantern, and searchlight (withshutter)_[7] =864. = 1. The first position is to turn a steady flash on thereceiving station. The signals are made by short and long flashes. Usea short flash for dot and a long steady flash for dash. The elementsof a letter should be slightly longer than in sound signals. 2. To call a station, make the call letter until acknowledged, atintervals the call or signal of the calling station. 3. If the call letter of a station be unknown, signal a series of dotsrapidly made until acknowledged. Each station will then turn on asteady flash and adjust. When the adjustment is satisfactory to thecalled station, it will cut off its flash, and the calling stationwill proceed with its message. 4. If the receiver sees that the sender's mirror needs adjustment, hewill turn on a steady flash until answered by a steady flash. When theadjustment is satisfactory, the receiver will cut off his flash andthe sender will resume his message. 5. To break the sending station for other purposes, turn on a steadyflash. _Sound Signals_[7] =865. = 1. Sound signals made by the whistle, foghorn, bugle, trumpet, and drum may be used in a fog, mist, falling snow, or at night. Theymay be used with the dot and dash code. 2. In applying the code to whistle, foghorn, bugle, or trumpet, oneshort blast indicates a dot and one long blast a dash. With the drum, one tap indicates a dot and two taps in rapid succession a dash. Although these signals can be used with a dot and dash code, theyshould be so used in connection with a preconcerted or conventionalcode. _Morse Code. (American Morse Code)_[7] =866. = Used only by the army on telegraph lines, on short cables, andon field lines, and on all commercial lines in the United States. A · - B - · · · C · · · D - · · E · F · - · G - - · H · · · · I · · J - · - · K - · - L -- M - - N - · O · · P · · · · · Q · · - · R · · · S · · · T - U · · - V · · · - W · - - X · - · · Y · · · · Z · · · · & · · · · NUMERALS 1 · - - · 2 · · - · · 3 · · · - · 4 · · · · - 5 - - - 6 · · · · · · 7 - - · · 8 - · · · · 9 - · · - 0 --- PUNCTUATION Period · · - - · · Comma · - · - Interrogation - · · - · FOOTNOTES: [6] Extracts from Signal Book, United States Army. [7] Extracts from Signal Book, United States Army. PART II COMPANY COMMAND CHAPTER I THE GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF A COMPANY =867. The proper performance of the duty of COMPANY COMMANDER, likethe proper performance of any other duty, requires work and attentionto business. = The command of a company divides itself into two kinds of duty:government and administration. The government includes the instruction, discipline, contentment, andharmony of the organization, involving, as it does, esprit de corps, rewards, privileges, and punishments. The administration includes the providing of clothing, arms, ammunition, equipage, and subsistence; the keeping of records, including the rendition of reports and returns; and the care andaccountability of Government and company property, and thedisbursement of the company fund. System and care are prerequisites of good administration. The efficient administration of a company greatly facilitates itsgovernment. THE CAPTAIN =868. = With regard to his company the captain stands in the same lightas a father to a large family of children. It is his duty to providefor their comfort, sustenance, and pleasure; enforce strict rules ofobedience, punish the refractory and reward the deserving. He should be considerate and just to his officers and men and shouldknow every soldier personally and make him feel that he so knows him. He should by word and act make every man in the company feel that thecaptain is his protector. The captain should not be indifferent to the personal welfare of hismen, and when solicited, being a man of greater experience, education, and information, he should aid and counsel them in such a way as toshow he takes an interest in their joys and sorrows. When any men are sick he should do everything possible for them untilthey can be taken care of by the surgeon. He can add much to thecomfort and pleasure of men in the hospital by visiting them from timeto time and otherwise showing an interest in their condition. In fact, one of the officer's most important duties is to look afterthe welfare of his men--to see that they are well fed, well clothedand properly cared for in every other way--to see that they are happyand contented. The officer who does not look after the welfare of hismen to the best of his ability, giving the matter his earnest personalattention, neglects one of the principal things that the Governmentpays him to do. The soldier usually has a decided feeling for his captain, even thoughit be one of hatred. With regard to the higher grade of officers, hehas respect for them according to regulations; otherwise, for the mostpart, he is indifferent. At the very most, he knows whether his postor regimental commander keeps him long at drill, and particularlywhether he has any peculiar habits. The average soldier looks upon hiscaptain as by far the most important personage in the command. There is no other position in the Army that will give as muchsatisfaction in return for an honest, capable and conscientiousdischarge of duty, as that of captain. There is a reward in havingdone his full duty to his company that no disappointment ofdistinction, no failure, can deprive him of; his seniors may overlookhim in giving credits, unfortunate circumstances may defeat hisfondest hopes, and the crown of laurel may never rest upon his brow, but the reward that follows upon the faithful discharge of his duty tohis company he can not be deprived of by any disaster, neglect orinjustice. He is a small sovereign, powerful and great, within his little domain. =869. Devolution of Work and Responsibility. = The company commandershould not attempt to do all the work--to look after all the detailsin person--he should not try to command directly every squad and everyplatoon. The successful company commander is the one who distributeswork among his subordinates and organizes the help they are supposedto give him. By War Department orders, Army Regulations and customs ofthe service, the lieutenants and noncommissioned officers are chargedwith certain duties and responsibilities. Let every one of them carrythe full load of their responsibility. The company commander shouldnot usurp the functions of his subordinates--he should not relievethem of any of their prescribed or logical work and responsibility. Onthe contrary, he should give them more, and he should see that they"deliver the goods. " Skill in distributing work among subordinates isone of the first essentials of leadership, as is the ability to getwork out of them so that they will fill their functions to the fullwithin the limits of their responsibility. Not only does devolution ofwork and responsibility cause subordinates to take more interest intheir work (it makes them feel less like mere figure-heads), but italso teaches them initiative and gives them valuable experience in theart of training and handling men. Furthermore, it enables the companycommander to devote more time to the larger and more important mattersconnected with the discipline, welfare, training, instruction andadministration of the company. The captain who allows his lieutenants to do practically nothing makesa mistake--he is doing something that will rob his lieutenants of allinitiative, cause them to lose interest in the company, and make themfeel like nonentities--like a kind of "fifth wheel"--it will make themfeel they are not, in reality, a part of the company--it will preventthem from getting a practical, working knowledge of the government andadministration of a company. By allowing his lieutenants to participate to the greatest extentpossible in the government and administration of the company, and bynot hampering and pestering them with unnecessary instructions aboutdetails, the captain will get out of his lieutenants the very bestthat there is in them. The captain should require RESULTS from his lieutenants, and the merefact that a lieutenant is considered inefficient and unable to dothings properly, is no reason why he should not be required to dothem. The captain is by Army Regulations responsible for theefficiency and instruction of his lieutenants regarding all matterspertaining to the company, and he should require them to perform alltheir duties properly, resorting to such disciplinary measures as maybe considered necessary. The lieutenant who can not, or who will not, perform his duties properly is a drag on the company, and such a manhas no business in the Army, or in the Organized Militia. THE LIEUTENANT =870. = To be able to perform well the duties of captain when theresponsibility falls upon him, should be the constant study andambition of the lieutenant. He is the assistant of the captain and should be required by thecaptain to assist in the performance of all company duties, includingthe keeping of records and the preparation of the necessary reports, returns, estimates and requisitions. The captain should give him lotsto do, and should throw him on his own responsibility just as much aspossible. He should be required to drill the company, attend the dailyinspection of the company quarters, instruct the noncommissionedofficers, brief communications, enter letters in the CorrespondenceBook, make out ration returns, reports, muster and pay rolls, etc. , until he shows perfect familiarity therewith. Whenever told to do a thing by your captain, do it yourself or seepersonally that it is done. Do not turn it over to somenoncommissioned officer and let it go at that. If your captain wantssome noncommissioned officer to do the thing, he himself will tell himto do it--he will not ask you to do it. It is customary in the Army to regard the company as the property ofthe captain. Should the lieutenant, therefore, be in temporary commandof the company he should not make any changes, especially in thereduction or promotion of noncommissioned officers without firsthaving consulted the captain's wishes in the matter. It is somewhat difficult to explain definitely the authority alieutenant exercises over the men in the company when the captain ispresent. In general terms, however, it may be stated the lieutenantcan not make any changes around the barracks, inflict any punishmentor put men on, or relieve them from, any duty without the consent ofthe captain. It is always better if there be a definite understandingbetween the captain and his lieutenants as to what he expects of them, how he wishes to have certain things done and to what extent he willsustain them. If the lieutenant wants anything from the company in the way ofworking parties, the services of the company artificer or companyclerk, the use of ordnance stores or quartermaster articles, he shouldalways speak to the captain about the matter. THE CAPTAIN AND THE LIEUTENANTS =871. = The company officers should set an example to their men indress, military bearing, system, punctuality and other soldierlyqualities. It should be remembered that the negligence of superiors isthe cue for juniors to be negligent. If the men of a company are careless and indifferent about salutingand if they are shabby and lax in their dress, the company commanderis to blame for it--company officers can always correct defects ofthis kind, if they will only try. The character and efficiency of officers and the manner in which theyperform their duties are reflected in the conduct and deportment oftheir men. Of course, courage is a prerequisite quality for a good officer, andevery officer should seek to impress his men that he would direct themto do nothing involving danger that he would not himself be willing todo under similar circumstances. If a company officer be ignorant of his duties, his men will soon findit out, and when they do they will have neither respect for, norconfidence in, him. Company officers should take an active interest in everything thataffects the amusement, recreation, happiness and welfare of their men. An officer just joining a company should learn without delay the namesof all the men. A roll of the organization should be gotten andstudied. While an officer can gruffly order a soldier to do a thing and havehis orders obeyed, it should be remembered that, as a rule, humannature, especially American human nature, responds best to an appealto pride, fairness, justice, reason, and the other nobler instincts ofman. It is only in rare instances that the average man will give thebest there is in him under coercion or pressure of authority. There are but few men who have not some good in them, and this goodcan generally be gotten at, if one only goes about it in the rightway. Study your men and try to arouse in them pride and interest intheir work. The soldier first learns to respect, then to honor and finally to lovethe officer who is strict but just; firm but kind--and this is theofficer who will draw out of his men the very best there is in them. =872. = Treat your men like men, and remember there is nothing thatwill so completely take the spirit out of a man as to find fault withhim when he is doing his best. Young officers sometimes run to one of two extremes in the treatmentof their men--they either, by undue familiarity, or otherwise, cultivate popularity with the men; or they do not treat them withsufficient consideration--the former course will forfeit their esteem;the latter, ensure their dislike, neither of which result isconducive to commanding their respect. Treat your soldiers with proper consideration, dignity, andjustice--remember they are members of your profession, the differencebeing one of education, rank, command, and pay--but they are men, likeyourself, and should be treated as such. Under no circumstances should you ever swear at a soldier--not only isthis taking a mean, unfair advantage of your position, but it is alsoundignified, ungentlemanly, and unmilitary. It is even more improperfor you to swear at a soldier than it is for a superior to swear atyou--in the latter case the insult can be properly resented; in theformer, it must be borne in humiliating silence. Remember, that if by harsh or unfair treatment you destroy a man'sself-respect, you at the same time destroy his usefulness. Familiarity is, of course, most subversive of discipline, but you cantreat your men with sympathetic consideration without being familiarwith them. In dealing with enlisted men, do not use the same standard ofintellect and morals that apply in the case of officers. And remember, too, that a thing that may appear small and trivial to an officer maymean a great deal to an enlisted man--study your men, learn theirdesires, their habits, their way of thinking, and then in yourdealings with them try to look at things from their standpoint also. In other words in your treatment of your men be just as human aspossible. The treatment of soldiers should be uniform and just, and under nocircumstances should a man be humiliated unnecessarily or abused. Reproof and punishment must be administered with discretion andjudgment, and without passion; for the officer who loses his temperand flies into a tantrum has failed to obtain his first triumph indiscipline. He who can not control himself can not control others. Every officer should study himself carefully, he should analyzehimself, he should place himself under a microscopic glass, so as todiscover his weak points--and he should then try with his whole mightand soul to make these weak points strong points. If, for instance, you realize that you are weak in applied minor tactics, or that youhave no "bump of locality, " or that you have a poor memory, or thatyou have a weak will, do what you can to correct these defects in yourmake-up. Remember "Stonewall" Jackson's motto: "A man can do anythinghe makes up his mind to do. " The Progress Company, Chicago, Ill. , publishes "Mind Power, " "Memory, ""The Will, " "The Art of Logical Thinking" (all by W. W. Atkinson), andseveral other books of a similar nature, that are both interesting andinstructive. "The Power of the Will, " by Haddock, for sale by AlbertLewis Pelton, Meriden, Conn. , is an excellent book of its kind. THE FIRST SERGEANT =873. = It has been said the captain is the proprietor of the companyand the first sergeant is the foreman. Under supervision of the captain, he has immediate charge of allroutine matters pertaining to the company. In some companies in the Regular Army, it is customary for soldiers, except in cases of emergency, to get permission from the firstsergeant to speak to the company commander at any time. In otherorganizations soldiers who wish to speak to the company commander awayfrom the company quarters must first obtain the first sergeant'spermission, but it is not necessary to get this permission to speak tothe company commander when he is at the barracks. The first sergeant is sometimes authorized to place noncommissionedofficers in arrest in quarters and privates in confinement in theguardhouse, assuming such action to be by order of the captain, towhom he at once reports the facts. However, with regard to theconfinement of soldiers by noncommissioned officers, attention isinvited to the Army Regulations on the subject. THE NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS =(The status, duties, etc. , of noncommissioned officers are covered ingreater detail in Noncommissioned Officers' Manual, by the author. General agents: George Banta Publishing Co. , Menasha, Wis. )= =874. = The efficiency and discipline of a company depend to such anextent on the noncommissioned officers that the greatest care andjudgment should be exercised in their selection. They should be menpossessing such soldierly qualities as a high sense of duty, cheerfulobedience to orders, force of character, honesty, sobriety andsteadiness, together with an intelligent knowledge of drills, regulations, and orders. They should exact prompt obedience from those to whom they giveorders, and should see that all soldiers under them perform theirmilitary duties properly. They must not hesitate to reprove them whennecessary, but such reproof must not be any more severe than theoccasion demands. The company officers must sustain the noncommissioned officers in theexercise of their authority, except, of course, when such authority isimproperly or unjustly exercised. If they do wrong, they should bepunished the same as the privates, but if it be simply an error ofjudgment they should merely be admonished. A noncommissioned officershould never be admonished in the presence of privates. Judicious praising of noncommissioned officers in the presence ofprivates is not only gratifying to the noncommissioned officer, but italso tends to enhance the respect and esteem of the privates for him. In addition to dividing the company into squads, each squad beingunder a noncommissioned officer as required by the Army Regulations, the company should also be divided into sections, each section beingin charge of a sergeant. The squads and sections should, as far aspossible, be quartered together in barracks, and the chiefs of squadsand the chiefs of sections should be held strictly responsible for theconduct, dress, cleanliness, and the care of arms of the members oftheir respective squads and sections. Not only does this throw thecorporals and the sergeants upon their own responsibility to a certainextent, but it also impresses upon them the importance of theirposition, and gets the privates in the habit of realizing andappreciating the authority exercised by noncommissioned officers. When practicable, the noncommissioned officers should have separaterooms or tents, and should mess together at tables separate from theprivates; for, everything that conduces to familiarity with inferiorstends to lower the dignity of the noncommissioned officers' position. Throw your noncommissioned officers upon their ownresponsibility--throw them into deep water, so to speak, where theywill either have to swim or sink. You can never tell what a man canreally do until you have given him a chance to show you--until youhave put him on his mettle--until you have tried him out. And veryoften men who seem to have nothing in them, men who have never beforebeen thrown upon their own responsibility, will surprise you. Do all you can to make your noncommissioned officers realize andappreciate the importance of their position. Consult them aboutdifferent matters--get their opinions about various things. When goingthrough the barracks at Saturday morning inspection, for instance, asyou come to the different squads, have the squad leaders step to thefront and follow you while you are inspecting their respective squads. If you find anything wrong with a man's bunk, speak to the squadleader about it. Also ask the squad leaders various questions abouttheir squads. Not only does such treatment of noncommissioned officers make themappreciate the importance, responsibility and dignity of theirposition, but it also gives them more confidence in themselves andraises them in the eyes of the privates. Noncommissioned officers should always be addressed by their titles, by both officers and soldiers. Noncommissioned officers are forbidden by regulations to act asbarbers, or as agents for laundries, or in any other position of asimilar character. Everything possible should be done by the company officers to instructthe noncommissioned officers properly in their duties. [8] So far as the company is concerned, the noncommissioned officers areexpected to assist the company commander in carrying out his ownorders and those of his superiors--they should see that all companyorders are obeyed and that the known wishes of the captain are carriedout. If, for instance, the captain should tell the first sergeant thatthe men in the company may play cards among themselves, but thatnoncommissioned officers are not to play with privates and that menfrom other companies are not allowed to take part in, or to be presentat the games, then it is the duty of the first sergeant to see thatthese instructions are carried out--it is his duty to make frequentinspections of the tables at which the men may be playing to see thatno noncommissioned officers are playing and that no outsiders arepresent. The first sergeant who confined himself to publishing theorder to the company and then doing nothing more, would be neglectfulof his proper duty. Noncommissioned officers clothed in the proper uniform of their gradeare on duty at all times and places for the suppression of disorderlyconduct on the part of members of the company in public places. Mencreating disorder will be sent to their quarters in arrest and thefacts reported to the company commander without delay. Noncommissioned officers can do much to prevent the commission ofoffenses by members of their commands, both when on and when off duty, and such prevention is as much their duty as reporting offenses afterthey are committed; in fact, it is much better to prevent the offensethan to bring the offender to trial. Company commanders should drill their noncommissioned officersthoroughly in the principles of discipline. =875. Noncommissioned Officers Authorized to Confine Enlisted Men. = Acompany or detachment commander may delegate to his noncommissionedofficers the authority to confine enlisted men in the guardhouse andto place them in arrest in quarters, provided the case is immediatelyreported to the company or detachment commander, who confirms the actof the noncommissioned officer and adopts it as his own. --W. D. Decision, December, 1905. =876. Reduction and Resignation. = A noncommissioned officer shouldnever be reduced to ranks, except for grave and sufficient reasons. Nothing demoralizes the noncommissioned officers of a company so muchand upsets discipline to such an extent as the feeling that upon theslightest pretext or fancy one is to be sent back to the ranks, toassociate with the privates he has been required to discipline. In some regiments noncommissioned officers are permitted to send informal resignations, while in other regiments they are not, but, withthe approval of the company commander, they may ask for reduction, giving proper, satisfactory and specific reasons. Of course, resignations submitted in a spirit of accepted insubordination orpique should not be considered, nor should they ever be insubstitution for deserved disciplinary punishment. If anoncommissioned officer has good reasons for requesting reduction andthe granting of the request would not result in detriment to thecompany, there is no reason why his application should not befavorably considered. However, in such a case, the noncommissionedofficer should consult his company commander before submitting hisrequest in writing. It is thought the preponderance of custom isagainst considering formal resignations. Contentment and Harmony =877. = The officers of the company should do everything possible tomake the organization contented and harmonious. Contentment andharmony are not only conducive to good discipline and efficiency, butthey also make the government of the company easy and reducedesertions to a minimum. The showing of favoritism on the part of the captain is always a causeof great dissatisfaction amongst the soldiers in the company. Soldiersdo not care how strict the captain is, just so he is fair andimpartial, treating all men alike. =878. The Mess. = The captain should give the mess his constantpersonal attention, making frequent visits to the kitchen anddining-room while the soldiers are at meals so as to see for himselfwhat they are getting, how it is served, etc. It is not saying too much to state that, in time of peace, a good messis the real basis of the contentment of a company. Ascertain what the soldiers like to eat and then gratify theirappetites as far as practicable. Be careful that the cook or the mess sergeant doesn't fall into a rutand satiate the soldiers day after day with the same dishes. Give the ration your personal attention--know yourself what thecompany is entitled to, how much it is actually getting, what thesavings amount to, etc. =879. Library and Amusement Room. = A library and an amusement room, supplied with good books, magazines, papers, a billiard or pool table, and a phonograph, are a source of much pleasure and contentment. =880. Athletic Apparatus. = A judicious investment of the company fundin baseballs, bats, dumb bells, Indian clubs, boxing gloves and otherathletic goods, and the encouragement of baseball, basketball, quoits, etc. , are in the interest of harmony and happiness. Rewards and Privileges =881. = 1. Deny all passes and requests for privileges of men whoseconduct is not good, and on the other hand grant to men whose conductis good, as many indulgences as is consistent with discipline. 2. Judicious praise in the presence of the first sergeant, a fewnoncommissioned officers, or the entire company, depending uponcircumstances, very often accomplishes a great deal. After theaccording of such praise, let your action toward the man show that hisgood conduct is appreciated and that it has raised him in yourestimation, and make him feel you are keeping your eye on him to seewhether he will continue in his well doing. 3. Publication of commendatory orders, desirable special duty details, etc. 4. Promotion, and extra duty details which carry extra pay. 5. Meritorious conduct of importance should be noted in the soldier'smilitary record and also on his discharge. 6. At the weekly company inspection, each chief of squad picks out theneatest and cleanest man in his squad--the captain then inspects themen so selected, the neatest and cleanest one being excused from oneor two tours of kitchen police, or some other disagreeable duty; orgiven a two days' pass. NOTE: Some officers do not think that good conduct should be especially rewarded, but that if all soldiers be held strictly accountable for their actions by a system of strict discipline, good conduct attains its own reward in the immunities it enjoys. =882. Company punishment. = It is neither necessary nor desirable tobring every dereliction of duty before a court-martial for trial. Infact, the invariable preferring of charges for minor[9] offenses will, as a rule, injure rather than help the discipline of a command. The104th Article of War states, "The commanding officer of anydetachment, company, or higher command may, for minor offenses notdenied by the accused, impose disciplinary punishments upon persons ofhis command without the intervention of a court-martial, unless theaccused demands trial by court-martial. " The disciplinary punishmentsauthorized may include admonition, reprimand, withholding ofprivileges, extra fatigue, and restriction to certain specifiedlimits, but shall not include forfeiture of pay or confinement underguard. (Par. 333, Manual for Courts-Martial. ) Some Efficacious Forms of Company Punishment =883. = 1. Extra fatigue under the Company Supply Sergeant or thenoncommissioned officer in charge of quarters, cleaning up around andin the company quarters, scrubbing pots, scouring tin pans, polishingstoves, cutting wood, policing the rears, cutting grass, pullingweeds, polishing the brass and nickel parts in the water closets andbath rooms, washing and greasing leather, cleaning guns, boilinggreasy haversacks, and in camp, digging drains and working around slopholes. If the work be done well the offender may be let off sooner--if thework be not done well, he may be tried for it. 2. Men may not be allowed to leave the immediate vicinity of thebarracks for periods ranging from one to ten days, during which timethey are subject to all kinds of disagreeable fatigue, and required toreport to the N. C. O. In charge of quarters at stated hours. 3. Breaking rocks for a given number of days. For every man sopunished, a private of the same company is detailed as a sentinel andfor every four men a corporal is detailed in addition--the idea beingto cause every man in each organization to take an interest inpreventing his own comrades from violating rules and regulations. 4. When two soldiers get into a row that is not of a serious nature, agood plan is to set them at work scrubbing the barrack windows--one onthe outside and one on the inside, making them clean the same pane atthe same time. They are thus constantly looking in each other's facesand before the second window is cleaned they will probably be laughingat each other and part friends rather than nursing their wrath. 5. Confinement to barracks, reporting to the noncommissioned officerin charge of quarters once every hour, from reveille to, say, 9 P. M. NOTE: Some company commanders follow, for moral effect, the practice of publishing to their companies all summary court convictions of soldiers belonging to the organization. Withholding of Privileges 1. Withholding of passes and of credit at the post exchange. 2. Withholding of furloughs. =884. Control of Drunken and Obscene Men. = In order to control drunkenand obscene men, they have been bucked and gagged until sufficientlysober to regain self-control and quiet down. The use of a cold waterhose in such cases has been known to accomplish good results. Greatcare and judgment, however, should be exercised and no more force usedthan is absolutely necessary. It may also be said that persistently filthy men have been washed andscrubbed. =885. = Saturday morning and other company inspections are intended toshow the condition of the organization regarding its equipment, military appearance and general fitness for service, and thecondition of the quarters as regards cleanliness, order, etc. Usuallyeveryone except the guard, one cook, and others whose presenceelsewhere can not be spared, are required to attend inspections, appearing in their best clothes, their arms and accouterments beingshipshape and spick and span in every respect. A man appearing at inspection with arms and equipments not in propershape, especially if he be a recruit or if it be his first offense, may be turned out again several hours later, fully armed and equipped, for another inspection, instead of being tried by summary court. Property Responsibility =886. = Special attention should be given to the care andaccountability of all company property. 1. All property (tents, axes, spades, chairs, hatchets, etc. ) shouldbe plainly marked with the letter of the company. 2. Keep a duplicate copy of every memorandum receipt given forproperty, and when such property is turned in or another officer'smemorandum receipt is given covering the property, don't fail to getyour original memorandum from the quartermaster. 3. See that the quartermaster gives you credit for all articles turnedin, or property accounted for on statement of charges, proceedings ofa surveying officer or otherwise. 4. Have a settlement with the quartermaster at the end of everyquarter as required by Army Regulations, taking an inventory of allproperty held on memorandum receipt and submitting to thequartermaster a statement of charges and a certified list of the chinaand glassware unavoidably broken during the quarter. 5. Keep an account of all articles issued to the men, turned in to thequartermaster, condemned, expended, lost, stolen or destroyed. 6. Worn out and unserviceable, property that is beyond repair in thecompany should be submitted to the action of a surveying officer, theSurvey Reports (Form No. 196, A. G. O. ) being prepared in triplicate, and submitted to the commanding officer, who will appoint a surveyingofficer. No property that can be repaired in the company should everbe submitted to the action of a surveying officer or inspector. Inthis connection company commanders and supply sergeants should bethoroughly familiar with Ordnance Department pamphlet No. 1965 and G. O. 26, 1917, the two covering the care, repair and disposition ofunserviceable Ordnance equipment. 7. Property that is to be submitted to the action of a surveyingofficer or an inspector should always first be carefully examined bythe responsible officer in person, who should be prepared to give allnecessary information in regard to it. The property should be arranged in the order of enumeration in thesurvey or the inventory report, and should be arranged in rows offive, ten, or some other number, so that the numbers of the variousarticles can be counted at a glance. The Army Regulations require that the responsible officer shall bepresent at the inspection of property by a regular inspector. Heshould also be present when property is acted on by a surveyingofficer. 8. All company property (Ordnance, Quartermaster, Signal and Engineer)except the litter (Medical Department) is gotten from the unit supplyofficer on memorandum receipt. The litter is gotten from the surgeonon memorandum receipt. Settlements are required to be made quarterlywith the officers concerned, and also when relinquishing command. Company Paperwork =887. Scope of subject. = To cover in full the subject of companypaperwork would require more space than it is practicable to spare ina manual of this nature, and consequently only brief reference is madeherein to the principal books, records and papers connected with theadministration of a company. The subject of company paperwork, as well as Army administration ingeneral, is covered in full in _Army Paperwork_, published by Geo. Banta Publishing Co. , Menasha, Wis. Price $2. 00, postpaid. In connection with company paperwork, it may be remarked thatnow-a-days no company office is complete without a typewriter. Forall-around field and garrison work the CORONA, which is usedthroughout the Army, is recommended. Not only is it less bulky andlighter than other machines, but it is simpler of construction andwill stand harder usage. The Corona Folding Stand adds very much tothe convenience of the machine for field use. =888. Morning Report. = Which shows, at the hour the report issubmitted, the exact condition of the company as to the number ofofficers and men present for duty, sick, absent, etc. All changessince the last report (the day before) are shown by name, under"Remarks, " on the right-hand page, and by number on the left-handpage. In case of no change since last report, note, "No change, "under, "Remarks, " and also on the left-hand page. (See model givenbelow. ) [Illustration: Fig. 1] [Illustration: Fig. 2] NOTE. The numbers 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, etc. , entered by hand on the left inmodel, and which show the number of days from each printed number(date) to the end of the month, are entered the beginning of eachmonth, and are a convenience in showing at once the number of rationsto be added or deducted in the case of men joining or leaving thecompany. =889. Daily Sick Report. = On which are entered the names of allenlisted men requiring medical attention and such of the companyofficers as may be excused from duty because of illness. The report issigned each day by the surgeon and the company commander, and showswhether or not the sickness was incurred in line of duty. [Illustration: Fig. 3] =890. Duty Roster. = On which is kept a record of all details for guardduty, kitchen police, and other details for service in garrison and inthe field, except the authorized special and extra duty details. Forinstructions regarding the keeping of roster, see, "Details andRosters, " Manual of Interior Guard Duty and the Model and instructionson the form itself. =891. Files of Orders. = A file will be kept of all orders issued bythe company commander. Files will also be kept of all orders andinstructions received from higher authority. =892. Company Fund Book. = In which are entered all receipts to, andexpenditures from, the company fund, together with the monthlyproceeding of the Company Council of Administration, and a list ofproperty, with cost thereof, purchased from the company fund. Themodel in the front of the book shows how the account is to be kept. =893. Correspondence Book, with index. = In which is entered a brief ofeach item of correspondence in respect to which a record is necessary, and a notation of the action taken thereon. =894. Document File=, being the original documents or communicationswhen these are retained, and carbon, letter press, or other copies ofletters, indorsements, or telegrams sent in regard to the same, all ofwhich are filed according to serial numbers. =895. Delinquency Record=, in which are noted the disciplinarypunishments awarded by the company commander in compliance with theprovisions of Army Regulations. =896. Property Responsibility. = Two loose-leaf books in which arelisted, in one all articles of quartermaster property, and in theother, all articles of ordnance property, issued each soldier for hispersonal use. =897. Service Record. = (Formerly known as "Descriptive List. ") One foreach member of the company, in which is kept a full description ofhim, including date of enlistment, personnel description, record ofdeposits, trial by court-martial, record of vaccination, clothingaccount, etc. =898. Descriptive Card of Public Animals. = To be kept in organizationssupplied with public animals. =899. Retained Copies of Rolls, Returns, etc. = Retained copies of thevarious rolls, reports, and returns (property and other) that arerequired by orders and regulations. =900. Memorandum Receipts=, showing all articles of ordnancequartermaster, and other property that may be held on memorandumreceipt, with date of receipt, from whom received, etc. The companycommander has a quarterly settlement with the staff officersconcerned. =901. Abstract Record of Memorandum Receipts. = For keeping a record ofproperty issued on memorandum receipt, in connection with the unitaccountability equipment. =902. Record of Rifles=, showing the number of the rifle, the Arsenalwhere made, date of receipt, to whom issued, and number of shots firedeach target season. (Note. Geo. Banta Publishing Co. , Menasha, Wis. , print an excellent card for this purpose. ) =903. Summary Court Records. = Commanding officers are required tofurnish organization commanders with true copies of all summary courtrecords relating to men of their organizations, which papers form apart of the records of the organization. =904. Statement of Clothing Charged to Enlisted Men. = When clothing isdrawn individually from the quartermaster, the Individual ClothingSlips are entered on the Statement of Clothing Charged to EnlistedMen, which is filed with the requisition to which it pertains. =905. Abstract of Clothing. = All individual clothing slips are enteredon this abstract as the issues are made, the total quantities andmoney values being determined and the abstract completed at the end ofmonth or when the organization leaves the vicinity of the issuingquartermaster for an extended period. At the close of period covered, the organization commander compares his copy of the abstract with thequartermaster's copy, and it is then filed with the IndividualClothing Slips and Statement of Clothing Charged to Enlisted men. =906. Record of Size of Clothing. = A record of the sizes of clothingof every man in the company as ascertained by measurement. =907. Company Target Records. = An individual record is kept for eachman of the company and for every officer firing, on which are enteredthe record rifle practice and the qualification for each targetseason. A similar record is kept in the case of those required to firewith the pistol. Records are also kept of the company combat firingand the proficiency test, and of the combat practice. The combatpractice records are kept until the close of the following targetseason, when they may be destroyed. =908. Company Return. = On the first day of each month a Company Returnfor the preceding month is submitted to regimental headquarters. Thereturn gives by name all changes since rendition of last return in thecase of officers, and by number all changes in the case of enlistedmen, and shows the condition of the company at midnight of the lastday of the month for which rendered. All officers, present and absent, are accounted for by name, and under "Record of Events, " is given abrief statement of the duties performed by the company during themonth, including marches made, actions in which engaged, etc. See nextpage for a "Model" Company Return. [Illustration: Fig. 4] [Illustration: Fig. 5] =909. Ration return. = In addition to rations, on this form areobtained soap, candles, matches, toilet paper, rock salt, vinegar foranimals, flour for paste in target practice, towels, and ice, theallowances of which are prescribed in the Army Regulations. The best way to show how a ration return is prepared is to give a"model" and then explain how the figures thereon were obtained. The figures in the above "model" were obtained as follows: (a) The enlisted strength of Co. "H, " 50th Inf. , present and absent according to the morning report of Feb. 29/16, was 97 (b) Deduct from the above the number of men absent according to the morning report of Feb. 29/16, and for whom rations will not, therefore, be drawn for any part or for the whole of the month of March, the number of men absent being (assumed) as follows: On furlough 3 On detached service 2 Absent sick 2 Absent in confinement 1 Present sick in hospital 4 Attached to and rationed with the band 2 14 --------- Balance 83 (c) Add the number of men attached to the company for rations, which (it is assumed) consists of two general prisoners 2 --------- TOTAL 85 That is to say, we have 85 men for whom one ration per day must be drawn for the month of March, that is to say, 31 days. Hence, the total number of rations will be, 85 × 31 = 2635 rations. (d) Additions and deductions must be made as follows: _Additions_ For the men who were attached to the company for rations and who joined during the month of February, from absent sick, furlough, detached service, etc. , and which (let us assume) the "Plus" column of "Rations" on the company morning report for February shows to be 150 _Deductions_ For the men who left the company during the month of February, on account of being sent to the hospital sick, going on furlough, etc. , and which (let us assume) the "Minus" column of "Rations" on the company morning report for February shows to be 200 Leaving us (a "Net correction") to be _added_ of 50 --------- And making the total number due the company for the month of March 2585 EXTRA ISSUES The Army Regulations fixes the maximum allowance of soap, toiletpaper, matches, etc. , the commanding officer being authorized, if heso desires, to determine the allowances, with the prescribed maximum. The allowances are based either on so much per ration, per so manyrations, or per organization. In the case of candles and matches theallowance is left entirely to the commanding officer. [Illustration: Fig. 6: "Model" Ration Return] _Example_ (See "model" ration return above) _Soap. _ Allowance is 0. 64 for each ration or 4 lbs. To 100 rations. 25. 85 × 4 = 103. 40, i. E. , the company is entitled to 103 lbs. Of soap for the month of March. _Toilet paper. _ Allowance is 1000 sheets for every 60 rations, 2585 ÷ 60 = 43+, that is, the company is entitled to 43 packages of toilet paper. _Matches. _ Allowance of matches for lighting fires and lights, for which fuel and the illumination supplies are issued, is such as the commanding officer may order as necessary. _Flour. _ Allowance of flour for paste used in target practice is 50 lbs. For each troop or company for the practice season. FOOTNOTES: [8] Silicate Roll Blackboards, which are perfectly flexible and can berolled tightly, like a map, without injury, may be obtained from theNew York Silicate Book Slate Co. , 20 Vesey St. , New York. They aremade in various sizes, about the most convenient for use innoncommissioned officers' schools is No. 3, three by four feet--price$2. [9] For example, noisy or disorderly conduct in quarters, failure tosalute officers, slovenly dressed at formations, rifle equipments notproperly cleaned at inspection or other formations, overstaying pass, short absences without leave and absences from formations (especiallyfor first offense). CHAPTER II DISCIPLINE =910. Definition. = Discipline is not merely preservation of order, faithful performance of duty, and prevention of offenses--in otherwords, discipline is not merely compliance with a set of rules andregulations drawn up for the purpose of preserving order in anorganization. This is only one phase of discipline. In its deeper andmore important sense discipline may be defined as the habit ofinstantaneous and instinctive obedience under any and allcircumstances--it is the habit whereby the very muscles of the soldierinstinctively obey the word of command, so that under whatevercircumstances of danger or death the soldier may hear that word ofcommand, even though his mind be too confused to work, his muscleswill obey. It is toward this ultimate object that all rules ofdiscipline tend. In war, the value of this habit of instantaneous andinstinctive obedience is invaluable, and during the time of peaceeverything possible should be done to ingrain into the very blood ofthe soldier this spirit, this habit, of instantaneous, instinctiveobedience to the word of command. =911. Methods of Attaining Good Discipline. = Experience shows thatdrill, routine, military courtesy, attention to details, properrewards for good conduct, and invariable admonition or punishment ofall derelictions of duty, are the best methods of attaining gooddiscipline--that they are the most effective means to that end. =912. Importance. = History shows that the chief factor of success inwar is discipline, and that without discipline no body of troops canhold their own against a well-directed, well-disciplined force. =913. Sound System. = We must bear in mind that what may be considereda sound system of discipline at one epoch or for one nation, may beinapplicable at another epoch or for another nation. In other words, sound discipline depends upon the existing state of civilization andeducation, the political institutions of the country, the nationaltrait and the national military system. For example, the system ofdiscipline that existed in the days of Frederick the Great, and which, in modified form, exists today in certain European armies, whereby thesoldier was so inured to a habit of subjection that he became a sortof machine--a kind of automaton. Such a system of discipline, whileanswering admirably well its purpose at that time and for thosenations, would not do at all in this day and generation, and with apeople like ours, in whom the spirit of personal freedom andindividual initiative are born. Of course, the discipline that willinsure obedience under any and all conditions--the discipline thatwill insure prompt and unhesitating obedience to march, to attack, tocharge--is just as important today as it was a thousand years ago, butwe can not attain it by the machine-making methods of former times. The system we use must be in keeping with the nationalcharacteristics of our people and the tactical necessities of the day, the latter requiring individual initiative. According to the oldsystem, the company commander imposed his will upon a body ofsubmissive units; under the new system the company commander, backedby authority and greater knowledge, leads obedient, willing units, exacting ready obedience and loyal coöperation. The company commanderused to drive; now he leads. =914. Means of attaining and maintaining such discipline. = 1. Explain to the men the importance of discipline and its value onthe field of battle, and give the reasons that makes it necessary tosubject soldiers to restrictions that they were not subjected to incivil life. 2. Do not impose unnecessary restrictions or hardships on your men, nor issue orders that have no bearing on their efficiency, health, cleanliness, orderliness, etc. 3. Demand a high standard of excellence in the performance of allduties whatsoever, and exact the utmost display of energy. A system of discipline based on the above principles develops habitsof self-control, self-reliance, neatness, order, and punctuality, andcreates respect for authority and confidence in superiors. =915. Punishment. = In maintaining discipline, it must be rememberedthe object of punishment should be two-fold: (a) To prevent thecommission of offenses, and (b) to reform the offender. Punishmentshould, therefore, in degree and character depend upon the nature ofthe offense. Punishment should not be debasing or illegal, and thepenalty should be proportionate to the nature of the offense. If toogreat, it tends to arouse sympathy, and foster friends for theoffender, thus encouraging a repetition of the offense. A distinction, therefore, should be made between the deliberate disregard of ordersand regulations, and offenses which are the result of ignorance orthoughtlessness. In the latter case the punishment should be for thepurpose of instruction and should not go to the extent of inflictingunnecessary humiliation and discouragement upon the offender. General Principles =916. = In the administration of discipline the following principlesshould be observed. 1. Everyone, officers and soldiers, should be required and made toperform their full duty. If the post commander, for instance, requiresthe company commanders to do their full duty, they will require theirnoncommissioned officers to do their full duty, and thenoncommissioned officers will in turn require the men to do the same. 2. Subordinates should be held strictly responsible for the propergovernment and administration of their respective commands, and allchanges or corrections should be made through them. 3. Subordinates should have exclusive control of their respectivecommands, and all orders, instructions and directions affecting theircommands should be given through them. 4. If, in case of emergency, it be not practicable to make certainchanges or corrections, or to give certain orders, instructions ordirections, through the subordinates, they should be notified at onceof what has been done. 5. After a subordinate has been placed in charge of a certain duty, all instructions pertaining thereto should be given through him, andall meddling and interfering should be avoided. Interference bysuperiors relieves the subordinate of responsibility, and causes himto lose interest, become indifferent, and do no more than he isobliged to do. 6. The certainty of reward for, and appreciation of, meritoriousconduct, should equal the certainty of punishment for dereliction ofduty. 7. It is the duty of an officer or noncommissioned officer who givesan order to see that it is obeyed; carrying out orders received by himdoes not end with their perfunctory transmission to subordinates--thisis only a small part of his duty. He must personally see that theorders so transmitted are made effective. 8. The treatment of soldiers should be uniform and just, and under nocircumstances should a man be humiliated unnecessarily or abused. Reproof and punishment must be administered with discretion andjudgment, and without passion; for an officer or noncommissionedofficer who loses his temper and flies into a tantrum has failed toobtain his first triumph in discipline. He who can not control himselfcan not control others. 9. Punishment should invariably follow dereliction of duty, for thefrequency of offenses depends, as a general rule, on the degree ofcertainty with which their commission is attended with punishment. When men know that their derelictions and neglects will be observedand reproved, they will be much more careful than they would beotherwise--that's human nature. A strict adherence to the above general principles will instill intothe minds of those concerned, respect for authority and a spirit ofobedience. PART III MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS PERTAINING TO COMPANY TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION CHAPTER I GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPANY TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION[10] =917. Object of Training and Instruction. = The object of training andinstructing a company is to thoroughly knit together its differentparts, its various elements (individuals, squads and platoons), into acomplete, homogeneous mass, a cohesive unit, that will under any andall conditions and circumstances respond to the will of the captain--acohesive unit that knows how to march, that knows how to live properlyin camp, that knows how to fight and that can be readily handledtactically on the field of battle. In short, the object of trainingand instruction is to make out of the company an efficient, wieldyfighting weapon, to be manipulated by the captain. There is but oneway this object can be obtained, and that is by work, work, work--andthen more work--by constant care, attention and pains--by coöperation, by team work, among the officers, the noncommissioned officers and theprivates. =918. Method and Progression. = Arrangement is an essential of soundteaching. Training and instruction in order to be easily understoodand readily assimilated--in order to give the greatest results in theshortest time--must be carried on according to a methodical andprogressive plan. Each subject or subjects upon a knowledge of whichdepend the proper understanding and mastering of another, should bestudied and mastered before taking up the other subject, and theelementary and simpler aspects of a given subject must be masteredbefore taking up the higher and more difficult phases of the subject, which means that individual training and instruction must precede, andprovide a sound foundation for, collective training andinstruction--that is to say, for the higher tactical training andinstruction of the company as a unit. These basic, fundamentalprinciples of successful training and instruction apply to practicalas well as theoretical training. For instance, in the subject ofentrenchments we would first instruct the men individually in the useof the tools and in the construction and use of the trenches, afterwhich we would pass on to the tactical use of entrenchments by thecompany. Also, in training and instructing the company in firediscipline, we would first explain to the men the power and tacticalvalue of the rifle, and instruct them in their duties on the firingline as regards adjustment of sights, attention to commands, economyof ammunition, etc. ; we would explain to the platoon commanders andguides their duties as regards control of fire, enforcement of firediscipline, etc. , after which we would practice the company as a unitin fire action, and fire control, ending up with an exercise showingthe tactical application of the rules and principles explained. Andagain, in the training and instruction of the company in the attack, we would first train and instruct the company in all the formationsand operations that naturally precede an attack (patrolling, outposts, advance guard, rear guard), and also in those that form an inherentpart of an attack (extended order, field firing, use of cover, etc. ). =919. Program. = The training and instruction of a company, whetherpractical or theoretical, should be carried on in accordance with afixed, definite program, in which the subjects are arranged in anatural, progressive order. =920. Simultaneous Instruction and Training. = The next question thatpresents itself is: Should instruction and training in each branch becompleted before proceeding to the next, or should instruction andtraining be carried on simultaneously in two or more differentsubjects, as one, for example, are taught mathematics, French andhistory at the same time, a different hour of the day being devoted toeach subject? In other words, should we, for instance, devote one hourof the day to attack, one hour to defense, and one hour to the serviceof security, thus preventing the soldier from getting weary of doingthe same thing that whole day? Our answer is: 1st. If the instruction and training is being given on the groundwhere the application of the principles of any given subject is variedso much by the type of the ground and the nature of the situation, each type of ground affording a different solution of the problem, itis thought the best results can be obtained by finishing each subjectbefore proceeding to the next, thus not losing the "atmosphere" of onesubject by switching to the next, and also confusing the minds of themen with different principles. 2nd. However, if the instruction and training be theoretical and thetime available each day be several hours, better results can beobtained by studying two or more subjects simultaneously. This wouldalso be the case if the work be practical, but if it be such that thetype of the ground and the nature of the situation will not ofthemselves afford variety in the application of the same principles. =921. Responsibility. = The Army Regulations and War Department ordershold the company commander responsible for the training andinstruction of the company. The subject is a most important one andshould receive serious thought and study. Before admonishing one ofyour men for not knowing a subject, always ask yourself, "Have I madean effort to teach it to him?" =922. Interest. = Special effort should be made to make the trainingand instruction of the company interesting, so that the work will notbecome monotonous and irksome, and thus cause the men to lose interestand get stale. To accomplish this, these points should be borne inmind: _Variety. _ Inject variety into the work. Do not keep the men too longat one thing. _Clearness. _ Every exercise, lesson or lecture should have in view awell-defined object, the meaning and importance of which must beexplained to, and understood by, the men at the beginning of theexercise, lesson or lecture. In other words, at the beginning, explainthe main, governing idea of the subject, and then take pains toexplain in a simple, conversational way each phase as you come to it. Give the reasons for everything. You can not expect men to take aninterest in things the meaning of which they do not understand and thereason for which they do not see. Make sure by asking questions ofdifferent ones as you go along that your explanations are understood. _Thoroughness. _ Every lecture, talk, drill or exercise should becarefully planned and arranged beforehand. Remember, that the men whoare going to listen to your talk--the men who are going to go throughthe exercise--have the right to expect this of you, and you have noright to compel them to listen to lots of disconnected, half-bakedstatements, or make them go through a disjointed exercise or drill. Inthe case of tactical exercises always, if practicable, visit andexamine the terrain beforehand. Of course, all this will meanwork--additional work--but remember the government pays you to work. _Reality. _ Make all practical work as real as possible--do not permitthe commission of absurdities--do not let men do things whichmanifestly they would not be able to do in actual practice--and youyourself be sure to make your exercises and tactical scheme as likereal conditions of warfare as possible. =923. Individual Initiative. = The effective range and great power ofmodern firearms cause troops in battle to be spread out over largeareas, thus decentralizing control over men and operations, andconsequently increasing the value and importance of individualinitiative. The company commander should, therefore, practice, accustom and encourage the privates, noncommissioned officers andlieutenants in the development and exercise of individual initiativeand responsibility. This should be borne in mind in all training andinstruction. Officers, noncommissioned officers and privates must not "lay down"just because they have no specific orders. Remember, the one thingabove all others that counts in war, is =action, initiative=. Indeed, 'tis better to have acted and lost than never to have acted at all. Listen to what the Chief of Staff of the Army has to say about this inthe preface to the Field Service Regulations: "Officers and men of allranks and grades are given a certain independence in the execution ofthe tasks to which they are assigned and are expected to showinitiative in meeting the different situations as they arise. Everyindividual, from the highest commander to the lowest private, mustalways remember that inaction and neglect of opportunities willwarrant more severe censure than an error in the choice of means. " =924. Determination and Individual Intelligence. = While the value ofdiscipline can hardly be overestimated, there are two other factors inbattle that are fully as important, if not more so, and they are, =determination= to win, and =individual intelligence=, which, in war, as in all other human undertakings, almost invariably spell success. Therefore, make these two factors one of the basic principles of theinstruction and training of the company, and do all you can to instillinto your men a spirit of determination, and to develop in themindividual intelligence. Every human being has in his soul a certainamount of determination, even though it be only enough to determineupon the small things of life. Some people are born with moredetermination than others, but it is a mistake to suppose that a manmust remain through life with the same amount of determination that hebrought into it. The attributes of the human mind, such asdetermination, bravery, ambition, energy, etc. , are all capable ofimprovement and also of deterioration. It is essential therefore, forus to endeavor by all means in our power to improve our strength ofcharacter--our determination. It is, of course, useless for us tolearn the art of war if we have not sufficient determination, when wemeet the enemy, to apply the principles we have studied. There is noreason, however, why every officer, noncommissioned officer andprivate should not improve his determination of character by carefultraining in peace. It can only be done by facing the difficulties, thoroughly understanding the dangers, and asking ourselves repeatedlywhether we are prepared to face the ordeal in war. Let us not think, in a vague sort of a way, that in war we shall be all right and do aswell as most people. We know that we are not gifted with tremendouspersonal courage, and we know that, whatever happens, we shall not runaway. But that is not enough. We must train ourselves to understandthat in the hour of trial we can harden our hearts, that we can assumethe initiative, and retain it by constant advance and constant attack;unless we can fill our hearts with the determination to win, we cannot hope to do our full duty on the field of battle and acquitourselves with credit. =925. The Human Element. = No system of training and instruction thatdoes not take into account human nature, can be thoroughly effective. The human element probably enters into war more than it does into anyother pursuit. The old idea of turning a human being into a machine, by means of discipline, and making him dread his captain more than theenemy, died long ago, especially with the American people. In modernwar success depends to a great extent upon the initiative, theindividual action of the soldier and this action is greatly influencedby the soldier's state of mind at the moment, by the power that can beexercised over his mind by his comrades and those leading him. Thecompany commander should, therefore, study the characteristics of thehuman mind with the object of ascertaining how he can influence themen under his command, so that in battle those human attributes whichare favorable to success, may be strengthened and those which arefavorable to defeat may be weakened. Of the former, courage, determination, initiative, respect, cheerfulness, comradeship, emulation and esprit de corps, are the principal ones; of the latter, fear, surprise, disrespect, and dejection, are the leading ones. Bymeans of good, sound discipline, we can create, improve and foster thequalities mentioned that are favorable to success, and we caneliminate to a considerable extent, if not entirely, those that aredetrimental to success. =926. Fear. = The emotion of fear acts more powerfully upon thefeelings of the individual soldier than any other emotion, and it isalso probably the most infectious. Fear in a mild form is present inevery human being. Nature wisely put it there, and society could notvery well get along without it. For example, we stop and look up anddown a crowded street before starting to cross, for fear of being runover; in going out in the cold we put on our overcoats, for fear ofcatching cold. In fact, we hardly do anything in life without takinga precaution of some kind. These are all examples of reasonable fear, which, within bounds is a perfectly legitimate attribute of a soldierin common with other human beings. For example, we teach the men totake advantage of cover when attacking, and we dig trenches when onthe defense, in both cases for fear of being shot by the enemy. It isthe unreasoning type of fear that plays havoc in war, and the mostdeadly and common form of it is a vague, indefinite, nameless dread ofthe enemy. If the average man was to analyze his feelings in war andwas to ask himself if he were actually afraid of being killed, hewould probably find that he was not. The ordinary soldier is preparedto take his chance, with a comfortable feeling inside him, that, although no doubt a number of people will be killed and wounded, hewill escape. If, then, a man is not unreasonably afraid of beingkilled or wounded, is it not possible by proper training andinstruction to overcome this vague fear of the enemy? Experience showsthat it is. If a soldier is suffering from this vague fear of theenemy, it will at least be a consolation to him to know that a greatmany other soldiers, including those belonging to the enemy, aresuffering in a similar manner, and that they are simply experiencingone of the ordinary characteristics of the human mind. If the soldierin battle will only realize that the enemy is just as much afraid ofhim as he is of the enemy, reason is likely to assert itself and to agreat extent overcome the unpleasant feelings inside him. GeneralGrant, in his Memoirs, relates a story to the effect that in one ofhis early campaigns he was seized with an unreasonable fear of hisenemy, and was very much worried as to what the enemy was doing, when, all at once, it dawned upon him that his enemy was probably worryingequally as much about what he, Grant, was doing, and was probably asafraid as he was, if not even more so, and the realization of thispromptly dispelled all of his, Grant's, fear. Confidence in one'sability to fight well will also do much to neutralize fear, and if asoldier knows that he can shoot better, march better, and attackbetter, than his opponent, the confidence of success that he will, asa result, feel will do much to dispel physical fear. By sound andcareful training and instruction make your men efficient and thisefficiency will give them confidence in themselves, confidence intheir rifles, confidence in their bayonets, confidence in theircomrades and confidence in their officers. The physical methods of overcoming fear in battle are simply to directthe men's minds to other thoughts by giving them something for theirbodies and limbs to do. It is a well-known saying that a man in battlefrequently regains his lost courage by repeatedly firing off hisrifle, which simply means that his thoughts are diverted by physicalmovements. This is no doubt one of the reasons why the attack is somuch more successful in war than the defense, because in the attackthe men are generally moving forward and having their minds divertedby physical motion from this vague dread of the enemy. =927. Courage. = Courage, like all other human characteristics, is veryinfectious, and a brave leader who has no fear of the enemy willalways get more out of his men than one who is not so well equipped inthat respect. However, it is a well-known fact that a man may bebrave far above his fellows in one calling or occupation, andextremely nervous in another. For example, a man may have greatlydistinguished himself in the capture of a fort, who would not get on ahorse for fear of being kicked off. Courage of this kind is inducedchiefly by habit or experience--the man knows the dangers and how toovercome them, he has been through similar experiences before and hehas come out of them with a whole skin. This type of courage can bedeveloped by careful training during peace, and it can be increased byself-confidence--by so training the soldier that he knows and feels hewill know what to do in any emergency which may arise, and how to doit; he will not be surprised by the unexpected event, which invariablyoccurs, and he will understand others besides himself are beingtroubled by unpleasant feelings, which it is his duty as a man and asoldier to overcome. =928. Surprise. = Surprise may be said to be the mother of a panic, which is the worst form of fear. In such a case unreasoning fearsometimes turns into temporary insanity. Panic is most infectious, but, on the other hand, a panic can often be averted or stayed by thecourageous action of one or more individuals, who can thus imposetheir will on the mass and bring the people to a reasonable state ofmind. =Teach every man in the company that when surprised the onlyhope of success is to obey at once and implicitly the orders of hisimmediate commander. = Surprises in war are not limited to the ordinary acceptance of theterm, such as a sudden attack from an unexpected direction. Thesoldier who goes into battle, for instance, and hears the whiz of abullet, or sees a shell burst in front of him, is surprised if he hasnot been taught in peace that these things have to be faced, and thatfor one bullet that hurts anyone thousands have to be fired. Similarly, a man sees a comrade knocked over; the horrors of war areimmediately brought to him, and his courage begins to ebb--he has beensurprised, because he has not realized in peace that men are bound tobe killed in war. The whole atmosphere of the battlefield is asurprise to the average soldier with no previous experience--the enemyis everywhere, behind every bush, and lurking in every bit of cover, the air is full of bullets, and any advance towards theformidable-looking position held by the enemy is suicidal. However, ifthe soldier is properly trained and instructed in peace, he will notbe greatly surprised at his novel surroundings; he will know that theenemy is not everywhere, and that one bullet sounds much moredangerous than it really is. A bullet sounds quite close when it isfifty yards away, and there is a popular saying that a man's weight inlead is fired for every man that is killed in war. =929. Respect. = It is a mistake to imagine that all that is requiredfrom a soldier is respect to his officers and noncommissionedofficers. Self-respect is fully as important. A soldier is a humanbeing; if he possesses self-respect he will respect all that is goodin his comrades, and they will respect all that is good in him. A manwho respects himself knows how to respect other people. These are themen that form the backbone of the company, and are the best materialon which to work in order to raise the general standard of courage inBattle. From a purely military point of view, it is absolutelynecessary for an officer, noncommissioned officer, or private topossess some marked military qualifications in order to gain respectfrom others. This respect engenders confidence in others. Self-respect in theindividual can be encouraged, not by fulsome praise, but by a quietappreciation of the good military qualities displayed by him, and bymaking use of those qualities whenever an opportunity occurs. Forexample, if a soldier is seen to do a good piece of scouting orpatrolling, the first opportunity should be taken to give him asimilar task, if possible in a more responsible position or on a moreimportant occasion. Knowledge is a powerful factor in creatingrespect, and is probably second only to determination of character. Itis essential, therefore, that all officers and noncommissionedofficers should have a thorough knowledge of their duties--that theyshould be "on to their jobs. " =930. Cheerfulness. = Cheerfulness is a valuable military asset in war, and like all other characteristics of the human being, is veryinfectious, and in times of depression, such as during a long siege, or after the failure of an attack, it does more than anything else torestore the fighting power of the men. =931. Contentment. = Contentment amongst troops in war is dependentupon these main factors: good leading, good food, and sufficientshelter and sleep. Of these, good leading is by far the mostimportant, because it has been proved time and again that badly fedand badly quartered troops, who have suffered great hardships, willstill be content and will fight in the most gallant and vigorousmanner, provided they are well led. Although good leading emanates inthe first instance from the highest military authorities, a great dealdepends upon the company officers and noncommissioned officers. A goodleader as a rule is careful of the comforts of his men; he obtains thebest food and best shelter available, he does not wear out the men byunnecessary movements or unnecessary work, either in the field or incamp, and consequently when he does order them to do anything theyknow at once that it is necessary and they do it cheerfully. =932. Comradeship. = Comradeship is a very valuable militarycharacteristic. What a world of meaning there is in the words, "Me andmy bunkie. " A soldier may have many acquaintances and a number offriends, but he has but one "bunkie. " In times of great danger two menwho are "bunkies" will not shirk so easily as two independent men. Thebest in one man comes out to the surface and dominates any badmilitary points in the other. They can help each other in countlessways in war, and if one is unfortunately killed or wounded, the otherwill probably do his best to get even with the enemy at the earliestpossible opportunity. This spirit may not be very Christianlike, butit is very human and practical, and helps to win battles, and to winbattles is the only reason why soldiers go to war. ART OF INSTRUCTION ON THE GROUND =933. Advantages. = Whenever practicable, training and instructionshould, in whole or in part, be imparted on the ground, as this givesthe instruction a practical aspect that is most valuable, and enablesthe soldier to grasp and apply principles that he would not otherwiseunderstand. Knowledge that a man can not apply has no value. =934. Different Methods. = Instruction on the ground may be givenaccording to one of these three methods: _1st Method. _ By means of a talk or lecture prepare the minds of themen for the reception and retention of the subject to be explainedlater on the ground. In other words, first explain the principles ofthe subject and then put a "clincher" on the information thus impartedby taking the men to some suitable ground, assuming certain situationsand then by quizzing different men see how they would apply theprinciples just explained in the talk or lecture. For example, after alecture on the selection of fire-positions take the men to somesuitable nearby place and explain to them that the company isattacking toward that house and is being fired upon from thatdirection. Then continue: =Captain:= Remember what I told you about the selection of goodfire-positions during the advance. We want to use our rifles witheffect, so we must be able to see the position of the enemy. On theother hand, we want to avoid being hit ourselves, if possible; so, wewould like to get as much cover as possible. Now, Smith, do you thinkwhere we are at present standing is a good place for a fire-position? =Smith:= No, sir. =Captain:= Why not? =Smith:= We can see the enemy from here, but he can see us better thanwe can see him, and can hit us easier than we can hit him. =Captain:= Jones, can you choose a better place, either to the frontor rear of where we are now standing? =Jones:= I would choose a position along that row of bushes, aboutfifty yards to the front. =Captain:= Why? =Jones:= Because, etc. , etc. Twenty minutes' instruction in this manner, after a lecture, willfirmly fix in the brains of the men the principles explained in thelecture. It is a good plan to repeat the salient points of the lecture in thequestions, as was done in the first question asked above, or to do soin some other way. If a man can not give an answer, or choose a suitable place, explainthe requirements again and help him to use his common sense. _2d Method. _ By practicing the men on the ground in the subject aboutwhich the talk or lecture was delivered. _3d Method. _ This may be called the ocular demonstration method, whichconsists in having a part of the company go through the exercise ordrill, while the rest of the company observes what is being done. Thismethod is illustrated by the following example: =935. Attack. = The company commander has just delivered a talk to thecompany on the second stage of the attack, and has marched the companyto a piece of ground suitable for practicing this particularoperation, and which the company commander has himself visitedbeforehand (The ground should always be visited beforehand by thecompany commander, who should be thoroughly familiar with it. Ifpossible, ground suitable for practicing the operation in questionshould always be selected. ) The operation should begin about 1200yards from the enemy's position. After pointing out the enemy'sposition to the company, the particular part of his line it isintended to assault and the direction the company is to advance, thecompany commander would then proceed something like this: "We are partof a battalion taking part in a battle, and there are companies to ourright and left, with a support and reserve in our rear. So far we havebeen advancing over ground that is exposed to hostile artillery fire(or not exposed to hostile artillery fire, according to the actualcountry). We have just come under the enemy's infantry fire also, andconsequently we must change our method of advancing. Our immediateobject is to get forward, without expending more ammunition than isabsolutely necessary, to a position close enough to the enemy toenable us to use our rifles with such deadly effect that we will beable to gain a superiority of fire. Now, is this place sufficientlyclose for the purpose? No, it is not--it's entirely too far away. Isthat next ridge just in front of us close enough? No, it is not; it isat least 1, 000 yards from the enemy's position. As a rule, we must getfrom eight to six hundred yards from the enemy's position before thereal struggle for superiority of fire begins. "The following are the main points to which attention must be paidduring this part of the advance: "1. We must halt in good fire position from which we can see and fireat the enemy, and from which we can not be seen very clearly. "2. We must advance very rapidly over any open ground that is exposedto the enemy's artillery or rifle fire. "3. We must find halting places, if possible under cover, or under thebest cover available, so as to avoid making our forward rushes so longthat the men will get worn out, and begin to straggle long before theyget close enough to the enemy to use their rifles with deadly effect. "4. Whenever possible, company scouts should be sent on ahead toselect fire-positions. " Of course, the above points will have been explained already in thelecture, but this short summary is given in order to focus the mindsof the men upon the action that must be taken by the privates, andsquad leaders and the platoon commanders. We now take one platoon and the remainder of the company looks on. Theplatoon commander is reminded that he is under artillery and infantryfire, and is then directed to advance, in proper formation, to thefirst fire-position available. We will suppose there is a gentle slope up to the next ridge orundulation of the ground, and that there are no obstructions to theview except those afforded by the ground itself. The platoon nowadvances, the captain remaining with the rest of the company, pointingout mistakes as well as good points, and asking the men questions, such as: =Captain:= Corporal Smith, should the whole platoon have gone forwardtogether, or would it have been better to advance by squads? =Corporal Smith:= I think it should have advanced by squads. =Captain:= No, it was all right to advance as they did. At thisdistance the enemy's infantry fire would not be very deadly, theplatoon is well extended as skirmishers, it would take considerablylonger to go forward to the next position by successive squads and wewant to advance at this stage as rapidly as possible; for, the longerwe took, the longer would the men be exposed to fire, and consequentlythe greater would be the number of casualties. =Captain:= Sergeant Jones, why did the platoon advance at a run whenmoving down the slope, and begin to walk just before reaching the footof the slope? =Sergeant Jones:= Because the slope is exposed and it was necessary toget over it as quickly as possible. They began to walk just beforereaching the foot of the slope, because they struck dead ground andwere covered from the enemy's fire by the ridge in front. =Captain:= Corporal Adams, shouldn't the platoon have halted when itreached cover, so as to give the men a rest? =Corporal Adams:= No, sir; the men had not run very far and walkinggave them sufficient rest. It would have been an unnecessary loss oftime to halt. =Captain:= Harris, why did that man run on ahead as soon as theplatoon halted? =Pvt. Harris:= So he could creep up the crest of the ridge and liedown in exactly the spot that is the best fire-position--that is, where he can just see to fire over the crest and where the enemy cannot see him. =Captain:= Yes, that's right. All the men in the platoon might notstop at the best fire-position and in the hurry and excitement of themoment the platoon commander might also fail to do so, but if a mangoes forward and lies down, the whole platoon knows that they must notgo beyond him. Individual men who, owing to slight undulations ofground, may not be able to fire when they halt in line with this man, can creep up until they can see. Others who, for the same reason asregards the ground, find that if they get up on a line with the manthey will be unduly exposed, will halt before that time. =Captain:= Sergeant Roberts, is it necessary for another platoon toprovide covering fire during the advance of the platoon? =Sergeant Roberts:= No sir. At this range the enemy's infantry firewould not be very effective, and it is important to husband ourammunition for the later stages of the attack. Having asked any other questions suggested by the situation or theground, the captain will then take the rest of the company forwardover the ground covered by the platoon, halting at the place where theplatoon changed its pace from a rush to a walk, so that the men cansee for themselves that cover from fire has been reached. He will thenmove the rest of the company forward and tell them to halt and liedown in what each man considers to be the best fire-position, notnecessarily adopting the same position as that chosen by the leadingplatoon. The platoon commanders will then go along their platoons andpoint out any mistakes. The leading platoon will now join the company and another platoon willbe deployed in the fire position, the platoon commander being directedto advance to the next fire-position. As we are now about 1, 000 yards from the enemy's position the questionwill again arise as to whether covering fire is necessary. If the enemy's rifle fire were heavy and accurate it might benecessary, but it should be avoided if possible, on account of theexpenditure of ammunition. We will suppose that the ground falls gently towards the enemy and isvery exposed to view for about 300 yards, and half this distance awaythere is a low bank running parallel to the front of the attack andwith a small clump of three or four trees on the bank directly infront of the platoon. Four hundred yards away is the bottom of thevalley covered with bushes and shrubs. On the far side the groundrises with small undulations and low foot hills to the high groundoccupied by the enemy. There appears to be no marked fire-position which will afford anycover except the bank 150 yards away. The second platoon advances inthe same manner as did the first and the captain with the commandersof the remaining platoons will continue to ask questions and point outwhat has been done right or wrong by the leading platoon. The firstquestion which will arise is whether the platoon can reach the fireposition offered by the bank in one rush, and secondly, whether thebank is a good fire-position. A former question will again crop up asto whether the whole platoon should go forward at once or whether theadvance should be made by squads. A hundred and fifty yards is a long way to advance without a halt, andif a halt is made on such exposed ground fire must be opened. Probablythree advances, each of about fifty yards, would be made, coveringfire being provided by the other platoons, which will be occupying thefire-position which the leading platoon has just left. This coveringfire would not endanger the leading platoon as it would be deliveredfrom just behind the crest and the leading platoon would be over thecrest and out of sight and therefore out of fire from the platoon inrear. The selection of a fire-position during this advance would depend uponvery minute folds of the ground, or very low bushes, grass, etc. , which might give a certain amount of cover from view, and thereforemake it difficult for the enemy to aim or range accurately. We willsuppose that the leading platoon has halted to fire about fifty yardsin front, the remaining platoons, in turn, should then be takenforward, examining the ground very carefully as they go, and eachplatoon commander asked to halt his platoon in what he considers to bethe best place. The possibility of using a scout to select a fire-position would beconsidered, and a fire-position selected by one platoon would becompared with that selected by another. The third platoon would then lead during the advance to the nextfire-position, and so on with the fourth platoon, if necessary, untilthe bank was reached. The bank will afford a good deal of material fordiscussion. Is it a good fire-position or is it not, should it beoccupied as such or should it be avoided altogether? If we ask an artillery officer his opinion about the matter, he willtell us that by means of the clump of trees the defenders' artillerywill be able to range with absolute accuracy on that bank. Thedirection of the bank is parallel to their front, and therefore theycan fire at any part of it for some distance right and left of theclump without materially altering their range, and if any infantryoccupy the bank they can bring a very deadly fire to bear againstthem. There appears to be no doubt, from an artillery point of view, thatour platoon should avoid occupying it and get out of its neighborhoodas rapidly as possible. There is another drawback as regards the bank: it is some 850 yardsfrom the enemy's position and may be expected to be under an effectiverifle fire. It is no doubt a good mark for the enemy, and, now we cometo the crux of the whole matter; his artillery and infantry fire mightnot do us much damage so long as we remain behind the bank, but theymight make it very unpleasant for us directly we try to leave thiscover and advance further. Before finally deciding what to do we must consider human nature, which is entirely in favor of halting behind the bank, and if allowedto remain there long, will be opposed to leaving it. We cannot hope togain superiority of fire over the enemy at a range of 850 yards, sothat a long halt at the bank is out of the question. But it appears tobe an extraordinary thing, when we are searching everywhere for cover, that we should be doubtful about occupying such good cover when wefind it. If we decide not to occupy it, the logical conclusion is that, whenpreparing a position for defense, we should construct a goodfire-position for the attack some 850 yards away, which is the lastthing we should think of doing. There is no doubt about it, that with badly-trained troops such afire-position would be liable to become a snare, and that if they onceoccupied it, there would be great difficulty in getting them forwardagain, and probably the attack would be brought to a standstill at acritical time. The answer appears to be found in the simple solution of goodtraining. We must teach our men that when they get into such positionsthey must use the cover afforded, but for no longer than any otherfire-position, and that they must get into the habit in peace oflooking upon such localities with suspicion, and with the knowledgethat they are not suitable for lengthy occupation in war, if thebattle is to be won. We now come to a still more difficult question of training, namely, how far can the company get forward from the bank without beingcompelled to stop in order to gain superiority of fire over thedefense? In war we want to get as close as possible; the moral effecton the defense is greater, our fire is more effective, and we arelikely to gain our object more rapidly. In peace there is no fire tostop us, and we move forward to ridiculous positions which we couldnot possibly reach in war without first gaining superiority of fire. The result of this is that we try to do the same thing when first wego to war, and we are stopped, probably much further back than weshould have been if we had studied the question in peace. Even on the most open ground we must get to within 600 yards of theenemy, and if the ground affords any cover in front, the exposed spacemust be rushed and the more forward position gained. Having pointedout this difficulty to the company during the previous lecture, andreminded them of it on the ground, we can now extend the whole companyand move forward from the bank, using covering fire and letting eachplatoon commander decide how far he can get to the front after aseries of rushes, the company acting as a whole. The captain can then go down the line and discuss with each platoonthe position it has reached. Whilst he is doing this, the remainingplatoons can be trained in fire direction and control, which should becarefully watched and criticized by the platoon commanders. Oneplatoon, owing to the nature of the ground in front of it, can getforward further than other platoons, and this should be brought hometo each platoon, so as to avoid the possibility of playing the game offollow your leader, and one platoon halting merely because another hashalted. If there is still time available, and the ground is suitable, thecompany can be moved to a flank to choose a similar fire-positionwhere the ground is more favorable to an advance, and where thecompany could get within 300 yards of the enemy, or even less, beforeit would be absolutely necessary to stop in order to gain superiorityof fire. If there is still time available, and the ground is suitable, thewhole operation can be carried out in the opposite direction or insome other direction, and the platoons can thus be trained toappreciate that fire-positions which are good in one place are bad inanother. =936. Defense. = Demonstrations in defense can be carried out in asimilar manner, the captain explaining to the company the general lineof defense to be taken up, the portion allotted to the company, andthe probable direction of the enemy's attack. The coöperation of the artillery and infantry will have been pointedout in the previous lecture: how some part of the enemy's advance willbe dealt with by artillery alone, some part by both artillery andinfantry, and some part by infantry alone. This can now be pointed out to the men on the ground. Havingconsidered the assistance provided by the artillery, the next point todecide upon is the exact position of the fire trench. The best way toproceed is to allot a certain portion of the front occupied by thecompany to each platoon and to let the platoon commanders take chargeof the operations. The platoon commander can direct one of his squadsto select a position for the trench, and that squad can lie downthere. The remaining squads will then select a position in turn. Iftwo squads select the same they can lie down together. The platooncommander will then fall in his platoon, and make them lie down in themost retired position chosen; he will ask the squad leader why thesquad chose that locality in preference to any other, why they did notgo ten yards further forward or ten yards further back; and he willexplain to the whole platoon the advantages and disadvantages ofselecting this locality. He will then move the whole platoon forwardto the next position chosen by another squad and deal with thatlocality. Finally, he will select the position he thinks the best, giving his reasons why he has decided upon it, and place the wholeplatoon on it. When all the platoons have decided upon their line ofdefense, the captain will move the whole company in turn from theground occupied by one platoon to that occupied by another, asking theplatoon commander in each case to explain why the position was chosenin preference to any other. He will give his decision as regards each platoon, and he will finallyarrange for the position to be occupied by the whole company. Oneplatoon, for some good reason, may have chosen a place which it wouldnot be safe to occupy, owing to the fire of another platoon on theflank. Another platoon may have chosen a place which was very good asregards the field of fire in a direction which was already adequatelydefended by another platoon, but which had a bad field of fire overground which no other platoon could fire upon. The company commanderwould adjust all these matters, and in the end one or more platoonsmight not be placed in the best position as regards their ownparticular front, but in the best as regards the whole company. Having decided upon the exact site of the trenches and the generaldistribution of fire, the next matter to consider is the amount ofclearing that is necessary, and the position and nature of anyobstacles which may be required. Each platoon commander having beenallotted a definite fire zone, can point out to his platoon whatclearance is necessary; he can then ask each squad, as before, tochoose the position for the obstacle. The company commander can thentake the whole company to the position occupied by each platoon andtell the platoon commander to explain what ground they propose toclear, where they propose to place their obstacle, the materialavailable for its construction, and in every case the reason why thedecision has been arrived at. If digging is permitted, the trencheswill now be constructed, and care will be taken that they are actuallyfinished. It is far better to work overtime than to construct trencheswhich would be of little use in war and could not be properlydefended. It is the exception rather than the rule to see trenchesproperly finished, fit for occupation, and capable of resisting aheavy attack. If the trenches cannot be dug the company can be takento another part of the same position, where the ground in front istotally different, and the exercise can be repeated, the platoon andcompany commanders pointing out why a fire trench which was well sitedin the first case would be badly sited if a similar position wasselected in the second case. =937. Outpost. = We can now turn to the method of training the companyin outpost duty, making use of the same system of demonstration. Having pointed out to the company the locality where the main body isbivouacked, the fighting position which the main body will occupy incase a heavy attack is made against the outposts, and the general lineof the outposts, the company commander will indicate on the ground theextent of front which is to be guarded by his company, stating whetherimaginary companies continue the position on one or both flanks. Hewill point out the possible avenues of approach from the direction ofthe enemy to that portion of the position to be occupied by thecompany, and state from which direction the enemy is most likely toadvance and why. The first point to decide is the number of outguards and their exactposition. In war this would always be done by the company commander, but if it is desired to give the junior officers of the company someinstruction in this important detail, they should be sent out beforethe company arrives on the ground to reconnoiter the position and maketheir decisions. The exact siting of the trenches for the outguards, the construction of obstacles, and the clearance of the foregroundhaving been decided upon and the positions selected for each outguarddiscussed, and a definite site selected, the next question to decideis the number and position of the sentries. The platoon commander would then take each scheme in turn, visit withthe whole platoon each position selected for the sentry, and decidefinally what it would be best to do, giving, as usual, his reasons. Having decided upon the positions of the sentries, and their line ofretreat, so as not to mask the fire of the outguard, the next matterto consider would be the number of patrols that are required, and theparticular areas of ground that must be examined by them periodically. The necessary trenches, obstacles, etc. , would then be constructed. Finally, the whole company should be assembled, marched to theposition chosen for each outguard and the reasons for selecting theposition explained by the company commander. The company should thenbe told off as an outpost company, and divided into outguards, supports, if any, and the necessary sentries over arms, patrols, etc. , and marched to their respective posts. If there is still time available each platoon commander canreconnoiter the ground for suitable positions for his outguards bynight, take the outguards there, explain why the change of position isdesirable, and direct the outguard commanders with their outguards toselect positions for the sentries, following the same procedure as byday. Although it is quite correct to select positions for night outpostsduring daylight, when possible, they should never be definitelyoccupied by the company before dark, when the forward movement couldnot be observed by the enemy. To practice night outposts by day is badinstruction, outguards and sentries are placed in positions whichappear ridiculous to the ordinary mind, and the men get confused ideason the subject. When it is desired to practice day and night outpostsas an advanced exercise it is advisable to commence work in theafternoon, establish the day outposts, reconnoiter for the nightoutposts, make the change after dark and construct the necessarytrenches, obstacles, etc. , after dark. It is, however, extremely important that the patrols should get toknow their way about the country in front during the daylight, whenpossible, so that they will have some practice in recognizing landmarks by night. It frequently occurs, when training the company in outpost duties, that periods elapse during which the outguards are doing nothing. These opportunities should be taken to instruct the men in theirduties when ordered to patrol to the front, the same system ofdemonstration being employed. For instance, the officer ornoncommissioned officer commanding a piquet can select three men, point out certain ground in front which the sentries cannot see andwhich must be examined by a patrol, and proceed to instruct the wholepicket in the best manner of carrying out this work. We will supposethat the patrol is working by day and that the ground to be visited isbehind a small hill some 500 yards in front of the sentry. Thecommander of the picket will then explain to the men that the firstobject of the patrol is to reach the ground to be examined withoutbeing seen by any hostile patrols which may be moving about in front. Before proceeding further it is necessary for the patrol to decideupon the best line of advance. The various lines of advance will bediscussed and the patrol asked to decide which they would select. Three other men can then be asked to give their opinion, and so onuntil all the men of the picket have expressed their views. Thecommander of the picket will then state which he considers the bestline and give his reasons. The next matter to decide is the method of advance to be adopted bythe patrol. Are the three men to march past the sentry in one body andwalk straight over the hill in front? If they do this there may be ahostile patrol hiding just behind the crest, watching the movements ofour patrol, and directly the latter reach the hill they will becovered by the rifles of the hostile patrol at a few yards' range andwill be captured or shot. If the patrol is not to advance in one body how is it to act? There isplenty of time available, so that there are no objections todeliberate methods. The patrol should advance from cover to cover withone man always going forward protected by the rifles of the remainingtwo men who have halted in a good position to fire on any enemy thatcan fire on the leading man. The leading man having readied the coverin front will signal back all clear, and the two men in the rear willjoin him. They will then make their next advance in a similar manner. By looking at the hill the patrol can make a good guess at thelocality which a hostile patrol would select if it was on the hill. Itwould be a place where it could get a good view towards our outpostline, and where the patrol could not be seen itself from the outpostline. If the hill was quite bare with nothing but grass on it and flatround top, the best place for the enemy's patrol would be exactly onthe top just behind the crest. In such a position he could not be seenby any sentry to the right or left of our picket. For example, if thehostile patrol chose a place on the side of the bare slope of the hilland looked over the crest line it would not be seen by our sentry, butit might be seen by another one on the flank. The object of our patrol would be to approach the hill, not directfrom the outguard, but either from the left or right of the hill andthus come on the flank of the enemy's patrol if he was there. The whole picket can then be taken out to the front and follow themovements of the patrol from cover to cover until the hill is reached. The next step will be to ascertain if there is any one on the top ofthe hill. If the hill is perfectly bare with a somewhat convex slope, it would be best for the three men to extend to about twenty yardsinterval and move forward together, prepared to drop on the first signof the enemy, so that they can creep up and open fire on him withoutexposing themselves. Three men with magazine rifles extended in thismanner, opposed to a hostile patrol collected in one party, should beable to deal with the latter without much difficulty. Their fire wouldbe converging, and coming from different directions would confuse thehostile patrol, especially if the advance was made from a flank. Themen of the patrol when creeping up the hill should avoid exposingthemselves in the direction of the ground behind the hill, ifpossible, because they want to examine that ground later on, and ifseen by the enemy they might fall into an ambuscade. If it isimpossible to avoid being seen from the ground beyond, it would bebest for the patrol to retire as though they were going back to theoutposts, and then move round the flank of the hill and advance to theground beyond from an unexpected direction. All this would beconsidered by the officer or noncommissioned officer commanding thepicket, together with many other points. Sufficient has been said to explain how this system of demonstrationcan be worked in connection with any class of operation in the field. It is certainly slow, and takes a long time, but no one is ever idleand every one is constantly learning something fresh, for the simplereason that, although one may know every detail of the subject, theground constantly differs and requires to be dealt with in a commonsense and skillful manner. The men are interested throughout, and onemorning spent on this kind of work is worth several days of practicein the ordinary manner. It should be remembered that this system of demonstration is onlyrequired to teach the men their work; when they have once learned itand thoroughly understand the necessary details they must be practicedin it, the company or platoon commander indicating what has been welldone, what has been badly done, and what requires improvement. (See"Outposts, " Par. 1051. ) OTHER EXAMPLES OF THE OCULAR DEMONSTRATION METHOD =938. = The following illustrations will suggest other examples of theemployment of the ocular demonstration method of instruction: =The advantages and disadvantages of close and extended order. = Send alieutenant or a noncommissioned officer with two or three squads ofthe older soldiers some distance to the front of the company, and havethem advance toward the company, first in close order and then inextended order. By =ocular demonstration= show the men who are watching the approachof the company how easy it would be even for the poorest shots to landbullets in the thick of a closed body, but how much of a less distincttarget the extended order offers and how many spaces there are in theskirmish line for the bullets to pass through; also, how much moreeasily cover can be employed and the rifle used in the extended order. Let them see also how much more difficult it is for the officers andnoncommissioned officers to maintain control over the movements oftroops in extended order, and the consequent necessity and duty ofevery soldier, when in extended order, doing all he can, by attentionand exertion, to keep order and help his officers and noncommissionedofficers to gain success. =939. The Use of Cover. = Send a lieutenant or noncommissioned officerwith a couple of squads of old soldiers a few hundred yards to thefront and have them advance on the company as if attacking, firstwithout taking advantage of cover and then taking advantage of allavailable cover, the part of the company that is supposed to beattacked lying down and aiming and snapping at the approachingsoldiers. Then reverse the operation--send the defenders out and havethem advance on the former attackers. Explain that the requisites ofgood cover are: Ability to see the enemy; concealment of your ownbody; ability to use the rifle readily. Then have a number of men takecover and snap at an enemy in position, represented by a few oldsoldiers. Point out the defects and the good points in each case. =940. Practice in Commanding Mixed Squads. = In order to practicenoncommissioned officers in commanding mixed firing squads, and inorder to drill the privates in banding themselves together and obeyingthe orders of anyone who may assume command, it is good training fortwo or more companies to practice reënforcing each other by onecompany assuming a given fire-position and the other sending upreënforcements by squads, the men being instructed to take positionsanywhere on the firing line where they may find an opening. However, explain to the men that whenever possible units should take theirpositions on the firing line as a whole, but that in practice it isvery often impossible to do this, and that the drill is being given soas to practice the noncommissioned officers in commanding mixed unitson the firing line and also to give the privates practice in bandingthemselves into groups and obeying the command of any noncommissionedofficer who may be over them. =941. Operating Against Other Troops. = There is no better way ofarousing interest, enthusiasm, and pride in training troops than bycreating a feeling of friendly rivalry and competition amongst themen, and the best way to do this is to have one part of the companyoperate against the other in all such practical work as scouting, patrolling, attacking, etc. Whenever practicable, blank ammunitionshould be used. One of the sides should wear a white handkerchiefaround the hat or some other distinguishing mark. =The troops that aresent out must be given full and explicit instructions as to justexactly what they are to do, so that the principles it is intended toillustrate may be properly brought out. = FOOTNOTES: [10] This chapter is based on "Company Training, " by General Haking, British Army, which is the best book the author has ever seen on thesubject of company training. "Field Training of a Company ofInfantry, " by Major Craufurd, British Army, an excellent little book, was also consulted. CHAPTER II GENERAL COMMON SENSE PRINCIPLES OF APPLIED MINOR TACTICS[11] =942. = To begin with, you want to bear in mind that there is nothingdifficult, complicated or mysterious about applied minor tactics--itis just simply the application of plain, every-day, common horsesense--the whole thing consists in familiarizing yourself with certaingeneral principles based on common sense and then applying them withcommon sense. Whatever you do, don't make the mistake of followingblindly rules that you have read in books. =943. = One of the ablest officers in the Army has recently given thisdefinition of the Art of War: One-fifth is learned from books; One-fifth is common sense; Three-fifths is knowing men and how to lead them. The man who would be successful in business must understand men andapply certain general business principles with common sense; the manwho would be a successful hunter must understand game and applycertain general hunting principles with common sense, and even the manwho would be a successful fisherman must understand fish and applycertain general fishing principles with common sense. And so likewisethe man who would lead other men successfully in battle mustunderstand men and apply certain general tactical principles withcommon sense. Of course, the only reason for the existence of an army is thepossibility of war some day, and everything the soldier does--hisdrills, parades, target practice, guard duty, schools of instruction, etc. --has in view only one end: The preparation of the soldier for thefield of battle. =944. = While the responsibilities of officers and noncommissionedofficers in time of peace are important, in time of battle they aremuch more so: for then their mistakes are paid for in human blood. What would you think of a pilot who was not capable of piloting a boattrying to pilot a boat loaded with passengers; or, of an engineer whowas not capable of running a locomotive trying to run a passengertrain? You would, of course, think him a criminal--but do you think hewould be more criminal than the noncommissioned officer who is notcapable of leading a squad in battle but who tries to do so, therebysacrificing the lives of those under him? You can, therefore, appreciate the importance, the necessity, of everyofficer and noncommissioned officer doing everything that he possiblycan during times of peace to qualify himself for his duties andresponsibilities during times of war. If we are going to have a good army we must have good regiments; tohave good regiments we must have good battalions; to have goodbattalions we must have good companies--but to have good companies wemust have efficient company officers and noncommissioned officers. As stated before, everything in the life of the soldier leads to thefield of battle. And so it is that in the subject of minor tactics allinstruction leads to the battle. First we have map problems; thenterrain exercises; next the war game; after that maneuvers, andfinally the battle. =945. Map Problems and Terrain Exercises. = In the case of map problemsyou are given tactical problems to solve on a map; in the case ofterrain exercises you are given problems to solve on the ground. (Theword "Terrain, " means earth, ground. ) These are the simplest forms oftactical problems, as you have only one phase of the action, yourinformation is always reliable and your imaginary soldiers always dojust exactly what you want them to do. =946. War Game. = Next comes the war game, which consists of problemssolved on maps, but you have an opponent who commands the enemy--thephases follow one another rapidly and the conditions change--yourinformation is not so complete and reliable. However, your men beingslips of cardboard or beads, they will, as in the case of yourimaginary soldiers in the map problems and terrain exercises, go whereyou wish them to and do what you tell them to do--they can'tmisunderstand your instructions and go wrong--they don't straggle andget careless as real soldiers sometimes do. Map problems, terrain exercises and war games are but aids tomaneuvers--their practice makes the maneuvers better; for you thuslearn the principles of tactics and in the simplest and quickest way. =947. Maneuvers. = In the case of the maneuver the problem is the sameas in the war game, except that you are dealing with real, live menwhom you can not control perfectly, and there is, therefore, muchgreater chance for mistakes. =948. The battle. = A battle is only a maneuver to which is added greatphysical danger and excitement. General rules and principles that must be applied in map problems, terrain exercises, the war game and maneuvers =949. = Everything that is done must conform in principle to whatshould be done in battle--otherwise your work is wasted--your time isthrown away. In solving map problems and in the war game, always form in your minda picture of the ground where the action is supposed to be takingplace--imagine that you see the enemy, the various hills, streams, roads, etc. , that he is firing at you, etc. --and don't do anythingthat you would not be able to do if you were really on the ground andreally in a fight. Whether it be a corporal in command of a squad or a general in commandof an army, in the solution of a tactical problem, whether it be a mapproblem, a terrain exercise, a war game, maneuver or battle, he willhave to go through the same operation: 1st. Estimate the situation; 2d. Decide what he will do; 3d. Give the necessary orders to carry out his decision. At first these three steps of the operation may appear difficult andlaborious, but after a little practice the mind, which always workswith rapidity in accustomed channels, performs them with astonishingquickness. The child beginning the study of arithmetic, for example, is very slowin determining the sum of 7 and 8, but later the answer is announcedalmost at sight. The same is true in tactical problems--the processmay be slow at first, but with a little practice it becomes quick andeasy. =950. Estimating the Situation. = This is simply "sizing up thesituation, " finding out what you're "up against, " and is always thefirst thing to be done. It is most important, and in doing it thefirst step is to determine your MISSION--what you are to do, what youare to accomplish--the most important consideration in any militarysituation. Consider next your own forces and that of the enemy--that is, hisprobable strength and how it compares with yours. Consider the enemy's probable MISSION[12] and what he will probably doto accomplish it. Consider the geography of the country so far as it affects theproblem--the valleys to cross, defiles to pass through, shortest roadto follow, etc. Now, consider the different courses open to you with the advantagesand disadvantages of each. You must, of course, in every case know what you're up against beforeyou can decide intelligently what you're going to do. In making your plan always bear in mind not only your own MISSION, butalso the general mission of the command of which you form a part, andthis is what nine men out of ten forget to do. =951. The Decision. = It is important that you should come to a clearand correct decision--that you do so promptly and then execute itvigorously. The new Japanese Field Service Regulations tell us that there are twothings above all that should be avoided--inaction and hesitation. "Toact resolutely even in an erroneous manner is better than to remaininactive and irresolute"--that is to say do something. You are now ready to come to a decision, which is nothing more or lessthan a clear, concise determination of what you're going to do and howyou're going to do it. Frederick the Great, expressed the same ideain fewer words: "Don't haggle. " Having settled on a plan, push it through--don't vacillate, don'twaver. Make your plan simple. No other has much show. Complicatedplans look well on paper, but in war they seldom work out. Theyrequire several people to do the right thing at the right time andthis under conditions of excitement, danger and confusion, and, as aresult, they generally fail. =952. The Order. = Having completed your estimate of the situation andformed your plan, you are now ready to give the orders necessary tocarry it out. You must first give your subordinates sufficient information of thesituation and your plan, so that they may clearly understand theirmission. The better everyone understands the whole situation the better he canplay his part. Unexpected things are always happening in war--asubordinate can act intelligently only if he knows and understandswhat his superior wants to do. Always make your instructions definite and positive--vagueinstructions are sometimes worse than none. Your order, your instructions, must be clear, concise anddefinite--everyone should know just exactly what he is to do. A Few General Principles =953. = The man who hunts deer, moose, tigers and lions, is hunting biggame, but the soldier operating in the enemy's territory is huntingbigger game--he's hunting for human beings--but you want to rememberthat the other fellow is out hunting for you, too; he's out "gunning"for you. So, don't fail to be on the alert, on the lookout, all thetime, if you do he'll "get the drop" on you. Remember what Frederickthe Great said: "It is pardonable to be defeated, but never to betaken by surprise. " Do not separate your force too much; if you do, you weakenyourself--you take the chance of being "defeated in detail"--that is, of one part being defeated after another. Remember the old saying: "Inunion there is strength. " Undue extension of your line (a mistake, bythe way, very often made) is only a form of separation and is equallyas bad. While too much importance can not be attached to the proper use ofcover, you must not forget that sometimes there are otherconsiderations that outweigh the advantages of cover. Good sense alonecan determine. A certain direction of attack, for instance, may affordexcellent cover but it may be so situated as to mean ruin if defeated, as where it puts an impassable obstacle directly in your rear. Anddon't forget that you should always think in advance of what you woulddo in case of defeat. What is it, after all, that gives victory, whether it be armies oronly squads engaged? It's just simply inflicting on the enemy a losswhich he will not stand before he can do the same to you. Now, what isthis loss that he will not stand? What is the loss that will cause himto break? Well, it varies; it is subject to manyconditions--different bodies of troops, like different timbers, havedifferent breaking points. However, whatever it may be in anyparticular case it would soon come if we could shoot on thebattlefield as we do on the target range, but we can not approximateit. There are many causes tending to drag down our score on thebattlefield, one of the most potent being the effect of the enemy'sfire. It is cited as a physiological fact that fear and greatexcitement cause the pupil of the eye to dilate and impair accuracy invision and hence of shooting. It is well established that theeffectiveness of the fire of one side reduced proportionately to theeffectiveness of that of the other. Bear in mind then these two points--we must get the enemy's breakingpoint before he gets ours, and the more effective we make our fire theless effective will be his. Expressed in another way--to win you must gain and keep a firesuperiority. This generally means more rifles in action, yet a fire badlycontrolled and directed, though great in volume, may be less effectivethan a smaller volume better handled. The firing line barring a few exceptional cases, then, should be asheavy as practicable consistent with the men's free use of theirrifles. This has been found to be about one man to the yard. In this way youget volume of fire and the companies do not cover so much ground thattheir commanders lose their power to direct and control. If it becomes necessary to hold a line too long for the forceavailable, it is then better to keep the men close together and leavegaps in the line. The men are so much better controlled, the firebetter directed, the volume the same, and the gaps are closed by thecross fire of parties adjacent. FOOTNOTES: [11] In the preparation of the first part of this chapter, extracts ofwords and of ideas, were made from a paper on Applied Minor Tacticsread before the St. Louis convention of the National Guard of theUnited States in 1910, by Major J. F. Morrison, General Staff, U. S. Army. [12] The word "_mission_" is used a great deal in this text. By your"_mission_" is meant your business, what you have been told to do, what you are trying to accomplish. CHAPTER III GENERAL PLAN OF INSTRUCTION IN MAP PROBLEMS FOR NONCOMMISSIONEDOFFICERS AND PRIVATES--INSTRUCTION IN DELIVERING MESSAGES =(The large wall map to be used for this instruction can be obtainedfrom the George Banta Publishing Co. , Menasha, Wis. , at a cost of$1. 50. )= [Illustration: Elementary Map] =954. = The noncommissioned officers and the privates of the squad, section, platoon or company are seated in front of the instructor, who, with pointer in hand, is standing near the map on the wall. The instructor assumes certain situations and designates variousnoncommissioned officers to take charge of squads for the purpose ofaccomplishing certain missions; he places them in differentsituations, and then asks them what they would do. He, or thenoncommissioned officer designated to perform certain missions, designates certain privates to carry messages, watch for signals, takethe place of wounded noncommissioned officers, etc. For example, theinstructor says: "The battalion is marching to Watertown (seeElementary Map in pocket at back of book) along this road (indicatingroad): our company forms the advance guard; we are now at this point(indicating point). Corporal Smith, take your squad and reconnoiterthe woods on the right to see if you can find any trace of the enemythere, and rejoin the company as soon as you can. Corporal Jones, beon the lookout for any signals that Corporal Smith may make. " Corporal Smith then gives the command, "=1. Forward, 2. March=, " andsuch other commands as may be necessary. =Instructor:= Now, when you reach this point (indicating point), whatdo you see? (Corporal Smith holds his rifle horizontally above his head. ) =Corporal Jones:= Captain, Corporal Smith signals that he sees a smallbody of the enemy. =Corporal Smith:= =Lie down. Range, 700. 1. Ready; 2. AIM; 3. Squad;4. FIRE. 1. Forward; Double time; 2. MARCH=, etc. The noncommissioned officers and the privates who are thus designatedto do certain things must use their imagination as much as possible. They must look at the map and imagine that they are right on theground, in the hostile territory; they must imagine that they see thestreams, hills, woods, roads, etc. , represented on the map, and theymust not do anything that they could not do if in the hostileterritory, with the assumed conditions actually existing. =955. = The general idea of this system of instruction is to make thenoncommissioned officers and the privates think, to make them usecommon sense and initiative in handling men in various situations, ingetting out of difficulties. By thus putting men on their mettle inthe presence of their comrades and making them bring into play theircommon sense and their powers of resourcefulness, it is comparativelyeasy to hold the attention of a whole squad, section, platoon orcompany, for those who are not actually taking part in the solution ofa particular problem are curious to see how those who are taking partwill answer different questions and do different things--how they will"pan out. " =956. = Everything that is said, everything that is done, should, asfar as practicable, be said and done just as it would be said and donein the field. The commands should be actually given, the messagesactually delivered, the reports actually made, the orders andinstructions actually given, the signals actually made, etc. , just thesame as they would be if the operations were real. Of course, sometimes it is not practicable to do this, and again at other timesit would be advisable not to do so. If, for instance, in the solutionof a problem there were a great many opportunities to give commands tofire, to make signals, to deliver messages, etc. , and if these thingswere actually done every time, it would not only become tiresome butit would also delay the real work and instruction. Common sense mustbe used. Just bear this in mind: In the solution of map problems thenoncommissioned officers and the privates are to be given proper andsufficient instruction in giving commands, making signals, sending anddelivering messages, making reports, etc. , the instructor using hiscommon sense in deciding what is proper and sufficient instruction. Incarrying out this feature of the instruction it would be done thus, for instance: Instead of a platoon leader saying, "I would give the order for theplatoon (two, three or four squads) to fire on them, " he would say, for instance, "I would then give the command, '=AT LINE OF MEN. RANGE, 600. FIRE AT WILL=, ' and would continue the firing as long asnecessary. " Should the instructor then say, for instance, "Very well;the enemy's fire has slackened; what will you do now?" The platoonleader would answer, for instance, "I would signal: =1. By squads fromthe right; 2. RUSH. =" Instead of saying, for instance, "I would advance my squad to the topof this hill at double time, " the squad leader should say, "I wouldgive the command: '=1. Forward, double time; 2. MARCH=, ' and uponreaching the top of this hill, I would command, '=1. Squad; 2. HALT=, 'cautioning the men to take advantage of cover. " Instead of saying, "I would signal back that we see the enemy inforce, " the squad leader should take a rifle and make the signal, andif a man has been designated to watch for signals, the man would sayto the captain (or other person for whom he was watching for signals):"Captain, Corporal Smith has signaled that he sees the enemy inforce. " Instead of saying, "I would send a message back that there are abouttwenty mounted men just in rear of the Jones' house; they aredismounted and their horses are being held by horseholders, " say, "Smith, go back and tell the captain (or other person) there areabout twenty mounted men just in rear of the Jones' house. They aredismounted and their horses are being held by horseholders. " PrivateSmith would then say to the captain (or other person), "Captain, Corporal Harris sends word there are about twenty men just in the rearof the Jones' house. They are dismounted and their horses are beingheld by horse holders. " =957. = For problems exemplifying this system of instruction, see Par. 1017. The instruction may be varied a little by testing the squad leaders intheir knowledge of map reading by asking, from time to time during thesolution of the problem, such questions as these: =Captain:= Corporal Smith, you are standing on Lone Hill (SeeElementary Map), facing north. Tell me what you see? =Corporal:= The hill slopes off steeply in front of me, about eightyfeet down to the bottom land. A spur of the hill runs off on my rightthree-fourths of a mile to the north. Another runs off on my left thesame distance to the west. Between these two spurs, down in front ofme, is an almost level valley, extending about a mile to my rightfront, where a hill cuts off my view. To my left front it is level asfar as I can see. A quarter of a mile in front of me is a big pond, down in the valley, and I can trace the course of a stream that drainsthe pond off to the northwest, by the trees along its bank. Justbeyond the stream a railroad runs northwest along a fill and crossesthe stream a mile and a half to the northwest, where I can see theroofs of a group of houses. A wagon road runs north across the valley, crossing the western spur of this hill 600 yards from Lone Hill. It isbordered by trees as far as the creek. Another road parallels therailroad, the two roads crossing near a large orchard a mile straightto my front. =Captain:= Can you see the Chester Pike where the railroad crosses it? =Corporal:= No, sir. =Captain:= Why? =Corporal:= Because the hill "62, " about 800 yards from Lone Hill, isso high that it cuts off my view in that direction of everythingcloser to the spur "62" than the point in the Salem-Boling road, wherethe private lane runs off east to the Gray house. =Captain:= Sergeant Jones, in which direction does the stream run thatyou see just south of the Twin Hills? =Sergeant:= It runs south through York, because I can see that thenorthern end starts near the head of a valley and goes down into theopen plain. Also it is indicated by a very narrow line near the TwinHills which becomes gradually wider or heavier the further south itgoes. Furthermore, the fact that three short branch streams are shownjoining together and forming one, must naturally mean that thedirection of flow is towards the one formed by the three. =Captain:= Sergeant Harris, does the road from the Mason farm to theWelsh farm run up or down hill? =Sergeant:= It does both, sir. It is almost level for the first halfmile west of the Mason farm; then, as it crosses the contour marked20 and a second marked 40, it runs up hill, rising to forty feetabove the valley, 900 yards east of the Mason farm. Then, as it againcrosses a contour marked 40 and a second marked 20, it goes down hillto the Welsh farm. That portion of the road between the points whereit crosses the two contours marked 40, is the highest part of theroad. It crosses this hill in a "saddle, " for both north and south ofthis summit on the road are contours marked 60 and even higher. =Captain:= Corporal Wallace, you are in Salem with a patrol withorders to go to Oxford. There is no one to tell you anything aboutthis section of the country and you have never been there before. Youhave this map and a compass. What would you do? =Corporal:= I would see from my map and by looking around me thatSalem is situated at the crossing of two main roads. From the map Iwould see that one leads to Boling and the other was the one to takefor Oxford. Also, I would see that the one to Boling started due northout of Salem and the other, the one I must follow, started due westout of Salem. Taking out my compass, I would see in what direction thenorth end of the needle pointed; the road running off in thatdirection would be the one to Boling, so I would start off west on theother. =Captain:= Suppose you had no compass? =Corporal:= I would look and see on which side of the base of thetrees the moss grew. That side would be north. Or, in this case, Iwould probably not use a compass even if I had it; for, from the map, I know that the road I wish to start off on crosses a railroad trackwithin sight of the crossroads and on the opposite side of thecrossroads from the church shown on the map; also, that the Bolingroad is level as far as I could see on the ground, while the ChesterPike crosses the spur of Sandy Ridge, about a half mile out of thevillage. =Captain:= Go ahead, corporal, and explain how you would follow theproper route to Oxford. =Corporal:= I would proceed west on the Chester Pike, knowing I wouldcross a good sized stream, on a stone bridge, about a mile and a halfout of Salem; then I would pass a crossroad and find a swamp on myright, between the road and the stream. About a mile and a half fromthe crossroad I just mentioned, I would cross a railroad track andthen I would know that at the fork of the roads one-quarter of a milefurther on I must take the left fork. This road would take me straightinto Oxford, about a mile and three-quarters beyond the fork. =Captain:= Sergeant Washington, do the contours about a half milenorth of the Maxey farm, on the Salem-Boling road, represent a hill ora depression? =Sergeant:= They represent a hill, because the inner contour has ahigher number 42, than the outer, marked 20. They represent sort of aleg-of-mutton shaped hill about 42 feet higher than the surroundinglow ground. Variety and interest may be added to the instruction by assuming thatthe squad leader has been killed or wounded and then designate someprivate to command the squad; or that a man has been wounded in acertain part of the body and have a soldier actually apply his firstaid packet; or that a soldier has fainted or been bitten by arattlesnake and have a man actually render him first aid. =958. = The privates may be given practical instruction in deliveringmessages by giving them messages in one room and having them deliverthem to someone else in another room. It is a good plan to write out anumber of messages in advance on slips of paper or on cards, placingthem in unsealed envelopes. An officer or a noncommissioned officer inone room reads one of the messages to a soldier, then seals it in anenvelope and gives it to the soldier to hand to the person in anotherroom to whom he is to deliver the message. The latter checks theaccuracy of the message by means of the written message. Of course, this form of instruction should not be given during the solution ofmap problems by the men. (For model messages, see par. 980. ) The same slips or cards may be used any number of times with differentsoldiers. A soldier should never start on his way to deliver a messageunless he understands thoroughly the message he is to deliver. CHAPTER IV THE SERVICE OF INFORMATION (Based on the Field Service Regulations. ) PATROLLING =959. Patrols= are small bodies of infantry or cavalry, from two menup to a company or troop, sent out from a command at any time to gaininformation of the enemy and of the country, to drive off smallhostile bodies, to prevent them from observing the command or forother stated objects, such as to blow up a bridge, destroy a railroadtrack, communicate or keep in touch with friendly troops, etc. Patrolsare named according to their objects, reconnoitering, visiting, connecting, exploring, flanking patrols, etc. These names are of noimportance, however, because the patrol's orders in each casedetermine its duties. =960. = The size of a patrol depends upon the mission it is toaccomplish; if it is to gain information only, it should be as smallas possible, allowing two men for each probable message to be sent(this permits you to send messages and still have a working patrolremaining); if it is to fight, it should be strong enough to defeatthe probable enemy against it. For instance, a patrol of two men mightbe ordered to examine some high ground a few hundred yards off theroad. On the other hand, during the recent war in Manchuria a Japanesepatrol of 50 mounted men, to accomplish its mission marched 1, 160miles in the enemy's country and was out for 62 days. =961. Patrol Leaders. = (=a=) Patrol leaders, usually noncommissionedofficers, are selected for their endurance, keen eyesight, ability tothink quickly and good military judgment. They should be able to reada map, make a sketch and send messages that are easily understood. Very important patrols are sometimes lead by officers. The leadershould have a map, watch, field glass, compass, message blank andpencils. (=b=) The ability to lead a patrol correctly without a number ofdetailed orders or instructions, is one of the highest and mostvaluable qualifications of a noncommissioned officer. Since acommander ordering out a patrol can only give general instructions asto what he desires, because he cannot possibly forsee just whatsituations may arise, the patrol leader will be forced to use his ownjudgment to decide on the proper course to pursue when something ofimportance suddenly occurs. He is in sole command on the spot and mustmake his decisions entirely on his own judgment and make theminstantly. He has to bear in mind first of all his mission--what hiscommander wants him to do. Possibly something may occur that should cause the patrol leader toundertake an entirely new mission and he must view the new situationfrom the standpoint of a higher commander. (=c=) More battles are lost through lack of information about theenemy than from any other cause, and it is the patrols led bynoncommissioned officers who must gather almost all of thisinformation. A battalion or squadron stands a very good chance fordefeating a regiment if the battalion commander knows all about thesize, position and movements of the regiment and the regimentalcommander knows but a little about the battalion; and this will alldepend on how efficiently the patrols of the two forces are led by thenoncommissioned officers. =962. = Patrols are usually sent out from the advance party of anadvance guard, the rear party of a rear guard, the outguards of anoutpost, and the flank (extreme right or left) sections, companies ortroops of a force in a fight, but they may be sent out from any partof a command. The commander usually states how strong a patrol shall be. =963. Orders or Instructions=--(=a=) The orders or instructions for apatrol must state clearly whenever possible: 1. Where the enemy is or is supposed to be. 2. Where friendly patrols or detachments are apt to be seen orencountered and what the plans are for the body from which the patrolis sent out. 3. What object the patrol is sent out to accomplish; what informationis desired; what features are of special importance; the generaldirection to be followed and how long to stay out in case the enemy isnot met. 4. Where reports are to be sent. (=b=) It often happens that, in the hurry and excitement of a suddenencounter or other situation, there is no time or opportunity to givea patrol leader anything but the briefest instructions, such as "Takethree men, corporal, and locate their (the enemy's) right flank. " Insuch a case the patrol leader through his knowledge of the generalprinciples of patrolling, combined with the exercise of his commonsense, must determine for himself just what his commander wishes himto do. =964. Inspection of a Patrol Before Departure. = Whenever there is timeand conditions permit, which most frequently is not the case, a patrolleader carefully inspects his men to see that they are in goodphysical condition; that they have the proper equipment, ammunitionand ration; that their canteens are full, their horses (if mounted)are in good condition, not of a conspicuous color and not given toneighing, and that there is nothing about the equipment to rattle orglisten. The patrol leader should also see that the men have nothingwith them (maps, orders, letters, newspapers, etc. ) that, if captured, would give the enemy valuable information. This is a more importantinspection than that regarding the condition of the equipment. Whenever possible the men for a patrol should be selected for theirtrustworthiness, experience and knack of finding their way in astrange country. =965. Preparing a Patrol for the Start. = The patrol leader havingreceived his orders and having asked questions about anything he doesnot fully understand, makes his estimate of the situation (See Par. 950. ) He then selects the number of men he needs, if this has beenleft to him, inspects them and carefully explains to them the ordershe has received and how he intends to carry out these orders, makingsure the men understand the mission of the patrol. He names someprominent place along the route they are going to follow where everyone will hasten if the patrol should become scattered. For example: An infantry company has arrived at the town of York (SeeElementary Map). Captain A, at 2 P. M. , calls up Corporal B and threemen of his squad. =Captain A:= Corporal, hostile infantry is reported to be at Oxford. Nothing else has been heard of the enemy. The company remains heretonight. You will take these three men and reconnoiter about two milesnorth along this road (indicates the Valley Pike) for signs of ahostile advance in this direction. Stay out until dusk. Corporal C has been sent out that road (points east along the countyroad). Send messages here. Do you understand? =Corporal B:= Yes, sir; I am to--(here he practically repeats CaptainA's orders, the three men listening). Is Corporal C to cover that hill(points toward Twin Hills)? =Captain A:= No; you must cover that ground. Move out at once, corporal. (Corporal B quickly glances at the men and sees that theyhave their proper equipment. ) =Corporal B= (to his men): You heard the captain's orders. We willmake for that hill (points to Twin Hills). Jones, I want you to go 150yards in advance of me; Williams, follow me at 100 yards; Smith, you'll stay with me. Jones, you'll leave this road after crossing thecreek and march on that clump of trees. I want both you and Williamsto be on the alert and watch me every minute for signals. In case webecome scattered, make for that hill (points to Twin Hills). =Private Jones:= Corporal, shall I keep 150 yards from you or will youkeep the correct distance? =Corporal B:= You keep the correct distance from me. Forward, Jones. Of course, the patrol leader makes all these preparations if he hastime; but, as we have said before, there will be a great manyoccasions when he is required to start out so promptly that he willnot have any time for the inspection described and he will have tomake an estimate of the situation and give his detailed orders to themembers of his patrol as they start off. =966. Co-ordination Before Departure. = Every member of a patrol shouldnotice for himself the direction taken and all landmarks that arepassed, and every man should keep his eyes and ears open all the time. Before leaving an outpost position or other place to which it is toreturn, the patrol commander should "co-ordinate" himself--he shouldsee where he is with respect to certain mountains, high buildings andother prominent objects, and after the patrol has left, he shouldfrequently turn his head around and see what the starting point lookslike from where he is. This will help him to find his way back withoutdifficulty. THE PRINCIPLES OF PATROLLING =967. = Paragraphs 967 to 1015 describe the methods of leading apatrol--the points a patrol leader should fully understand. In otherwords, they state the principles of patrolling. When you first studythis chapter, simply read over these principles without trying tomemorize any of them. Whenever one of the principles is applied in thesolution of any of the problems on patrolling given in this book youwill generally find the number of the paragraph which states thatprinciple enclosed in brackets. Turn back and study the paragraphreferred to until you thoroughly understand its meaning and you feelsure that you know how to apply that principle whenever the occasionmight arise in actual patrolling. Try to impress its common sensemeaning (never the mere words) on your mind, so that when a situationarises requiring the sort of action indicated in the principle, YOUWILL NOT FAIL TO RECOGNIZE IT. [Illustration: Figure 1] =968. Formation of Patrols. = (=a=) Figure 1 gives some examples of various ways of forming patrols. These are merely examples for the purpose of giving a general idea ofthe arrangement of the men. In practice common sense must dictate tothe patrol leader the best formation in each case. (=b=) In very small patrols the leader is usually in advance where hecan easily lead the patrol, though not always (See E, Figure 1. ) Thedistance between men depends upon the character of the country and thesituation. In L, Figure 1, it might be anywhere from 150 to 400 yardsfrom the leading man to the last, the distance being greater in levelor open country. Some such formation as G, Figure 1, could be used ingoing through high brush, woods, or over very open country. (=c=) The men must be so arranged that each man will be withinsignaling distance of some member of the patrol and the escape of atleast one man, in case of surprise, is certain. It must be remembered that the patrol may have to march a longdistance before it is expected that the enemy will be encountered, orit may have a mission that requires it to hurry to some distant pointthrough very dangerous country. In such cases the patrol will probablyhave to follow the road in order to make the necessary speed, and itwill not be possible for flankers to keep up this rate marching offthe road. The formation in such cases would be something like thoseshown in F, II and O. Marching off the road is always slow work, so when rapidity isessential, some safe formation for road travel is necessary, as in F, L and O. If, from the road the country for, say one-half mile on each side, canbe seen, there is absolutely no use in sending out flankers a fewhundred yards from the road. Use common sense. =969. Rate of March. = (=a=) Patrols should advance quickly andquietly; be vigilant and make all practicable use of cover. If rapidmarching is necessary to accomplish the mission, then little attentioncan be paid to cover. (=b=) Returning patrols, near their own lines, march at a walk, unlesspressed by the enemy. A patrol should not, if possible, return overits outgoing route, as the enemy may have observed it and be watchingfor its return. =970. Halts. = A patrol should be halted once every hour for about tenminutes, to allow the men to rest and relieve themselves. Whenever ahalt is made one or two members of the patrol must advance a shortdistance ahead and keep a sharp lookout to the front and flanks. =971. Action Upon Meeting Hostile Patrol. = If a patrol should see ahostile patrol, it is generally best to hide and let it go by, andafterwards look out for and capture any messenger that may be sentback from it with messages for the main body. And when sent backyourself with a message, be careful that the enemy does not play thistrick on you--always keep your ears and eyes open. =972. Scattered Patrols. = A scattered patrol reassembles at some pointpreviously selected; if checked in one direction, it takes another; ifcut off, it returns by a detour or forces its way through. As a lastresort it scatters, so that at least one man may return withinformation. Occasionally it is advisable for the leader to conceal his patrol andcontinue the reconnaissance with one or two men; in case of cavalrythe leader and men thus detached should be well mounted. If no pointof assembly was previously agreed upon, it is a good general rule toreassemble, if possible, at the last resting place. =973. Return by Different Route. = A patrol should always make it arule to return by a different route, as this may avoid its beingcaptured by some of the enemy who saw it going out and are lying inwait for it. =974. Guard Against Being Cut off. = When out patrolling always guardagainst being cut off. Always assume that any place that affords goodcover is held by the enemy until you know that it is not, and becareful not to advance beyond it without first reconnoitering it; for, if you do, you may find yourself cut off when you try to return. =975. Night Work. = Patrols far from their commands or in contact withthe enemy, often remain out over night. In such cases they seek aplace of concealment unknown to the inhabitants, proceeding theretoafter nightfall or under cover. Opportunities for watering, feedingand rest must not be neglected, for there is no assurance that furtheropportunities will present themselves. When necessary the leaderprovides for subsistence by demand or purchase. =976. Civilians:= In questioning civilians care must be taken not todisclose information that may be of value to the enemy. Strangers mustnot be allowed to go ahead of the patrol, as they might give the enemynotice of its approach. Patrol leaders are authorized to seizetelegrams and mail matter, and to arrest individuals, reporting thefacts as soon as possible. =977. Patrol Fighting. = (=a=) A patrol sent out for information neverfights unless it can only get its information by fighting or is forcedto fight in order to escape. This principle is the one most frequentlyviolated by patrol leaders, particularly in peace maneuvers. Theyforget their mission--the thing their commander sent them out todo--and begin fighting, thus doing harm and accomplishing no importantresults. (=b=) A patrol sent out to drive off hostile detachments has to fightto accomplish its mission. Sometimes a patrol has orders both to gaininformation and to drive back hostile patrols. In this case it may beproper to avoid a fight at one moment and to seek a fight at another. The patrol leader must always think of his mission when deciding onthe proper course to follow, and then use common sense. =978. Signals. = The following should be clearly understood by membersof a patrol: =Enemy in sight in small numbers:= Hold the rifle above the headhorizontally. =Enemy in force:= Same as preceding, raising and lowering the rifleseveral times. =Take cover:= A downward motion of the hand. Other signals may be agreed upon before starting, but they must besimple and familiar to the men; complicated signals must be avoided. Signals must be used cautiously, so as not to convey information tothe enemy. The patrol leader should see that all his men thoroughly understandthat whenever they are away from the center of the patrol they mustlook to the nearest man for signals at least once every minute. Itshould never be necessary for the patrol leader to call to a man inorder to get his attention. All movements of men at a distance shouldbe regulated by signals and the men should constantly be on thelookout for these signals. =979. Messages. = (=a=) The most skillful patrol leading is uselessunless the leader fully understands when to send a message and how towrite it. (=b=) A message, whether written or verbal, should be short and clear, resembling a telegram. If it is a long account it will take too muchtime to write, be easily misunderstood, and if verbal, the messengerwill usually forget parts of it and confuse the remainder. (=c=) Always state when and where things are seen or reported. Ifhaste is required, do not use up valuable moments writing down the dayof the month, etc. These data are essential as a matter of futurerecord for formal telegrams and should be put in patrol messages onlywhen time is abundant, but never slight the essential points ofinformation that will give valuable help to your chief. Always try toput yourself in his place--not seeing what you see and read yourmessage--and then ask yourself, What will he want to know? (=d=) The exact location of the enemy should be stated; whetherdeployed, marching or in camp, his strength, arm of the service(cavalry, infantry or artillery), and any other detail that you thinkwould be valuable information for your chief. In giving your locationdo not refer to houses, streets, etc. , that your chief in the rear hasno knowledge of. Give your direction and distance from some point heknows of or, if you have a map like his, you can give your maplocation. (=e=) Be sure your message is accurate. This does not mean thatsomething told you should not be reported, but it should be reported, not as a fact, but as it is--a statement by somebody else. It is wellto add any information about your informant, such as his apparenthonesty, the probability of his having correct information, etc. --thismay help your chief. (=f=) A message should always end with a short statement of what youare going to do next. For example: "Will remain in observation, " "Willcontinue north, " "Will work around to their rear, " etc. Timepermitting, the bearer of a verbal message should always be requiredto repeat it before leaving. (=g=) The following is a reproduction of a message blank used in fieldservice. The instructions on the envelope are also given. A patrolleader will usually be furnished with a pad of these blanks: [Illustration] The heading "From" is filled in with the _name_ of the detachmentsending the information, as "Officer's Patrol, 7th Cav". Messages senton the same day from the same source to the same person are numberedconsecutively. The address is written briefly, thus, "CommandingOfficer, Outpost, 1st Brigade". In the signature the writer's surnameonly and rank are given. This blank is four and a half by eight inches, including the margin onthe left for binding. The back is ruled in squares and provided withscales for use in making simple sketches explanatory of the message. It is issued by the Signal Corps in blocks of forty with duplicatingsheets. The regulation envelope is three by five and one fourth inchesand is printed as follows: [Illustration] MODEL MESSAGES =980. 1. Verbal. = "Four hostile infantrymen one mile north of ourcamp, moving south. I will continue north. " =2. Verbal. = "About one hundred hostile infantrymen two miles north ofour camp at two o'clock, marching south. Will observe them. " =3. Verbal. = "Long column of troops marching west in Sandy CreekValley at two o'clock. Will report details later. " =4. Verbal. = "Just fired on by cavalry patrol near Baker's Pond. Willwork to their rear. " =5. Written. = Patrol from Support No 2. Lone Hill, 26 Mch. 11, 8-15 A. M. , No. 1. C. O. , Support No. 2. See hostile troop of cavalry halted at x-roads, one mile S. Of our outguards. Nothing else in sight. Will remain here in observation. James, Corporal. =6. Written= (very hurriedly). Lone Hill, 8-30, No 2. C. O. , Support No. 2. Column of about 300 hostile cavalry trotting north towards hostile troop of cavalry now halted at x-roads one mile south of our outguards. Will remain here. James, Cpl. =7. Written. = Patrol from 5th Inf. , S. E. Corner Boling Woods, 3 Apl. 11, 2-10 P. M. , No. 2. Adjutant, 5th Inf. , near Baker House. Extreme right of hostile line ends at R. R. Cut N. E. Of BAKER'S POND. Entrenchments run S. From cut along crest of ridge. Line appears to be strongly held. Can see no troops in rear of line. Will reconnoiter their rear. Smith, Sergeant. =8. Written= (from cavalry patrol far to front). Patrol from Tr. B, 7th Cav. , Boling, 14 June, 12, 10 A. M. , No. 3. To C. O. , Tr. B, 7th Cav. , S. On Chester Pike. No traces of enemy up to this point. Telegraph operator here reports wires running north from Boling were cut somewhere at 8-30 A. M. Inhabitants appear friendly. Will proceed north. Jones, Sergeant. =9. Written= (from cavalry patrol far to front). Patrol from Tr B, 7th Cav. , Oxford, 8 July, 12, 10-15 A. M. , No. 2. To C. O. , 1st Sq. 7th Cav. , On Valley Pike, S. Of York. Bearer has canteen found in road here, marked "85 CAV. --III CORPS. " Inhabitants say no enemy seen here. They appear hostile and unreliable. No telegraph operator or records remain here. Roads good macadam. Water and haystacks plentiful. Will move rapidly on towards CHESTER. Lewis, Sergeant. Patrol from Support No. 3, On Ry. 3/4 mi. N. Of County Road, 2 Aug. 12, 9-15 P. M. , No. 1. C. O. , Support No. 2, Near Maxey House. R. R. Crosses creek here on 80-foot steel trestle. Hostile detachment is posted at N. End. Strength unknown. Creek 5 ft. Deep by 60 ft. Wide, with steep banks, 5 ft. High. Flows through meadow land. Scattered trees along banks. R. R. Approaches each end of trestle on 10-foot fill. R. R. Switch to N. E. 700 yds. S. Of bridge. (See sketch on back. ) I will cross creek to N. Of bridge. Brown, Corporal. =981. = A message should be sent as soon as the enemy is first seen orreported. Of course, if the enemy is actually known to be in thevicinity and his patrols have been seen, etc. , you must by all meansavoid wasting your men by sending them back with information aboutsmall hostile patrols or other things you know your chief is alreadyaware of and did not specifically tell you to hunt for. If you have properly determined in your own mind what your mission isthen you will have no trouble in deciding when to send messages. Forexample, suppose your orders are "To reconnoiter along that ridge anddetermine if the enemy is present in strength, " and you sight a patrolof eight men. You would waste no time or men sending back any messageabout the patrol, for your mission is to find out if strong bodies ofthe enemy are about. But suppose that while working under the aboveorders you located a hostile battalion of infantry--a large body oftroops. In this case you would surely send a detailed message, as yourmission is to determine if the enemy was present in strength. Again, suppose that while moving towards the ridge indicated by yourchief in his orders, you saw his force suddenly and heavily fired onfrom a new and apparently unexpected quarter, not a great distancefrom you, but not on the ridge referred to. You know or believe noneof your patrols are out in that neighborhood. In this case you shouldrealize instantly, without any order, that your mission had changedand you should hasten to discover the size and position of this newenemy and send the information back to your chief, first notifying himof your intended change of direction. Never forget your mission in the excitement of leading your own littleforce. =982. Absence of the Enemy. = It is frequently just as important tosend a message to your chief that the enemy is not in a certainlocality as it is to report his actual whereabouts. You must determinefrom your mission when this is the case. For example, if you wereordered "To patrol beyond that woods and see if any hostile columnsare moving in that direction, " and on reaching the far side of thewoods you had a good view of the country for some distance beyond, itwould be very important to send a message back telling your chief thatyou could see, say, one-half mile beyond the woods and there was noenemy in sight. This information would be of the greatest importanceto him. He might feel free to move troops immediately from thatvicinity to some more dangerous place. You would then continue yourreconnaissance further to the front. Suggestions for Gaining Information About the Enemy =983. Enemy on the March. = (=a=) The patrol should observe the marchof the column from a concealed position that hostile patrols orflankers are not apt to search (avoid conspicuous places). Always tryto discover if one hostile detachment is followed by another--if whatcan be seen appears to be an advance guard of a larger body not yet inview. The distance between the detachments, their relative size, etc. , is always important. (=b=) =Estimating Strength of Column. = The strength of a column may beestimated from the length of time it takes to pass a selected point. As infantry in column of squads occupies half a yard per man, cavalryone yard per horse and artillery in single file twenty yards per gunor caisson (ammunition wagon), a selected point would be passed in oneminute by 175 infantry; 110 cavalry (at a walk); 200 cavalry at a trotand 5 guns or caissons. If marching in columns of twos, take one-halfof the above figures. (=c=) =Dust. = The direction of march, strength and composition(infantry, cavalry or artillery) of a column can be closely estimatedfrom the length and character of the cloud of dust that it makes. Dustfrom infantry hangs low; from cavalry it is higher, disperses morequickly, and, if the cavalry moves rapidly, the upper part of thecloud is thinner; from artillery and wagons, it is of unequal heightand disconnected. The effect of the wind blowing the dust must beconsidered. (=d=) =Trail of Column. = Evenly trodden ground indicates infantry;prints of horseshoes mean cavalry and deep and wide wheel tracksindicate artillery. If the trail is fresh, the column passed recently;if narrow, the troops felt secure and were marching in column ofroute; if broad they expected an action and were prepared to deploy. Aretreating army makes a broad trail across fields, especially at thestart. Always remember that the smallest or most insignificant things, suchas the number of a regiment or a discarded canteen or collar ornament, may give the most valuable information to a higher commander. Forexample, the markings on a discarded canteen or knapsack might proveto a general commanding an army that a certain hostile division, corps, or other force was in front of him when he thought it had notbeen sent into the field. The markings on the canteen would conveylittle or no meaning to the patrol leader, but if he realized his dutyhe would take care to report the facts. Cavalry patrols working farahead of the foot troops should be most careful to observe and reporton such details. (=e=) =Reflection of Weapons. = If brilliant, the troops are marchingtoward you, otherwise they are probably marching away from you. =Enemy in Position. = (=a=) If an outpost line, the patrol locates theline of sentinels, their positions, the location and strength of theoutguards and, as far as possible, all troops in rear. The location ofthe flanks of the line, whether in a strong or weak position, is ofthe utmost importance. Places where the line may be most easilypenetrated should be searched for and the strength and routes of thehostile patrols observed. As outposts are usually changed at dawn this is the best time toreconnoiter their positions. (=b=) A hostile line of battle is usually hard to approach, but itsextent, where the flanks rest and whether or not other troops are inrear of these flanks, should be most carefully determined. Information as to the flanks of any force, the character of thecountry on each flank, etc. , is always of the greatest importance, because the flanks are the weakest portions of a line. In attacking anenemy an effort is almost always made to bring the heaviest fire orblow to bear on one of his flanks. Naturally all information aboutthis most vulnerable part of an enemy is of great importance. =984. Prisoners. = When a patrol is ordered to secure prisoners theyshould be questioned as soon as captured, while still excited andtheir replies can in a way be verified. Their answers should bewritten down (unknown to them) and sent back with them as a check onwhat they may say on second thought. Prisoners should always be questioned as to the following points: Whatregiment, brigade, division, etc. , they belong to; how long they havebeen in position, on the march, etc. ; how much sickness in theirorganization; whether their rations are satisfactory; who commandstheir troops, etc. Always try to make the prisoners think thequestions are asked out of mere curiosity. =985. Camp Noises. = The rumble of vehicles, cracking of whips, neighing of horses, braying of mules and barking of dogs oftenindicate the arrival or departure of troops. If the noise remains inthe same place and new fires are lighted, it is probable thatreënforcements have arrived. If the noise grows more indistinct, thetroops are probably withdrawing. If, added to this, the fires appearto be dying out, and the enemy seems to redouble the vigilance of theoutposts, the indications of retreat are strong. =986. Abandoned Camps. = (=a=) Indications are found in the remains ofcamp fires. They will show, by their degree of freshness, whether muchor little time elapsed since the enemy left the place, and thequantity of cinders will give an indication of the length of time heoccupied it. They will also furnish a means of estimating his forceapproximately, ten men being allowed to each fire. (b) Other valuable indications in regard to the length of time theposition was occupied and the time when it was abandoned may be foundin the evidence of care or haste in the construction of huts orshelters, and in the freshness of straw, grain, dung or the entrailsof slaughtered animals. Abandoned clothing, equipments or harness willgive a clue to the arms and regiments composing a retreating force. Dead horses lying about, broken weapons, discarded knapsacks, abandoned and broken-down wagons, etc. , are indications of the fatigueand demoralization of the command. Bloody bandages lying about, andmany fresh graves, are evidences that the enemy is heavily burdenedwith wounded or sick. =987. Flames or Smoke. = If at night the flames of an enemy's campfires disappear and reappear, something is moving between the observerand the fires. If smoke as well as flame is visible, the fires arevery near. If the fires are very numerous and lighted successively, and if soon after being lighted they go out it is probable the enemyis preparing a retreat and trying to deceive us. If the fires burnbrightly and clearly at a late hour, the enemy has probably gone, andhas left a detachment to keep the fires burning. If, at an unusualtime, much smoke is seen ascending from an enemy's camp, it isprobable that he is engaged in cooking preparatory to moving off. If lines of smoke are seen rising at several points along a railwayline in the enemy's rear, it may be surmised that the railroad isbeing destroyed by burning the crossties, and that a retreat isplanned. =988. Limits of vision. = (a) On a clear day a man with good vision cansee: At a distance of 9 to 12 miles, church spires and towers; At a distance of 5 to 7 miles, windmills; At a distance of 2-1/2 miles, chimneys of light color; At a distance of 2, 000 yards, trunks of large trees; At a distance of 1, 000 yards, single posts; At 500 yards the panes of glass may be distinguished in a window. (b) Troops are visible at 2, 000 yards, at which distance a mounted manlooks like a mere speck; at 1, 200 yards infantry can be distinguishedfrom cavalry; at 1, 000 yards a line of men looks like a broad belt; at600 yards the files of a squad can be counted, and at 400 yards themovements of the arms and legs can be plainly seen. (c) The larger, brighter or better lighted an object is, the nearer itseems. An object seems nearer when it has a dark background than whenit has a light one, and closer to the observer when the air is clearthan when it is raining, snowing, foggy or the atmosphere is filledwith smoke. An object looks farther off when the observer is facingthe sun than when he has his back to it. A smooth expanse of snow, grain fields or water makes distances seem shorter than they reallyare. Suggestions for the Reconnaissance of Various Positions and Localities =989. = Cross roads should be reconnoitered in each direction for adistance depending on how rapidly the patrol must continue on, how farfrom the main road the first turn or high point is, etc. The main bodyof the patrol usually remains halted near the crossroads, whileflankers do the reconnoitering. =990. Heights. = In reconnoitering a height, if the patrol is largeenough to admit of detaching them, one or two men climb the slope oneither flank, keeping in sight of the patrol, if possible. In anycase, one man moves cautiously up the hill, followed by the others inthe file at such distance that each keeps his predecessor in view. =991. Defiles. = On approaching a defile, if time permits, the heightson either side are reconnoitered by flankers before the patrol enters. If the heights are inaccessible or time is urgent, the patrol passesthrough, in single file at double time. The same method is adopted inreconnoitering a railroad cut or sunken road. =992. Bridges and Fords. = At a bridge or ford, the front of the patrolis contracted so as to bring all the men to the passage. The leadingpatrolers cross first and reconnoiter the far side to prevent thepossibility of the enemy surprising the main body of the patrol as itis crossing the bridge. The patrol then crosses rapidly, and takes upa proper formation. A bridge is first examined to see that it is safeand has not been tampered with by the enemy. =993. Woods. = The patrol enters a wood in skirmishing order, theintervals being as great as may be consistent with mutual observationand support on the part of the members of the patrol. On arriving atthe farther edge of the wood, the patrol remains concealed andcarefully looks about before passing out to open ground. When there issuch a growth of underbrush as to make this method impracticable, andit is necessary to enter a wood by a road, the road is reconnoiteredas in case of defile, though not usually at double time. =994. Enclosures. = In reconnoitering an enclosure, such as a garden, park or cemetery, the leading patrolers first examine the exterior, tomake sure that the enemy is not concealed behind one of the faces ofthe enclosure. They then proceed to examine the interior. Great careis taken in reconnoitering and entering an enclosure to avoid beingcaught in a confined or restricted space by the enemy. =995. Positions. = In approaching a position, but one man advances (oneis less liable to be detected than two or more), and he crawlscautiously toward the crest of the hill or edge of the wood or openingof the defile, while the others remain concealed in the rear until hesignals them to advance. =996. Houses. = When a house is approached by a patrol, it is firstreconnoitered from a distance, and if nothing suspicious is seen, itis then approached by one or two men, the rest of the party remainingconcealed in observation. If the patrol is large enough to admit ofit, four men approach the house, so as to examine the front and backentrances at the same time. Only one man enters the door, the othersremaining outside to give the alarm, should a party of the enemy beconcealed in the house. The patrol does not remain in the vicinity ofthe house any longer than necessary, as information relative to itsnumbers and movements might be given to the enemy, if a hostile partyshould subsequently visit the place. Farmhouses are searched fornewspapers and the inhabitants questioned. If necessary to go up to abuilding, wood or hill, where an enemy is likely to be concealed, runfor the last couple of hundred yards, having your rifle ready forinstant use, and make for some point that will afford you cover whenyou get close up. In the case of a building, for instance, you wouldmake for one of the corners. Such a maneuver would probably bedisconcerting to anyone who might be lying in wait for you, and wouldbe quite likely to cause them to show themselves sooner than theyintended, and thus give you a chance to turn around and get away. Ifthey fired on you while you were approaching at a run, they would notbe very likely to hit you. =997. Villages. = (=a=) In approaching a small village one or two menare sent in to reconnoiter and one around each flank, but the mainbody does not enter until the scouts have reported. In small patrolsof three to six men so much dispersion is not safe and only onesection of the village can be reconnoitered at a time. (=b=) If the presence of the enemy is not apparent, the patrol entersthe village. A suitable formation would be in single file at properdistance, each man being on the opposite side of the street from hispredecessor, thus presenting a more difficult target for hostile fireand enabling the men to watch all windows. (=c=) If the patrol is strong enough, it seizes the postoffice, telegraph office and railroad stations, and secures all importantpapers, such as files of telegrams sent and received, instructions topostmasters, orders of town mayor, etc. , that may be there. If thepatrol is part of the advance guard, it seizes the mayor andpostmaster of the place and turns them over to the commander of thevanguard with the papers seized. (=d=) While searching a village sentinels are placed at points ofdeparture to prevent any of the inhabitants from leaving. Tallbuildings and steeples are ascended and an extensive view of thesurrounding country obtained. (=e=) At night a village is more cautiously approached by a smallparty than by day. The patrol glides through back alleys, acrossgardens, etc. , rather than along the main street. If there are nosigns of the enemy, it makes inquiry. If no light is seen, and itseems imprudent to rouse any of the people, the patrol watches andcaptures one of the inhabitants, and gets from him such information ashe may possess. (=f=) The best time for the patrol to approach a village is at earlydawn, when it is light enough to see, but before the inhabitants areup. It is dangerous in the extreme for a small patrol to enter avillage unless it is certain that it is not occupied by the enemy, forthe men could be shot down by fire from the windows, cellarways, etc. , or entrapped and captured. As a rule large towns and cities are notentered by small patrols, but are watched from the outside, as a smallforce can not effectively reconnoiter and protect itself in such aplace. Facts Which Should Be Obtained by Patrols Regarding Certain Objects =998. Roads. = Their direction, their nature (macadamized, corduroyplank, dirt, etc. ), their condition of repair, their grade, the natureof crossroads, and the points where they leave the main roads; theirborders (woods, hedges, fences or ditches), the places at which theypass through defiles, cross heights or rivers, and where theyintersect railroads, their breadth (whether suitable for column offours or platoons, etc. ). =999. Railroads. = Their direction, gauge, the number of tracks, stations and junctions, their grade, the length and height of thecuts, embankments and tunnels. =1000. Bridges. = Their position, their width and length, theirconstruction (trestle, girder, etc. ), material (wood, brick, stone oriron), the roads and approaches on each bank. =1001. Rivers and Other Streams. = Their direction, width and depth, the rapidity of the current, liability to sudden rises and the highestand lowest points reached by the water, as indicated by drift wood, etc. , fords, the nature of the banks, kinds, position and number ofislands at suitable points of passage, heights in the vicinity andtheir command over the banks. =1002. Woods. = Their situation, extent and shape; whether clear orcontaining underbrush; the number and extent of "clearings" (openspaces); whether cut up by ravines or containing marshes, etc. ; natureof roads passing through them. =1003. Canals. = Their direction, width and depth; condition oftow-paths; locks and means of protecting or destroying them. =1004. Telegraphs. = Whether they follow railroads or common roads;stations, number of wires. =1005. Villages. = Their situation (on a height, in a valley or on aplain); nature of the surrounding country; construction of the houses, nature (straight or crooked) and width of streets; means of defense. =1006. Defiles. = Their direction; whether straight or crooked; whetherheights on either side are accessible or inaccessible; nature ofground at each extremity; width (frontage of column that can passthrough). =1007. Ponds and Marshes. = Means of crossing; defensive use that mightbe made of them as obstacles against enemy; whether the marshy groundsare practicable for any or all arms. =1008. Springs and Rivulets. = Nature of approaches; whether water isdrinkable and abundant. =1009. Valleys. = Extent and nature; towns, villages, hamlets, streams, roads and paths therein; obstacles offered by or in the valley, to themovement of troops. =1010. Heights. = Whether slopes are easy or steep; whether gooddefensive positions are offered; whether plateau is wide or narrow;whether passages are easy or difficult; whether the ground is brokenor smooth, wooded or clear. Suggestions for Patrols Employed in Executing Demolition (Destruction or blocking of bridges, railroads, etc. ) =1011. Patrols never execute any demolition unless specificallyordered to do so. = Demolition may be of two different characters:Temporary demolition, such as cutting telegraph wires in but a fewplaces or merely burning the flooring of bridges, removing a few railsfrom a track, etc. , and permanent demolition, such as cutting down anentire telegraph line, completely destroying bridges, blowing intunnels, etc. Only temporary demolition will be dealt with in thisbook. =1012. Telegraph Line. = To temporarily disable telegraph lines, connect up different wires close to the glass insulators, wrap a wirearound all the wires and bury its ends in the ground (this grounds orshort circuits the wire), or cut all the wires in one or two places. =1013. Railroads. = To temporarily disable railroads remove the fishplates (the plates that join the rails together at the ends) at eachend of a short section of track, preferably upon an embankment, thenhave as many men as available raise the track on one side until theties stand on end and turn the section of track so that it will falldown the embankment; or, cut out rails by a charge of dynamite or guncotton placed against the web and covered up with mud or damp clay. Eight to twelve ounces of explosive is sufficient. Or blow in thesides of deep cuts or blow down embankments. Bridges, culverts, tunnels, etc. , are never destroyed except on a written order of thecommander-in-chief. =1014. Wagon Road. = (=a=) Bridges can be rendered temporarily uselessby removing the flooring, or, in the case of steel bridges, by burningthe flooring (if obtainable, pour tar or kerosene on flooring), particularly if there is not time to remove it. Short culverts may sometimes be blown in. A hastily constructed barricade across a bridge or in a cut of trees, wagons, etc, may be sufficient in some cases where only the temporarycheck of hostile cavalry or artillery is desired. (=b=) The road bed may be blocked by digging trenches not less thanthirty feet wide and six feet deep, but as this would take a greatdeal of time patrols would rarely be charged with such work. =1015. Report on Return of Patrol. = On returning the patrol leadersshould make a short verbal or written report, almost always theformer, briefly recounting the movements of the patrol, theinformation obtained of the enemy, a description of the country passedover and of friendly troops encountered. Of course, this is notpracticable when the situation is changing rapidly and a returningpatrol is immediately engaged in some new and pressing duty. Model Reports of Patrol Leaders =1016. 1. Verbal. = =Patrol Leader= (Corporal B): Sir, Corporal B reports back with hispatrol. =Captain A:= I received two messages from you, corporal. What else didyou discover? =Corporal B:= That was a regiment of infantry, sir, with one battalionthrown out as advance guard. The main body of two battalions went intobivouac at the crossroads and the advance guard formed an outpost linealong the big creek two miles south of here. =Captain A:= Give me an account of your movements. =Corporal B:= We followed this main road south to the creek, where weavoided a mounted patrol moving north on the road at 1-45 P. M. , andthen reconnoitered the valley from a ridge west of the road. Wefollowed the ridge south for half a mile to a point where we could seea road crossing the valley and the main road at right angles, threemiles south of here. There we halted, and at 2:20 what seemed to bethe point and advance party (about forty men) of an infantry advanceguard appeared, marching north up this road, the head at thecrossroad. I then sent you message No. 1 by Private Brown. In fifteen minutes three companies had appeared 600 yards in rear ofthe advance party, and I could see a heavy, low column of dust aboutone-half mile further to the rear. Message No. 2 was then sent in byPrivates Baker and Johnson, and to avoid several hostile patrols, Idrew off further to the northwest. The advance guard then halted and established an outpost line alongthe south of the creek, two miles from here. The cloud of dust provedto be two more battalions and a wagon train. These two battalions wentinto bivouac on opposite sides of this road at the crossroads and sentout strong patrols east and west on the crossroad. Five wagons wentforward to the outpost battalion and the reserve built cook fires. As Private Rush, here, was the only man I had left, we started back, sketching the valley, ridge and positions of the main body andoutpost. Here is the sketch, sir. The fields are all cut crops ormeadow. We sighted two foot patrols from the outpost, moving north about amile from here, one following the road and one further east. I did not see any of our patrols. That is all, sir. =2. Written. = =Report of Sergeant Wm. James' Patrol of Five Men= Support No. 1, Outpost of 6th Inf. , Near Dixon, 22 Aug. 12, 2-30 to 5 P. M. The patrol followed the timber along the creek for one mile S. From our outguards and leaving the creek bottom moved 1/2 mile S. E. To the wooded hill (about 800 ft. High), visible from our lines. From this hill top the valley to the east (about one mile wide) could be fairly well observed. No signs of the enemy were seen and a message, No. 1, was sent back by Private Russel. A wagon road runs N. And S. Through the valley, bordered by four or five farms with numerous orchards and cleared fields. Both slopes of the valley are heavily wooded. The patrol then moved S. W. , until it struck the macadam pike which runs N. And S. , through our lines. Proceeding S. 400 yds. On this pike to a low hill a farmer, on foot, was met. Said he lived one mile further S. ; was looking for some loose horses; that four hostile cavalrymen, from the east, stopped at his farm at noon, drank some milk, took oats for their horses, inquired the way to Dixon and rode off in that direction within fifteen minutes. He said they were the first hostiles he had seen; that they told nothing about themselves, and they and their horses looked in good condition. Farmer appeared friendly and honest. The patrol then returned to our lines following the pike about two miles. Road is in good condition, low hedges and barbed wire fences, stone culverts and no bridges in the two miles. Bordering country is open and gently rolling farming country and all crops are in. A sketch is attached to this report. None of our patrols was seen. Respectfully submitted, Wm. James, Sergeant, Co. A, 6th Infy. Problem in Patrol Leading and Patrolling =1017. = In studying or solving tactical problems on a map you mustremember that unless you carefully work out your own solution to theproblem before looking at the given solution, you will practicallymake no progress. It is best, if your time permits, to write out your solutions, andwhen you read over the given solutions, compare the solution of eachpoint with what you thought of that same point when you were solvingthe problem, and consider why you did just what you did. Without thiscomparison much of the lasting benefit of the work is lost. In some of these problems both the problem and solutions are presentedin dialogue form so as to give company officers examples of the bestmethod of conducting the indoor instruction of their men in minortactics. It also gives an example of how to conduct a tactical walkout in the country, simply looking at the ground itself, instead of amap hanging on the wall. The enlarged Elementary Map referred to inPar. 954, is supposed to be used in this instruction as well as in thewar games. Problem No. 1. (Infantry) =1018. = The Elementary Map (scale 12 inches to the mile) being hung onthe wall, about two sergeants and two squads of the company are seatedin a semicircle facing it, and the captain is standing beside the mapwith a pointer (a barrack cleaning rod makes an excellent pointer). =Captain:= We will suppose that our company has just reached thevillage of York. The enemy is reported to be in the vicinity of Bolingand Oxford (he points out on the map all places as they arementioned). We are in the enemy's country. Corporal James, I call you up at 3 P. M. And give you these orders:"Nothing has been seen of the enemy yet. Our nearest troops are threemiles south of here. Take four men from your squad and reconnoiteralong this road (County Road) into the valley on the other side ofthat ridge over there (points to the ridge just beyond the cemetery), and see if you can discover anything about the enemy. Report back hereby 5 o'clock. I am sending a patrol out the Valley Pike. " Now, Corporal, state just what you would do. =Corporal James:= I would go to my squad, fall in Privates Amos, Barlow, Sharp and Brown; see that they had full canteens; that theirarms were all right; that they were not lame or sick and I would havethem leave their blanket rolls, haversacks and entrenching tools withthe company. (Par. 964. ) I would then give these orders (Par. 963); "We are ordered out onpatrol duty. Nothing has been seen of the enemy yet. Our nearesttroops are three miles south of here. We are ordered to reconnoiteralong this road into the valley on the other side of that ridge, andsee if we can discover anything about the enemy. Another patrol isgoing up the Valley Pike. Reports are to be sent here. In case we arescattered we will meet at the woods on the hill over there (indicatesthe clump of trees just west of Mills' farm). "I will go ahead. Amos, follow about fifty yards behind me. Barlow, you and Sharp keep about 100 yards behind Amos, and Brown will followyou at half that distance. All keep on the opposite side of the roadfrom the man ahead of you. " (Par. 968. ) =Captain:= All right, Corporal, now describe what route you willfollow. =Corporal James:= The patrol will keep to the County Road until thecrest of the ridge near the stone wall is reached, when what I see inthe valley beyond will decide my route for me. =Captain:= How about the woods west of the stone walls? =Corporal James:= If I did not see anyone from our patrol on theValley Pike reconnoitering there, I would give Barlow these ordersjust after we have examined the cemetery, when the patrol would havetemporarily closed up somewhat: "Barlow, take Sharp and examine thatlittle woods over there. Join us at the top of this hill. " I wouldthen wave to Brown to close up and would proceed to the hill top. =Captain:= Barlow what do you do? =Private Barlow:= I would say, "Sharp, out straight across for thatwoods. I will follow you. " I would follow about 100 yards behind him. When he reached the edge of the woods I would signal him to halt byholding up my left hand. After I had closed up to about fifty yards Iwould say to him, "Go into the woods and keep me in sight. " I wouldwalk along the edge of the woods where I could see Sharp and thecorporal's patrol on the road at the same time. =Captain:= That is all right, Barlow. Corporal, you should haveinstructed Amos or Brown to keep close watch on Barlow for signals. =Corporal James:= I intended to watch him myself. =Captain:= No, you would have enough to do keeping on the alert forwhat was ahead of you. Now describe how you lead the patrol to the topof the hill, by the stone wall. =Corporal James:= When I reached the crest I would hold up my hand forthe patrol to halt and would cautiously advance and look ahead intothe valley. If I saw nothing suspicious I would wave to the men toclose up and say, "Amos, go to that high ground about 250 yards overthere (indicates the end of the nose made by the 60-foot contour justnorth of the east end of the stone wall), and look around thecountry. " I would keep Brown behind the crest, watching Barlow'smovements. =Captain:= Now, Corporal, Amos reaches the point you indicated andBarlow and Sharp join you. What do you do? =Corporal James:= Can I see the Steel Bridge over Sandy Creek? =Captain:= No, it is three-fourths of a mile away and the trees alongthe road by Smith's hide it. You can see the cut in the road east ofthe bridge and the Smith house, but the crossroads are hidden by thetrees bordering the roads. You see nothing suspicious. It is a clear, sunny afternoon. The roads are dusty and the trees in full foliage. The valley is principally made up of fields of cut hay, corn stubbleand meadow land. =Corporal James:= Does Private Amos give me any information? =Captain:= No, he makes you no signals. You see him sitting behind abush looking northwest, down the valley. =Corporal James:= I would say, "Barlow, head straight across to wherethat line of trees meets the road (indicates the point where the lanefrom Mills' farm joins the Chester Pike). Sharp, keep about fiftyyards to my right rear. " I would follow Barlow at 150 yards and when Ihad reached the bottom land I would wave to Amos to follow us. =Captain:= How about Brown? =Corporal James:= I had already given him his orders to follow as rearguard and he should do so without my telling him. =Captain:= Amos, what do you do when you see the corporal wave to you? =Private Amos:= I would go down the hill and join him. =Captain:= No, you could do better than that. You are too far from thecorporal for him to signal you to do much of anything except staythere or join him. You should join him, but you should not go straightdown to him. You should head so as to strike the Mills' Lane about 100yards east of the house and then go down the lane, first looking alongthe stone wall. In this way you save time in reconnoitering the groundnear the Mills' farm and protect the patrol against being surprised byan enemy hidden by the line of trees, or the wall along the lane. Youare not disobeying your orders but just using common sense infollowing them out and thinking about what the corporal is trying todo. Now, Corporal, why didn't you go to the Smith house and find out ifthe people there had seen anything of the enemy? =Corporal James:= You said we were in the enemy's country, sir, so Ithought it best to avoid the inhabitants until I found I could not getinformation in any other way. I intended first to see if I couldlocate any enemy around here, and if not, to stop at houses on myreturn. In this way I would be gone before the people could send anyinformation to the enemy about my patrol. =Captain:= Barlow reaches the Chester Pike where the Mills' laneleaves it. You are about 150 yards in his rear. Sharp is 50 yards offto your right rear, Amos 100 yards to your left rear and Brown 50yards behind you. Just as Barlow starts to climb over the barbed wirefence into the Chester Pike you see him drop down on the ground. Hesignals, "Enemy in sight. " Tell me quickly what would you do? =Corporal James:= I would wave my hand for all to lie down, and Iwould hasten forward, stooping over as I ran, until I was about twentyyards from him, when I would crawl forward to the fence, close by him. Just before I reached him I would ask him what he saw. =Captain:= He replies, "There are some hostile foot soldiers coming upthis road. " =Corporal James:= I would crawl forward and look. =Captain:= You see three or four men, about 500 yards north of you, coming up the Chester Pike. They are scattered out. =Corporal James:= I would say, "Crawl into the lane, keep behind thestone wall, watch those fellows, and work your way to that farm"(indicates the Mills' farm). I would start towards the Mills' farmmyself, under cover of the trees along the lane and would wave to theother men to move rapidly west, towards the hills. =Captain:= Why didn't you try to hide near where you were and allowthe hostile men to pass? =Corporal James:= There does not seem to be any place to hide nearthere that a patrol would not probably examine. =Captain:= What is your plan now? =Corporal James:= I want to get my patrol up to that small woods nearthe Mills' farm, but I hardly expect to be able to get them up to thatpoint without their being seen. In any event, I want them well backfrom the road where they can lie down and not be seen by the enemywhen he passes. =Captain:= You succeed in collecting your patrol in the woods withouttheir being seen, and you see four foot soldiers in the road at theentrance to the land. One man starts up the lane, the others remainingon the road. =Corporal James:= I say, "Brown, go through these woods and hurrystraight across to York. You should be able to see the village fromthe other side of the woods. Report to the captain that a hostilepatrol of four foot men is working south up the valley, two milesnortheast of York. We will go further north. Repeat what I have toldyou. " (Par. 979. ) =Captain:= Why didn't you send this message before? =Corporal James:= Because we were moving in the same direction thatthe messenger would have had to go, and, by waiting a very fewminutes, I was able to tell whether it was a mere patrol or the pointof an advance guard. =Captain:= Do you think it correct to send a messenger back with newsabout a small patrol? =Corporal James:= Ordinarily it would be wrong, but as nothing hasbeen seen of the enemy until now, this first news is important becauseit proves to the Captain that the enemy really is in thisneighborhood, which it seems to me is a very important thing for himto know and what my mission required me to do. (Par. 981. ) =Captain:= What are you going to do now, Corporal? =Corporal James:= We have traveled about two miles and stoppedfrequently, so it must be about 4 o'clock. It is one and one-thirdmiles back to York, where I should arrive about 5 o'clock. It wouldtake me twenty-five minutes to go from here to York, so I have aboutthirty-five minutes left before 5 o'clock. This will permit me to goforward another mile and still be able to reach York on time. It istwo-thirds of a mile to the Mason farm, and if the hostile patrolappears to be going on, I will start for that point. Did anyone at theMills' farm see us? =Captain:= No, but tell me first why you do not go along this highground that overlooks the valley? =Corporal James:= Because our patrol that started out the Valley Pikeis probably near Twin Hills and I want to cover other country. Theorchard at Mason's would obstruct my view from the hills. =Captain:= The hostile patrol goes on south. Describe briefly yournext movements. =Corporal James:= I lead my patrol over to Mason's and, concealing twoof the men so that both roads and the house can be watched, I take oneman and reconnoiter around the farm yard and go up to the house toquestion the inhabitants. (Par. 996. ) =Captain:= You find one woman there who says some other soldiers, onfoot, passed there a few minutes ago, marching south. She gives you noother information about the enemy or country. =Corporal James:= I would send Amos over to see how deep and wideSandy Creek is (Par. 1001. ) When he returned I would take the patrolover to Twin Hills, follow the ridge south to the stone wall on theCounty Road, watching the valley for signs of the hostile patrol, andfollow the road back to York; then make my report to the Captain, telling him where I had gone, all I had seen, including a descriptionof the country. If I had not been hurried, I would have made a sketchof the valley. I can make a rough one after I get in. (Par. 1015. ) =Captain:= Suppose on your way back you saw hostile troops appearingon the County Road, marching west over Sandy Ridge. Would you stay outlonger or would you consider that you should reach Oxford by 5o'clock? =Corporal James:= I would send a message back at once, and remain outlong enough to find out the strength and probable intention of the newenemy. =Captain (to one platoon of his troop of cavalry):= We will supposethat this troop has just (9 A. M. ) arrived in Boling (Elementary Map)on a clear, dry, summer day. The enemy is supposed to be near Salemand we have seen several of his patrols this morning on our marchsouth to Boling. Sergeant Allen, I call you up and give you theseinstructions: "Take Corporal Burt's squad (eight men) and reconnoitersouth by this road (indicates the Boling-Morey house road) to Salem. Iwill take the troop straight south to Salem and you will join itthere about 10:15. It is four and one-half miles to Salem. Start atonce. " (You have no map. ) =Sergeant Allen:= I would like to know just what the Captain wishes mypatrol to do. (Par. 965. ) =Captain:= We will suppose that this is one of the many occasions inactual campaign where things must be done quickly. Where there is notime for detailed orders. You know that the troop has been marchingsouth towards Salem where the enemy is supposed to be. You also knowwe have seen several of his patrols. I have told you what the troop isgoing to do, and from all this you should be able to decide what yourmission is in this case. We will, therefore, consider that there is notime to give you more detailed orders, and you have to decide foryourself. Of course, if you had failed to hear just what I said, then, in spite of the necessity for haste, I would repeat my instructions toyou. (Par. 963. ) =Sergeant Allen:= I would ride over to Corporal Burt's squad and leadit out of the column to the road leading to the Morey house, and say, "The troop is going on straight south to Salem, four and one-halfmiles away. This squad will reconnoiter south to Salem by this road, joining the troop there about 10:15. In case we become separated, makefor Salem. Corporal, take Brown and form the point. I will follow withthe squad about 300 yards in rear. Regulate your gait on me after youget your distance. Move out now at a trot. " (Par. 963. ) After Corporal Burt had gotten 150 yards out I would say, "Carter, move out as connecting file. " I would then say, "Downs, you willfollow about 150 yards behind us as rear guard. " When Carter had gone150 yards down the road I would order, "=1. Forward; 2. Trot; 3. March=, " and ride off at the head of the four remaining men (in columnof twos. ) (Par. 968. ) =Captain:= Sergeant, tell me briefly what is your estimate of thesituation--that is, what sort of a proposition you have before you andhow you have decided to handle it. =Sergeant Allen:= As the enemy is supposed to be near Salem and wehave already seen his patrols, I expect to encounter more patrols andmay meet a strong body of the enemy, on my way to Salem. As I have nomap, I cannot tell anything about the road, except that it is aboutfour and one-half miles by the direct road the troop will follow, therefore my route will be somewhat longer. I have been given an hourand fifteen minutes in which to make the trip, so, if I move at a trotalong the safer portions of the road. I will have time to proceed veryslowly and cautiously along the dangerous portions. My patrol will bestretched out about 500 yards on the road, which should make itdifficult for the enemy to surprise us and yet should permit mycontrolling the movements of the men. (Par. 968. ) I consider that my mission is to start out on this road and find myway around to Salem in about an hour and, particularly, to get wordacross to the Captain on the other road of anything of importanceabout the enemy that I may learn. =Captain:= Very well. When you reach the cut in the road across thesouth nose of Hill 38, your point has almost reached the Morey house. Do you make any change in your patrol? =Sergeant Allen:= I order, "=1. Walk, 2. MARCH=, " and watch to see ifthe connecting file observes the change in gait and comes to a walk. =Captain:= Suppose he does not come to a walk? =Sergeant Allen:= I would say, "Smith, gallop ahead and tell Carter towalk and to keep more on the alert. " =Captain:= Corporal Burt, you reach the road fork at Morey's. What doyou do? =Corporal Burt:= I say, "Brown, wait here until Carter is close enoughto see which way you go and then trot up to me. " I would walk on downthe road. =Captain:= Wouldn't you make any inspection of the Morey house? =Corporal Burt:= Not unless I saw something suspicious from the road. I would expect the main body of the patrol to do that. =Captain:= Don't you make any change on account of the woods you arepassing? =Corporal Burt:= No, sir. It has very heavy underbrush and we wouldlose valuable time trying to search through it. A large force of theenemy would hardly hide in such a place. =Captain:= Sergeant Allen, you reach the road fork. What do you do? =Sergeant Allen:= I would have two men go into the Morey house toquestion anyone they found there. I would order one of the other twomen to trot up (north) that road 200 yards and wait until I signaledto him to return. With the other man I would await the result of theinspection of the Morey house. Corporal Burt should have gone aheadwithout orders to the cut in the road across Long Ridge, leaving Brownhalf way between us. (Pars. 987 to 996. ) =Captain:= You find no one at the Morey house. =Sergeant Allen:= I would signal the man to the north to come in. Iwould then order two men to "find a gate in the fence and trot up onthat hill (indicating Long Ridge), and look around the country andjoin me down this road. " (Par. 968. ) I would then start south at awalk, halting at the cut to await the result of the inspection on thecountry from the hill. =Captain:= Foster, you and Lacey are the two men sent up on LongRidge. When you reach the hilltop you see four hostile cavalrymentrotting north on the Valley Pike, across the railroad track. =Private Foster:= I signal like this (enemy in sight), and wait to seeif they go on north. (Par. 978. ) Do I see anything else behind orahead of them? =Captain:= You see no other signs of the enemy on any road. Everythinglooks quiet. The hostile cavalrymen pass the Baker house and continuenorth. =Private Foster:= I would then take Lacey, trot down the ridge toSergeant Allen, keeping below the crest and report, "Sergeant, We sawfour hostile mounted men trotting north on the road aboutthree-quarters of a mile over there (pointing), and they kept onnorth, across that road (pointing to the Brown-Baker-Oxford road). There was nothing else in sight. " I would then tell him what thecountry to the south looked like, if he wanted to know. =Captain:= Sergeant Allen, what do you do now? =Sergeant Allen:= I would continue toward the Brown house at a trot. Iwould send no message to you as you already know there are hostilepatrols about and therefore this information would be of little or noimportance to you. (Par. 981. ) =Captain:= You arrive at Brown's house. =Sergeant Allen:= I would send two men in to question the people and Iwould continue on at a walk. I would not send any one up the roadtowards Oxford as Foster has already seen that road. =Captain:= You should have sent a man several hundred yards out theFarm Lane. (Par. 989. ) If he moved at a trot it would only have takena very short time. Continue to describe your movements. =Sergeant Allen:= I would halt at the railroad track until I saw mytwo men coming on from the Brown house. I would then direct the othertwo men who were with me to go through the first opening in the fenceto the west and ride south along that ridge (62--Lone Hill--TwinHills' ridge) until I signaled them to rejoin. I would tell them tolook out for our troop over to the east. If there were a great manyfences I would not send them out until we were opposite the southernedge of that woods ahead of us. There I would send them to the highground to look over the country, and return at once. =Captain:= There are a great many fences west of the road andpractically none east of the road to Sandy Creek. Just as you arriveopposite the southern edge of those woods and are giving orders forthe two men to ride up the hill, you hear firing in the direction ofBald Knob. In the road at the foot of the south slope of Bald Knob, where the trail to the quarry starts off, you can see quite a clump ofhorses. You see nothing to the west of your position or towardsMason's. What do you do? =Sergeant Allen:= I signal "RALLY" to Carter and Downs. If there is agate nearby I lead my men through it. If not, I have them cut or breakan opening in the fence and ride towards the railroad fill at a fasttrot, having one man gallop ahead as point. When we reach the fill, the point having first looked beyond it, Iorder, "=DISMOUNT=. Lacey, hold the horses. =1. As skirmishers alongthat fill, 2. MARCH. =" When Corporal Burt, Brown, Carter and Downscome up Lacey takes their horses and they join the line ofskirmishers. Captain, what do I see from the fill? =Captain:= There appear to be about twenty or thirty horses in thegroup. The firing seems to come from the cut in the road just north ofthe horses and from the clump of trees by the Quarry. You can alsohear firing from a point further north on the road, apparently yourtroop replying to the fire from Bald Knob. You see nothing in the roadsouth of the horses as far as Hill 42, which obstructs your view. Whataction do you take? =Sergeant Allen:= I order, "=AT THE FEET OF THOSE HORSES. RANGE, 850. CLIP FIRE. =" =Captain:= What is your object in doing as you have done? =Sergeant Allen:= I know the captain intended to go to Salem with thetroop. From the fact that he is replying to the hostile fire I judgehe still wishes to push south. I was ordered to reconnoiter along thisroad, but now a situation has arisen where the troop is beingprevented or delayed in doing what was desired and I am in whatappears to be a very favorable position from which to give assistanceto the troop and enable them to push ahead. I am practically in rearof the enemy and within effective range of their lead horses. Itherefore think my mission has at least temporarily changed and Ishould try and cause the twenty or thirty hostile troopers to draw off(Par. 1011). Besides, I think it is my business to find out what thestrength of this enemy is and whether or not he has reinforcementscoming up from Salem, and send this information to the captain. Frommy position I can still watch the Chester Pike. =Captain:= After you have emptied your clips you see the enemy runningdown out of the cut and from among the trees mount their horses andgallop south. What do you do? =Sergeant Allen:= I would send Foster across the creek above thetrestle (south of trestle), to ride across to that road (pointingtowards the cut on Bald Hill) and tell the captain, who is near there, that about thirty men were on the hill and they have galloped south, and that I am continuing towards Salem. I would have Foster repeat themessage that I gave him. I would then trot back to the Chester Pikeand south to Mason's, taking up our old formation. =Captain:= You see nothing unusual at Mason's and continue south untilyou reach the cross roads by the Smith farm. Corporal Burt and PrivateBrown are near the stone bridge south of Smith's; Private Carter ishalf way between you and Corporal Burt; and Private Downs is 100 yardsnorth of Smith's. You have three men with you. What do you do? =Sergeant Allen:= What time is it now? =Captain:= It is now 9:45 A. M. =Sergeant Allen:= I would say, "Lacey, take Jackson and gallop as faras that cut in the road (points east) and see if you can locate theenemy or our troop in the valley beyond. I will wave my hat over myhead when I want you to return. " I would then say to Private Moore, "Gallop down to Corporal Burt and tell him to fall back in thisdirection 100 yards, and then you return here bringing the other twomen with you. " I would then await the result of Private Lacey'sreconnaissance, sending Carter to the turn in the road 200 yards westof the cross roads. =Captain:= Lacey, what do you do? =Private Lacey:= I order Jackson, "Follow 75 yards behind me and watchfor signals from Sergeant Allen, " and I then gallop across the steelbridge and half way up the hill. I then move cautiously up to the cutand, if the fences permit, I ride up on the side of the cut, dismounting just before reaching the crest of the ridge, and walkforward until I can see into the valley beyond. =Captain:= You see no signs of the enemy in the valley, but you seeyour own troop on the road by the Gibbs farm with a squad in advancein the road on Hill 42. =Private Lacey:= I look towards Sergeant Allen to see if he issignaling. I make no signals. =Captain:= What do you do, Sergeant? =Sergeant Allen:= I wave my hat for Private Lacey to return. I wave toPrivate Downs to join me and when Private Lacey arrives I signal"ASSEMBLE" to Corporal Burt and then say, "Lacey, join Corporal Burtand tell him to follow me as rear guard. Martin, join Carter and tellhim to trot west. We will follow. You stay with him. " After he gotstarted I would order, "Follow me. =1. Trot; 2. MARCH. =" =Captain:= When Private Carter reaches the crest of the ridge aboutone-half mile west of Smith's he signals, "Enemy in sight in largenumbers, " and he remains in the road with Martin fifty yards in rear. (Par. 978. ) =Sergeant Allen:= I order, "=1. Walk; 2. MARCH. = =1. Squad; 2. HALT=, "and gallop up to Private Carter, dismount just before reaching thecrest, give my horse up to Private Martin, and run forward. =Captain:= Carter points out what appears to be a troop of cavalrystanding in the road leading north out of York, just on the edge ofthe town. You see about four mounted men 200 yards out of York on yourroad, halted, and about the same number on the Valley Pike near whereit crosses the first stream north of York. What do you do? =Sergeant Allen:= I wait about three minutes to see if they are goingto move. =Captain:= They remain halted, the men at York appear to bedismounted. =Sergeant Allen:= I write the following message: Hill 1/2 mile N. E. Of York, 10 A. M. Captain X: A hostile troop of cavalry is standing in road at YORK (west of SALEM) with squads halted on N. And N. E. Roads from YORK. Nothing else seen. Will remain in observation for the present. Allen, Sgt. (Pars. 979 and 981. ) I would give the message to Martin, who had previously brought myhorse up close in rear of the crest, and would say to him, "Take thismessage to the captain, straight across to the road the troop is on, and turn south towards Salem if you do not see them at first. TakeLacey with you. Tell him what you have seen. He knows where the troopis. " I would have Carter hold my horse, and watch the remainder of thepatrol for signals, while I observed the enemy. =Captain:= At the end of five minutes the hostile troop trots north onthe Valley Pike, the patrol on your road rides across to the ValleyPike and follows the troop. =Sergeant Allen:= I would wait until the troops had crossed the creeknorth of York and would then face my patrol east and trot to the crossroads at Smith's, turn south and continue to Salem, sending one man toride up on Sandy Ridge, keeping the patrol in sight. =Captain:= We have carried out the problem far enough. It furnishes agood example of the varying situations a patrol leader has to meet. Good judgment or common sense must be used in deciding on the propercourse to follow. You must always think of what your chief is tryingto do and then act in the way you think will best help him toaccomplish his object. If you have carefully decided just what missionyou have been given to accomplish, you cannot easily go wrong. Inhandling a mounted patrol you must remember that if the men becomewidely separated in strange country, or even in country they arefairly familiar with, they are most apt to lose all contact with eachother or become lost themselves. Problem No. 2. (Infantry) =1019. Captain (to one platoon of his company):= We will suppose it isabout half an hour before dawn. One platoon of the company is deployedas skirmishers, facing north, in the cut where the County Road crossesSandy Ridge. It is the extreme right of a line of battle extendingwest along the line of the County Road. The fight was not commenced. This platoon is resting in a wheat field between the railroad and thefoot of the slope of Sandy Ridge, 200 yards south of the County Road. Sergeant Allen, I call you up and give you these instructions: "Theenemy's line is off in that direction (pointing northwest). Take sixmen and work north along the railroad until it is light enough to see;then locate the hostile line and keep me informed of their movements. I will be in this vicinity. You have a compass. Start at once. "Describe briefly the formation of your patrol while it is moving inthe dark. =Sergeant Allen:= One man will lead. A second man will follow aboutfifteen yards in rear of him. I will follow the second man at the samedistance with three more men, and the last man will be about twentyyards in rear of me. All will have bayonets fixed, loaded and pieceslocked. One short, low whistle will mean, =Halt=, two short whistleswill mean, =Forward=, and the word "Sandy" will be the countersign bywhich we can identify each other. =Captain:= Very well. We will suppose that you reach the steel trestleover Sandy Creek just at dawn and have met no opposition and heardnothing of the enemy. On either side of Sandy Creek are fields ofstanding corn about six feet tall. In the present dim light you canonly see a few hundred yards off. =Sergeant Allen:= The patrol being halted I would walk forward to theleading man (Brown) and say, "Brown, take Carter and form the pointfor the patrol, continuing along this railroad. We will follow about150 yards in rear. " I would then rejoin the main body of the patroland order the man in rear to follow about 75 yards in rear of us. Whenthe point had gained its distance I would move forward with the mainbody, ordering one man to move along the creek bank (west bank), keeping abreast of us until I signaled to him to come in. =Captain:= Just as you reach the northern end of the railroad fillyour point halts and you detect some movement in the road to the westof you. It is rapidly growing lighter. =Sergeant Allen:= I would move the main body by the left flank intothe corn, signaling to the man following the creek to rejoin, and forthe rear guard to move off the track also. I would expect Brown to dothe same, even before he saw what we had done. I would then close upon the point until I could see it and, halting all the patrol, I wouldorder Foster to take Lacey and work over towards the road to see whatis there and to report back to me immediately. =Captain:= In a few minutes Foster returns and reports, "The enemy ismoving south in the road and in the field beyond, in line of squads orsections. A hostile patrol is moving southeast across the field behindus. We were not seen. " (Note: This situation could well have been led up to by requiringPrivate Foster to explain how he conducted his reconnaissance andhaving him formulate his report on the situation as given. ) =Sergeant Allen:= I would then work my patrol closer to the road, keeping Foster out on that flank, and prepare to follow south in rearof the hostile movement. =Captain:= The information you have gained is so important that youshould have sent a man back to me with a verbal message, particularlyas you are in a very dangerous position, and may not be able to send amessage later. While you have not definitely located the left of theenemy's line, you have apparently discovered what appears to be amovement of troops forward to form the left of the attacking line. Your action in turning south to follow the troops just reported, isproper, as you now know you are partly in rear of the hostile movementand must go south to locate the hostile flank that your missionrequires you to report on. You men must picture in your minds the appearance of the country thesergeant is operating through. His patrol is now in a field of highstanding corn. Unless you are looking down between the regular rows ofcorn you can only see a few yards ahead of you. The road has a wirefence and is bordered by a fairly heavy growth of high weeds andbushes. The ground is dry and dusty. Sergeant, how do you conduct yourmovement south? =Sergeant Allen:= As my patrol is now in a very dangerous neighborhoodand very liable to be caught between two hostile lines, with a deepcreek between our present position and our platoon, I think it best tomove cautiously southeast until I reach the creek bank (I cannot seeit from where I now am), and then follow the creek south. I think I amvery apt to find the enemy's left resting on this creek. Besides, if Ido not soon locate the enemy, I can hold the main body of my patrolclose to the creek and send scouts in towards the road to search forthe enemy. It will also be much easier to send information back to theplatoon from the creek bank, as a messenger can ford it and headsoutheast until he strikes the railroad and then follow that straightback to our starting point. It would thus be very difficult for him toget lost. =Captain:= You move southeast and strike the creek bank just south ofthe railroad trestle. You now hear artillery fire off to the west anda rifle fire to the southwest which gradually increases in volume. Yousee a high cloud of dust hanging over the road on the hill west ofMason's and south of this road on the north slope of the northern-mostknoll of the Twin Hills, you can occasionally see the flash of a gun, artillery being discharged. There seems to be no rifle firing directlyin your front. =Sergeant Allen:= I hurriedly write the following message: At Ry. Trestle 1 mi. N. Of Platoon, 5:15 A. M. Captain X: Can see arty. Firing from position on N. Slope of knoll on high ridge to W. Of me, and 1/4 mi. S. Of E. And W. Road. Hostile line is S. Of me. Have not located it. Will move S. Allen, Sgt. (Par. 474. ) I hand this to Private Smith and say to him. "Carry this quickly tothe captain. Follow the railroad back until you cross a wagon road. Our platoon should be to the west of the track just beyond the road. "I also read the message to Smith and point out the hostile artillery. I have considered that I sent a message before telling about thehostile advance. I then continue south, moving slowly and with great caution. Iinstruct the remaining four men that in case we are surprised to tryto cross the creek and follow the railroad back to the platoon. =Captain:= Your information about the hostile artillery position wasimportant and should have been sent in, provided you think yourdescription of the hostile position was sufficiently clear to beunderstood by an observer within your own lines. There is some question as to the advisability of your remaining on thewest bank of the creek. Still you would not be able to tell from whereyou were what direction the creek took, so you probably would remainon the west bank for the present. You continue south for about 150 yards and your leading man halts, comes back to you, and reports that the corn ahead is broken andtrampled, showing it has been passed over by foot troops. About thesame time you hear rifle fire to your immediate front. It sounds veryclose. =Sergeant Allen:= I say, "Cross this creek at once, " and when we reachthe other bank and the patrol forms again, we move slowly south, allthe men keeping away from the creek bank, except myself, and I marchopposite the two men constituting the main body. =Captain:= About this time you detect a movement in the corn acrossthe creek in rear of the place you have just left. You think it is abody of troops moving south. The firing in front seems to be deliveredfrom a point about two or three hundred yards south of you and you canhear heavy firing from off in the direction of your company, a fewbullets passing overhead. There are scattered trees along the creekand some bushes close to the edge. =Sergeant Allen:= I would conceal myself close to the bank, the patrolbeing back, out of sight from the opposite bank, and awaitdevelopments. =Captain:= Sergeant, your patrol is in a dangerous position. The enemywill very likely have a patrol or detachment in rear and beyond hisflank. This patrol would probably cross the railroad trestle and takeyou in rear. You should have given the last men in your patrolparticular instructions to watch the railroad to the north. It wouldhave been better if you had sent one man over to the railroad, whichis only a short distance away, and had him look up and down the trackand also make a hurried survey of the country from an elevatedposition on the fill. I also think it would be better not to await developments where younow are, but to push south and make sure of the position of the leftof the enemy's firing line, later you can devote more time to themovements in rear of the first line. You are taking too many chancesin remaining where you are. I do not mean that you should leave merelybecause you might have some of your men killed or captured, butbecause if this did occur you would probably not be able to accomplishyour mission. Later you may have to run a big chance of sacrificingseveral of your men, in order to get the desired information, whichwould be entirely justifiable. Tell me how your men are arranged andwhat your next movement would be. =Sergeant Allen:= I have four men left, I am close to the stream'sbank, under cover; two men are about 25 yards further away from thestream; Private Brown is up stream as far off as he can get and stillsee the other two men, and Private Foster is down stream the samedistance. Both Brown and Foster are well back from the stream. The twomen in the middle, the main body of the patrol, make their movementsconform to mine, and Brown and Foster regulate their movements on themain body. I will move south until I can locate the enemy's advanceline. =Captain:= When you are opposite the Mason house, Brown comes back toyou, having signaled halt, and reports he can see the enemy's firingline about 100 yards ahead on the other side of the stream, and that asmall detachment is crossing the stream just beyond where he was. Whatdo you do? =Sergeant Allen:= I creep forward with Brown to verify his report. Theremainder of the patrol remains in place. =Captain:= You find everything as Brown reported. You see that thefiring line extends along the southern edge of the cornfield, facingan uncultivated field covered with grass and frequent patches of weedstwo or three feet high. You cannot determine how strong the line is, but a heavy fire is being delivered. You cannot see the detachmentthat crossed the creek south of you because of the standing corn. =Sergeant Allen:= I crawl back to the main body, leaving Brown, andwrite the following message: 5/6 mi. N. Of Platoon, 5:32 A. M. Captain X: Enemy's left rests on creek 3/4 mile to your front, along S. Edge of cornfield. Creek is 5 ft. Deep by 60 ft. Wide. Hostile patrols have crossed the creek. Will watch their rear. Allen, Sgt. I give this to Private James and say, "Go over to the railroad(pointing), then turn to your right and follow the track until youcross a wagon road. Our platoon is just beyond that, on this side ofthe track. Give this message to the captain. Hurry. " =Captain:= You should have either read the message to James or had himread it. You should also have cautioned him to watch out for thathostile detachment. It might be better to send another man off with aduplicate of the message, as there is quite a chance that James maynot get through and the message is all-important. James, you get backto the wagon road here (pointing) and find yourself in the right ofyour battle line, but cannot locate me or the company right away. =Private James:= I would show the note to the first officer I saw inany event, and in this case, I would turn it over to the officer whoappeared to be in command of the battalion or regiment on the right ofthe line, telling him what company the patrol belonged to, when wewent out, etc. =Captain:= What do you do, sergeant? =Sergeant Allen:= I start to move north a short distance in order tofind out what reënforcements are in rear of the hostile line. =Captain:= After you have moved about 75 yards you are suddenly firedinto from across the creek, and at the same time from the direction ofthe railroad trestle. Your men break and run east through the corn andyou follow, but lose sight of them. When you cross the railroad fillyou are fired on from the direction of the bridge. You finally stopbehind the railroad fill on the quarry switch, where two of your menjoin you. =Sergeant Allen:= I would start south to rejoin the company andreport. =Captain:= That would be a mistake. It would require a long time for asecond patrol to make its way out over unknown ground, filled withhostile patrols, to a point where they could observe anything in rearof the hostile flank. You are now fairly familiar with the ground, youalso know about where the hostile patrols are and you have two menremaining. After a brief rest in some concealed place nearby, youshould start out again to make an effort to determine the strength ofthe troops in rear of the hostile flank near you, or at least remainout where you could keep a sharp lookout for any attempted turningmovement by the enemy. Should anything important be observed you cansend back a message and two of you remain to observe the nextdevelopments before returning. The information you might send back andthe additional information you might carry back, would possibly enableyour own force to avoid a serious reverse or obtain a decided victory. Your work would be very hazardous, but it is necessary, and whilepossibly resulting in loss of one or two of your men, it might preventthe loss of hundreds in your main force. CHAPTER V THE SERVICE OF SECURITY (Based on the Field Service Regulations. ) General Principles =1020. The Service of Security= embraces all those measures taken by amilitary force to protect itself against surprise, annoyance orobservation by the enemy. On the march, that portion of a commandthrown out to provide this security is called an advance, flank orrear guard, depending on whether it is in front, to the flank or inrear of the main command; in camp or bivouac, it is called theoutpost. The principal duties of these bodies being much the same, theirgeneral formations are also very similar. There is (1) the cavalrycovering the front; next (2) a group (4 men to a platoon) or line ofgroups in observation; then (3) the support, or line of supports, whose duty is to furnish the men for the observation groups and checkan enemy's attempt to advance until reinforcements can arrive; stillfarther in rear is (4) the reserve. In small commands of an infantry regiment or less there usually willnot be any cavalry to cover the front, and the reserve is generallyomitted. Even the support may be omitted and the observation group orline of groups be charged with checking the enemy, in addition to itsregular duties of observation. But whatever the technical designationof these subdivisions, the rearmost one is always in fact a reserve. For example, if the command is so small that the subdivision formallydesignated as the reserve is omitted, the rear element (squad orplatoon or company, etc. ) is used as a reserve. As this text dealsprincipally with small commands and only those larger than a regimentusually have the subdivision termed the reserve, this distinctionbetween the element in the Field Service Regulations called thereserve and the actual reserve, must be thoroughly understood. The arrangements or formations of all detachments thrown out from themain force to provide security against the enemy, are very flexible, varying with every military situation and every different kind ofcountry. The commander of such a detachment must, therefore, avoidblindly arranging his men according to some fixed plan and at certainfixed distances. Acquire a general understanding of the principles ofthe service of security and then with these principles as a foundationuse common sense in disposing troops for this duty. ADVANCE GUARD =1021. Definition and Duties. = An advance guard is a detachment of amarching column thrown out in advance to protect the main column frombeing surprised and to prevent its march from being delayed orinterrupted. (The latter duty is generally forgotten and manyirritating, short halts result, which wear out or greatly fatigue themain body, the strength of which the advance guard is supposed toconserve. ) In detail the duties of the advance guard are: 1. To guard against surprise and furnish information by reconnoiteringto the front and flanks. 2. To push back small parties of the enemy and prevent theirobserving, firing upon or delaying the main body. 3. To check the enemy's advance in force long enough to permit themain body to prepare for action. 4. When the enemy is met on the defenses, seize a good position andlocate his lines, care being taken not to bring on a generalengagement unless the advance guard commander is authorized to do so. 5. To remove obstacles, repair the road, and favor in every waypossible the steady march of the column. =1022. Strength:= The strength of the advance guard varies fromone-ninth to one-third of the total command. The larger the force thelarger in proportion is the advance guard, for a larger command takesrelatively longer to prepare for action than a small one. For example, a company of 100 men would ordinarily have an advance guard of fromone to two squads, as the company could deploy as skirmishers in a fewseconds. On the other hand, a division of 20, 000 men would ordinarilyhave an advance guard of about 4, 500 men, all told, as it wouldrequire several hours for a division to deploy and the advance guardmust be strong enough to make a stubborn fight. =1023. Composition. = The advance guard is principally composed ofinfantry, preceded if possible, by cavalry well to the front. Whenthere is only infantry, much more patrolling is required of the fronttroops than when cavalry (called "Advance cavalry") is out in advance. This book does not deal with large advance guards containing artilleryand engineers. Machine guns, however, will be frequently used in smalladvance guards to hold bridges, defiles, etc. =1024. Distance From Main Body. = The distance at which the advanceguard precedes the main body or the main body follows the advanceguard depends on the military situation and the ground. It shouldalways be great enough to allow the main body time to deploy before itcan be seriously engaged. For instance the advance guard of a company, say 1 squad, should be 350 to 500 yards in advance of the company. Thedistance from the leading man back to the principal group of the squadshould generally be at least 150 yards. This, added to the distanceback to the main body or company, makes a distance of from 500 to 650yards from the leading man to the head of the main body. Examples: Command. Advance Guard. Distance (yds. ). Patrol of 1 squad 2 men 100 to 300 Section of 3 squads 4 men 200 to 400 Inf. Platoon of 50 men 1 squad 300 to 450 Cav. Platoon of 20 men 4 men 300 to 450 Inf. Company of 108 men 1 to 2 squads 350 to 500 Cav. Troop of 86 men 1/2 platoon 450 to 600 Inf. Battalion 1/2 to 1 company 500 to 700 Cav. Squadron 1/2 to 1 troop 600 to 800 These are not furnished as fixed numbers and distances, but are merelyto give the student an approximate, concrete idea. =1025. Connecting Files. = It should be remembered that between theadvance guard and the main body, and between the several groups intowhich the advance guard is subdivided, connecting files are placed soas to furnish a means of communicating, generally by signals, betweenthe elements (groups) of the column. There should be a connecting filefor at least ever, 300 yards. For example, suppose the advance guardof a platoon is 300 yards in front of the main body. In ordinaryrolling country, not heavily wooded, a connecting file would be placedhalf way between the two elements--150 yards from each one. It is generally wiser to use two men together instead of one, becausethis leaves one man free to watch for signals from the front while theother watches the main body. However, in very small commands like acompany, this is not practicable, as the extra man could not bespared. FORMATION OF ADVANCE GUARDS. =1026. Subdivisions. = The advance guard of a large force like abrigade or division is subdivided into a number of groups or elements, gradually increasing in size from front to rear. The reason for thisis that, as has already been explained, a larger group or forcerequires longer to deploy or prepare to fight than a smaller one, therefore the small subdivisions are placed in front where they canquickly deploy and hold the enemy temporarily in check while thelarger elements in rear are deploying. The number of thesesubdivisions decreases as the strength of the advance guard decreases, until we find the advance guard of a company consists of one or twosquads, which naturally cannot be subdivided into more than twogroups; and the advance guard of a squad composed of two men, whichadmits of no subdivision. =Distance to next element in rear. = =Advance Cavalry= 1 to 5 miles {=Advance party= {=Point= 150 to 300 yds. =Support= {(=furnishes patrols=) {=Advance party proper= 300 to 600 yds. {=Support proper= 400 to 800 yds. =Reserve= (usually omitted in small commands) 500 yds. To 1 mile The distances vary principally with the size of the command--slightlywith the character of the country. The advance cavalry is that part of the advance guard going in frontof all the foot troops. It is generally one to five miles in advanceof the infantry of the advance guard, reconnoitering at least farenough to the front and flanks to guard the column against surprise byartillery fire--4, 500 yards. =1027. Support. = (=a=) The support constitutes the principal elementor group of all advance guards. It follows the advance cavalry, whenthere is any, and leads the advance guard when there is no cavalry. The support of a large command is subdivided within itself in much thesame manner as the advance guard as a whole is subdivided. It variesin strength from one-fourth to one-half of the advance guard. =1028. (b) Advance Party. = As the support moves out it sends forwardan advance party several hundred yards, the distance varying with thenature of the country and size of the command. For example, theadvance party of a support of one company of 108 men, would ordinarilybe composed of one section of three squads, and would march about 300yards in advance of the company in open country, and about 200 yardsin wooded country. The advance party sends out the patrols to the front and flanks toguard the main body of the support from surprise by effective riflefire. Patrols are only sent out to the flanks to examine points thatcannot be observed from the road. As a rule they will have to rejoinsome portion of the column in rear of the advance party. As theadvance party becomes depleted in strength in this manner, fresh menare sent forward from the main body of the support to replace thosewho have fallen behind while patrolling. When there is advancecavalry, much less patrolling is required of the infantry. (=c=) The point is a patrol sent forward by the advance party 150 to300 yards. When the advance party is large enough the point shouldordinarily consist of a complete squad, commanded by an officer orexperienced noncommissioned officer. It is merely a patrol in front ofthe column and takes the formation described for patrols. (=d=) The commander of the support ordinarily marches with the advanceparty. He should have a map and control of the guide, if any ispresent. He sees that the proper road is followed; that guides areleft in towns and at crossroads; that bridges, roads, etc. , arerepaired promptly so as not to delay the march of the column and thatinformation of the enemy is promptly sent back to the advance guardcommander; he verifies the correctness of this information, ifpossible. =1029. = (=a=) A thorough understanding of the arrangement of thesupport and the duties of the leaders of its subdivisions--point, flank patrols, advance party and main body (of the support)--is of thegreatest importance to a noncommissioned officer. For example, theignorance of one noncommissioned officer leading the advance party ofa column of troops six miles long can cause the entire column to bedelayed. If he halts because a few shots are fired at his men, andconducts a careful reconnaissance before attacking (instead of pushingright in on the enemy, forcing him to fall back quickly, if a weakdetachment; or, to disclose his strength, if strong), the entirecolumn, six miles long, is halted, the march interrupted, valuabletime lost, and what is more important, the men irritated and tiredout. (=b=) The leader of the point must understand that as the principalduty of an advance guard is to secure the safe and uninterrupted marchof the main body, he is the first man to discharge this duty. If, forexample, his squad receives a volley of shots from some point to thefront, he cannot take the time and precautions the commander of alarge body would take to reconnoiter the enemy's position, determinesomething about his strength, etc. , before risking an attack. If hedid he would not be securing the uninterrupted march of the main body. He has to deploy instantly and press the enemy hard until the hostileopposition disappears or the advance party comes up and its commandertakes charge. The point will lose men in this way, but it isnecessary, for otherwise one small combat patrol could delay the marchtime after time. (=c=) The same problem must be met in much the same manner by theleader of the advance party. In this case there is more time to think, as the point, being in advance, will have begun the fight before theadvance party arrives; but the leader of the advance party must usehis men freely and quickly to force the enemy to "show his hand, " thuspreventing small harassing or combat detachments from delaying themarch. (=d=) As the subdivisions of the advance guard become larger theirleaders act with increasing caution, for as soon as it develops thatthe enemy in front is really present in some strength, then a haltbecomes obligatory and a careful reconnaissance necessary. (=e=) The leader of every subdivision must always start areconnaissance the instant the enemy develops. He may, as in the caseof the point, only send one man around to discover the enemy'sstrength; or, if the leader of the main body of the support, he maysend an entire squad. In almost every case the instant he has givenhis orders for deploying and firing at or rushing the enemy, he sendsout his man or men to work around to a position permitting a view ofthe hostile force. Every noncommissioned officer should impress thison his memory so that he will not forget it in the excitement of asudden engagement. (=f=) No attempt should be made to subdivide the advance guard of asmall force into all the elements previously described. For example, the advance guard of a squad is simply a point of one or two men; theadvance guard of a company is usually no more than a squad acting as apoint, the squad actually having several men from 100 to 150 yards inadvance, who really constitute a point for the squad; the advanceguard of a battalion would usually consist of a company or lessdistributed as an advance party proper and a point. The advance guardof a regiment would have no reserve--if, for example, a battalion wereused as the advance guard of a regiment, there would be only asupport, which would be distributed about as follows: A support properof about three companies and an advance party (point included) ofabout one company. [Illustration: Fig. 1] =1030. Reserve. = An advance guard large enough to have a reserve wouldbe distributed as follows: [Illustration: Fig. 2] The distance Z would be greater than Y and Y would be greater than X. For example, a regiment acting as the advance guard of a brigadewould, under ordinary conditions, be distributed about as follows: [Illustration: Fig. 3] As only large commands have a reserve, which would always be commandedby an officer, noncommissioned officers need not give this muchconsideration, but it must be understood that while this fourthsubdivision of the advance guard is the only one officially termedreserve, the last subdivision of any advance guard actually is areserve, no matter what its official designation. The advance guard of a cavalry command adopts formations similar tothose described above, except that the distances are increased becauseof the rapidity with which the command can close up or deploy. Anadvance party with a few patrols is usually enough for a squadron, andprecedes it from 600 to 1, 000 yards. =1031. Reconnaissance. = In reconnaissance the patrols are, as a rule, small (from two to six men). The flanking patrols, whether of the advance cavalry or of the advanceparty, are sent out to examine the country wherever the enemy might beconcealed. If the nature of the ground permits, these patrols marchacross country or along roads and trails parallel to the march of thecolumn. For cavalry patrols this is often possible; but with infantrypatrols and even with those that are mounted, reconnaissance is bestdone by sending the patrols to high places along the line of march tooverlook the country and examine the danger points. These patrolssignal the results of their observations and, unless they have otherinstructions, join the columns by the nearest routes, other patrolsbeing sent out as the march proceeds and as the nature of the countryrequires. Deserters, suspicious characters and bearers of flags of truce (thelatter blindfolded), are taken to the advance guard commander. =1032. Advance Guard Order. = On receipt of the order for a marchdesignating the troops for the advance guard, the commander of thelatter makes his estimate of the situation; that is, he looks at themap or makes inquiries to determine what sort of a country he mustmarch through and the nature of the roads; he considers what thechances are of encountering the enemy, etc. , and then how he shouldbest arrange his advance guard to meet these conditions, and what timethe different elements of his advance guard must start in order totake their proper place in the column. He then issues his order at theproper time--the evening before if possible and he deems it best, orthe morning of the march. The order for a large advance guard would ordinarily be written; for asmall command it would almost invariably be verbal, except that thecommander or leader of each element should always make written notesof the principal points, such as the road to be followed, time tostart, distances, etc. ADVANCE GUARD PROBLEMS Problem No. 1. (Infantry) =1033. Captain (to one platoon of his company):= We will assume thatour battalion camped last night at Oxford (Elementary Map) in theenemy's country. It is now sunrise, 5:30 A. M. ; camp has been brokenand we are ready to march. The officers have returned from reportingto the major for orders and I fall in the company and give thefollowing orders: "A regiment of the enemy's cavalry is thought to be marching towardsSalem from the south. Our battalion will march at once towards Salemto guard the railroad trestle over Sandy Creek, following this road(pointing southeast along the road out of Oxford) and the Chester PikeWhich is one and three-quarters miles from here. "This company will form the advance guard. "Sergeant Adams, you will take Corporal Baker's squad and form thepoint, followed by the remainder of the company at about 400 yards. Patrols and connecting files will be furnished by the company. "The company wagon will join the wagons of the battalion. "I will be with the company. "Move out at once. " The weather is fine and the roads are good and free from dust. It isAugust and nearly all the crops are harvested. Bushes and weeds form aconsiderable growth along the fences bordering the road. Sergeant, give your orders. =Sergeant Adams:= 1st squad, =1. Right, 2. FACE, 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. = Corporal Baker, take Carter (Baker's rear rank man) and goahead of the squad about 200 yards. Move out rapidly until you getyour distance and then keep us in sight. I would then have the two leading men of the rest of the squad followon opposite sides of the road, as close to the fence as possible forgood walking. This would put the squad in two columns of files ofthree men each, leaving the main roadway clear and making the squad asinconspicuous as possible, without interfering with ease of marchingor separating the men. [Par. 1028 (c). ] What sort of crops are in thefields on either side of the road? =Captain:= The field on the right (south) is meadow land; that on theleft, as far as the railroad, is cut hay; beyond the railroad there ismore meadow land. =Sergeant Adams:= I would have told Corporal Baker to wait at thecross roads by the Baker house for orders and-- =Captain:= If you were actually on the ground you probably could notsee the cross roads from Oxford. In solving map problems like these donot take advantage of seeing on the map all the country that you aresupposed to go over, and then give orders about doing things at placesconcerning which you would not probably have any knowledge if actuallyon the ground without the map. Besides, in this particular case, it was a mistake to have your pointwait at the cross roads. If there was any danger of their taking thewrong road it would be a different matter, but here your missionrequires you to push ahead. (Par. 1029. ) The major is trying to getsouth of the trestle towards Salem before the cavalry can arrive anddestroy it. =Sergeant Adams:= I would march steadily along the road, ordering thelast man to keep a lookout to the rear for signals from the connectingfile (Par. 511a), and I would direct one of the leading men to watchfor signals from Corporal Baker. =Captain:= You should have given the direction about watching forsignals earlier, as this is very important. You also should haveordered two men to follow along the timber by the creek to your southuntil you signaled for them to come in. The trees along the creekwould obstruct your view over the country beyond the creek. =Sergeant Adams:= But I thought, Captain, that the patrolling was tobe done by the company. =Captain:= Yes, the patrolling is to be done by the company, but thecreek is only a quarter of a mile, about 400 yards, from the road youare following and the men sent there are merely flankers, not apatrol. You have eight men under your command and you are responsiblefor the ground within several hundred yards on either side of yourroute of march. Long Ridge is almost too far for you to send your men, because they would fall far behind in climbing and descending itsslopes, but it would not be a great mistake if you sent two men there. As Long Ridge affords an extended view of the valley through which theChester Pike runs, a patrol should go up on it and remain there untilthe battalion passes, and this would be more than the leading squadcould be expected to attend to. The creek is almost too far from theroad in places, but as it is open meadow land you can keep the menwithin easy touch of you and recall them by signal at any moment youdesire. In this work you can see how much depends on good judgment anda proper understanding of one's mission. Corporal Baker, explain how you would move out with Carter. =Corporal Baker:= We would alternate the walk and double time until wehad gotten about 200 yards ahead of the squad. I would then say, "Carter, walk along this side of the road (indicates side), keeping onthe lookout for signals from the squad. I will go about fifty yardsahead of you. " I would keep to the opposite side of the road fromCarter, trying to march steadily at the regular marching gait, andkeeping a keen watch on everything in front and to the flanks. =Captain:= Very good. When you arrive at the cross roads you see a manstanding in the yard of the Baker house. =Corporal Baker:= I would not stop, but would continue on by the crossroads, as I have no time to question the man and the Sergeant willwant to do that. I would call to him and ask him if he had seen any ofthe enemy about and how far it was to the Chester Pike. If anythinglooked suspicious around the house or barnyard, I would investigate. =Captain:= Sergeant, you arrive at the cross roads, and see theCorporal and Carter going on ahead of you. =Sergeant Adams:= I would have already signaled to the two menfollowing the creek to come in and would send a man to meet them withthe following order: "Tell Davis to move along the railroad fill withEvans, keeping abreast of us. Then you return to me. " I would thensay, "Fiske, look in that house and around the barn and orchard andthen rejoin me down this road (pointing east). " I would have thecivilian join me and walk down the road with me while I questionedhim. =Captain:= Do you think you have made careful arrangements forsearching the house, etc. , by leaving only one man to do the work? =Sergeant Adams:= I have not sufficient men nor time enough to do muchmore. I simply want to make sure things are reasonably safe and Ithought that a couple of men from the main body of the advance guardwould do any careful searching, questioning, etc. , that might bedeemed necessary. I must not delay the march. =Captain:= That is right. You learn nothing from the civilian and hedoes not arouse any suspicion on your part. You continue along theroad. The fields to the north of the road are in wheat stubble; theground to the south, between your road and the railroad, is rough, rocky grass land with frequent clumps of bushes. Davis and Evans, yourright flankers on the railroad fill, are just approaching the cut;Fiske has rejoined; Corporal Baker and his men are about 200 yardsfrom the road forks at Brown's, and you and your four men are 200yards in their rear, at the turn of the road. At this moment a halfdozen shots are fired down the road in your direction from behind thewall along the edge of the orchard on the Brown farm. This firingcontinues and your two leading men are lying down at the roadsidereturning the fire. Tell me quickly just what you are going to do? =Sergeant Adams:= I order my four men to deploy as skirmishers in thatfield (pointing to the rough ground south of the road); I go under thefence with the men and lead them forward at a fast run, unless thefire is very heavy. =Captain= (interrupting the Sergeant): Davis, you had just reached thecut on the railroad when this happened. What do you do? =Private Davis:= I take Evans forward with me at a run through thecut. What do I see along the Chester Pike or Sandy Creek? =Captain:= You see no sign of the enemy any place, except the firingover the wall. =Private Davis:= I run down the south side of the fill and alongtowards the road with Evans to open fire on the enemy from theirflank, and also to see what is in the orchard. I will probably crossthe road so that I can see behind the stone wall. =Captain:= That's fine and shows how you should go ahead at such atime without any orders. There is usually no time or opportunity atsuch a moment for sending instructions and you must use common senseand do something. Generally it would have been better to have tried tosignal or send word back that there was nothing in sight along theroad or in the valley, but in this particular case you could probablydo more good by going quickly around in rear as you did, to discoverwhat was there and assist in quickly dislodging whatever it was. Ifthere had been no nose of the ridge to hide you as you came up and aconvenient railroad fill to hurry along behind as you made for theroad, your solution might have been quite different. Sergeant, continue with your movements. =Sergeant Adams:= I would attempt to rush the wall. If the fire weretoo heavy, I would open fire (at will) with all my men, and, if Iseemed to get a little heavier fire than the enemy's, I would starthalf of my men forward on a rush while the others fired. I would tryto rush in on the enemy with as little delay as possible, until itdeveloped that he had more than a small detachment there. I assumed itwas a delaying patrol in front of me, and as my mission requires me tosecure the uninterrupted march of the main body, I must not permit anysmall detachment to delay me. If, however, it proves to be a largerforce, for instance, the head of an advance guard, I will lose somemen by plunging in, but as I understand it, that is the duty of thepoint. Then again, if it be the head of a hostile advance guard, Iwill want to rush them out of their favorable position under cover ofthe stone wall, buildings and orchard, before any more of their forcecan come up. This would give the favorable position to our force; byacting too cautiously we would lose the valuable moments in which theenemy's reënforcements (next elements of the advance guard) werecoming up, with this desirable position being weakly held by a smallpart of the enemy. =Captain:= That is all correct. What messages would you have sent? =Sergeant Adams:= Up to the present time I would not have sent any. Icould not have sent any. I could not afford to take the time to send aman back, nor could I spare the man. Besides, all I could say was thatwe were fired on, and you should be able to see and hear that fromwhere the company is. =Captain:= About the time you reached the position of Corporal Bakerthe firing ceases, and when you reach the wall you see five mountedmen galloping northeast up Farm Lane. The Brown farm appears to bedeserted. =Sergeant Adams:= I would turn to one of the men and say, "Run back tothe Captain and tell him we were fired on from this orchard by amounted patrol of five men who are galloping off up a lane to thenortheast. I am going south. " When he had repeated the message I wouldstart south down the Chester Pike, directing Corporal Baker to followthis road south and to tell Davis to follow the high ridge west of theroad, going through the clump of woods just ahead. I would send oneman as a left flanker to follow the west bank of Sandy Creek. Thiswould leave me with two men, one watching for signals from the frontand along Sandy Creek, the other from Davis and from the rear. I wouldexpect to see a patrol from the company moving across towards BolingWoods. Had I not been mixed up in a fight as I approached the Brownfarm I would have sent two men as left flankers across country to thecut on the Chester Pike on the western edge of the Boling Woods. =Captain:= Very good. That is sufficient for this problem. All of youshould have caught the idea of the principal duties of the point andflankers of an advance guard. You must watch the country to preventbeing surprised and you must at the same time manage to push aheadwith the least possible delay. The point cannot be very cautious sofar as concerns its own safety, for this would mean frequent haltswhich would delay the troops in rear, but it must be cautious aboutreconnoitering all parts of the ground near the road which mightconceal large bodies of the enemy. The leader of the point must be careful in using his men or he willget them so scattered that they will become entirely separated and hewill lose all control of them. As soon as the necessity for flankerson one side of the line of march no longer exists, signal for them torejoin and do not send them out again so long as you can see from theroad all the country you should cover. Problem No. 2. (Infantry) =1034. Captain (to one platoon of his company):= Let us assume thatthis platoon is the advance party of an advance guard, marchingthrough Salem along the Chester Pike [Par. 1028 (b)]. One squad is 350yards in front, acting as the point. The enemy is thought to be verynear, but only two mounted patrols have been seen during the day. Thecommand is marching for Chester. The day is hot, the roads are goodbut dusty, and the crops are about to be harvested. Sergeant Adams, explain how you would conduct the march of the advanceparty, beginning with your arrival at the cross roads in Salem. =Sergeant Adams:= The platoon would be marching in column of squadsand I would be at the head. Two pairs of connecting files would keepme in touch with the point. (Par. 1025. ) I would now give this order:"Corporal Smith, take two men from your squad and patrol north alongthis road (pointing up the Tracy-Maxey road) for a mile and thenrejoin the column on this road (Chester Pike), to the west of you. " Iwould then say to Private Barker, "Take Carter and cut across to thatrailroad fill and go along the top of that (Sandy) ridge, rejoiningthe column beyond the ridge. Corporal Smith with a patrol is going upthis road. Keep a lookout for him. " When we reached the point wherethe road crosses the south nose of Sandy Ridge and I saw the valley infront of me with the long high ridge west of Sandy Creek, runningparallel to the Chester Pike and about 800 yards west of it, I wouldgive this order: "Corporal Davis, take the three remaining men inCorporal Smith's squad, cross the creek there (pointing in thedirection of the Barton farm) go by that orchard, and move north alongthat high ridge, keeping the column in sight. Make an effort to keepabreast of the advance guard, which will continue along this road. " I gave Corporal Davis the remaining men out of Corporal Smith's squadbecause I did not want to break up another squad and as this is, in myopinion, a very important patrol, I wanted a noncommissioned officerin charge of it. Unless something else occurs this will be all thepatrols I intend sending out until we pass the steel railroad trestleover Sandy Creek. =Captain:= Your point about not breaking up a squad when you couldavoid it by using the men remaining in an already broken squad, is avery important one. Take this particular case. You first sent out twopairs of connecting files between the advance party and yourpoint--four men. This leaves a corporal and three men in that squad. If we assume that no patrols were out when we passed through Salem, this corporal and two of his men could have been sent up theTracy-Maxey road, leaving one man to be temporarily attached to somesquad. From the last mentioned squad you would pick your two men forthe Sandy Ridge patrol and also the corporal and three men for theBarton farm, etc. , patrol. This would leave three men in this squadand you would have under your immediate command two complete squadsand three men. As the patrols return, organize new squads immediatelyand constantly endeavor to have every man attached to a squad. This isone of your most important duties, as it prevents disorder when someserious situation suddenly arises. Also it is one of the duties of thedetachment commander that is generally overlooked until too late. The direction you sent your three patrols was good and their ordersclear, covering the essential points, but as you have in a very shortspace of time, detached nine men, almost a third of your advanceparty, don't you think you should have economized more on men? =Sergeant Adams:= The Sandy Ridge patrol is as small as you can makeit--two men. I thought the other two patrols were going to be detachedso far from the column that they should be large enough to send amessage or two and still remain out. I suppose it would be better tosend but two men with Corporal Davis, but I think Corporal Smithshould have two with him. =Captain:= Yes, I agree with you, for you are entering a valley whichis, in effect, a defile, and the Tracy-Maxey road is a very dangerousavenue of approach to your main body. But you must always bear in mindthat it is a mistake to use one more man than is needed to accomplishthe object in view. The more you send away from your advance party, the more scattered and weaker your command becomes, and this isdispersion, which constitutes one of the gravest, and at the sametime, most frequent tactical errors. To continue the problem, we will suppose you have reached the stonebridge over Sandy Creek; the point is at the cross roads by the Smithhouse; you can see the two men moving along Sandy Ridge; and CorporalDavis' patrol is just entering the orchard by the Barton farm. Firingsuddenly commences well to the front and you hear your point reply toit. =Sergeant Adams:= I halt to await information from the point. =Captain:= That is absolutely wrong. You command the advance party ofan advance guard; your mission requires you to secure theuninterrupted march of the main body; and at the first contact youhalt, thus interrupting the march (Par. 1021). The sooner you reachthe point, the better are your chances for driving off the enemy if heis not too strong, or the quicker you find out his strength and giveyour commander in the rear the much desired information. =Sergeant Adams:= Then I push ahead with the advance party, sendingback the following message-- =Captain= (interrupting): It is not time to send a message. You knowtoo little and in a few minutes you will be up with the point whereyou can hear what has happened and see the situation for yourself. Then you can send back a valuable message. When but a few momentsdelay will probably permit you to secure much more detailedinformation, it is generally best to wait for that short time and thusavoid using two messengers. When you reach the cross roads you findsix men of the point deployed behind the fence, under cover of thetrees along the County Road, just west of the Chester Pike, firing atthe stone wall along the Mills' farm lane. The enemy appears to bedeployed behind this stone wall, from the Chester Pike west for adistance of fifty yards, and his fire is much heavier than that ofyour point. You think he has at least twenty rifles there. You cannotsee down the Chester Pike beyond the enemy's position. Your patrol onSandy Ridge is midway between the 68 and 66 knolls, moving north. Theground in your front, west of the road, is a potato field; that eastof the road as far as the swamp, is rough grass land. =Sergeant Adams:= I give order, "Corporal Gibbs, deploy your squad tothe right of the Pike and push forward between the Pike and the swamp. Corporal Hall (commands the point), continue a heavy fire. Here aresix more men for your squad. " I give him the four connecting files andtwo of the three men in the advance party whose squad is on patrolduty. "Corporal Jackson, get your squad under cover here. Lacey, runback to the major and tell him the point has been stopped by whatappears to be twenty of the enemy deployed behind a stone wall acrossthe valley 500 yards in our front. I am attacking with advance party. " =Captain:= Corporal Davis (commands patrol near Barton farm), you canhear the firing and see that the advance is stopped. What do you do? =Corporal Davis:= I would head straight across for the clump of woodson the ridge just above the Mills' farm, moving as rapidly aspossible. =Captain:= That is all right. Sergeant, Corporal Hall's squad keeps upa heavy fire; Corporal Gibb's squad deploys to the right of the pike, rushes forward about 75 yards, but is forced to lie down by theenemy's fire, and opens fire. Corporal Gibbs, what would your commandfor firing be? =Corporal Gibbs:= =AT THE BOTTOM OF THAT WALL. BATTLE SIGHT. CLIPFIRE. = =Captain:= Why at the bottom of the wall? =Corporal Gibbs:= The men are winded and excited and will probablyfire high, so I gave them the bottom of the wall as an objective. =Captain:= The enemy's fire seems as heavy as yours. Sergeant, what doyou do? =Sergeant Adams:= I give this order. "Corporal Jackson, deploy yoursquad as skirmishers on the left of Corporal Hall's squad and openfire. " What effect does this additional fire have on the enemy? =Captain:= His bullets seem to go higher and wider. You appear to begetting fire superiority over him. =Sergeant Adams:= If I do not see any signs of the enemy beingreënforced, dust in the road behind his position, etc. , I takeimmediate command of the squads of Corporals Hall and Jackson, andlead them forward on a rush across the potato field. =Captain:= Corporal Gibbs, what do you do when you see the other twosquads rush? =Corporal Gibbs:= I order, =FIRE AT WILL=, and urge the men to shootrapidly in order to cover the advance. =Captain:= Sergeant Adams' squads are forced to halt after advancingabout 150 yards. =Corporal Gibbs:= I keep up a hot fire until they can resume theirfiring, when I lead my squad forward in a rush. =Captain:= What do you do, Sergeant? =Sergeant Adams:= I would have the Corporals keep up a heavy fire. Bythis time I should think the support would be up to the cross roads. =Captain:= It is, but have you given up your attack? =Sergeant Adams:= If it looks as if I could drive the enemy out on mynext rush, I do so, but otherwise I remain where I am, as I have noreserve under my control and the action has gotten too serious for meto risk anything more when my chief is practically on the ground tomake the next decision. He should have heard something about what ison the Pike behind the enemy, from the patrol on Sandy Ridge. =Captain:= Your solution seems correct to me. Why did you sendCorporal Gibbs' squad up between the pike and the swamp? =Sergeant Adams:= It looked as if he would strike the enemy from abetter quarter; there appeared to be better cover that way, affordedby the turn in the road, which must have some weeds, etc. , along it, and the swamp would prevent him from getting too far separated fromthe remainder of the advance party. =Captain:= The Sergeant's orders for the attack were very good. Hegave his squad leaders some authority and attached his extra men to asquad. He did not attempt to assume direct control of individual men, but managed the three squads and made the squad leaders manage theindividual men. This is the secret of successful troop leading. Hisorders were short, plain and given in proper sequence. Problem No. 3 (Infantry) (See Fort Leavenworth map in pocket at back of book. ) [Illustration: MAP of FORT LEAVENWORTH, KAS. And VICINITY] =1035. = Situation. A Blue battalion, in hostile country, is in camp for the night, August5-6, at Sprong (ja'). At 9:00 P. M. , August 5th, Lieutenant A, Adjutant gives a copy of the following order to Sergeant B: 1st Battalion, 1st Infantry, Sprong, Kansas, 5 Aug. , '09. Field Orders No. 5. 1. The enemy's infantry is six miles east of FORT LEAVENWORTH. His cavalry patrols were seen at F (qg') today. Our regiment will reach FRENCHMAN'S (oc') at noon tomorrow. 2. The battalion will march tomorrow to seize the ROCK ISLAND BRIDGE (q) at FORT LEAVENWORTH. 3. (a) The advance guard, consisting of 1st platoon Co. A and mounted orderlies B, C, and D, under Sergeant B, will precede the main body at 400 yards. (b) The head of the main body will march at 6:30 A. M. , from 19 via the 17 (jc')--15 (jg') 1--5 (lm')--FORT LEAVENWORTH (om') road. 4. The baggage will follow close behind the main body under escort of Corporal D and one squad, Co. B. 5. Send reports to head of main body. C, Major, Comdg. Copies to the company commanders, to Sergeant B and Corporal D. =A. Required, 1. = Give Sergeant B's estimate of the situation. (Theestimate of the military situation includes the following points: 1. His orders or mission and how much discretion he is allowed. 2. The ground as it influences his duty. 3. The position, strength and probable intentions of the enemy. 4. Sergeant B's decision. ) =Answer. = 1. The size of the advance guard, its route and the distanceit is to move in front of the main body are prescribed by Major C. Sergeant B is free to divide up the advance as he sees fit, to use thevarious parts so as to best keep open the way of the main body, maintain the distance of 400 yards in front of it, and protect it fromsurprise by the enemy. 2. The ground may be such as to make easy or to hinder reconnaissance, such as hills or woods; to impede or hasten the march, such as roads, streams, defiles; to offer good or poor defensive positions; to offergood or poor opportunities for an attack. Sergeant B sees from his mapthat the ground is rolling and open as far as Kern (ji') with goodpositions for reconnaissance and for defense or attack. There is abridge over Salt Creek (ig') which has steep banks and will be aconsiderable obstacle if the bridge has been destroyed. From thiscreek to Kern the advance would be under effective fire from HancockHill (ki'), so that these heights must be seized before the main bodyreaches 15 (jg'). Beyond Kern the heavy woods make reconnaissance difficult and must betreated somewhat like a defile by the point. (Par. 991. ) 3. There is little to fear from the main body of the enemy which is1-1/2 miles farther from the Rock Island bridge than we are, but weknow the enemy has cavalry. The size of the cavalry force is notknown, and may be sufficient to cause us considerable delay, especially in the woods. The enemy's evident intention is to keep usfrom seizing the bridge. 4. Having considered all these points, Sergeant B comes to thefollowing decision: . . . (Before reading the decision as contained inthe following paragraph, make one of your own. ) =Answer:= To have only an advance party with which to throw forward apoint of 5 men 200 yards to the front and send out flankers, as needed(Par. 983); to send the three mounted orderlies well to the front ofthe point to gain early information of the enemy, especially onHancock Hill (ji') and the ridge to the north of 11 (jj'). =Required, 2. = Sergeant B's order. (Par. 963. ) =Answer. = Given verbally to the platoon and mounted orderlies, at 9:30P. M. "The enemy's cavalry patrols were seen at F (qh') today; no hostileinfantry is on this side of the Missouri river. The battalion willmove tomorrow to Fort Leavenworth, leaving 19 (ja') at 6:30 A. M. "This platoon and orderlies B, C, and D will form the advance guard, and will start from the hedge 400 yards east of 19 at 6:30 A. M. Viathe 17 (jc')--15 (jg')--5 (lm') road. "The point, Corporal Smith and 4 men of his squad, will precede theremainder of the advance guard at 200 yards. "I will be with the advance party. Privates X and Y will act asconnecting files with the main body. " The flankers will be sent out from time to time by Sergeant B asnecessary. =Required, 3. = The flankers sent out by Sergeant B between 19 (ja')and 15 (jg'). =Answer. = A patrol of 3 men is sent to Hill 900 southeast of 19 (ja'), thence by Moss (kc') and Taylor (lc') houses to Hill 840 east ofTaylor, thence to join at 15 (jg'). Two men are sent from the advance party as it passes Hill 875. 5 (ie')to the top of this hill to reconnoiter to the front and northeast. These men return to the road and join after the advance party hasreached Salt Creek. Two men are sent ahead of the advance party at adouble time take position on "Hill 875 northeast of J. E. Daniels"place (jf') and reconnoiter to the northeast and east. =Reasons. = The patrol sent out on the south moves out far enough toget a good view from the hills which an enemy could observe or fireinto the column. There is no necessity of sending out flankers northof the road at first, because from the road itself a good view isobtained. Hills 875. 5 and 875 give splendid points for observing allthe ground to the north and east. (Don't send flankers out unless theyare necessary. ) =Required, 4. = When the advance party reaches J. E. Daniels' house(je') a civilian leaves the house and starts toward 15. What actiondoes Sergeant B take? =Required, 5. = When the advance party reaches Salt Creek bridge (jg')the point signals "enemy in sight, " and Private H reports that he sawabout 6 or 8 mounted men ride up to the edge of the woods at Kern, halt a moment, and disappear. What action does Sergeant B take? =Answer. = He at once sends a message back by Private H stating thefacts. He then orders the advance party to move forward, hastens up tothe point and directs it to continue the march, seeking cover offences and ravines and hill top. =Required, 6. = When the point reaches Schroeder (jh') it receives firefrom the orchard at Kern. What action is taken? =Answer. = The men in the point are moved rapidly down the hill andgain shelter in the ravines leading toward Kern. Two squads arerapidly placed in line along the ridge west of Schroeder and undercover of their fire the remainder of the advance party run down thehill at 10 yards distance to join the point. A squad of this force isthen hurried forward to the Kern house. Here the squad is stopped byfire and Sergeant B deploys two more squads which advance by rushesand drive out the enemy, found to be 10 cavalrymen. The squads left atSchroeder now join at double time and the advance party moves forward, without having delayed the march of the main body. Problem No. 4 (Infantry) =1036. Situation:= A Blue force of one regiment of infantry has outposts facing south onthe line Pope Hill (sm')--National cemetery (pk')--E (qh'). A Redforce is reported to have reached Soldiers' Home (3 miles south ofLeavenworth) from the south at 7:00 o'clock this morning. Corporal Ais directed by Sergeant B, in command of the left support at RabbitPoint (tn'), to take out a patrol toward the waterworks and southalong the Esplanade (xo') to the Terminal bridge. =Required, 1. = Give Sergeant B's orders to Corporal A. =Answer. = "The enemy, strength unknown, was at Soldiers' Home at 7:00o'clock this morning. Another patrol will advance along Grant avenue(tm'). "Our outposts will remain here for the day. "Select from the first section a patrol and reconnoiter this road(Farragut avenue) as far as the waterworks (vn'), thence by Esplanadeto the Terminal bridge, and report on the ground in our front. Whenyou reach the Terminal bridge return if no enemy is seen. "Send reports here. " =Required, 2. = How many men does Corporal A select, and why? (Par. 456. ) =Answer. = Five men are taken because the patrol is to reconnoiter, notto fight, and on account of the distance to go and lack of informationof the enemy, 2 or 3 messages may have to be sent. =Required, 3. = What equipment should Corporal A have? (Par. 457. ) =Required, 4. = State the points to be noted by Corporal A in selectinghis patrol and what inspection does he make? (Par. 964. ) =Answer. = He selects Privates C, D, E, F and G, on account of theirbravery, attention to duty and discretion. He directs them to carryone meal in their haversacks, full canteen and fifty rounds ofammunition. He then inspects them as to their physical condition, seesthat they have proper equipment and that nothing to rattle or glistenis carried. =Required, 5. = What does Corporal A next do? (Par. 965. ) =Answer. = He gives them their instructions as follows: "The enemy, strength unknown, was at Soldiers' Home (about three miles south ofLeavenworth) at 7 o'clock this morning. There will be a friendlypatrol along that road (pointing to Grant avenue). We are toreconnoiter along this road and down toward that bridge (pointing). Bevery careful not to be seen, take advantage of all cover, and keep intouch with C and myself on this road at the point of the patrol. Incase we get separated meet at the waterworks (vn'). " He then explains the signals to be used, and moves the patrol in, close order out along the road until it passes the sentinel at thebridge XV (un'), to whom he gives the direction to be taken by thepatrol. =Required, 6. = Upon leaving XV, what formation would the patrol take, and reasons for same. (Par. 968. ) =Answer. = Corporal A and Private C form the point on the road leadingsouthwest of the waterworks; Private D moves on the left overlookingthe railroad; Private E moves promptly up Corral creek (um') to thetop of Grant Hill (um') to observe the country toward the southwest;Private F moves about 50 yards in rear of the point, followed at 50yards by Private G. Corporal A forms his patrol as stated because of the necessity ofgetting a view from the hill on each side. Only one man is sent out oneach side because they can be plainly seen by the patrol on the road, and no connecting file is necessary. The distances taken along theroad assure at least one man's escape, and Corporal A is in front toget a good view and to signal the flankers. Problem No. 5 (Infantry) =1037. Situation:= The head of the patrol is now at the bridge, XVI (un') northwest ofthe waterworks. Private E has reached the top of Grant Hill and signals the enemy insight; the patrol halts and Corporal A moves out to meet Private E whois coming down toward the patrol. He says he saw three mounted menride up to Grant and Metropolitan avenues (wm') from the south andafter looking north a moment move west. =Required, 1. = Corporal A's action. (Pars. 979 and 981. ) =Answer. = Corporal A at once writes the following message and sends itback by Private E: "No. 1 Patrol, Company B, Farragut Avenue, Northwest of Waterworks, 10 May, '09, 8:30 A. M. To Commander Blue Left Support, Rabbit Point. Three mounted Reds, seen by Private E, just now reconnoitered at Grant and Metropolitan avenues; they are moving west on Metropolitan avenue; the patrol will continue toward the Terminal bridge. A, Corporal. " =Reasons. = The message is sent because this is the first time theenemy has been seen, and they have not been reported north ofSoldiers' Home before. The message should state who saw the enemy, andthe man seeing them should always carry the message telling of thefacts. The patrol would not allow this small hostile patrol to stopits advance, but would proceed on its route cautiously to avoid beingseen, and to see if the Red cavalrymen are followed by others of theenemy. =Required, 2. = Give the method of reconnoitering the buildings at thewaterworks and coal mine. (Par. 996. ) =Answer. = Private D carefully examines the east side of the enclosuresand buildings, while Private C examines the west side. The remainderof the patrol halts concealed in the cut west of the north enclosure, until C and D signal no enemy in sight, whereupon the patrol movesforward along the road (XV--3rd St. ), C and D advancing rapidlybetween the buildings to the town where they join the patrol. =Required, 3. = Give the route followed by E from Grant Hill to edge ofLeavenworth. =Answer. = He moves down the east slope of Grant Hill to the ravinejust east of the old R. R. Bed (um'), being careful to keep concealedfrom the direction of Leavenworth. He moves up the ravine, keeping asharp lookout to the front, and moving rapidly until abreast, if hehas fallen behind. He takes the branch ravine lying just west ofCircus Hill (vm'), and moves up to its end. Here he halts and makescareful inspection of Metropolitan avenue and the street south intothe city. Being sure the coast is clear, he darts across the narrowridge south of Circus Hill to the ravine to the east and then joinsthe patrol. He reports to Corporal A any indication of the enemy hemay have seen. Problem No. 6 (Infantry) =1038. Situation:= A Blue force holds Fort Leavenworth (om') in hostile country. Outpostsoccupy the line Salt Creek Hill (gh')--13 (ij')--Sheridan's Drive, (mi') against the Reds advancing from the northwest. At 4:30 P. M. , June 25th, Sergeant A is given the following orders byCaptain B, commanding the support: "The enemy will probably reach Kickapoo late today. Our outpostsextend as far north as Salt Creek Hill. There were six of our menprisoners at 45 (de') this afternoon at 1 o'clock, being held by 15home guards at Kickapoo. Take ---- men from the company and move toKickapoo, recapture the prisoners and gain all the information you canof the enemy north of there. " =Required, 1. = How many men does Captain B name, and why? (Par. 960. ) =Answer. = Thirty men are assigned. =Reason. = This is twice as many as the enemy holding the prisoners, and to secure secrecy no larger force than is absolutely necessaryshould be taken. This force will allow men to surround the enemy whilethe remainder rush them. =Required, 2. = Give the order of Sergeant A to his patrol. (See 6threquirement. Problem 4. ) =Required, 3. = What route will the patrol take? =Answer, 11= (jj')--13 (ij')--Salt Creek Hill (gh')--and along theedge of the woods east of the M. P. R. R. (fg') as far as the bridgeopposite Kickapoo Hill--thence up Kickapoo Hill toward 45 (de'). =Reasons. = Since the patrol's orders do not require any reconnaissancebefore reaching Kickapoo the shortest and most practical route ischosen. The route as far as Salt Creek Hill lies behind our outpostline and is thus protected. The main roads are avoided because theywill be carefully watched by the enemy. The edge of the woods east ofthe M. P. Ry. (beginning about ff') gives good cover and by moving tothe bridge the patrol can probably sneak close in on the enemy andcapture them by surprise. Problem No. 7 (Infantry) =1039. Situation:= The patrol reaches the top of Kickapoo Hill (cd'). Sergeant A andPrivate C move cautiously to the top and see the six prisoners in thecemetery (cd') just west of Kickapoo Hill, and a Red sentinel at eachcorner. Just west of the cemetery are about 10 more Reds. No othersare visible. =Required, 1. = What decision does Sergeant A make and what does he do? =Answer. = He decides to capture the enemy by surprise. He leavesPrivate C to watch and, moving cautiously back to his patrol, makesthe following dispositions: Corporal D with 10 men to move up toPrivate C and cover the enemy, remaining concealed. He takes theremainder of the patrol with fixed bayonets around the northeast slopeof Kickapoo Hill in the woods and moves up the ravine toward 29. Whenhis detachment arrives within about 100 yards of the enemy, theycharge bayonet and rush them. Corporal D's party at the same time rushin from the opposite side. (Note: The enemy are demoralized by thesurprise and are captured without a shot being fired. ) =Required, 2. = What action does Sergeant A now take? =Answer. = He causes the enemy to be kept apart while he and hisnoncommissioned officers question them separately. He then questionsthe Blue prisoners, and furnishing them the guns taken from the Reds, sends them and the captured Reds back to our line under Corporal D, with a written message giving the information secured from hisquestions. (Par. 984. ) =Required, 3. = What does he then do? =Answer. = Places his main body in concealment at the Cemetery (cd')and sends a patrol under Corporal H via 35-41-43 and one underCorporal F via 29-27-23 west to learn further of the enemy inexecution of the second part of his orders. The patrol under Corporal H sends back the following message: "No. 1 Patrol, Company A, 1st Infantry, 21 June, '09; 5:30 P. M. Commander Expeditionary Patrol at 45: A column of infantry is moving east about 1 mile west of Schweizer (aa'); about 800 yards in front of this body is another small body with 8 to 10 men 300 yards still farther east. It took the main body 2 min. , 45 sec. To pass a point on the road. I remain in observation. H, Corporal. " =Required, 3. = The size of the command reported by Corporal H and itsformation. (Par. 983. ) =Answer. = One battalion infantry (512 men), preceded by 1 section atadvance guard. The advance guard having only advance party and point, 2-3/4 minutes × 175 = 481 men in the main body, leaving about 32 menfor the advance men for the advance guard. Problem No. 8 (Infantry) =1040. General Situation:= A Blue force of one regiment of infantry has outposts facing south onthe line Pope Hill (sm'), National Cemetery (qk')--E (qi'). A Redforce moving north reached Soldiers' Home at 7 o'clock this morning. =Special Situation:= Corporal B is chosen by Sergeant A, commander of the right support atthe National Cemetery, to take a patrol south as far as 20th street(yf') and Metropolitan avenue (wh'), to report on the ground along theroute, and to reconnoiter the enemy. A friendly patrol moves alongSheridan's Drive (i)--Atchison Hill (rg')--Southwest Hill (ue'), andone on Prison Lane (rk'). =Required, 1. = Sergeant A's orders, verbatim (that is, word for word). =2. = Give the various details attended to by Corporal B before hemoves out with his patrol. =3. = What is the formation of the patrol when its point is at E (qh')? =4. = When the patrol reaches 14 (ug'), how are the intersecting roadsreconnoitered? =5. = Four mounted men are seen riding west at a walk at 64 (wb'). Whataction does Corporal A take? =6. = Describe the ground passed over by the patrol. Problem No. 9 (Infantry) =1041. Situation:= The enemy is moving east toward Frenchman (oc') and is expected toreach there early tomorrow. A company at 72 (uj') forms the leftsupport of an outpost in hostile country, on the line 70(vj')--National Cemetery (qj'). At 4 P. M. Sergeant A is ordered totake a patrol of 12 men and go to Frenchman and destroy the bridgethere, and remain in observation in that vicinity all night. =Required, 1. = His orders to the patrol. =2. = The route the patrol will follow, and its formation crossing theAtchison Hill--Government Hill ridge. =3. = Give the conduct of the patrol from Atchison Hill(rg')--Government Hill (tf') to its position at the bridge atFrenchman. =General Situation:= A Blue squadron is camped for the night at Waterworks (vn'), FortLeavenworth, and has outposts on the line XIV (un')--Grant Hill(um')--Prison Hill (wk'). A Red force is reported to be advancing fromthe north on Kickapoo (cb'). Problem No. 10 (Cavalry) =1042. Special Situation:= Lieutenant A, commanding the left support on Prison Hill, at 5 P. M. , directs Sergeant Jones to take a patrol of 5 men from his platoon andmove via Atchison Cross (ug') to the vicinity of Kickapoo and secureinformation of any enemy that may be in that locality. Another patrolis to go via Fort Leavenworth (ol'). =Required, 1. = The order given by Lieutenant A, verbatim. (Pars. 963and 965. ) =Answer. = "Sergeant Jones, the enemy is north of Kickapoo, moving onthat place. This squadron will remain here tonight; Sergeant B willtake a patrol through Fort Leavenworth. "Select a patrol of 5 men from your platoon and move out viaFrenchman's (oc') toward Kickapoo. "Secure any information you can of the enemy in that locality. "Report on the condition of the bridges between here and 47 (fd'). "You may have to stay out over night. "Send messages here. " Sergeant Jones selects five good men, directs them to take one cookedration each and canteen full of water. He inspects the men and horsescarefully; sees that no horse of conspicuous color or that neighs istaken. Explains the orders to his men, etc. , as was done in theinfantry patrol. =Required, 2. = What route does the patrol take, and why? =Answer. = Metropolitan avenue (w)--70 (vj')--72 (vj')--14(ug')--Frenchman (oc')--17 (jc')--47 (ec'). =Reasons. = The enemy is distant and Kickapoo, the objective of thepatrol, is seen from the map, which Sergeant Jones has, to be over anhour's ride at a walk and trot. It is not at all probable that theenemy will be met until the patrol reaches the vicinity of Kickapooand Sergeant Jones decides to take the shortest and best road thoughit is a main highway, instead of Sheridan's Drive (j) of the F(qg')--15 (jg') lane. It is always well for a patrol to avoid main highways when the enemyis near, especially in hostile country, but here the time saved morethan justifies the use of the direct route. Problem No. 11 (Cavalry) =1043. = Same situation as Problem 1. =Required, 1. = The formation and conduct of the patrol as far asFrenchman's. =Answer. = Sergeant Jones determines to move at a walk and trot (5miles per hour) in order to reach the vicinity of Kickapoo and take upa position of observation before night. Sergeant Jones and Private Bare in the lead, 2 men about 100 yards to the rear, the remaining 2men about 75 yards in the rear of these. They move out at a trot alongthe road until Atchison Cross is reached. The two cross roads arereconnoitered without halting the patrol, inasmuch as from the crossroads a good view is had north and south. From Atchison Cross to 16 (sf') the patrol moves at a walk, being up aslope from 4 to 6 degrees. Usually such a place would be rushedthrough, but the distance of the enemy makes this unnecessary. Noscouting is done off the road through the woods, because of thedistance of the enemy. On reaching the top of the hill the patrol ishalted while Sergeant Jones moves up to the high ground south of theroad at the crest, and in concealment searches with his glasses theroad as far as Frenchman's, especially the village beyond G (qf'). Seeing no signs of the enemy he moves the patrol down the hill at awalk until the cut is passed and there takes a fast trot, so as toavoid being long in a position where they could be seen from thedirection of Kickapoo. The same formation and gait are maintained asfar as Gauss' (pd'), where a walk is taken to rest the horses and togain opportunity to see if any enemy are holding the bridge atFrenchman's. =Situation:= Just as the patrol comes to a walk Sergeant Jones sees what appears tobe a dismounted patrol moving south over the ridge about 650 yardsnorth of Frenchman's. He can see three men. =Required, 2. = Action taken by Sergeant Jones. =Answer. = The patrol is moved into the orchard just off the road, while Sergeant Jones moves quickly to the top of the hill and, concealed by the trees, examines the road north to see if the 3 menare followed by others forming a part of a larger patrol or column. He finds the three men are not followed. =Required, 3. = What does he do next? =Answer. = He determines to capture the patrol by surprise. He has thehorses led over south of the orchard hill so as not to be visible tothe enemy. He then distributes his men along the north edge of theorchard, himself nearest the bridge, 2 men 75 yards back along theroad toward G (qf'), then 2 men 75 yards farther along toward G. Asthe third man comes opposite him, Sergeant Jones cries "Halt, " whichis the signal for the other parties to similarly hold up their men. =Reasons. = Sergeant Jones might either capture the hostile patrol orlet it pass, and then proceed on his road. Since they are the firstenemy seen and there is such a good chance to capture them, and asthey may furnish definite information of the enemy's main force, hedecides as stated. There is an objection in capturing them that hewill have to send one or two men to take them to camp. The patrol isplaced as described above so as to have the two men opposite each ofthe enemy, except for Sergeant Jones, who is alone. By thus coveringeach man of the hostile patrol by two of our men, they will at oncesee the folly of an effort to escape and no shot need be fired. Oneman is holding the horses. Problem No. 12 (Cavalry) =1044. = Same situation as Problem 10. =Required:= 1. What action does Sergeant Jones take before leaving the vicinity ofFrenchman's? 2. Give the formation and conduct of the patrol after leaving here. 3. Give the report submitted by Sergeant Jones under his instructionsin regard to bridges. (Par. 1000. ) At 6:30 P. M. (it is dark at 7:30) the patrol reaches 17 (jc'). 4. Give the route followed from here and the disposition of the patrolmade for the night. Problem No. 13 (Cavalry) =1045. Situation:= The Missouri river is the boundary between hostile countries. A Blue separate brigade (3 regiments infantry, 1 squadron cavalry, 1battery field artillery) is moving from Winchester (19 miles west ofLeavenworth) to seize the Rock Island bridge (q) across the Missouririver at Fort Leavenworth. The cavalry squadron is camped at Lowemont, 8 miles west of Leavenworth, for night June 4-5. At 3 P. M. SergeantJones is directed to take a patrol of six men and move via the RockIsland bridge into Missouri and gain information of the enemy reportedto be now just east of the river. =Required, 1. = Give the formation of the patrol when it first comes onthe map. =Required, 2. = Give the conduct of the patrol from Mottin's (oa') to G(qf'). At Frenchman's, Sergeant Jones met a farmer coming from FortLeavenworth, who said about 200 hostile cavalry were seen just east ofthe Missouri about 2 P. M. , moving towards the Terminal Bridge (z). =Required, 3. = Action of Sergeant Jones. (Does he hold the man? Doeshe send a message? Does he change his plans or direction of march?) The patrol reaches the top of the hill, Sheridan's Drive--GovernmentHill (tf'). =Required, 4. = What action does Sergeant Jones take before proceedingeast? FLANK GUARDS =1046. = The flanks of a column are ordinarily protected by the advanceguard, which sends out patrols to carefully examine the country onboth sides of the line of march. In some cases, however, the directionof march of the column is such that there is a great danger of theenemy's striking it in flank and some special provision is necessaryto furnish additional security on the threatened flank. This is doneby having a detachment, called a flank guard, march off the exposedflank. The flank guard usually follows a road, parallel to the one onwhich the column is marching and at least 1, 000 yards (effective riflerange) beyond it. If hostile artillery is feared this distance is muchgreater. The flank guard regulates its march so as to continue abreast of theadvance guard of the main column. It takes a formation similar to anadvance guard, does most of its patrolling to the front and on theexposed flank, and keeps in constant touch with the main column bymeans of mounted or dismounted messengers. In case the enemy is encountered the flank guard drives him off ifpracticable or takes up a defensive position, protecting the march ofthe main column, and preventing the enemy from disturbing the latter'smarch. REAR GUARD =1047. Definition and Duties. = A rear guard is a detachment of amarching column following in rear to protect the main column frombeing surprised and to prevent the march from being delayed orinterrupted. When the main column is marching toward the enemy the rear guard isvery small and its duties relatively unimportant. It is principallyoccupied in gathering up stragglers. When the main column is marching away from the enemy (retreating) therear guard is all important. It covers the retreat of the main body, preventing the enemy from harassing or delaying its march. =1048. Strength. = The strength of a rear guard is slightly greaterthan that of an advance guard, as it cannot expect, like the latter, to be reinforced in case it is attacked, as the main column ismarching away from it and avoiding a fight. =1049. Form of Order. = The rear guard commander, on the receipt of theretreat order, issues a rear guard order, according to the form givenin the Field Service Regulations. The distance of a rear guard from the main body and its formation aresimilar to those of an advance guard. The elements corresponding tothe advance cavalry, the point, and the advance party of an advanceguard are termed the rear cavalry, rear point and rear party, respectively. The support and reserve retain the same designations. A rear guard formed during an engagement to cover the withdrawal orretreat of the main body, may first be compelled to take up adefensive position behind which the main body forms up and moves off. It may be forced to withdraw from this position by successive skirmishlines, gradually forming up in column on the road as it clears itselffrom fighting contact with the enemy. The rate of march of the rear guard depends upon that of the mainbody. The main body may be much disorganized and fatigued, necessitating long halts and a slow marching rate. =1050. Action of the Rear Guard. = The withdrawal of defeated troops isdelayed, if possible, until night. If it becomes necessary to begin aretreat while an engagement is in progress, the rear guard isorganized and takes up a defensive position generally behind thefighting line; the latter then falls back and assembles under cover ofthe rear guard. The rear cavalry gives away before the enemy's pursuit only whenabsolutely necessary, maintains communication with and sendsinformation to the rear guard commander, and pays special attention tothe weak points in the retreat, namely, the flanks. It makes use ofevery kind of action of which it is capable, according to thesituation, and unless greatly outnumbered by hostile cavalry, itcauses considerable delay to the enemy. When the enemy is conducting an energetic pursuit the rear guardeffects its withdrawal by taking up a succession of defensivepositions (that is, where the nature of the ground enables the rearguard to defend itself well) and compelling the enemy to attack orturn them. (It should be understood that these successive defensivepositions must, in the case of a large force, be from two to fourmiles apart and in the case of a small force at least one-half mileapart--not a few hundred yards as is frequently attempted in peacemaneuvers. ) When the enemy's dispositions for attack are nearly completed, therear guard begins to fall back, the cavalry on the flanks beingusually the last to leave. The commander designates a part of the rearguard to cover the withdrawal of the remainder; the latter then fallsback to a new position in rear, and in turn covers the withdrawal ofthe troops in front. These operations compel the enemy continually todeploy or make turning movements, and constantly retard his advance. The pursuit may be further delayed by obstacles placed in the enemy'spath; bridges are burned or blown up; boats removed or destroyed;fords and roads obstructed; tracks torn up; telegraph lines cut, andhouses, villages, woods and fields fired. Demolitions and obstructionsare prepared by engineers, assisted, if necessary, by other troopsdetailed from the reserve, and are completed by the mounted engineersof the rear party at the last moment. The instructions of the supreme commander govern in the demolition ofimportant structures. OUTPOSTS (See "Outpost, " Par. 887) =1051. Definition and Duties. = Outposts are detachments thrown out tothe front and flanks of a force that is in camp or bivouac, to protectthe main body from being surprised and to insure its undisturbed rest. In fact, an outpost is merely a stationary advance guard. Its duties, in general, are to _observe_ and _resist_--to observe the enemy, andto resist him in case of attack. Specifically its duties are: (=a=) To observe toward the front and flanks by means of stationarysentinels and patrols, in order to locate the enemy's whereabouts andlearn promptly of his movements, thus making it impossible for him tosurprise us. (=b=) To prevent the main body from being observed or disturbed. (=c=) In case of attack, to check the enemy long enough to enable themain body to prepare for action and make the necessary dispositions. =1052. Size. = The size of the outpost will depend upon manycircumstances, such as the size of the whole command, the nearness ofthe enemy, the nature of the ground, etc. A suitable strength for anoutpost may vary from a very small fraction to one-third of the wholeforce. However, in practice it seldom exceeds one-sixth of the wholeforce--as a rule, if it be greater, the efficiency of the troops willbe impaired. For a single company in bivouac a few sentinels andpatrols will suffice; for a large command, a more elaborate outpostsystem must be provided. The most economical form of outpost isfurnished by keeping close contact with the enemy by means of outpostpatrols, in conjunction with resisting detachments on the avenues ofapproach. Troops at a halt are supposed to be resting, night or day, and thefewer on outpost the more troops will there be resting, and thushusbanding their strength for approaching marches and encounters withthe enemy. Outpost duty is about the most exhausting and fatiguingwork a soldier performs. It is, therefore, evident that not a man orhorse more than is absolutely necessary should be employed, and thatthe commander should use careful judgment in determining the strengthof the outpost, and the chiefs of the various outpost subdivisionsshould be equally careful in disposing their men so as to permit thegreatest possible number to rest and sleep undisturbed, _but at thesame time always considering the safety of the main body as the chiefduty_. =1053. Composition. = The composition of the outpost will, as a rule, depend upon the size and composition of the command, but a mixedoutpost is composed principally of infantry, which is charged with theduty of local observation, especially at night, and with resisting theenemy, in case of attack, long enough for the main body to prepare foraction. The cavalry is charged with the duty of reconnaissance, and is veryuseful in open country during the day. Artillery is useful to outposts when its fire can sweep defiles orlarge open spaces and when it commands positions that might beoccupied by hostile artillery. Machine guns are useful to command approaches and check suddenadvances of the enemy. Engineers are attached to an outpost to assist in constructingentrenchments, clearing the field of fire, opening communicationlaterally and to the rear. The outpost should be composed of completeorganizations. For example, if the outpost is to consist of onecompany, do not have some of the platoons from one company and theothers from another, and if it is to consist of one battalion, do nothave some of the companies from one battalion and others from another, etc. FORMATION OF OUTPOSTS =1054. Subdivisions. = As in the case of an advance guard, the outpostof a large force is divided into elements or parts, that graduallyincrease in size from front to rear. These, in order from the mainbody, are the reserve, the line of supports, the line of outguards, and the advance cavalry, and their formation, as shown by the drawingon the preceding page, may be likened to an open hand, with thefingers apart and extended, the wrist representing the main body, theknuckles the line of supports, the first joints the line of outguards, the second joints the line of sentinels and the finger tips theadvance cavalry. [Illustration: Fig. 4] In case of attack each part is charged with holding the enemy in checkuntil the larger element, next in rear, has time to deploy and preparefor action. =1055. Distances Between the Subdivisions. = The distances separatingthe main body, the line of supports, the line of outguards, the lineof sentries and the advance cavalry, will depend upon circumstances. There can be no uniformity in the distance between supports andreserves, nor between outguards and supports, even in the sameoutpost. The avenues of approach and the important features of theground will largely control the exact positions of the different partsof the outposts. The basic principle upon which the distances arebased, is: _The distance between any two parts of the outpost must begreat enough to give the one in rear time to deploy and prepare foraction in case of attack, and the distance of the whole outpost fromthe main body must, in the case of small commands, be sufficientlygreat to hold the enemy beyond effective rifle range until the mainbody can deploy, and, in case of large commands, it must besufficiently great to hold the enemy beyond effective artillery rangeuntil the main body can deploy. _ It is, therefore, evident that the distances will be materiallyaffected not only by the size of the main body, but also by the natureof the cover afforded by the ground. The following is given merely as a very general guide, subject to manychanges: Distance to next element in rear. Advance cavalry 2 to 6 miles Supports {Sentinels (furnished by outguard) 20 to 40 yds. (Generally {Outguards (furnished by support) 200 to 500 yds. Two or {Support proper furnishes majority 400 to 800 yds. More) of patrols. Reserve (usually omitted in small commands) 1/2 to 2 miles =1056. Advance Cavalry. = The advance cavalry is that part of theoutpost sent out in front of all foot troops. It generally operatestwo to six miles beyond the outpost infantry, reconnoitering far tothe front and flanks in order to guard the camp against surprise byartillery fire and to give early information of the enemy's movements. After dusk the bulk of the cavalry usually withdraws to a camp in rearof the outpost reserve, where it can rest securely after the day'shard work and the horses can be fresh for the next day. Severalmounted patrols are usually left for the night at junctions or forkson the principal roads to the front, from one to four miles beyond theinfantry line of observation. =1057. Supports. = The _supports_ constitute a line of _supporting_ and_resisting_ detachments, varying in size from a half a company to abattalion. In outposts consisting of a battalion or more the supportsusually comprise about one-half of the infantry. Supports are numberednumerically consecutively from right to left and are placed at themore important points on the outpost line, on or near the line onwhich resistance is to be made in case of attack. As a rule, roads exercise the greatest influence on the location ofsupports, and a support will generally be placed on or near a road. Each support has assigned to it a definite, clearly-defined section offront that it is to cover, and the support should be located ascentrally as possible thereto. =1058. Outguards. = The outguards constitute the line of smalldetachments farthest to the front and nearest to the enemy, and theirduty is to maintain uninterrupted observation of the ground in frontand on the flanks; to report promptly hostile movements and otherinformation relating to the enemy; to prevent unauthorized personsfrom crossing the line of observation; to drive off small parties ofthe enemy, and to make temporary resistance to larger bodies. Forconvenience outguards are classified as pickets, sentry squads, andcossack posts. They are numbered consecutively from right to left ineach support. =1059. = _A picket_ is a group consisting of two or more squads, ordinarily not exceeding half a company, posted in the line ofoutguards to cover a given sector. It furnishes patrols and one ormore sentinels, double sentinels, sentry, squads, or cossack posts forobservation. Pickets are placed at the more important points in the line ofoutguards, such as road forks. The strength of each depends upon thenumber of small groups required to observe properly its sector. =1060. = _A sentry squad_ is a squad posted in observation at anindicated point. It posts a double sentinel in observation, theremaining men resting near by and furnishing the reliefs of sentinels. In some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol. =1061. = _A cossack post_ consists of four men. It is an observationgroup similar to a sentry squad; but employs a single sentinel. At night, it will sometimes be advisable to place some of theoutguards or their sentinels in a position different from that whichthey occupy in the daytime. In such case the ground should becarefully studied before dark and the change made at dusk. However, achange in the position of the outguard will be exceptional. =1062. = _Sentinels_ are generally used singly in daytime, but at nightdouble sentinels will be required in most cases. Sentinels furnishedby cossack posts or sentry squads are kept near their group. Thosefurnished by pickets may be as far as 100 yards away. Every sentinel should be able to communicate readily with the body towhich he belongs. Sentinel posts are numbered consecutively from right to left in eachoutguard. Sentry squads and cossack posts furnished by pickets arecounted as sentinel posts. If practicable, troops on outpost duty are concealed and all movementsmade so as to avoid observation by the enemy; sentinels are posted soas to have a clear view to the front and, if practicable (though it israrely possible), so as to be able, by day, to see the sentinels ofthe adjoining outguards. Double sentinels are posted near enough toeach other to be able to communicate easily in ordinary voice. Sentinels are generally on duty two hours out of six. For everysentinel and for every patrol there should be at least three reliefs;therefore, one-third the strength of the outguards gives the greatestnumber of men that should be on duty as sentinels and patrols at onetime. Skillful selection of the posts of sentinels increases their field ofobservation. High points, under cover, are advantageous by night aswell as by day; they increase the range of vision and afford greaterfacilities for seeing lights and hearing noises. Observers with goodfield glasses may be placed on high buildings, on church steeples orin high trees. Glittering objects on uniform or equipment should be concealed. It isseldom necessary to fix bayonets, except at night, in dense fog, or invery close country. Reliefs, visiting patrols, and inspecting officers, approach sentinelsfrom the rear, remaining under cover if possible. =1063. Reserve. = The reserve forms a general support for the line ofresistance. It is, therefore, centrally located near the junction ofroads coming from the direction of the enemy, and in concealment ifpracticable. Of the troops detailed for outpost duty, about one-half of theinfantry, generally all of the artillery, and the cavalry nototherwise employed, are assigned to the reserve. If the outpostconsists of less than two companies the reserve may be omittedaltogether. The arms are stacked and the equipments (except cartridge belts) maybe removed. Roads communicating with the supports are opened. When necessary, the outpost order states what is to be done in case ofattack, designates places of assembly and provides for interiorguards. Interior guards are posted in the camp of the reserve or mainbody to maintain order, and furnish additional security. Additionalinstructions may be given for messing, feeding, watering, etc. In thevicinity of the enemy or at night a portion of the infantry may berequired to remain under arms, the cavalry to hold their horses(cinches loosened), and the artillery to remain in harness, or take upa combat position. In case of alarm, the reserve prepares for action without delay, andword is sent to the main body. In combat, the reserve reinforces theline of resistance, and if unable to check the enemy until the arrivalof the main body, delays him as much as possible. The distance of the reserve from the line of resistance varies, but isgenerally about half a mile; in outposts of four companies or lessthis distance may be as small as 400 yards. =1064. Patrols. = Instead of using outguards along the entire front ofobservation, part of this front may be covered by patrols only. Theseshould be used to cover such sections of the front as can be crossedby the enemy only with difficulty and over which he is not likely toattempt a crossing after dark. In daylight much of the local patrolling may be dispensed with if thecountry can be seen from the posts of the sentinels. However, patrolsshould frequently be pushed well to the front unless the ground inthat direction is exceptionally open. Patrols must be used to keep up connection between the parts of theoutpost except when, during daylight, certain fractions or groups aremutually visible. After dark this connection must be maintainedthroughout the outpost except where the larger subdivisions areprovided with wire communication. The following patrols are usually sent out from the main bodies of thesupports: (=a=) Patrols of from three men to a squad are sent along the roadsand trails in the direction of the enemy, for a distance of from oneto five miles, depending on how close the enemy is supposed to be, whether or not there is any advance cavalry out, and how long theoutpost has been in position. The extreme right and left supports sendpatrols well out on the roads to the flanks. These patrols generallyoperate continuously as soon as one returns from the front, orpossibly even before it returns, another goes out in the same generaldirection to cover the same country. Frequently a patrol is sent outalong a road to the front for two or three miles with orders to remainout until some stated time--for example, 4 P. M. , dusk or dawn. Itsends in important information, and remains out near the extremity ofits route, keeping a close watch on the surrounding country. An effort should always be made to secure and maintain contact withthe enemy, if within a reasonable distance, in order that hismovements or lack of movement may be constantly watched and reportedon. The usual tendency is towards a failure to send these patrols farenough to the front and for the patrol leader to overestimate thedistance he has traveled. A mile through strange country with theever-present possibility of encountering the enemy seems three milesto the novice. At night the patrols generally confine their movements to the roads, usually remaining quietly on the alert near the most advanced point oftheir route to the front. The majority of such patrols are sent out to secure information of theenemy--reconnoitering patrols--and they avoid fighting and hostilepatrols, endeavoring to get in touch with the enemy's main force. Other patrols are sometimes sent out to prevent hostile detachmentsfrom approaching the outposts; they endeavor to locate the hostilepatrols, drive them back, preventing them from gaining any vantagepoint from which they can observe the outpost line. These are calledcombat patrols and have an entirely different mission fromreconnoitering patrols. (=b=) Patrols of from two men to a squad, usually two men, are sentfrom the support around the line of its outguards, connecting with theoutguards of the adjacent supports, if practicable. These are"visiting patrols, " and they serve to keep the outguards of a supportin touch with it and with each other; to keep the commander of asupport in touch with his outguards and the adjacent supports; and toreconnoiter the ground between the outguards. Since a hostile force ofany size is practically forced to keep to the roads, there are rarelyever any supports and very few outguards posted off the roads, theintervals being covered by patrols, as just described. When going out a patrol will always inform the nearest sentinel of thedirection it will take and its probable route and hour of return. =1065. Detail for Patrols. = Since for every patrol of four men, twelveare required (3 reliefs of 4 men each), the importance of sending outjust enough men and not one more than is actually needed, can readilybe understood. As fast as one visiting patrol completes its round, another should usually be sent out, possibly going the rounds by aslightly different route or in the reverse direction. The samegenerally applies to the reconnoitering and combat patrols, thoughfrequently they are sent out for the entire day, afternoon or night, and no 2d and 3d relief is required. Three reliefs are required forthe sentinel or sentinels at the post of the supports, so care shouldbe taken to establish but one post, if it can do all that is required. It should not be considered that every man in the support should be onduty or on a relief for an outguard, a patrol or sentinel post. Thereshould be as many men as possible in the main body of a support (thisterm is used to distinguish this body from the support proper, whichincludes the outguards and their sentinels) who only have no dutyother than being instantly available in case of attack. =1066. Flags of Truce. = Upon the approach of a flag of truce, thesentry will at once notify the commander of the outguard, who will inturn send word to the commander of the outpost and ask forinstructions. One or more men will advance to the front and halt theparty at such distance as to prevent any of them from overlooking theoutposts. As soon as halted, the party will be ordered to face in theopposite direction. If permission is given to pass the party throughthe outpost line, they will be blindfolded and led under escort to thecommander of the outpost. No conversation, except by permission of theoutpost commander, is to be allowed on any subject, under any pretext, with the persons bearing the flag of truce. =1067. Entrenchments and Obstacles. = The positions held by thesubdivisions of an outpost should generally be strengthened by theconstruction of entrenchments and obstacles, but conditions may renderthis unnecessary. =1068. Concealment. = Troops on outpost must keep concealed as much asis consistent with the proper performance of their duties; especiallyshould they avoid the sky line. =1069. Detached Posts. = In addition to ordinary outguards, the outpostcommander may detail from the reserve one or more detached posts tocover roads or areas not in general line assigned to the supports. In like manner the commander of the whole force may order detachedposts to be sent from the main body to cover important roads orlocalities not included in the outpost line. Detached posts may be sent out to hold points which are of importanceto the outpost cavalry, such as a ford or a junction of roads; or tooccupy positions especially favorable for observation, but too far tothe front to be included in the line of observation; or to protectflanks of the outpost position. Such posts are generally establishedby the outpost commander, but a support commander might find itnecessary to establish a post practically detached from the rest ofhis command. They usually vary in strength from a squad to a platoon. The number and strength of detached posts are reduced to the absoluteneeds of the situation. =1070. Examining Posts. = An examining post is a small detachment, under the command of an officer or a noncommissioned officer, stationed at some convenient point to examine strangers and to receivebearers Of flags of truce brought in by the outguards or patrols. Though the employment of examining posts is not general in fieldoperations, there are many occasions when their use is important; forexample: When the outguards do not speak the language of the countryor of the enemy; when preparations are being made for a movement andstrict scrutiny at the outguards is ordered: at sieges, whether inattack or defense. When such posts, are used, strangers approachingthe line of observation are passed along the line to an examiningpost. No one except the commander is allowed to speak to persons brought toan examining post. Prisoners and deserters are at once sent underguard to the rear. =1071. Cavalry Outpost. = Independent cavalry covering a command or onspecial missions, and occasionally the advance cavalry of a mixedcommand, bivouac when night overtakes them, and in such cases furnishtheir own outposts. The outposts are established, in the main, inaccordance with the foregoing principles, care being taken to confineoutpost work to the lowest limits consistent with safety. Noprecaution, however, should be omitted, as the cavalry is generally inclose proximity to the enemy, and often in territory where theinhabitants are hostile. The line of resistance is occupied by the supports, the latter sendingout the necessary outguards and patrols. Each outguard furnishes itsown vedettes (mounted sentinels), or sentinels. Due to the mobility ofcavalry, the distances are generally greater than in an outpost for amixed command. An outguard of four troopers is convenient for the daytime, but should be doubled at night, and at important points madeeven stronger. The sentinels are generally dismounted, their horsesbeing left with those of the outguards. Mounted cavalry at night can offer little resistance; the supports andoutguards are therefore generally dismounted, the horses being undercover in rear, and the positions are strengthened by intrenchments andobstacles. By holding villages, bridges, defiles, etc. , withdismounted rifle fire, cavalry can greatly delay a superior force. There should always be easy communication along the line of resistanceto enable the cavalry to concentrate at a threatened point. A support of one squadron covers with its outposts a section rarelylonger than two miles. As such a line is of necessity weak, the principal reliance is placedon distant patrolling. If threatened by infantry, timely informationenables the threatened point to be reinforced, or the cavalry towithdraw to a place of safety. If there is danger from hostilecavalry, the roads in front are blocked at suitable points, such asbridges, fords, defiles, etc. , by a succession of obstacles and aredefended by a few dismounted men. When compelled to fall back thesemen mount and ride rapidly to the next obstacle in rear and there takeup a new position. As the march of cavalry at night is, as a rule, confined to roads, such tactics seriously delay its advance. In accordance with the situation and the orders they have received, the support commanders arrange for feeding, watering, cooking, restingand patrolling. During the night the horses of the outguards remainsaddled and bridled. During the day time cinches may be loosened, one-third of the horses at a time. Feeding and watering are done byreliefs. Horses being fed are removed a short distance from theothers. Independent cavalry generally remains in outpost position for thenight only, its advance being resumed on the following day; if stoppedby the enemy, it is drawn off to the flanks upon the approach of itsown infantry. ESTABLISHING THE OUTPOST =1072. = The outpost is posted as quickly as possible, so that thetroops can the sooner obtain rest. Until the leading outpost troopsare able to assume their duties, temporary protection, known as the_march outpost_, is furnished by the nearest available troops. Upon receipt of the _halt order_ from the commander of the maincolumn, the outpost commander issues the _outpost order_ with theleast practicable delay. The _halt order_, besides giving the necessary information andassigning camp sites to the parts of the command, details the troopsto constitute the outpost, assigns a commander therefor, designatesthe general line to be occupied, and, when practicable, points out theposition to be held in case of attack. The _outpost order_ gives such available information of the situationas is necessary to the complete and proper guidance of subordinates;designates the troops to constitute the supports; assigns theirlocation and the sector each is to cover; provides for the necessarydetached posts; indicates any special reconnaissance that is to bemade; orders the location and disposition of the reserve; disposes ofthe train if the same is ordered to join the outpost; and informssubordinates where information will be sent. In large commands it mayoften be necessary to give the order from the map, but usually theoutpost commander will have to make some preliminary reconnaissance, unless he has an accurate and detailed map. Generally it is preferable for the outpost commander to give verbalorders to his support commanders from some locality which overlooksthe terrain. The time and locality should be so selected that thesupport commanders may join their commands and conduct them to theirpositions without causing unnecessary delay to their troops. Thereserve commander should, if possible, receive his orders at the sametime as the support commanders. Subordinates to whom he gives ordersseparately should be informed of the location of other parts of theoutpost. =1073. = After issuing the initial orders, the outpost commanderinspects the outpost, orders the necessary changes or additions, andsends his superior a report of his dispositions. _The reserve_ is marched to its post by its commander, who then sendsout such detachments as have been ordered and places the rest in campor bivouac, over which at least one sentinel should be posted. Connection must be maintained with the main body, the supports, andnearby detached posts. The supports march to their posts, using the necessary coveringdetachments when in advance of the march outpost. A supportcommander's order should fully explain the situation to subordinates, or to the entire command, if it be small. It should detail the troopsfor the different outguards and, when necessary, define the sectoreach is to cover. It should provide the necessary sentinels at thepost of the support, the patrols to be sent therefrom, and shouldarrange for the necessary intrenching. In posting his command the support commander must seek to cover hissector (the front that he is to look after) in such manner that theenemy can not reach, in dangerous numbers and unobserved, the positionof the support or pass by it within the sector intrusted to thesupport. On the other hand, he must economize men on observation andpatrol duty, for these duties are unusually fatiguing. He mustpractice the greatest economy of men consistent with the requirementsof practical security. As soon as the posting of the support is completed, its commandercarefully inspects the dispositions and corrects defects, if any, andreports the disposition of his support, including the patrollingordered, to the outpost commander. This report is preferably made bymeans of a sketch. By day the outpost will stack arms and the articles of equipment, except the cartridge belt and canteen, will be placed by the arms. Atnight the men will invariably sleep with their arms and equipment nearthem. In addition to the sentinel posted over the support, a part of thesupport, say one-third or one-fourth, should always be awake at night. Each outguard is marched by its commander to its assigned station, andespecially in the case of a picket, is covered by the necessarypatrolling to prevent surprise. Having reached the position, the commander explains the situation tohis men and establishes reliefs for each sentinel, and, if possible, for each patrol to be furnished. Besides these sentinels and patrols, a picket must have a sentinel at its post. The commander then posts the sentinels and points out to them theprincipal features, such as towns, roads, and streams, and gives theirnames. He gives the direction and location of the enemy, if known, andof adjoining parts of the outpost. He gives to patrols the same information and the necessary orders asto their routes and the frequency with which the same shall becovered. Each patrol should go over its route once before dark. Each picket should maintain connection by patrols with the outguardson its right and left. =1074. Intercommunication. = It is most important that communicationshould be maintained at all times between all parts of the outpost, and between the outpost and the main body. This may be done bypatrols, messengers, wire or signal. The commander of the outpost is responsible that proper communicationbe maintained with the main body, and the support commanders keep upcommunication with the outguards, with the adjoining supports and withthe reserve. The commander of a detached post will maintaincommunication with the nearest outguard. =1075. Changes for the Night. = In civilized warfare, it is seldomnecessary to draw the outpost closer to the main body at night inorder to diminish the front; nor is it necessary to strengthen theline of observation, as the enemy's advance in force must be confinedto the roads. The latter are therefore strongly occupied, theintervening ground being diligently patrolled. In very open country or in war with savage or semi-civilized peoplefamiliar with the terrain, special precautions are necessary. =1076. Relieving the Outpost. = Ordinarily outposts are not kept onduty longer than twenty-four hours. In temporary camps or bivouac theyare generally relieved every morning. After a day's advance theoutpost for the night is usually relieved, the following morning whenthe support of the new advance guard passes the line of resistance. Inretreat the outpost for the night usually forms the rear guard for thefollowing day, and is relieved when it passes the line of observationof the new outpost. Outguards that have become familiar with the country during the daytime should remain on duty that night. Sentinels are relieved once intwo hours, or oftener, depending on the weather. The work of patrolsis regulated by the support commander. Commanders of the various fractions of an outpost turn over theirinstructions and special orders, written and verbal, to theirsuccessors, together with the latest information of the enemy, and adescription of the important features of the country. When practicablethe first patrols sent out by the new outposts are accompanied bymembers of the old outpost who are familiar with the terrain. Whenrelieved the old outguards return to their supports, the supports tothe reserve and the latter to the main body; or, if more convenient, the supports and reserves return to the main body independently, eachby the shortest route. When relieved by an advance guard, the outpost troops ordinarily jointheir units as the column passes. Evening and shortly before dawn are hours of special danger. The enemymay attack late in the day in order to establish himself on capturedground by intrenching during the night; or he may send forward troopsunder cover of darkness in order to make a strong attack at earlydawn. Special precaution is therefore taken at those hours by holdingthe outpost in readiness, and by sending patrols in advance of theline of observation. If a new outpost is to be established in themorning it should arrive at the outpost position at daybreak, thusdoubling the outpost strength at that hour. OUTPOST PROBLEMS Problem No. 1 (Infantry) =1077. Lieutenant (to two squads of his company):= Two battalions ofour regiment have camped by Baker's Pond (Elementary Map) for thenight. It is now 3 P. M. On a rainy day in August. The enemy isthought to be about five miles to the south of us. Our platoon is theleft support of the outpost and is stationed at the road fork on theChester Pike, by the Mason house. The Twin Hills-Lone Hill ridge istaken care of by other troops. Corporal Baker, where do you think Ishould place outguards? =Corporal Baker:= One at the junction of the Mills farm lane and theChester Pike, and one at the steel railroad trestle over Sandy Creek. =Lieutenant:= Those positions are both too far from the support, almost a half mile, but they cover the two main avenues of approachand there is no good place for a position nearer the support. Aposition farther north of the Mill's farm lane would have its viewobstructed by the wall and trees along the lane and the wall would bea bad thing to leave unoccupied such a short distance to your front. So in this case, in spite of the excessive distances from the support, I think the two positions are well chosen. Each should be an outguardof a squad, for in the day time, in addition to furnishing a sentinelto observe to the front, they should have some power of resistance, particularly at the trestle. At night they should each have one doublesentinel post. This requires three reliefs of two men each, which, with the corporal, only leaves one extra man, who can be used as amessenger. Corporal Baker, I order you to take your squad and post it as OutguardNo. 1, at the junction of this (Chester) pike and that farm lane(Mills farm) in front. Corporal Davis' squad will be Outguard No. 2, at the railroad trestle over there (pointing). Friendly troops will beon the ridge to the east of your position. Your meals will be cookedhere and sent to you. Explain how you post your squad. =Corporal Baker:= I order Smith to double time 150 yards to the frontand act as point for the squad. I then march the squad down to itsposition, keeping Smith about 200 yards in front until I have arrangedeverything. I then post Brown under cover of the trees along the lanewhere he can look down the road as far as possible and I tell him, "Brown, you are to take post here, keeping a sharp lookout to thefront and flanks. The enemy is thought to be about five miles south(pointing) of us. This is the Chester Pike. That creek over there isSandy Creek. Salem is about a mile and three-quarters down this pikein that (S. E. ) direction. York is a mile and a half in that (S. W. )direction. Our troops are on that ridge (Twin Hills) and a squad is atthe trestle over there. It is Outguard No. 2. You are in Outguard No. 1. You know where we left our platoon. It is our support. Signal Smithto come in. " I then have the squad pitch their shelter tents along thenorthern side of the wall, where they will be hidden to view from thefront by the trees along the lane and the wall. I want the men to getshelter from the rain as soon as possible. I then instruct the men ofthe squad, in the same manner that I did Brown; I notice the time, and detail Davis as second relief and Carter as third relief forBrown's post. I then direct two men to take all the canteens and go over to thatfarm (Mills) and fill them, first questioning the people about theenemy and about the country around here. I also direct these two mento get some straw or hay for bedding in the shelter tents, andinstruct them to return with as little delay as possible. I wait until they return and order two other men to go down to thecross roads, question the people there, look the ground over andreturn here. I caution them not to give any information about ourforce or the outguard. I would see that the sentinel's position wasthe best available and that the men had as comfortable quarters aspossible, without being unduly exposed to view and without interferingwith their movements in case of attack. They would keep their riflesat their sides at all times and not remove their equipments. Afterdark I put two men on post at the same time. To do this I arrangethree reliefs of two men each. They are posted in pairs for two hoursat a time. If no patrol from the support appeared within a half hour after Ifirst took position I would send a messenger back to you to see ifeverything was all right and tell you what I had done. =Lieutenant:= I think the two men sent to the crossroads should havebeen started out before sending anyone to the Mills house as this wasa more important point. The Field Service Regulations state thatoutguards do not patrol to the front, but what you did was entirelycorrect. You were securing yourself in your position and should befamiliar with your immediate surroundings. You should have told thecrossroads patrol to determine how much of an obstacle Sandy Creekwas. I suppose you assumed the swamp was impassable. The sentinel in this case is, I suppose, across the lane from theoutguard about ten or fifteen yards in advance. After dark the doublesentinel post should be posted on the pike about thirty yards inadvance of the outguard. Very frequently it would not be wise to put up your shelter tents onoutguard. But here, considering the rain and the protection the treesand wall furnish, it was wise to do so. The noncommissioned officer in charge of an outguard should be veryprecise in giving his orders and in making his arrangements, details, etc. The discipline must be strict; that is, the men must be keptunder absolute control, so that in case of sudden attack there will beno chance of confusion and the outguard commander will have his menabsolutely in hand and not permit any independent action on theirpart. This is often not the case, owing to the familiar relations thatusually exist in our army between a corporal and the members of hissquad. We will not have time to go into the arrangements for Outguard No. 2other than to say that the conditions there are somewhat differentfrom those Corporal Baker has had to deal with. The outguard should beposted on the west bank of Sandy Creek and the sentinel at thesoutheastern end of the trestle. A skirmish trench should be dug downthe western slope of the fill west of the creek, and extended acrossthe track by throwing up a parapet about two and one-half feet high, slightly bent back towards the northeast so as to furnish cover fromfire from the east bank of the creek, north of the trestle. Theshelter tents could be pitched as "lean tos" against the western slopeof the fill, and hidden by bushes and branches of trees. (Note: The details of commanding this outguard, its action in case ofattack, what should be done with a passing countryman, etc. , can beprofitably worked out in great detail. ) Problem No. 2 =1078. Lieutenant (to six squads):= We will take the same situation aswe had in Problem 1, with squad outguards as before. Sergeant Adams, you have command of the platoon and have sent out thetwo outguards. Explain your arrangements for the support. =Sergeant Adams:= I have the men fall out by squads and rest on theside of the road while I look the ground over. I then tell SergeantBarnes, "You will have immediate charge of the guard, cooking, visiting patrols, etc. , here at the support. Detail three men fromCorporal Evan's squad as first, second and third relief for thesentinel over the support Post your sentinel at the road fork and givehim the necessary instructions as to the outguards, the adjacentsupport which is on this road (pointing west) on top of that ridge, etc. I will give you further instructions later. " I then fall in theremainder of the support (one sergeant, one cook, four corporals andtwenty-seven privates, three squads being intact and one man on dutyas sentinel) and have shelter tents pitched under cover of the orchardand Mason house. While this is being completed I select a line for atrench, about thirty-five yards long, behind the fence on the east andwest road and extending east of the Chester Pike about fifteen yards, slightly bent back towards the northeast. No trench in the road. Ithen say to Sergeant Foss, "Take Graves' squad and construct a sheltertrench along this line (indicating) having the parapet concealed. Cutthe fences so as to furnish easy access. " I then say to Corporal Evans, "Take three men from your squad and, asa reconnoitering patrol, cross the trestle there (pointing), andfollow that road (pointing to the Boling-Salem road) into Salem, reconnoitering that village. Then take up a position on that ridge(pointing to Sandy Ridge) and remain out until dusk. Send me a messagefrom Sandy Ridge with a sketch and description of the country. " I assume that Corporal Evans is familiar with the information aboutthe enemy, the location of our outguards, etc. Selecting five men from Corporal Geary's squad and the remaining manof Corporal Evans' squad (three having been detailed for sentinelduty, and three sent out on patrol duty with Corporal Evans), I turnthem over to Sergeant Barnes, saying, "Here are six men to furnishthree reliefs for a visiting patrol of two men. Have this patrol visitOutguard No. 2 and cross the trestle, going south down the east bankof the creek; thence recross the creek at the road bridge, visitingOutguard No. 1; thence across to the adjacent outguard of the supporton our left, which is somewhere on that ridge (pointing to the TwinHills-Lone Hill Ridge); and thence to the starting point. Have themlocate that support on their first trip. You can reverse the routeand make such minor changes from time to time as you think best. Report to me after they have completed the first round. Makearrangements for sending supper to the outguards. Take two men fromCorporal Jackson's squad to carry it out. Be careful that the cookfire is not visible. I am going out to visit Outguard No. 1 and thenNo. 2. You will have charge until I return. " The men have stacked arms in front of the tents and have removed allequipment but their belts. I would now visit the outguards, taking a man with me, and see if theyare properly located. I would instruct the outguard commanders as towhat to do in case of attack, in case strangers approach, point outtheir line of retreat in case of necessity, etc. I would make a sketchof the position and send it, with a description of my dispositions, tothe commander of the outpost. =Lieutenant:= Your arrangements and dispositions appear satisfactory. You should have been more prompt in sending Corporal Evans out withhis patrol. Why didn't you send a patrol towards York, or south alongthe Chester Pike? =Sergeant Adams:= I considered that the support on my right wouldcover that ridge (Twin Hills-Lone Hill), and that the route I laid outfor Corporal Evans would cover the Chester Pike and the country eastof Sandy Creek at the same time, thus avoiding the necessity for twopatrols. =Lieutenant:= That seems reasonable, but you should have given somespecific orders about reporting on the width, depth, etc. , of SandyCreek, which might prove a very valuable or dangerous obstacle. Youcan readily see how quickly a command becomes broken up and depletedin strength, and how important it is to make only such detachments asare necessary. It looks as if your outguards might have been madesmaller considering the size of your platoon (6 squads), but I thinkthe squad outpost is so much better than one not composed of acomplete unit, that it is correct in this case. With Corporal Evans'patrol of three men, the visiting patrol requiring six men, thesentinel post requiring three men, Sergeant Barnes, and the twooutguards, you have thirty men actually on duty or detailed for duty, out of fifty-one. Of course, the men constituting the outguards, theman detailed for the visiting patrol and support sentinel, haveapproximately two hours on duty and four hours off duty, so they getsome rest. Furthermore, you should have a three-man patrol watchingthe crossroads at Salem during the night, Corporal Evans' patrolhaving returned. This patrol should be relieved once during the night, at a previously stated hour, which means six more men who do not get acomplete night's rest. =Sergeant Adams:= Isn't Salem rather far to the front to send a patrolat night? =Lieutenant:= Yes, it is, but unless you touch the crossroads thereyou would have to have two patrols out, one near Maxey's farm and oneon the Chester Pike. As it is you are leaving the road from York tothe crossroads in front of Outguard No. 1 uncovered, but you shouldfind that this is covered by a patrol from the adjacent support. Thecross roads in front of Outguard No. 1 is the natural place for astationary, night patrol, but it is so close to the outguard that thebenefit derived from a patrol there would be too small to justify theeffort. (Note: Further details of the duties of this support can be gone into. The messages should be written, and patrols carried through their tourof duty with the resulting situations to be dealt with; the sentinelstested as to their knowledge of their duties, etc. Also note carefullythe manner in which the support commander uses his noncommissionedofficers for carrying out his intentions, and thus avoids the mostobjectionable and inefficient practice of dealing directly with theprivates. ) Problem No. 3 (Infantry) =1079. = (See Fort Leavenworth map in pocket at back of book. ) =Situation:= A Blue force, Companies A and B, 1st Infantry, under Captain A, inhostile country, is covering the Rock Island Bridge and camped for thenight, April 20-21, on the south slope of Devin ridge (rm'). The enemyis moving northward from Kansas City (30 miles south of Leavenworth). At 3:30 P. M. Captain A receives a message from Colonel X at Beverly(2 miles east of Rock Island Bridge, (qo')), stating that two or threecompanies of hostile infantry are reported five miles south ofLeavenworth at 2:30 P. M. No enemy is west of Leavenworth. Captain Adecides to place one platoon on outpost. =Required, 1. = Captain A's order. =Answer. = Verbally: "Two or three Red companies were five miles southof Leavenworth at 2:30 P. M. Today. No enemy is west of Leavenworth. We will camp here. 1st Platoon, 'A' company, under Sergeant A, willform the outpost, relieving the advance guard (2d Platoon Co. A). Theline, Pope Hill (sm')--Rabbit Point (tn') will be held. Detached postswill be placed on Hill 880, west of Merritt Hill (rl'), and onEngineer Hill (ql'). In case of attack the outpost line will be held. "The baggage will be at the main camp. "Messages will reach me on Devin Ridge (rm'). " Issued verbally to officers and Sergeant A. =Required, 2. = Give verbatim (word for word) the order issued bySergeant A. =Answer. = "Two companies of the enemy were five miles south ofLeavenworth at 2:30 P. M. Today. Our camp is to be here. This platoonwill be the outpost on the line, Rabbit Point (im')--Pope Hill (sm'). "The right support, 1st section, less 1 squad, under Sergeant B, willtake position north of Pope Hill and cover the following front: theravine (XIX--Merritt Hill) west of Grant avenue to the ravine aboutmidway between Grant Avenue and Rabbit Point (tn'). "The left support, 2d section, less 1 squad under Sergeant H, willtake position on north slope of Rabbit Point and will cover thefollowing front: The ravine midway between Grant Avenue and RabbitPoint to Missouri River. "Corporal D, you will take the eight men of your squad and form adetached post on Engineer Hill (qk'). "Corporal E, take your squad and form a detached post on Hill 880 westof Merritt Hill (rl'). "If attacked hold your front. Each support and detached post willentrench. "Send messages to me at right support. " The outpost moves out, each support and detached post separately, without throwing out covering patrols, because the advance guard isnow holding the front. There is no reserve. =Required, 3. = What does Sergeant A do now? =Required, 4. = What does Sergeant B do as soon as he reaches PopeHill? (Note: During the remainder of the afternoon one man up in a tree onGrant Avenue will be the only observing post necessary for thissupport. At night an outguard would be placed on Grant Avenue withcontinuous patrols along the front, because the open ground furnisheseasy approach to the enemy. A post of four men might also be placed onthe bridge over Corral Creek (um'). ) =Required, 5. = The location of supports and the main body of detachedpost on Engineer Hill. =Required, 6. = What patrolling would be done from the left support? CHAPTER VI THE COMPANY ON OUTPOST (Establishing the Outpost) =1080. = We will now apply some of the general principles of outposts(see Par. 1051) to a company taking up its position on the line ofoutposts. Let us suppose that our battalion has been detailed for outpost duty. In order to understand more fully the duties and functions of thecompany commander, we will first consider what the major does. Tobegin with, he and the battalion will have been detailed for outpostduty before the march was completed, and he will have been told, amongst other things, what is known of the enemy and also what isknown of other bodies of our own troops, where the main body willhalt, the general position to be occupied by the outpost, and what thecommander intends doing in case of attack. The major verbally designates, say, two companies, as the reserve, andthe other two companies, including our own, as the support. He placesthe senior officer of the reserve companies in command of the reserveand tells him where he is to go, and he indicates the general line theoutpost is to occupy and assigns the amount of front each of the othercompanies is to cover. The limits of the sector so assigned should bemarked by some distinctive features, such as trees, buildings, woods, streams, etc. , as it is important that each company should know theexact limits of its frontage. He tells the company commanders what heknows of the enemy and of our own troops so far as they affect theoutposts, he indicates the line of resistance and how much resistanceis to be afforded in case of attack, states whether intrenchments andobstacles are to be constructed, gives instructions about lightingfires and cooking, and states where he can be found. Upon receiving his orders from the major, the company commander, _witha proper covering detachment_, moves to the locality allotted him andas he arrives upon the ground he is to occupy, he sends out, astemporary security, patrols or skirmishers, or both, a short distancein front of the general position the outguards will occupy, holdingthe rest of the company back under cover. If practicable, the companycommander should precede the company and make a rapid examination ofthe ground. He then sends out _observation groups_, varying in sizefrom four men to a platoon, generally a squad, to watch the country inthe direction of the enemy. These groups constitute the _outguards_, and are just sufficient in number to cover the front of the supports, and to connect where necessary with the outguards of adjoiningsupports. The company commander next selects a defensive position on the generalline of resistance, from which not only can he command the approaches, but where he can also give assistance to the adjoining supports; hethen gives instructions in regard to the intrenchments and obstacles, after which he makes a more careful reconnaissance of the sectionassigned him; corrects the position, of the outguards, if necessary;gives them instructions as to their duties in case of attack or whenstrangers approach their posts; tells them the number (if any) oftheir post, the number of the outguard and support and the numbers ofthe adjoining outguards and supports; points out lines of retreat incase they are compelled to fall back to the support, cautioning themen not to mask the fire of the support; he tells them the names ofall villages, rivers, etc. , in view, and the places to which the wagonroads and the railroads lead; selects, if necessary, places foradditional posts to be occupied at night and during fog; sees thatsuitable connections are made between him and the adjoining outguards, and between his support and the adjoining supports; and questionssubordinate commanders to test their grasp of the situation andknowledge of their duties, and on returning to the support he sends areport with a _sketch_ to the outpost commander, showing thedispositions made. After the line of observation has been established, the support stacksarms and the men are permitted to remove their equipments, exceptcartridge belts. One or more sentinels are posted over these supports, and they guard the property and watch for signals from the outguards. Fires are concealed as much as possible and the messing is done byreliefs. Mounted messengers ordinarily do not unsaddle; they rest, water and feed as directed. After the major has received reports from both company commanders, hewill himself visit the outguards and supports and make such changes ashe may deem necessary, immediately after which he will submit to thecommander of the troops a written report, accompanied by a combinedsketch showing the positions of the different parts of the outpost. The major might begin his inspection of the line of outguards beforereceiving the reports of the company commanders. In training and instructing the company in outpost work, it is alwaysbest to send out a few patrols and scouts an hour or two in advance, with definite instructions as to what they are to do, and have themoperate against the company as hostile scouts and patrols. If the restof the company know that patrols and scouts are operating in theirfront, and will try to work their way through the outpost line, theywill naturally take a keener interest in their work. Exercises of thiskind create a feeling of rivalry between the scouts and patrols, who, on the one hand, are trying to work their way through the line ofoutposts, and the outguards and patrols, who, on the other hand, aretrying to prevent them from so doing. It makes the work much more_human_. CHAPTER VII THE COMPANY IN SCOUTING[13] AND PATROLLING =1081. = The general principles of patrolling are explained in Par. 959; so we need not repeat them here. Many of the principles of scouting are, in reality, nothing but thefundamentals of patrolling, and the main function of scouting, _reconnoitering_, is also the function of a certain class of patrols. So, we see that scouting and patrolling are inseparably connected, andthe importance of training the members of the company in theprinciples of scouting is, therefore, evident. =1082. Requisites of a good Scout. = A man, to make a good scout, should possess the following qualifications:-- Have good eyesight and hearing; Be active, intelligent and resourceful; Be confident and plucky; Be healthy and strong; Be able to swim, signal, read a map, make a rough sketch, and, of course, read and write. =1083. Eyesight and Hearing. = To be able to use the eye and the earquickly and accurately is one of the first principles of successfulscouting. Quickness and accuracy of sight and hearing are to a greatextent a matter of training and practice. The savage, for instance, almost invariably has quick eyesight and good hearing, simply fromcontinual practice. Get into the habit of seeing, _observing_, things--your eyesight mustnever be resting, but must be continually glancing around, in everydirection, and _seeing_ different objects. As you walk along throughthe country get into the habit of noticing hoof-prints, wheel-ruts, etc. , and observing the trees, houses, streams, animals, men, etc. , that you pass. Practice looking at distant objects and discovering objects in thedistance. On seeing distant signs, do not jump at a conclusion as towhat they are, but watch and study them carefully first. Get into the habit of listening for sounds and of distinguishing bywhat different sounds are made. =1084. Finding your Way in a strange Country. = The principal means offinding one's way in a strange country are by map reading, asking theway, the points of the compass and landmarks. _Map Reading. _ This, of course, presupposes the possession of a map. The subject of map reading is explained in Pars. 1859 to 1877. _Asking the Way. _ In civilized countries one has no trouble in findinghis way by asking, provided, of course, he speaks the language. If ina foreign country, learn as soon as you can the equivalent of suchexpressions as "What is the way to ----?" "Where is ----?" "What isthe name of this place?, " and a few other phrases of a similar nature. Remember, however, that the natives may sometimes deceive you in theiranswers. _Points of the Compass. _ A compass is, of course, the best, quickestand simplest way of determining the directions, except in localitieswhere there is much iron, in which case it becomes very unreliable. For determining the points of the compass by means of the North Starand the face of a watch, see Par. 1096. The points of the compass can also be ascertained by facing the sun inthe morning and spreading out your arms straight from the body. Beforeyou is east; behind you, west; to your right, south; to your left, north. [Illustration] The points of the compass can be determined by noting the limbs andbark of trees. The bark on the north side of trees is thicker androugher than that on the south side, and moss is most generally foundnear the roots on the north side. The limbs and branches are generallylonger on the south side of the trees, while the branches on the northare usually knotty, twisted and drooped. The tops of pine trees dip ortrend to the north. =1085. Lost. = In connection with finding your way through strangecountry, it may be said, should you find you have lost your way, donot lose your head. Keep cool--try not to let your brains get intoyour feet. By this we mean don't run around and make things worse, andplay yourself out. First of all, sit down and think; cool off. Thenclimb a tree, or hill, and endeavor to locate some familiar object youpassed, so as to retrace your steps. If it gets dark and you are notin hostile territory, build a good big fire. The chances are you havebeen missed by your comrades and if they see the fire, they willconclude you are there and will send out for you. Also, if not inhostile territory, distress signals may be given by firing your rifle, but don't waste all your ammunition. If you find a stream, follow it; it will generally leadsomewhere--where civilization exists. The tendency of people who are lost is to travel in a circleuselessly. Remember this important rule: _Always notice the direction of thecompass when you start out, and what changes of direction you makeafterwards. _ =1086. Landmarks. = Landmarks or prominent features of any kind are agreat assistance in finding one's way in a strange country. Instarting out, always notice the hills, conspicuous trees, highbuildings, towers, rivers, etc. For example, if starting out on areconnaissance you see directly to the north of you a mountain, itwill act as a guide without your having to refer to your compass orthe sun. If you should start from near a church, the steeple willserve as a guide or landmark when you start to make your way back. When you pass a conspicuous object, like a broken gate, a strangelyshaped rock, etc. , try to remember it, so that should you desire toreturn that way, you can do so by following the chain of landmarks. Onpassing such landmarks always see what they look like from the otherside; for, that will be the side from which you will first see themupon the return, trip. _The secret of never getting lost is to note carefully the originaldirection in which you start, and after that to note carefully alllandmarks. _ Get in the habit of doing this in time of peace--it willthen become second nature for you to do it in time of war. It may sometimes be necessary, especially in difficult country, suchas when traveling through a forest, and over broken mountains andravines, for you to make your own landmarks for finding your way backby "blazing" (cutting pieces of bark from the trees), breaking smallbranches off bushes, piling up stones, making a line across acrossroad or path you did not follow, etc. =1087. Concealment and Dodging. = Both in scouting and patrolling itmust be remembered not only that it is important you should getinformation, but it is also fully as important that the enemy shouldnot know you have the information--hence, the necessity of hidingyourself. And remember, too, if you keep yourself hidden, not onlywill you probably be able to see twice as much of what the enemy isdoing, but it may also save you from being captured, wounded orkilled. Should you find the enemy has seen you, it is often advisable topretend that you have not seen him, or that you have other men withyou by signaling to imaginary comrades. As far as possible, keep under cover by traveling along hedges, banks, low ground, etc. If moving over open country, make your way as quicklyas possible from one clump of trees or bushes to another; or, fromrocks, hollows or such other cover as may exist, to other cover. Assoon as you reach new cover, look around and examine your surroundingscarefully. Do not have about you anything that glistens, and at night be carefulnot to wear anything that jingles or rattles. And remember that atnight a lighted match can be seen as far as 900 yards and a lightedcigarette nearly 300 yards. In looking through a bush or over the topof a hill, break off a leafy branch and hold it in front of your face. In selecting a tree, tower or top of a house or other lookout placefrom which to observe the enemy from concealment, always planbeforehand how you would make your escape, if discovered and pursued. A place with more than one avenue of escape should be selected, sothat if cut off in one direction you can escape from the other. Forexample, should the enemy reach the foot of a tower in which you are, you would be completely cut off, while if he reached a house on whoseroof you happened to be, you would have several avenues of escape. Although trees make excellent lookout places, they must, for the samereasons as towers, be used with caution. In this connection it may beremarked unless one sees foot marks leading to a tree, men are apt notto look up in trees for the enemy--hence, be careful not to leave footmarks. When in a tree, either stand close against the trunk, or liealong a large branch, so that your body will look like a part of thetrunk or branch. In using a hill as a lookout place, do not make the common mistake ofshowing yourself on the skyline. Reach the top of the hill slowly andgradually by crouching down and crawling, and raise your head abovethe crest by inches. In leaving, lower your head gradually and crawlaway by degrees, as any quick or sudden movement on the skyline islikely to attract attention. And, remember, just because you don'thappen to see the enemy that is no sign that he is not about. Atmaneuvers and in exercises soldiers continually make the mistake ofexposing themselves on the skyline. At night confine yourself as much as possible to low ground, ditches, etc. This will keep you down in the dark and will enable you, in turn, to see outlined against the higher ground any enemy that may approachyou. At night especially, but also during the day, the enemy will expectyou along roads and paths, as it is easier to travel along roads andpaths than across country and they also serve as good guides infinding your way. As a rule, it is best to use the road until itbrings you near the enemy and then leave it and travel across country. You will thus be able better to avoid the outposts and patrols thatwill surely be watching the roads. Practice in time of peace the art of concealing yourself and observingpassers-by. Conceal yourself near some frequented road and imagine thepeople traveling over it are enemies whose numbers you wish to countand whose conversation you wish to overhear. Select a spot where theyare not likely to look for you, and which has one or more avenues ofescape; choose a position with a background that matches your clothesin color; keep quiet, skin your eyes; stretch your ears. A mounted scout should always have wire cutters when operating in acountry where there are wire fences. =1088. Tracking. = By "tracking" we mean following up footmarks. Thesame as the huntsman tracks his game so should we learn how to trackthe enemy. One of the first things to learn in tracking is the pace atwhich the man or horse was traveling when the track was made. A horse walking makes pairs of footmarks, each hind foot being closeto the impression of the forefoot. At a trot the tracks are similar, but the pairs of footmarks are farther apart and deeper, the toeespecially being more deeply indented than at the walk. At a canterthere are two single footmarks and then a pair. At a gallop thefootmarks are single and deeply indented. As a rule, the hind feet arelonger and narrower than the forefeet. In case of a man walking, the whole flat of the foot comes equally onthe ground, the footmarks usually about 30 inches apart. If running, the toes are more deeply indented in the ground, and the footmarks areconsiderably farther apart than when walking. Note the differencebetween footmarks made by soldier's shoes and civilian's shoes, andthose made by men and those made by women and children. Study the difference between the tracks by a gun, a carriage, anescort wagon, an automobile, a bicycle, etc. , and the direction inwhich they were going. In addition to being able to determine the pace of tracks, it is mostimportant that you should be able to tell how old they are. However, ability to do this with any degree of accuracy, requires a vast amountof practice. A great deal depends on the kind and the state of theground and the weather. For example, if on a dry, windy day you followa certain track over varying ground, you will find that on light sandysoil, for instance, it will look old in a very short time, because anydamp earth that may have been kicked up from under the surface willdry very quickly to the same color as the rest of the surface, and theedge of the footmark will soon be rounded off by the breeze blowingover the dry dust. The same track in damp ground will look muchfresher, and in damp clay, in the shade of trees, a track which may bea day old will look quite fresh. The following are clues to the age of tracks: Spots of rain havingfallen on them since they were made, if, of course, you know when therain fell; the crossing of other tracks over the original ones; thefreshness or coldness of the droppings of horses and other animals(due allowance being made for the effect of the sun, rain, etc. ), and, in the case of grass that has been trodden down, the extent to whichit has since dried or withered. Having learned to distinguish the pace and age of tracks, the nextthink to do is to learn how to follow them over all kinds of ground. This is a most difficult accomplishment and one that requires a vastamount of practice to attain even fair proficiency. In tracking where it is difficult to see the track, such as on hardground, or in the grass, note the direction of the last foot-printthat you can see, then look on ahead of you a few yards, say, 20 or30, in the same direction, and, in grass, you will probably see theblades bent or trodden, and, on ground, you will probably see stonesdisplaced or scratched--or some other small sign which otherwise wouldnot be noticed. These indistinct signs, seen one behind the other, give a track that can be followed with comparative ease. If you should lose the track, try to find it again by placing yourhandkerchief, hat, or other object on the last footmark you noticed, and then work around it in a wide circle, with a radius of, say, 30, 50, or 100 yards, choosing the most favorable ground, soft ground, ifpossible. If with a patrol, only one or two men should try to find theonward track; for, if everyone starts in to find it, the chances arethe track will be obliterated with their footmarks. In trying to findthe continuation of a track this way, always place yourself in theenemy's position, look around the country, imagine what you would havedone, and then move out in that direction and look for his tracks insoft ground. PRACTICE In order to learn the appearance of tracks, get a suitable piece ofsoft ground, and across this have a man walk and then run, and have ahorse walk, trot, canter and gallop. The next day make similar tracksalongside the first ones and then notice the difference between thetwo. Also, make tracks on ordinary ground, grass, sand, etc. , andpractice following them up. Finally, practice tracking men sent outfor the purpose. The work will probably be very difficult, evendisheartening at first, but you will gradually improve, if youpersevere. Above all things, get into the habit of seeing any tracks that may beon the ground. When out walking, when going through exercises atmaneuvers, and at other times, always notice what tracks are on theground before you, and study them. The following exercises in scouting and patrolling afford excellentpractice and training: =1089. The Mouse and Cat Contest. = 1. A section of country three orfour miles square, with well-defined limits, is selected. Theboundaries are made known to all contestants and anyone going outsideof them will be disqualified. 2. Two patrols of eight men each are sent out as "mice. " They occupyany positions they may wish within the boundaries named, and concealthemselves to watch for hostile patrols. 3. Half an hour later two other squads, wearing white bands aroundtheir hats, or having other distinguishing marks, are sent out as"cats" to locate, if possible, and report upon the position of the"mice. " 4. An hour is fixed when the exercise shall end, and if within thegiven time the "cats" have not discovered the "mice, " the "mice" win. 5. The "cats" will write reports of any "mice" patrols they may see. _Rules_ 1. An umpire (officer or noncommissioned officer) goes with eachpatrol and his decisions as to capture and other matters are theorders of the company commander. The umpires must take every possibleprecaution to conceal themselves so as not to reveal the position ofthe patrols with which they are. Each umpire will carry a watch, all watches being set with that of thecompany commander before the exercise commences. 2. Any "cat" patrol coming within 50 yards of a "mouse" patrol, without seeing the "mice, " is considered captured. 3. When the time is up, the umpires will bring in the patrols andreport to the company commander. =1090. Flag-Stealing Contest. = 1. A section of country of suitablesize, with well-defined limits, is selected, the boundaries being madeknown to the contestants. 2. The contestants are divided into two forces of about 20 men each, and each side will establish three Cossack posts along a general linedesignated by the company commander, the two positions being selectedfacing each other and being a suitable distance apart. The men notforming part of the Cossack posts will be used as reconnoiteringpatrols. 3. About three quarters of a mile in rear of the center of each lineof outposts four flags will be planted, in line, about 30 yards apart. 4. The scouts and patrols of each force will try to locate theoutposts of the other force, and then to work their way around orbetween them, steal the flags and bring them back to their own side. They will endeavor to prevent the enemy from doing the same. 5. One scout or patrol will not carry away more than one flag at atime, and will have to return to their side safely with the flagbefore they can come back and capture another. 6. Scouts may work singly or in pairs. Any scout or patrol comingwithin 80 yards of a stronger hostile party, or Cossack post, will beconsidered as captured, if seen by the enemy, and if carrying acaptured flag at the time, the flag will not count as having beencaptured. Of course, if a scout or patrol can pass within 80 yards ofthe enemy without being discovered, it may do so. 7. An umpire (officer or noncommissioned officer) will be with eachCossack post, each patrol, and at the position of the flags. 8. The hour when the exercise ends will be designated in advance andat that hour the umpires will bring in the Cossack posts and patrols. The same requirements regarding watches obtains as in the Mouse andCat Contest. 9. At the conclusion of the contest the commander of each side willhand in to the company commander all sketches and reports made by hismen. 10. Points will be awarded as follows: Each flag captured, 5. For each sketch and hostile report of the position of a Cossack post, 3. For each report of movements of a hostile patrol, 2. The side getting the greatest number of points will win. 11. Umpires may penalize the contestants for a violation of the rules. The same contest may be carried out at night, substituting lightedJapanese lanterns for the flags. FOOTNOTES: [13] The best book on scouting that the author has ever seen, isBaden-Powell's "Aids to Scouting, " which was consulted in thepreparation of this chapter. CHAPTER VIII NIGHT OPERATIONS =1091. Importance. = Because of the long range and great accuracy ofmodern fire arms, there has been in recent years a marked increase inthe practice of night operations, such operations being of commonoccurrence not only for massing troops under cover of darkness infavorable positions for further action, but also for actuallyassaulting positions. Read carefully pars. 464, 496, 498, 523, 524, 580-590. TRAINING OF THE COMPANY =1092. = Night movements are amongst the most difficult operations ofwar, and, therefore require the most careful, painstaking and thoroughtraining and instruction of troops in all matters pertaining thereto. The history of night fighting shows that in most cases defeat is dueto disorganization through panic. It is said that in daylight themoral is to the physical as three is to one. That being the case, itis hard to say what the ratio is at night, when a general atmosphereof mystery, uncertainty and fear of surprise envelops the operations, and, of necessity affects the nerves of the men. The vital importance, therefore, of accustoming troops as much as we can in peace to theconditions that will obtain in night fighting, cannot beoverestimated. The following outline shows the subjects in whichindividual and collective instruction and training should be given: INDIVIDUAL TRAINING =1093. General. = The first thing to be done is to accustom the soldierto darkness and to teach him to overcome the nervousness which isnatural to the average man in darkness. The best way to do this is to begin by training him in the use of hispowers of vision and hearing under conditions of darkness, which arestrange to him. The company should be divided into squads for thisinstruction. =1094. Vision. = Take several men to ground with which they arefamiliar. Have them notice the different appearance which objectspresent at night; when viewed in different degrees of light and shade;the comparative visibility of men under different conditions of dress, background, etc. ; the ease with which bright objects are seen; thedifference between the visibility of men standing on a skyline andthose standing on a slope. Post the men in pairs at intervals along aline which the instructors will endeavor to cross without being seen. The instructors should cross from both sides, so as to compelobservation in both directions. Have a man (later, several) walk awayfrom the rest of the men and when he is about to disappear from view, halt him, and estimate the distance. Send a man (later, several)outside the field of vision, to advance on the rest of the men. Halthim when he enters the field of vision and estimate the distance. Senda number of men outside the limit of vision and then let them advanceon the rest of the men, using cover and seeing how near they canapproach unobserved. =1095. Hearing. = Place a number of men a few yards apart and make themguess what a noise is caused by, and its approximate position. Therattle of a meat can, the movement of a patrol, the working of thebolt of a rifle, the throwing down of accouterments, low talking, etc. , may be utilized. Take special pains to impress upon the men thepenetrating power of the human voice, and the necessity of preservingabsolute silence in night operations. Have blank cartridges fired andteach the men to judge their direction and approximate distance away. =1096. Finding Bearings. = Show the men how to determine the points ofthe compass from the North Star. The Big Dipper constellation lookslike this: [Illustration: Fig. 1] The North Star is on the prolongation of a line joining the two"pointing" stars, and at above five times the distance between the twostars. At another time have those same men individually locate theNorth Star. Using this star as a guide, practice the men moving indifferent directions, by such commands as, "Smith, move southeast. ""Jones, move northwest, " etc. To test a man's ability to keep a given direction when moving in thedarkness, choose a spot from which no prominent landmarks are visible, advance toward it accompanied by a man, from a distance not less than200 paces. While advancing the soldier must take his bearings. Onarriving at the spot chosen the instructor will turn the soldieraround rapidly two or three times and then have him continue toadvance in the same direction as before. No prominent landmarks shouldbe visible from the starting point. =1097. Moving in the Dark. = Form four or five men in line with aboutone pace interval, the instructor being on one of the flanks. Placesome clearly visible mark, such as a lantern, for the instructor tomarch on. Impress upon the men the importance of lifting their feet uphigh and bringing them to the ground quietly and firmly, and ofkeeping in touch with the guide and conforming to his movementswithout sound or signal. The pace should be slow and frequent haltsshould be made to test the promptness of the men in halting andadvancing together. As the line advances, each man will in turn takehis place on the flank and act as guide. The light on which the menare marching should be hidden from view at intervals, in order to testthe ability of the men to maintain the original direction. Later on, the number of men in a line may be increased considerably. The rougherthe ground, the darker the night and the longer the line, the slowermust the pace be and the more frequent the halts. After passing anobstacle men instinctively line up parallel to it, and consequently ifthe obstacle does not lie at right angles to the line of advance, thedirection will be lost; so, be sure to guard against this. =1098. Night Fencing. = Practice the men in charging in the darkagainst a white cloth or the dummy figure of a man. In the beginninghave the figure in a fixed place, but later have the soldier chargeseeking the figure, and not knowing just exactly where it isbeforehand. =1099. Night Entrenching. = It is frequently necessary in time of warto dig trenches at night in front of the enemy, and while this work iseasy in the moonlight, it is very difficult in the dark. Bear in mindthe following points: 1. The tendency is to make the trench too narrow; hence, guard againstthis. 2. Be careful not to throw the earth too far or too near. 3. Do not strike your neighbor's tools in working. 4. Do not use the pick unless necessary, because it makes considerablenoise. 5. Do not scrape the tools together in order to get off the dirt; usea chip of wood or the toe of the shoe. 6. Make as little noise as possible in digging and handling yourtools. 7. If discovered by the enemy's searchlights, do not become excited orconfused; simply lie down. 8. If attacked by the enemy, do not get rattled and throw your toolsaway--put them in some fixed place where they can be found again. =1100. Equipment. = At first the men should be taken out without arms, but later on they should be trained to work in full equipment. Teachevery man what parts of his equipment are likely to make a noise underspecial circumstances, such as lying down, rising, crossing obstacles, etc. , and instruct him how to guard against it. Bayonets should alwaysbe fixed, but in order to avoid accidents the scabbard should be lefton them. From the beginning of the training continually impress upon the menthat it is absolutely criminal to fire without orders during a nightoperation and that the bayonet is the only weapon he can use withadvantage to himself and safety to his comrades. =1101. Night Firing. = As a rule men fire too high in the dark. Theymust, therefore, be cautioned not to raise the rifle above thehorizontal, or incline the upper part of the body to the rear. Whenthe firing is stopped be sure to turn on the safety-lock. Experienceduring the Russo-Japanese War taught the Japanese the kneelingposition is the most suitable for horizontal firing. The followingmethod, to be conducted in daytime, may be employed in training thesoldier to hold his rifle parallel to the ground while firing in thedark:--Have each soldier, kneeling, close his eyes and bring his rifleto the position of aim, barrel parallel to the ground. With the riflein this position, let him open his eyes and examine it. Then have thisdone by squad, by command. When they become proficient in thismovement, have them close their eyes and while the eyes are closed, put up a target and have them practice horizontal firing, openingtheir eyes each time after pulling the trigger and then examining theposition of the piece. COLLECTIVE TRAINING At first practice squads, then the platoons and later the company insimple movements, such as squads right and left, right and leftoblique, etc. , gradually leading up to more complicated ones in closeand extended order, such as right and left front into line, advancingin platoon and squad columns, charging the enemy, etc. As far aspossible the movements should be executed by simple prearrangedsignals from the unit commanders. The signals, which must not bevisible to the enemy, may be made with a white handkerchief or a whiteflag, if the night be not too dark; with an electric flashlight, adark lantern or luminous disk. The light of the flashlight or lanternmust be screened, so it cannot be seen by the enemy. The followingsignals are suggested: To advance: Raise vertically the lantern or other object with whichthe signal is made. To halt: Lower and raise the object several times. To lie down: Bring the object down near the ground. To form squad columns: Move the object several times to the right andleft. To form platoon columns: Describe several circles. As skirmishers: Move the object front to rear several times. =1102. Night Marches. = In acting as an advance guard to a column, thecompany would send out a point a few yards ahead, which would befollowed by the rest of the company. Three or four scouts should besent out a hundred yards or so ahead of the point. They should advanceat a quick pace, keeping in the shadow on the side of the road, beingconstantly on the alert, using their ears even more than their eyes. They will halt to listen at crossroads and suspicious places, and moveon again when they hear the company approaching. Should the enemy bediscovered, one of the scouts will return to warn the advanceguard--the others will conceal themselves and watch. Under nocircumstances must the scouts ever fire, unless it be for the purposeof warning the company and there is no other way of doing so. Thediagram on the opposite page is suggested as a good formation for acompany acting as advance guard at night. A company marching alonewould move in the same formation as when acting as advance guard, except that it would protect its rear with a few scouts. Of course, the nature of the country and proximity and activity of the enemy, will determine the best formation to be used, but whatever theformation may be, always remember to cover well your front, rear andflanks, with scouts, whose distance away will vary with the light andnature of the country. _Don't forget that protection in rear is veryimportant. _ [Illustration: Fig. 2] The men must be warned against firing, smoking, talking, strikingmatches, making noise, etc. They should also be informed of the objectin view, direction of the enemy, etc. In night marches the rests should not exceed five minutes; otherwise, many men will fall asleep. OUTPOSTS Careful training in outpost duty at night is very harassing, but, inview of its importance, should not be neglected. This instructionshould be given with the greatest thoroughness, strictness andattention to detail. =1103. Sentries Challenging. = In challenging sentries must be carefulto avoid any noise that would disclose their position. In fact, challenging by voice should be reduced to a minimum by arranging asystem of signals by which the officers of the day, patrols, etc. , canbe recognized. The following signals, any one of which may be decidedupon, which would be made first by the sentry and then answered by theapproaching party, are suggested: Clap the hands together twice;strike the ground twice with the butt of the rifle; strike the butt ofthe rifle twice with the hand; whistle softly twice. The replyingsignal would be the same as the sentry's signal, except that in caseof the use of the butt of the rifle, an officer would reply bystriking twice on his revolver holster. After repeating the signalonce, if it is not answered, the sentry will challenge with the voice, but no louder than is necessary. In case of a patrol only one man willadvance to be recognized after the signal has been answered. Thesentry must always allow persons to approach fairly near beforechallenging. =1104. Sentries Firing. = Anyone who has been through a campaign knowshow nervous green sentries are, and how quick they are about firing. During the beginning of the Philippine Campaign the author heard ofseveral cases where sentries fired on fire-flies several hundredyards away. Never fire unless it be absolutely necessary to give analarm, or unless you can clearly distinguish the enemy and are fairlycertain of hitting him. In the French Army in Algeria, there is a rulethat any sentry who fires at night must produce a corpse, or be ableto show by blood marks that he hit the person fired at. If he can doneither, he is punished for giving a false alarm. =1105. Marking of Route from Outguards to Supports. = The route fromthe support to the outguards, and from pickets to their sentries, should, if necessary, be clearly marked with scraps of paper, greensticks with the bark peeled off, or in any other suitable way. =1106. Readiness for Action. = The supports should always be ready foraction. The men must sleep with their rifles beside them and in suchplaces that they will be able to fall in promptly in case of attack. Some men have a way of sleeping with their blankets over their heads. This should not be allowed--the ears must always be uncovered. Thecommander, or the second in command, with several men, should remainawake. When the commander lies down he should do so near the sentry, which is always posted over the support. GENERAL =1107. Connections. = It is of the greatest importance that properconnection be maintained between the different parts of a commandengaged in night operations. It is astonishing with what facilityunits go astray and how difficult it is for them to find their wayback where they belong. =1108. Preparation. = It matters not what the nature of the nightoperation may be, the most careful preparation is necessary. Successoften depends upon the care and thoroughness with which the plans aremade. All possible eventualities should be thought of and provided for asfar as praticable. The first thing to do is to get as much informationas possible about the ground to be covered and the position of theenemy, and care must be taken to see that the information is accurate. Reconnaissance must be made by night as well as by day; for, groundlooks very different at night from what it does during the day. CHAPTER IX FIELD ENGINEERING =1109. = The following, from the =Engineer Field Manual=, together withthe elements of field engineering covered in Chapter XI, on=Obstacles=, will give the company officer a good, working knowledgeof those parts of field engineering for which he is most likely tohave need. Bridges =1111. Dimensions and guard rail. = A roadway 9 ft. Wide in the clearshould be provided to pass infantry in fours, cavalry two abreast, andmilitary wagons in one direction; a width of 6 ft. Will suffice forinfantry in column of twos, cavalry in single file, and field gunspassed over by hand. The _clear width_ of roadway of an ordinary highway bridge should notbe less than 12 ft. For single track, or 20 ft. For double track. The _clear head room_ in ordinary military bridges should not be lessthan 9 ft. For wagons and cavalry; for highway bridges not less than14 ft. Ramps at the ends of a bridge, if intended for artillery, should notbe steeper than 1 on 7. For animals, slopes steeper than 1 on 10 areinconvenient. If the bridges are high, hand rails should be provided. A single ropemay suffice, or it may have brush placed upon it to form a screen. A guard rail should be provided along each side of the roadway, nearthe ends of the flooring planks. In hasty bridges it may be secured bya lashing or lashings through the planking to the stringer underneath. Otherwise it may be fastened with spikes or bolts. =1112. Spar bridges. =--This name is applied to bridges built of roundtimbers lashed together. Intermediate points of support are providedby inclined frames acting as struts to transmit weight from the middleof the bridge to the banks. The single-lock and double-lock bridgeswith two and three spans of 15 ft. , respectively, are the ones of mostutility. The first step in constructing a spar bridge is to measure the gap tobe bridged and select the position of the footings on either bank. Determine the distance from each footing to the middle point of theroadway if a single-lock, or the two corresponding points of adouble-lock bridge. Next determine and mark on each spar except thediagonals the places where other spars cross it. The marking may bedone with chalk, or with an ax. If possible a convenient notationshould be adopted. As, for example, in marking with chalk, a ringaround the spar where the edge of the crossing spar will come, and adiagonal cross on the part which will be hidden by the crossing spar. A simple way to determine the length of spars is the following: Taketwo small lines somewhat longer than the width of the gap, double eachand lash the bights together. Stretch them tightly across the gap sothat the lashing comes at the middle as at _A_, Fig. 8. Release oneend of each and stretch it to the footing on the same side asindicated by the dotted lines. Mark each line at the footing _C_ or_C'_, and at the position chosen for the abutment sill, _B_ or _B'_. Cut the lashing and take each piece of rope to its own side. Thedistances _AB_ and _AB'_ are the lengths between the transoms, andwith 2 ft. Added give the length of road bearers required. Thedistances _AC_ and _AC'_ are the lengths of struts from butt to top oftransom, and with 3 ft added, give the total length of spars required. For a double lock bridge, a piece of rope of a length equal to thelength of the middle bay replaces the lashing. If the banks are notparallel, a measurement should be taken on each side of the bridge. If desired, a section of the gap may be laid down on the ground infull size and the lengths of spars determined by laying them in place. This method, though given as standard by all authorities, requiresmore time and more handling of material than the other and gives nobetter results. The construction of a frame is shown in Fig. 1, and the system ofmarking in Fig. 2. The arrangement of frames to form a single lockbridge is shown in Figs. 3 and 4, and a double lock bridge in Fig 6. [Illustration: Fig. 1] [Illustration: Fig. 2] [Illustration: Fig. 3] [Illustration: Fig. 4] [Illustration: Fig. 5] [Illustration: Fig. 6] [Illustration: Fig. 7] [Illustration: Fig. 8] [Illustration: Fig. 9] =1113. Construction of single-lock bridges=, Figs. 3, 4, and5. --Suitable for spans of 30 ft. Or less. The two frames lock togetherat the center of the span; their slope must not be more than 4 on 7. The bridge can be erected by two or three noncommissioned officersand 20 men, one-half on each side of the gap. Heavy spars require moremen. The footings at _A_ and _B_ must be firm, horizontal if possible, andat right angles to the axis of the bridge. In a masonry pier they maybe cut out. In firm soil a simple trench will suffice. In yieldingsoil a plank or sill must be laid in the trench. The frames are madeof such length as to give a slight camber to the bridge, which may beincreased to allow for probable settlement of the footings. The insidedimension of one frame is made slightly greater than the outsidedimension of the other, so that one frame may fall inside of the otherwhen hauled into position. For a 9 ft. Roadway the standards of thenarrow (inside) frame should be 9 ft. 6 ins. Apart at the transom and10 ft. 6 ins. At the ledger, in the clear, and the other (outside)frame 1 ft. 6 ins. Wider throughout. A frame is constructed on each bank. The standards are laid on theground in prolongation of the bridge, butts toward the bank. Theledgers are lashed on _above_ and the transoms _beneath_ the standardsat the positions marked. The diagonal braces are lashed to thestandards, two butts and one tip above the latter, and to each other. Before the braces are lashed the frame must be square by checking themeasurements of the diagonals. If necessary, pickets for the foot and guy ropes are driven, theformer about 2 paces from the bank and 4 paces on each side of theaxis of the bridge; the latter about 20 paces from the bank and 10paces on each side of the axis. The foot ropes, _CC_, Fig. 5, aresecured by timber hitches to the butts of the standards and the backand fore guys, _DD_ and _EE_, to the tips the fore guys are passedacross to the opposite bank. The guys of the _narrow_ frame should be_inside_ the guys and standards of the wide frame. The frames are put into position one after the other, orsimultaneously if there are enough men. A man is told off to each footrope and one to each back guy to slack off as required, two turnsbeing taken with each of these ropes around their respective pickets. The other men raise the frame and launch it forward, assisted by themen at the fore guys, until the frame is balanced on the edge of thebank. The frame is then tilted until the butts rest on the footing, byslacking off the foot ropes and hauling on the fore guys, Fig. 5. After the head of the frame has been hauled over beyond theperpendicular, it is lowered nearly into its final position byslacking off the back guys. When the two frames are in this positionopposite each other, the narrow frame is further lowered until itsstandards rest upon the transom of the other. The wider (outer) frameis then lowered until the two lock into each other, the standards ofeach resting upon the transom of the other. The center or fork transom, Figs. 3 and 4, is then passed from shoreand placed in the fork between the two frames. This forms the centralsupport to receive a floor system of two bays, built as alreadydescribed. The estimated time for construction of such a bridge is about one hourif the material is available and in position on both sides of thestream. The construction of the roadway requires about twenty minutes;forming footings in masonry about one hour. =1114. Construction of double-lock bridge=, Fig. 6. --Suitable forspans not exceeding 45 ft. , and consisting of two inclined frameswhich lock into a connecting horizontal frame of two or more distancepieces, with cross transoms, dividing the gap to be bridged into threeequal bays of about 15 ft. The force required is two or threenoncommissioned officers and 25 to 50 men; the time for construction, except roadway, about two and one-half hours; extra time to be allowedfor difficult footings. The width of gap is measured, the position of footings determined, andthe length of standards from butt to transom determined and marked asbefore. The inclined frames in this case are built of equal widths, launchedas before, and held by guys just above their final position. Twostringers are launched out from each bank to the main transom. Thedistance pieces, Fig. 6, are put into position inside the standards, using tackle if necessary, and the road transoms are placed and lashedto the distance pieces at the places marked. Both frames are nowlowered until they jam. =1115. Roadway of spar bridge. =--For infantry in fours crowded thetransoms should have a diam. Of not less than 9 ins. For a span of 15ft. Five stringers 2 ft. 3 ins. C. To c. , and 6 ins. Diam. At the tipwill suffice. If the sticks vary in size, the larger ones should benotched down on the transom so as to bring the tops in the same plane. The stringers should be long enough to overlap the transoms, andshould be lashed together at each tip. The floor is held down by siderails over the outside stringers and lashed to them. If lumber can notbe obtained, a floor may be made, of small spars, the intersticesfilled with brush, and the whole covered with loam or clay; Figs. 7and 9. Corduroy Roads =1116. Corduroying= is done by laying logs crosswise of the road andtouching each other. The result will be better if the logs are nearlyof the same size. The butts and tips should alternate. If the logs arelarge the spaces may be filled with smaller poles. The bottom tier oflogs should be evenly bedded and should have a firm bearing at theends and not ride on the middle. The filling poles, if used, should becut and trimmed to lie close, packing them about the ends ifnecessary. If the soil is only moderately soft the logs need be nolonger than the width of the road. In soft marsh it may be necessaryto make them longer. The logs may be utilized as the wearing surface. In fact this isusually the case. They make a rough surface, uncomfortable forpassengers and hard on wagons and loads, but the resistance totraction is much less than would be expected, and the roughness andslightly yielding surface make excellent footing for animals. Surfacecorduroy is perishable and can last but a short time. In marshes, where the logs can be placed below the ground-water level, they arepreserved from decay, and if any suitable material can be found, toput a thin embankment over them, a good permanent road may be made. Any tough, fibrous material may be used to temporarily harden thesurface of a road. Hay or straw, tall weeds, corn and cane stalkshave been used to good advantage. Such materials should be laid withthe fibers crosswise of the road, and covered with a thin layer ofearth, thrown on from the sides; except in sand, when it is better todig a shallow trench across the road, fill it with the material andthen dig another trench just in front of and in contact with the firstand throw the sand from it back onto the material in the first trench, etc. Brush work =1117. A fascine= is a cylindrical bundle of brush, closely bound. Theusual length is 18 ft. And the diam. 9 ins. When compressed. Lengthsof 9 and 6 ft. , which are sometimes used, are most convenientlyobtained by sawing a standard fascine into 2 or 3 pieces. The weightof a fascine of partially seasoned material will average 140 lbs. Fascines are made in a =cradle= which consists of five trestles. A=trestle= is made of two sticks about 6-1/2 ft. Long and 3 ins. Indiam, driven into the ground and lashed at the intersection as shownin Fig. 10. In making a cradle, plant the end trestles 16 ft. Apartand parallel. Stretch a line from one to the other over theintersection, place the others 4 ft. Apart and lash them so that eachintersection comes fairly to the line. =To build a fascine=, straight pieces of brush, 1 or 2 ins. At thebutt, are laid on, the butts projecting at the end 1 ft. Beyond thetrestle. Leaves should be stripped and unruly branches cut off, orpartially cut through, so that they will lie close. The largerstraighter brush should be laid on the outside, butts alternating indirection, and smaller stuff in the center. The general object is toso dispose the brush as to make the fascine of uniform size, strength, and stiffness from end to end. When the cradle is nearly filled, the fascine is compressed or=choked= by the =fascine choker=, Fig. 11, which consists of 2 bars 4ft. Long, joined at 18 ins. From the ends by a chain 4 ft. Long. Thechain is marked at 14 ins. Each way from the middle by inserting aring or special link. To use, two men standing on opposite sides passthe chain under the brush, place the short ends of the handles on topand pass the bars, short end first, across to each other. They thenbear down on the long ends until the marks on the chain come together. Chokers may be improvised from sticks and rope or wire. =Binding= will be done with a double turn of wire or tarred rope. Itshould be done in 12 places, 18 ins. Apart, the end binders 3 ins. Outside the end trestles. To bind a fascine will require 66 ft. Ofwire. Improvised binders may be made from rods of live brush, hickory orhazel is the best. Place the butt under the foot and twist the rod topartially separate the fibers and make it flexible. A rod so preparedis called a =withe=. To use a withe, make a half turn and twist at thesmaller end, Fig. 12; pass the withe around the brush and the largeend through the eye. Draw taut and double the large end back, taking 2half-hitches over its own standing part, Fig. 13. When the fascine is choked and bound, saw the ends off square, 9 ins. Outside the end binders. After a cradle is made, 4 men can make 1fascine per hour, with wire binding. Withes require 1 man more. =A fascine revetment= is made by placing the fascines as shown in Fig. 14. The use of headers and anchors is absolutely necessary in loosesoils only, but they greatly strengthen the revetment in any case. Afascine revetment =must always be crowned= with sods or bags. [Illustration: Fig. 10] [Illustration: Fig. 11] [Illustration: Fig. 12] [Illustration: Fig. 13] [Illustration: Fig. 14] [Illustration: Fig. 15] =1118. = In all brush weaving the following terms have been adopted andare convenient to use: =Randing. =--Weaving a single rod in and out between pickets. =Slewing. =--Weaving two or more rods together in the same way. =Pairing. =--Carrying two rods together, crossing each other in and outat each picket. =Wattling. =--A general term applied to the woven part of brushconstruction. =1119. A hurdle= is a basket work made of brushwood. If made inpieces, the usual size is 2 ft. 9 ins. By 6 ft. , though the width maybe varied so that it will cover the desired height of slope. A hurdle is made by describing on the ground an arc of a circle of 8ft. Radius and on the arc driving 10 pickets, 8 ins. Apart, covering 6ft. Out to out, Fig. 15. Brush is then woven in and out and wellcompacted. The concave side of a hurdle should be placed next theearth. It wraps less than if made flat. =In weaving the hurdle=, begin randing at the middle space at thebottom. Reaching the end, twist the rod as described for a withe, butat one point only, bend it around the end picket and work back. Starta second rod before the first one is quite out, slewing the two for ashort distance. Hammer the wattling down snug on the pickets with ablock of wood and continue until the top is reached. It improves thehurdle to finish the edges with two selected rods paired, Fig. 16. Apairing may be introduced in the middle, if desired, to give thehurdle extra endurance if it is to be used as a pavement or floor. Ifthe hurdle is not to be used at once, or if it is to be transported, it must be sewed. The sewing is done with wire, twine, or withes ateach end and in the middle, with stitches about 6 ins. Long, as shownin Fig. 16. About 40 ft. Of wire is required to sew one hurdle. No. 14is about the right size, and a coil of 100 lbs. Will sew 40 hurdles. Three men should make a hurdle in 2 hours, 2 wattling and the thirdpreparing the rods. =1120. Continuous hurdle. =--If conditions permit the revetment to bebuilt in place, the hurdle is made continuous for considerablelengths. The pickets may be larger; they are driven farther apart, 12or 18 ins. , and the brush may be heavier. The construction is morerapid. The pickets are driven with a little more slant than isintended and must be anchored to the parapet. A line of poles withwire attached at intervals of 2 or 3 pickets will answer. The wiresshould be made fast to the pickets after the wattling is done. Theywill interfere with the wearing if fastened sooner. Two men shouldmake 4 yds. Of continuous hurdle of ordinary height in one hour. =1121. Brush revetment. =--Pickets may be set as above described andthe brush laid inside of them without weaving, being held in place bybringing the earth up with it. In this case the anchors must befastened before the brush laying begins. The wires are not much in theway in this operation. =1122. Gabion making. --A gabion= is a cylindrical basket with openends, made of brush woven on pickets or stakes as described forhurdles. The usual size is 2 ft. Outside diam. And 2 ft. 9 ins. Heightof wattling. On account of the sharp curvature somewhat better brushis required for gabions than will do for hurdles. =The gabion form=, Fig. 17, is of wood, 21 ins. Diam. , withequidistant notches around the circumference, equal in number to thenumber of pickets to be used, usually 8 to 14, less if the brush islarge and stiff, more if it is small and pliable. The notches shouldbe of such depth that the pickets will project to 1 in. Outside thecircle. The pickets should be 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 ins. Diam. , 3 ft. 6 ins. Long and sharpened, half at the small and half at the large end. =To make a gabion=, the form is placed on the ground, level or nearlyso, and the pickets are driven vertically in the notches, large andsmall ends down, alternately. The form is then raised a foot and heldby placing a lashing around outside the pickets, tightened with a rackstick, Fig. 18. The wattling is randed or slewed from the form up. Theform is then dropped down, the gabion inverted and the wattlingcompleted. If the brush is small, uniform, and pliable, pairing willmake a better wattling than randing. If not for immediate use, thegabion must be sewed as described for hurdles, the same quantity ofwire being required. [Illustration: Fig. 16] [Illustration: Fig. 17] [Illustration: Fig. 18] [Illustration: Fig. 19] [Illustration: Fig. 20] [Illustration: Fig. 21] The gabion, when wattled and sewed, is completed by cutting off thetops of the pickets 1 in. From the web, the bottom 3 ins. , the lattersharpened after cutting, and driving a carrying picket through themiddle of its length and a little on side of the axis. See that themiddle of this picket is smooth. Three men should make a gabion in anhour. Gabions may be made without the forms, but the work is slower and notso good. The circle is struck on the ground and the pickets driven atthe proper points. The weaving is done from the ground up and theentire time of one man is required to keep the pickets in properposition. =If brush is scarce=, gabions may be made with 6 ins. Of wattling ateach end, the middle left open. In filling, the open part may be linedwith straw, grass, brush cuttings, or grain sacks, to keep the earthfrom running out. =1123. Gabion revetment. =--The use of gabions in revetments isillustrated in Fig. 20. If more than two tiers are used, theseparating fascines should be anchored back. Gabion revetments shouldbe crowned with sods or bags. The advantages of the gabion revetment are very great. It can be putin place without extra labor and faster and with less exposure thanany other. It is self-supporting and gives cover from view and partialcover from fire quicker than any other form. Several forms of gabions of other material than brush have been used. Sheet iron and iron and paper hoops are some of them. The ironsplinters badly, is heavy, and has not given satisfaction. If anyspecial materials are supplied the method of using them will, in viewof the foregoing explanation, be obvious. =1124. Timber or pole revetment. =--Poles too large for use in anyother way may be cut to length and stood on end to form a revetment. The lower ends should be in a small trench and have a waling piece infront of them. There must also be a waling piece or cap at or near thetop, anchored back. Fig. 21 shows this form. =1125. Miscellaneous revetments. =--Any receptacles for earth whichwill make a stable, compact pile, as =boxes=, =baskets=, =oil or othercans=, may be used for a revetment. =Barrels= may be used for gabions. =Canvas= stretched behind pickets is well thought of in a foreignservice. If the soil will make =adobe=, or sun-dried bricks, anexcellent revetment may be made of them, but it will not stand wetweather. Knots =1126. = =Square= or =reef knot=, Fig. 22, commonly used for joiningtwo ropes of the same size. The standing and running parts of eachrope must pass through the loop of the other in the same direction, i. E. , from above down ward or vice versa; otherwise a _granny_, is made, which is a useless knot that will not hold. The reef knot can be upsetby taking one end of the rope and its standing part and pulling themin opposite directions. With dry rope a reef knot is as strong as therope; with wet rope it slips before the rope breaks, while a doublesheet bend is found to hold. [Illustration: Fig. 22 _Square or Reef_] =1127. Two half hitches=, Fig. 23, especially useful for belaying, ormaking fast the end of a rope round its own standing part. The end maybe lashed down or seized to the standing part with a piece of spunyarn; this adds to its security and prevents slipping. This knot should never be used for hoisting a spar. [Illustration: Fig. 23 _Two half hitches_] =1128. Clove hitch=, Fig. 24, generally used for fastening a rope atright angles to a spar or at the commencement of a lashing. If the endof the spar is free, the hitch is made by first forming two loops, asin Fig. 26, placing the right-hand loop over the other one andslipping the double loop (Fig. 27) over the end of the spar. If thiscan not be done, pass the end of the rope round the spar, bring it upto the right of the standing part, cross over the latter, makeanother turn round the spar, and bring up the end between the spar, the last turn, and the standing part, Fig. 25. When used for securingguys to sheer legs, etc. , the knot should be made with a long end, which is formed into two half hitches round the standing part andsecured to it with spun yarn. [Illustration: Fig. 24 _Clove hitch_] [Illustration: Fig. 25] [Illustration: Fig. 26] [Illustration: Fig. 27] =1129. Timber hitch=, Fig. 28, used for hauling and lifting spars. Itcan easily be loosed when the strain is taken off, but will not slipunder a pull. When used for hauling spars, a half hitch is added nearthe end of the spar, Fig. 29. [Illustration: Fig. 28 _Timber hitch_] [Illustration: Fig. 29 _Timber hitch and half hitch_] =1130. Bowline=, Fig. 30, forms a loop that will not slip. Make loopwith the standing part of the rope underneath, pass the end from belowthrough the loop, over the part round the standing part of the rope, and then down through the loop _c_. The length of bight depends uponthe purpose for which the knot is required. [Illustration: Fig. 30 _Bowline_] =1131. Bowline on a bight=, Fig. 31. The first part is made like theabove, with the double part of a rope; then the bight _a_ is pulledthrough sufficiently to allow it to be bent past _d_ and come up inthe position shown. It makes a more comfortable sling for a man than asingle bight. [Illustration: Fig. 31 _Bowline on a Bight_] =1132. Sheep shank=, Fig. 32, used for shortening a rope or to pass bya weak spot; a half hitch is taken with the standing parts around thebights. [Illustration: Fig. 32 _Sheep shank_] =1133. Short splice. = To make a _short splice_, Figs. 33, 34, 35, unlay the strands of each rope for a convenient length. Bring the ropeends together so that each strand of one rope lies between the twoconsecutive strands of the other rope. Draw the strands of the firstrope along the second and grasp with one hand. Then work a free strandof the second rope over the nearest strand of the first rope and underthe second strand, working in a direction opposite to the twist of therope. The same operation applied to all the strands will give theresult shown by Fig. 34. The splicing may be continued in the samemanner to any extent (Fig. 35) and the free ends of the strands may becut off when desired. The splice may be neatly tapered by cutting outa few fibers from each strand each time it is passed through the rope. Rolling under a board or the foot will make the splice compact. [Illustration: Fig. 33 _Short splice_] [Illustration: Fig. 34] [Illustration: Fig. 35] =1134. Long splice= (Figs. 36, 37). --Unlay the strands of each ropefor a convenient length and bring together as for a short splice. Unlay to any desired length a strand, _d_, of one rope, laying in itsplace the nearest strand, _a_, of the other rope. Repeat the operationin the opposite direction with two other strands, _c_ and _f_. Fig. 37shows strands _c_ and _f_ secured by tying together. Strands b and eare shown secured by unlaying half of each for a suitable length andlaying half of the other in place of the unlayed portions, the looseends being passed through the rope. This splice is used when the ropeis to run through a block. The diameter of the rope is not enlarged atthe splice. The ends of the strands should not be trimmed off closeuntil the splice has been thoroughly stretched by work. [Illustration: Fig. 36 _Long splice_] [Illustration: Fig. 37] =1135. Eye splice= (Figs. 38, 39, 40, 41). --Unlay a convenient lengthof rope. Pass one loose strand, _a_, under one strand of the rope, asshown in fig. 38, forming an eye of the proper size. Pass a secondloose strand, _b_, under the strand of the rope next to the strandwhich secures _a_, Fig. 39. Pass the third strand, _c_, under thestrand next to that which secures _b_, fig. 40. Draw all taut andcontinue and complete as for a short splice. [Illustration: Fig. 38 _Eye splice_] [Illustration: Fig. 39] [Illustration: Fig. 40] [Illustration: Fig. 41] Lashings =1136. To lash a transom to an upright spar=, Fig. 42, transom infront of upright. --A clove hitch is made round the upright a fewinches below the transom. The lashing is brought under the transom, upin front of it, horizontally behind the upright, down in front of thetransom, and back behind the upright at the level of the bottom of thetransom and above the clove hitch. The following turns are keptoutside the previous ones on one spar and inside on the other, notriding over the turns already made. Four turns or more are required. Acouple of frapping turns are then taken between the spars, around thelashing, and the lashing is finished off either round one of the sparsor any part of the lashing through which the rope can be passed. Thefinal clove hitch should never be made around the spar on the sidetoward which the stress is to come, as it may jam and be difficult toremove. The lashing must be well beaten with handspike or pick handleto tighten it up. This is called a square shears are laid alongside ofeach other with their butts on the ground, lashing. [Illustration: Fig. 42] =1137. Lashing for a pair of shears=, Fig. 43. --The two spars for thepoints below where the lashing is to be resting on a skid. A clovehitch is made round one spar and the lashing taken loosely eight ornine times about the two spars above it without riding. A couple offrapping turns are then taken between the spars and the lashing isfinished off with a clove hitch above the turns on one of the spars. The butts of the spars are then opened out and a sling passed over thefork, to which the block is hooked or lashed, and fore and back guysare made fast with clove hitches to the bottom and top spars, respectively, just above the each spar the distance from the butt tothe center of the lashing. Lay two of the spars parallel to each otherwith an interval a little greater fork, Fig. 44. [Illustration: Fig. 43] [Illustration: Fig. 44] =1138. To lash three spars together as for a gin or tripod. =--Mark onthan the diameter. Rest their tips on a skid and lay the third sparbetween them with its butt in the opposite direction so that the markson the three spars will be in line. Make a clove hitch on one of theouter spars below the lashing and take eight or nine loose turnsaround the three, as shown in Fig. 45. Take a couple of frapping turnsbetween each pair of spars in succession and finish with a clove hitchon the central spar above the lashing. Pass a sling over the lashingand the tripod is ready for raising. [Illustration: Fig. 45] =1139. Holdfasts. =--To prepare a fastening in the ground for theattachment of guys or purchases, stout pickets are driven into theground one behind the other, in the line of pull. The head of eachpicket except the last is secured by a lashing to the foot of thepicket next behind, Fig. 46. The lashings are tightened by racksticks, the points of which are driven into the ground to hold them inposition. The distance between the stakes should be several times theheight of the stake above the ground. [Illustration: Fig. 46] Another form requiring more labor but having much greater strength iscalled a "_deadman_, " and consists of a log laid in a transversetrench with an inclined trench intersecting it at its middle point. The cable is passed down the inclined trench, takes several roundturns on the log, and is fastened to it by half hitches and marlinstopping, Figs. 47, 48, 49. If the cable is to lead horizontally orinclined downward, it should pass over a log at the outlet of theinclined trench, Fig. 48. If the cable is to lead upward, this log isnot necessary, but the anchor log must be buried deeper. [Illustration: Fig. 47] [Illustration: Fig. 48] [Illustration: Fig. 49] CHAPTER X FIELD FORTIFICATIONS =1140. Object. = The object of field fortifications is two-fold. 1. To increase the fighting power of troops by enabling the soldier touse his weapons with the greatest possible effect. 2. To protect the soldier against the enemy's fire. =1141. How these objects are accomplished. = These objects are accomplished: 1. By means of shelters--trenches, redoubts, splinterproofs, etc. , which protect the soldier from the enemy's fire. 2. By means of obstacles--wire entanglements, abatis, pits, etc. , which delay the advance of the enemy. =1142. Classification. = Field fortifications are usually divided intothree classes, =hasty intrenchments=, =deliberate intrenchments= and=siege works=. =Nomenclature of the Trench. = The following illustration shows thenames of the various parts of the trench. [Illustration: Fig. 1] =1143. Hasty intrenchments= include trenches dug by troops upon thebattlefield to increase their fighting power. They are usuallyconstructed in the presence of the enemy and in haste and embracethree forms viz:--the =lying trench=, the =kneeling trench=, and the=standing trench=. =1144. Lying trench. = (Fig. 2. ) This trench gives cover to a man lyingdown. When intrenching under fire the rifle trench can be constructedby a man lying down. He can mask himself from view in about 10 to 12minutes and can complete the trench in 40 to 45 minutes. A good methodis to dig a trench 18 inches wide back to his knees, roll into it anddig 12 inches wide alongside of it and down to the feet, then rollinto the second cut and extend the first one back. Conditions mayrequire men to work in pairs, one firing while the other uses hisintrenching tool. Duties are exchanged from time to time until thetrench is completed. [Illustration: Fig. 2] [Illustration: Fig. 2a _Intrenching under fire_] The height of the parapet should not exceed 1 foot. This trenchaffords limited protection against rifle fire and less againstshrapnel. =1145. Kneeling trench. = (Fig. 3. ) Time permitting the lying trenchmay be enlarged and deepened until the kneeling trench has beenconstructed. The width of the bottom should be 2-1/2 feet--preferably3 feet--and the relief (distance from bottom of trench to top ofparapet) is 3 feet--the proper height for firing over in a kneelingposition. [Illustration: Fig. 3] =1146. Standing trench= (Fig. 4) has a bottom width of 3 to 3-1/2 feetand a relief of 4-1/2 feet which is the proper firing height for menof average stature. As this trench does not give complete cover to menstanding in it a passage way should be constructed in rear of it notless than 6 feet below the interior crest. This forms the completetrench (Fig. 5). Figures 6-7-8 show simple standing trenches used inthe European War. [Illustration: Fig. 4] [Illustration: Fig. 5] [Illustration: Fig. 6 Simple Standing Trench, Parapet Suppressed] [Illustration: Fig. 7 Simple Standing Trench, Rocky Ground] [Illustration: Fig. 8 Narrow Firing Trench with Parados] =1147. Deliberate intrenchments= comprise trenches and worksconstructed by troops not in line of battle and are usually intendedto enable a small force to resist a much larger one. It frequentlyhappens that hasty intrenchments are developed into deliberateintrenchments and from this stage pass into the domain of siege works. =1148. Fire trenches=, --the trenches which shelter the firingline, --are of different types. No fixed type can be prescribed. Thetype must be selected with due regard to the terrain, enemy, time, tools, soil, etc. , but all should conform to the requirements of agood field of fire, and protection for the troops behind a verticalwall, preferably with some head or over head cover. The simplest form of fire trench is deep and narrow and has a flatconcealed parapet (Fig. 9). When time will permit the simple trenchshould be planned with a view to developing it into a more completeform (Figs. 10 and 11). In all trenches as soon as practicable apassage way--2 feet wide at the bottom--should be provided, in rear ofthe firing step, for the men carrying supplies, ammunition, etc. , andfor the removal of the wounded. [Illustration: Fig. 9] [Illustration: Fig. 10] [Illustration: Fig. 11] When the excavated earth is easily removed a fire trench withoutparapet may be the one best suited to the soil and other conditionsaffecting the conditions of profile (Fig. 12). The enemy's infantry aswell as artillery will generally have great difficulty in seeing thistrench. Fig. 13 shows a squad trench. Fig. 14 shows a fire trenchprovided with protection against shrapnel. This trench is used in theEuropean War. [Illustration: Fig. 12] [Illustration: Fig. 13] [Illustration: Fig. 14 Protection against Shrapnel] In the European War the aim in constructing fire trenches seems to beto minimize and localize artillery effect as far as possible. The mainexcavation along the front is a continuous, very deep, communication, not in itself prepared for active defense. The actual firing is donefrom banquettes or firing steps just to the front of the passage orfrom trenches dug as far as 5 or 10 feet in front of the mainexcavation and reached by short passages. Figs 15 and 16 show the typeof this construction. Fig. 17 shows a fire trench with parades andshelter. [Illustration: Fig. 15 Two Methods for Communication Trenches in rear of Firing Trenches] [Illustration: Fig. 16 Communication Trenches in rear of Firing Trenches Recessed and Traversed Firing Trench] [Illustration: Fig. 17 Trench Shelter] =1149. Traverses. = Fire trenches are divided into sections or bays bymeans of traverses which intercept side or enfilade fire and limit theeffect of shells, bombs or grenades, which burst inside of the trench. The traverses should be wide enough to screen the full width of thetrench with a little to spare. The thickness of the traverse variesfrom 3 to 6 feet or more. Six feet is the dimension generally found inthe traverses in the trenches on the European battle fronts. =1150. Trench recesses; sortie steps. = It will be noted that in someof the diagrams of the trenches now being used in the European War theberm has been eliminated entirely. The object being to bring the firercloser to the vertical wall thus giving him better protection fromshrapnel fire. There have also been added to the trench, recesses forhand grenades. These recesses are similar to recesses dug in the frontwall of the trench for ammunition. One form of recess is shown in(Fig. 18). In order to provide facilities for rapidly mounting fromthe trench to charge, sortie steps and stakes have been provided insome trenches as shown in (Fig. 16). [Illustration: Fig. 18 _Store Recesses for Water, Hand-Grenades, Reserve Ammunition, MachineGuns, Range Finders, Blankets, etc. _ (From _FieldEntrenchments_--Solano. )] =1151. Parados. = Instead of shrapnel, explosive shell is mostfrequently used in the European War. This necessitates the addition ofa parados to the fire trench to protect against the back blast of highexplosives. This is shown in (Figs. 8 and 17). An interesting development in cover for the firing line is shown indugouts constructed in the fire trenches in the European war. Thesedugouts are deep underground and shelter from 3 to 8 men each (Fig. 19). These dugouts will be discussed more in length under covertrenches. [Illustration: Fig. 19] =1152. Head cover= is the term applied to any horizontal cover whichmay be provided above the plane of fire. It is obtained by notching orloop-holing the top of the parapet so that the bottoms of the notchesor loopholes are in the desired plane of fire. The extra height ofparapet may be 12 to 18 inches and the loopholes may be 3 to 3-1/2feet center to center. Head cover is of limited utility. It increases the visibility of theparapet and restricts the field of fire. At close range the loopholesserve as aiming points to steady the enemy's fire and may do more harmthan good at longer ranges. This is especially the case if the enemycan see any light through the loophole. He waits for the light to beobscured, when he fires, knowing there is a man's head behind theloophole. A background must be provided or a removable screen arrangedso that there will be no difference in the appearance of the loopholewhether a man is looking through it or not. Head cover is advantageousonly when the conditions of the foreground are such that the enemy cannot get close up. =1153. Notches and loopholes=, Figs. 20-22, are alike in all respects, except that the latter have a roof or top and the former have not. Thebottom, also called =floor= or =sole=, is a part of the originalsuperior slope. The sides, sometimes called =cheeks=, are vertical ornearly so. The plan depends upon local conditions. There is always anarrow part, called the =throat=, which is just large enough to takethe rifle and permit sighting. From the throat the sides diverge at anangle, called the =splay=, which depends upon the field of firenecessary. [Illustration: Fig. 20] [Illustration: Fig. 21] [Illustration: Fig. 22] The position of the throat may vary. If on the outside, it is lessconspicuous but more easily obstructed by injury to the parapet andmore difficult to use, since in changing aim laterally the man mustmove around a pivot in the plane of the throat. If the material ofwhich the loophole is constructed presents hard surfaces, the throatshould be outside, notwithstanding the disadvantages of that position, or else the sides must be stepped as in Fig. 22. In some cases it maybe best to adopt a compromise position and put the throat in themiddle, Fig. 22. Figs. 23 to 26 show details and dimensions of aloophole of sand bags. [Illustration: Fig. 23] [Illustration: Fig. 24] [Illustration: Fig. 25] [Illustration: Fig. 26] A serviceable form of loophole consists of a pyramidal box of plankwith a steel plate spiked across the small end and pierced for fire. Fig. 27 shows a section of such a construction. It is commonly knownas the =hopper loophole=. The plate should be 3/8 in. Thick, if ofspecial steel; or 1/2 in. , if ordinary metal. Fig. 28 shows theopening used by the Japanese in Manchuria and Fig. 29 that used by theRussians. [Illustration: Fig. 27] [Illustration: Fig. 28] [Illustration: Fig. 29] The construction of a notch requires only the introduction of someavailable rigid material to form the sides; by adding a cover thenotch becomes a loophole. Where the fire involves a wide lateral andsmall vertical angle, loopholes may take the form of a long slit. Sucha form will result from laying logs or fascines lengthwise on theparapet, supported at intervals by sods or other material, Fig. 31, orsmall poles covered with earth may be used, Fig. 30. [Illustration: Fig. 30] [Illustration: Fig. 31] =1154. Overhead cover. = This usually consists of a raised platform ofsome kind covered with earth. It is frequently combined withhorizontal cover in a single structure, which protects the top andexposed side. The supporting platform will almost always be of woodand may vary from brushwood or light poles to heavy timbers and plank. It is better, especially with brush or poles, to place a layer ofsods, grass down, or straw, or grain sacks over the platform beforeputting on the earth, to prevent the latter from sifting through. [Illustration: Fig. 32] [Illustration: Fig. 33] [Illustration: Fig. 34] [Illustration: Fig. 35] =The thickness of overhead cover= depends upon the class of fireagainst which protection is desired, and is sometimes limited by thevertical space available, since it must afford headroom beneath, andgenerally should not project above the nearest natural or artificialhorizontal cover. For splinter proofs a layer of earth 6 to 8 ins. Thick on a support of brush or poles strong enough to hold it up willsuffice if the structure is horizontal. If the front is higher thanthe rear, less thickness is necessary; if the rear is higher than thefront, more is required. For bombproofs a minimum thickness of 6 ins. Of timber and 3 ft. Of earth is necessary against field and siegeguns, or 12 ins. Timber and 6 ft. Of earth against the howitzers andmortars of a heavy siege train, not exceeding 6 inches in caliber. In determining the area of overhead cover to be provided, allow 6 sq. Ft. Per man for occupancy while on duty only, or 12 sq. Ft. Per manfor continuous occupancy not of long duration. For long occupation 18to 20 sq. Ft. Per man should be provided. It is not practicable to give complete cover to rifle positions thatwill successfully withstand the heavy artillery of today. The use ofoverhead cover is usually limited to that sufficient for protectionagainst rifle fire, machine gun fire, and shrapnel. =1155. Cover trenches= are constructed to provide safe cover for thesupports or reinforcements of the fire trenches or to provide cookingand resting facilities for the garrison of the neighboring firetrenches. The important point in cover trenches is safety. They varyin design from the simple rectangular trenches to elaboratelyconstructed trenches having overhead cover, kitchens, shelters, latrines, dressing stations, etc. Cover trenches must not be mistakenfor a secondary position, they are cover for the firing line, supportsand reserves until they are required in the fire trenches. The covertrench requires a depth of at least 6 feet to protect men standing. Greater depths may be used when necessary. Fig. 36 is a section of anopen cover trench and Fig. 37 of a closed one. This section may beused for a communicating trench. Fig. 38 shows a cover trench close toa fire trench. The character of overhead cover for trenches is shownin the diagrams under overhead cover. The distance of the covertrenches varies with the situation. The experience of the European warplaces the cover trenches from 15 to 50 yards in rear of the firetrenches. These trenches furnish shelter for at least 2/3 of thefiring line and supports. [Illustration: Fig. 36] [Illustration: Fig. 37] [Illustration: Fig. 38] The reserves are furnished yet more elaborate shelter, with plenty ofroom for the men to lie down and rest and when practicable, bathingfacilities are provided. =1156. Dugouts. = An elaborate system of dugouts has developed alongthe lines occupied by the troops in the European war. These dugoutsare located from 14 to 40 feet below the ground and are reached bystairs in timbered passage ways. At the foot of the stairs a tunnel orcorridor runs forward and on either side or at the end, rooms havebeen dug out varying in size. Most of these rooms have been timberedand lined. Many are electrically lighted. In some of these undergroundshelters, accommodations for several hundred men have been preparedwith all of the necessary facilities for making them comfortable. Itmust be understood that such elaborate preparations can only be madewhen troops face each other in trenches where operations havedeveloped into practically a siege. =1157. Communicating trenches. = These trenches as the name implies arefor the purpose of providing safe communication between the cover andfire trenches. They may be also constructed just in rear of a seriesof fire trenches to provide a means of communication from one to theother. Communicating trenches also extend to the rear of the covertrenches and provide safe passage to fresh troops or supplies. Thesetrenches are usually laid out in zig zag or curved lines (Fig. 39), toprevent enfilade fire from sweeping them. As a general rule excavatedearth is placed on both sides of the trench to afford protection, thedepth is usually from 6 to 7 feet. (Fig. 15) shows a typicalcommunicating trench. [Illustration: Fig. 39 _Typical Passage Trench from Supports to Firing Line. _ (From _Field Entrenchments_--Solano)] =1158. Lookouts. = To enable the garrison of a trench to get thegreatest amount of comfort and rest, a _lookout_ should be constructedand a sentinel stationed therein. The simplest form would consist of two sandbags placed on the parapetand splayed so as to give the required view, and carefully concealed. Better forms may be constructed, with one side resting on the berm byusing short uprights with overhead cover, a slit on all sides beingprovided for observation. At night, lookouts are usually posted at listening points located inor beyond the line of obstacles. These will be discussed underobstacles. =1159. Supporting Points. = In some cases small supporting points mayhave to be established close behind the general line of trenches forthe purpose of breaking up a successful attack on the trenches and toaid in delivering a counter attack. These points are stronglyentrenched and have all around wire entanglements and are garrisonedby from 20 to 40 picked men or by larger forces if the situationdemand it. In some cases machine guns are added to the force in thesupporting point. =1160. Example of trench system. = Having discussed trenches andobstacles somewhat in detail, let us take a combination of the wholeshowing a complete system such as is used today. (Fig. 40) is a goodexample. [Illustration: Fig. 40 FIRST LINE FIRING TRENCH] Beginning at the front we have the line of wire entanglements orobstacles with their listening posts X, for guarding them. Connectingthe listening posts to the fire trenches are the communicatingtrenches. The fire trenches are shown by the heavy black line runningabout 60 feet in rear of the obstacles. Note the many traverses shownby the indentations in the line. Points marked M with arrowsprojecting to the flanks are machine guns, so located as to sweep thefront of the position with a cross fire. Points marked S areunderground shelters for from 3 to 6 men. Points marked S' areshelters for 30 men. In rear of the firing trenches at a distancevarying from 100 to 200 feet is the line of cover trenches. This lineis connected with the fire trenches by the zig zagged line ofcommunicating trenches. Note that the latrines (L) and first aidstations (F) are just off from the communicating trenches, while thelarger shelter for men (S') are near the cover trenches. As the noteon the diagram shows, the trench requires 250 men to occupy it withdouble that number in support. The trench has 108 loopholes withspaces between provided with a higher banquette so that the wholeparapet may be manned for firing. On the battlefields of Europe today there are generally three lines offire trenches. This permits the defender to fall back to a 2nd or 3rdprepared position in case he is driven out of his first trench. On ahill we find a fire trench near the foot of the slope, one justforward of the military crest, and the third on the reverse slope ofthe hill. In many instances the first line trenches consist of as many as fouror five lines of trenches running in a general lateral direction andconnected by deep narrow communicating trenches. The depth between thefirst and last of these trenches is, in some instances, not over ahundred yards. Sign boards are necessary at short intervals to preventthe soldiers from getting lost. The effect of having so manyalternative firing trenches is to make it extremely difficult for anenemy to advance from, or even to hold one of them, even when he gainsa footing, as he would be swept by fire from the supporting trenchesin rear and also by flanking fire from the adjacent trenches. =1161. Location. = There are two things to be considered in locatingtrenches: (1) The tactical situation, and (2) the nature of theground. The first consideration requires that the trenches be solocated as to give the best field of fire. Locating near the base ofhills possesses the advantage of horizontal fire, but, as a rule, itis difficult to support trenches so located and to retreat therefromin case of necessity. While location near the crest of hills--on the"military crest"--does not possess the advantage of horizontal fire, it is easier to support trenches so located and to retreat therefrom. Depending upon circumstances, there are times when it will be betterto intrench near the base of hills and there are other times when itwill be better to intrench on the "military crest, " which is always infront of the natural crest. The construction of trenches along the"military crest" does not give any "dead space"--that is, any space tothe front that can not be reached by the fire of the men in thetrenches. Whether we should construct our trenches on high or low ground is amatter that should always be carefully considered under the particularconditions that happen to exist at that particular time, and thematter may be summarized as follows: The advantages of the high ground are:-- 1. We can generally see better what is going on to our front andflanks; and the men have a feeling of security that they do not enjoyon low ground. 2. We can usually reënforce the firing line better and the dead andwounded can be removed more easily. 3. The line of retreat is better. The disadvantages are:-- 1. The plunging fire of a high position is not as effective as asweeping fire of a low one. 2. It is not as easy to conceal our position. The advantages of low ground, are:-- 1. The low, sweeping fire that we get, especially when the ground infront is fairly flat and the view over the greater part of it isuninterrupted, is the most effective kind of fire. 2. As a rule it is easier to conceal trenches on low ground, especially from artillery fire. 3. If our trenches are on low ground, our artillery will be able tofind good positions on the hill behind us without interfering with theinfantry defense. The disadvantages are:-- 1. As a rule it will be more difficult to reënforce the firing lineand to remove the dead and wounded from the trenches. 2. On a low position there will usually be an increase of dead spacein our front. 3. The average soldier acting on the defensive dreads that the enemymay turn his flank, and this feeling is much more pronounced on lowground than on high ground. Should the enemy succeed in getting afooting on our flank with our trenches on top of the hill, it would bebad enough, but it would certainly be far worse if he got a footing ontop of the hill, on the flank and rear, with our company on low groundin front. We, therefore, see there are things to be said for andagainst both high and low ground, and the most that can be saidwithout examining a particular piece of ground is: Our naturalinclination is to select high ground, but, as a rule, this choice willreduce our fire effect, and if there is a covered approach to our firetrenches and very little dead ground in front of it, with an extensivefield of fire, there is no doubt the lower ground is better. However, if these conditions do not exist to a considerable degree, the moraladvantage of the higher ground must be given great weight, especiallyin a close country. The experience of the European war emphasizes the fact that thelocation of rifle trenches is today, just as much as ever, a matter ofcompromise to be determined by sound judgment on the part of theresponsible officers. The siting of trenches so that they are notunder artillery observation is a matter of great importance, but, ithas yet to be proven that this requirement is more important than anextensive field of fire. There are many instances where to escapeobservation and fire from the artillery, trenches were located on thereverse slopes, giving only a limited field of fire. This restrictedfield of fire permitted the enemy to approach within a few hundredyards of the trench and robbed them of the concealment they had hopedto gain. The choice between a site in front, and one in rear of acrest, is influenced by local conditions which govern theeffectiveness of our own and the enemy's fire. In general, the bestlocation for effective fire trenches, lies between the military crestof rising ground and the lowest line from which the foreground isvisible. If the position on the military crest is conspicuous, it isinadvisable. With regard to the nature of the ground, trenches should, ifpracticable, be so located as to avoid stony ground, because of thedifficult work entailed and of the danger of flying fragments, shouldthe parapet be struck by an artillery projectile. To locate the trace of the trenches, lie on the ground at intervalsand select the best field of fire consistent with the requirements ofthe situation. Trenches should be laid out in company lengths, if possible, andadjoining trenches should afford each other mutual support. The flanksand important gaps in the line should be protected by fire trenchesecheloned in rear. =1162. Concealment of trenches. = Owing to the facilities forobservation that the aeroplanes and other air craft afford, and to theaccuracy and effect of modern artillery fire, every possible meansshould be taken to conceal trenches, gun implacements, and otherworks. The aim should be to alter the natural surface of the ground aslittle as possible and to present a target of the smallest possibledimensions. Covering the parapet with brush or grass will affordtemporary concealment. If the new earth can be sodded it aids greatlyin concealing the trench. In some cases troops have gone to the extentof painting canvas to resemble the ground and have placed it overtrenches, guns, etc. Straw and grass placed in the bottom of trenchesmake them less conspicuous to air scouts. When trenches are dug on afairly steep slope care must be used to conceal the back of thetrench, which, being higher than the parapet, will stand out as a scaron the hillside. Grass or brush may be used to conceal the back of thetrench. =1163. Dummy trenches. = May be constructed which attract the enemy'sattention and draw his fire, or at least a part of it. The extent towhich this method may be used may include the construction of dummyobstacles and guns, and even hats may be placed on the parapets. =1164. Length of trench. = The usual minimum allowance of trench spaceis one yard per man, although in some tests, two feet was foundsufficient for men to fire satisfactorily. Ordinarily one squad willoccupy the space between two traverses which experience has shownshould be about 15 feet apart. =1165. Preparation of the foreground. = One of the first principles inimproving the foreground is that an enemy attacking the trenches shallbe continually exposed to fire especially in the last 400 or 500yards. This requires a clearing of the foreground and a filling in ofdepressions or leveling of cover. Dead space may be swept by fire oftrenches specially located for that purpose. Those features of theground which obstruct the field of fire, restrict the view, or favoror the enemy's approach, should be removed as far as possible. On theother hand, features which favor the concealment of the trenches orincrease the difficulty of the attack would better be left standing, especially when it is possible to fire through or over them. =1166. Revetments. = By a revetment we mean a facing placed against thefront or back wall of a trench to keep the earth in place. When trenches are to be occupied for any length of time, they must berevetted. There are many forms of revetments. Sod revetments, stakeswith brush behind them, stakes with planks, boards, or poles behindthem and a common form seen in the trenches in Europe chicken wirewith brush or canvas behind it. =1167. Drainage. = All trenches should be dug so as to drain in case ofrain. In favorable locations the trench may be constructed to drainautomatically, by constructing it with an incline to one end. Underordinary circumstances dry standing has to be provided in trenches byraising the foot level by the use of brush, boards, poles, etc. Bailing will have to be resorted to in most cases to drain the trench. =1168. Water Supply. = At least 1/2 a gallon of water per man per dayshould be supplied. The supply is almost invariably liable to becontaminated, therefore, it should be sterilized by boiling or bytreating. These are usually located just off from the communicatingtrenches. Some form of receptacle should be used and all depositscovered with chemicals. =1169. Latrines. = Numerous latrines must be constructed in thetrenches' earth. These receptacles are removed from time to time andemptied in pits dug for that purpose. Urinal cans must also beprovided and cared for in a similar manner. =1170. Illumination of the Foreground. = Battlefield illumination is anecessity where night attacks may be expected, and also as aprotection to the line of obstacles. Portable searchlights have becomean accepted part of every army. In addition to these, trenches must besupplied with reflector lights, star bombs, rockets and flares, arranged so that they can be put into action instantaneously when theenemy approaches. The foreground should be entirely illuminated, leaving the defendersin the shadow. If the light is too close to the defenders parapet, they are illuminated and become a good target. Some flares will burnfor 20 minutes and may be thrown to the front as grenades, fired asrockets, shot from small mortars, or placed well to the front to beset off by trip wires close to the ground. The best light devised isone that can be fired well to the front from a small mortar and thenhung suspended from an open parachute above the enemy. Bonfires can belaid ready for lighting when no other means is at hand. Whatever formof illumination is adopted, it should withstand bad weather conditionsand prolonged bombardment. =1171. Telephones. = When armies have been forced to trench warfare andtime has permitted an elaborate system of trenches to be constructed, telephone communication is established as soon as possible. Thecentral station, with the switch-board is located in a shelter in rearof the cover trenches and lines are run to all trenches, lookoutstations and listening points. =1172. Siege works. = Comprise devices used by besiegers and besiegedin attack and defense of strong fortifications and especially thosedevices enable troops to advance under continuous cover. CHAPTER XI OBSTACLES =1173. Object. = The main objects in placing obstacles in front of thetrenches are, to protect them from surprise, and to stop the enemy'sadvance or to delay him while under the defender's fire. =1174. Necessity for obstacles. = It is evident that the presenttendency is to reduce the number of men assigned to constant occupancyof the first line trenches. This is due to the effectiveness of riflefire at close range, the destructive effect of shell and shrapnel, theinfrequency of daylight attack on intrenched positions, and the severestrain on the men. The aim seems to be the placing here and there of alookout or trench guards, who, when necessity demands can call helpfrom the near by splinterproofs, dugouts, etc. , before the enemy canmake his way through the obstacles. It has been found from experiencein the European war that as long as shells are directed at thetrenches no danger of attack is feared but, when the shells areconcentrated against the obstacles the trenches are manned andpreparations are made to resist an assault. =1175. Location. = Obstacles must be so located that they will beexposed to the defenders' fire, and should be sheltered as far aspossible from the enemy's artillery fire. They should be difficult toremove or destroy, should afford no cover for the enemy, and shouldnot obstruct counter attacks. No obstacle should be more than 100yards from the defender's trench. Care must be taken not to place themso close to the trench that hand grenades can be thrown into thetrench from beyond the obstacle. Obstacles may be placed in one, twoor three lines. As far as possible they should be concealed so thatthey will not betray the location of the trench. =1176. Kinds of Obstacles. = The following are the most common kinds ofobstacles:-- =Abatis= consisting of trees lying parallel to each other with thebranches pointing in the general direction of approach and interlaced. All leaves and small twigs should be removed and the stiff ends ofbranches pointed. Abatis on open ground is most conveniently made of branches about 15feet long. The branches are staked or tied down and the butts anchoredby covering them with earth. Barbed wire may be interlaced among thebranches. Successive rows are placed, the branches of one extendingover the trunks of the one in front, so as to make the abatis 5 feethigh and as wide as desired. It is better to place the abatis in anatural depression or a ditch, for concealment and protection fromfire. If exposed to artillery, an abatis must be protected either asabove or else by raising a glacis in front of it. Fig. 1 shows atypical form of abatis with a glacis in front. An abatis formed byfelling trees toward the enemy, leaving the butt hanging to the stump, the branches prepared as before, is called =a slashing=, Fig. 2. Itgives cover, and should be well flanked. [Illustration: Fig. 1] [Illustration: Fig. 2] =1177. A palisade= is a man-tight fence of posts. Round poles 4 to 6inches in diameter at the large end are best. If the sticks run 5 to 8inches, they may be split. If defended from the rear, palisades givesome shelter from fire and the openings should be made as large aspossible without letting men through. If defended from the flank, theymay be closer, say 3 to 4 inches apart. The top should be pointed. Astrand or two of barbed wire run along the top and stapled to eachpost is a valuable addition. Palisading is best made up in panels of 6 or 8 feet length, connectedby a waling piece, preferably of plank, otherwise of split stuff. Ifthe tops are free, two wales should be used, both underground. If thetops are connected by wires, one will do. Palisades should be planted to incline slightly to the front. Aslittle earth should be disturbed in digging as possible, and one sideof the trench should be kept in the desired plane of the palisade. Ifstones can be had to fit between the posts and the top of the trench, they will increase the stiffness of the structure and save time inramming, or a small log may be laid in the trench along the outside ofthe posts. Figs. 3 and 4 show the construction and placing ofpalisades. [Illustration: Fig. 3] [Illustration: Fig. 4] =1178. A fraise= is a palisade horizontal, or nearly so, projectingfrom the scarp or counterscarp. A modern and better form consists ofsupports at 3 or 4 feet interval, connected by barbed wire, forming ahorizontal wire fence. Fig. 5. [Illustration: Fig. 5] =1179. Cheveaux de frise= are obstacles of the form shown in Fig. 6. They are usually made in sections of manageable length chainedtogether at the ends. They are most useful in closing roads or othernarrow passages, as they can be quickly opened for friendly troops. The lances may be of iron instead of wood and rectangular instead ofround; the axial beam may be solid or composite. Figs. 8 and 9 showmethods of constructing cheveaux de frise with dimension stuff. [Illustration: Fig. 6] [Illustration: Fig. 7] [Illustration: Fig. 8] [Illustration: Fig. 9] =1180. A formidable obstacle against cavalry= consists of railroadties planted at intervals of 10 feet with the tops 4-1/2 feet abovethe ground, and connected by a line of rails spiked securely to each, Fig. 7. The rail ends should be connected by fish plates and bolted, with the ends of the bolts riveted down on the ends. Figs. 10 and 11 show forms of heavy obstacles employed in Manchuria bythe Russians and Japanese, respectively. The former is composed oftimber trestles, made in rear and carried out at night. The latterappears to have been planted in place. [Illustration: Fig. 10] [Illustration: Fig. 11] =1181. A wire entanglement= is composed of stakes driven in the groundand connected by wire, barbed is the best, passing horizontally ordiagonally, or both. The stakes are roughly in rectangular or quincunxorder, but slight irregularities, both of position and height shouldbe introduced. In the =high entanglement= the stakes average 4 feet from the ground, and the wiring is horizontal and diagonal, Fig. 12. [Illustration: Fig. 12 _High wire entanglement showing method of linking posts head to footand foot to head. Wire, plain or barbed, then festooned with barbedwire. Bind wires where they cross. Use broken bottles, crows feet, planks with spikes or fishhooks in conjunction with thisentanglement. _ (From _Knowledge of War_--Lake. )] =The low wire entanglement= has stakes averaging 18 inches above theground and the wire is horizontal only. This form is especiallyeffective if concealed in high grass. In both kinds the wires shouldbe wound around the stakes and stapled and passed loosely from onestake to the next. When two or more wires cross they should be tiedtogether. Barbed wire is more difficult to string but better whendone. The most practicable form results from the use of barbed wirefor the horizontal strands and smooth wire for the rest. This is the most generally, useful of all obstacles because of therapidity of construction, the difficulty of removal, the comparativelyslight injury from artillery fire, and its independence of localmaterial supplies. =1182. Time and materials. = One man can make 10 sq. Yds. Of low and 3sq. Yds. Of high entanglement per hour. The low form requires 10 feetof wire per sq. Yd. And the high 30 feet. No. 14 is a suitable size. The smooth wire runs 58. 9 ft. To the lb. A 100-lb. Coil will make 600sq. Yds. Of low or 200 sq. Yds. Of high entanglement. If barbed wireis used, the weight will be about 2-1/2 times as much. =1183. Wire fence. = An ordinary barbed-wire fence is a considerableobstacle if well swept by fire. It becomes more formidable if a ditchis dug on one or both sides to obstruct the passage of wheels afterthe fence has been cut. The fence is much more difficult to getthrough if provided with an apron on one or both sides, inclined at anangle of about 45°, as indicated in Figs. 13 and 14. This form wasmuch used in South Africa for connecting lines between blockhouses. When used in this way the lines of fence may be 300 to 600 yds. Long, in plan like a worm fence, with the blockhouse at the reëntrantangles. Fixed rests for rifles, giving them the proper aim to enfiladethe fence, were prepared at the blockhouses for use at night. [Illustration: Fig. 13] [Illustration: Fig. 14] Such a fence may be arranged in many ways to give an automatic alarmeither mechanically or electrically. The mechanical forms mostlydepend on one or more single wires which are smooth, and are tightlystretched through staples on the posts which hold them loosely, permitting them to slip when cut and drop a counterweight at theblockhouse, which in falling explodes a cap or pulls the trigger of arifle. =1184. Military pits= or =trous de loup= are excavations in the shapeof an inverted cone or pyramid, with a pointed stake in the bottom. They should not be so deep as to afford cover to the skirmisher. Twoand one-half feet or less is a suitable depth. Fig. 15 shows a planand section of such pits. [Illustration: Fig. 15] They are usually dug in 3 or 5 rows and the earth thrown to the frontto form a glacis. The rear row is dug first and then the next infront, and so on, so that no earth is cast over the finished pits. An excellent arrangement is to dig the pits in a checkerboard plan, leaving alternate squares and placing a stake in each of them to forma wire entanglement, Fig. 16. One man can make 5 pits on a 2-hourrelief. [Illustration: Fig. 16] =1185. Miscellaneous barricades. = Anything rigid in form and movablemay be used to give cover from view and fire and to obstruct theadvance of an assailant. Boxes, bales and sacks of goods, furniture, books, etc. , have been so used. The principles above stated for otherobstacles should be followed, so far as the character of the materialswill permit. The rest ingenuity must supply. Such devices are usuallycalled barricades and are useful in blocking the streets of towns andcities. =1186. Inundations. = Backing up the water of a stream so that itoverflows a considerable area forms a good obstacle even though offordable depth. If shallow, the difficulty of fording may be increasedby irregular holes or ditches dug before the water comes up or bydriving stakes or making entanglements. Fords have frequently beenobstructed by ordinary harrows laid on the bottom with the teeth up. The unusual natural conditions necessary to a successful inundationand the extent and character of the work required to construct thedams make this defense of exceptional use. It may be attempted withadvantage when the drainage of a considerable flat area passes througha restricted opening, as a natural gorge, a culvert, or a bridge. Open cribs filled with stones, or tighter ones with gravel or earthmay form the basis of the obstruction to the flow of water. The usualmethod of tightening cracks or spaces between cribs is by throwing inearth or alternate layers of straw, hay, grass, earth, or sacks ofclay. Unless the flow is enough to allow considerable leakage, theoperation will not be practicable with field resources. When the local conditions permit water to be run into the ditch of aparapet it should always be done. =1187. Obstacles in front of outguards= should be low so they cannotbe seen at night. A very simple and effective obstacle can be made byfastening a single strand of wire to the top of stout stakes about afoot high, and then placing another wire a little higher and parallelto, and about one yard in rear of, the first. The wires must be drawntight, and securely fastened, and the stakes fairly close together, sothat if the wire is cut between any two stakes the remainder will notbe cut loose. Any one approaching the enemy will trip over the firstwire, and before he can recover himself he will be brought down by thesecond. In the absence of wire, small sapplings may be used instead. Of course, they are not as good as wire, but it does not take much totrip up a man in the dark. [Illustration: Fig. 17] Lessons from the European War What follows is based on reports from the battle fronts in Europe. =1188. Wire entanglements. = The war in Europe has proven that the wireentanglements are the most important and effective obstacle yetdevised. Owing to the intensity of the opposing fire and in manycases to the short distance between the opposing trenches, it hasbecome necessary to construct all forms of obstacles in portablesections which are carried or rolled quickly into place, either bysoldiers rushing out in day light and quickly staking the obstaclesdown or by placing the obstacles quietly at night. For placing wire entanglements at night, an iron post has been devisedabout 1/4 of an inch in diameter, with eyelets for attaching the wire. The lower 18 inches is made as an auger, so that the posts can bequietly screwed into the ground at night and the wire attached. Another method of placing wire entanglements is to make them insections and roll them up. These sections are usually about 20 feetlong, the wire firmly fastened to the sharpened stakes. At a favorablemoment the soldiers rush out, unrolling the sections as they go andwith mauls quickly drive the stakes. Loose ends of wire enable thesections to be bound together as placed. Another form of wire entanglement is shown in (Fig. 18). Triangularpyramids 3 feet 6 inches high are made of poles or timber. Thepyramids are usually arranged in pairs with the wire on three faces sothat, no matter if the obstacle is rolled over, a wire fence ispresented. These obstacles are carried out and placed so as to breakjoints and are staked down as soon as possible. [Illustration: Fig. 18 Substitute for Posts. ] The wire used for entanglements is found more convenient to handlewhen wound on a stake a yard in length, in a sort of figure eightwinding. Special barbed wire of heavier material and barbs placedclose together has been found much more effective than the commercialbarbed wire. In some localities electrified wire has been used. In such cases theobstacle is charged in sections, so that, if one section is groundedit will not affect the others. =1189. Wire cheveaux de frise. = Two forms of this obstacle haveappeared. Both are portable. They consist of two or more woodencrosses fastened at their centers to a long pole and connected witheach other by barbed wire. This obstacle retains its effectivenesswhen rolled over. (Figs. 19 and 20) give an idea of theirconstruction. The form shown in (Fig. 19) is often made small enoughfor individuals to carry. These are prepared in the trenches and usedfor throwing into one's own entanglements to make them more complex ormay be carried when making an assault and thrown into the enemy'strenches to prevent movements from one part of the trench to another. The long stick projects out of the end to be used as a handle. [Illustration: Fig. 19 Wire Cheveaux de Frise] [Illustration: Fig. 20 Wire Cheveaux de Frise] =1190. Guarding obstacles. = It has been found necessary to keep aconstant watch over obstacles after they have been placed. =1191. Listening posts. = One of the best methods is to post one ormore men in listening posts in or beyond the line of obstacles. Theselistening posts are rifle pits with over head cover, fully protectedfrom fire from the rear as well as front, and loop holes forobservation and fire. They are connected with the fire trenches bymeans of a covered communication or even tunnels in some cases and areprovided with some form of prompt communication with the firingtrenches by telephone, bell or other means. The communicating trenchor tunnel is provided with a strong door which may be closed toprevent an enemy from securing access to the fire trench, in case thelookout is surprised. Pits with trap doors are also used to prevent anenemy from creeping up the tunnel to the fire trench. These lookouts can give early warning of the approach of an enemy, either for the purpose of assault or cutting through the obstacles. Inmany instances they have detected mining operations of the enemy byhearing the blows of picks under ground. =1192. Automatic alarms. = Many automatic alarms have been used to givewarning of attack on the obstacles. These vary from the simple settingof a pistol or rifle, which is fired when the enemy attempts to cutthrough the entanglement, to intricate electrical alarms. =1193. Searchlights. = Searchlights have been provided so that, theinstant an alarm is given the obstacles are flooded by a brilliantlight and the enemy exposed to fire. CHAPTER XII TRENCH AND MINE WARFARE[14] =1194. Asphyxiating gases. = The asphyxiating gases employed may bedivided into three general classes, viz: _Suffocating gases_, the most common of which are carbonic andnitrogen. _Poisonous gases_, under which head come carbon monoxide and cyanogen. _Gases which affect the throat and bronchial tubes_, such as chlorineand bromine. The latter class is most commonly employed. The methods usually employed for liberating these gases are to have aplant some distance in rear of the trenches where the gas is storedunder pressure and carried to the trenches through pipes, where it canbe liberated towards the enemy's trenches when there is a favorablewind to carry it along; or, the gas may be carried in cylinders orother containers and liberated at the desired points. Hand grenades orbombs are also employed which, upon bursting, liberate the gas or insome cases scatter acids or caustic soda. Some of these bombs containa chemical which when liberated affects the eyes, causing impairedvision. The Germans employ several kinds of shell containing gases ofdifferent densities, one of heavy gas fired as a curtain to the rearto permit reinforcement of the trenches and another of lighter gas todemolish the trenches and destroy the firing line. As a general rulethese gases are employed when the fire trenches of the opposing forcesare close together though the shell containers may be used at longranges. All of these gases being heavier than air lie close to theground and flow over and down into the trenches. =1195. Protection against gases. = The best protection against thesegases, is a mask of some kind. The commonest form employed is aflexible mask that conforms to the head, is fitted with glass forseeing through, and has an arrangement of tubes and valves whichrequire the wearer to inhale through his nose and exhale through hismouth. These masks have an absorbent composed of hyposulphite of sodium or of72 per cent of the nitrous thiosulphate and 28 per cent of bicarbonateof soda. This absorbent placed so that air must be breathed throughit, neutralizes the acids in the gases. Soldiers are provided withthese masks, sometimes with two of them, and are required to have themrenewed every three months. Trench sprays may be used to spray neutralizing liquid in the trenchesto kill the gases. The _favorable conditions_ for the employment of gases are windblowing toward the enemy's trenches and warm weather. _Unfavorableconditions_ are rain, cold, and adverse winds. In some localities weather vanes placed in the direction of theenemy's trenches and arranged so that they may be watched at nightgive an indication of favorable winds and enable the defender toprepare for a gas attack. Before the masks were provided bonfires were prepared of oil soakedmaterials which; when ignited, produced an intense heat and theresulting column of air diverted the gas clouds. =1196. Liquid fire. = By use of hand or motor driven pumps, and a lightgrade of petroleum, columns of liquid fire may be squirted into theopposing trenches. If the oil should fail to remain lighted it may befired by bursting hand grenades or throwing fire balls into thetrenches. This means of attack is employed when opposing trenches areclose together. As a defense measure ditches may be dug in front of the trenches andfilled with a porous material which is then soaked with oil. Heavyoils, being hard to ignite, are not dangerous to the defense, and willremain with little loss for a long time. To make sure of promptignition gas lines are laid in the ditches. When turned on the gasreadily ignites and the resulting fire produces great heat. Wire orbarbed wire looped in the ditches and staked down makes this aformidable obstacle. =1197. Grenades and bombs= are containers, designed to be thrown byhand, by a sling, fired as a rocket or from specially constructedmortars, or dropped from aerial craft. They burst by time orpercussion fuses and may be improvised in a variety of forms and aremost useful in close attack or defense. Their effect is local but theyare very demoralizing to men's nerves. =1198. Hand grenades= are designed to be thrown by the hand and varygreatly in construction. In general, however, they consist of acontainer filled with bullets or pieces of iron or other metal in thecenter of which is a charge of high explosive which scatters thebullets or fragments with deadly effect. The three methods ofdischarging a hand grenade are: _By time fuse_ which is lighted by hand. About 5 to 9 seconds is thetime from ignition until the grenade bursts. This does not give thedefender time to pick up the bomb and throw it out of the trench. _By friction primer and fuse. _ In this form of hand grenade a strap onthe wrist with a short line attached with a hook on the end of itserves, when the hook is engaged in the ring of the grenade, to jerkthe primer when the grenade is thrown. This automatically ignites thefuse which bursts the grenade in from 4 to 5 seconds. _By percussion. _ In this form of grenade the charge is fired when thegrenade strikes the ground or object at which it is thrown. In thisform of grenade a safety pin holds the plunger from the cap. When thegrenade is to be thrown the safety pin is withdrawn. As a general rule fuse burns at the rate of 1 inch in 1 and 1/4seconds; however each lot of fuse should be tested. Figs. 1 and 2 show two forms of improvised grenades. Common cans, suchas preserved fruits and vegetables are shipped in commercially, makegood containers. The usual weight of a hand grenade is about 1-1/2pounds. [Illustration: Fig. 1 Hair Brush Bomb] [Illustration: Fig. 2 Hand Grenade] =1199. Other methods of throwing grenades. = Many grenades have beendesigned to be fired from the ordinary rifle. This grenade has a rodwhich is inserted in the barrel of the rifle. A special charge ofpowder is used in the cartridge from which the bullet has beenwithdrawn. Common slings, catapults, and other devises have been frequently used. =1200. Aerial mines. = (Fig. 3. ) This form of grenade is very heavy, often weighing 200 pounds and is fired from a trench mortar. [Illustration: Fig. 3 _Aerial Mine_] =1201. Winged torpedo. = (Fig. 4. ) This projectile is fitted with threewinged vanes which steady its flight and greatly increase theaccuracy. A rod fitted into its base enables it to be fired from acomparatively small trench, mortar. The torpedo weighs about 40 poundsand the mortar 200 pounds. The mortar, being light, can be carriedfrom one part of the trench to another by two men. [Illustration: Fig. 4 _Winged Torpedo_] The aerial mine and winged torpedo may be used effectively to beatdown the enemy's defenses, destroying his sand bags and trenches, andcutting away wire entanglements and other obstacles. The wingedtorpedo having a greater range (500 yards) and being more accurate, isthe more effective. =1202. Bombs from air-craft= are some form of high explosive bombwhich burst on striking. Another type of bomb used by aeroplanesconsists of a container filled with steel darts. The bursting chargeis fired by a fuse. The operator usually cuts the fuse so that thebomb will burst at a considerable altitude. The steel darts arescattered in all directions and have sufficient velocity to passthrough a man or horse. =1203. Protection against hand grenades. = (Fig. 5. ) For protectionagainst hand grenades and bombs a screen of wire netting may beerected in front of the trenches and arranged at such a slope thatmost of the grenades passing over the screen will clear the trenchwhile those striking the netting will roll away from the trench. Thisprotection is very satisfactory for communications, machine gunemplacements, etc. , but, is of doubtful value in fire trenches as itdoes not permit an easy offensive by the defenders. [Illustration: Fig. 5 _Bomb Screen_] =1204. Tanks. = The so-called "tanks, " first used by the British armiesin the battle of the Somme in September, 1916, are in reality armoredcaterpillar tractors carrying machine guns and capable of traversingrough ground, smashing down trees and entanglements, and passingacross the ground between the opposing trenches over the shell holesmade by the opposing artillery. The machinery, guns and crew are contained in an armored body and thetwo tractor belts extend to full length on either side, being soarranged that the tank can climb a steep slope. From the meager dataobtainable it would appear that the tanks carry from 4 to 6 machineguns in armored projections built out from the sides. These areprovided with revolving shields permitting two guns to fire in anydirection at one time. The principle of the tractor is similar to that of those manufacturedin the United States and used commercially in reclamation work. Theaddition of the armored body and guns makes the "military tank. " These "tanks" have proven of great value in village fighting, bysmashing down barricades and driving machine guns from their positionsin cellars and houses. They have also been used with some success indestroying obstacles. The power of these new engines may be judged from their ability tosmash down trees six inches in diameter and by means of cables touproot trees as large as 15 inches in diameter. These "tanks" are proof against rifle and machine gun fire, but areunable to withstand even light artillery. =1205. Helmets. = Steel helmets made their appearance in the Europeanwar in 1915, as a protection to the soldier's head against rifle, machine gun and shrapnel fire. So successful were they that they arebeing furnished to all troops on the battlefield. Already severalmillions have been supplied. Where heretofore head wounds accountedfor over 20 per cent of the casualties in trench warfare, thepercentage has been reduced by the wearing of helmets to about onehalf per cent. While the helmet does not afford complete protectionagainst rifle and shrapnel fire, it has been found that hits resultonly in severe concussion, where before fatal wound resulted. Thesehelmets are painted khaki color. =1206. Masks. = Steel masks for sentinels and snipers have been adoptedby the Germans. This mask covers the head and face with curvedsurfaces which deflect bullets. Small eye holes permit a clear view ofthe target and a small section is omitted in the lower right side topermit bringing the rifle against the cheek in firing. =1207. Periscopes. = Periscopes have been universally adopted in trenchwarfare for observing the enemy while keeping completely under cover. It is a simple arrangement of two mirrors in a vertical tube. Theupper reflects the image of the object to the lower mirror which inturn reflects it to the eye of the observer. By raising the top of theperiscope above the parapet the soldier can watch the foreground whileat the same time remaining completely concealed himself. A more elaborate periscope for the control of artillery fire has acollapsible tube which may be extended and elevated to a height of 75feet. =1208. Sniperscope. = This is a combination of the periscope and rifleby means of which a soldier can aim and fire his piece at an objectwithout exposing himself above the parapet. =1209. Aids to firing. = Rifles laid in notched boards placed in theparapet may be sighted and prepared for night firing, or a wirestretched just outside of the loophole on which the barrel of therifle can rest when in the proper firing position to cover certainpoints, enables the soldier to fire effectively at night when it istoo dark to aim. =1210. Mining. = Military mining consists of digging communications andchambers underground and placing therein charges of explosives andfiring such charges. Mining is slow and restricted in its applicationand therefore this method of attack is used against very strong pointsof the enemy's line, --a salient, a building, or other point, --held ingreat force. The aim in mine warfare is to make a sudden breach in theenemy's trench, destroy the flanking supports which could be used tostop this breach and then to take the trench by assault and organizeit for defense before the enemy's forces, disorganized from theexplosion, can recover. Sometimes mines are placed in front of the trenches and explodedelectrically when the enemy reaches them in attempting an assault. =1211. Countermining. = The enemy, when mining operations aresuspected, runs out tunnels to meet the opposing mine. Sometimeslistening galleries are driven underground and men posted to detectthe sound of mining operations. Once the direction of the opposingtunnel is discovered a charge of explosive is laid across its approachand fired at a moment when it will cause the most damage. FOOTNOTES: [14] To those desiring to go into the subject of trench warfare indetail, the author would recommend "Trench Warfare, " by himself. George Banta Publishing Co. , Menasha, Wis. ; $1. 25. CHAPTER XIII MARCHES (Based on Infantry Drill Regulations and Field Service Regulations) =1212. Marching principal occupation of troops in campaign. = Marchingconstitutes the principal occupation of troops in campaign and is oneof the causes of heaviest loss. This loss, however, may be materiallyreduced by proper training and by carrying out strictly the rulesregulating the conduct of marches, especially the rules of marchdiscipline. =1213. Physical training; hardening new troops. = By systematic andprogressive physical exercises and actual marching, Infantry can beaccustomed to the fatigue of bearing arms and equipment. With new or untrained troops, the process of hardening the men to thiswork must be gradual. It should begin with ten-minute periods ofvigorous setting-up exercises three times a day to loosen and developthe muscles. One march should be made each day with full equipment, beginning with a distance of 2 or 3 miles and increasing the distancedaily as the troops become hardened, until a full day's march underfull equipment may be made without exhaustion. =1214. Long march not to be made with untrained troops. = A long marchshould not be made with untrained troops. If a long distance must becovered in a few days, the first march should be short, the lengthbeing increased each succeeding day. =1215. A successful march. = A successful march, whether in peace orwar, is one that places the troops at their destination at the propertime and _in the best possible physical condition_. Therefore, everypossible effort, by exercising care and judgment, and by enforcingmarch discipline, must be made by all officers and noncommissionedofficers to have the troops reach their destination in good physicalcondition, --"ready for business. " Preparation =1216. The commander. = The commander must give such instructions aswill insure that the necessary preparations are made, --that the menand animals are in fit condition and that the men are properlyequipped; that provision has been made for rations and ammunition;that the wagons are properly loaded; that the necessary arrangementshave been made for caring for the sick, etc. =1217. Organization commanders. = Every organization commander isresponsible that such of the above requirements as apply to hisorganization are complied with. =1218. Filling canteens. = It is an invariable rule that all canteensmust be filled before the march begins. Starting =1219. Time to start. = When practicable, marches begin in the morning, ample time being allowed for the men to breakfast, animals to feed, and the wagons or animals to be packed. The time for reveille, if different from the usual hour, should beannounced the evening before. The exact hour for the start depends, of course, upon circumstances. However, as a rule, foot troops do not start before broad daylight;mounted troops, when practicable, about an hour after broad daylight. In order to avoid intense heat, especially in the tropics, and also, in the case of long marches, to avoid reaching destination after dark, an earlier start than usual must be made. Both men and animals rest well in the early morning hours, and shouldnot, therefore, have this rest interrupted unless there is some realnecessity for it. Starting at night or at an hour that will cause a part of the march tobe made at night, should, if possible, be avoided, because of thedifficulties and disadvantages of night marching. Conduct of the march =1220. The rate of march. = The rate of march varies with the length ofmarch, kind of troops, equipment carried, size of command, conditionof troops, state of the weather, condition of roads, and othercircumstances. However, whatever the rate may be it should be_uniform_, that is most important, as there is nothing that willirritate and tire a command more than a varying, un-uniform rate ofmarch. The rate of march is regulated by the commander of the leading companyor some one designated by him, who should give the matter specialattention, _the rate being checked from time to time by a watch_. On a march of several days' duration the position of companies isordinarily changed daily, so that each in turn leads. With trained troops, in commands of a regiment or less, marching overaverage roads, the rate should be from 2-3/4 to 3 miles per hour. Withlarger commands carrying full equipment, the rate will be from 2 to2-1/2 miles per hour. Assuming that the length of step of the average man is 30 inches, thefollowing rate-of-march table is deduced: +------------------------+-------+ | | Miles | | Steps per minute | per | | | hour | +------------------------+-------+ | 35 (1/5) | 1 | | 70 | 2 | | 88 (in practice, 90) | 2-1/2 | | 97 (in practice, 100) | 2-3/4 | | 106 (in practice, 110) | 3 | +------------------------+-------+ [Note. By remembering that 35 (1/5) steps per minute gives 1 mile perhour, the number of steps per minute necessary to give a rate of 2, 2-1/2, 2-3/4 and 3 miles per hour, is quickly and easily obtained bymultiplying 35 (1/5) by these numbers. ] In hot, sultry weather, with the men carrying the full pack, the rateof march would naturally be considerably less than on a cool day, withthe command not carrying the pack. It is most important that these andother considerations affecting the rate of march be constantly bornein mind by the officer in command of the column, who should indicateto the commander of the leading company the number of steps to betaken per minute. In indicating the number of steps to be taken perminute, it should be considered whether the men at the head of theleading company are the average, above the average, or below theaverage in height. A short man, for example, would probably have totake 100 steps a minute to keep up with a tall man walking at the rateof 90 steps per minute. =1221. Marching capacity. = The average marching capacity of Infantryis about 15 miles a day, but in extensive operations, involving largebodies of troops, the average is about 12 miles a day. Small commandsof seasoned Infantry marching on good roads in cool weather canaverage about 20 miles a day. =1222. Halts. = A halt of 15 minutes should be made after the firsthalf or three quarters of an hour of marching to enable the men toattend to the calls of nature and adjust their clothing. Judgment mustbe exercised in selecting the place for this halt; it should not bemade in a village or other place where its object would be defeated. After the first halt a halt of 10 minutes is made in each hour, thatis, the troops march 50 minutes and then halt 10. Of course, thenumber and length of halts should be varied according to the weather, condition of the roads and the equipment carried by the men. In thetropics the best results are often obtained by marching 45 minutes andhalting 15. When the day's march will run well into the afternoon, a halt of aboutone hour should be made at noon and the men allowed to eat. Places for long halts should be selected with care; woods, water andshade are desirable features. Arms are stacked and equipments removed. Halts should not be made in or near towns or villages unless toprocure water or supplies, and when so made, the men remain in column, details being sent for whatever is necessary. In hot weather, especially in the tropics, it may be advisable in thecase of long marches to halt for three or four hours during thehottest part of the day and finish the march in the late afternoon orearly evening. As a general proposition, however, it is inadvisable toarrive at a strange place after nightfall or even late in theafternoon. =1223. Crossing bridges and fords. = When a cause of delay, --forexample, a damaged bridge, --is encountered, the troops in rear arenotified of the minimum length of the delay; they then conductthemselves as at regular halts. In ascending or descending slopes, crossing streams or otherobstacles, or passing through defiles requiring a reduction of front, every precaution is taken to prevent interruption of the march of thetroops in rear. If the distances are not sufficient to prevent check, units are allowed to overlap; if necessary, streams are crossed at twoor more places at the same time; in passing through short defiles thepace is accelerated and the exit cleared at once. If a company unit is delayed while crossing an obstacle, the headslackens the pace or halts until all of that unit has passed; it thenresumes its place in the column, increasing the pace, if necessary. Before attempting to cross with bodies of troops, careful examinationis made of fords, boggy places, bridges of doubtful character, ice, etc. , as the case may be. Troops must never cross a bridge in cadence, --that is, the men mustnot be in step. In fording a deep stream with a swift current, the men cross on asbroad a front as possible, marching abreast and holding hands. Theyshould not look at the water, but at the opposite shore. If the fordis wide enough, mounted troops may cross at the same time on theupstream side, thus breaking the force of the current. Fords that are at all difficult delay long columns unless the troopscross at several places at once. =1224. Straggling and elongation of column. = The marching efficiencyof an organization is judged by the amount of straggling andelongation of the column and the condition of the men at the end ofthe march. An officer of each company marches in its rear to prevent undueelongation and straggling. If there be only one officer with acompany, the first sergeant performs this duty. No man should leave the ranks without permission. If necessary for aman to fall out on account of sickness, he should be given a permit todo so by the company commander or the officer at the rear of thecompany. This permit is presented to the surgeon, who will admit himto the ambulance, have him wait for the trains, or follow and rejoinhis company at the first halt. It is the duty of all officers and noncommissioned officers to preventstraggling and elongation of the column. MISCELLANEOUS =1225. Forced marches. = A forced march may be said to be a march ofmore than average length. Forced marches seriously impair the fighting power of even the besttroops, and should be undertaken only in cases of necessity. Such marches are generally made by increasing the number of marchinghours. For large columns of Infantry marching long distances, increaseof pace is seldom of value. =1226. Night marches. = While night marches are some times made in veryhot weather to avoid the heat of the day, they are generally made forthe purpose of surprising the enemy, escaping observation byaeroplane, or for securing a favorable position from which to attackthe enemy at dawn. Moonlight and good roads are favorable for night marches. Precaution must be taken that the proper road is followed and thatcontact between units is maintained, men being stationed, ifnecessary, to mark changes of direction. If necessary, guides aresecured and charged with the duty of following the right road. When, due to unfavorable conditions, units cannot be kept well closed, menwill be placed at forks and crossings of roads, especially on verydark nights. When in hostile territory, silence is maintained; articles ofequipment are secured to prevent rattling, and smoking and talking arenot permitted. Also, under certain conditions villages and farmhousesare avoided on account of warning given by dogs. Night marches impair the efficiency of a command and are neverundertaken without good reason. =1227. Compliments. = As a rule, troops on the march pay nocompliments; individuals salute when they address, or are addressedby, a superior officer. =1228. Protection on the march. = Protection on the march is furnishedby covering detachments known as advance guards, rear guards and flankguards. =1229. Fitting of shoes and care of feet. = In view of the fact thatthe greater part of the Infantry soldier's occupation in the fieldconsists of marching, too much stress cannot be laid upon theimportance of his paying special attention to the fitting of his shoesand the care of his feet. An Infantryman with sore feet is like a lame duck trying to keep upwith the rest of the flock. Keep your feet clean. Dirty feet invite blisters. An excellentpreventative against sore feet is to wash them every night in hot(preferably salt) water and then dry them thoroughly. If this is notpracticable, then mop them every evening with a wet towel andinvigorate the skin with a good rubbing. Keep the nails cut close. Rubbing the feet with hard soap, grease, or oil of any kind, andputting ordinary talcum powder in the shoes before starting on amarch, are very good to prevent sore feet. Blisters should be pricked and the water let out, but the skin mustnever be removed. Adhesive plaster on top of the blister will preventthe skin from being pulled off. In case of sore or blistered feet, considerable relief can be obtainedby rubbing them with tallow from a lighted candle and a little whiskeyor alcohol in some other form, and putting the socks on at once. A little alum in warm water is excellent for tender feet. The old soldier has learned from long experience in marching, to turnhis socks inside out before putting them on thus putting the smoothside next to his skin and possible seams or lumps next to the shoe. The thickness of the sock protects the skin and helps preventblisters. _Under no circumstances should a soldier ever start on a march with apair of new shoes. _ Each soldier should have on hand at all times two pair of serviceableshoes well broken in. Remember that it is much better to prevent sore feet by taking theprecautions outlined above, than it is to have to treat your feetafter they have become sore. CHAPTER XIV CAMPS =1230. Principles governing selection of camp sites. = The followingbasic principles govern in the selection of camp sites: (a) The water supply should be sufficient, pure, and accessible. (b) The ground should accommodate the command with as little crowdingas possible, be easily drained, and have no stagnant water within 300yards. (c) There should be good roads to the camp and good interiorcommunication. (d) Camp sites should be so selected that troops of one unit need notpass through the camp grounds of another to reach their own camp. (e) Wood, grass, forage, and supplies must be at hand or obtainable. (f) In campaign, tactical considerations come first in the selectionof camp sites, capability of defense being especially considered, and, as a result, troops may have to camp many nights on objectionableground. (g) However, sanitary considerations must always be given all theweight possible consistent with the tactical requirements. Through nofault of their own, troops occupying an unsanitary site may suffergreater losses than in the battles of a long campaign. =1231. Desirable camp sites. = The following conditions are desirablefor camp sites: (a) Porous soil, covered with stout turf and underlaid by a sandy orgravelly subsoil. (b) High banks of rivers, provided no marshes are near. (c) In cold weather, a southern exposure, with woods to the north tobreak the cold winds. (d) In warm weather, an exposure toward the prevailing winds, withsite moderately shaded by trees. =1232. Undesirable camp sites. = The following conditions areundesirable for camp sites: (a) Clay soil, or where the ground water approaches the surface, suchsites being damp and unhealthful. (b) Alluvial, marshy ground, and ground near the base of hills, ornear thick woods or dense vegetation are also damp. (c) Ravines and depressions are likely to be unduly warm and to haveinsufficient or undesirable currents. (d) Proximity to marshes or stagnant water is usually damp, and hasmosquitoes, which transmit malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever. (e) Old camp sites are dangerous, as they are often permeated byelements of disease which persist for considerable periods. (f) Dry beds of streams are subject to sudden freshets. (g) In the tropics troops should not camp nearer than 500 yards tonative huts or villages because of danger from malarial infection. =1233. Form and dimensions of camps. = The form and dimensions of campsdepend upon the tactical situation and the amount and nature of groundavailable. However, in general, the form and dimensions of aregimental or battalion camp should conform as nearly as practicableto the diagram on the opposite page, and camps of all sizes should, asfar as possible, conform to the principles, regarding arrangement, underlying the diagram given on the opposite page, which gives thegeneral form, dimensions, and interior arrangements of a camp for aregiment of Infantry at war strength. In certain cases, particularlyin one-night halts in the presence of the enemy, camps must ofnecessity be contracted, while in other cases, where a more extendedhalt is contemplated and where tactical reasons will permit, bettercamp sanitation may be secured, and a more comfortable arrangementmade by the expansion of camp areas. =1234. Making camp. = The command should be preceded by the commandingofficer or a staff officer, who selects the camp site, and designates, by planting stakes, the lines of tents, the positions of the sinks, guard tent, kitchens, picket line, etc. After the companies are marched to their proper positions and arms arestacked, the details for guard and to bring wood, water, dig sinks, pitch tents, handle rations, etc. , should be made before ranks arebroken. Immediately upon reaching camp and before the men are allowed to goaround, patrolling sentinels should be established to prevent men frompolluting the camp site or adjoining ground before the sinks areconstructed. Sentinels should be posted over the water supply without delay. As soon as the tents have been pitched and the sinks dug, the campshould be inspected and all unnecessary sentinels relieved. The tents should be pitched and the sinks dug simultaneously. Should the troops reach camp before the wagons, the companies may bedivided into squads and set to work clearing the ground, gatheringfire wood, collecting leaves, grass, etc. , for beds, etc. The moment a command reaches camp its officers and men usually want togo here and there under all sorts of pretexts. No one should beallowed to leave camp until all necessary instructions have beengiven. Enlisted men should not be permitted to leave camp without permissionof their company commanders. Sick call should be held as soon as practicable after the tents havebeen pitched. [Illustration: Fig. 1 CAMP OF A REGIMENT OF INFANTRY, WAR STRENGTH] MISCELLANEOUS =1235. Retreat. = In camp retreat formation should always be underarms, an officer being present with each company and inspecting thearms. =1236. Parade ground. = In front of every camp of permanent nature, there should be a parade ground for drills and ceremonies. =1237. Camping on fordable stream. = In camping for the night on afordable stream that is to be crossed, cross before going into camp, unless there is some tactical reason for not doing so; for a suddenrise, or the appearance of the enemy, might prevent the crossing thenext morning. =1238. Windstorms. = Whenever windstorms are expected, the tent pegsshould be secured and additional guy ropes attached to the tents. Tents may be prevented from blowing down by being made fast at thecorners to posts firmly driven into the ground, or by passing ropesover the ridge poles and fastening them to pegs firmly set into theground. =1239. Making tent poles and pegs fast in loose soil. = If the soil beloose or sandy, stones or other hard material should be placed underthe tent poles to prevent their working into the soil, thus leavingthe tent slack and unsteady. When the soil is so loose that the pegswill not hold at all, fasten the guy ropes to brush, wood or rocksburied in the ground. =1240. Trees sometimes dangerous. = While trees add very much to thecomfort of a camp, care should be exercised not to pitch tents neartrees whose branches or trunks might fall. CHAPTER XV CAMP SANITATION =1241. Definition. = By "Camp Sanitation" is meant the adoption ofmeasures to keep the camp in a healthy condition. These measurescomprise: (a) The disposal, so as to render them harmless and prevent pollution, of all wastes, refuse and excreta from men and animals in suitableplaces provided therefor; (b) The care exercised in handling, preparing and serving food; (c) The adequacy of shelter for the men; (d) The maintenance of proper drainage; (e) The supply of water for bathing and washing, and the maintenanceof a pure supply for drinking. =1242. Camp expedients. = "Camp-expedients" is the name given themechanical means used to put into effect some of the measures, namedabove, connected with camp sanitation, and usually consist oflatrines, kitchen sinks, urinal tubs, rock or earth incinerators, anddrainage ditches. =1243. Latrines. = The latrines must be dug immediately upon reachingcamp--their construction must not be delayed until the camps have beenpitched and other duties performed. The exact location of the latrinesshould be determined by the commanding officer, or by some officerdesignated by him, the following considerations being observed: 1. They should be so located as not to contaminate the water supply. 2. They should not be placed where they can be flooded by rain waterfrom higher ground, nor should they be so placed that they can pollutethe camp by overflow in case of heavy rains. 3. They should be as far from the tents as is compatible withconvenience--if too near, they will be a source of annoyance; if toofar, some men, especially at night, and particularly if affected withdiarrhoea, will defecate before reaching the latrine. Under ordinarycircumstances, a distance of about 50 yards is considered sufficient. Latrines for the men are always located on the opposite side of thecamp from the kitchens, generally one for each company unit and onefor the officers of a battalion or squadron. They are so placed thatthe drainage or overflow can not pollute the water supply or campgrounds. When the camp is for one night only, straddle trenches suffice. Incamp of longer duration, and when it is not possible to providelatrine boxes, as for permanent camps, deeper trenches should be dug. These may be used as straddle trenches or a seat improvised. When opentrenches are used the excrement must be kept covered at all times witha layer of earth. In more permanent camps the trenches should be 2feet wide, 6 feet deep, and 15 feet long, and suitably screened. Seatswith lids are provided and covered to the ground to keep flies fromreaching the deposits; urinal troughs discharging into trenches areprovided. Each day the latrine boxes are thoroughly cleaned, outsideby scrubbing and inside by applying, when necessary, a coat of oil orwhitewash. The pit is burned out daily with approximately 1 gallon oiland 15 pounds straw. When filled to within 2 feet of the surface, suchlatrines are discarded, filled with earth, and their position marked. All latrines and kitchen pits are filled in before the march isresumed. In permanent camps and cantonments, urine tubs may be placedin the company streets at night and emptied after reveille. All latrines must be filled before marching. The followingillustration shows a very simple and excellent latrine seat which canbe made and kept in the company permanently for use in camps on themarch: [Illustration: Fig. 1] Urinal troughs, made of muslin and coated with oil or paint, shoulddischarge into the trenches. =1244. Urinal tubs. = When obtainable, urinal tubs or cans should beplaced in the company streets at night, their location being indicatedby lighted lanterns, the tubs or cans being removed at reveille. =1245. Kitchens. = Camp kettles can be hung on a support consisting ofa green pole lying in the crotches of two upright posts of the samecharacter. A narrow trench for the fire, about 1 foot deep, dug underthe pole, not only protects the fire from the wind but saves fuel. [Illustration: Fig. 2] A still greater economy of fuel can be effected by digging a similartrench in the direction of the wind and slightly narrower than thediameter of the kettles. The kettles are then placed on the trench andthe space between the kettles filled in with stones, clay, etc. , leaving the flue running beneath the kettles. The draft can beimproved by building a chimney of stones, clay, etc. , at the leewardend of the flue. [Illustration: Fig. 3] Four such trenches radiating from a common central chimney will giveone flue for use whatever may be the direction of the wind. [Illustration: Fig. 4] A slight slope of the flue, from the chimney down, provides fordrainage and improves the draft. The lack of portable ovens can be met by ovens constructed of stoneand covered with earth to better retain the heat. If no stone isavailable, an empty barrel, with one head out, is laid on its side, covered with wet clay to a depth of 6 or more inches and then with alayer of dry earth equally thick. A flue is constructed with the clayabove the closed end of the barrel, which is then burned out with ahot fire. This leaves a baked clay covering for the oven. A recess can be similarly constructed with boards or even brushwood, supported on a horizontal pole resting on upright posts, covered andburnt out as in the case of the barrel. When clay banks are available, an oven may be excavated therein andused at once. To bake in such ovens, first heat them and then close flues and ends. Food must be protected from flies, dust, and sun. Facilities must beprovided for cleaning and scalding the mess equipment of the men. Kitchens and the ground around them must be kept scrupulously clean. Solid refuse should be promptly burned, either in the kitchen fire orin an improvised crematory. In temporary camps, if the soil is porous, liquid refuse from thekitchens may be strained through gunny sacking into seepage pits dugnear the kitchen. Flies must not have access to these pits. Boards orpoles, covered with brush or grass and a layer of earth may be usedfor this purpose. The strainers should also be protected from flies. Pits of this kind, dug in clayey soil, will not operate successfully. All pits should be filled with earth before marching. As a precautionary measure against setting the camp on fire, all drygrass, underbrush, etc. , in the immediate vicinity of the kitchenshould be cut down. In case of a fire in camp, underbrush, spades, shovels, blankets, etc. , are used to beat it out. Gunny sacks dipped in water are the best fire fighters. Burning away dried grass and underbrush around exterior of camp is agreat protection against fire from outside. =1246. Kitchen pits. = Pits of convenient size should be constructedfor the liquid refuse from the kitchens. Solid refuse should be burnedeither in the kitchen fire or at some designated place, depending uponwhether the camp is of a temporary or permanent nature. Unless thecamp be of a very temporary nature, the pits should be covered withboards or other material in order to exclude the flies. All pits should be filled in with earth before breaking camp. =1247. Incinerators. = The incineration pit shown in the followingdiagram, affords an excellent, simple and economical way of disposingof camp waste and offal, tin cans and dish-water included: [Illustration: Fig. 5] =Description:= The pit is about 4-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 feet wide and 2 feet deep atone end and 2-1/2 at the other. It is partially filled with stones, the larger ones on the bottom and the smaller on the top. At one endof the pit the stones extend a little above the surface, and slopegradually toward the other end until the fire pit is reached teninches below the surface of the trench. Over the fire pit, about fiveinches above the ground, is placed a crab or a piece of boiler iron, on which is boiled all the water for washing dishes, etc. The fire pitis only about one-half of the stone surface, as the radiated heatkeeps the rest of the stones hot, causing all dish and slop water toevaporate quickly. Any tin cans that may be thrown into the fire pit are removed after ashort exposure to the heat and placed in a trench especially dug forthe purpose. The company incinerator shown below was used with great success bysome of our troops at Texas City, Texas. The rocks should not be toolarge. The men should be instructed to drop all liquid on the sidesof the incinerator and throw all solid matter on the fire--the liquidswill thus be evaporated and the solids burned. Until the men learn howto use the incinerator properly, a noncommissioned officer should bedetailed to supervise its use. [Illustration: Fig. 6] =1248. Drainage. = When camp is established for an indefinite period, drainage should be attended to at once. Each tent should have ashallow trench dug around it and the company and other streets ditchedon both sides, all the trenches and ditches connecting with a ditchthat carries the water from the camp. All surface drainage from higherground should be intercepted and turned aside. =1249. Avoiding old camp sites. = The occupation of old camp sites isdangerous, since these are often permeated by elements of diseasewhich persist for considerable periods. =1250. Changing camp sites. = Camp sites must be changed promptly whenthere is evidence of soil pollution or when epidemic diseasethreatens. Also, a change of camp site is often desirable in order tosecure a change of surroundings and to abandon areas that have becomedusty and cut up. =1251. Bunks. = Place a number of small poles about seven feet longclose together, the upper ends resting on a cross pole about sixinches in diameter and the lower ends resting on the ground; or, thepoles may be raised entirely off the ground by being placed on crosspoles supported by forked stakes at the corners; on the poles placegrass, leaves, etc. =1252. Wood. = The firewood should be collected, cut and piled near thekitchen. Dry wood is usually found under logs or roots of trees. If wagons are not heavily loaded it is sometimes a good plan to bringa few sticks of dry wood from the preceding camp, or to pick up goodwood en route. =1253. Water. = Precautionary measures should always be taken toprevent the contamination of the water, and a guard from the firsttroops reaching camp should at once be placed over the water supply. If the water is obtained from a stream, places should be designated asfollows for getting water: (1) For drinking and cooking; (2) For watering animals; (3) For bathing and for washing clothing. The first designated place should be farthest up the stream; theothers, in the order named, downstream. Where two bodies of troops are to camp on the same stream one must notpollute the water to be used by the other. This can be arranged by thecommanders agreeing upon a point where both commands will obtain theirdrinking water, upon a second point where animals will be watered, etc. If the stream be small, the water supply may be increased by buildinga dam. Small springs may be dug out and each lined with a gabion, or a barrelor box with both ends removed, or with stones, the space between thelining and the earth being filled with puddled clay. A rim of clayshould be built to keep out surface drainage. The same method may beused near swamps, streams, or lakes to increase or clarify the watersupply. Water that is not known to be pure should be boiled 20 minutes; itshould then be cooled and aerated by being poured repeatedly from oneclean container to another, or it may be purified by apparatussupplied for the purpose. Arrangements should be made for men to draw water from the authorizedreceptacles by means of a spigot or other similar arrangement. Thedipping of water from the receptacles, or the use of a common drinkingcup, should be prohibited. In the field it is sometimes necessary to sterilize or filter water. The easiest and surest way of sterilizing water is by boiling. Boiledwater should be aerated by being poured from one receptacle to anotheror by being filtered through charcoal or clean gravel. Unless boiledwater be thus aerated it is very unpalatable and it is with difficultythat troops can be made to drink it. Filtration merely clarifies--it does not purify. The following aresimple methods of filtration: 1. Dig a hole near the source of supply so that the water maypercolate through the soil before being used. 2. Sink a barrel or box into the ground, the water entering thereinthrough a wooden trough packed with clean sand, gravel or charcoal. 3. Place a box or barrel in another box or barrel of larger size, filling the space between with clean sand, gravel, moss or charcoal, and piercing holes near the bottom of the outer barrel and near thetop of the inner. The filter thus constructed is partly submerged inthe water to be filtered. 4. Bore a small hole in the bottom of a barrel or other suitablereceptacle, which is partly filled with layers of sand, gravel, and, if available, charcoal and moss. The water is poured in at the top andis collected as it emerges from the aperture below. The amount of water used by troops is usually computed at the rate offive gallons for each man and ten gallons for each animal per day. =1254. Rules of sanitation. = The following rules of sanitation are tobe observed: Men should not lie on damp ground. In temporary camps and in bivouacthey raise their beds if suitable material, such as straw, leaves, orboughs can be obtained, or use their ponchos or slickers. In coldweather and when fuel is plentiful the ground may be warmed by fires, the men making their beds after raking away the ashes. When troops are to remain in camp for some time all underbrush iscleared away and the camp made as comfortable as possible. Wateringtroughs, shelter in cold weather, and shade in hot, are provided forthe animals, if practicable. The camp is policed daily after breakfast and all refuse matterburned. Tent walls are raised and the bedding and clothing aired daily, weather permitting. Tents must be kept clean and in order. The company street and the ground around the tents must be kept clean. Food, slop water, rags, paper, empty tin cans, and other trash andrefuse must not be thrown on the ground, but should be put in the box, can or other receptacle provided for the purpose or thrown into theincinerator. The food must be protected from flies, dust and sun. Under no circumstances must the company street or any other part ofthe camp grounds be defiled by urinating or deficating thereon. Theurinal tub and the latrine must invariably be used. When an open trench is used as a sink, each individual must alwayscover his excrement with dirt. If the sink is inclosed by a box with stool-covers, the covers mustalways be put down as soon as one is through using them so as to keepout the flies. However it is found in practice that men will not dothis therefore it is a good plan to construct the covers so that theywill close automatically when a man rises from the seat. Kitchen garbage must be burned in a pit or incinerator, or put into_covered_ cans and hauled away. _The covers must be kept on the cansat all times_, so as to keep out the flies. Horses are not to be ridden through camp except on the roadways. As soon as a tent is pitched it should be ditched. When it rains the guy ropes must be loosened to prevent the tent pegsfrom pulling out and the tent falling down. The body and the clothes should be cleaned daily as thoroughly as themeans at hand will permit. In the morning wash the face and neck and don't fail to use your toothbrush afterward. In the continued absence of opportunity for bathing it is well to takean air bath and a moist or dry rub before getting into freshunderclothes. If the lack of opportunity to wash clothes continues for any length oftime, soiled clothes and bedding must be frequently exposed to the sunand air. Sunshine is a good germ killer. If there are mosquitoes in camp, mosquito bars must be used by menwhen asleep, and headnets by men on guard and other duty. Also, if ina malarial country, about five grains of quinine should be takendaily, preferably just before supper. In localities where a perniciousform of malaria prevails, daily doses of ten grains of quinine shouldbe given. In the tropics troops are require to camp at least 500 yards away fromall native huts or villages as a preventative measure against malaria. Men are also prohibited from visiting these places at night for thesame reason. Clean your mess kit thoroughly after every meal, if practicable, washing same with soap and boiling water. The company cooks must keep everything in the kitchen and mess tentclean with hot water and soap. Boil the utensils and dish rags, and besure to throw all slops and garbage into the kitchen incinerator. Rest and sleep are most important to preserve the health, so, keep thebody rested by plenty of sleep. Do not join idle parties going to walkthe streets of the nearest town at nights, nor sit up late playingcards. Observe in camp even with greater care than when in barracks the rulesof health and personal hygiene. (See pars. 1451-1477. ) =1255. Your camp, your home. = A soldier should always look upon hiscamp as his home, which it is for the time being. Your tent is yourbedroom; the company street, your sitting-room; the latrine, yourtoilet; the mess tent, your dining-room; the camp kitchen, yourkitchen; the bathing facilities, your bathroom. And as you are carefulabout keeping your bedroom and the other rooms of your home in a cleanand orderly condition, so should you do your share to keep your tentand the other parts of camp in a clean, sanitary condition. CHAPTER XVI INDIVIDUAL COOKING =1256. Importance of individual cooking. = It often happens in campaignthat it is impossible to have the field ranges and cooking utensilsaccompany the troops, and in such case each man must cook his own foodin his mess kit. Also, it frequently happens that detachmentsoperating away from their companies must do individual cooking. All food we eat should be properly cooked, if not, stomach orintestinal trouble will result. Hence, the importance of every soldierlearning how to cook in his mess kit the main components of theration. =1257. Fire. = Remember that the best fire for cooking is a small, clear one, or better yet, a few brisk coals. Dig a hole in the groundwith your bayonet and make your fire in it with dry wood, starting itwith paper, shavings, dry leaves or dry grass. If preferred the fire may be made between two small flat stones orbricks, care being taken to so place the stones that the draft willpass between them. The mess pan can be placed on the stones, acrossthe fire, and the cup for boiling the coffee at the end away from thedraft where it will get the most heat. This method will, as a rule, be necessary on rocky or stony ground. =1258. Recipes. = The following recipes, which are based on the WarDepartment publication, "Manual for Army Cooks, " require the use ofonly the soldier's mess kit, --knife, fork, spoon, cup, and mess pan: Meats =1259. Bacon. = Cut side of bacon in half lengthwise. Then cut slicesabout five to the inch, three of which should generally be sufficientfor one man for one meal. Place in a mesa pan with about one-half inchof cold water. Let come to a boil and then pour the water off. Fryover a brisk fire, turning the bacon once and quickly browning it. Remove the bacon to lid of mess pan, leaving the grease for fryingpotatoes, onions, rice flapjacks, etc. , according to recipe. =1260. Fresh meat. = _To fry. _--To fry, a small amount of grease (1 to2 spoonfuls) is necessary. Put grease in mess pan and let come to asmoking temperature, then drop in the steak and, if about one-halfinch thick, let fry for about one minute before turning--dependingupon whether it is desired it shall be rare, medium, or well done. Then turn and fry briskly as before. Salt and pepper to taste. Applies to beef, veal, pork, mutton, venison, etc. =1261. Fresh meat. = _To broil. _--Cut in slices about 1 inch thick, from half as large as the hand to four times that size. Sharpen astick or branch of convenient length, say from 2 to 4 feet long, andweave the point of the stick through the steak several times so thatit may be readily turned over a few brisk coals or on the windwardside of a small fire. Allow to brown nicely, turning frequently. Saltand pepper to taste. Meat with considerable fat is preferred, thoughany meat may be broiled in this manner. =1262. Fresh meat. = _To stew. _--Cut into chunks from one-half inch to1 inch cubes. Fill cup about one-third full of meat and cover withabout 1 inch of water. Let boil or simmer about one hour or untiltender. Add such fibrous vegetables as carrots, turnips, or cabbage, cut into small chunks, soon after the meat is put on to boil, andpotatoes, onions, or other tender vegetables when the meat is abouthalf done. Amount of vegetables to be added, about the same as meat, depending upon supply and taste. Salt and pepper to taste. Applies toall fresh meats and fowls. The proportion of meat and vegetables usedvaries with their abundance and fixed quantities can not be adheredto. Fresh fish can be handled as above, except that it is cooked muchquicker, and potatoes, onions, and canned corn are the only vegetablesgenerally used with it, thus making a chowder. A slice of bacon wouldgreatly improve the flavor. May be conveniently cooked in mess pan ortin cup. Fresh Vegetables =1263. Potatoes, fried. = Take two medium-sized potatoes or one largeone (about one-half pound), peel and cut into slices about one-fourthinch thick and scatter well in the mess pan in which the greaseremains after frying the bacon. Add sufficient water to half cover thepotatoes, cover with the lid to keep the moisture in, and let come toa boil from fifteen to twenty minutes. Remove the cover and dry asdesired. Salt and pepper to taste. During the cooking the baconalready prepared may be kept on the cover, which is most convenientlyplaced bottom side up over the cooking vegetables. =1264. Onions, fried. = Same as potatoes. =1265. Potatoes, boiled. = Peel two medium-sized potatoes or one largeone (about one-half pound), and cut in coarse chunks of about the samesize--say 1-1/2-inch cubes. Place in mess pan and three-fourths fillwith water. Cover with lid and let boil or simmer for fifteen ortwenty minutes. They are done when easily penetrated with a sharpstick. Pour off the water and let dry out for one or two minutes overhot ashes or light coals. =1266. Potatoes, baked. = Take two medium-sized potatoes or one largeone cut in half (about one-half pound. ) Lay in a bed of light coals, cover with same and smother with ashes. Do not disturb for thirty orforty minutes, when they should be done. =1267. Rice. = Take two-thirds of a cup of water and bring to a boil. Add 4 spoonfuls of rice and boil until soft, that is, until it can bemashed by the fingers with but little resistance. This will requireabout 15 minutes. Add 2 pinches of salt and, after stirring, pour offthe water and empty the rice out on the lid of the mess pan. =1268. Canned Tomatoes. = One 2-pound can is generally sufficient forfive men. _Stew. _ Pour into the mess pan one man's allowance of tomatoes, addabout two large hardtacks broken into small pieces, and let come to aboil. Add salt and pepper to taste, or add a pinch of salt andone-fourth spoonful of sugar. _Or_, having fried bacon, pour the tomatoes into the mess pan, thegrease remaining, and add, if desired, two broken hardtacks. Set overa brisk fire and let come to a boil. _Or_, heat the tomatoes just as they come from the can, adding twopinches of salt and one-half spoonful of sugar if desired. _Or_, especially in hot weather, eaten cold with hard bread they arevery palatable. Hot Breads =1269. Flapjack. = Take 6 spoonfuls of flour and one-third spoonful ofbaking powder and mix thoroughly (or dry mix in a large pan beforeissue, at the rate of 25 pounds of flour and three half-pound cans ofbaking powder for 100 men). Add sufficient cold water to make a batterthat will drip freely from the spoon, adding a pinch of salt. Pourinto the mess pan, which should contain the grease from fried bacon, or a spoonful of butter or fat, and place over medium hot coalssufficient to bake so that in from five to seven minutes the flapjackmay be turned over by a quick toss of the pan. Fry from five to sevenminutes longer or until, by examination, it is found to be done. =1270. Hoecake. = Hoecake is made exactly the same as a flapjack bysubstituting _corn meal_ for _flour_. Drinks =1271. Coffee. = Fill cup about two-thirds full of water and when itboils add, 1 heaping spoonful of coffee, and let boil 5 minutes. Stirgrains well when adding. Add 1 spoonful of sugar, if desired. Letsimmer ten minutes after boiling. Settle with a dash of cold water orlet stand for a few minutes. =1272. Tea. = Fill cup about two-thirds full of water and when it boilsadd 1/2 spoonful of tea, and let boil 5 minutes. Add 1 spoonful ofsugar, if desired. Let stand or "draw" 8 minutes. If allowed to standlonger, the tea will get bitter, unless separated from the grounds. =1273. Cocoa. = Fill cup about two-thirds full of water and when itboils add 1 heaping spoonful of cocoa and let boil 5 minutes. Stirwhen adding until dissolved. Add 1-1/2 spoonful of sugar, if desired. Let cool. (If available, milk should be used instead of water, andshould be kept somewhat below the boiling point. A 1-pound can ofevaporated milk with 3-1/2 quarts of water will make 1 gallon of milkof the proper consistency for making cocoa or chocolate. ) =1274. Chocolate. = Same as cocoa, using 1 cubic inch of chocolate. Emergency Ration =1275. Emergency Rations. = Detailed instructions as to the manner ofpreparing the emergency ration are found on the label with each can. Remember that even a very limited amount of bacon or hard bread, orboth, taken with the emergency ration makes it far more palatable, andgreatly extends the period during which it can be consumed withrelish. For this reason it would be better to husband the supply ofhard bread and bacon to use with the emergency ration when it becomesevident that the latter must be consumed, rather than to retain theemergency ration to the last extremity to be used exclusively for alonger period than two or three days. CHAPTER XVII CARE AND PRESERVATION OF CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT =1276. General. = A soldier's clothing and equipment are issued to himby his government for certain purposes, and he has, therefore, noright to be in any way careless or neglectful of them. The importance that the Government attaches to the proper care andpreservation of the soldier's clothing and equipment, is shown by thefact that the matter is made the subject of one of the Articles ofWar, the 84th, which prescribes that any soldier who, through neglect, loses or spoils his arms, clothing or accouterments shall suffer suchpunishment as a court-martial may direct. Clothing =1277. = Every article of clothing in your hands should receive as muchcare and attention as you give your person. Not only will your clothes last longer if properly cared for, but youwill look neater and better dressed, which will add much to yourmilitary appearance. Every soldier should have an A-1 whisk broom and no article ofclothing should ever be worn without first being thoroughly brushed. =1278. Pressing. = Occasional pressing helps to preserve and freshenclothes, --it puts new life into the cloth. Blue clothing and woolen olive drab when worn regularly should bepressed about once a week. In a company where there is an iron for general use there is no reasonwhy every soldier should not press his own clothes. =1279. Chevrons and stripes= can be cleaned by moistening a cleanwoolen rag with gasoline and rubbing the parts and then pressing witha hot iron. =1280. Leggins. = When soiled, leggins must be washed. If the legginsare allowed to dry without being rung out, they will look better. =1281. Service hat and the caps= require nothing but brushing. Shirts, underwear, socks, etc. , should be carefully folded and putaway neatly. =1282. A special suit of clothing for inspections, parades, etc. = Setaside your best suit of clothes for inspections, parades and otherceremonies. The uniform worn at these formations should not be wornaround in the barracks, --every man has sufficient "second best"garments for barrack use. =1283. Putting away. = Uniforms should be dried thoroughly, brushed andproperly folded before being put away. The number of folds should bereduced to a minimum. Before uniforms are put away they should be carefully examined and anymissing buttons, tears or stains should be attended to at once. Lockers and other places in which clothing is kept must be free fromdust. They should be wiped off occasionally with a cloth wrung out ofsoap suds. =1284. Stains. = Tailors usually remove stains with a rubber made byrolling tightly a piece of woolen cloth of some kind, about 2 incheswide, until the roll is about an inch in diameter. Rings in removing stains may be avoided by rubbing until very nearlydry. =1285. Grease spots. = Ordinarily benzine is a good stain remover incase of grease spots, but its use is more or less dangerous. It shouldbe used in an open room or out of doors and never near a fire orlights. "Carbona, " which can be purchased in almost any drug store, isexcellent for removing stains and it is perfectly safe. Carbon tetrachloride (Merck's) is much cheaper than "Carbona" andabout equally as good. It retails at 45c a pint at nearly all drugstores. Grease spots can also be removed by placing a piece of brown paper, newspaper, blotting paper or other absorbent paper over the stain, andpressing with a hot iron. =1286. Rust or ink stains= can be removed with a solution of oxalicacid. Apply rapidly and rinse at once with plenty of fresh water; thisis most important--otherwise it will probably discolor the material. =1287. Sweat stains= can not be removed. However, the color can bepartially restored and the material cleaned with a solution of ammoniaand water--1/3 liquid ammonia, 2/3 water. =1288. The shine= that is sometimes left from pressing is caused byleaving the iron on too long or using an iron that is too hot. This shine, if the cloth is not scorched, can be removed by"sponging, " i. E. , by placing a piece of damp muslin cloth on thematerial and then applying the iron only long enough to steam thesurface of the garment. =1289. Grease and oil stains= on white trouser stripes can be removedwith benzine, naptha or gasoline, applied with a stiff nail brush. Stains of rust and ink can be removed by means of oxalic acid (2ounces of oxalic acid to 1 pint of water--dissolves quickest in warmwater) applied with cloth or brush, then rinsed thoroughly with plainwater and sponge. After the stripes have dried, apply Englishpipe-clay, rubbing with the cake itself; then rub in uniformly withwoolen cloth rubber--rub vigorously--then brush off surplus pipe-clay. =1290. Paint spots. = Turpentine will take out paint spots. =1291. Gilt ornaments and gilt buttons= should be polished as often asnecessary in order to keep them fresh and bright. Use a button stickin cleaning buttons, so as not to soil the cloth. Shoes (_Instructions issued by the Quartermaster General's Office, June 16, 1899. _) =1292. General care. = Shoes should at all times be kept polished. Bybeing so kept they are made more pliable and wear longer. Shoes must withstand harder service than any other article worn, andmore shoes are ruined through neglect than by wear in actual service. Proper care should be taken in selecting shoes to secure a proper fit, and by giving shoes occasional attention much discomfort and complaintwill be avoided. =1293. Selection. = A shoe should always have ample length, as the footwill always work forward fully a half a size in the shoe when walking, and sufficient allowance for this should be made. More feet arecrippled and distorted by shoes that are too short than for any otherreason. A shoe should fit snug yet be comfortable over ball andinstep, and when first worn should not lace close together over theinstep. Leather always stretches and loosens at instep and can betaken up by lacing. The foot should always be held firmly, but not tootightly in proper position. If shoes are too loose, they allow thefoot to slip around, causing the foot to chafe; corns, bunions, andenlarged joints are the result. =1294. Repairs. = At the first sign of break, shoes should be repaired, if possible. Always keep the heels in good condition. If the heel isallowed to run down at the side, it is bad for the shoe and worse forthe foot; it also weakens the ankle and subjects the shoe to an unevenstrain, which makes it more liable to give out. Shoes, if kept inrepair, will give double the service and comfort. =1295. Shoe dressing. = The leather must not be permitted to becomehard and stiff. If it is impossible to procure a good shoedressing[15], neat's-foot oil or tallow are the best substitutes;either will soften the leather and preserve its pliability. Leatherrequires oil to preserve its pliability, and if not supplied willbecome brittle, crack, and break easily under strain. Inferiordressings are always harmful, and no dressing should be used whichcontains acid or varnish. Acid burns the leather as it would the skin, and polish containing varnish forms a false skin which soon peels off, spoiling the appearance of the shoe and causing the leather to crack. Paste polish containing turpentine should also be avoided. =1296. Perspiration. = Shoe becoming damp from perspiration should bedried naturally by evaporation. It is dangerous to dry leather byartificial heat. Perspiration contains acid which is harmful toleather, and shoes should be dried out as frequently as possible. =1297. Wet shoes. = Wet or damp shoes should be dried with great care. When leather is subjected to heat, a chemical change takes place, although no change in appearance may be noted at the time. Leatherwhen burnt becomes dry and parched and will soon crack through likepasteboard when strained. This applies to leather both in soles anduppers. When dried the leather should always be treated with dressingto restore its pliability. Many shoes are burned while on the feetwithout the knowledge of the wearer by being placed while wet on therail of a stove or near a steam pipe. Care should be taken while shoesare being worn never to place the foot where there is danger of theirbeing burned. (Note. To dry wet shoes, the last thing at night take a few handfulsof dry clean pebbles, heat them in meat can, kettle or campfire untilvery hot; place them in the shoes, --they will dry them out thoroughlyin a few hours, --shake once in awhile. Oats or corn may also be used, but they are not available always and pebbles usually are. Now is anexcellent time to grease or oil the shoes. --Author. ) =1298. Keep shoes clean. = An occasional application of soap and waterwill remove the accumulation of old dressings and allow fresh dressingto accomplish its purpose. =1299. Directions for polishing. = Russet leather should be treatedwith great care. Neither acid, lemon juice, nor banana peel should beused for cleaning purposes. Only the best liquid dressing should beused and shoes should not be rubbed while wet. =1300. Liquid dressing. = Care should be taken in using liquiddressing. Apply only a light coat and _allow this to dry into theleather before rubbing_ with a cloth. Too much dressing is wasteful. EQUIPMENT (_Instructions issued by the Ordnance Department in Pamphlet No. 1965, July 12, 1915. _) Cloth Equipment =1301. General. = All cloth equipment should be brushed frequently witha stiff bristle brush. A dry scrub brush may be used. It should be washed only under the direction and supervision of anofficer. During ordinary garrison duty it should rarely be necessary to washthe equipment. When the equipment becomes soiled a light local washing willfrequently be sufficient, but when dirty it should unhesitatingly begiven a good thorough washing, --otherwise it may be expected that itwill become unsanitary and rot. During field service it is to be expected that the equipment willbecome soiled much more rapidly. Always on return to garrison fromfield service and as opportunity offers in the field, equipment shouldbe thoroughly washed. =1302. Instructions for washing cloth equipment. = (a) _Preparation of soap solution. _ Dissolve in nine cups of hot waterone cake of H. & H. Soap or a substitute which is issued by theOrdnance Department. One cup of this solution is sufficient to clean the entire cloth andweb equipment of one man. One cake per squad is a liberal allowance. The H. & H. Soap issued by the Ordnance Department is made especiallyfor washing cloth fabrics liable to fade. If for any reason this soapis not obtainable, a good laundry soap (Ivory or equal) may be used, but in no case should the yellow soap issued by the QuartermasterCorps be used. (b) _Brushing. _ Brush the equipment thoroughly to remove all dust andmud before washing. (c) _Washing. _ Spread the belt, haversack, etc. , on a clean board orrock and apply the soap solution with a scrub brush. When a goodlather appears, wash off with clear water. In the case of a bad grease spot the direct application of soap to thebrush will ordinarily be sufficient to remove it. (d) _Drying. Always dry washed equipment in the shade. _ The sun willbleach the fabric. On return from a march in the rain, dry the equipment in the shade, ifpracticable. =1303. Shelter tent. = The shelter tent is cleaned and cared for asprescribed above for the cloth equipment. When practicable always dry your shelter tent before folding andpacking it. (Author. ) Mess Outfit =1304. Knife. = The knife blade is made of tempered steel, and when putaway for a long period should be covered with a light coating of oilto prevent rust. Keep your knife clean by washing in soap and water after every meal. Do not use the blade as a pry. If the point is broken, grind the blade down to a new point. =1305. Fork. = Keep your fork clean by washing with hot water and soapafter every meal. Never use the prongs of your fork for prying open tops of cans, extracting corks, etc. Don't permit your knife, fork or spoon to remain in vinegar or otherfoodstuffs for a long period, as verdigris will form. This corrodesthe metal and is poisonous. =1306. Spoon. = Keep your spoon clean by washing with soap and waterafter every meal. =1307. Meat can. = Do not carry meat of any kind or other greasysubstance in the meat can for a long period, as it will corrode thealuminum. If the rivets securing the hinge to the meat can become loose, a fewblows with a hammer or hand ax on the outside ends of the rivets, theheads of the rivets being backed up on a piece of metal, will tightenthem. If the hinge pin becomes loose, a nail can be used to replace it, thenail being cut with a service wire cutter and the ends of the nailheaded over slightly with a few blows of a hammer. =1308 Bacon can. = The interior of the bacon can should always be keptclean and free from hardened grease or dirt by frequent washings withsoar and water. If the cover becomes loose on the body of the can, the upper half ofthe body may be bent out until the cover is again tight. If the cover is too tight, a slight amount of flattening with a hammeron the edge of the cover, resting on a wooden block, will usuallyextend the cover sufficiently. =1309. Condiment can. = When not in use, always remove the contents. Many cans have been ruined by neglecting to do this. See that the threaded ends do not become rusty. The can should be disassembled at all inspections, so that theinspecting officer may see that no rust is present. =1310. Cup. = The cup is made of aluminum and excessive heat damagesaluminum. In using the cup for cooking never allow the contents to evaporateentirely. In other words, never hold an empty cup over a fire. Keep your cup clean with hot water and soap, --preferably H & H soap. =1311. Canteen. = Although as a rule, only soap and water should beused in cleaning aluminum, a little sand can be used to advantage incleaning the canteen. Particular attention must be taken to see that canteens are properlycleaned after they have been filled with coffee, milk or any otherfluid containing organic matter. Being made of aluminum the canteen is easily dented, and care must betaken to prevent this. When not actually in use the canteen should habitually be emptied andthe cup left off to dry. Intrenching Tools =1312. Pick mattock. = If the blade of the mattock is deformed, itshould be straightened in a vise. In the field, cracked handles of pick mattocks, shovels, and hand axesshould be wrapped with cord. =1313. Shovel. = Do not use the side edges of the shovel blade as amattock, for this will deform the blade. If the blade becomes bent, straighten it with a hammer on a block ofwood. Keep your intrenching tool free from rust, being especially carefulthat no rust gets into the sockets. Leather Equipment =1314. General. = Because of the value of leather equipment and itsrapid deterioration if neglected, the proper care of leather is mostimportant. =1315. Materials. = Two agents are necessary to the proper cleaning ofleather, --a _cleaning agent_ and an _oiling agent_. The _cleaning agent_ issued by the Ordnance Department is castilesoap; the _oiling agents_ are neat's-foot oil and harness soap. [16] The soap cleans the surface of the leather, and removes from thesurface pores of the leather, dirt, sweat, and other foreign matter, so that the oil can more readily penetrate the pores and saturate thefibers, thus making the leather pliable and elastic. =1316. Cleaning. = Daily, or as often as used, leather equipment shouldbe wiped off with a cloth slightly dampened in water, merely to removemud, dust or other foreign substances. This daily care will do much to maintain the appearance of theequipment, but it is, however, insufficient of itself to properlypreserve it. Leather should never be cleaned by immersing in water or holding undera hydrant. At intervals of from one to four weeks, depending upon thecircumstances, it is essential that the equipment be thoroughlycleaned in accordance with the following instructions: (a) Separate all parts, unbuckle straps, remove all buckles, loops, etc. , where possible. (b) Wipe off all surface dust and mud with a damp (not wet) sponge. After rinsing out the sponge, a lather is made by moistening thesponge in clear water, squeezing it out until nearly dry, and rubbingit vigorously upon castile soap. When a thick, creamy lather isobtained, thoroughly clean each piece of the equipment withoutneglecting any portion. Each strap should be drawn its entire lengththrough the lathered sponge so as to actually remove the salt, sweat, and dirt from each leather piece. (c) After again rinsing the sponge make a thick lather as describedabove with the saddle soap. Go over each separate piece, thoroughlyworking the lather well into every part of the equipment, rememberingthat its action is that of a dressing. (d) After the leather has been allowed to become partially dry, itshould be rubbed vigorously with a soft cloth to give it the neat, healthy appearance that is desired. =1317. Oiling. = If the foregoing instructions have been carefullyfollowed, the appearance should now be perfect, and if the leather issoft and pliable nothing further is required. It will be found, however, that it will be necessary from time to time to apply a littleoil. It is not practicable, owing to different conditions of climateand service, to prescribe definitely the frequency of oiling. It hasbeen found that during the first few months of use a set of newequipment should be given at least two applications of oil per month. Thereafter it is entirely a matter of judgment, as indicated by theappearance and pliability of the leather. Frequent, light applicationsare of more value than infrequent heavy applications. =1318. New equipment. = Before using, perfectly new equipment should inall cases be given a light application of neat's-foot oil; soap isunnecessary because the leather is clean. The application of oil isimportant because leather equipment frequently remains a considerabletime in an arsenal or depot and in spite of periodical inspections anddubbing it is probably too dry for severe service. =1319. How to apply oil. = The quantity of oil to be used can not bedefinitely prescribed. If not enough oil is used, the leather will bestiff and brittle; if too much is used, it will soil the clothing andaccumulate dirt. The leather should, therefore, be saturated withsufficient oil to be soft and pliable without excess sufficient tocause it to exude. In applying the oil the following general instructions should govern: (a) The oil should be applied to the flesh side of the equipment wherepracticable when the leather is clean and still damp after washing(about half dry), because it penetrates more uniformly when appliedfrom the flesh side, and when the leather is damp. If the leather isdry it will absorb the oil like blotting paper, preventing properdistribution. (b) The oil should be applied with an oiled rag or cotton waste bylong, light, quick strokes--light strokes, so that the pressureapplied may not squeeze out an excess of oil; quick strokes, so thatthe leather may not absorb an undue amount of oil. The endeavor shouldbe to obtain a light, even distribution. (c) After applying the oil the leather equipment should be allowed tostand for 24 hours, if practicable, in a warm dry place. It shouldthen be rubbed with a dry cloth to remove any unabsorbed oil. Points to Be Remembered =1320. = Therefore, from what has been said, the following points mustbe remembered: (a) Keep leather clean. (b) Keep leather pliable by frequent applications of oil. (c) Use only materials furnished by the Ordnance Department. _Shoepolishes_, etc. , are almost invariably injurious. (d) _Dry all leather wet from whatever cause, in the shade_; never inthe sun or close to a steam radiator, furnace, or boiler. (e) Leather should habitually be stored in a cool, dry place, _withoutartificial heat_. FOOTNOTES: [15] "Viscol" is the best oil for softening all kinds of leather thatthe author knows of. It is made by The Viscol Co, East Cambridge, Mass. , and can be obtained from the post exchange. [16] Propert's Harness Soap is excellent. However, since the EuropeanWar its issue has been discontinued by the Ordnance Department. "Viscol, " obtainable from the post exchange, is the best oil forsoftening all kinds of leather that the author knows of. CHAPTER XVIII CARE AND DESCRIPTION OF THE RIFLE Care =1321. Importance. = The care of his rifle should be the soldier'sfirst thought; for, if he would have it take care of him in time ofdanger, he must take care of it at all times. _It is a generally recognized fact that more rifles become inaccurateand unserviceable by the lack of care than by firing. _ The instructions for taking care of the rifle are few and simple. Learn them well and _apply them constantly_--it only requires a littlecare and patience. You will be well repaid for it. It may some daysave your life. =1322. Care of bore requires work. = The bore of the rifle ismanufactured with the greatest care in order that a high degree ofaccuracy may be obtained, and it should, therefore, be properly caredfor. The proper care of the bore requires conscientious, careful work, butit pays well in reduced labor of cleaning and in prolonged accuracylife of the rifle, and better results in target practice. =1323. How to clean the bore. = With the cleaning rod the bore mustalways be cleaned from the breech--never from the muzzle. Cleaningfrom the muzzle is liable to wear and otherwise injure the mouth ofthe barrel, which is easily injured and thus the piece renderedinaccurate. First, remove the bolt from the rifle, place the muzzle on the floor, a board, or piece of canvas, and do not remove it therefrom while thecleaning rod is in the bore. Never place the muzzle on the bareground, lest dirt should get into it. (Note. Of course, if a rack isprovided for cleaning rifles, it should be used instead of placing themuzzle on the floor. ) To clean the bore use patches of rag, preferably canton flannel, cutting them into squares of such size that they may easily runthrough the barrel. =1324. What care of the bore consists of. = Briefly stated, the care ofthe bore consists of removing the fouling resulting from firing toobtain a chemically clean surface, and then coating this surface witha film of oil to prevent rusting. =1325. Kinds of fouling. = The fouling which results from firing is oftwo kinds--the _powder fouling_, from the burning of the powder; andthe _metal fouling_, from the nickel scraped off the bullet as itpasses through the bore. The _powder fouling_ is highly corrosive, that is, it causes rust andeats into the metal, and it must, therefore, be removed as soon aspossible. The _metal fouling_ itself will not cause rust, but it may cover thepowder fouling and thus prevent the cleaning material from getting atthe powder fouling, which, as stated before, will eat into the metal. When metal fouling accumulates in noticeable quantities it reduces theaccuracy of the rifle. =1326. How to remove powder fouling. = Powder fouling may be readilyremoved by scrubbing the bore with the soda solution (hot) furnishedby the Ordnance Department, but this solution has no effect on themetal fouling. It is, therefore, necessary to remove all metal fouling before we aresure that all powder fouling has been removed and that the bore may besafely oiled. Ordinarily, after firing a barrel in good condition, the metal foulingis so slight as to be hardly perceptible, and is easily removed bysolvents. However, due to the accumulation of metal fouling, pitting (littlehollows in the metal) or the presence of dust, or other abrasives(substances that cause the metal to wear away by rubbing), the foulingmay occur in clearly visible flakes or patches and be much moredifficult to remove. =1327. How to remove metal fouling. = After scrubbing out the bore withthe soda solution, plug it from the breech with a cork at the frontend of the chamber or where the rifling begins. Slip one of the 2-inch sections of rubber hose over the muzzle down tothe sight and fill with the standard Ordnance Department solution toat least one-half inch above the muzzle of the barrel. Let it stand for 30 minutes, then pour out the solution, remove thehose and breech plug, and swab out thoroughly with soda solution toneutralize and remove all trace of ammonia and powder fouling. Wipe the barrel clean, dry, and oil. With few exceptions, one application is sufficient, but if all foulingis not removed, repeat the operation. Hoppe's Nitro Solvent No. 9 will accomplish the same result evenbetter and quicker and with much less labor. =1328. How to proceed in cleaning the bore. = To clean the bore after firing, proceed as follows: Swab out the bore with soda solution to remove powder fouling. Aconvenient way to do this is to insert the muzzle of the rifle intothe can containing the solution and with the cleaning rod insertedfrom the breech, pump the barrel full a few times. Remove and dry with a couple of patches of cloth. Examine to seewhether any patches of metal fouling are in evidence, and if so, thenremove same as explained above. If no metal fouling is in evidence, then swab out with the swabbing solution. The amount of swabbingrequired with the swabbing solution can be determined only byexperience assisted by the color of the patches of cloth. Ordinarily acouple of minutes' work is sufficient. Dry thoroughly, and oil with3-in-One. As a measure of safety a patch should _always_ be run through the boreon the next day and the bore examined to insure that cleaning has beenproperly done. The bore should then be oiled again with 3-in-One. =1329. Necessity for preventing formation of pits. = It is a factrecognized by all that a highly polished steel surface rusts much lesseasily than one which is roughened; also that a barrel which ispitted fouls much more rapidly than one which is smooth. Every effort, therefore, should be made to prevent the formation of pits, which aremerely enlarged rust spots, and which not only affect the accuracy ofthe piece but also increase the labor of cleaning. =If swabbing solution or standard metal fouling solution is notavailable=, the barrel should be scrubbed as already described, withthe soda solution, dried, and oiled with a light oil. At the end of 24hours it should again be cleaned, when it will usually be found tohave "sweated. " Usually a second cleaning is sufficient, but to insuresafety it should be again examined at the end of a few days, beforefinal oiling. Of course, the swabbing solution should always be used, if available, for it must be remembered that =each "puff" when the bore "sweats" isan incipient rust pit=. What has just been said contemplates the use of the solutionsfurnished by the Ordnance Department. However, the same result will beobtained with less labor by using Hoppe's Nitro Powder Solvent No. 9, which is sold by all post and camp exchanges, and which the Author, asthe result of experience, highly recommends. =1330. How to oil a barrel. = The proper method of oiling a barrel isas follows: Wipe the cleaning rod dry; select a clean patch of cloth and smear itwell with sperm or warmed cosmic oil, being sure that the cosmic hassoaked into the patch well; scrub the bore with patch, finally drawingthe patch smoothly from the muzzle to the breech, allowing thecleaning rod to turn with the rifling. The bore will be found now tobe smooth and bright so that any subsequent rust or "sweating" can beeasily detected by inspection. (By "sweating" is meant, rust havingformed under the coating of metal fouling where powder fouling waspresent, the surface is puffed up. ) =1331. Care of the chamber. = The chamber of the rifle is oftenneglected because it is not readily inspected. Care should be taken tosee that it is cleaned as thoroughly as the bore. A roughened chamberdelays greatly the rapidity of fire, and not infrequently causesshells to stick. =1332. The bolt. = To clean the bolt, remove; clean all partsthoroughly with an oily rag; dry, and before assembling _lightly_ oilthe firing pin, the barrel of the sleeve, the striker, the well of thebolt, and all cams. =1333. The sights. = Both the front and rear sights should be cared forjust as you would care for the works of your watch. If the sights areinjured, the rifle will not shoot as aimed. The front sight cover issued by the Ordnance Department protects thefront sight. =1334. The magazine. = The magazine should be kept clean and coveredwith a thin coat of oil. =1335. The stock. = The stock should receive a light coat of rawlinseed oil once a month, or after any wetting from rain, dew, etc. The oil should be thoroughly rubbed in with the hand. =1336. Care of the mechanism. = When the rifle has been wet or exposedto unfavorable climatic conditions, the bolt should be withdrawn andall working parts carefully wiped with a dry cloth, and then goneover with an oily rag. The same thing should be done after firing. All working parts should habitually be _lightly_ oiled with athin-bodied oil, such as "3-in-One. " =1337. The care of all metal parts. = All metal parts of the rifleshould be kept clean and free from rust. =1338. Cams and bearings. = All cams and bearings must be keptconstantly oiled. =1339. How to apply oil. = Do not pour or squirt oil on the rifle. Put a few drops on a piece of clean cloth, preferably cotton, and rubwith the cloth, thereby avoiding the use of an unnecessary amount. Cams and bearings can be oiled this way. However, if the oiler is usedinstead because of greater ease in reaching them, oil them _lightly_. To soak with oil accomplishes no more than to cover with a lightcoating--it merely results in excessive, undesirable smearing and awaste of oil. Remember =1340. = 1. It is easier to prevent than to remove rust. 2. To remove rust, apply oil with a rag, and let it stand for a whileso as to soften the rust; then wipe with a dry rag. 3. Emery paper or a burnisher must never be used in removing rust, forit also removes the bluing. However, an ordinary rubber eraser will be found very serviceable forremoving rust. 4. To prevent rust and dirt in the bore, run a rag through at leastonce each day. 5. Never, under any circumstances, put away a rifle that has beenfired or exposed to bad weather, without first cleaning it. 6. Never lay your rifle flat on the ground. Not only is there dangerof dirt or other foreign matter getting into the bore, but a vehiclemay run over it, or some one may step on the sight. Always rest it up_securely_ against something. On the target range it is well for everysoldier to have a short wood or metal fork, on which to rest hisrifle. 7. In coming to the order from any position, always bring the rifle tothe ground _gently_. Army Regulations Regarding the Rifle =1341. = _Are enlisted men allowed to take their arms apart?_ No; not unless they have the permission of a commissioned officer, andeven then only under proper supervision and in the manner prescribedin the descriptive pamphlet issued by the Ordnance Department. (A. R. 292. ) (Except when repairs are needed, the following named parts shouldnever be dismounted by the soldier, and whenever they are taken apartthey should be removed only by the company mechanic, or someone elsefamiliar with the handling of tools and delicate mechanism: Bolt stop, cut off, safety lock, sleeve lock, front sight, front sight movablestud, lower band, upper band, and stacking swivel screws. ) (Unless the screw driver is handled carefully and with some skill thescrews are sure to be injured either at the head or thread. Thesoldier may dismount the bolt and magazine mechanism for the purposeof cleaning them, but he is not permitted to do any furtherdismounting without the authority of a commissioned officer. ) _Is the polishing of blued and browned parts permitted?_ No, and rebluing, rebrowning, putting any portion of an arm in fire, removing a receiver from a barrel, mutilating any part by fire orotherwise, and attempting to beautify or change the finish, areprohibited. However, the prohibition of attempts to beautify or changethe finish of arms is not construed as forbidding the application ofraw linseed oil to the wood parts of arms. This oil is considerednecessary for the preservation of the wood, and it may be used forsuch polishing as can be given when rubbing in one or more coats whennecessary. The use of raw linseed oil only is allowed for redressingand the application for such purpose of any kind of wax or varnish, including heelball, is strictly prohibited. (Army Regulations 292. ) _Is the use of tompions[17] in small arms permitted?_ No, it is prohibited by regulations. (Army Regulations 292. ) _Should pieces be unloaded before being taken to quarters or tents?_ Yes, unless it is otherwise ordered. They should also be unloaded assoon as the men using them are relieved from duty. (Army Regulations292. ) _Should a loaded or unloaded rifle or revolver ever be pointed atanyone in play?_ No, under no circumstances whatsoever. _A soldier should never point arifle or revolver at a person unless he intends to shoot him. _ Description =1342. Nomenclature of the rifle. = The illustrations on this page andthose on the two following pages give the nomenclature of the rifles, with which every soldier should be familiar. [Illustration: Fig. 1] [Illustration: Fig. 2] The bolt (Fig. 2) consists of the _handle_, A; _sleeve_, B; _safetylock_, C; _Cocking piece_, D; _safety lug_, E; _extractor_, F;_extractor collar_, G; _locking lugs_, H; _extractor tongue groove_, I; and _gas escape hole_, J. [Illustration: Fig. 3] =1343. Rear-sight leaf; drift slide; wind gauge. = The illustration onthe opposite page shows the _rear sight leaf_ (raised), the _driftslide_ (E), and the _wind gauge_ (F, L. ). It is most important thatthe soldier be thoroughly familiar with the use of these parts, forotherwise it is impossible for him to sight correctly and use hisrifle properly. The leaf is graduated from 100 to 2850 yards. The lines that extendthe whole way across the two branches of the leaf, mark 100 yarddivisions; those that extend about half way across, mark 50 yarddivisions, and the shorter lines mark 25 yard divisions. The _even_ numbers (4, 6, 8, etc. ) on the _left_ branch of the leaf, indicate 400, 600, 800, etc, yards. The _odd_ numbered hundreds of yards (300, 500, 700, etc. ) are on the_right_ branch of the leaf. _The numbers rest on top of the lines to which they refer. _ So, if you want to fire at a target 800 yards away, set the rear sightat 8; 1, 000 yards, at 10; 1, 200 yards, at 12, etc. With the fly leaf up, ranges from 100 to 2350 yards can be obtainedthrough the _peep hole_, K; from 100 to 2450 through the lower _peepnotch_, J; and from 1400 to 2750 yards through the upper _peep notch_, G. There is a horizontal line on the drift slide, across the _peep hole_, K. If the _peep hole_ sight is used the sight is set by thishorizontal line, which is set opposite the proper graduation (lineacross branch of leaf). If the _peep notch_, J, is used, the sight is set by the shorthorizontal line--that is, on a line with the top of the notch. If the _peep notch_, G, is used, the sight is set by the top of the_slide_, C, which is set on the proper graduation. Care must be taken not to use one of the _peep notches_ when the sighthas been set for the _peep hole_, or not to do the reverse, withoutfirst changing the sight. The _sighting notch_, A, used when the range is 2850 yards, is hardlyever used, because the rifle is very, very seldom, if ever, fired atthat range. By _battle sight_ we mean the position of the rear sight with the leafdown, and it corresponds to a sight setting of 530 yards. The notch, H, that is used when the leaf is down is called the _battle sightnotch_. The battle sight is the only one used in _rapid fire_. Inunexpected, close encounters the side that first opens a rapid andaccurate fire has a great advantage over the other. [Illustration: Fig. 4] [Illustration: Fig. 5] FOOTNOTES: [17] Wooden stoppers or plugs that are put into the muzzles of riflesand other arms to keep out dirt and water. PART IV RIFLE TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION (Based on Small-Arms Firing Manual) =1344. Object of system of instruction. = The object of the system ofrifle training and instruction employed in our Army is two-fold: 1. _To make of INDIVIDUALS, shots who in battle will make hits instead of misses. _ 2. _To make of ORGANIZATIONS, pliable, manageable MACHINES, capable of delivering in battle a volume of EFFECTIVE fire. _ =1345. To make of INDIVIDUALS shots who in battle will make hitsinstead of misses. = This is accomplished by INDIVIDUAL training andinstruction whereby the skill of the soldier as a rifleman is sodeveloped as to be up to the capabilities of his rifle, which isprobably the best and most accurate rifle in the world, --that is tosay-- _Effort is made to so develop the shooting skill of the soldier that he will be able to make his rifle do the things that it is capable of doing. _ To accomplish this end the soldier is put through a course ofindividual instruction that divides itself into three main phases orstages, viz:-- 1. _Preliminary drills. _ By means of preliminary drills in the form of sighting drills; position and aiming drills; and deflection and correction elevation drills, he is taught the theoretical, fundamental principles of shooting. 2. _Gallery practice. _ Having been taught the theoretical, fundamental principles of shooting by means of the preliminary drills mentioned in the proceeding paragraph, the soldier is then shown how to apply them in a simple, elementary way by being put through a course of gallery practice with the . 22 Cal. Gallery Practice Rifle, using reduced charges. This practice may be called the _transitory_ phase or period of individual instruction, during which The soldier passes from his acquisition of the theoretical, fundamental principles of shooting to their application to actual firing, on the target range, with the regulation Army rifle. 3. _Range practice. _ Having gone through the course in gallery practice, the soldier then fires on the target range, applying and putting into practice, with the regulation Army rifle; the theoretical principles of shooting taught him during the preliminary drills, and in the application and practice of which he was also instructed during the gallery practice. =1346. Other Instruction. = While the above phases embody the principalsubjects in which a soldier is trained and instructed in developinghis skill in shooting, he is also instructed in other matters thatare necessary to round out and complete his skill inmarksmanship, --for example, the care of the rifle, estimatingdistances, the effect of light, wind, and temperature, etc. =1347. To make of ORGANIZATIONS pliable, manageable MACHINES, capableof delivering in battle a volume of EFFECTIVE fire. = This isaccomplished by _collective_ training and instruction, in which anumber of soldiers (for example, a squad, platoon, or company), undercommand of a leader, fire, under assumed tactical situations, attargets which simulate the appearance of an enemy under conditionsapproaching those found in war. This kind of training and instructionis called, "Combat practice. " In combat practice the individual is trained in firing as part of atactical unit, --that is to say, in coöperation with others, --and thecommanders of the tactical units are taught how to direct and controlthe fire of their units, [18] obtaining the maximum efficiency of fireby coördination of the skill and efforts of all the individuals of theunit. PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION =1348. = The following outline of the program of instruction gives asort of bird's-eye view of the system: 1. INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION { (a) Theory of sighting. (The trajectory; { The line of sight; Sighting or aiming. ) 1. Sights and Sighting. { (b) Kinds of sights. (Open; Peep; Battle. ) { (c) Kinds of sight. (That is, amount of { front sight taken. ) (Normal; Fine; Full. ) { (a) Sighting drills. (Importance and purpose; { Point of aim; Triangle of sighting. ) { (Verifying the triangle; causes of errors. ) { (b) Position and aiming drills. (Objects 2. Preliminary drills. { [3]; Position exercise; Aiming exercise; { Trigger-squeeze exercise; Rapid-fire exercise; { Kneeling, sitting down, and prone. ) { (c) Deflection and elevation correction { drills. 3. Gallery practice. (Object and importance. ) 4. Range practice. (Instruction practice; Range practice. ) 5. Other Instruction. (Use of sling; Designation of winds; Zero of rifle; Estimating distances [with the eye, by trial shots, and by trial volleys]; Wind; Temperature; Light; Mirage; Care of rifle, etc. ) INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION Sights and Sighting _Theory of Sighting_ =1349. The trajectory. = As the bullet passes through the air it makesa curved line something like this: [Illustration: Fig. 1] This curved line is called the _trajectory_. The resistance of the air and the force of gravity (the force thatpulls all bodies toward the earth) are the two things that make thepath of the bullet a curved line, just the same as they make the pathof the baseball thrown by the player a curved line. The resistance of the air holds the bullet back and the force ofgravity pulls it down, so that the two acting together make thebullet's path curved. The longer the range the more will the path of the bullet (thetrajectory) be curved, as shown by the following drawing: [Illustration: Fig. 2] =1350. Sighting or aiming. = Now, on the rifle there are two"sights, "--the _front sight_ and the _rear sight_, --which enable therifleman to regulate the path of the bullet, as the ball playerregulates the path of the ball. If the ball player wants distance, he throws the ball high (raises thepath, the trajectory), using his eye and guesswork, and likewise ifthe rifleman wants to shoot at a distant target, he, too, shoots thebullet high (that is, he raises the muzzle of his rifle), but hedoesn't have to depend upon guesswork. It is all worked out for him byexperts and all he need do is to set the _rear sight_ for the properrange, --that is, for the distance the object is from him. Aiming or sighting a rifle consists in bringing into line threeobjects: _The target_, A, _the front sight_, B, and _the rear sight_, C. [Illustration: Fig. 3] The rifle is so made and the sights placed on it in such a way thatwhen the piece is held in such a position that the _target_, the_front sight_ and the _rear sight_ are in line, and the trigger ispulled (squeezed) the bullet will strike the _target_. You raise the muzzle of the piece by raising the rear sight, --that is, raising the rear sight has the effect of raising the muzzle, for thehigher you raise the rear sight the higher must you raise the muzzlein order to see the front sight and get it in line with the objectaimed at and the rear sight. This is shown in the following illustrations: [Illustration: Fig. 4] [Illustration: Fig. 4a] The rear sight, C, the front sight, B, and the bull's eye, A, are allon a line with the eye, D, the rear sight being set for 200 yards. Suppose we wanted to shoot at 2000 instead of 200 yards. We wouldraise the slide up to 20 (2000 yards) on the sight leaf. In order to see the bull's eye through the notch sight at 2000, wemust raise the eye to the position, D. We now have the rear sight, thebull's eye and the eye in line, but we must bring the front sight inline with them, which is done by raising the muzzle of the piece, giving the result shown in Fig. 4a. =1351. Line of sight. = With the open sight the line of sight isdetermined by a point on the middle line of the notch of the rearsight and the top of the front sight. With the peep sight, the line of sight is determined by the _center_of the peep and the top of the front sight. Kinds of sights =1352. = (See Fig. 3, par. 1343, giving rear sight leaf in detail. ) The different kinds of sights are as follows: (a) =Open sight. = By _open sight_ is meant the use of any one of the_sighting notches_. To use the open sight: 1. Look through the sighting notch at the target. (Fig. 5. ) [Illustration: Fig. 5] [Illustration: Fig. 6] 2. Bring the top of the front sight _on a line with the top and in thecenter_ of the sight notch, _the top of the front sight being justunder the bull's eye_. Because of its wide field of view and its readiness in getting a quickaim with it, the open sight is the one that is generally used in thelater stages of battle, or when fire is to start immediately. (b) =Peep Sight. = By _peep sight_ is meant the use of the _peep hole_in the drift slide. To use the peep sight: 1. Look through the peep hole at the target. (Fig. 7. ) [Illustration: Fig. 7] 2. Bring the top of the front sight to the _center_ of the peep hole, _the top of the front sight being just under the bull's eye_. (Fig. 8) [Illustration: Fig. 8 _Correct_] _Be sure to get the top of front sight_, as in Fig. 8, _and not thebull's eye_, as in Fig. 9, _in center of the peep hole_. [Illustration: Fig. 9 _Incorrect_] =Advantage of the peep sight. = The advantage of the peep sight overthe open sight is due to the fact that it is easier to center the topof the front sight in the peep hole and thus get the same amount offront sight each time. For example you know at once, without measuring, that the dots in thecircles, Fig. 10, are not centered, and that the one in the circle inFig. 11, is. [Illustration: Fig. 10] [Illustration: Fig. 11] After a little practice, in looking through the peep hole the eyealmost automatically centers the top of the front sight. =Disadvantage of the peep sight. = The disadvantage of the peep sightis that its limited field of view and lack of readiness in getting aquick aim with it limit its use to those stages of the combat whencomparative deliberation will be possible. (c) =Battle sight. = By _battle sight_ we mean the position of the rearsight with the leaf down. There is a sighting notch on the top of theleaf, or rather on top of the leaf slide which works up and down theleaf. The battle sight is the only sight used in _rapid fire_. Inunexpected, close encounters the side that first opens a rapid andaccurate fire has a great advantage over the other. Again, a soldieron patrol generally has no time to set his sight, if suddenly attackedat close range. The battle sight, may, therefore be called the_emergency sight_, --the _handy_, _quick sight_. The soldier should, therefore, become thoroughly familiar with the use of this sight. [Illustration: Fig. 12 _Battle sight_] The _sighting notch_ in the slide with the rear sight leaf down, isthe same height as is the sighting in the drift slide when the rearsight leaf is raised and set at 530 yards. That is to say, _battle sight_ is equivalent to a sight setting of 530yards. Therefore, in shooting with battle sight at objects nearer than530 yards you must aim lower. Kinds of Sight =1353. = (Amount of front sight taken) (a) =Normal sight. = The amount of front sight taken in Figs. 6 and 8, is called the _normal_ sight and is the one that the soldier shouldalways use, either with the open notch or peep sight, as it is theonly sight which assures the taking of the same amount of front sightevery time. In other words it assumes a greater degree of _uniformity_in sighting, which is one of the most important factors in shooting. By uniformity in sighting is meant taking the same amount of sighteach time. If you take _less_ than the amount of front sight used in the normalsight, it will, of course, have the effect of _lowering_ the muzzle ofthe piece, and consequently you will hit a point _lower_ than if youhad used the normal sight. On the other hand, if you take _more_ than the amount of front sightused in the normal sight, it will, of course, have the effect ofraising the muzzle and consequently you will hit a point _higher_ thanif you had used the normal sight. (b) =Fine sight. = Although occasionally a man will be found who canget good results by using the fine sight, the average man cannot, andthis form of sighting is, therefore, to be avoided. [Illustration: Fig. 13 _Fine sight_] (c) =Full sight. = The so-called _full sight_ must be avoided under allcircumstances. It is merely mentioned and shown here to point out afault that must be carefully avoided. The objections to its use are the same as in the case of the finesight, --that is, lack of uniformity in the amount of sight taken. [Illustration: Fig. 14 _Full sight_] =1354. What the rifleman looks at when he fires. = The eye can befocused accurately upon objects at only one distance at a time; allother objects we see will be more or less blurred and fuzzy looking, depending upon their distance from the object upon which our eye isfocused. The rifleman who attains proficiency _focuses his eye on the targetwhile aiming_, but he glances at one sight and then the other to seethat they are aligned properly, then back at the target, and at theinstant of discharge _his eye is on the target_. Preliminary Drills =1355. Sighting, Position and Aiming Drills. = The importance of thefollowing sighting, position and aiming drills cannot beoverestimated. If they are carefully practiced, before firing a singleshot at a target, you will have learned how to aim your piececorrectly, hold your rifle steadily, squeeze the trigger properly, assume that position best adapted to the particular conformation ofyour body, and you will also have acquired the quickness and manualskill required for handling the piece in rapid fire. The sighting, position and aiming drills teach the fundamentalprinciples of shooting, which are the foundation upon whichmarksmanship is built. _Do not confine yourself to going through these drills only duringdrill hours, but go through them frequently at other times. The extentto which it will improve your shooting will more than repay you foryour trouble. _ Sighting Drills =1356. Object. = The objects of the sighting drill are: 1. To show how to bring the rear sight, the front sight and the targetinto the same line, --that is, to show how to sight properly. 2. To discover and point out errors in sighting. --in other words, todiscover the errors you make in sighting and show the reasons forsame, so that you may be able to correct them properly. 3. To teach uniformity in sighting, --that is, to teach you how to takethe same amount of sight each time, --to see every time the same amountof front sight when you look through the rear sight. =Sighting rest for rifle. = A good sighting rest for a rifle may bemade by removing the top from an empty pistol ammunition box, or asimilar box, and then cutting notches in the ends of the box to fitthe rifle closely. (Fig. 15. ) [Illustration: Fig. 15] [Illustration: Fig. 16] Place the rifle in these notches with the trigger guard close to andoutside one end. At a convenient distance above the ground fasten a blank sheet ofpaper on a wall or on a plank nailed to a stake driven into theground. Three legs are fastened to the rest (or it may be placed on the groundwithout any legs), which is placed 20 or 30 feet from the blank sheetof paper. [Illustration: Fig. 17] Make sure that the piece is canted neither to the right nor left, andwithout touching the rifle or rest, sight the rifle near the center ofthe blank sheet of paper (Fig. 17. ) Changes in the line of sight are made by changing the elevation andwindage. A soldier acting as marker is provided with a pencil and a small rodbearing at one end a small piece of white cardboard, with a blackbull's eye pierced in the center with a hole just large enough toadmit the point of a lead pencil. [Illustration: Fig. 18] The soldier sighting directs the marker to move the disk to the right, left, higher, or lower, until the line of aim is established when hecommands, "Mark, " or "Hold. " At the command "Mark, " being careful not to move the disk, the markerrecords through the hole in the center the position of the disk andthen withdraws it. At the command "Hold, " the marker holds the disk carefully in placewithout marking, until the position is verified by the instructor, andthe disk is not withdrawn until so directed. =1357. Point of Aim. = Always be sure to aim at a point just below theblack bull's-eye, --that is, aim so that there will be a fine line oflight between the bottom of the bull's-eye and the-top of the frontsight (Fig. 19). This is important to insure uniformity insighting, --that is, in order to make sure that you aim at the sameplace on the target each time. If the top of the front sight touchesthe bottom of the bull's-eye it is impossible to say just how much ofthe front sight is seen, and how far up into the bull's-eye you are. [Illustration: Fig. 19] First Sighting Exercise =1358. = Using the sighting rest for the rifle (Fig. 17) require eachman to direct the marker to move the disk until the rifle is directedon the bull's-eye with the _normal_ sight and command, "Hold. " Ifaiming correctly the rear sight, the front sight and the bull's-eyewill look as shown in Fig. 19, above. The instructor then verifies this line of sight. Errors, if any, willbe pointed out to the soldier and another trial made. If he is stillunable to sight correctly, he will be given as many more trials as maybe necessary. Sometimes a man does not know how to place the eye in the line ofsight; he will look over or along one side of the notch of the rearsight and believe that he is aiming through the notch because he seesit at the same time that he does the front sight. Again some men insighting will look at the front sight and not at the object. Repeat the above exercise, using the _peep_ sight. If aimingcorrectly, the rear sight, the front sight and the bull's-eye willlook as shown in Fig. 20. [Illustration: Fig. 20] Second Sighting Exercise =1359. The triangle of sighting. = Using the sighting rest for therifle as before (Fig. 17), direct the marker to move the disk untilthe rifle is directed on the bull's-eye with the _normal_ sight andcommand "Mark, " whereupon the marker, being careful not to move thedisk, records through the hole in its center, the position of thedisk, and withdraws it. Then, being careful not to move the rifle orsights repeat the operation until three marks have been made. Join the three points by straight lines. The shape and size of thetriangle will indicate the nature of the variations made in sighting. [Illustration: Fig. 21] For example, if you have taken the same aim each time, you will get avery small triangle something like this: [Illustration: triangle]which resulted from taking each time this aim, for instance: [Illustration: Fig. 22] A triangle like Fig. 22 results from not taking the same amount offront sight each time, as shown in Fig. 23. [Illustration: Fig. 23] [Illustration: Fig. 24] A triangle like Fig. 24 shows that the front sight was not in themiddle of the notch each time, as shown in Fig. 25. [Illustration: Fig. 25] A triangle like Fig. 26 results from a combination of the two errorsmentioned above, --that is, not taking the same amount of front sighteach time and not having the front sight in the middle of the notcheach time, as shown in Fig. 27. [Illustration: Fig. 26] [Illustration: Fig. 27] If any one of the sides of the triangle is longer than one-half inch, the exercise is repeated, each sight being verified by the instructor, who will call the soldier's attention to his errors, if any. The smaller the triangle, the better the sighting. =1360. Verifying the triangle. = If the sides of the triangle are sosmall that they indicate regularity in sighting, mark the center ofthe triangle and then place the center of the bull's-eye on this mark. The instructor then examines the position of the bull's-eye withreference to the line of sight. If the bull's-eye is properly placedwith reference to the line of sight, the soldier aims correctly andwith uniformity. If the bull's-eye is not properly placed with reference to the line ofsight, the soldier aims in a regular manner but with a constant error. =1361. Causes of errors. = If the bull's-eye is directly above itsproper position, the soldier has aimed high, --that is, he has takentoo little front sight. If the bull's-eye is directly below its proper position, the soldierhas aimed low, --that is, he has taken too much front sight. If the bull's-eye is directly to the right or left of its properposition, the soldier has not sighted through the center of the rearnotch and over the top of the front sight. If to the _right_, thesoldier has either sighted along the _left_ of the rear sight notch orthe _right_ side of the front sight, or has committed both of theseerrors. If the bull's-eye is to the _left_ of its proper place, the soldierhas probably-sighted along the _right_ of the rear sight notch, or tothe _left_ of the front sight, or has committed both of these errors. If the bull's eye is diagonally above and to the right, the soldierhas probably combined the errors which placed it too high and too farto the right. Any other diagonal position would be produced by a similar combinationof vertical and horizontal errors. After the above instruction has been given to one man, the line ofsight will be slightly changed by moving the sighting rest or bychanging the elevation and windage, and the exercises similarlyrepeated with other men. Repeat the exercise, using the _peep_ sight. Third Sighting Exercise =1362. = This exercise shows the effect of canting the piece. It is most important that in aiming the sights be kept vertical andthe piece not be canted, --that is, that the barrel be not tilted overto the right or left. If the piece is canted to the right, the sights are lowered to theright and consequently the bullet will strike to the right and belowthe point aimed at, even though the rifle be otherwise correctly aimedand the sights correctly set. Similarly if the piece is canted to the left the sights are lowered tothe left, and consequently the bullet will strike to the left and low. This effect of canting the piece may be shown as follows: Use thesighting rest with the rifle firmly held in the notches, the boltremoved. Paste a black paster near the center of the bottom line of the target. Sight the rifle on this mark, using about 2000 yards' elevation. Then, being careful not to move the rifle, look through the bore and directthe marker to move the disk until the bull's-eye is in the center ofthe field of view and command, "Mark. " Next, turn the rest (with the rifle) over 90° to the right, on itsside, and with the same elevation, sight on the same paster as above. Then, being careful not to move the rifle, look through the bore andagain direct the marker to move the disk until the bull's-eye is inthe center of the field of view and command, "Mark. " Not considering the fall of the bullet, the first mark represents thepoint struck with the sight vertical, the second mark represents thepoint struck, low and to the right, using the same elevation and thesame point of aim, when the piece is canted 90° to the right. Different degrees of canting the piece can be represented by drawingan arc of a circle through the two marks with the paster as a center. The second mark will be at a point on this arc corresponding to thedegree of canting the piece. It is important to know that this effect of canting increases with thedistance from the target. Fourth Sighting Exercise =1363. = This exercise is to show the advantage of blackened sights. In strong sunlight, make a triangle of sighting, using a rifle havingsights worn bright. Then, being careful not to move the rifle, blackenthe sights and make another triangle. Use dotted lines for the triangle with bright sights and full linesfor the triangle made with blackened sights. The position and size of the two triangles will plainly show theadvantage of using blackened sights. Fifth Sighting Exercise =1364. = This exercise is to illustrate the importance of knowing theeffects of varying degrees of light. In strong sunlight make a triangle of sighting. Then, being carefulnot to move the piece, make another triangle, the target and the mansighting having first been shaded. The relative positions of the triangles will show the importance ofknowing the effects of varying degrees of light. Position and Aiming Drills =1365. Object. = The object of the position and aiming drills are: 1. To so educate the muscles of the arm and body that the piece, during the act of aiming, shall be held without restraint, and duringthe operation of firing shall not be deflected from the target by anyconvulsive or improper movement of the trigger finger or of the body, arms, or hands. 2. They also establish between the hand and eye such prompt andintimate connection as will insure that the finger shall act upon thetrigger, giving the final pressure at the exact moment when the top ofthe front sight is seen to be directed upon the mark. 3. If at the moment the piece is discharged, it is properly supportedand correctly aimed, the mark will surely be hit. Since any fairly intelligent man can be taught to aim correctly and tohold the sights aligned upon the mark with a fair amount ofsteadiness, it follows that bad shooting must necessarily arise fromcauses other than bad aiming. The chief of these causes is known to bethe deflection given to the rifle when it is discharged, due to thefact that the soldier, at the moment of firing, instead of SQUEEZINGthe trigger, _jerks_ it. This convulsive action is largely due to lackof familiarity with the methods of firing and to a constrainedposition of the muscles of the body, arm, and hands, which constrainedposition it is the object of the position and aiming drills tocorrect. =1366. General. = In order to correct any tendency to cant the piece, the rear sight is raised in all the exercises. Place a black paster at which to aim on the wall opposite each man. The squad being formed in single rank, with an interval of one yardbetween files, the instructor directs the men to take the position of"Ready, " except that the position of the feet is such as to insure thegreatest firmness and steadiness of the body. The instructor then cautions, "Position and aiming drill. " The exercise which is being taught should be repeated frequently andmade continuous. The instructor prefaces the preparatory command by, "Continue the motion, " or "At will, " and gives the command "Halt" atthe conclusion of the exercise, when the soldier returns to theposition of "Ready. " Or the soldier may be made to repeat the firstand second motions by the command "One, " "Two, " the exerciseconcluding with the command "Halt. " Care must be taken by the instructor not to make the position andaiming drills tedious. Thirty minutes daily should be spent in thispractice during the period of preliminary instruction. After gallerypractice is taken up, however, five or ten minutes daily should besufficient for these exercises. In order that the instructor may readily detect and correct errors thesquads for these drills should not consist of more than eight men. The instructor should avoid holding the squad in tiresome positionswhile making explanations or corrections. Position Exercise =1367. = The instructor commands: =1. Position, 2. EXERCISE. = At thecommand, "_Exercise_" without moving the body or eyes, raise the riflesmartly to the front of the right shoulder to the full extent of theleft arm, elbow inclined downward, the barrel nearly horizontal, muzzle slightly depressed, heel of the butt on a line with the top ofthe shoulder. (Fig. 28. ) [Illustration: Fig. 28] (Two. ) Bring the piece smartly against the hollow of the shoulder, without permitting the shoulder to give way, and press the rifleagainst it, mainly with the right hand, only slightly with the left, the forefinger of the right hand resting lightly against the trigger, the rifle inclined neither to the right nor left. (Three. ) Resume the position of ready. (Fig. 30. ) [Illustration: Fig. 29] =Remarks. = The instructor should especially notice the position ofeach soldier in this exercise, endeavoring to give to each man aneasy and natural position. He should see that the men avoid drawing inthe stomach, raising the breast, or bending the small of the back. Thebutt of the piece must be pressed firmly, but not too tightly, intothe hollow of the shoulder and not against the muscles of the upperarm. If held too tightly, the pulsations of the body will becommunicated to the piece; if too loosely, the recoil will bruise theshoulder. If only the heel or toe touches the hollow of the shoulder, the recoil may throw the muzzle down or up, affecting the position ofthe hit. While both arms are used to press the piece to the shoulder, the left arm should be used to direct the piece and the rightforefinger must be left free to squeeze the trigger. [Illustration: Fig. 30] Aiming Exercise =1368. = The instructor will first direct the sights to be adjusted forthe lowest elevation and subsequently for the different longer ranges. The instructor commands: =1. Aiming. 2. EXERCISE. = At the last commandexecute the first and second motion of the position exercise. (Two. ) Bend the head a little to the right, the cheek resting againstthe stock, the left eye closed, the right eye looking through thenotch of the rear sight at a point slightly below the mark. (Fig. 31. ) [Illustration: Fig. 31] (Three. ) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of it escape, then, with the lungs in a state of rest, slowly raise the rifle withthe left hand, being careful not to incline the sight to either side, until the line of sight is directly on the mark; hold the riflesteadily directed on the mark for a moment; then, without command andjust before the power to hold the rifle steadily is lost, drop therifle to the position of "Ready" and resume the breathing. =1369. Remarks. = Some riflemen prefer to extend the left arm. Such aposition gives greater control over the rifle when firing in a strongwind or at moving objects. It also possesses advantages when a rapidas well as accurate delivery of fire is desired. Whatever theposition, whether standing, kneeling, sitting, or prone, the pieceshould rest on the palm of the left hand, never on the tips of thefingers, and should be firmly grasped by all the fingers and thethumb. The eye may be brought to the line of sight either by lowering thehead or by raising the shoulder; it is best to combine somewhat thesemethods; the shoulder to be well raised by raising the right elbow andholding it well to the front and at right angles to the body. If the shoulder is not raised, it will be necessary for the soldier tolower the head to the front in order to bring the eye into the line ofsight. Lowering the head too far to the front brings it near the righthand, which grasps the stock. When the piece is discharged, this handis carried by the recoil to the rear and, when the head is in thisposition, may strike against the nose or mouth. This often happens inpractice, and as a result of this blow often repeated many men becomegun-shy, or flinch, or close their eyes at the moment of firing. Muchbad shooting, ascribed to other causes, is really due to this fault. Raising the right elbow at right angles to the body elevates the rightshoulder, and lifts the piece so that it is no longer necessary toincline the head materially to the front in order to look along thesights. As the length of the soldier's neck determines greatly the exactmethod of taking the proper position, the instructor will be carefulto see that the position is taken without restraint. As changes in the elevation of the rear sight will necessitate acorresponding change in the position of the soldier's head whenaiming, the exercise should not be held with the sight adjusted forthe longer ranges until the men have been practiced with the sights asthe latter would generally be employed for offhand firing. The soldier must be cautioned that while raising the line of sight tothe mark he must fix his eyes on the mark and not on the front sight;the latter can then be readily brought into the line joining therear-sight notch and mark. If this plan be not followed, when firingis held on the range at long distances the mark will generally appearblurred and indistinct. The front sight will always be plainly seen, even though the eye is not directed particularly upon it. The rifle must be raised slowly, without jerk, and its motion stoppedgradually. In retaining it directed at the mark, care must be takennot to continue the aim after steadiness is lost; this period willprobably be found to be short at first, but will quickly lengthen withpractice. No effort should be made to prolong it beyond the time thatbreathing can be easily restrained. Each soldier will determine forhimself the proper time for discontinuing the aim. The men must be cautioned not to hold the breath too long, as atrembling of the body will result in many cases. Some riflemen prefer, in aiming, to keep both eyes open but, unlessthe habit is fixed, the soldier should be instructed to close the lefteye. Trigger-Squeeze Exercise =1370. = The instructor commands: =1. Trigger squeeze. 2. EXERCISE. = Atthe command =Exercise=, the soldier executes the first motion of theaiming exercise. (Two. ) The second motion of the aiming exercise. (Three. ) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of it escape, hold the breath and slowly raise the rifle with the left hand untilthe line of sight is on the mark, being careful not to incline thesights to either side. Contract the trigger finger gradually, slowlyand steadily increasing the pressure on the trigger, while the aim isbeing perfected; continue the gradual increase of pressure so thatwhen the aim has become exact the additional pressure required torelease the point of the sear can be given almost insensibly andwithout causing any deflection of the rifle. Continue the aim a momentafter the release of the firing pin, observe if any change has beenmade in the direction of the line of sight, and then resume theposition of "Ready, " cocking the piece by raising and lowering thebolt handle. =Remarks. = Poor shooting is often the result of lack of propercoördination of holding the breath, the maximum steadiness of aim, andthe squeeze of the trigger. By frequent practice in this exercise, each man may come to know the exact instant his firing pin will bereleased. He must be taught to hold the breath, bring the sights tobear upon the mark, and squeeze the trigger all at the same time. =1371. The Trigger Squeeze. = The trigger should be _squeezed_, notpulled, the hand being closed upon itself as a sponge is squeezed, theforefinger sharing in this movement. The forefinger should be placedas far around the trigger as to _press_ it with the second joint. Bypractice the soldier becomes familiar with the trigger _squeeze_ ofhis rifle, and knowing this, he is able to judge at any time, withinlimits, what additional _pressure_ is required for its discharge. Byconstant repetition of this exercise he should be able finally to_squeeze_ the trigger to a certain point beyond which the slightestmovement will release the sear. Having _squeezed_ the trigger to thispoint, the aim is corrected and, when true, the additional pressure isapplied and the discharge follows. [Illustration: Fig. 32] Rapid-Fire Exercise =1372. Object. = The object of this exercise is to teach the soldier toaim quickly and at the same time accurately in all the positions hewill be called upon to assume in range practice. The instructor commands: =1. Rapid-fire exercise. 2. COMMENCE FIRING. =At the first command the first and second motions of thetrigger-squeeze exercise are performed. At the second command, thesoldier performs the third motion of the trigger-squeeze exercise, squeezing the trigger without disturbing the aim or the position ofthe piece, but at the same time without undue deliberation. He thenwithout removing the rifle from the shoulder, holding the piece inposition with the left hand, grasps the handle of the bolt with theright hand, rapidly draws back the bolt, closes the chamber, aims, andagain squeezes the trigger. This movement is repeated until thetrigger has been squeezed five times, when, without command, the pieceis brought back to the position of "Ready. " When the soldier has acquired some facility in this exercise, he willbe required to repeat the movement ten times, and finally, by usingdummy cartridges, he may, by degrees, gain the necessary quickness anddexterity for the execution of the rapid fire required in rangefiring. =1373 Methods. = The methods of taking position, of aiming, and ofsqueezing the trigger, taught in the preceding exercises, should becarried out in the rapid-fire exercises, with due attention to alldetails taught therein; the details being carried out as prescribedexcept that greater promptness is necessary. In order that anytendency on the part of the recruit to slight the movements of aimingand of trigger squeeze shall be avoided, the rapid-fire exercises willnot be taught until the recruit is thoroughly drilled and familiarwith the preceding exercises. The recruit will be instructed that withpractice in this class of fire the trigger can be squeezed promptlywithout deranging the piece. =1374. Repetition. = If the recruit seems to execute the exercisehurriedly or carelessly, the instructor will require him to repeat itat a slower rate. =1375. Manipulation of the Breech Mechanism. = To hold the piece to theposition of the left hand should not be changed, but the left forearmwith the proper facility, are learned only after much practice. Someriflemen, especially men who shoot from the left shoulder, find iteasier, in rapid firing, to drop the piece to the position of loadafter each shot. While at first trial this method may seem easier, itis believed that, with practice, the advantage of the former methodwill be apparent. Position and Aiming Drill, Kneeling =1376. = These exercises will be repeated in the kneeling position bycausing the squad to kneel by the commands prescribed in the DrillRegulations. The exercises will be executed as prescribed forstanding, except that the command "Two" in the position exercise, thesoldier will rest the left elbow on the left knee, the point of theelbow in front of the kneecap. The pasters for the kneeling exerciseshould be at 2-1/2 feet from the floor or ground. =Remarks. = Frequent rests will be given during practice in theseexercises kneeling, as the position, if long continued, becomesconstrained and fatigues the soldier unnecessarily. In raising the rifle to the mark in the second and third exercises, the position of the left hand should not be changed, but the leftforearm should be brought toward the body and at the same time thebody bent slightly to the rear. When aiming kneeling there is, from the nature of the position, atendency to press the butt of the rifle against the upper arm insteadof against the hollow of the shoulder; this will necessitate incliningthe head considerably to the right to get the line of sight, and bybringing the rifle so far to the rear will, if the thumb is placedacross the stock, cause it to give by the recoil a blow upon the noseor mouth. These difficulties may be avoided by advancing the right elbow well tothe front, at the same time raising it so that the arm is aboutparallel with the ground. The hollow of the shoulder will then be thenatural place for the rifle butt, and the right thumb will be broughttoo far from the face to strike it in the recoil. Some riflemen prefer, by bending the ankle, to rest the instep flat onthe ground, the weight of the body coming more on the upper part ofthe heel; this obviates any tendency of the right knee to slip; or, byresting the right side of the foot on the ground, toe pointing to thefront, to bring the weight of the body on the left side of the foot. These positions are authorized. =1377. Choice of Position. = In firing kneeling, the steadinessobtained depends greatly upon the position adopted. The peculiaritiesof conformation of the individual soldier exert when firing kneeling agreater influence than when firing either standing, sitting, or prone;the instructor should, therefore, carefully endeavor, noticing thebuild of each soldier, to place him in the position for which he isbest adapted and which will exert the least tension or strain upon themuscles and nerves. It should be remembered, however, that without therest of the left elbow on the knee this position possesses noadvantage of steadiness over the standing position. =1378. Kneeling Position; When Taken. = The kneeling position can betaken more quickly than either the sitting or the prone position. Itis, therefore, the position naturally assumed when a soldier, who isstanding or advancing, has to make a quick shot at a moving ordisappearing object and desires more steadiness than can be obtainedstanding. Position and Aiming Drill, Sitting Down =1379. = In many cases the men, while able to kneel and hold the piecemoderately steady, can obtain in a sitting position much betterresults. All should, therefore, be instructed in aiming sitting downas well as kneeling. To practice the soldier in the preceding exercises in a sittingposition, the squad being formed in a single rank, with an interval ofone pace between files, the rifle should first be brought to "Orderarms"; the instructor then commands: _Sit down. _ At this command make a half face to the right and, assisted by theleft hand on the ground, sit down, facing slightly to the right, theleft leg directed toward the front, right leg inclined toward theright, both heels, but not necessarily the bottoms of the feet, on theground, the right knee slightly higher than the left; body erect andcarried naturally from the hips; at the same time drop the muzzle ofthe piece to the front, and to the position of the first motion ofload, right hand upon the thigh, just in front of the body, the lefthand slightly above, but not resting upon, the left leg. The exercise will be executed as heretofore prescribed, except that atthe command "Two" (position exercise) the soldier will rest the leftelbow on the left knee, the point of the elbow in front of thekneecap, and the right elbow against the left or inside of the rightknee, at the same time inclining the body from the hips slightlyforward. For the aiming and trigger-squeeze exercises the pasters, used asaiming points, will be 2-1/2 feet from the floor or the ground. To afford the men rest or on the completion of the kneeling or sittingdown exercises the instructor will command _Rise_, when the men rise, face to the front, and resume the "Order arms. " =Remarks. = If the preceding position is carefully practiced, steadiness is quickly attained. The right leg should not be carried sofar to the right as not to afford a good support or brace for theright elbow. This position may be modified, but, in general, not without impairingthe steadiness of the man, by crossing the legs at the ankle, theoutside of each foot resting upon the ground, body more erect, and theknees slightly more raised than in the previous position. Position and Aiming Drill, Prone =1380. = From the nature of the position it is not practicable toexecute these exercises according to the method followed when standingor kneeling. Instruction will, however, always be given with referenceto the position, to the manner of assuming it, and to aiming andsqueezing the trigger. For this purpose the squad being formed as specified above, in theposition and aiming drill, sitting down (the black plasters thereinmentioned being about 12 inches from the ground), the squad will bebrought to "Order arms. " Then (the squad either standing or kneeling), the instructor commands:_Lie down_, which will be executed as prescribed in the DrillRegulations; the legs may be spread apart and the toes turned out iffound to give a steadier position. After the squad has taken the position as prescribed above, the legsshould be inclined well to the left, and either crossed or separatedas the soldier prefers or as his particular conformation appears torender most desirable, and the body at the same time inclined slightlyto the right. With care and practice the soldier may acquire an easy position whichhe is able to assume with great facility. =1381. = Being at "Ready, " the instructor then commands: =1. Triggersqueeze. 2. EXERCISE. = At the latter command carry the left elbow to the front and slightlyto the right, the left hand under the barrel at the balance, weight ofthe body mainly supported by the left elbow, the right resting lightlyon the floor or ground. (Two. ) Slide the rifle with the right hand through the left hand tothe front until the left hand is a little in front of the triggerguard; at the same time raise the rifle with both hands and press itagainst the hollow of the shoulder. (Three. ) Direct the rifle upon the mark and carry out the furtherdetails of aiming and squeezing the trigger as prescribed in thetrigger-squeeze exercise. Then resume the position, lying down. As soon as the men have acquired with accuracy the details of theposition, they will be practiced, without the numbers, in aiming andsqueezing the trigger at will; after which the rapid-fire exercise inthe prone position will be practiced, the necessary skill anddexterity being acquired by degrees. To afford the men rest, or on completion of the exercise, theinstructor will command: _Rise_, which is executed as prescribed inthe Drill Regulations. =1382. Remarks. = The preceding position for firing lying downpossesses in a greater degree than any other position the merit ofadaptability to the configuration of the ground; it enables thesoldier to deliver fire over low parapets or improvised shelters, thusmaking the best use of cover. The importance of training the soldierin firing from the other positions should not, however, be lost sightof, since from the prone position it will frequently be impossible tosee the objective. Back positions are not authorized. In the prone position, when aiming, the left elbow should be wellunder the barrel, the other elbow somewhat to the right, but not sofar as to induce any tendency to slip on the floor or ground. The greater changes in elevation required in first directing the rifleon the object should be given by altering the position of the lefthand under the barrel, the slighter changes only by advancing orwithdrawing the shoulder. As the body does not yield to the recoil, as when firing standing orkneeling, the force of recoil, if the rifle is not properly held, mayseverely bruise the soldier. It is one of the objects of this exerciseto so teach him that this will be prevented by assuming a correctposition. Care must be exercised that the butt is not brought againstthe collar bone. By moving the shoulder slightly to the front or rear, and by moving the right elbow from the body or toward it, each soldiermay determine the position in which the shoulder gives to the butt ofthe rifle the easiest rest. This will probably be the one in which theforce of the recoil will be least felt. The soldier should persist in this exercise until he obtains aposition in which he feels no constraint, which will not subject himto bruises from recoil, and from which the mark appears plainlythrough the sights. Having secured such a position, he must not changeit when firing, as a variation in the points of support of the rifle, the distance of the eye from the rear sight, or the tension of thehold has a decided effect, especially at the longer ranges, upon thelocation of the point struck. =Important. = The soldier should be encouraged to go through theseexercises frequently at other than drill hours, care being taken that, in the aiming and trigger-squeeze exercises, he always has somedefinite object for a mark. Deflection and Elevation Correction Drills (Sight-Setting Drills) =1383. Sight Correction. = You may find when firing at a target thatthe first shot has missed the bull's-eye or figure. Now, one of twothings may be done in order to cause the second shot to hit thebull's-eye or figure: (1) The point of aim may be changed, or (2) thesights may be moved and the same point as before aimed at. In order to do accurate shooting it is necessary to have awell-defined mark at which to aim; consequently, except for veryslight corrections, the method of moving the sights, involving changesin elevation and windage, is the one to be used. =Exercises. = In order to give the soldier practice in makingcorrections in elevation and deflection (windage), --that is, insight-setting, --proceed as follows: Take an "A" target and rule it off with red vertical lines torepresent range and black or blue horizontal lines to representwindage deviations, as in Fig. 33. Tell the men to set their sights(either peep or open) for 200 yards, no windage. Examine the sights(assisted by the lieutenants, noncommissioned officers and expertriflemen). [Illustration: Fig. 33] Then say, for example, "You have fired a shot at 200 yards with yoursights set as you now have them. The shot was marked here (pointing to'P, ' Fig. 33). Change your sights so as to move the next shot into thebull's-eye, --considering that you take the same hold as you did thelast time. " (Note. In this case the sight should be lowered 75 yards and 2 pointsof left windage should be taken. ) Repeat with different positions for "P" until the men all understandthe method and the reasons. Do same for 300 yards, 500 yards, and 600yards. See Figs. 34, 35, and 36. [Illustration: Fig. 34] [Illustration: Fig. 35] [Illustration: Fig. 36] Explain that in firing no change in sights should be made until theman is sure that his hold was good, and then change without hesitancy. The correct use of sights and their proper adjustment can thus betaught without firing a shot. This exercise will save much time andwork on the range. =Elevation. = As previously explained, raising the rear sight increasesthe range of the bullet and lowering it decreases the range. The amount of change which a given amount of elevation will cause inthe point struck varies with the range and with the rifle and with theammunition used. For example, generally and approximately, in order, at a range of 500yards, to change the point struck 1 foot, the rear sight must bechanged 48 yards, while to change the point struck 1 foot at 1000yards it must be changed 12 yards. That is to say, if you fired a shotat 300 yards, and then with the same aim, hold and other conditions asbefore, you _raised_ your rear sight 48 yards, the next shot wouldstrike the target 1 foot _above_ the first one, and if you _lowered_the rear sight 48 yards, the bullet would then strike the target 1foot _below_ the first one. If firing at 1000 yards, _raising_ therear sight 12 yards would cause the bullet to strike the target 1 foot_higher_ and _lowering_ the rear sight 12 yards would cause it tostrike 1 foot _lower_. The following table gives the approximate changes in the rear sight tomove the point struck 1 foot at ranges from 100 to 1000 yards: +-----------------------------------+ | | Correction in elevation | | Range | necessary to change the | | | point struck 1 foot | +---------+-------------------------+ | 100 | 415 | | 200 | 185 | | 300 | 105 | | 400 | 70 | | 500 | 48 | | 600 | 35 | | 700 | 25 | | 800 | 20 | | 900 | 15 | | 1, 000 | 12 | +---------+-------------------------+ The score-books issued by the Ordnance Department contain elevationcharts and all you have to do is to consult the chart of yourscore-book in order to get the amount of elevation necessary at anyparticular range in order to raise or lower your shots any desireddistance. =1384. Deflection (windage). = Corrections in the deflection (sidemovement) of the bullet are made by means of the windage screw thatmoves the movable base, each division of the graduations on the rearend of the movable base being called a "point of windage. " _One point of windage moves the point struck 4 inches for each 100yards of range. _ That is to say, at 100 yards, 1 point of windage moves the pointstruck 4 inches; at 200 yards, 8 inches (2 × 4); at 300 yards, 12inches (3 × 4), etc. Consequently, if at 100 yards the wind were carrying your bullets 8inches to the side, you would take two points of windage to get thebull's-eye, and if the wind were carrying your bullets 20 inches tothe side, you would take 5 points of windage, irrespective of the rateat which the wind was blowing. Again, if at 200 yards the wind were carrying your bullets 8 inches tothe side, you would take 1 point of windage, and if it were carryingyour bullets 20 inches to the side, you would take 2-1/2 points, irrespective of the rate at which the wind was blowing. In using the wind gauge remember _windage is always taken in thedirection from which the wind is coming (into the wind) and the bulletmoves in the same direction that the rear sight moves, --that is, ifthe wind is coming from the right, you take right windage and thebullet will strike to the right. Likewise if you move the rear sightto the left (take left windage), the bullet will strike to the left_. GALLERY PRACTICE =1385. Object and importance. = After the soldier has been thoroughlyinstructed in sighting, and in the position, aiming, deflection, andelevation correction drills, he is exercised in firing at short ranges(50 and 75 feet) with the gallery practice rifle (. 22 caliber). Notwithstanding the value of the position and aiming drills, it isimpossible to keep up the soldier's interest if these exercises areunduly prolonged. By gallery practice, however, the interest is easilymaintained and further progress, especially in teaching the triggersqueeze, is made. Many of the external influences, which on the rangeaffect the firing, being absent, the soldier is not puzzled by resultsfor which, at this stage of his education, he could not account werehe advanced to firing with full charges. Furthermore, as there is norecoil to induce nervousness or flinching, the soldier soon finds thathe can make good scores, and this success is the surest stimulus tointerest. Not only to the beginner is gallery practice of value; to the goodshot it is a means of keeping, to a certain extent, in practice, andpractice in shooting, as much as in anything else, is essential. Sinceit can be carried on throughout the year, gallery practice is of muchvalue in fixing in the men the _habit of aimed fire_, than whichnothing in his training is of more importance. RANGE PRACTICE =1386. = Having completed the gallery practice course, the soldier isthen advanced to known-distance firing on the target range where heuses the service rifle, with service ammunition. This known-distance practice is divided into certain regular coursesand special courses. The regular courses and Special Course A are for troops of the RegularArmy. There is also a special course for the Organized Militia andVolunteers and one for Volunteer recruits. All the various courses are described in detail in the Small-ArmsFiring Manual and anyone having occasion to use any of them shouldfamiliarize himself thoroughly therewith. OTHER INSTRUCTION =1387. Use of sling. = After the soldier has been drilled in the properstanding, kneeling, sitting, and prone positions in the foregoingexercises, the use of the sling will be taught. Adjustments and theiradvantages will be taught with the idea of noninterference withquickness and freedom of action. The trigger squeeze exercises willthen be continued in the different positions, using the sling. =1388. = _Description and adjustment. _ The sling is made up of fourparts: the long strap, A, forming the arm loop; the short strap, B;and the two keepers, C and D. At one end of each of the straps thereis a metal claw, used for adjusting the straps. At the other end ofthe short straps there is a metal loop through which the longer strapis passed, thus connecting the two straps. [Illustration: Fig. 37] To adjust the sling for firing, the claw of the short strap isdisengaged and reëngaged in the proper holes of the short strap, suchadjustment as may be necessary being also made in the long strap (thearm loop). =1389. = _What the sling does. _ It does two things: (1) It steadies therifle, and (2) helps to take up the recoil, --that is, to reduce the"kick. " _Its use. _ There are a number of different methods of using the sling. Experiment with different ones until you find and decide upon themethod best suited to you. The sling should be used in all firing, --combat practice as well as attarget practice. Always adjust the sling so that it will be tight. Have the arm loop no longer than is necessary to reach the middle ofthe small of the stock. When on the arm, have the lower end of the armloop well up near the arm pit, with the keeper well pressed down so asto hold the loop fast. Note the proper adjustments of the sling for the different firingpositions, --that is, standing, sitting, kneeling, and prone, and markthe adjustments on the inside of the arm loop, "St" (standing), "Si"(Sitting), "K" (kneeling), and "P" (prone). It is sometimes advisable to sew a piece of rope to your shirt sleeveto keep the sling from slipping down. =1390. To put on the sling. = 1. Put your left hand in the loop, twisting the sling to the left, A, Fig. 38, and holding the rifle withthe right hand as shown in the figure. Twisting the sling to the leftcauses a flat surface instead of the cutting edge of the sling to restagainst the wrist. [Illustration: Fig. 38] 2. Extend the arm on through the loop, (Fig. 39), bringing the loopwell up near the pit of the arm, grasping the piece with the lefthand, and pressing down keeper, A. [Illustration: Fig. 39] 3. Place left hand between the sling and piece, (Fig. 40), the handbeing pressed well forward toward the upper sling swivel, A. Noticehow the back of the hand is resting against the flat of the sling. [Illustration: Fig. 40] 4. Come to the position of aim, Fig. 41. Pressure is applied to thesling by pressing forward the left hand, and holding the rifle to theshoulder with the right hand. Remember that whatever pressure youapply must be the same for each shot. [Illustration: Fig. 41 _Right side view_] Notice (Figs. 41 and 42) how well forward the left hand is, and howthe flat of the sling is resting against the wrist and back of hand. See how the short strap, C, (Fig. 41), of the sling is correctlyloose. The thumb should be held along the stock as shown (A) in Fig. 42. [Illustration: Fig. 42 _Left side view_] =1391. Designation of winds. = Winds are designated as "12 o'clock, " "1o'clock, " "2 o'clock, " etc. , winds, depending on the direction _from_which they come. Imagine the firing point to be in the middle of the face of a clockand the target to be at 12 o'clock; 3 o'clock will be on your right, 9o'clock on your left, 6 o'clock in your rear and 12 in your front. A wind blowing _from_ your right to your left is called a 3 o'clockwind; one blowing _from_ your rear is called a 6 o'clock wind; onefrom your front, 12 o'clock wind, etc. [Illustration: Fig. 43] The score-books issued by the Ordnance Department have windage chartsthat have been carefully worked out and all you have to do is this:Estimate the force of the wind in miles per hour, and determine thedirection from which it comes (whether a 9 o'clock wind, a 2 o'clockwind, etc. ). Then look at the windage chart and see just how muchwindage you must take. The simplest and best rule for the beginner is for him to make hisestimate and then ask an experienced shot what windage to use, checking this up with what he found on the windage chart. In this wayhe soon learns to estimate for himself. Practice estimating the wind. Ask a man who has been making 5's and4's what windage _he_ used and check up with your own estimate. You can find out the direction of the wind by watching smoke, grass orthe limbs of trees. Throw up some small straws and watch which way they are blown, or wetyour finger and hold it up. The wind cools the side it strikes. A 12 o'clock wind slows up the bullet and a 6 o'clock wind helps italong, --so, in the first case you would need more elevation and in thesecond less elevation. =1392. The zero of a rifle. = The twist of the bullet given by therifling of the barrel causes the bullet to move to right, whichmovement, called "the drift, " is compensated by having the slot in therear sight for the drift slide, slope to the left. However, in somerifles the compensation is too great and in others it is not enough. That reading of the wind gauge necessary to overcome the drift of arifle at a particular range is called the "zero" of that rifle forthat range, and all allowances for wind should be calculated from thisreading. The "zero" of a rifle is found by shooting it on a perfectly calm day. =1393. Estimating distance. = Ability to estimate distances correctlyis an important part of a soldier's education. While it is true that fire on the battlefield will usually be bygroups and the ranges will be given by officers, the battlefield isreached only after a long series of experiences in scouting, patrolling, and outpost duty, in which the soldier is frequentlyplaced in positions where it is necessary that he shall determine forhimself the range to be used in order that his fire may be effective. There are different methods of estimating the range (for example, bysound, trial shots, range-finding instruments, etc. ), but the onlyones that the average soldier need know are those of estimatingdistance by the eye and by trial shots. To estimate distance by the eye with accuracy, it is necessary to befamiliar with the appearance, as to length, of a unit of measure whichcan be compared mentally with the distance which is to be estimated. The most convenient unit of length is 100 yards. To impress upon thesoldier the extent of a stretch of 100 yards two posts 100 yardsapart, with short stakes between to mark each 25 yards, should beplaced near the barracks, or on the drill ground, and the soldierrequired to pace off the marked distance several times, counting hissteps. He will thus learn how many of his steps make 100 yards andwill become familiar with the appearance of the whole distance and ofits fractional parts. Next a distance of more than 100 yards will be shown him and he willbe required to compare this distance with the 100-yard unit and toestimate it. Having made his estimate, he will be required to verifyits accuracy by pacing the distance. A few minutes each day should be spent in this practice, the soldieroften being required to make his estimate by raising his rear-sightleaf and showing it to the instructor. After the first drills thesoldier should be required to pace the distance only when the estimateis unusually inaccurate. The soldier should be taught that, in judging the distance from theenemy, his estimate may be corrected by a careful observation of theclearness with which details of dress, the movements of limbs or ofthe files in a line may be seen. In order to derive the benefit ofthis method, the soldier will be required to observe closely all thedetails noted above in single men or squads of men posted at varyingdistances, which will be measured and announced. Although the standing and kneeling silhouettes used in field practiceafford good objects upon which to estimate distances, the instructorshould make frequent use of living figures and natural objects, asthis is the class of targets from which the soldier will be compelledto estimate his range in active service. =1394. Methods of estimating long distances by the eye. = The followingmethods are found useful: (_a_) The soldier may decide that the object cannot be more than acertain distance away nor less than a certain distance; his estimatesmust be kept within the closest possible limits and the mean of thetwo taken as the range. (_b_) The soldier selects a point which he considers the middle pointof the whole distance, estimates this half distance and doubles it, orhe similarly divides the distance into a certain number of lengthswhich are familiar to him. (_c_) The soldier estimates the distance along a parallel line, as aroad on one side, having on it well-defined objects. (_d_) The soldier takes the mean of several estimates made bydifferent persons. This method is not applicable to instruction. =1395. Determination of distance by trial shots or volleys. = If theground is so dry or dusty that the fall of the bullets is visible tothe naked eye or through a field glass, distance may be determined byusing a number of trial shots or volleys. In the case of individual trial shots, the soldier sets his sight atthe estimated range, watching to see where the bullet strikes, --orsome other man, with or without field glasses, may watch to see whereit strikes. If the bullet strikes beyond the target, the estimatedsight setting is decreased; if it falls short, the sight setting isincreased. In case of volleys, the sights are set at the estimated range and avolley is fired. If it appears to strike a little short of the mark, an increase in elevation of 100 yards is used for the next volley. When we have the target inclosed between two volleys, we take the meanof the estimated ranges for the correct range. For example, if thefirst estimated range were 1000 and the second 1100, the correct rangewould be 1050. =1396. Appearance of objects: How modified by varying conditions oflight; difference of level, etc. = During instruction the men should betaught the effect of varying conditions of light and terrain upon theapparent distance of an object. _Objects seem nearer_-- (_a_) When the object is in a bright light. (_b_) When the color of the object contrasts sharply with the color ofthe background. (_c_) When looking over water, snow, or a uniform surface like a wheatfield. (_d_) When looking from a height downward. (_e_) In the clear atmosphere of high altitudes. _Objects seem more distant_-- (_a_) When looking over a depression in the ground. (_b_) When there is a poor light or a fog. (_c_) When only a small part of the object can be seen. (_d_) When looking from low ground upward toward higher ground. =1397. Effect of heat and cold. = Heat causes shots to strike high, andcold causes them to strike low. Therefore, if you shot on a warm day and made 5's, and recordedtemperature and other conditions in your score-book, you would know onlooking at your score sheets that you should raise your elevation, ifyou were firing on a cold day. =1398. Effect of moisture. = Dampness causes shots to strike high anddryness causes them to strike low. Therefore, on damp days take lowerelevations than on dry days. =1399. Effect of light. = Light affects the aiming without the beginnerknowing it. It does not, however, affect the travel of the bullet. A dark target causes a tendency to aim farther below the bull's-eyethan if the target were bright. Therefore, use higher elevations withdark targets. As it gets darker, higher elevations should be used. If you _always aim carefully and correctly_ the light will have littleeffect on your aiming, --that is, if your eyesight is good. If you are shooting in a dull light and a bright sun comes out, say onyour right, there is a tendency to move the front sight to theopposite (left) side of the rear sight notch, since the near (right)edge is shaded and obscured somewhat. Therefore 1/4 to 1/2 windageinto the sun (right in this case) should be taken to overcome this. In using battle sight, hold higher for a bright light. We also raise our sights if a strong sun comes out. Therefore, we havethis rule: _Move your rear sight into the sun, just as you do for awind, --and raise your elevation. _ =1400. Mirage= gives a wavering appearance to the target. It is heatedair that is moving. It is sometimes called "heat waves. " With the wind between 2 and 14 miles an hour on clear, hot days thewaves can be seen moving across the target. When there is no wind or a light six o'clock wind, the waves gostraight up, or "boil. " _Never fire when the mirage is boiling_, --waitfor it to move from one side to the other and then take windage tocorrect for it. =1401. Summary of temperature, light and moisture effects:= _Raise elevation for_-- Dull target Shooting in the sun Hot gun Dirty gun Cold day Bright or shining sight Cloudy day 12 o'clock wind _Lower elevation for_-- Bright target Target in sun Cold gun Clean gun Hot day Moist day Full sights 6 o'clock wind =1402. Firing with bayonet fixed. = In firing with bayonet fixedusually a lower point on the target will be struck, corresponding to areduction of about 50 yards in the range. =1403. Care of rifle. = Since the accuracy of a soldier's rifle has amost important bearing on his shooting, and since the proper care of arifle affects its accuracy, the care of the rifle is an importantsubject in which every soldier should be thoroughly instructed. Thesubject is fully covered in the preceding chapter. (Chapter XV, PartI). COLLECTIVE INSTRUCTION (Combat practice) =1404. General scheme. = While individual instruction is mostimportant, it is not everything. The maximum effect of fire in battleis obtained when a command, as a whole, is a pliable, manageable, effective instrument in the hands of a commander who can use itintelligently and efficiently. Therefore, the two objects to beobtained are: 1. To make the command a pliable, manageable, effective instrument inthe hands of its commander. 2. To train and instruct the commander so that he will know how to usethis instrument in an intelligent and efficient manner. =1405. To make the fire unit a pliable, manageable, efficientinstrument. = In order that a unit may be a pliable, manageable, efficient instrument in the hands of its commander, he must be able tocontrol the unit absolutely, --that is to say, not only must theindividuals composing the unit be so trained that they will respond atonce, even in the din and confusion of battle, to the will of thecommander, as expressed by his orders, but they must also be soinstructed and disciplined that they can, as individual parts of theunit, perform their functions efficiently. This is accomplished by_fire discipline_. =1406. Fire discipline. = By _fire discipline_ is meant a habit ofobedience, a control of the rifle, and a display of intelligence, allthe result of training, which will enable the soldier in action tomake hits instead of misses. It embraces taking advantage of theground; care in setting the sight and delivery of fire, includingproper fire distribution; constant attention to the orders of theleaders and careful observation of the enemy; an increase of fire whenthe target is favorable, and a cessation of fire when the enemydisappears; economy of ammunition. =1407. To train and instruct the commander to use the unit withintelligence and efficiency. = In order to handle the unit withintelligence and efficiency, utilizing to the greatest extent possiblethe power of all the rifles under his command, not only must thecommander be able to control the unit, having it respond at once tohis every command, but he must also know tactics, and be thoroughlyfamiliar with the technical principles of infantry fire. =1408. Combat exercises. = A combat exercise consists of theapplication of tactical principles to certain assumed battlesituation, in the execution of which are employed the appropriateformations and movements of close and extended order drill, and inwhich, as a rule, ball cartridges are used in firing at the targets. By means of combat exercises, the unit commanders are trained andinstructed in applying tactical principles, in controlling anddirecting the fire of their units and the men are trained andinstructed in fire discipline. The tactical principles applicable to combat exercises are covered inthe Infantry Drill Regulations, under the headings of "_Fire_" and"_Combat_. " =1409. Technical principles of firing. = The technical principles offiring are given in detail in the Small-Arms Firing Manual, a summaryof which is given below under the headings of, _The Effect of Fire_, _The Influence of the Ground_, and _The Adjustment of Fire_. The Effect of Fire =1410. Ballistic qualities of the rifle. = The accuracy of a rifle, theflatness of its trajectory, and its disabling power, --that is, thepower it has to disable the enemy, --are called its _ballisticqualities_. The accuracy of the U. S. Springfield rifle, caliber . 30, model of1903, is very high, --probably superior to that of any other militaryrifle. The flatness of trajectory is dependent upon the muzzle velocity, and, to some extent, upon the form of the bullet. Our bullet is pointed andthe muzzle velocity is 2700 feet per second, which is a very highmuzzle velocity. Two rifles of different type may be equally accurate, but the accuracyof the one having the flatter trajectory will, naturally, be lessaffected by slight errors in sight setting. Again, another advantage of the rifle with the flatter trajectory isthat it holds more ground under its fire. For example, take ourservice rifle: At a range of 500 yards, the bullet, at the highestpoint in its trajectory or line of flight, is 2 feet above the line ofsight. It is, therefore, apparent that if the bottom of an object 2feet or greater, is aimed at, it would be struck if it were anywhereunder 500 yards. Now, take a rifle with a very curved trajectory, sayone whose bullet, at the highest point of the trajectory correspondingto a range of 500 yards, is 10 feet above the line of sight. Therewill be a large extent of ground between the target and the rifle thatis not danger space for a target 2 feet above the line of sight. Hence, we see that the rifle with the flatter trajectory is better. The continuous danger space afforded by the flat trajectory of ourservice rifle enables us to adopt a universal sight for all ranges upto 500 yards, --that is, the battle sight, which is the rear sightready for use when the sight leaf is laid down. =1411. Cone of fire or cone of dispersion. = If a body of soldiers fireat the same target the bullets will not, of course, follow the samepath, but will be scattered. This is due to differences in sights, parts of the rifle, ammunition, and to a greater extent, to theindividual errors of the soldiers in aiming and firing. The trajectories or paths of the bullets considered together form ahorn-shaped figure or cone, called the _Cone of fire_ or cone ofdispersion. (See Fig. 44. ) [Illustration: Fig. 44] =1412. Shot group and center of impact. = If the _cone of fire_ beintercepted by a target (for example, A O, Fig. 44) at right angles tothe axis of the cone, the shot holes will make a pattern or groupcalled the _shot group_, the holes being the thickest approximately inthe center of the group, called the _center of impact_. From thispoint in all directions the density of the grouping decreasesprogressively, --at first gradually, then more rapidly, out to thelimits of the group. Naturally, the size of the cone of fire and of the shot group varywith the skill of those firing, good shots making a small cone andsmall group, and poor shots a large cone and large group. =1413. Beaten zone. = The intersection of the cone of dispersion withthe surface of the ground is called the _beaten zone_. If the surface of the ground is horizontal, the form of the _beatenzone_ is that of an ellipse with its longer axis in the direction ofthe line of fire, as shown in Fig. 45. [Illustration: Fig. 45] In view of the fact that at the long ranges the angle of fall of thebullets is much greater than at short ranges, it follows that atshort ranges the elliptical figure (beaten zone) is much moreelongated than at long ranges. In other words, the longer the range, the shorter is the depth of the beaten zone. This is shown in Fig. 45. =1414. Uncertainty and ineffectiveness of long-range fire. = It followsfrom what has been said, that as the range increases the length of thebeaten zone decreases, --that is, a less depth of ground is held underfire. That being the case, if an error is made in sight setting due, for example, to an incorrect estimate of the range, the proportionateloss of fire effect due to misplacement of the center of impact willbe greater as the beaten zone is less, --that is, as the range isgreater. Furthermore, the difficulty of exact range determination increaseswith the distance, the two influences combining to make long-rangefire uncertain and usually ineffective. =1415. Zone of effective fire. = That portion of the ground whichcontains the best 75 per cent of the shots in the beaten zone, iscalled the _zone of effective fire_. Effectiveness of Fire =1416. Factors involved. = The effectiveness of fire depends upon thesethree factors: (1) The percentage of hits made; (2) The number of targets hit; (3) The time of execution. That is to say, the effectiveness of fire is determined by the numberof enemies disabled or targets hit in a given time. =1417. Percentage of hits. = By the percentage of hits is meant theproportion of all the bullets fired that hit the targets. For example, if 1000 bullets are fired and 750 hit the targets, then the percentageof hits is 75. The percentage of hits depends upon the dispersion, and this isinfluenced by the precision of the arm, the range, the visibility ofthe target, the atmospheric conditions, the training and instructionof the troops, and upon their physical and moral state at the time. Inaddition, the percentage of hits also depends upon the character ofthe ground as favoring ricochet hits, upon the correct estimation ofthe range and the proper designation of the target. =1418. Number of targets hit. = The number of targets hit, --that is, the distribution of fire, --may be affected by varying degrees ofvisibility, as men instinctively choose the more conspicuous marks asaiming points. Under any circumstances, a poor distribution of thehits made will be due to an absence of proper instructions from theleaders; or, in other words, to poor control, or else to a want ofunderstanding or lack of obedience on the part of the men. =1419. Time of execution. = The time of execution is important in thatthe gaining of fire superiority is dependent less upon obtaining highpercentages of hits than upon making an absolutely large number ofhits in a unit of time. There is necessarily a limit to the rapidityof fire which, if exceeded, will result in some loss of accuracy. Withtargets of a fair degree of visibility, the following may be taken asstandard rates of fire for troops who have been given suitabletraining in target practice: 200 yards } 300 yards } 10 shots per minute. 400 yards } 500 yards } 600 yards } 7. 5 shots per minute. 700 yards } 800 yards } 900 yards } 5 shots per minute. 1, 000 yards } Greater ranges, 3 shots per minute. The rates given should not exclude higher rates of fire in the case oflarge and conspicuous targets. On the other hand, when objectives, ormarks used as aiming points, are very indistinct, the requirement ofcorrect aiming imposes rates of fire somewhat lower than the standardrates given even for well-instructed men. With imperfectly trained men who have not fully acquired the habit ofusing aimed fire only, and who are lacking in the manual dexterityrequired for executing the standard rates of fire, the maximum ratecan not well exceed six shots per minute without incurring the dangerof lapsing into unaimed fire. Fatigue and exhaustion, the results of marches or prolonged firing, have a detrimental influence and tend to lower the rates of effectivefire. Influence of Ground =1420. Defilade. = If we will consider a bullet just grazing the top ofan impenetrable obstacle (like "A, " Fig. 46), the space from the topof such obstacle to where the bullet strikes the ground (space B E, Fig. 46) will be protected from fire. Such space is called, "_defiladed space_. " Its extent will, of course, depend on the heightof the obstacle, the curvature of the trajectory and the slope of theground in rear of the obstacles. [Illustration: Fig. 46] Between B and D, a soldier standing would be completely protected;between D and E, he would be only partially protected. To obtaincomplete protection between D and E the soldier would have to assumethe kneeling or prone position, depending on how far away from D hewas. By cover is meant effective defilade from the enemy's fire. By concealment is meant screening from view but not necessarilyprotection from fire. =1421. Rising and falling ground. = The influence of the ground uponthe effect of fire is at once seen by studying Fig. 44. If the ground rises, as shown by B O and A O, the depth of the beatenzone (and consequently the effect of fire) decreases. On the otherhand, if the ground falls (up to a certain point), the depth of thebeaten zone (and consequently the effect of fire) increases. =1422. Depth of beaten zone affects only targets having depth. = Itshould be remembered that depth of beaten zone can affect only targetswhich have depth. On a target in the form of a line, --a line of skirmishers, forexample, --the depth of the beaten zone has no effect one way or theother. If such a target, however, is backed up by supports andreserves, the depth of the beaten zone may have a decided effect onthem, depending upon their distance in rear of the line forming thetarget and the slope of the ground in rear of such target. In this connection, attention is invited to Fig. 47, which shows howin the case of a fire delivered from a height at a target on ahorizontal plane beneath, the beaten zone is shortened andconsequently the fire effect decreased. [Illustration: Fig. 47] An example of increasing the depth of beaten zone is seen in Fig. 48, which shows a fire delivered from low ground at a target on the edgeof a plateau or crest of a ridge from which the ground slopes to therear. [Illustration: Fig. 48] =1423. Grazing fire. = Shots which pass over a crest with an angle offall conforming, or nearly conforming, to the slope of the groundbeyond the edge of the crest (as shown in Fig. 48), are called_grazing shots_ and fire so delivered is called _grazing fire_. =1424. Diminution or increase in fire effect due to rising and fallingground. = In connection with the diminution or increase in fire effectdue to rising and falling ground, attention is invited to thefollowing: 1. If the ground slopes upward to the rear from a firing line, thesupports may be placed closer without increasing the danger from fireaimed at the firing line. 2. When the ground slopes down and to the rear from the firing lineforming the target, the supports must be posted at a greater distancein rear, unless the slope is so much greater than the angle of fall ofthe hostile bullets that a defiladed space is created in which nobullets strike, in which case the supports may be brought up close tothe crest. 3. On ground rising with respect to the line of sight, column targets(i. E. , having depth) will suffer greater losses than lineal targets. 4. On ground falling with respect to the line of sight, the reverseslope of hills or the level grounds of plateaus, line targets willsuffer the greater losses. =1425. Ricochet shots. = When a bullet strikes any surface and isdeflected it is called a _ricochet shot_. Not only do bullets that ricochet usually tumble after striking, butthey are also mutilated, so that wounds inflicted by ricochet hits areusually severe. The most favorable ground for ricochets is a smooth, hard, horizontalsurface, the aim being low, the chance of ricochets in sand is veryslight. =1426. Occupation of ground. = The question of the occupation of groundpresents these two aspects: 1. What firing positions may be chosen which will tend to increase thelosses of the enemy? 2. What positions may be chosen and formations adopted to minimize ourown losses? The selection of a defensive position presents this question: _Shallit be near the crest or well down the slope?_ A position well down the slope _Advantages:_ 1. The depth of the beaten zone for fire delivered from the positionis increased and the upper portion of the cone of fire will includethe supports and reserves advancing to reënforce the hostile firingline. That is to say, the fire will be a _grazing fire_. 2. It eliminates dead spaces that might otherwise exist at the bottomof the slope. 3. The hostile fire being directed against a point well down theslope, the high ground in rear will interpose as a defilade andintercept the upper portion of the cone of fire which might otherwisetake effect on the supports and reserves behind the crest. _Disadvantages:_ 1. It makes withdrawal difficult in case it becomes necessary to fallback. 2. It is difficult to reënforce the firing line. A position near the crest _Advantages:_ 1. It favors observation of the enemy. 2. It makes withdrawal easy in case it becomes necessary to fall back. 3. It is easy to reënforce the firing line by the supports advancingfrom behind the crest. _Disadvantages:_ 1. The depth of the beaten zone is decreased and consequently the coneof fire will probably not include the supports and reserves advancingto reënforce the hostile firing fire. In other words, the fire will bea _plunging fire_. 2. It is likely to result in dead spaces at the bottom of the slope. 3. It affords a good target for the hostile artillery. Whether or not a position near the crest or a position down the slopeshould be chosen, depends, in each case, upon circumstances. For instance in a rear guard action, where a determined stand is notcontemplated, a position near the crest would be occupied. On theother hand, if a determined stand were contemplated, the terrainoffered good opportunity for the delivery of an effective grazingfire, and we had reason to believe that we were going to be subjectedto heavy artillery fire, a position at the foot of the slope would beselected. However, it may be said that, in general, a defensive position shouldbe near the bottom of the slope. =1427. Gentle reverse slopes. = From the point of view of avoidinglosses, all gentle reverse slopes are dangerous and are to be avoidedwhen possible. When necessary to traverse or to occupy such ground, precautions mustbe taken to protect the reserves or other bodies of troops by placingthem on the flanks; by disposing them in formations with a narrowfront; by causing them to lie down; by the construction of suitableshelter, and by avoiding useless movements. Adjustment of Fire =1428. Fire at stationary targets. = The correct adjustment of fire isattained by causing the center of impact to fall on the center of thetarget. This is the problem constantly presented in combat firing. The two important elements entering into this problem are, (1) thecommander and (2) the troops. When a body of troops has aimedcorrectly at the target indicated, with the elevation ordered and hasfired with steadiness, it has done all that can be expected of it, butthat is not sufficient; for, if the commander, by giving the wrongsight-setting, for example, has failed to cause the center of impactto fall on the center, of the target, the result may be nothing. Hence the vital importance of knowing and announcing the correctrange. It is known that good shots make a small group and poor shots a largegroup, average shots making a group of intermediate size. It is frequently stated that troops composed of good shots are not soeffective in collective firing as poorer shots. How is this possible?The explanation is simple. The shot group of the good shots is smalland if misplaced by an error in range estimation few hits result whilethe shot group of poorer shots, being larger, is not so much affectedby the same error in range estimation, will cover the ground, andprobably hit more figures. This, of course, is _only true_ when aconsiderable error has been made in estimating the range. As battle targets are mostly line targets, a displacement to the rightor left does not amount to much, but an error in depth (range), asstated before, is serious. Thus we, see that the _correctdetermination of the range_ is very important. =1429. Determination of range. = The range may be determined, with onlya small error, by a range finder. There are several other methods, as, for instance, by trial shots, --the dust thrown up by the bulletshowing whether the range is too short or too great, --by sound, by theappearance of objects, etc. , but except in deliberately prepareddefensive positions, estimating by eye will be the most practicablemethod of estimating the range. For all practical purposes a verysatisfactory result will be obtained by taking the average estimatesof several trained men. In observing the effect of the fire the ground may be wet, or coveredwith turf, sod or brush in which no signs of striking shots can beseen. By careful use of good field glasses some indication of theplace where the shots are going, may be obtained. The actions of theenemy may often indicate whether the fire is effective or not. =1430. Combined sights. = All other means failing, _combined sights_may be resorted to. By this is meant firing part of the troops withsights set at one range and part with a range greater or less by 100yards or more. This increases the beaten zone and will generallyassure a certain amount of fire effect. This method is seldom usedunder 500 yards. =1431. Auxiliary aiming points. = It frequently happens that the targetis so well concealed that it is invisible. In this case some welldefined object in front or behind it must be used as an _aimingtarget_, and the range given so that the beaten zone will include theactual target at its center. =1432. Fire at moving targets. = In firing at a moving enemy, a beatenzone must be established immediately in front, his forward movementinto this zone completing the adjustment of fire. Due to the chance ofoverestimating the range, a sight-setting must be taken _well under_the estimated range (usually about 200 yards against advancinginfantry). When the fire becomes effective, as may be judged by the actions andmovements of the enemy, the rate of fire should be quickened in orderto increase the effect of the fire. Frequent changes of sight not only cause a loss of time, but they alsomultiply chances of error in sight-setting. Changes in sight-settingagainst advancing infantry should not be less than 200 yards at atime, that is to say, when the enemy has passed through the zone ofeffective fire, the sight should be lowered 200 yards and theoperation repeated until the battle-sight zone is reached, when therear-sight leaf is thrown down and no other sight manipulation ismade. Against skirmish lines advancing by rushes, the sight-setting shouldnot be changed during a rush, but it should be done at the halts, sothat the greater vulnerability of the targets presented during therush may be taken advantage of. Against retreating infantry, use the estimated range, and when thetarget appears to have passed beyond the zone of effective fire, add200 yards to the sight-setting. Against attacking cavalry, due to the rapidity of the advance, therewill not usually be time for sight manipulation other than throwingdown the rear-sight leaf, so that the battle should be resorted to atall ranges. In firing at a target moving across the line of fire it is desirable, on account of the confusion caused thereby, to hit the head of thecolumn. It is necessary, therefore, to hold to the front a distancesufficient to allow for the time of flight and the rate of march. Thiswill be accomplished by the observance of the following rough rules: 1. Against infantry, hold against the head of the marching column; 2. Against cavalry at a trot, hold to the front 1 yard for every 100yards of range; and at a gallop, 2 yards for every 100 yards of range. =1433. Night firing. = In night firing it is almost impossible toadjust the fire by ordinary means. In night attacks the purpose of the offensive is to gain rapidly andquietly a position where the issue may be decided in a hand to handencounter, or a position from which the superiority of fire may begained at daylight. For the offensive, therefore, fire action is asubordinate consideration. On the defensive, when a night attack is apprehended, preparationsshould be made to sweep with fire the ground immediately in front overwhich the assailant must advance. Special arrangements may sometimes be made for resting rifles on theparapet, so that the ground in front will be suitably covered. A solidsupport is necessary for maintaining the proper direction of thepieces during firing. For this purpose notched boards or timbers areconvenient. The arrangements should be such that the operations ofloading and firing may be performed without removing the rifles fromthe support. Searchlight illumination may reveal the position and movements of theenemy sufficiently well to permit the use of the sights. In nightoperations of small parties fire may be well directed when a bright, well-defined light, such as a camp fire, is presented as an aimingpoint. In such a case a slight illumination of the front sight isrequired. Fire Direction and Control =1434. General. = As stated before in substance, the maximum effect offire can be gotten only by instructed and disciplined troops under acommander capable of directing and controlling their fire properly. The fire of a company may be likened to spraying water from a hose, and as the fireman can shift his stream of water from one point to theother with certainty, being able to direct and control it withpromptness and accuracy, so should the company commander be able toswitch the cone of fire of his company from one target to another, having it at all times under direction and control. In other words, asthe pliable, manageable hose responds to the will of the fireman, soshould the company be so trained and instructed that it will respondto the will of the company commander on the firing line, in the midstof the noise and confusion of battle. No one except a man who has beenin battle can realize how great are the noise and confusion, and hownecessary and important are coöperation, team-work, discipline, andcommunication, in order for a company commander to control and directthe fire of the company--there must be absolute coöperation, team-work, and communication between all parts of the company--betweenthe captain and the platoon leaders, the platoon leaders and the squadleaders, and the squad leaders and the members of their squads. Eachand every man must know and do his part and endeavor all he can tokeep in touch with and help the others. Now, the foundation ofteam-work and coöperation, is communication--communication between thecompany commander and the men on the firing line--the means by which, the medium _through_ which he will make known his will to the men onthe firing line. As stated before, because of the noise and confusionon the firing line this is no easy matter. The ideal way would be forthe company commander to control the company by communicating directwith every man on the firing line, as graphically shown on thefollowing page: [Illustration: Fig. 49] However, in the noise and confusion of battle it would be utterlyimpossible for all the men to hear the captain's voice. Experienceshows that from 20 to 35 rifles are as many as one leader can control. The captain, must, therefore, control the company through the platooncommanders--that is to say, he _actually directs_ the fire and theplatoon commanders, assisted by the squad leaders, _actually control_it. In other words, the captain communicates with the men on thefiring line, he makes his will known to them, through his platooncommanders, as graphically shown in this diagram: [Illustration: Fig. 50] However, in order for our system of communication to be successful, each and every man, as stated above, must know and do his part andendeavor all he can to help the others. If this is done, then thedifferent parts and elements of the company will dove-tail and fitinto one another, resulting in a complete, homogeneous whole, in theform of an efficient, pliable, manageable instrument in the hands ofthe company commander. And this is the object, the result, sought bypractice and instruction in field firing, and which will be obtainedif the captain, the platoon leaders, the squad leaders, the fileclosers, the musicians, and the privates, will perform the followingduties and functions: =1435. The Captain. = (_Fire direction. _) The captain _directs_ the fire of the company or of designatedplatoons. He designates the target, and, when practicable, allots apart of the target to each platoon. Before beginning the fire actionhe determines the range, announces the sight setting, and indicatesthe class of fire to be employed, and the time to open fire. Thereafter, he observes the fire effect, corrects material errors insight setting, prevents exhaustion of the ammunition supply, andcauses the distribution of such extra ammunition as may be receivedfrom the rear. (I. D. R. 249. ) Having indicated clearly what he desires the platoon leaders to do, the captain avoids interfering, except to correct serious errors oromissions. (I. D. R. 240. ) =1436. The Platoon Leaders. = (_Fire direction. _) In combat the platoon is the _fire unit_. (I. D. R. 250. ) Each platoon leader puts into execution the commands or directions ofthe captain, having first taken such precautions to insure correctsight setting and clear description of the target or aiming point asthe situation permits or requires; thereafter, he gives suchadditional commands or directions as are necessary to exact compliancewith the captain's will. He corrects the sight setting when necessary. He designates an aiming point when the target cannot be seen with thenaked eye. In general, _platoon leaders_ observe the target and the effect oftheir fire and are on the alert for the captain's commands or signals;they observe and regulate the rate of fire. (I. D. R. 252. ) =1437. The Guides= watch the firing line and check every breach offire discipline. =1438. The Squad Leaders= transmit commands and signals whennecessary, observe the conduct of their squads and abate excitement, assist in enforcing fire discipline and participate in the firing. Every squad leader should place himself just a little in advance ofthe rest of his squad and by occasionally glancing to the right andleft, observe how the men of their squads are doing--whether they arefiring at the proper objective, if the sights are apparently properlyadjusted, if they are firing too rapidly, etc. After each shot thesquad leader should look toward his platoon leader, and then glance tohis right and left to observe his men, and then load and fire again. =1439. The Musicians= assist the captain by observing the enemy, thetarget, and the fire effect, by transmitting commands or signals, andby watching for signals. (I. D. R. 235. ) =1440. The Privates= will take advantage of cover, exercise care insetting the sights and delivering fire; be on the constant lookout fororders from their leaders; always aim deliberately; observe the enemycarefully, increasing the fire when the target is favorable andceasing firing when the enemy disappears; not neglect a target becauseit is indistinct; not waste ammunition, but be economical with it; iffiring without a leader to retain their presence of mind and direct anefficient fire upon the proper target. =1441. Distribution of Fire. = The distribution of fire over the entiretarget is of the greatest importance; for, a section of the target notcovered by fire represents a number of the enemy permitted to firecoolly and effectively. So, remember that all parts of the target areequally important, and care must be taken that the men do not neglectits less visible parts. The captain allots a part of the target to each platoon, or eachplatoon leader takes as his target that part which corresponds to hisposition in the company. Every man is so instructed that he will fireon that part of the target which is directly opposite him. If the target cannot be seen with the naked eye, platoon leadersselect an object in front of or behind it, designate this as theaiming point, and direct a sight-setting which will carry the fireinto the target. The men aim at the good aiming point or line, butwith such an increased or decreased sight-setting, as the case may be, that the bullets will fall on the target instead of on the aimingpoint. Distribution of fire is assured by dividing the whole target assignedthe company into definite parts or sectors, and allotting these partsor sectors to the various platoons. And, of course, the whole of thetarget must be kept under fire while the company is advancing. Thismay be accomplished by one of two methods: =1442. Overlapping Method. = In this method each sector (target) iscovered by more than one fire unit. For example, in a company of fourplatoons the entire company sector would be divided in two parts, theright part being covered by the first and second platoons and the leftpart by the third and fourth platoons. When the first platoon ceasesfire to advance, the second platoon would replace the lost rifles byfiring faster. With three platoons the company sector would be dividedinto two parts, one being assigned to each flank platoon and the wholecompany sector to the center platoon. When the first platoon advanced, the center platoon would cover its target, both the center and thirdplatoons increasing their rate of fire. With two platoons, each wouldcover the whole company sector. =1443. Switch Method. = The company is divided into a number of parts, one less than the number of platoons in the company. One platoon isdesignated as the "switch, " and swings into fire automatically intothat sector from which the fire of its assigned unit is withdrawn. Forexample, with four platoons, and platoon rushes to start from theright, the company sector is divided into three parts assigned to thefirst, second and third platoons, the fourth being the "switch. " Whennumber 1 ceases fire to advance, No. 4 fires at No. 1's target; whenNo. 2 ceases to fire, No. 4 fires at No. 2's target, then at No. 3'starget, and finally No. 4 advances. =1444. Individual instruction in fire distribution. = Every man shouldbe thoroughly drilled, instructed and trained always to _fire at thatpart of the hostile target which corresponds to the position heoccupies in his platoon_. That is to say, if on the right of hisplatoon, he fires at the right (as he faces it) of the hostile target;if in the right center of his platoon, he fires at the right center(as he faces it) of the target, and so on. This is represented by thefollowing diagram, the points A', B', C', etc. , representing the partsof the hostile target at which the men occupying the positions A, B, C, etc. , in their platoon, would fire: [Illustration: Fig. 51] =1445. Designation of target. = It is very important that thecommanders should be able to describe the objectives to be attackedand the sectors[19] to be defended, and that individual soldiersshould be able to understand and transmit to other soldiers suchdescriptions. Within the squad, target designation implies ability onthe part of the squad leader to understand and transmit to his squadthe target designation received from his platoon leader, and alsoability on his own part to designate a target intelligently; withinthe platoon, target designation implies ability on the part of theplatoon leader to understand the company commander's designation ofthe target and to transmit that designation to his platoon in suchmanner as to insure an equal distribution of its fire within thesector assigned to it; within the company, target designation impliesability on the part of the company commander to designate the targetsinto which the company sector is divided in such manner that theplatoon leaders will have no trouble in understanding him. It alsoimplies ability on the part of the company commander to change theobjectives or sectors of his platoons, and his ability to cover thewhole target of the company during a forward movement of a part of thecompany, by the so-called "switch" or the "overlapping" method, or byany other method which is practicable and accomplishes the desiredend. Targets should be designated in a concise, prompt, unmistakablemanner, but, as we all know, it is not always an easy matter todescribe the location of an object, especially if the object be notconspicuous or readily recognized. This is due to two reasons: First, the unit commander is likely to indulge in vague talk instead ofaccurate description, and, second, even if correct terms are used, itis more than likely that all members of the firing line will not beable to grasp the idea, because the commander will be usingexpressions which, although understood by himself (in some casesperhaps due to the fact that he is looking at the objective), theywill not be clear to the men. The secret of prompt, accurate andconcise designation of a target lies in the use of simple words andterms with which both the unit commander and the men on the firingline are thoroughly familiar. Of course, if the target be distinct and clearly defined, it caneasily be designated by name, as for example, "That battery on thehill just in front of us, " "Cavalry to our right front, " etc. Generally the designation of a target, if not conspicuous nor readilyrecognized, will include: 1. A statement of what the target is, or its appearance (shape, color, size, etc. ) 2. Where the target is with reference to some easily recognizedreference point. 3. How wide the company sector is. The following systems of target designation are used at the School ofMusketry. Each has its limitations, defects and advantages, undervarious conditions of ground, etc. A wise selection of one or acombination of two or more, is a material factor in efficiency. =1446. Horizontal Clock Face System. = (Used with visible, distincttargets. ) SYSTEM EXAMPLE 1. Announce direction. "At one o'clock. " 2. Announce range. "Range 1000. " 3. Announce objective. "A troop of cavalry dismounted. " [Illustration: Fig. 52] PROCEDURE: 1. All look along the line pointing toward one o'clock of a horizontalclock face whose center is at the firing point, and whose 12 o'clockmark is directly perpendicular to the front of the firing line. 2. All look at a point about 1000 yards away on the one o'clock line, and 3. At 1000 yards on the one o'clock line find the objective. =1447. Vertical Clock Face System. = (Used with small or indistincttargets. ) SYSTEM EXAMPLE 1. Announce the general direction "To our right front" (or "At two of the reference point. O'clock"). 2. Designate as a reference point "A stone house with two chimneys. " the most prominent object in the zone indicated. 3. Announce the position of the "At three o'clock. " target with respect to the reference point. 4. Announce the range. "Range 1000. " 5. Announce the objective. "A hostile patrol of four men. " [Illustration: Fig. 53] PROCEDURE: 1. All men look to their right front (or along the two o'clock line). 2. The reference point (stone house) is found in the indicateddirection. 3. A clock face (vertical) is imagined centered on the referencepoint, and the men look along the line leading from the clock centerthrough three o'clock, and 4. 1000 yards from the firing point. 5. Find the hostile patrol. =1447a. Finger System. = (Used with indistinct or invisible targets andto define sectors. ) (By one "Finger" we mean the amount of frontage that one finger, held vertically, will cover, the arm being extended horizontally to its full length. In the average case this amount of frontage covered is about 1/20 of the range. For instance, at a range of 1000 yards, one "Finger" will cover fifty yards of the sector The same result will be obtained by using the rear-sight leaf in the position of aiming. ) [Illustration: Fig. 54] SYSTEM EXAMPLE 1. Announce direction to "To our right front, at 1000 yards. " reference point as in the vertical clock face system. 2. Announce reference point. "A stone house with two chimneys. " 3. Announce angular distance and "Four o'clock, three fingers. " direction from the reference point to the target. 4. Announce range. "Range 1000. " 5. Announce objective. "A skirmish line alongside of the fence, length about two fingers, right at the dark bush. " [Illustration: Fig. 55] PROCEDURE: The reference point is found as explained, and the vertical o'clockline upon which the target will be found. The soldiers who do not seethe target will extend the aim to its _full extent_ palm of the handupward, finger held vertically with one side of the hand "against" thereference point. The target will be found on the four o'clock line, and touching the third finger, at 1000 yards distance, its right flankat the bush and its left flank about 100 yards farther to the right. The following case will illustrate more concretely the use of the"Finger" system: There is a red house about 3/4 mile to our front, and to the right ofthis house and a hundred yards or so to its rear, there is a line oftrenches that can be seen with the aid of field glasses, but thetrenches are difficult to locate with the unaided eye. There is noprominent landmark in the direction of this line of trenches, or oneither flank, except the red house mentioned. The company commanderlocates the flanks of the line of trenches through his field glasses;he then extends his arm forward horizontally its full length, palm up, raises the fingers of his hand and, sighting on the line of trenches, finds that the trench line has a length of four "finger widths, " andthat the flank of the line nearest the red house is three "fingerwidths" from it. He decides to divide the line into two sections oftwo "fingers" each, and assign one section to each of his twoplatoons. He then calls his platoon leaders (and range finders, ifnecessary), and says, for instance: "Center of objective, five to theright of that red house, First Platoon, two fingers; Second Platoon, two fingers. " The two platoon leaders then estimate the range and givethe company commander their estimates independently. The companycommander also estimates the range, and taking the average, thenannounces the range, say 1300 yards, after which the platoon leadersreturn to their platoons, and give, for instance, these instructions:"The target is a line of trenches four 'fingers' long, and about 1300yards away; the center of the target is five 'fingers' to the right ofthat red house, at about 10 o'clock. We are to fire at the two fingerson the right of the center and the Second Platoon will look after thetwo fingers on the left of the center. " (The leader of the SecondPlatoon gives similar instructions. ) Every man in the platoon figures out the platoon objective andendeavors to fix it with respect to some features of the ground sothat he will be able to pick it up promptly after his platoon startsto advance. After fixing well in his mind the platoon objective, hefigures out what part of it belongs to his squad, and then selectsthat portion of the squad objective corresponding to his position inthe squad. If during the advance, his particular portion of the targetshould become hidden from view, he will fire on the nearest portion ofthe trench line, returning to his own part as soon as it becomesvisible. =1447b. Communication. = After the company has been committed to thefire fight, verbal commands cannot be heard, and it is well nighimpossible even to secure attention to signals. It is, therefore, mostimportant that we should train and practice the company as much aspossible during time of peace in the rapid and accurate transmissionof orders and signals along the firing line. Matter upon which a commander would need to communicate with hissubordinates, in addition to tactical orders, would generally beconfined to: (a) Changes of elevation and deflection. (b) Changes in the apportionment of the target among the subdivisions. (c) Changes within the limits of the sector, or objective. (d) Changes in the rate of fire. (e) And rarely change of target from one within to one without thelimits of the objective or sector. =1448. Procedure. = The following is given merely as a concrete exampleof the procedure that might be followed in certain ring exercises--itwill not, of course, apply to all cases; it is merely given as aconcrete illustration of what might actually be done under certainconditions. _Company Commander. _ On receiving his instructions from the officer incharge of the exercise, the company commander returns to his company, keeping track of the changing aspect of his target as he does so. Arriving at the center of his company, he is met by his platoonleaders, and range finders, who have assembled in his absence. Thecompany commander says: "The target is a line of skirmishers, visible in part. It may be seenbetween us and that long line of green bushes which begins one fingerto the right of that red water tower at 11 o'clock and it extends wellbeyond the bushes both to the right and to the left. " (At this point the range finders begin their estimation and thecaptain pauses until the senior range finder, or other designatedperson automatically announces the average estimate of the range, saying for example, "range 1100. ") The captain then resumes, saying: "The sector assigned to this company is three fingers long and extendsfrom that group one finger to the right of the water tower, to a pointfour fingers to the right of the tower. Each platoon will cover theentire company sector. Range ten-fifty and eleven-fifty. Fire at willat my signal. Posts. " _Platoon Leaders. _ The platoon leaders then hasten to the center oftheir platoons and "put into execution the commands and directions ofthe captain, having first taken such precautions to insure a correctsight-setting and clear description of the aiming point as thesituation permits or requires" (Par. 251 I. D. R. ), by saying: _Target:_ The target is a line of skirmishers about 1100 yards to ourfront, only parts of which are visible. _Reference point:_ That long line of bushes about 1300 yards to ourleft front. The company sector is three fingers long and lies betweenus and that reference point, extending one-half finger beyond each endof the bushes. _Aiming point:_ The bottom of the line of bushes. _Range:_ 1050 and 1150. As soon as the range is announced each front rank man sets his sightat 1050 and each rear rank man at 1150. Squad leaders assurethemselves that sights are set and that the men of their squadsunderstand the aiming point and sector and then raise their hand as asignal that all are ready. Similarly, the platoon leaders raise theirhands to show that all of the squads are ready, and when the captainsees that all of his platoons are ready, he signals to begin firing. At the captain's signal, each platoon leader commands: "_Fire atWill. _" Firing then begins at a rate of about 3 shots per minute (Par. 14, I. D. R. ). =1449. Points To Be Borne in Mind. = Bear in mind the following pointsin the solution of field firing problems: 1. Combine sights should, as a rule, be used where the estimated rangeis 1000 yards or more, the two ranges being 50 yards on each side ofthe estimated range, the even numbers firing at one range, the oddnumbers at the other. 2. When aiming points are chosen they should be clearly described. Bushes, bunches of lines of grass, fence posts, etc. , should not bedesignated as aiming points when clear and more definite aiming pointsare available. The choice of the best of several possible aimingpoints is of great importance. 3. Have some system of simple signals whereby you may know when allyour men are ready to begin firing. Otherwise, you may begin thefiring before some of your men have their sights set and before theyunderstand the sector and point of aim. For example, let each squadleader raise his right hand when his squad is ready, and each platoonleader his right hand when his platoon is ready. 4. Platoon leaders must always be sure to designate a definite aimingpoint. Remember that in the case of an indistinct target, the companycommander describes the TARGET to the platoon leaders, and they inturn announce the AIMING POINT. Having seen and located the target, the platoon leader must examine the terrain at, in front of and behindthe target, and choose the aiming point for his men. He must thendetermine the proper sight-setting for that particular aiming point. He then announces both aiming point and range. 5. Instead of describing a sector as, for example, extending so manyyards (or so many "fingers") north from the reference point, it isbetter to describe it as extending from the reference point northwardfor a definite distance, as "To that tall red house. " The last method is the best, because it leaves no room for guessing onthe part of subordinates. So, remember it is always best, whenpossible, to define the limits of sectors physically, as, extending, for example, from "That house to that windmill, " etc. 6. When acting as part of the battalion, always be sure to designatesomeone (usually one of the musicians) to watch for signals from thebattalion commander, and don't fail to repeat back all signals. [Illustration: Fig. 56] 7. In advancing by rushes, always allow sufficient time between rushesto recover the loss in fire caused by the cessation of fire. In otherwords, the next rear unit should not start forward until the one thathas just advanced has resumed an effective fire. 8. Remember that in all field firing problems the distribution of hitshas big weight. Consequently, it should be definitely understoodbeforehand, that, in the absence of any target designation by thecompany commander, each platoon leader will look after the sectorcorresponding to his front, and that each man will fire at the part ofthe sector corresponding to his front. Should the targets in a givensector disappear, then the platoon leader covering that sector will atonce switch his fire to the adjoining sector until the reappearance ofthe targets in his own sector. For example, let us suppose the companysector, A-B (the company being on the defense and not advancing) isdivided into four parts A-B, B-C, C-D and D-E. Platoon No. 1 wouldlook after everything that appeared in D-E; No. 2, after everythingthat appeared in C-D; No. 3, everything that appeared in B-C; and No. 4, after everything that appeared in A-B. Should the target suddenly disappear from D-E, then No. 1 would switchhis fire over to C-D, and keep it there until the target reappeared inD-E, and if the targets disappeared from C-D, before reappearing inD-E, then both No. 1, and No. 2, would switch their fire cones to A-C. =1450. Exercises. = The following exercises for the elementary trainingof individuals and squads were used with success by the troopsmobilized on the Texas border: TARGETS 1. The target will be represented by individual soldiers. 2. With reference to their visibility, the battlefield will presentthree classes of targets: (a) Those which are visible throughout. (b) Those which are visible in part. (c) Those which are invisible, but whose location might be described. Targets will be arranged to simulate one of the classes enumerated. Instruction will begin with simple exercises in which the targetpresented is plainly visible, and represents only the objective of theunit undergoing instruction. It should progress to the more difficultexercises in which the target is invisible and the line of figures isprolonged to include the objective of units on the right or left. 3. The limits of indistinct targets may be shown to unit commanders bythe use of company flags. These flags, however, will be withdrawn fromsight before a description of the target or estimate of the range isattempted, and before anyone but the commander of the unit undergoinginstruction sees their location. 4. At the conclusion of each exercise in which flags are used to markthe limits of the target or its subdivisions, they should bedisplayed, in order that any existing errors may be readily pointedout. 5. To determine proficiency in target designation, the instructor willprovide a sufficient number of rifles, placed on sand bags or othersuitable rests, and require those charged with fire direction andcontrol to sight them at the limits of their objective. An inspectionby the instructor will at once detect errors. Similarly, in thoseexercises in which all the members of the firing unit participate, thepercentage of rifles aimed at the correct target may be determined. 6. In these exercises no method of communication will be permittedthat could not be used under the conditions assumed in the problem. EXERCISE NO. 1--RANGING Object: To train the individual to set his sight quickly andaccurately for the announced range and windage; and to accustomleaders to the giving of windage data. Situation: The company is formed in single rank at the ready with rearsight set at zero and the slide screw normally tight. Action: The range and windage are announced, sights are set accuratelyin accordance therewith and as rapidly as may be, each man coming toport arms immediately upon completing the operation. Time: Time is taken from the last word of the command. Standard: Sights should be correctly set within 15 seconds. Note: Of the two elements, time and accuracy, accuracy is the moreimportant. Par. 411, I. D. R. , implies complete use of the rear sight, that is, utilization of the wind gauge, and sight setting to the least readingof the rear sight leaf, i. E. , 25 yards. Sight setting therefore inthis exercise should include, more often than not, "fractional ranges"and windage data. EXERCISE NO. 2--RANGING Object: To familiarize officers and noncommissioned officers in theuse of an auxiliary aiming point. Situation: Two men with the company flags are stationed to mark theenemy's invisible position. This position should be suitably locatedwith reference to a practicable aiming point. Action: The markers are signaled to display their flags. An officer ornoncommissioned officer is called up and the enemy's position ispointed out. The flags are then withdrawn and the officer ornoncommissioned officer selects an auxiliary aiming point and giveshis commands for firing at that point. EXERCISE NO. 3--TARGET DESIGNATION Object: To train the individual soldier to locate a target, from adescription solely. To do so quickly and accurately and fire thereonwith effect, and to train officers and noncommissioned officers inconcise, accurate and clear description of targets. Situation: The men are so placed as not to be able to see to thetarget. The instructor places himself so as to see the objective. Action: The instructor, to one man at a time, describes the objective, and directs him to fire one simulated round. The man immediately movesso as to see the target, locates it, estimates the range and fires onesimulated shot. Standard: For ranges within battle sight, time 20 seconds; beyondbattle sight, time 30 seconds. Not more than 15% error in theestimation of the range. Objective correctly located. Note: Arrangements made so that the description of the target is heardby only the man about to fire. After firing the man will not minglewith those waiting to fire. EXERCISE NO. 4--TARGET DESIGNATION Object: To train the squad leader in promptly bringing the fire of hissquad to bear effectively upon the target presented. To train theindividuals of a squad to fire effectively from orders of the squadleader and automatically to obtain effective dispersion. Situation: The squad is deployed, the squad leader being in the firingline. Position prone. A sighting rest is provided for each rifle. Action: Upon the appearance of the target the squad leader gives thenecessary orders for delivering an effective fire. The men under theseorders sight their rifles and then rise. The instructor then examinesthe position and sighting of each rifle. Time: Time is taken from the appearance of the target until the lastman has risen. Target: A squad of men to outline a partially concealed enemy emergesfrom cover, advances a short distance and lies down. Standard: 90% of the rifles should be sighted in conformity with theorders of the squad leader and should evenly cover the whole front ofthe objective. The squad leader's estimate of the range should not bein error over 15%. Note: The squad leader should not, in general, be allowed to dividethe target into sectors but to obtain distribution by training the mento fire at that portion of the objective directly related to theposition they occupy in their own line. The exercise should berepeated with the squad leader in rear of the squad and not firing. Asto this, it is to be noted that Musketry School experiments prove thatin small groups the directed fire of say seven (7) rifles is moreeffective than the partially undirected fire of eight rifles obtainedwhen the group leader is himself firing. EXERCISE NO. 5--COMMUNICATION Object: To teach prompt and accurate transmission of firing datawithout cessation of fire, and also to teach automatic readjustment offire distribution. Situation: A squad deployed in the prone position and with sightingrests, is firing at a designated target. Action: A squad with sights set at zero is deployed and brought up atthe double time into the intervals of the firing line and halted. Thefiring data is transmitted to them without cessation of fire. At thecommand =Rise=, given 20 seconds after the command =Halt=, the firstsquad rises and retires a short distance to the rear. At the sametime, the supports cease fire and adjust their rifles in the rests soas to be aimed at the target as they understand it. They then riseand their rifles are examined by the instructor for range anddirection. Standard: 80% of the rifles should be sighted according to thetransmitted data and aimed according to the principles of firedistribution. Target: One target equal to a squad front, which is increased to twosquads prior to the arrival of the supports in the firing line. Note: This exercise should be repeated with the supporting squadreënforcing on a flank. To determine whether the original squad isable to keep its assigned sector during an advance, this exerciseshould be repeated, the supports being thrown in after a series ofshort advances by the original squad. Care should be exercised toprevent the transmission of firing data in a manner under whichservice conditions would be impracticable. (See Exercise No. 6. ) EXERCISE NO. 6--COMMUNICATION Object: To train the squad leader in receiving and transmittinginstructions by visual signals alone. Situation: A squad with its leader in the firing line is deployed inthe prone position firing at will. Action: The instructor, without sound or other cautionary means, signals (visually) to the squad leader at various intervals to, First: Change elevation. Swing the fire to the right or left. Suspend the firing. Etc. , etc. The squad leader, upon receiving a signal, causes his squad to executeit without verbal command, or exposing himself. Time: No specified time limit. Standard: The squad leader should fire with his squad, but after eachshot should look towards his platoon leader for any signal, thenobserve the fire and conduct of his men, then, after glancing again athis platoon leader, fire again. This the squad leader should dowithout exposing himself. By lying about a head's length ahead of hismen he can see his squad front. In transmitting orders he canaccomplish it by nudging the men on his right and left and signalingto them with his hand. Note: This exercise is essential to prepare men for the deafeningnoise of a heavy action when speech or sound signals are largelyfutile. EXERCISE NO. 7--FIRE DISCIPLINE Object: To train men to carry out strictly the fire orders given them, and to refrain from starting, repeating or accepting any changetherefrom without direct orders from a superior. Situation: A squad deployed in the prone position. Action: While the squad is firing at an indistinct but specifiedtarget, another and clearly visible target appears in the vicinity ofthe first target but not in the same sector. Upon the appearance ofthis second target, the instructor sees that the men continue firingat the assigned target. The corporal should check any breach of firediscipline. Note: Variations of this exercise should be given to test the firediscipline of the men in other phases, such as rate of fire (Par. 147, I. D. R. ), etc. FOOTNOTES: [18] The subjects of fire control and fire direction are coveted inpars. 285-290; 1434-1436. [19] In attack the target is called "objective"; in the defense, "sector. " PART V CARE OF HEALTH AND KINDRED SUBJECTS CHAPTER I CARE OF THE HEALTH =1451. Importance of good health. = Good health is just as necessary toan army as rifles and ammunition. Not only does every sick man takeaway one rifle from the firing line, but in addition he becomes a careand a burden on the hands of the army. Indeed, it is fully asimportant for a soldier to take care of his health as it is for him totake care of his rifle and ammunition. The importance of doingeverything possible to look after one's health is shown by the factthat in every war so far, many more men have died from disease thanwere killed in battle or died from wounds. In our Civil War, forinstance, for every man on the Union side who was killed in battle ordied from wounds, two died from disease. In the Spanish American Warthe proportion was 1 to 5-1/2. To do all that he can to keep in good health is a duty that thesoldier owes his country. =1452. Germs. = Diseases are caused by little, tiny live animals orplants called _germs_. They are so small that you require a magnifyingglass to see them. The following illustrations show the typhoid and malarial germs asseen through a magnifying glass: [Illustration: Fig. 1 _Typhoid germs_ _Malarial germs_] The Different Ways of Catching Disease =1453. Five ways of catching disease. = There are only five ways tocatch disease: 1. By breathing in the live germs. 2. By swallowing the live germs. 3. By touching the live germs. 4. By having the live germs stuck into the skin by insects that bite. 5. By inheritance from parents. Diseases Caught by Breathing in the Germs =1454. The more common diseases. = The following are some of the morecommon diseases caught by breathing in the germs: Colds, diphtheria, tonsilitis, grippe, scarlet fever, pneumonia, and consumption. The germs that cause these diseases grow well in the dark, warm, moistlining of the nose, throat, windpipe and lungs, and they are coughedor sneezed out or blown out and float in tiny bubbles in the air orfall to dry into dust which is blown about with the wind, and so arebreathed in, or they may be transferred directly by kissing invalidsand sick children. =1455. How to avoid breathing in sickness. = Do not visit sick peopleor a house where the children are sick. Do not let other people cough or sneeze over your food or in yourface. Do not allow others to spit on the floor of your squadron or tent. Do not do these things yourself. Blow your nose into a handkerchief that can be boiled or into a pieceof paper that can be burned. [Illustration: Fig. 2 _Distributing sickness_] Put your hand before your face when you cough or sneeze. Rinse out the nose with hot, weak salt water at night and especiallyif you have been inhaling dust. Brush the teeth after each meal and before going to bed. Do not pick the nose with the finger nails; it makes sore spots inwhich germs grow. On dusty hikes tie a handkerchief across the nose and mouth. Never sweep the floor with a dry broom. Use a damp mop and so pick thegerms up and carry them out instead of driving them up in the air asdust. Diseases Caught by Swallowing the Germs =1456. The more common diseases. = The following are some of the morecommon diseases caught by swallowing the germs: Typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, and ptomaine poisoning. =1457. Water as a distributer of disease. = Impure water is one of themost common distributers of disease that there is. Therefore, waterfrom sources unknown or soiled by sewage, should be avoided as deadlyand should not be used, _unless boiled_, for drinking, brushing theteeth or rinsing mess kits. You can not always tell polluted water by its appearance, smell ortaste. Unless from a sewer or drain, it may look clear and sparkling, with no smell and have a pleasant taste, so, water that is not knownto be pure should not be drunk. =1458. Vegetables as a distributer of disease. = In some localities theinhabitants use the streams for all purposes; drinking, washingclothes, bathing, washing vegetables and table utensils and as asewer. When kitchen gardens are irrigated with such water the germsare to be found on the cabbages, beets, etc. =1459. Food, fruit, cigarettes, and drinking cups as distributers ofdisease. = Germs may be smeared on the hands and thus transferred toarticles of food, fruit, cigarettes, or drinking cups, especially inpublic places, so that he who buys at the public stands may havedisease handed to him with his purchase. =1460. The fly as a disease carrier. = The ordinary fly is one of theworst and filthiest transmitters of disease in existence. Flies carry germs from privies, latrines, spitoons, and sick rooms tothe food on your table, by means of their smeared feet, in their spitor in their specks. [Illustration: Fig. 3] =1461. The dog as a distributer of disease. = Dogs are oftendistributers of disease. They use their tongues for toilet paper andafterwards lick their coat or the hands of their friends. Petting dogsor letting them lick your hand is dangerous. [Illustration: Fig. 4 '_Nice doggie_' (And "nice doggie" may be giving him some disease)] =1462. How to avoid swallowing disease. = Do not drink water that isnot known to be safe. If you have no one to ask and are traveling, itis safer to drink tea or coffee, because they have been made fromboiled water, or to drink bottled mineral waters. In the field boilyour drinking water. Boiled germs are dead and will not grow. Theyare, therefore, harmless. [Illustration: Fig. 5 _Boiling water to kill germs_] Beware of water from wells, farm pumps ponds, cisterns, water coolersand barrels, especially in railroad cars, stations, and ferry boats. Do not drink lemonade, soft drinks, or milk from peddlers. Beware of the public drinking cup. [Illustration: Fig. 6 _Next!_ (What germs will he leave on the cup?)] Always wash your hands before going to meals and before putting thingsinto your mouth, especially after going to the toilet or handlinganimals. Do not adopt strange dogs and do not pet dogs. Before eating fruit or raw vegetables, wash and peel them unlesspicked from the tree by yourself. Do not eat food that is spoiled, smells or tastes badly or is flyblownor maggoty or full of bugs. Do not eat food which is not sufficiently cooked. All smoked, dried orsalt meats or fish, such as ham, bacon, sausage, dried beef, bloaters, salt mackerel or codfish, must be well cooked, as they may contain"Measles" or other worm eggs. Cooking kills the egg. Do not eat food exposed on public stands to dust, flies, dirty hands, dirty water, dirty cans, or dirty glasses and buckets. Do not allow flies to breed in dirt or other filth around the house, nor allow them to walk on your food. This is possible by burning, burying or otherwise removing the dirt or filth, and by using flytraps, "swatters" and fly paper. Do not wet lead pencils with your spit. [Illustration: Fig. 7 _Swallowing sickness_] Do not wet your fingers with spit when you deal cards or turn overpages of books or magazines. Keep the teeth brushed and the mouth clean. Have decayed teethrepaired at once. Decayed teeth drop out and they cause abscesses, which may destroy the jaw bone or cause brain fever. Old snags givethe stomach the germs of rotting, which cause dyspepsia. Diseases Caught by Touching the Germs =1463. The more common diseases. = The following are some of the morecommon diseases caught by touching the germs: Ringworm, mange, barber's itch, sore eyes, boils, carbuncles, lockjaw, small pox, chancroid, syphilis, and gonorrhoea (clap). =1464. Ringworm, mange, and barber's itch. = These diseases are carriedfrom person to person by finger nails and hands and from dirty waterto those who bathe in it or have their underwear washed in it. =1465. Lockjaw. = The germs of lockjaw are found in manure and in soilfertilized with it; hence, a bullet which passes through such soilbefore wounding carries these germs into the wound. Any wound soiledwith such dirt will be infected. Also, wounds made by toy pistols andfire-crackers often contain lockjaw germs. =1466. Chancroid, syphilis, and gonorrhoea (clap). = These are diseaseswhose germs are usually caught from prostitutes and whores, or fromhusbands who have caught the germs from prostitutes and whores. Theyare called "Venereal diseases, " after Venus, the Roman goddess oflustful love, but they are very often caught in other ways than insexual intercourse, and by innocent persons. =The chancroid plant= causes a very nasty sore, the _chancroid_, whichoften destroys much flesh and causes buboes. The germ can be carriedon the fingers to any part of the body. When the chancroid is healedand the bubo becomes a scar the disease is cured. The _syphilis_ germ will grow first where it is rubbed in, causing ahard ulcer, called a chancre, and after that it travels through theentire body. No place is sacred to its destructive power and it livesas long as the patient does. It is the cause of much insanity, palsy, apoplexy, deafness, blindness and early death. In mothers it causesmiscarriages and in children it causes stillbirths, freaks, deformities, feeble minds and idiots; also, deaf and dumb, palsied, stunted, sickly and criminal conditions. A syphilitic person is always dangerous although apparently well. Heoften has a sore mouth and his spit is as dangerous as that of a maddog. The bite of such a man will develop a chancre and any pipe, cup, or tooth pick which he uses, or his kiss, will give syphilis. Asyphilitic tattooer who wets his needles and his India ink with spitwill put a chancre into the skin with the picture. The instruments of cheap advertising dentists and of quack doctors orignorant nurses can carry these germs from one person to another. Socan the razors and caustic stick of barbers who are careless. =The clap plant= likes to grow in the linings of the openings of thebody where it is dark and warm and moist where it causes a catarrhaldischarge called _clap_, which is easily smeared on hands, towels, handkerchiefs or by actual contact. It grows well in the eyelids, causing great damage and oftenblindness. Many babies get the clap plant into the eyes during birth, from the mother, and unless treated within a few minutes after birth, have sore eyes and go blind, --a terrible calamity to the child and thefamily. If you have clap the germs can be carried on your hands toyour eyes. The clap plant also grows well in the cavities of the joints, causingrheumatism and crippling; it grows in the heart, causing valvularheart disease, which is incurable, and also in the generative organsof men and women, causing self-made eunuchs and childless wives. Itis the cause of most of the severe abdominal diseases of womenrequiring the use of the knife to cut out the diseased part. The venereal diseases cause more misery than any others and most ofthe doctors would have to go into other professions to earn theirliving if these diseases did not exist. When a young man is "sowing his wild oats" he is really planting inhis own body the syphilis and clap plants, and the harvest will begreater than any other crop. He will reap it in days of bedriddenmisery, and possible sudden death. He will reap it in bitter hours bythe bedside through the illness and death of his wife or in her longyears of ill health. He will reap it in little white coffins, idiotbabies; blind, deaf and dumb, sickly and stunted children. And it willcost him lost wages and hospital and doctor fees. Yes, the wild oats crop is a bumper crop. King Solomon was wise whenhe warned his son against the harlot, "for her end is bitter. " The best way to avoid venereal diseases is to keep away from lewdwomen, and live a clean moral life. It is said by medical authoritiesthat sexual intercourse is not necessary to preserve health and manlyvigor, and that the natural sexual impulse can be kept under controlby avoiding associations, conversations, and thoughts of a lewdcharacter. However, persons who will not exercise self-control in thismatter can greatly lessen the risks of indulgence by the prompt use, immediately upon return to camp or garrison, of the prophylaxisprescribed by War Department orders and which all soldiers arerequired to take after exposing themselves to the danger of venerealinfection. Men who immediately after intercourse urinate and wash theprivate parts thoroughly with soap and water will lessen the chancesof infection. Drunkenness greatly increases the risk of infection. Should one be so unfortunate as to contract venereal disease, heshould see a first-class, reputable physician AT ONCE, the sooner thebetter. It is a fatal mistake to try to conceal venereal disease bynot seeing a doctor, he who does so is taking a most dangerous chanceof ruining himself physically for life. =1467. How to avoid diseases caught by touching the germs. = Keep yourskin clean with soap and water. Do not bathe or wash your clothes in dirty water, have them boiledwhen laundered. Do not go barefoot, even in barracks. Do not use towels or toilet articles of other people, especially inpublic wash-rooms unless they furnish a fresh towel for you. Do notsleep in houses left empty by the enemy unless ordered to do so. Do not sleep in native shacks in the tropics. Do not rub the eyes with dirty hands. When dirt gets in have a doctorget it out. If you have clap, do not rub your eyes with your hands, and wash yourhands well with soap and water after taking treatment or passingwater. Do not handle dogs or cats, especially strange or sickly ones. Do not clean the ears with sticks or straws, --have a doctor do it foryou. Do not have cheap, advertising dentists fix your teeth. Have the armydentist fix them and see him at least once every six months, --or see agood civilian dentist. Do not have pictures tattooed on your skin. Do not smoke other men's pipes. Do not handle or touch wounds with anything but a first aid package. Beware of chipped drinking glasses in cafés, restaurants and otherplaces. The slightest cut from such a glass whoso clipped part hasbeen in contact with the mouth of a syphilitic person will give yousyphilis. Seek good companions like your mother and sister. Keep away from JohnBarleycorn. He always wants to turn you over to a harlot. Whores and prostitutes are all diseased and will give you germs thatwill live to give diseases to you, your wife and your children, fortyyears from now. Keep away from them. Diseases Caught from Biting Insects =1468. The more common diseases. = The following are some of the morecommon diseases caught from the bites of certain insects: Malaria, yellow fever, and dengue fever. The germs of malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever live in the blood, and are sucked up into the blood by mosquitoes when they bite. Malaria germs, however, will develop only in the mosquito called, _Anopheles_. Yellow fever germs will develop only in the mosquito called, _Stegomyia_. Dengue fever germs will develop in the mosquito called _Culex_ and in_Anopheles_. After a period of development in these mosquitoes the germs will findtheir way to the spit glands, and are injected into the person whomthe mosquito bites. (Note. Male mosquitoes cannot bite. ) _Absolutely the only way that malaria, yellow and dengue fevers canpossibly be caught is from mosquitoes. _ [Illustration: Fig. 8 _The malaria mosquito_ (She stands on her head)] [Illustration: Fig. 9 _Culex the mosquito_ (She is humpbacked)] =1469. How to avoid malaria, yellow and dengue fevers. = To avoid thesediseases, which are carried by mosquitoes, we screen all houses withfine wire screens and use mosquito nets on the beds. Also, undercertain conditions we take daily doses of quinine in malariousregions. We kill the mosquitoes. To do this we must know their habits. Mosquitoes all lay eggs in water. These hatch out as _wigglers_ or_larvae_, which have to come to the top frequently to breathe. Inabout twelve days or longer they turn into _tumblers_ or _pupas_, which in a few days longer come to the top when their backs split openand the mosquito comes out and flies away. [Illustration: Fig. 10 _The eggs_ _The larvae_ _The pupa_ _The mosquito leaving the pupa skin_] _The malaria mosquito_ is domestic like the chicken and lives aroundin houses hiding in the grass, bushes or dark corners and comes out tobite at night. When a settlement is abandoned the malaria mosquitomoves away also. She rarely flies far from home and is not found muchbeyond 500 yards from a house. She lays her eggs in running clearwater preferably, but she will accept water in hollow trees, betweenthe leaves of lilies or air plants or in vases of flowers, or incisterns and water butts. [Illustration: Fig. 11 _Catching malaria_] [Illustration: Fig. 12 _On Guard_ (No mosquito bites for him)] _The yellow fever mosquito_ is domestic like the house cat. She hangsaround the house and rarely flies as far as the next house even, preferring to travel on a visitor's coat. She will bite in the daytime and will lay her eggs in any little collection of water in thehouse, the eaves trough, the water barrel, old tin cans or bottles, pitchers, vases or the refrigerator drip. _The dengue_ mosquito is a marsh and town mosquito. She flies far andwell and will breed in any sort of water, even brackish. _To kill mosquitoes_-- Catch them in the house; empty all water from tin cans, old barrels, etc; cover with wire all cisterns and water barrels; fill in allpuddles and drain off marshes; put oil on all pools and streams tochoke the wrigglers; cut down grass and bushes around houses. CHAPTER II PERSONAL HYGIENE =1470. = The knowledge of taking care of the body is called _PersonalHygiene_, the principal rules of which are as follows: 1. KEEP THE SKIN CLEAN. 2. KEEP THE BODY PROPERLY PROTECTED AGAINST THE WEATHER. 3. KEEP THE BODY PROPERLY FED. 4. KEEP THE BODY SUPPLIED WITH FRESH AIR. 5. KEEP THE BODY WELL EXERCISED WITHOUT EXHAUSTION. 6. KEEP THE BODY RESTED BY SUFFICIENT SLEEP. 7. KEEP THE BODY FREE OF WASTES. Sanitation is the practice of the laws of Hygiene. =1471. RULE 1. Keep the Skin clean. = A dirty body invites sickness. Small troubles such as chafing, sore feet, saddle boils, sore eyes, felons, whitlows, earache, toothache, carbuncles, fleas, lice andringworms, are all caused by lack of cleanliness, and they put men onsick report. Owing to excessive perspiration a daily bath with soap is desirable insummer and in the tropics, the year around. At least a weekly bathshould always be taken when possible. When not possible to bathe, takea good rub daily with a dry towel. Keep your feet clean with soap and water and put on dry socks beforesleeping at night. Soiled socks should be washed and hung up to dryover night. Keep your finger nails trimmed short with scissors or knife. Neverbite them off. Keep them cleaned and keep your hands washed, especially at meal times. Underwear must be washed in clean water, hot when possible and whensoiled change as soon as possible. Do not bathe or wash your clothes in dirty water. Bathing in watercontaining much alkali (hard water) or fine sand or mud will make theskin smart or chafe easily and cause sore eyes. The hair of the head should be kept well-trimmed. =1472. RULE 2. Keep the body properly protected from the weather. =Clothing of the soldier is worn as a protection. Too much causessweating and exhaustion on the march and too little causes chills andfrost bite. Be careful to rebutton the clothing in winter time after attending toNature's calls. Cold fingers may make you careless, but the cold ismerciless and may cause a bad frost bite. The first feeling of frost bite is numbness and the first sign is amarble whiteness. Frost attacks first the nose, ears, cheeks, fingersand toes. Sun glare and snow blindness may be prevented by colored goggles or ahandkerchief tied across the face with a small slit for the eyes or bygreasing the face and eyelids and rubbing in charcoal around the eyes. =1473. RULE 3. Keep the body properly fed. = Your company mess issufficient for your needs and is wholesome, provided it is wellchewed. Large lumps of food take a longer time to digest than smallparticles do, and so they tire the stomach and also causeconstipation, gas and indigestion with headache. Do not eat food left behind in strange houses or by the enemy, norfood that smells or looks badly. If haversack rations are issued to you, do not eat them all at thefirst meal, but make a division for each meal. Stuffing will make yousick on a hike and later, hunger will drive you to eat things youwould not touch at other times. Before starting on the day's hike drink all the water you can and fillyour canteen with water only. Be sure your canteen does not leak. After starting, do not drink anything until the end of the hike. Do not eat ice or snow to quench thirst. It will make you morethirsty. Do not drink large quantities of cold spring water whenheated, --it will give you a very bad bellyache. Do not drink whiskey or beer, especially in the field. It will weakenyou and favor heat exhaustion, sunstroke, frost bite and other serioustroubles. Alcohol muddles the mind and clouds thoughts, and so causes a feelingof carelessness and silliness that may ruin some military plan, orgive the whole thing away to the enemy and with it the lives ofyourself and your comrades. The soldier who drinks alcohol will be among the first to fall outexhausted. If you use tobacco, do not chew or smoke while marching. Tobacco isonly a dope and increases the work of the heart. A cup of hot coffee is a good stimulant. =1474. RULE 4. Keep the body supplied with fresh air. = The brain, kidneys and other internal organs require oxygen (a part of the air)continually, and if deprived of it for five minutes, the body willdie. Therefore, it is easy to see that we must continually get plentyof fresh air into the lungs to supply the blood which carries theoxygen throughout the body. Except in winter time when steam-heatedbarracks are filled with sleeping men, it is not, as a rule, difficultto get all the fresh air we need. The air in a dormitory should smellsweet and clean, even though warm. Fresh air should be continuallyadmitted in a way that will not throw a draft on any of the sleepers. It is much better to sleep in a cold room with fresh air than in a hotstuffy one. Fresh air not only prevents consumption, but it will cure mild casesof consumption without other medicines. =1475. RULE 5. Keep the body well exercised without exhaustion. =Exercise is absolutely necessary to good health. Lack of exercise ofany set of muscles will cause them to grow flabby and weak. Outdoorsports are the best form of exercise, because they use all the bodymuscles, and are in the open clear air. Exhaustion, on the other hand, not only weakens the muscles of thebody, but it also lessens the vital forces and powers to resist germs. =1476. RULE 6. Keep the body rested by sufficient sleep. = Give thebody enough sleep. Eight hours of uninterrupted sleep are enough forthe average man, and you should always have that much in everytwenty-four hours. Remember your comrades need it also; so, if youcome in after taps, do not make a racket with slamming doors, heavytramping, talking or whistling. And in camp be careful not to fallover tent ropes or step on other sleepers. Do not drink coffee atnight, --it will keep you awake and rob your body of needed rest. When on the march take advantage of every halt to rest your body. Assoon as the command is given to fall out, select, if possible, a dryplace on the side of the road to sit or lie on. If carrying the pack, loosen it and rest back on it, in a sitting or lying position. If themarch has been a long one, lie flat on your back and raise the feet inthe air. This is a quick way to remove the heavy dragged feeling ofthe feet and legs and to rest the heart, because the blood runs out ofthe legs into the body. =1477. RULE 7. Keep the body free of wastes. Get into the habit ofemptying the bowels at a certain hour each day. = Immediately afterbreakfast is a good time. This is a habit that can be cultivated justlike any other habit. Cultivate it. It will do much to keep you ingood health. Always empty the bowels and bladder, especially the bowels, wheneveryou have the least desire to do so. Do not allow a little personalinconvenience or laziness to prevent you from doing this. The wastesfrom the bowels and bladder, especially the bowels, are poisons thatshould always be expelled from the body just as soon as possible. The free drinking of water flushes the bladder and helps to loosen thebowels. A glass of hot water soon after reveille will not only help toloosen the bowels, but it will also benefit the stomach and flush outthe bladder. Some people drink a big glass of water, either hot orcold, every morning before breakfast. Proper physical exercise and eating ripe or cooked fruits will also domuch to keep the bowels open. Pressing and rubbing _downward_ with the left hand on the lower _left_side of the belly will do much to induce a movement of the bowels. Most constipation comes from swallowing food in large chunks, drinkinglarge quantities of cold liquids with the meals and eating heavyarticles of diet, such as beans, fried pork, hot bread. Do not get into the habit of using laxatives to keep the bowels open. Their continued use is injurious. Use the natural means suggestedabove. The constant moderate use of alcohol injures the kidneys and when theybecome too weak to work and throw off the waste, a deadly disease, called "Bright's Disease, " results. CHAPTER III FIRST AID TO THE SICK AND INJURED =1478. Object of teaching first aid. = The object of teaching firstaid, or early assistance of the injured or sick, is not only to enableone person to help another, but also in some measure to help himself, until a surgeon or other thoroughly trained person can be seen. It is a mistake to think you must know many things to be helpful, itis only necessary to know a few simple things, _but you mustunderstand them clearly and be able to do them well_. =1479. Asphyxiation (suffocation) by Gas. = Asphyxiation by gas istreated the same as in the case of drowning, omitting, of course, theoperation of getting the water out of the body. =1480. Bite of dog. = } Either requires immediate and heroic treatment. =Bite of snake. = }_Lose no time. _ 1. Prevent the poison from traveling toward the heart and brain byputting on at once a tourniquet between the wound and the heart. 2. Suck the wound and be sure to spit out the poison and rinse themouth afterward. It is safe, if you have no cuts or sores on the lipsor in the mouth. 3. Enlarge the wound with a knife (in the direction of the bone, notacross) to make it bleed more freely, and again suck the wound. 4. Apply to the wound any strong acid or caustic, such as carbolicacid, lime, wood ashes or tincture of iodine, or burn it with a hotiron. Telegraph wire will do. 5. Wash out the wound with hot water and pack with equal parts ofbaking soda and salt, and apply a bandage. 6. Then, in the case of a snake bite, loosen the tourniquet little bylittle, taking about half an hour so as to permit any poison that mayremain in the wound to be _gradually_ absorbed by the blood. In thecase of a dog bite, the tourniquet is loosened at once. After the tourniquet has been removed, the patient must rest quietlyfor several hours. If he feel faint, he may have astimulant, --alcohol, coffee or tea, --_but do not give the stimulantbefore the poison has been removed from the wound_, because stimulantsincrease the heart beats and thereby hurry the poison into the blood. If the dog is not mad (rabid), the wound does not need treatmentdifferent from any other kind of a wound. When bitten by a snake, kill it, if possible, and have it shown to adoctor for examination. =1481. Bleeding. = The following comparison between the blood and thewater in a city will enable you to understand easily the question ofbleeding: [Illustration: Fig. 1] The {water } flows from a pump called {waterworks} through {_blood_} {_heart_ }{rigid pipes } called {watermains}. When there is {a leak }{_elastic tubes_} {_arteries_} {_bleeding_}the {plumber } stops the flow of the {water } by {_doctor_} {_blood_}{turning a key valve } between the {waterworks} and the{_pressing the blood tube shut_} {_heart_ } {leak } and then proceeds to repair the leak{_bleeding cut_}{by soldering }. He then turns on the {water } by{_by sewing or by bandaging_} {_blood_}{opening the valve in the water main }. {_removing pressure on the blood tube_} Fig. 2 shows where pressure with the thumb will squeeze the blood tubebetween the thumb and the bone. [Illustration: Fig. 2 _Pressure with thumb at 1 checks bleeding of left side of chin cheekand jaw. _ _Pressure at 2 stops bleeding from big blood tube on left side of headand neck and face. _ _Pressure at 3 controls bleeding in arm pit and shoulder. _ _Pressure at 4 checks bleeding in arm pit and anywhere down the armand hand. _ _Pressure at 5 stops bleeding of arm and hand. _ _Pressure at 6, on either leg, stops bleeding of leg and foot. _] In addition to the pressure raise the leg or arm or head above theheart. This will slow the flow of the blood and lessen leakage. However, one cannot hold the thumb forever on the blood tube, so wemake an artificial thumb, called a _tourniquet_, which is a pebble orother hard object wrapped in some soft material (to prevent injury toflesh), which is pressed down on the blood tube and held in place by astrip of any material which can be tied so as to keep up the pressure. A tourniquet, therefore, is like the valve in a water main. [Illustration: Fig. 3 _The pebble_ _The pebble wrapped to protect the flesh_ _The bandage tied around over the pebble_ _The bandage twisted tightly by means of a windlass (stick) which isheld by another bandage_ _This shows pressure applied by tourniquet (also called Spanishwindlass) instead of the hand and by direct pressure of the First AidPacket_] The above diagrams show how a tourniquet is applied. [Illustration: Fig. 4 _Bandage to stop bleeding in arm_] [Illustration: Fig. 5 _Bandage to stop bleeding in foot_] When no one is around to assist you, sometimes it will be possible toplug the wound in your own body with the first aid packet or with yourthumb or handkerchief. When the bleeding is slight, or is from the scalp or palm of the hand, or sole of the foot, direct pressure upon the wound itself with thepad of the first aid package will often be sufficient to stop theleak. Nature when left alone stops the leaks with her own solder, calledblood-clot, which forms in the cut ends of blood tubes and corks themor seals them up until a scar forms a permanent seal. [Illustration: Fig. 6 _Arm blown off at elbow_ NOTICE: 1. Bandage on stump. 2. Tourniquet below to check bleeding. 3. Arm held upright to lessen bleeding. 4. Strap supports arm and also acts as a tourniquet. ] =1482. = The dangers from a tourniquet are: 1. Gangrene, --that is, the death of a limb caused by the lack ofblood, which has been cut off by the tourniquet. By watching the toesand finger tips and loosening the tourniquet if they are becoming blueblack and remain white when pinched, gangrene may be prevented. However, the wound should be plugged before loosening the tourniquet. 2. Injury to nerves from pressure which may cause palsy (paralysis). However, that will generally pass off in a few days. =1483. Broken Bones (Fractures). = A broken bone or fracture is knownby pain in a particular place that hurts on movement or when touched. Also, by a deformity or a movable lump, caused by the broken end ofthe bone. [Illustration: Fig. 7 _Compound fracture_] A broken bone should be handled with the greatest possible care. Careless handling may cause the broken ends to pierce the flesh andstick out through the skin. This is called a =compound= fracture, andis serious, because it adds fuel to the fire by making a doorway forgerms to enter, which may cause death or the loss of the limb. Furthermore, careless handling may make the bones grow together in abad position, causing a deformity. [Illustration: Fig. 8 _Break of UPPER arm bone. Pulling the broken bones out of flesh andinto place_ _Treatment for break of upper arm bone_ 1. Padding of grass. 2. Splints put on FRONT and BACK. 3. Splints extend beyond elbow joint. 4. Arm is supported by a sling. _Treatment for break of both bones of lower arm_ 1. Plenty of grass padding to protect the flesh. 2. The splints are put FRONT and BACK and bound snugly. The hand isincluded. 3. The whole dressing is held up by a sling. ] The best way to treat a broken leg or arm bone is as follows: (Fig. 8. ) Pull until the ends come together. You can tell this by the relief thepatient feels and by the limb assuming its proper length, --that is, the same length as the other side. =1484. = To keep the ends of the bones in place, fasten to the limb twoboards or any other substance that will not bend. Such boards or othersubstance are called splints. They act as artificial bones. Allsplints should be well padded with some soft material like raw cottonwaste, grass (be sure the grass contains no biting insects), leaves, hay or excelsior, to prevent pressure of the soft flesh on the ends ofthe bones. [Illustration: Fig. 9 _Points to note:_ Plenty of grass between the legs. Plenty of grass between injured leg and splint. Splint extends from arm pit to foot. The other leg is used for a splint. Plenty of strapping to keep leg quiet. ] When the thigh bone is broken, put a splint from the arm to the ankleand use the other leg as a splint. Fasten them by bandages, belts, gunsling, etc. , passed around the chest, waist, hips, knees and ankle. When an arm is put in a splint, hang the hand and forearm in a sling. It will give much relief. When the jaw is broken, the upper jaw makes a good splint. When the collar bone is broken this makes a good treatment: Fig. 10. [Illustration: Fig. 10 _Broken collar bone_ The left collar bone is broken. Therefore, pull BOTH shouldersbackward away from the breast bone (same action as for broken armbone) and hold in position with bandage or straps. _Broken collar bone (left side)_ When the shoulders are pulled back then the hand is bound close to thechest high up. This prevents it from flopping and so twisting thebroken ends of the collar bone. ] A broken rib is treated by putting a wide strap or bandage around thechest and drawing it tight while all the air is breathed out. [Illustration: Fig. 11 _Treatment for broken ribs, left side_ The patient breathes all the air out of the chest and at that momentthe strap is buckled tightly. This prevents the broken ends of theribs from tearing the flesh or the lungs. Notice the roll of shirtwhich acts as a pad. ] This keeps the rib quiet and the man will breathe with his bellyinstead of his chest. A broken skull usually makes a man unconscious and may cause death. Itis recognized by a wound or swelling of the scalp and a dent in theskull. A doctor should be called at once. Always examine anunconscious man for injury to the head. =1485. Burns. = If clothing sticks to the burn, do not try to removeit, but cut around it. Prick blisters at both ends with a perfectlyclean needle, and remove the water by gentle pressure, being carefulnot to break the skin. A good application for a burn is carbolic acid dissolved in water (ateaspoonful in a pint of water), or tincture of iodine dissolved inwater (one teaspoonful in a pint of water, to which is added as muchsalt as will cover a dime), or olive oil, vaseline or butter. Lacking the remedies named above, ordinary _baking_ soda or flour maybe dusted on the unbroken skin, or a cloth dampened with salt waterthat has been boiled, to which may be added the same amount of whiskeyor brandy as there is water. Another application for burns recommended by some, is the scraping ofa raw potato, renewed when it feels hot. Different burns should be treated as follows: =Sunburn=, --treat with olive oil, vaseline or butter, or with aglycerine or witchhazel, applying with a dampened cloth. =Quicklime or lye=, --treat with vinegar. =Carbolic acid=, --treat with alcohol. =Other acids=, --treat with baking powder or lime water. =1486. Burning clothes=, particularly those of women and children, hasbeen the unnecessary cause of many horrible deaths, either fromignorance of the proper means of extinguishing the flames, or fromlack of presence of mind to apply them. A person whose clothing isblazing should (1) immediately be made to lie down--be thrown ifnecessary. The tendency of flames is upward, and when the patient islying down, they have not only less to feed upon, but the danger oftheir reaching the face, with the possibility of choking and ofultimate deformity is greatly diminished. (2) The person should thenbe quickly wrapped up in a coat, shawl, rug, blanket or any similararticle, preferably woolen, and never cotton, and the fire completelysmothered by pressing and patting upon the burning points from theoutside of the envelope. The flames having been controlled in this way, when the wrap isremoved, great care should be taken to have the slightest sign of ablaze immediately and completely stifled. This is best done bypinching it but water may be used. Any burns and any prostration byshock should be treated in the manner prescribed for them. =1487. Bruises. = The best treatment for a bruise is heat. A hot brick or a bottle of hot water wrapped in cloth, towels wrungout of hot water, or even an electric light bulb, will give muchrelief. However, always remember this: Never put the hot object on the bareskin--always wrap the source of heat in a thick cloth to hold the heatin and at the same time protect the skin. If not practicable to dothis wrap the source of heat, then spread a towel over the skin beforeapplying the hot object. If you use an electric bulb, watch it closely, as it will char andpossibly set things on fire. The above treatment is also excellent for lumbago, stiff neck, andstiff muscles. A tub bath as hot as you can stand it is fine for refreshing tired, stiff muscles. It is also good for lumbago. =1488. Chiggers. = Apply kerosene oil. Bacon is also excellent, and sois butter or lard with salt. =1489. Choking. Foreign body in the throat. = The common practice ofslapping the back often helps the act of coughing to dislodge foreignbodies in the windpipe. If this does not succeed, have the patient lie over a chair with hishead down low or hold him as in the first step to revive a drowningperson and have him cough. When in either of these positions have someone slap him on the back so as to induce coughing. The above failing, give him a large amount of warm water with a littlesalt, mustard or baking soda in it, and then have him put his fingerin his throat so as to induce vomiting which will often bring up theobstruction. In children, and even in adults, the expulsion of the body may befacilitated by lifting a patient up by the heels and slapping his backin this position. If none of the methods above described are successful, summon aphysician, taking care to send him information as to the character ofthe accident, so that he may bring with him the instruments needed forremoving the obstruction. =1490. Cuts. = Small cuts should be treated with tincture of iodine orwashed with alcohol (bay rum or listerine will do) and bandage up. Large wounds may be similarly cleaned and then closed by adhesiveplaster. =1491. Diarrhoea. = Apply warm bandages to the belly. Some woodsmenrecommend the following: Fire brown a little flour to which twoteaspoonfuls of vinegar and one teaspoonful of salt are added; mix anddrink. They claim this is a cure nine cases out of ten. Atablespoonful of warm vinegar and teaspoonful of salt will cure mostsevere cases. Also, hot ginger ale or hot water containing ateaspoonful of witch hazel is good. Repeat any of the above drinksabout every hour. Take a purgative, which will usually expel the offending cause, generally too much undigested food. =1492. Dislocations. = The place where two bones come together iscalled a joint. When two bones forming a joint are knocked apart, it is called a_dislocation_, and the bones are said to be _out of joint_. The first sign of a dislocation is the accident. The second sign is immediate interference with the motion of the jointand awkwardness in using the limb. The third sign is deformity of the joint, --it looks queer whencompared with the same joint on the other side. If you are unsuccessful after trying several times to replace adislocation, get a doctor. If no doctor is available, make the man sick by having him drink somewarm salt water and then put his finger in his throat. When he vomits the muscles and ligaments (tissue connecting thejoints) will relax and you may be able to get the bone back in place. After replacing the bones put the joint at rest with a large compressand bandage. When uncertain as to whether you have to deal with a broken bone or adislocated joint, give treatment for a broken bone, because rest andquiet for the injured part are good in either case. The following diagrams show the usual methods of replacingdislocations: [Illustration: Fig. 12 _To put the arm bone back into the shoulder socket_ 1ST MOVE _Rest your weight at elbow, pulling downward, until the muscles at theshoulder are tired and will stretch. _ 2ND MOVE _Swing the elbow across, close to the chest, and place the hand onother shoulder. _ 3RD MOVE _Keep the elbow close to the chest and bring the hand forward as ifheld out for a penny. _ _This should twist the bone into the socket. _ _Relocating the jaw_ _When the jaw bone is out of place, the man cannot shut his mouth. _ _Put both thumbs (protected by a handkerchief) on the lower teeth andwith the forefingers at the angles of the lower jaw push down in theback of the jaw. _ _Relocating thumb_ _When the thumb bone is dislocated it must be PUSHED into place--notpulled. _ _Relocating finger_ _Pull the finger bone back into place. _] =1493. Drowning. = _Rescuing. _ Approach the drowning man from behind, seizing him by the coat collar, or a woman by the back hair, and towat arms length to boat or shore. Do not let him cling around your neckor arms to endanger you. Duck him until unconscious if necessary tobreak a dangerous hold upon you; but do not strike to stun him. A drowning person _does not_ come to the top three times before givingup. _Reviving. _ When a person is apparently drowned he is unconscious andnot breathing because his lungs are full of water and his skin is blueand cold because no air is getting into his blood to redden it andwarm it; _remember_ the heart does not stop until some time after thebreathing stops. If we can get air into the blood and start breathingagain before the heart stops we can save the patient's life. If wecannot get the breath started in time the heart stops and the patientis then dead. Our problem then is this: 1. To get the water out of the lungs. 2. To get the air into the lungs and start the man breathing beforethe heart stops. Emptying the lungs is precisely similar to emptying a bottle. The lungs are the bottle, the windpipe is the neck of the bottle andthe cork of the bottle may be the tongue turned back in the throat ormud and leaves from bottom of the pool and bloody froth in thenostrils. We therefore-- 1. { Pull out the cork. { =Remove mud, mucus, etc. , and pull the tongue forward. = [Illustration: Fig. 13 _Pulling out the cork_] 2. { Turn the bottle neck down to pour out the contents. { =Place the patient's head lower than his chest so the water { will run out. = [Illustration: Fig. 14] Then lay the patient on a blanket, if possible, and on his stomach, arms extended from his body beyond his head, face turned to one sideso that the mouth and nose do not touch the ground. This positioncauses the tongue to fall forward of its own weight and so prevents itfrom falling back into the air passages. Turning the head to one sideprevents the face coming into contact with mud or water during theoperation. Kneel and straddle the patient's hips, facing his head. [Illustration: Fig. 15] Roll up or rip off the clothing so as to get at the bare back. Locate the lowest rib, and with your thumbs extending in about thesame direction as your fingers, place your spread hands so that yourlittle finger curls over the lowest rib. _Be sure to get the handswell away from the back bone_, --the nearer the ends of the ribs thehands are placed without sliding off, the better it is. Then with your arms _held straight_, press down SLOWLY AND STEADILY onthe ribs, bringing the weight of your body straight from yourshoulders. _Do not bend your elbows and shove in from the side. _ Release the pressure suddenly, removing the hands from the bodyentirely, and thus allowing the chest to fill with air. Wait a couple of seconds, so as to give the air time to get into theblood. This is most important. Repeat the pressure and continue doing so, slowly and steadily, pressing down at the rate of ordinary breathing. That is to say, _pressure and release of pressure (one complete respiration)_ shouldoccupy about five seconds. Guide yourself by your own deep, regularbreathing, or by counting. Keep up for at least one hour the effort to revive the patient; andmuch longer if there is any sign of revival by way of speaking, breathing, coughing, sneezing or gurgling sounds. Do not stop working at the first signs of life, but keep it up untilthe patient is breathing well and is conscious. If you stop too soonhe may stop breathing and die. Persons have been revived after two hours of steady work, but mostcases revive within about thirty minutes. If you are a heavy man, be careful not to bring too much force on theribs, as you might break one of them. In the case of women or thin persons place a roll of clothing underthem at the waist line before beginning the pressure. If you happen to be of light build and the patient is a large, heavyperson, you will be able to apply the pressure better by raising yourknees from the ground, and supporting yourself entirely on your toesand the heels of your hands, properly placed on the floating ribs ofthe patient. Do not attempt to give liquids of any kind to the patient while he isunconscious, for he cannot swallow them. They will merely run into hiswindpipe and choke him, and furthermore, it will take up valuabletime. However, after the patient has regained consciousness you may give himhot coffee or hot whiskey, punch or aromatic spirits of ammonia (ateaspoonful in water). Then wrap up the patient warmly in hot blankets with hot waterbottles, and take him to the nearest hospital or put him to bed andsend for a doctor. Why? Because the dirty water in the lungs hasdamaged the lining and the patient is in danger of lung fever andneeds care and nursing. Aromatic spirits of ammonia may be poured on a handkerchief and heldcontinuously within about three inches of the face and nose. If otherammonia preparations are used, they should be diluted or held fartheraway. Try it on your own nose first. The above method of artificial respiration is also applicable in casesof electric shock, suffocation by gas and smoke. =1494. Earache. = Put a teaspoonful of salt into a quart of water andadd 6 teaspoonfuls of tea. Boil it. As soon as it is cool enough tostand the finger, drip some into the nostrils until it falls into thethroat. Clear out the nose and throat by sniffing, --_do not blow_ thenose. --and then gargle with the rest of the remedy as hot as can betaken, holding each mouthful well back in the throat. This will oftenopen up the tubes running from the ears to the throat, and relieve thepressure against the ear drum. In addition, a little hot oil may bedropped into the ear. Repeat the treatment in one-half an hour if notsuccessful first time. =1495. Ear, foreign body in. = Lay the head over, with the affected earup, and pour in some warm oil or soap suds. This will float the thingup, unless it be a vegetable such as a grain of corn or a bean. Turning the affected ear down and then jumping, jerking the head, orpounding it gently, may dislodge it. A little peroxide of hydrogen poured into the ear will often dislodgethe substance, especially if it be wax. In case of an insect, a bright light held near the ear will oftencause it to leave the ear to go to the light. =1496. Electric Shock. = Failure of respiration following an electricshock by lightning or live wire is treated the same as in the case ofdrowning, omitting, of course, the operation of removing the water outof the lungs. Do not try to pull a man away from a live wire until you have put onrubber overshoes or gotten a _wooden_ stick with which to get the wireaway from him. Otherwise you will yourself get a shock. =1497. Eye, foreign body in. = Close the eye for a few moments andallow the tears to fill the eye; upon opening it, the body may bewashed out by them. Never rub the eye. The foreign body can often be removed by keeping the eye open with onehand and splashing water into it with the other, or by dipping the eyeinto clean water while holding the eyelid open with the hand. If the body lies under the lower lid, make the patient look up, and atthe same time press down upon the lid; the inner surface of the lidwill be exposed, and the foreign body may be brushed off with thecorner of a handkerchief. If the body lies under lid, (1) grasp the lashes of the upper lid andpull it down over the lower, which should at the same time, with theother hand, be pushed up under the upper. Upon repeating this two orthree times, the foreign body will often be brushed out on the lowerlid. [Illustration: Fig. 16] (2) If this fails, the upper lid should be turned up; make the patientshut his eye and look down; then with a pencil or some similar articlepress gently upon the lid at about the middle, and grasping the lasheswith the other hand, turn the lid up over the pencil, when its innersurface will be seen, and the foreign body may readily be brushed off. [Illustration: Fig. 17] If the body is firmly stuck in the surface of the eye, a carefulattempt may be made to lift it out with the point of a needle. If notat once successful, do not try again, as you may injure the sight. Lime, plaster or whitewash in the eye should be washed out with a veryweak mixture of vinegar and water. Acids in the eye may be washed withbaking soda in water. Olive oil will also afford relief. After the removal of a foreign body from the eye, a sensation as if ofits presence often remains. People not infrequently complain of aforeign body when it has already been removed by natural means. Sometimes the body has excited a little irritation, which feels like aforeign body. If this sensation remains over night, the eye needsattention, and a surgeon should be consulted; for, it should havepassed away, if no irritating body is present. After the removal of an irritating foreign body from the eye, saltwater should be poured into it, then butter, lard or olive oil may beused for a salve. =1498. Fainting. = Fainting is caused by the blood leaving the head. Therefore, we must get the blood back into the head, which is done byplacing the patient on his back, with the head lower than the rest ofthe body. If necessary, make, by digging, a slight depression in theground for the head, neck and upper part of shoulders. Also, the headmay be placed lower than the rest of the body by putting a couple offolded blankets, or a few folded coats or any other suitable articleunder the body: also, by raising the feet by hand or otherwise. Theclothing should be loosened by unbuttoning and the patient fanned. Give him as much fresh air as possible, --so, do not let people crowdaround him. Mop the face and forehead with a handkerchief soaked incold water. =1499. Fish hook. = If a fish hook gets caught in the flesh, push it onthrough and when the end sticks out, break off the hook and pull itout the other way. Put tincture of iodine on the wound and bandage. =1500. Fits. = The man falls over suddenly unconscious in a convulsion, which continues until he is blue in the face, when he gradually quietsdown and regains consciousness. He is liable to injure himself by thefall and by biting his tongue. Put a stick or cork between his teethand let him lie quietly undisturbed. Don't try to hold him down ormake him sit up. He will come to no harm on the floor and you cannotstop the fit. Ammonia on a handkerchief held under the nose to smellwill assist reviving consciousness. Put him in the hospital at once. =1501. Fracture. = See, "Broken Bones. " =1502. Freezing. = If a man is overcome by the cold, do not take himinto a warm room, or heated tent. Put him into a cool room withoutdraughts and get a doctor at once. Meanwhile loosen his clothing andrub arms and legs towards the heart with cold water and a towel orsponge, using pressure. When he revives give him hot drinks and wrap him up well in hotblankets and put him in the hospital. When freezing to death a man feels overcome with sleepiness andstupor. Take a switch or stick and beat him unmercifully. Rememberthat falling to sleep means death. =1503. Frost-bite. = The best way to get frost-bitten is to have ondamp clothing, such as wet shoes and socks or mittens. The firstfeeling of frost bite is numbness, and the first sign is marblewhiteness. _Treatment. _ Rub the frozen part briskly with snow or ice cold water, if the frost-bite has just occurred. If it has been frozen more thanfifteen minutes, _rub very gently_ with snow, cold water or coal oil(kerosene). If you rub hard, it will break the frozen flesh. Returning pinkness is a sign of thawing; if the parts turn a darkcolor, see a surgeon at once, for it means gangrene (death of theflesh). When thawed out apply plenty of oil, tallow or vaseline. If gangrene has set in and no doctor is available, then treat as aburn. By all means keep away from heat. To toast frost-bitten fingers ortoes before a fire is liable to result in chilblains. =1504. Headache. = Among troops headache is usually due to intestinalindigestion, combined with a congestion of the stomach. Take atablespoonful of Worcestershire sauce or 5 drops of tobasco sauce in atumbler of hot water as a drink and put a small piece of soap up intothe bowel to cause a movement. =1505. Heat exhaustion. = The man falls out in a faint while marching, or on fatigue or parade. He looks pale, his body is clammy and cold, his breathing is sighing and heart fluttering. _What is the matter?_His heart is weak from poisons in the blood, usually alcohol, butoften too much carbonic gas and too little oxygen. This occurs whenmen are soft-muscled: so, young soldiers, recruits and fat soldiersand especially those who drink alcohol, use drugs or smoke or chewtobacco while hiking, are the first to have it. _Treatment. _ Loosen the man's clothing, remove his pack, lay him onhis back in the shade, with head and shoulders lower than his hips andraise his feet in the air. This will make the blood flow to the heartand brain. If he has fainted, slap the bare chest with the hand or awet towel and briskly rub the arms towards the heart. If he does notrevive, apply hot bottles, or bricks to the chest and abdomen, andammonia to the nose, as a smelling salt. Do not give stimulants untilhe is conscious. He should ride in the ambulance, or go to thehospital. =1506. Lightning. = A man struck by lightning is treated the same as inthe case of drowning, omitting, of course, the operation of gettingthe water out of the lungs. =1507. Nose, foreign body in. = If it cannot be sneezed out, lean thehead back and pour a little oil into the nostril. Then snift and blowthe nose alternately. If this is not successful, take a lead penciland try to push the object straight back into the throat. This must bedone very gently. =1508. Poison. = When poison has been swallowed, cause the patient totake a large quantity of luke-warm water and make him vomit by puttinghis finger in his throat. Repeat this and then have him swallow thewhite of two eggs or some milk into which raw flour or corn-starch hasbeen stirred. If you know he took bichloride of mercury, you may increase the amountof eggs and give one-half glass of weak lime water. If you know he took carbolic acid, give him alcohol (pure alcohol orin the form of gin or whiskey) and plenty of it in order to neutralizethe acid. Get a doctor as soon as possible, and save the vomit and poison nottaken, for him to see. =1509. Scalds. = Apply at once common baking soda or olive oil andcover with a bandage. To sprinkle with flour is also good. =1510. Scratches of cats and other animals. = Apply tincture of iodineor wash with soap and water. =1511. Shock. = In case of collapse following an accident, treat theaccident; then treat as for fainting. Apply hot plates, stones orbottles of hot water, or an electric light wrapped in towels over thestomach. Wrap up warmly. Keep the patient quiet, in the dark, and sendfor a doctor. =1512. Snow or sun blindness. = Smear the nose and face about the eyeswith charcoal, and wear a cloth over the face with small holes for theeyes. =1513. Sore throat. = Gargling with hot strong tea or hot water andsalt is often effective. Listerine diluted in water and used as a gargle is also good. Peroxide of hydrogen is a good gargle. =1514. Spider bite. = Apply a cloth dampened with alcohol or weakammonia and water. =1515. Suffocation by gas. = See "Asphyxiation by gas. " =1516. Sprains. = The regular medical treatment is to plunge a sprainedankle, wrist or finger, into water as hot as can be borne at thestart, and to raise the heat gradually thereafter to the limit ofendurance. Continue for half an hour, then put the joint in a hot wetbandage, reheat from time to time, and support the limb in an elevatedposition, --the leg on a chair or stool; the arm carried in a sling. Ina day or two begin gently moving and kneading the joint, and rub withliniment, oil or vaseline. As a soothing application for sprains, bruises, etc. , the virtues ofwitch hazel are well known. =1517. Stings. = Stings of bees, jelly fish and other stinging animalsare treated with a very weak solution of ammonia in water applied as alotion. Or apply a very weak solution of carbolic acid in water, astrong solution of baking powder, a slice of crushed raw onion, amoist quid of tobacco, witch hazel, listerine, or a paste of clay. Before applying any of these remedies, extract the sting, if left inthe wound. Also, work out as much of the poison as possible bymassaging and sucking the wound. =1518. Sunburn. = Treat with witch hazel or listerine or vinegar welldiluted with water. =1519. Sunstroke. = In sunstroke the man has a blazing red face, dry, burning hot skin; agitated heart; snoring breathing; a high fever, andis unconscious and delirious. _What is the matter?_ The part of thebrain which regulates the heat of the body is overcome by the heat andloses control, --the man is entirely too hot all the way through. _Treatment. _ First of all remove the pack and shoes and loosen theclothing. Then souse the man, clothing and all, with water. Lay him inthe shade and fan him, keeping him covered and wet. This will cool himoff without chilling too much. If possible, rub the chest and legs, but not the belly, with ice. =1520. Wounds. = Wounds may be made in every degree of size, from thejab of a splinter to the loss of a part of the body from shrapnel. No matter what form of the wound or the cause, we know the followingfact to be of the utmost importance: A wound without germs in it willheal rapidly without pain, redness, heat, or pus and the patient willhave no fever. He will eat his regular meals and act as though well. Such wounds we see made by surgeons when operating. On the other hand, wounds infected with germs are painful, hot, angry, red, and swollenand form large quantities of pus or matter. Pus is a mixture of germs, blood and the flesh that they havedestroyed. This pus prevents wounds from healing and often burrowsunder the skin, forming abcesses which cause fever and chills, and thepus enters the blood causing delirium and death. Our one aim in treating wounds is to keep out germs, and we accomplishthis by means of the first aid packet. =1521. The first aid packet= consists of two gauze compresses sewed totwo cotton bandages. They are sealed in wax paper. There are also twosafety pins wrapped in wax paper. These articles are placed in anairtight metal case which protects them from contamination. Now, the one important fact about this first aid packet is that thebandage compresses and safety pins have been _sterilized_, --that is, they contain no living germs of any kind. It is, therefore, perfectlysafe to put on a wound, _provided the pad touches the wound before ittouches anything else and provided that the wound has not beenhandled_. Therefore, do not wash a fresh clean wound. [Illustration: Fig. 18 _First Aid Packet_ After the removal of packet from tin can, open the wax paper and holdthe package as shown. 1. Left hand holds the wax paper. 2. Right hand holds the bandage. ] [Illustration: Fig. 19 _First Aid Packet_ Shake out packet with right hand so that the pad (or compress) doesnot touch anything until placed on the wound. ] CAUTION. Have the wound ready before you open the packet. Do not touchthe gauze pad with ANYTHING. Do not breathe on it, and be especiallycareful not to cough or sneeze over it. These things put germs on itwhich will grow in the wound. By observing these instructions you may save a man's life. By notobserving them, you may cause his death, or cause him much pain andsuffering. The life of a wounded man is often in the hands of the first one whoattends him. It is said that since the adoption of the first aid packet by armies, it has done more than everything else to save the lives of thosewounded in battle by preventing the infection of wounds. In an emergency a pad from any kind of cloth may be boiled for tenminutes to kill the germs, the water drained off to allow it to cool, and then placed on the wound. Or, the pad may be held over a clearfire until it is fairly scorched; then let it cool. A little charringof the surface will do no harm. Any kind of bandage may then be usedto hold it in place. When a bullet strikes a man first, the wound is clean cut and germfree and it will heal rapidly. If, however, it strikes somethingfirst, and bounces off (ricochets) and then strikes a man, it will beknocked into an irregular shape and, therefore, cause a ragged woundwith much bruising. What is more important, such a bullet will carrygerms into the wound from the object struck, and almost surely someshreds of clothing. When a wound is infected it is extremely difficult to kill the germs(disinfect). Such a wound, before applying the first aid dressingshould be painted with a tincture of iodine, or alcohol or be wellwashed with boiled salt water. =1522. = The illustrations below show improvised litters. [Illustration: Fig. 20 _Litter made of one-half shelter tent, three shelter tent pins and onetent or other pole_ _Litter made of two poles, two coats and one belt. The coats arebuttoned and the sleeves turned inside out, the poles being runthrough the sleeves. The belt is used as a head rest_ _The coat litter in use_] PART VI MILITARY COURTESY AND KINDRED SUBJECTS CHAPTER I MILITARY DEPORTMENT AND APPEARANCE--PERSONAL CLEANLINESS--FORMS OFSPEECH--DELIVERY OF MESSAGES, ETC. =1523. Military Deportment and Appearance. = The enlisted man is nolonger a civilian but a soldier. He is, however, still a citizen ofthe United States and by becoming a soldier also he is in no wayrelieved of the responsibilities of a citizen; he has merely assumedin addition thereto the responsibilities of a soldier. For instance, if he should visit an adjoining town and become drunk and disorderlywhile in uniform, not only could he be arrested and tried by the civilauthorities, but he could also be tried by the summary court at hispost for conduct to the prejudice of good order and militarydiscipline. Indeed, his uniform is in no way whatsoever a license forhim to do anything contrary to law and be protected by the government. Being a soldier, he must conduct himself as such at all times, that hemay be looked upon not only by his superior officers as a soldier, butalso by the public as a man in every way worthy of the uniform of theAmerican soldier. Whether on or off duty, he should always look neat and clean, everremembering that in bearing and in conversation he should be everyinch a soldier--shoes must be clean and polished at all times; nochewing, spitting, gazing about, or raising of hands in ranks--heshould know his drill, his orders and his duties--he should always beready and willing to learn all he can about his profession--he shouldnever debase himself with drink. A soldier's uniform is more than a mere suit of clothes that is wornto hide nakedness and protect the body. The uniform of an armysymbolizes its respectability, its honor, its traditions, and itsachievements, just as the flag of a nation symbolizes its honor, dignity and history. Always remember this, and remember, too, that thesoldier who brings reproach upon his uniform is in the same class asthe priest who brings dishonor upon his robes. It is not given to every man to wear the uniform of his Country'sarmy, --it is an honor and a privilege to do so, and no individual hasa right to abuse this honor and privilege by bringing the uniform intodisrepute through misbehavior. It should be remembered that the soldiers of a command can make theuniform carry distinction and respect, or they can make it a thing tobe derided. The soldier should take pride in his uniform. A soldier should be soldierly in dress, soldierly in carriage, soldierly in courtesies. A civilian owes it to himself to be neat in dress. A soldier owes itto more than himself--he owes it to his comrades, to his company--heowes it to his country, for just so far as a soldier is slack so fardoes his company suffer; his shabbiness reflects first upon himself, then upon his company and finally upon the entire Army. It is a fact known to students of human nature that just in proportionas a man is neatly and trimly dressed is he apt to conduct himselfwith like decency. The worst vagabonds in our communities are thetramps, with their dirty bodies and dirty clothes; the most brutaldeeds in all history were those of the ragged, motley mobs of Paris inthe days of the French Revolution; the first act of the mutineer hasever been to debase and deride his uniform. The man who misbehaves himself in uniform in public creates a badimpression of the whole command, as a result of which his comradesmust suffer. Remember that a man in the uniform of a soldier isconspicuous, --much more so than a civilian, --and consequently anymisconduct on his part is more noticeable than if done in civilianclothes. The man who deliberately besmirches the uniform of hisCountry's army by appearing in public drunk or by other misconduct, not only fouls his own nest, but he also dishonors the uniform worn byhis self-respecting comrades. It is a well known fact that laxity in dress and negligence inmilitary courtesy run hand in hand with laxity and negligence inalmost everything else, and that is why we can always look for certaininfallible symptoms in the individual dress, carriage and courtesiesof soldiers. _Should a soldier give care and attention to his dress?_ Yes; not only should a soldier be always neatly dressed, but he shouldalso be properly dressed--that is, he should be dressed as required byregulations. A soldier should always be neat and trim, precise indress and carriage and punctilious in salute. Under no circumstancesshould the blouse or overcoat be worn unbuttoned, or the cap back oron the side of the head. His hair should be kept properly trimmed, hisface clean shaven or beard trimmed and his shoes polished, histrousers pressed, the garrison belt accurately fitted to the waist sothat it does not sag, his leggins cleaned, his brass letters, numbersand crossed rifles polished, and his white gloves immaculate. _Should a man ever be allowed to leave the post on pass if notproperly dressed?_ No; never. The Army Regulations require that chiefs of squads shallsee that such members of their squads as have passes leave the post inproper dress. _Should a soldier ever stand or walk with his hands in his pockets?_ No; never. There is nothing more unmilitary than to see a soldierstanding or walking with his hands in his pockets. The real soldier always stands erect. He never slouches. _Is it permissible, while in uniform, to wear picture buttons, chains, watch charms, etc. , exposed to view?_ No; it is not. _May the campaign hat or any other parts of the uniform be worn withcivilian dress?_ No; this is prohibited by the Uniform Regulations, which especiallystates that when the civilian dress is worn it will not be accompaniedby any mark or part of the uniform. _May a mixed uniform be worn--for example, a cotton olive drab at andwoolen olive drab breeches?_ No; under no circumstances. When the company commander or any other officer sends for a soldier toreport to him in the company office or any other place, the soldiermust report in proper uniform. =1524. Obedience. = _What is Obedience?_ It is compliance witheverything that is required by authority--it is the mainspring, thevery soul and essence of all military duty. It is said a famousgeneral once remarked every soldier should know three things--"First, _obedience_; second, _obedience_; third, _obedience_. " Cheerful, earnest and loyal obedience must be paid by all subordinatesto the orders of their superiors. _A soldier should obey first and if aggrieved complain afterward. _ All duty should be performed cheerfully and willingly. Soldiers aresometimes required to perform duties that are not pleasant--forinstance, doing guard duty on a cold, rainy night, when tired andsleepy; digging ditches or cleaning up dirt and filth that haveaccumulated around the barracks, kitchens, quarters, etc. , scrubbingfloors, polishing stoves, cleaning knives, forks, pots, etc. However, by doing everything required of him in a cheerful manner, a soldierwill soon earn the respect of his comrades and the commendation of hisofficers. =1525. Respect and Obedience to Noncommissioned Officers. = In theorders and directions that they give, company noncommissioned officersrepresent the company commander, and they must be obeyed and respectedat all times and under all circumstances. Orders and regulations require that men respect and obey theirnoncommissioned officers, and discipline makes it imperative that theydo so. It is not for a private to question in any way the fairness, justice, propriety or wisdom of an order received from a noncommissionedofficer. When ordered by a noncommissioned officer to do a thing, whatever it may be, do it promptly and thoroughly, and then if youfeel that you have been injured in any way, report the matter to yourcompany commander, who will see that you receive justice. If thenoncommissioned officer made a mistake, exceeded his authority, ortreated you unfairly, he will be punished by the company commander. The company commander, and not the privates of the company, is tojudge the conduct of his noncommissioned officers, who are directlyresponsible to him for every act of theirs. If every subordinate were to question the fairness, justice, proprietyor wisdom of orders received from noncommissioned officers or othersuperiors, there would be no discipline, and the Army would soondegenerate into a mob. Remember, a soldier is supposed to obey _first_, and, if aggrieved, complain _afterward_. And remember, too, that the authority of noncommissioned officers isnot confined to the drill ground, the barracks and the post or camp. Whether you are on pass, in a theatre, in a streetcar, on a train onthe street or anywhere else, if you receive an order from anoncommissioned officer you are to obey it just the same as if it weregiven you at drill or in barracks. =1526. Forms of Speech. = In speaking to an officer it is not properfor a soldier to say, "You, etc. , " but the third person should alwaysbe used, as, for example, "_Does the captain want his horse thismorning?_"--do not say, "Do you want your horse this morning?" "Thelieutenant is wanted on the 'phone, "--not "You are wanted on the'phone. " In beginning a conversation with an officer, a soldier should use thethird person in referring to himself instead of the pronouns "I" and"me. " However, after the conversation has commenced, it is perfectlyproper, and usual, for the soldier to use the pronouns "I" and "me, "but an officer is _always_ addressed in the third person and never as"you. " In speaking to an officer, an enlisted man should refer to anotherenlisted man by proper title, as, "_Sergeant Richards_, " "_CorporalSmith_, " "_Private Wilson_. " Privates and others should always address noncommissioned officers bytheir titles. For example, "_Sergeant Smith_, " "_Corporal Jones_, "etc. , and not "_Smith_, " "_Jones_, " etc. When asked his name, a soldier should answer, for instance, "_PrivateJones, Sir_. " When given an order or instructions of any kind by an officer, ornoncommissioned officer, a soldier should always say, "_Yes, sir_, "thus letting the officer or noncommissioned officer know that thesoldier understands the order or instructions. Don't say, "Very well, sir, " or "All right, sir"; say, "_Yes, sir_, " it's the direct, military way of answering. Short direct answers should be made in the form of, "_No, sir_, ""_Yes, sir_, " "_I don't know, sir_, " "_I will try, sir_, " etc. Do not use slang in speaking to an officer. Never interrupt an officer while he is speaking. Always wait until heis through talking before you begin to speak. After a soldier has finished a thing that he was ordered to do, heshould always report to the officer who gave him the order. Forexample, "The captain's message to Lieutenant Smith has beendelivered. " If ordered to report to an officer for any purpose, do not go awaywithout first ascertaining if the officer is through with you, as itoften happens he has something else he would like to have you do. After having finished the work given in the beginning, report, forinstance, "_Sir, is the captain through with me?_" When an officer calls a soldier who is some distance away, the soldiershould immediately salute, and say, "_Yes, sir_, " and, if necessary, approach the officer with a quickened step. If the officer is waitingon the soldier, the latter should take up the double time. Always salute an officer when he leaves you after a conversation or atany other time. And always salute just as soon as the officer makesthe first move to leave. Don't wait until he has moved away severalfeet before saluting. Miscellaneous =1527. How to Enter an Office. = In entering an office a soldier shouldgive two or three knocks at the door (whether it be open or closed);when told to come in, enter, taking off the hat (if unarmed), closethe door (if it was closed before you entered) and remain just insidethe door until asked what is wanted; then go within a short distanceof the officer, stand at attention, salute, and make known yourrequest in as few words as possible. On completion, salute, facetoward the door, and go out, being careful to close the door if it wasclosed when you entered. If it was not closed, leave it open. =1528. Complaints to the Captain. = Complaints must never be madedirectly to the captain unless the soldier has the captain'spermission to do so, or the first sergeant refuses to have the matterreported. If dissatisfied with his food, clothing, duties, ortreatment, the facts should be reported to the first sergeant, withthe request, if necessary, to see the captain. It is also customary for soldiers who wish to speak to the captainabout anything to see the first sergeant first, and when speaking tothe captain to inform him that they have the first sergeant'spermission to do so. Thus: "Private Smith has the first sergeant'spermission to speak to the captain, " etc. =1529. How the Soldier is Paid. = When your name is called, answer"Here, " step forward and halt directly in front of the paymaster, whowill be directly behind the table; salute him. When he spreads outyour pay on the table in front of you, count it quickly, take it upwith your ungloved hand, execute a left or right face and leave theroom and building, unless you wish to deposit, in which case, you willremain in the hall outside the payroom, until the company has beenpaid, when you enter the payroom. Men wishing to deposit money withthe paymaster, will always notify the first sergeant before thecompany is marched to the pay table. =1530. Delivery of Messages. = When an enlisted man receives a message, verbal or written, from an officer for delivery, he will, in case hedoes not understand his instructions, ask the officer to repeat them, saying, for instance, "Sir, Private Smith does not understand; willthe captain please repeat?" When he has received his instructions, andunderstands them, he will salute, and say: "Yes, sir, " execute anabout face, and proceed immediately to the officer for whom themessage is intended. He will halt three or four paces directly infront of the officer and _if the officer be junior to the officersending the message_, he will say, "Sir, Captain Smith presents hiscompliments, " etc. , and then deliver the message, or "The commandingofficer presents his compliments to Lieutenant Smith and would like tosee him at headquarters. " He will salute immediately before he beginsto address the officer and will hold his hand at the position ofsalute while he says, "Sir, Captain Smith presents his compliments, "or "The commanding officer presents his compliments to LieutenantSmith. " If the officer sending the message be junior to the onereceiving it, the soldier will not present his compliments, but willsay, for instance, "Sir, Lieutenant Smith directed me to hand thisletter to the captain, " or "Sir, Lieutenant Smith directed me to sayto the captain, " etc. As soon as the message has been delivered, thesoldier will salute, execute an about face, and proceed at once to theofficer who sent the message, and will similarly report to him, "Sir, the lieutenant's message to Captain Smith has been delivered, " andleave. Before leaving an officer to whom you deliver a message alwaysascertain whether there is an answer. The compliments of a junior are never presented to a senior. Forinstance, never say to a captain that a lieutenant presents hiscompliments to him. =1531. Appearance as Witness. = The uniform is that prescribed. Proceedto the courtroom and remain outside. When you are notified that youare wanted enter the room. Then take off your cap and right handglove, and raise your right hand above your head, palm to the front, to be sworn. After the judge-advocate reads the oath, say, "I do" or"So help me God. " Then sit down in the chair indicated by thejudge-advocate. Do not cross your legs, but sit upright. When asked, "Do you know the accused? If, so, state who he is, " answer, "I do;Corporal John Jones, Co. 'B' 1st Infantry. " Be sure you thoroughlyunderstand every question before you start to reply, answering themall promptly, in a loud, distinct, deliberate voice, and confiningyour answers strictly to the questions asked and telling all you know. When the judge-advocate says, "That is all, " arise, salute him, execute an about face, and leave the room. CHAPTER II MILITARY COURTESY =1532. Its importance. = Some soldiers do not see the necessity forsaluting, standing at attention, and other forms of courtesy, becausethey do not understand their significance--their object. It is awell-known fact that military courtesy is a very important part of theeducation of the soldier, and there are good reasons for it. General Orders No. 183, Division of the Philippines, 1901, says: "Inall armies the manner in which military courtesies are observed andrendered by officers and soldiers, is the index to the manner in whichother duties are performed. " The Army Regulations tells us, "Courtesy among military men isindispensable to discipline; respect to superiors will not be confinedto obedience on duty, but will be extended on all occasions. " [Illustration] THE NATURE OF SALUTES AND THEIR ORIGIN The Civilian Salute =1533. = When a gentleman raises his hat to a lady he is but continuinga custom that had its beginning in the days of knighthood, when everyknight wore his helmet as a protection against foes. However, whencoming among friends, especially ladies, the knight would remove hishelmet as a mark of confidence and trust in his friends. In those daysfailure to remove the helmet in the presence of ladies signifieddistrust and want of confidence--today it signifies impoliteness and awant of good breeding. The Military Salute =1534. = From time immemorial subordinates have always uncovered beforesuperiors, and equals have always acknowledged each other's presenceby some courtesy--this seems to be one of the natural, noblerinstincts of man. It was not so many years ago when a sentinel salutednot only with his gun but by taking off his hat also. However, whencomplicated headgear like the bearskin and the helmet came into use, they could not be readily removed and the act of removing the hat wasfinally conventionalized into the present salute--into the movement ofthe hand to the visor as if the hat were going to be removed. Every once in a while a man is found who has the mistaken idea that hesmothers the American spirit of freedom, that he sacrifices hisindependence, by saluting his officers. Of course, no one but ananarchist or a man with a small, shrivelled-up mind can have suchideas. Manly deference to superiors, which in military life is merelyrecognition of constituted authority, does not imply admission ofinferiority any more than respect for law implies cowardice. The recruit should at once rid himself of the idea that saluting andother forms of military courtesy are un-American. The salute is thesoldier's claim from the very highest in the land to instantrecognition as a soldier. The raw recruit by his simple act ofsaluting, commands like honor from the ranking general of theArmy--aye, from even the President of the United States. While the personal element naturally enters into the salute to acertain extent, when a soldier salutes an officer he is reallysaluting the office rather than the officer personally--the salute isrendered as a mark of respect to the rank, the position that theofficer holds, to the authority with which he is vested. A man withthe true soldierly instinct never misses an opportunity to salute hisofficers. As a matter of fact, military courtesy is just simply an applicationof common, every-day courtesy and common sense. In common, every-daycourtesy no man with the instincts of a gentleman ever thinks abouttaking advantage of this thing and that thing in order to avoid payingto his fellow-man the ordinary, conventional courtesies of life, andif there is ever any doubt about the matter, he takes no chances butextends the courtesy. And this is just exactly what the man who hasthe instincts of a real soldier does in the case of military courtesy. The thought of "Should I salute or should I not salute" never entersthe mind of a soldier just because he happens to be in a wagon, in apostoffice, etc. In all armies of the world, all officers and soldiers are required tosalute each other whenever they meet or pass, the subordinate salutingfirst. The salute on the part of the subordinate is not intended inany way as an act of degradation or a mark of inferiority, but issimply a military courtesy that is as binding on the officer as it ison the private, and just as the enlisted man is required to salute theofficer first, so is the officer required to salute his superiorsfirst. It is a bond uniting all in a common profession, marking thefact that above them there is an authority that both recognize andobey--the Country! Indeed, by custom and regulations, it is asobligatory for the ranking general of the Army to return the salute ofthe recruit, as it is for the latter to give it. Let it be remembered that the military salute is a form of greetingthat belongs exclusively to the Government--to the soldier, thesailor, the marine--it is the mark and prerogative of the military manand he should be proud of having the privilege of using that form ofsalutation--a form of salutation that marks him as a member of theProfession of Arms--the profession of Napoleon, Wellington, Grant, Lee, Sherman, Jackson and scores of others of the greatest and mostfamous men the world has ever known. The military salute is ours, itis ours only. Moreover, it belongs only to the soldier who is in goodstanding, the prisoner under guard, for instance, not being allowed tosalute. Ours is a grand fraternity of men-at-arms, banded together fornational defense, for the maintenance of law and order--we are boundtogether by the love and respect we bear the flag--we are pledged toloyalty, to one God, one country--our lives are dedicated to thedefense of our country's flag--the officer and the private belong to abrotherhood whose regalia is the uniform of the American soldier, andthey are known to one another and to all men, by an honored sign andsymbol of knighthood that has come down to us from the ages--THEMILITARY SALUTE! WHOM TO SALUTE =1535. Army officers. = All Army officers are saluted by their juniorsand by enlisted men. =1536. Navy, Marine Corps, Volunteer and National Guard officers. =Soldiers at all times and in all situations salute officers of theNavy, Marine Corps, and National Guard the same as they saluteofficers of the Regular Army. =1537. Reserve Corps officers. = Although the subject is not at present(March, 1917) covered by orders or regulations, it goes without sayingthat soldiers would salute members of the Officers' Reserve Corps _onactive duty_ the same as they salute their own officers. =1538. Foreign naval and military officers. = The Manual of InteriorGuard Duty requires sentinels to salute foreign naval and militaryofficers, but there are no instructions about other enlisted mensaluting them. However, as an act of international courtesy, theyshould be saluted the same as our own officers. WHEN AND HOW TO SALUTE =1539. General rule. = Day or night, covered or uncovered, whethereither or both are in uniform or civilian clothes, salutes shall beexchanged between officers and enlisted men not in a militaryformation, nor at drill, work, games or mess, on every occasion oftheir meeting, passing near or being addressed, the junior in rank orthe enlisted man saluting first. =1540. Saluting when making and receiving reports. = When making orreceiving official reports, or on meeting out of doors, all officerswill salute. Military courtesy requires the junior to salute first, but when thesalute is introductory to a report made at a military ceremony orformation, to the representative of a common superior (as, forexample, to the adjutant, officer of the day, etc. ), the officermaking the report, whatever his rank, will salute first; the officerto whom the report is made will acknowledge by saluting that he hasreceived and understood the report. =1541. Saluting distance. = Saluting distance is that within whichrecognition is easy. In general, it does not exceed 30 paces. As to the distance at which the salute should be made, the followingis what has been the practice in the Army: In approaching or passing each other within saluting distance, individuals or bodies of troops exchange salutes when at a distance ofabout 6 paces. If they do not approach each other that closely, thesalute is exchanged at the point of nearest approach. For instance, ifthe officer and soldier are approaching each other on the samesidewalk, the hand is brought up to the headdress when about 6 pacesfrom the officer. If they are on opposite sides of the street, thehand is brought up when about ten paces in advance of the officer. Ifthe officer and soldier are not going in opposite directions and theofficer does not approach within six paces, the salute is renderedwhen the officer reaches the nearest point to the soldier. If asoldier passes an officer from the rear, the hand is raised as hereaches the officer; if an officer passes a soldier from the rear, thesoldier salutes just as the officer is about to pass him. =1542. Officer entering room occupied by soldiers. = When an officerenters a room where there are several enlisted men, the word"attention" is given by someone who perceives him, when all rise, uncover, and remain standing at attention until the officer leaves theroom or directs otherwise. =1543. At meals. = Enlisted men at meals stop eating and remain seatedat attention when an officer enters the room. =1544. When seated. = An enlisted man, if seated, rises on the approachof an officer, faces toward him, stands at attention, and salutes. Standing he faces an officer for the same purpose. If the partiesremain in the same place or on the same ground, such compliments neednot be repeated. =1545. Soldier indoors. = Indoors, an unarmed enlisted man uncovers andstands at attention upon the approach of an officer. If armed withrifle, he renders the rifle salute at the order or trail. (Note. According to custom, the term "indoors" is interpreted asmeaning military offices barracks, quarters and similar places, --itdoes not mean such public places as stores, storehouses, riding halls, stables, post exchange buildings, hotels, places of amusement, andrailway and steamboat stations. In such places an unarmed soldierrenders the right hand salute. ) =1546. Officers approaching number of soldiers in open. = When anofficer approaches a number of enlisted men out of doors, the word"attention" should be given by someone who perceives him, when allstand at attention and all salute. It is customary for all to saluteat or about the same instant, taking the time from the soldier nearestthe officer, and who salutes when the officer is six paces from him. =1547. At work. = Soldiers actually at work do not cease work to salutean officer unless addressed by him. =1548. Riding in wagon. = A soldier riding in a wagon should saluteofficers that he passes. He would salute without rising. Likewise, asoldier driving a wagon should salute, unless both hands are occupied. =1549. Passing officer on staircase. = It is customary for a soldierwho is passed by an officer on a staircase to come to a halt and standat attention. =1550. Addressing or being addressed by an officer. = Before addressingan officer, or when addressed by an officer, an enlisted man makesthe prescribed salute with the weapon with which he is armed; or, ifunarmed, with the right hand. He also makes the same salute afterreceiving a reply. =1551. How salutes are rendered in uniform. = In uniform, covered oruncovered, but not in formation, officers and enlisted men salutemilitary persons as follows: With arms in hand, the salute prescribedfor that arm (sentinels on interior guard duty excepted); withoutarms, the right-hand salute. =1552. Rifle salute. = Enlisted men out of doors and armed with therifle, salute with the piece at the right shoulder; if indoors, therifle salute is rendered at the order or trail. =1553. Saber salute. = An enlisted man armed with the saber renders thesaber salute, if the saber is drawn; otherwise he salutes with thehand. =1554. Sentinels on post. = A soldier salutes with the "present arms"only when actually on post as a sentinel doing interior guard duty. Atall other times when armed with the rifle he salutes with theprescribed rifle salute. The general rules and principles of saluting apply to sentinels onpost doing interior guard duty, except, as just stated, they salute bypresenting arms when armed with the rifle. However, they do not saluteif it interferes with the proper performance of their duties. =1555. How salutes are rendered in civilian dress. = In civilian dress, covered or uncovered, officers and enlisted men salute militarypersons with the right-hand salute. =1556. Saluting in military manner. = Officers and enlisted men willrender the prescribed salutes in a military manner. =1557. Several officers together. = When several officers in companyare saluted, all entitled to the salute shall return it. =1558. Dismounting before addressing superior not mounted. = Except inthe field under campaign or simulated campaign conditions, a mountedofficer or soldier dismounts before addressing a superior officer notmounted. =1559. Man addressed in formation. = A man in formation shall notsalute when directly addressed, but shall come to attention if at restor at ease. =1560. In public places and conveyances. = In public conveyances, suchas railway trains and street cars, and in public places, such astheaters, honors and personal salutes may be omitted when palpablyinappropriate or apt to disturb or annoy civilians present. For instance, as a rule, it may be said that an enlisted man riding ina street car, or in the act of purchasing goods in a store, or eatingin a restaurant, would not salute unless addressed by an officer. However, in case of a soldier occupying a seat in a crowded street orrailway car, if he recognized a person standing to be an officer, itwould be but an act of courtesy for him to raise, salute and offer theofficer his seat. =1561. Salutes by commanders of detachments or other commands. =Commanders of detachments or other commands will salute officers ofgrades higher than the person commanding the unit, by first bringingthe unit to attention and then saluting as prescribed, --that is, witharms in hand, the salute prescribed for that arm; without arms inhand, the right-hand salute. =1562. Officer passing in rear of troops. = When an officer entitled tothe salute passes in rear of a body of troops, the troops are broughtto attention when he is opposite the post of the commander. =1563. Bringing command to present arms or sabers before commandersalutes. = If the command is in line at a halt (not in the field) andarmed with the rifle, or with sabers drawn, it shall be brought to_present arms_ or _present sabers_ before its commander salutes in thefollowing cases: When the National Anthem is played, or when _to thecolor_ or _to the standard_ is sounded during ceremonies, or when aperson is saluted who is its immediate or higher commander or ageneral officer, or when the national or regimental color is saluted. =1564. No compliments paid at drill, on march, etc. = Salutes andhonors, as a rule, are not paid by troops actually engaged in drill, on the march, or in the field under campaign or simulated campaignconditions. Troops on the service of security pay no complimentswhatever. =1565. No saluting at double time, trot or gallop. = Salutes are notrendered when marching in double time or at the trot or gallop. Thesoldier must first come to quick time or walk before saluting. The question of gait applies to the person saluting and not to the onesaluted, --so, a soldier would salute an officer passing in double timeor at a trot or gallop. MISCELLANEOUS =1566. Soldier walking with officer. = A soldier accompanying anofficer walks on the officer's left and about one pace to his rear. =1567. Prisoners do not salute. = Prisoners do not salute officers. They merely stand at attention. In some commands it is customary forparoled prisoners and others who are not under the immediate charge ofsentinels, to fold their arms when passing or addressing officers. =1568. Unmilitary salutes. = It is very unmilitary to salute with thecoat unbuttoned or with the hand in the pocket, or a cigarette, cigaror pipe in the mouth. =1569. Headdress not raised in saluting. = The headdress must not beraised to ladies, but they must be given the military salute. (War Dept. Decision. August, 1913. ) =1570. Caution. = In saluting, the hand or weapon is held in theposition of salute until the salute has been acknowledged or until theofficer has passed or has been passed. USUAL MISTAKES IN SALUTING =1571. = The following are the mistakes usually made by soldiers inrendering salutes: 1. They do not begin the salute soon enough; often they do not raisethe hand to the headdress until they are only a pace or two from theofficer--the salute should always begin when at least six paces fromthe officer. 2. They do not turn the head and eyes toward the officer who issaluted--the head and eyes should always be turned toward the officersaluted and kept turned as long as the hand is raised. 3. The hand is not kept to the headdress until the salute isacknowledged by the officer--the hand should always be kept raiseduntil the salute has been acknowledged, or it is evident the officerhas not seen the saluter. 4. The salute is often rendered in an indifferent, lax manner--thesalute should always be rendered with life, snap and vim; the soldiershould always render a salute as if he _meant it_. RESPECT TO BE PAID THE NATIONAL ANTHEM, THE COLORS AND STANDARDS =1572. The National Anthem. = Whenever the National Anthem is played atany place when persons belonging to the military service are present, all officers and enlisted men not in formation shall stand atattention facing toward the music (except at retreat when they shallface toward the flag). If in uniform, covered or uncovered, or incivilian clothes, uncovered, they shall salute at the first note ofthe Anthem, retaining the position of salute until the last note ofthe Anthem. If not in uniform and covered, they shall uncover at thefirst note of the Anthem, holding the headdress opposite the leftshoulder and so remain until its close, except that in inclementweather the headdress may be held slightly raised. The same rules apply when "To the Color" or "To the Standard" issounded as when the National Anthem is played. =1573. National anthems of other nations. = The same marks of respectprescribed for observance during the playing of the National Anthem ofthe United States shall be shown toward the national anthem of anyother country when played upon official occasions. =1574. At retreat. = The flag will be lowered at the sounding of thelast note of the retreat, and while the flag is being lowered the bandwill play the National Anthem, or, if there be no band present, thefield music will sound "To the Color. " When "To the Color" is soundedby the field music while the flag is being lowered the same respectwill be observed as when the National Anthem is played by the band, and in either case officers and enlisted men out of ranks will facetoward the flag, stand at attention, and render the prescribed salute. =1575. Colors and standards. = Officers and enlisted men passing theuncased color (or standard) will render honors as follows: If inuniform they will salute as described in par. 1551; if in civiliandress and covered, they will uncover, holding the headdress oppositethe left shoulder with the right hand; if uncovered, they will salutewith the right-hand salute. By "Colors" and "Standards" is meant the national flags and theregimental flags that are carried by regiments and separatebattalions. The national flag may be of either silk or bunting; theregimental flag is always of silk. In the Army Regulations the word"Color" is used in referring to regiments of Infantry, the CoastArtillery and battalions of Philippine Scouts, while "Standard" isused in reference to regiments of Cavalry and Field Artillery. By _uncased_ colors and standards are meant colors and standards whennot in their waterproof cases. By Flag is meant the national emblem that waves from flag staffs andother stationary poles. They are always of bunting. PART VII GUARD DUTY (To include Changes No. 1, February 24, 1915. ) (The numbers following the paragraphs are those of the _Manual ofInterior Guard Duty_. ) =1576. Importance. = Guard duty is one of the soldier's most importantduties, and in all armies of the world the manner in which it isperformed is an index to the discipline of the command and the mannerin which other duties are performed. Upon the guard's vigilance and readiness for action depend not onlythe enforcement of military law and orders, but also the safety andprotection of the post and the quelling of sudden disorder, perhapseven mutiny. The importance of guard duty is increased during times of war, whenthe very safety of the army depends upon the vigilance of thesentinels, who are required to watch that others may sleep and thusrefresh themselves from the labors of the day. The sentinels are theguardians of the repose, quiet and safety of the camp. =1577. Respect for Sentinels. = Respect for the person and office of asentinel is as strictly enjoined by military law as that required tobe paid to an officer. As it is expressed in the _Manual of GuardDuty_, "All persons of whatever rank in the service are required toobserve respect toward sentinels. " Invested as the private soldierfrequently is, while on his post, with a grave responsibility, it isproper that he should be fully protected in the discharge of his duty. To permit anyone, of whatever rank, to molest or interfere with himwhile thus employed, without becoming liable to severe penalty, wouldclearly establish a precedent highly prejudicial to the interests ofthe service. (_Davis' Military Law_). =1578. Duty of sentinels. = A sentinel, in respect to the duties withwhich he is charged, represents the superior military authority of thecommand to which he belongs, and whose orders he is required toenforce on or in the vicinity of his post. As such he is entitled tothe respect and obedience of all persons who come within the scope ofoperation of the orders, which he is required to carry into effect. Over military persons the authority of the sentinel is absolute, anddisobedience of his orders on the part of such persons constitutes amost serious military offence and is prejudicial in the highest degreeto the interests of discipline. (_Davis' Military Law_). --Author. INTRODUCTION =1579. = Guards may be divided into four classes: Exterior guards, interior guards, military police, and provost guards. (1) =1580. = Exterior guards are used only in time of war. They belong tothe domain of tactics and are treated of in the _Field ServiceRegulations_ and in the drill regulations of the different arms of theservice. The purpose of exterior guards is to prevent surprise, to delayattack, and otherwise to provide for the security of the main body. On the march they take the form of advance guards, rear guards, andflank guards. At a halt they consist of outposts. (2) =1581. = Interior guards are used in camp or garrison to preserveorder, protect property, and to enforce police regulations. In time ofwar such sentinels of an interior guard as may be necessary are placedclose in or about a camp, and normally there is an exterior guardfurther out consisting of outposts. In time of peace the interiorguard is the only guard in a camp or garrison. (3) =1582. = Military police differ somewhat from either of these classes. (See _Field Service Regulations_. ) They are used in time of war toguard prisoners, to arrest stragglers and deserters, and to maintainorder and enforce police regulations in the rear of armies, alonglines of communication, and in the vicinity of large camps. (4) =1583. = Provost guards are used in the absence of military police, generally in conjunction with the civil authorities at or near largeposts or encampments, to preserve order among soldiers beyond theinterior guard. (5) INTERIOR GUARD Classification =1584. = The various elements of an interior guard classified accordingto their particular purposes and the manner in which they performtheir duties are as follows: (=a=) The main guard. (=b=) Special guards: Stable guards, park guards, prisoner guards, herd guards, train guards, boat guards, watchmen, etc. (6) Details and Rosters =1585. = At every military post, and in every regiment or separatecommand in the field, an interior guard will be detailed and dulymounted. It will consist of such number of officers and enlisted men as thecommanding officer may deem necessary, and will be commanded by thesenior officer or noncommissioned officer therewith, under thesupervision of the officer of the day or other officer detailed by thecommanding officer. (7) =1586. = The system of sentinels on fixed posts is of value indiscipline and training because of the direct individualresponsibility which is imposed and required to be discharged in adefinite and precise manner. In order, however, that guard duty maynot be needlessly irksome and interfere with tactical instruction, thenumber of men detailed for guard will be the smallest possible. Commanding officers are specifically charged with this matter, and, without entirely dispensing with the system of sentinels on fixedposts will, as far as practicable in time of peace, replace suchsentinels with watchmen. (See Par. 1781. ) (8) =1587. = At posts where there are less than three companies the mainguard and special guards may all be furnished by one company or bydetail from each company. Where there are three or more companies, the main guard will, ifpracticable, be furnished by a single company, and, as far aspracticable, the same organization will supply all details for thatday for special guard, overseer, and fatigue duty. In this case theofficer of the day, and the officers of the guard, if there are any, will, if practicable, be from the company furnishing the guard. (9) =1588. = There will be an officer of the day with each guard, unless inthe opinion of the commanding officer the guard is so small that hisservices are not needed. In this case an officer will be detailed tosupervise the command and instruction of the guard for such period asthe commanding officer may direct. (16) =1589. = The detail of officers of the guard will be limited to thenecessities of the service and efficient instruction; inexperiencedofficers may be detailed as supernumerary officers of the guard forpurposes of instruction. (18). =1590. = The strength of guards and the number of consecutive days forwhich an organization furnishes the guard will be so regulated as toinsure privates of the main guard an interval of not less than fivedays between tours. The Commanding Officer =1591. = The commanding officer will exact a faithful, vigilant, andcorrect performance of guard duty in all of its details, giving hisorders to the officer of the day, or causing them to be communicatedto him with the least practicable delay. He will prescribe thestrength of the guard, and the necessary regulations for guard, police, and fatigue duty. (27) =1592. = The commanding officer receives the reports of the officers ofthe day immediately after guard mounting, at his office, or at someother place previously designated; carefully examines the guard reportand remarks thereon (questioning the old officer of the day, ifnecessary, concerning his tour of duty), relieves the old officer ofthe day and gives the new officer of the day such instructions as maybe necessary. (28) The Officer of the Day =1593. = The officer of the day is responsible for the properperformance of duty by the guard with which he marches on and for theenforcement of all police regulations. He is charged with theexecution of all orders of the commanding officer relating to thesafety and good order of the post or camp. His actual tour begins whenhe receives the instructions of the commanding officer after guardmounting, and ceases when he has been relieved by the commandingofficer. In case of emergency during the interval between guardmounting and reporting to the commanding officer, the senior officerof the day will give the necessary instructions for both guards. (29) =1594. = In the absence of special instructions from the commandingofficer, the officer of the day will inspect the guard and sentinelsduring the day and at night at such times as he may deem necessary. Hewill visit them at least once between 12 o'clock midnight anddaylight. (30) He may prescribe patrols (Par. 1778) and visits of inspection to bemade by officers and noncommissioned officers of the guard whenever hedeems it necessary. (31) =1595. = He will see that the commander of the guard is furnished withthe parole and countersign before retreat in case they are to be used, and will inform him of the presence in post or camp of any personentitled to the compliment. (32) =1596. = In case of alarm of any kind he will at once take such stepsas may be necessary to insure the safety of life and public propertyand to preserve order in the command, disposing his guard so as bestto accomplish this result. (33) =1597. = In the performance of his duties as officer of the day he issubject to the orders of the commanding officer only, except that incase of an alarm of any kind, and at a time of great danger, thesenior line officer present is competent to give necessary orders tothe officer of the day for the employment of the guard. (34) =1598. = At the inspection and musters prescribed in _ArmyRegulations_, the officer of the day will be present at the post ofthe guard, but all commands to the guard will be given by thecommander of the guard. (35) Both officers of the day together verify the prisoners and inspect theguardhouse and premises. (36) =1599. = In the absence of special instructions, the old officer of theday will, at guard mounting, release all garrison prisoners whosesentences expire that day. If there are any prisoners with no recordof charges against them, the old officer of the day will report thatfact to the commanding officer who will give the necessaryinstructions. (37) =1600. = The old officer of the day signs the report of the commanderof the guard. He also enters on it such remarks as may be necessary. (38) =1601. = The officers of the day then report to the commanding officer. On presenting themselves, both salute with the right hand, remainingcovered. The old officer of the day, standing on the right of the new, then says: "=Sir, I report as old officer of the day=, " and presentsthe guard report. As soon as the commanding officer notifies the oldofficer of the day that he is relieved, the old officer of the daysalutes the commanding officer and retires. The new officer of the dayagain salutes and says: "=Sir, I report as new officer of the day=, "and then receives his instructions. (39) =1602. = The officer of the day will always keep the guard informed asto where he may be found at all hours of the day and night. (40) Commander of the Guard =1603. = The commander of the guard is responsible for the instructionand discipline of the guard. He will see that all of its members arecorrectly instructed in their orders and duties, and that theyunderstand and properly perform them. He will visit each relief atleast once while it is on post, and at least one of these visits willbe made between 12 o'clock midnight and daylight. (41) =1604. = He receives and obeys the orders of the commanding officer andthe officer of the day, and reports to the latter without delay allorders to the guard not received from the officer of the day; hetransmits to his successor all material instructions and informationrelating to his duties. (42) =1605. = He is responsible under the officer of the day for the generalsafety of the post or camp as soon as the old guard marches away fromthe guardhouse. In case of emergency while both guards are at theguardhouse, the senior commander of the two guards will be responsiblethat the proper action is taken. (43) =1606. = Officers of the guard will remain constantly with theirguards, except while visiting patrols or necessarily engaged elsewherein the performance of their duties. The commanding officer will allowa reasonable time for meals. (44) =1607. = A commander of a guard leaving his post for any purpose willinform the next in command of his destination and probable time ofreturn. (45) =1608. = Except in emergencies, the commander of the guard may dividethe night with the next in command, but retains his responsibility;the one on watch must be constantly on the alert. (46) =1609. = When any alarm is raised in camp or garrison, the guard willbe formed immediately. (Par. 1793. ) If the case be serious, the propercall will be sounded, and the commander of the guard will cause thecommanding officer and the officer of the day to be at once notified. (47) =1610. = If a sentinel calls: "=The Guard=, " the commander of the guardwill at once send a patrol to the sentinel's post. If the danger begreat, in which case the sentinel will discharge his piece, the patrolwill be as strong as possible. (48) =1611. = When practicable, there should always be an officer ornoncommissioned officer and two privates of the guard at theguardhouse, in addition to the sentinels there on post. (49) =1612. = Between reveille and retreat, when the guard had been turnedout for any person entitled to the compliment (See Pars. 1782 and1784), the commander of the guard, if an officer, will receive thereport of the sergeant, returning the salute of the later with theright hand. He will then draw his saber, and place himself two pacesin front of the center of the guard. When the person for whom theguard has been turned out approaches, he faces his guard and commands:=1. Present, 2. ARMS=; faces to the front and salutes. When his saluteis acknowledged he resumes the carry, faces about, and commands: =1. Order, 2. ARMS=; and faces to the front. If it be an officer entitled to inspect the guard, after saluting andbefore bringing his guard to an order, the officer of the guardreports: "=Sir, all present or accounted for="; or, "=Sir, (so and so)is absent="; or, if the roll call has been omitted: "=Sir, the guardis formed=, " except that at guard mounting the commanders of theguards present their guards and salute without making any report. Between retreat and reveille, the commander of the guard salutes andreports, but does not bring the guard to a present. (50) =1613. = To those entitled to have the guard turned out but notentitled to inspect it, no report will be made; nor will a report bemade to any officer, unless he halts in front of the guard. (51) =1614. = When a guard commanded by a noncommissioned officer is turnedout as a compliment or for inspection, the noncommissioned officer, standing at a right shoulder on the right of the right guide, commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS. = He then executes the rifle salute. Ifa report be also required, he will, after saluting, and beforebringing his guard to an order, report as prescribed for the officerof the guard. (Par. 1612. ) (52) =1615. = When a guard is in line, not under inspection, and commandedby an officer, the commander of the guard salutes his regimental, battalion, and company commander, by bringing the guard to attentionand saluting in person. For all other officers, excepting those entitled to the complimentfrom a guard (Par. 1784), the commander of the guard salutes inperson, but does not bring the guard to attention. When commanded by a noncommissioned officer the guard is brought toattention in either case, and the noncommissioned officer salutes. The commander of a guard exchanges salutes with the commanders of allother bodies of troops; the guard is brought to attention during theexchange. "=Present arms=" is executed by a guard only when it has turned outfor inspection or as a compliment, and at the ceremonies of guardmounting and relieving the old guard. (53) =1616. = In marching a guard or a detachment of a guard the principlesof paragraph 1615 apply. "=Eyes right=" is executed only in theceremonies of guard mounting and relieving the old guard. (54) =1617. = If a person entitled to the compliment, or the regimental, battalion, or company commander, passes in rear of a guard, neitherthe compliment nor the salute is given, but the guard is brought toattention while such person is opposite the post of the commander. After any person has received or declined the compliment, or receivedthe salute from the commander of the guard, official recognition ofhis presence thereafter while he remains in the vicinity will be takenby bringing the guard to attention. (55) =1618. = The commander of the guard will inspect the guard at reveilleand retreat, and at such other times as may be necessary, to assurehimself that the men are in proper condition to perform their dutiesand that their arms and equipments are in proper condition. Forinspection by other officers, he prepares the guard in each case asdirected by the inspecting officer. (56) =1619. = The guard will not be paraded during ceremonies unlessdirected by the commanding officer. (57) =1620. = At all formations members of the guard or reliefs will executeinspection arms as prescribed in the drill regulations of their arm. (58) =1621. = The commander of the guard will see that all sentinels arehabitually relieved every two hours, unless the weather or other causemakes it necessary that it be done at shorter or longer intervals, asdirected by the commanding officer. (59) =1622. = He will question his noncommissioned officers and sentinelsrelative to the instructions they may have received from the oldguard; he will see that patrols and visits of inspection are made asdirected by the officer of the day. (60) =1623. = He will see that the special orders for each post and memberof the guard, either written or printed, are posted in the guardhouse, and, if practicable, in the sentry box or other sheltered place towhich the member of the guard has constant access. (61) =1624. = He will see that the proper calls are sounded at the hoursappointed by the commanding officer. (62) =1625. = Should a member of the guard be taken sick, or be arrested, ordesert, or leave his guard, he will at once notify the officer of theday. (63) =1626. = He will, when the countersign is used (Pars. 1770 to 1776), communicate it to the noncommissioned officers of the guard and seethat it is duly communicated to the sentinels before the hour forchallenging; the countersign will not be given to sentinels posted atthe guardhouse. (64) =1627. = He will have the details for hoisting the flag at reveille, and lowering it at retreat, and for firing the reveille and retreatgun, made in time for the proper performance of these duties. (SeePars. 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837). He will see that the flags are kept inthe best condition possible, and that they are never handled except inthe proper performance of duty. (65) =1628. = He may permit members of the guard while at the guardhouse toremove their headdress, overcoats, and gloves; if they leave theguardhouse for any purpose whatever he will require that they beproperly equipped and armed according to the character of the servicein which engaged, or as directed by the commanding officer. (66) =1629. = He will enter in the guard report a report of his tour ofduty, and, on the completion of his tour, will present it to theofficer of the day. He will transmit with his report all passes turnedin at the post of the guard. (67) =1630. = Whenever a prisoner is sent to the guardhouse or guard tentfor confinement, he will cause him to be searched, and will, withoutunnecessary delay, report the case to the officer of the day. (68) =1631. = Under war conditions, if anyone is to be passed out of camp atnight, he will be sent to the commander of the guard, who will havehim passed beyond the sentinels. (69) =1632. = The commander of the guard will detain at the guardhouse allsuspicious characters or parties attempting to pass a sentinel's postwithout authority, reporting his action to the officer of the day, towhom persons so arrested will be sent, if necessary. (70) =1633. = He will inspect the guard rooms and cells, and the irons ofsuch prisoners as may be ironed, at least once during his tour, and atsuch other times as he may deem necessary. (71) =1634. = He will cause the corporals of the old and new reliefs toverify together, immediately before each relief goes on post, thenumber of prisoners who should then properly be at the guardhouse. (72) =1635. = He will see that the sentences of prisoners under his chargeare executed strictly in accordance with the action of the reviewingauthority. (73) =1636. = When no special prisoner guard has been detailed (Par. 1798), he will, as far as practicable, assign as guards over working partiesof prisoners sentinels from posts guarded at night only. (74) =1637. = The commander of the guard will inspect all meals sent to theguardhouse and see that the quantity and quality of food are inaccordance with regulations. (75) =1638. = At guard mounting he will report to the old officer of the dayall cases of prisoners whose terms of sentence expire on that day, andalso all cases of prisoners concerning whom no statement of chargeshas been received. (76) =1639. = The commander of the guard is responsible for the security ofthe prisoners under the charge of his guard; he becomes responsiblefor them after their number has been verified and they have beenturned over to the custody of his guard by the old guard or by theprisoner guard or overseers. (77) =1640. = The prisoners will be verified and turned over to the newguard without parading them, unless the commanding officer or theofficer of the day shall direct otherwise. (78) =1641. = To receive the prisoners at the guardhouse when they have beenparaded and after they have been verified by the officers of the day, the commander of the new guard directs his sergeant to form his guardwith an interval, and commands: =1. Prisoners, 2. Right, 3. FACE, 4. Forward, 5. MARCH. = The prisoners having arrived opposite the intervalin the new guard, he commands: =1. Prisoners, 2. HALT, 3. Left, 4. FACE, 5. Right (or left), 6. DRESS, 7. FRONT. = The prisoners dress on the line of the new guard. (79) Sergeant of the Guard =1642. = The senior noncommissioned officer of the guard always acts assergeant of the guard, and if there be no officer of the guard, willperform the duties prescribed for the commander of the guard. (80) =1643. = The sergeant of the guard has general supervision over theother noncommissioned officers and the musicians and privates of theguard, and must be thoroughly familiar with all of their orders andduties. (81) =1644. = He is directly responsible for the property under charge ofthe guard, and will see that it is properly cared for. He will makelists of articles taken out by working parties, and see that all sucharticles are duly returned. If they are not, he will immediatelyreport the fact to the commander of the guard. (82) =1645. = Immediately after guard mounting he will prepare duplicatelists of the names of all noncommissioned officers, musicians, andprivates of the guard, showing the relief and post or duties of each. One list will be handed as soon as possible to the commander of theguard; the other will be retained by the sergeant. (83) =1646. = He will see that all reliefs are turned out at the propertime, and that the corporals thoroughly understand, and are prompt andefficient in, the discharge of their duties. (84) =1647. = During the temporary absence from the guardhouse of thesergeant of the guard, the next in rank of the noncommissionedofficers will perform his duties. (85) =1648. = Should the corporal whose relief is on post be called awayfrom the guardhouse, the sergeant of the guard will designate anoncommissioned officer to take the corporal's place until his return. (86) =1649. = The sergeant of the guard is responsible at all times for theproper police of the guardhouse or guard tent, including the groundabout them and the prison cells. (87) =1650. = At "=first sergeant's call=" he will proceed to the adjutant'soffice and obtain the guard report book. (88) =1651. = When the national or regimental colors are taken from thestacks of the color line, the color bearer and guard, or the sergeantof the guard, unarmed, and two armed privates as a guard, will escortthe colors to the colonel's quarters, as prescribed for the colorguard in the drill regulations of the arm of the service to which theguard belongs. (89) =1652. = He will report to the commander of the guard any suspicious orunusual occurrence that comes under his notice, will warn him of theapproach of any armed body, and will send to him all persons arrestedby the guard. (90) =1653. = When the guard is turned out, its formation will be asfollows: The senior noncommissioned officer, if commander of theguard, is on the right of the right guide; if not commander of theguard, he is in the line of file closers, in rear of the right four ofthe guard; the next in rank is right guide; the next left guide; theothers in the line of file closers, usually, each in rear of hisrelief; the field music, with its left three paces to the right of theright guide. The reliefs form in the same order as when the guard wasfirst divided, except that if the guard consists of dismounted cavalryand infantry, the cavalry forms on the left. (91) =1654. = The sergeant forms the guard, calls the roll, and, if not incommand of the guard, reports to the commander of the guard asprescribed in drill regulations for a first sergeant forming a troopor company; the guard is not divided into platoons or sections, and, except when the whole guard is formed prior to marching off, fours arenot counted. (92) =1655. = The sergeant reports as follows: "=Sir, all present oraccounted for=, " or "=Sir, (so-and-so) is absent="; or if the rollcall has been omitted, "=Sir, the guard, is formed=. " Only men absentwithout proper authority are reported absent. He then takes his place, without command. (93) =1656. = At night, the roll may be called by reliefs and numbersinstead of names; thus, the first relief being on post: =Secondrelief; No. 1; No. 2=, etc. ; =Third relief, Corporal; No. 1=, etc. (94) =1657. = Calling the roll will be dispensed with in forming the guardwhen it is turned out as a compliment, on the approach of an armedbody, or in any sudden emergency; but in such cases the roll may becalled before dismissing the guard. If the guard be turned out for anofficer entitled to inspect it, the roll will, unless he directsotherwise, always be called before a report is made. (95) =1658. = The sergeant of the guard has direct charge of the prisoners, except during such time as they may be under the charge of theprisoner guard or overseers, and is responsible to the commander ofthe guard for their security. (96) =1659. = He will carry the keys of the guardroom and cells, and willnot suffer them to leave his personal possession while he is at theguardhouse, except as hereinafter provided. (Par. 1661. ) Should heleave the guardhouse for any purpose, he will turn the keys over tothe noncommissioned officer who takes his place. (Par. 1647. ) (97) =1660. = He will count the knives, forks, etc. , given to the prisonerswith their food, and see that none of these articles remain in theirpossession. He will see that no forbidden articles of any kind areconveyed to the prisoners. (98) =1661. = Prisoners when paraded with the guard, are placed in line inits center. The sergeant, immediately before forming the guard, willturn over his keys to the noncommissioned officer at the guardhouse. Having formed the guard, he will divide it into two nearly equalparts. Indicating the point of division with his hand, he commands: =1. Right (or left), 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH, 5. Guard, 6. HALT, 7. Left (or right), 8. FACE. = If the first command be =right face=, the right half of the guard onlywill execute the movements: if =left face=, the left half only willexecute them. The command =halt= is given when sufficient interval isobtained to admit the prisoners. The doors of the guardroom and cellsare then opened by the noncommissioned officer having the keys. Theprisoners will file out under the supervision of the sergeant, thenoncommissioned officer, and sentinel on duty at the guardhouse, andsuch other sentinels as may be necessary; they will form in line inthe interval between the two parts of the guard. (99) =1662. = To return the prisoners to the guardroom and cells, thesergeant commands: =1. Prisoners, 2. Right (or left), 3. FACE, 4. Column right (or left), 5. MARCH. = The prisoners, under the same supervision as before, return to theirproper rooms or cells. (100) =1663. = To close the guard, the sergeant commands: =1. Left (or right), 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH, 5. Guard, 6. HALT, 7. Right (or left), 8. FACE. = The left or right half only of the guard as indicated, executes themovement. (101) =1664. = If there be but few prisoners, the sergeant may indicate thepoint of division as above, and form the necessary interval by thecommands: =1. Right (or left) step, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT=, and close theintervals by the commands: =1. Left (or right) step, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT. = (102) =1665. = If sentinels are numerous, reliefs may, at the discretion ofthe commanding officer, be posted in detachments, and sergeants, aswell as corporals, required to relieve and post them. (103) Corporal of the Guard =1666. = A corporal of the guard receives and obeys orders from nonebut noncommissioned officers of the guard senior to himself, theofficers of the guard, the officer of the day, and the commandingofficer. (104) =1667. = It is the duty of the corporal of the guard to post andrelieve sentinels, and to instruct the members of his relief in theirorders and duties. (105) =1668. = Immediately after the division of the guard into reliefs thecorporals will assign the members of their respective reliefs to postsby number, and a soldier so assigned to his post will not be changedto another during the same tour of guard duty, unless by direction ofthe commander of the guard or higher authority. Usually, experiencedsoldiers are placed over the arms of the guard, and at remote andresponsible posts. (106) =1669. = Each corporal will then make a list of the members of hisrelief including himself. This list will contain the number of therelief, the name, the company, and the regiment of every memberthereof, and the post to which each is assigned. The list will be madein duplicate, one copy to be given to the sergeant of the guard assoon as completed, the other to be retained by the corporal. (107) =1670. = When directed by the commander of the guard, the corporal ofthe first relief forms his relief, and then commands: =CALL OFF. = Commencing on the right, the men call off alternately =rear= and=front= rank, "=one=, " "=two=, " "=three=, " "=four=, " and so on; if insingle rank, they call off from right to left. The corporal thencommands: =1. Right, 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. = The corporal marches on the left, and near the rear file, in order toobserve the march. The corporal of the old guard marches on the rightof the leading file, and takes command when the last one of the oldsentinels is relieved, changing places with the corporal of the newguard. (108) =1671. = When the relief arrives at six paces from a sentinel (See Par. 1729), the corporal halts it and commands, according to the number ofthe post: =No. (--). = Both sentinels execute port arms or saber; the new sentinel approachesthe old, halting about one pace from him. (See Par. 1733. ) (109) =1672. = The corporals advance and place themselves, facing each other, a little in advance of the new sentinel, the old corporal on hisright, the new corporal on his left, both at a right shoulder, andobserve that the old sentinel transmits correctly his instructions. The following diagram will illustrate the positions taken: [Illustration] R is the relief; A, the new corporal; B, the old; C, the new sentinel:D, the old. (110) =1673. = The instructions relative to the post having beencommunicated, the new corporal commands, =Post=; both sentinels thenresume the right shoulder, face toward the new corporal and step backso as to allow the relief to pass in front of them. The new corporalthen commands, =1. Forward, 2. MARCH=; the old sentinel takes hisplace in rear of the relief as it passes him, his piece in the sameposition as those of the relief. The new sentinel stands fast at aright shoulder until the relief has passed six paces beyond him, whenhe walks his post. The corporals take their places as the reliefpasses them. (111) =1674. = Mounted sentinels are posted and relieved in accordance withthe same principles. (112) =1675. = On the return of the old relief, the corporal of the new guardfalls out when the relief halts; the corporal of the old guard formshis relief on the left of the old guard, salutes, and reports to thecommander of his guard: "=Sir, the relief is present="; or "=Sir, (soand so) is absent=, " and takes his place in the guard. (113) =1676. = To post a relief other than that which is posted when the oldguard is relieved, its corporal commands: =1. (Such) relief, 2. FALL IN=; and if arms are stacked, they aretaken at the proper commands. The relief is formed facing to the front, with arms at an =order=; themen place themselves according to the numbers of their respectiveposts, viz. , =two=, =four=, =six=, and so on, in the =front rank=, and=one=, =three=, =five=, and so on, in the =rear rank=. The corporal, standing about two paces in front of the center of his relief, thencommands: =Call off. = The men call off as prescribed. The corporal then commands: =1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Order, 4. ARMS=; faces the commander of theguard, executes the rifle salute, reports: "=Sir, the relief ispresent=, " or "=Sir, (so and so) is absent="; he then takes his placeon the right at order arms. (114) =1677. = When the commander of the guard directs the corporal: "=Postyour relief=, " the corporal salutes and posts his relief as prescribed(Pars. 108 to 111); the corporal of the relief on post does not gowith the new relief, except when necessary to show the way. (115) =1678. = To dismiss the old relief, it is halted and faced to the frontat the guardhouse by the corporal of the new relief, who then fallsout; the corporal of the old relief then steps in front of the reliefand dismisses it by the proper commands. (116) =1679. = Should the pieces have been loaded before the relief wasposted, the corporal will, before dismissing the relief, see that nocartridges are left in the chambers or magazines. The same ruleapplies to sentinels over prisoners. (117) =1680. = Each corporal will thoroughly acquaint himself with all thespecial orders of every sentinel on his relief, and see that eachunderstands and correctly transmits such orders =in detail= to hissuccessor. (118) =1681. = There should be at least one noncommissioned officerconstantly on the alert at the guardhouse, usually the corporal whoserelief is on post. This noncommissioned officer takes post near theentrance of the guardhouse, and does not fall in with the guard whenit is formed. He will have his rifle constantly with him. (119) =1682. = Whenever it becomes necessary for the corporal to leave hispost near the entrance of the guardhouse, he will notify the sergeantof the guard, who will at once take his place, or designate anothernoncommissioned officer to do so. (120) =1683. = He will see that no person enters the guardhouse, or guardtent, or crosses the posts of the sentinels there posted withoutproper authority. (121) =1684. = Should any sentinel call for the corporal of the guard, thecorporal will, in every case, at once and quickly proceed to suchsentinel. He will notify the sergeant of the guard before leaving theguardhouse. (122) =1685. = He will at once report to the commander of the guard anyviolation of regulations or any unusual occurrence which is reportedto him by a sentinel, or which comes to his notice in any other way. (123) =1686. = Should a sentinel call: "=The Guard=, " the corporal willpromptly notify the commander of the guard. (124) =1687. = Should a sentinel call: "=Relief=, " the corporal will at onceproceed to the post of such sentinel, taking with him the man next forduty on that post. If the sentinel is relieved for a short time only, the corporal will again post him as soon as the necessity for hisrelief ceases. (125) =1688. = When the countersign is used, the corporal at the posting ofthe relief during whose tour challenging is to begin gives thecountersign to the members of the relief, excepting those posted atthe guardhouse. (126) =1689. = He will wake the corporal whose relief is next on post in timefor the latter to verify the prisoners, form his relief, and post itat the proper hour. (127) =1690. = Should the guard be turned out, each corporal will call hisown relief, and cause its members to fall in promptly. (128) =1691. = Tents or bunks in the same vicinity will be designated for thereliefs so that all the members of each relief may, if necessary, befound and turned out by the corporal in the least time and with theleast confusion. (129) =1692. = When challenged by a sentinel while posting his relief, thecorporal commands: =1. Relief, 2. HALT=; to the sentinel's challengehe answers "=Relief=, " and at the order of the sentinel he advancesalone to give the countersign, or to be recognized. When the sentinelsays, "=Advance relief=, " the corporal commands: =1. Forward, 2. MARCH. = If to be relieved, the sentinel is then relieved as prescribed. (130) =1693. = Between retreat and reveille, the corporal of the guard willchallenge all suspicious looking persons or parties he may observe, first halting his patrol or relief, if either be with him. He willadvance them in the same manner that sentinels on post advance likeparties (Pars. 1751 to 1757), but if the route of a patrol is on acontinuous chain of sentinels, he should not challenge persons comingnear him unless he has reason to believe that they have eluded thevigilance of sentinels. (131) =1694. = Between retreat and reveille, whenever so ordered by anofficer entitled to inspect the guard, the corporal will call: "=Turnout the guard=, " announcing the title of the officer, and then, if nototherwise ordered he will salute and return to his post. (132) =1695. = As a general rule he will advance parties approaching theguard at night in the same manner that sentinels on post advance likeparties. Thus, the sentinel at the guardhouse challenges and repeatsthe answer to the corporal, as prescribed hereafter (Par. 1760); thecorporal, advancing at "=port arms=, " says: "=Advance (so and so) withthe countersign=, " or "=to be recognized=, " if there be no countersignused; the countersign being correctly given, or the party being dulyrecognized, the corporal says: "=Advance (so and so)="; repeating theanswer to the challenge of the sentinel. (133) =1696. = When officers of different rank approach the guardhouse fromdifferent directions at the same time, the senior will be advancedfirst, and will not be made to wait for his junior. (134) =1697. = Out of ranks and under arms, the corporal salutes with therifle salute. He will salute all officers whether by day or night. (135) =1698. = The corporal will examine parties halted and detained bysentinels, and if he has reason to believe the parties have noauthority to cross sentinel's posts, will conduct them to thecommander of the guard. (136) =1699. = The corporal of the guard will arrest all suspicious lookingcharacters prowling about the post or camp, all persons of adisorderly character disturbing the peace, and all persons taken inthe act of committing crime against the Government on a militaryreservation or post. All persons arrested by corporals of the guard, or by sentinels, will at once be conducted to the commander of theguard by the corporal. (137) Musicians of the Guard =1700. = The musicians of the guard will sound call as prescribed bythe commanding officer. (138) =1701. = Should the guard be turned out for national or regimentalcolors or standards, uncased, the field music of the guard will, whenthe guard present arms, sound, "=To the color=" or "=To thestandard="; or, if for any person entitled thereto, the march, flourishes, or ruffles, prescribed in paragraphs 375, 376, and 377, A. R. (139) Orderlies and Color Sentinels =1702. = When so directed by the commanding officer, the officer whoinspects the guard at guard mounting will select from the members ofthe new guard an orderly for the commanding officer and such number ofother orderlies and color sentinels as may be required. (140) For these positions the soldiers will be chosen who are most correctin the performance of duty and in military bearing, neatest in personand clothing, and whose arms and accouterments are in the bestcondition. Clothing, arms, and equipments must conform to regulations. If there is any doubt as to the relative qualifications of two or moresoldiers, the inspecting officer will cause them to fall out at theguardhouse and to form in line in single rank. He will then, bytesting them in drill regulations, select the most proficient. Thecommander of the guard will be notified of the selection. (141) =1703. = When directed by the commander of the guard to fall out andreport, an orderly will give his name, company, and regiment to thesergeant of the guard, and, leaving his rifle in the arm rack in hiscompany quarters, will proceed at once to the officer to whom he isassigned, reporting: "=Sir, Private ----, Company ----, reports asorderly. =" (142) =1704. = If the orderly selected be a cavalryman, he will leave hisrifle in the arm rack of his troop quarters, and report with his belton, but without side arms unless specially otherwise ordered. (143) =1705. = Orderlies, while on duty as such, are subject only to theorders of the commanding officer and of the officers to whom they areordered to report. (144) =1706. = When an orderly is ordered to carry a message, he will becareful to deliver it exactly as it was given to him. (145) =1707. = His tour of duty ends when he is relieved by the orderlyselected from the guard relieving his own. (146) =1708. = Orderlies are members of the guard, and their name, company, and regiment are entered on the guard report and lists of the guard. (147) =1709. = If a color line is established, sufficient sentinels areplaced on the color line to guard the colors and stacks. (148) =1710. = Color sentinels are posted only so long as the stacks areformed. The commander of the guard will divide the time equally amongthem. (149) =1711. = When stacks are broken, the color sentinels may be permittedto return to their respective companies. They are required to reportin person to the commander of the guard at reveille and retreat. Theywill fall in with the guard, under arms, at guard mounting. (150) =1712. = Color sentinels are not placed on the regular reliefs, nor aretheir posts numbered. In calling for the corporal of the guard, theycall: "=Corporal of the guard. Color line. =" (151) =1713. = Officers or enlisted men passing the uncased colors willrender the prescribed salute. If the colors are on the stacks, thesalute will be made on crossing the color line or on passing thecolors. (152) =1714. = A sentinel placed over the colors will not permit them to bemoved, except in the presence of an armed escort. Unless otherwiseordered by the commanding officer, he will allow no one to touch thembut the color bearer. He will not permit any soldier to take arms from the stacks, or totouch them, except by order of an officer or noncommissioned officerof the guard. If any person passing the colors or crossing the color line fails tosalute the colors, the sentinel will caution him to do so, and if thecaution be not heeded he will call the corporal of the guard andreport the facts. (153) Privates of the Guard =1715. = Privates are assigned to reliefs by the commander of theguard, and to posts, usually, by the corporal of their relief. Theywill not change from one relief or post to another during the sametour of guard duty unless by proper authority. (154) Orders for Sentinels =1716. = Orders for sentinels are of two classes: General orders andspecial orders. General orders apply to all sentinels. Special ordersrelate to particular posts and duties. (155) =1717. = Sentinels will be required to memorize the following: My general orders are: =1. To take charge of this post and all Government property in view. = =2. To walk my post in a military manner, keeping always on the alertand observing everything that takes place within sight or hearing. = =3. To report all violations of orders I am instructed to enforce. = =4. To repeat all calls from posts more distant from the guardhousethan my own. = =5. To quit my post only when properly relieved. = =6. To receive, obey, and pass on to the sentinel who relieves me allorders from the commanding officer, officer of the day, and officersand noncommissioned officers of the guard only. = =7. To talk to no one except in line of duty. = =8. In case of fire or disorder to give the alarm. = =9. To allow no one to commit a nuisance on or near my post. = =10. In any case not covered by instructions to call the corporal ofthe guard. = =11. To salute all officers, and all colors and standards not cased. = =12. To be especially watchful at night, and, during the time forchallenging, to challenge all persons on or near my post, and to allowno one to pass without proper authority. = (156) Regulations Relating to the General Orders for Sentinels =1718. = No. 1: =To take charge of this post and all Governmentproperty in view. = All persons, of whatever rank in the service, are required to observerespect toward sentinels and members of the guard when such are in theperformance of their duties. (157) =1719. = A sentinel will at once report to the corporal of the guardevery unusual or suspicious occurrence noted. (158) =1720. = He will arrest suspicious persons prowling about the post orcamp at any time, all parties to a disorder occurring on or near hispost, and all, except authorized persons, who attempt to enter thecamp at night, and will turn over to the corporal of the guard allpersons arrested. (159) =1721. = The number, limits, and extent of his post will invariablyconstitute part of the special orders of a sentinel on post. Thelimits of his post should be so defined as to include every place towhich he is required to go in the performance of his duties. No. 2: =To walk my post in a military manner, keeping always on thealert and observing everything that takes place within sight orhearing. = (160) =1722. = A sentinel is not required to halt and change the position ofhis rifle on arriving at the end of his post, nor to execute =to therear, march=, precisely as prescribed in the drill regulations, butfaces about while walking, in the manner most convenient to him, andat any part of his post as may be best suited to the properperformance of his duties. He carries his rifle on either shoulder, and in wet or severe weather, when not in a sentry box, may carry itat a secure. (161) =1723. = Sentinels when in sentry boxes stand at ease. Sentry boxeswill be used in wet weather only, or at other times when speciallyauthorized by the commanding officer. (162) =1724. = In very hot weather, sentinels may be authorized to stand atease on their posts, provided they can effectively discharge theirduties in this position, but they will take advantage of thisprivilege only on the express authority of the officer of the day orthe commander of the guard. (163) =1725. = A mounted sentinel may dismount occasionally and lead hishorse but will not relax his vigilance. No. 3: =To report all violations of orders I am instructed toenforce. = (164) =1726. = A sentinel will ordinarily report a violation of orders whenhe is inspected or relieved, but if the case be urgent he will callthe corporal of the guard, and also, if necessary, will arrest theoffender. No. 4: =To repeat all calls from posts more distant from theguardhouse than my own. = (165) =1727. = To call the corporal, or the guard, for any purpose other thanrelief, fire, or disorder (Pars. 1728 and 1734), a sentinel will call, "=Corporal of the guard, No. (--)=, " adding the number of his post. Inno case will any sentinel call, "=Never mind the corporal="; nor willthe corporal heed such call if given. No. 5: =To quit my post only when properly relieved. = (166) =1728. = If relief becomes necessary, by reason of sickness or othercause, a sentinel will call, "=Corporal of the guard, No. (--), Relief=, " giving the number of his post. (167) =1729. = Whenever a sentinel is to be relieved, he will halt, and witharms at a right shoulder, will face toward the relief when it isthirty paces from him. He will come to a port arms with the newsentinel, and in a low tone will transmit to him all the specialorders relating to the post, and any other information which willassist him to better perform his duties. No. 6: =To receive, obey, and pass on to the sentinel who relieves me, all orders from the commanding officer, officer of the day, andofficers and noncommissioned officers of the guard only. = (168) =1730. = During this tour of duty a soldier is subject to the orders ofthe commanding officer, officer of the day, and officers andnoncommissioned officers of the guard only; but any officer iscompetent to investigate apparent violations of regulations by membersof the guard. (169) =1731. = A sentinel will quit his piece on an explicit order from anyperson from whom he lawfully receives orders while on post; under nocircumstances will he yield it to any other person. Unless necessitytherefor exists, no person will require a sentinel to quit his piece, even to allow it to be inspected. (170) =1732. = A sentinel will not divulge the countersign (Pars. 1769 to1777) to anyone except the sentinel who relieves him, or to a personfrom whom he properly receives orders, on such person's verbal ordergiven personally. Privates of the guard will not use the countersignexcept in the performance of their duties while posted as sentinels. No. 7: =To talk to no one except in line of duty. = (171) =1733. = When calling for any purpose, challenging, or holdingcommunication with any person, a dismounted sentinel, armed with arifle or saber, will take the position of "port" arms or saber. Atnight a dismounted sentinel, armed with a pistol, takes the positionof raise pistol in challenging or holding communication. A mountedsentinel does not ordinarily draw his weapon in the daytime whenchallenging or holding conversation; but if drawn, he holds it atadvance rifle, raise pistol, or port saber, according as he is armedwith a rifle, pistol, or saber. At night, in challenging and holdingconversation, his weapon is drawn and held as just prescribed, depending on whether he is armed with a rifle, pistol, or saber. No. 8: =In case of fire or disorder to give the alarm. = (172) =1734. = In case of fire, a sentinel will call, "=Fire No. (--)=, "adding the number of his post; if possible, he will extinguish thefire himself. In case of disorder, he will call: "=The Guard, No. (--)=, " adding the number of his post. If the danger be great, hewill, in either case, discharge his piece before calling. No. 11: =To salute all officers and all colors and standards notcased. = (173) =1735. = When not engaged in the performance of a specific duty, theproper execution of which would prevent it, a member of the guard willsalute all officers who pass him. This rule applies at all hours ofthe day or night, except in the case of mounted sentinels armed with arifle or pistol, or dismounted sentinels armed with a pistol, afterchallenging. (See Par. 1742. ) (174) =1736. = Sentinels will salute as follows: A dismounted sentinel armedwith a rifle or saber, salutes by presenting arms; if otherwise armed, he salutes with the right hand. A mounted sentinel, if armed with a saber and the saber be drawn, salutes by presenting saber; otherwise he salutes in all cases withthe right hand. (175) =1737. = To salute, a dismounted sentinel, with piece at a rightshoulder or saber at a carry, halts and faces toward the person to besaluted when the latter arrives within thirty paces. The limit within which individuals and insignia of rank can be readilyrecognized is assumed to be about 30 paces, and, therefore, at thisdistance cognizance is taken of the person or party to be saluted. (176) =1738. = The salute is rendered at 6 paces; if the person to be saluteddoes not arrive within that distance, then when he is nearest. (177) =1739. = A sentinel in a sentry box, armed with a rifle, stands atattention in the doorway on the approach of a person or party entitledto salute, and salutes by presenting arms according to the forgoingrules. If armed with a saber, he stands at a carry and salutes as before. (178) =1740. = A mounted sentinel on a regular post halts, faces, and salutesin accordance with the foregoing rules. If doing patrol duty, hesalutes, but does not halt unless spoken to. (179) =1741. = Sentinels salute, in accordance with the foregoing rules, allpersons and parties entitled to compliments from the guard (Pars. 1787, and 1788): officers of the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps;military and naval officers of foreign powers; officers of volunteers, and militia officers when in uniform. (180) =1742. = A sentinel salutes as just prescribed when an officer comes onhis post; if the officer holds communication with the sentinel, thesentinel again salutes when the officer leaves him. During the hours when challenging is prescribed, the first salute isgiven as soon as the officer has been duly recognized and advanced. Amounted sentinel armed with a rifle or pistol, or a dismountedsentinel armed with a pistol, does not salute after challenging. He stands at advance rifle or raise pistol until the officer passes. (181) =1743. = In case of the approach of an armed party of the guard, thesentinel will halt when it is about 30 paces from him, facing towardthe party with his piece at the right shoulder. If not himselfrelieved, he will, as the party passes, place himself so that theparty will pass in front of him; he resumes walking his post when theparty has reached 6 paces beyond him. (182) An officer is entitled to the compliments prescribed, whether inuniform or not. (183) =1744. = A sentinel in communication with an officer will not interruptthe conversation to salute. In the case of seniors the officer willsalute, whereupon the sentinel will salute. (184) =1745. = When the flag is being lowered at retreat, a sentinel on postand in view of the flag will face the flag, and, at the first note ofthe "Star Spangled Banner" or to the color will come to a presentarms. At the sounding of the last note he will resume walking hispost. No. 12: =To be especially watchful at night and during the time forchallenging, to challenge all persons on or near my post, and to allowno one to pass without proper authority. = (185) =1746. = During challenging hours, if a sentinel sees any person orparty on or near his post, he will advance rapidly along his posttoward such person or party and when within about 30 yards willchallenge sharply, "=HALT. Who is there?=" He will place himself inthe best possible position to receive or, if necessary, to arrest theperson or party. (186) =1747. = In case a mounted party be challenged, the sentinel will call, "=HALT. DISMOUNT. Who is there?=" (187) =1748. = The sentinel will permit only one of any party to approach himfor the purpose of giving the countersign (Pars. 1769 to 1777), or ifno countersign be used, of being duly recognized. When this is donethe whole party is advanced, i. E. , allowed to pass. (188) =1749. = In all cases the sentinel must satisfy himself beyond areasonable doubt that the parties are what they represent themselvesto be and have a right to pass. If he is not satisfied, he must causethem to stand and call the corporal of the guard. So, likewise, if hehave no authority to pass persons with the countersign, or when theparty has not the countersign, or gives an incorrect one. (189) =1750. = A sentinel will not permit any person to approach so close asto prevent the proper use of his own weapon before recognizing theperson or receiving the countersign. (190) =1751. = When two or more persons approach in one party, the sentinelon receiving an answer that indicates that someone in the party hasthe countersign, will say, "=Advance one with the countersign=, " and, if the countersign is given correctly, will then say, "=Advance (Soand so)=, " repeating the answer to his challenge. Thus, if the answerbe, "=Relief (friends with the countersign, patrol, etc. )=, " thesentinel will say, "=Advance one with the countersign="; then, "=Advance relief (friends, patrol, etc. )=. " (191) =1752. = If a person having the countersign approach alone, he isadvanced to give the countersign. Thus, if the answer be, "=Friendwith the countersign (or officer of the day, or etc. )=, " the sentinelwill say, "=Advance, friend (or officer of the day, or etc. ), with thecountersign="; then, "=Advance, friend (or officer of the day, oretc. )=. " (192) =1753. = If two or more persons approach a sentinel's post fromdifferent directions at the same time, all such persons are challengedin turn and required to halt and to remain halted until advanced. The senior is first advanced, in accordance with the foregoing rules. (193) =1754. = If a party is already advanced and in communication with asentinel, the latter will challenge any other party that may approach;if the party challenged be senior to the one already on his post, thesentinel will advance the new party at once. The senior may allow himto advance any or all of the other parties; otherwise, the sentinelwill not advance any of them until the senior leaves him. He will thenadvance the senior only of the remaining parties, and so on. (194) =1755. = The following order of rank will govern a sentinel inadvancing different persons or parties approaching his post:Commanding officer, officer of the day, officer of the guard, officers, patrols, reliefs, noncommissioned officers of the guard inorder of rank, friends. (195) =1756. = A sentinel will never allow himself to be surprised, norpermit two parties to advance upon him at the same time. (196) =1757. = If no countersign be used, the rules for challenging are thesame. The rules for advancing parties are modified only as follows:Instead of saying "=Advance (so and so) with the countersign=, " thesentinel will say, "=Advance (so and so) to be recognized=. " Uponrecognition he will say, "=Advance (so and so)=. " (197) =1758. = Answers to a sentinel's challenge intended to confuse ormislead him are prohibited, but the use of such an answer as "=Friendswith the countersign=, " is not to be understood as misleading, but asthe usual answer made by officers, patrols, etc. , when the purpose oftheir visit makes it desirable that their official capacity should notbe announced. (198) Special Orders For Sentinels at the Post of the Guard =1759. = Sentinels posted at the guard will be required to memorize thefollowing: =Between reveille and retreat to turn out the guard for all personsdesignated by the commanding officer, for all colors or standards notcased, and in time of war for all armed parties approaching my post, except troops at drill and reliefs and detachments of the guard. = =At night, after challenging any person or party, to advance no onebut call the corporal of the guard, repeating the answer to thechallenge. = (199) =1760. = After receiving an answer to his challenge, the sentinelcalls, "=Corporal of the guard (So and so)=, " repeating the answer tothe challenge. He does not in such cases repeat the number of his post. (200) =1761. = He remains in the position assumed in challenging until thecorporal has recognized or advanced the person or party challenged, when he resumes walking his post, or, if the person or party beentitled thereto, he salutes and, as soon as the salute has beenacknowledged, resumes walking his post. (201) =1762. = The sentinel at the post of the guard will be notified bydirection of the commanding officer of the presence in camp orgarrison of persons entitled to the compliment (Par. 1784. ) (202) =1763. = The following examples illustrate the manner in which thesentinel at the post of the guard will turn out the guard upon theapproach of persons or parties entitled to the compliment (Pars. 1784, 1787, and 1788): "=Turn out the guard, Commanding Officer="; "=Turnout the guard, Governor of a Territory="; "=Turn out the guard, national colors="; "=Turn out the guard, armed party="; etc. At the approach of the new guard at guard mounting the sentinel willcall "=Turn out the guard, armed party=. " (203) =1764. = Should the person named by the sentinel not desire the guardformed, he will salute, whereupon the sentinel will call "=Never mindthe guard=. " (204) =1765. = After having called "=Turn out the guard=, " the sentinel willnever call "=Never mind the guard=, " on the approach of an armedparty. (205) =1766. = Though the guard be already formed he will not fail to call"=Turn out the guard=, " as required in his special orders, except thatthe guard will not be turned out for any person while his senior is ator coming to the post of the guard. (206) =1767. = The sentinels at the post of the guard will warn the commanderof the approach of any armed body and of the presence in the vicinityof all suspicious or disorderly persons. (207) =1768. = In case of fire or disorder in sight or hearing, the sentinelat the guardhouse will call the corporal of the guard and report thefacts to him. (208) Countersigns and Paroles =1769. Seventy-seventh Article of War. = Any person subject to militarylaw makes known the parole or countersign to any person not entitledto receive it according to the rules and discipline of war, or gives aparole or countersign different from that which he received, shall, ifthe offense be committed in time of war, suffer death or such otherpunishment as a court-martial may direct. (See Par. 1732. ) (209) =1770. = The =countersign= is a word given daily from the principalheadquarters of a command to aid guards and sentinels in identifyingpersons who may be authorized to pass at night. It is given to such persons as may be authorized to pass and repasssentinels' posts during the night, and to officers, noncommissionedofficers, and sentinels of the guard. (210) =1771. = The =parole= is a word used as a check on the countersign inorder to obtain more accurate identification of persons. It isimparted only to those who are entitled to inspect guards and tocommanders of guards. The parole or countersign, or both, are sent sealed in the form of anorder to those entitled to them. (211) =1772. = When the commander of the guard demands the parole, he willadvance and receive it as the corporal receives the countersign. (SeePar. 1695. ) (212) =1773. = As the communications containing the parole and countersignmust at times be distributed by many orderlies, the parole intrustedto many officers, and the countersign and parole to many officers andsentinels, and as both the countersign and parole must, for largecommands, be prepared several days in advance, there is always dangerof their being lost or becoming known to persons who would makeimproper use of them; moreover, a sentinel is too apt to take it forgranted that any person who gives the right countersign is what herepresents himself to be; hence for outpost duty there is greatersecurity in omitting the use of the countersign and parole, or inusing them with great caution. The chief reliance should be uponpersonal recognition or identification of all persons claimingauthority to pass. Persons whose sole means of identification is the countersign, orconcerning whose authority to pass there is a reasonable doubt, shouldnot be allowed to pass without the authority of the corporal of theguard after proper investigation; the corporal will take to his nextsuperior any person about whom he is not competent to decide. (213) =1774. = The =countersign= is usually the name of a battle; the=parole=, that of a general or other distinguished person. (214) =1775. = When they can not be communicated daily, a series of words forsome days in advance may be sent to posts or detachments that are touse the same parole or countersign as the main body. (215) =1776. = If the countersign be lost, or if a member of the guard desertwith it, the commander on the spot will substitute another for it andreport the case at once to headquarters. (216) =1777. = In addition to the countersign, use may be made ofpreconcerted signals, such as striking the rifle with the hand orstriking the hands together a certain number of times, as agreed upon. Such signals may be used only by guards that occupy exposed points. They are used before the countersign is given, and must not becommunicated to anyone not entitled to know the countersign. Their useis intended to prevent the surprise of a sentinel. In the daytime signals such as raising a cap or a handkerchief in aprearranged manner may be used by sentinels to communicate with theguard or with each other. (217) Guard Patrols =1778. = A guard patrol consists of one or more men detailed for theperformance of some special service connected with guard duty. (218) =1779. = If the patrol be required to go beyond the chain of sentinels, the officer or noncommissioned officer in charge will be furnishedwith the countersign, and the outposts and sentinels warned. (219) =1780. = If challenged by a sentinel, the patrol is halted by itscommander, and the noncommissioned officer accompanying it advancesalone and gives the countersign. (220) Watchmen =1781. = Enlisted men may be detailed as watchmen or as overseers overprisoners, and as such will receive their orders and perform theirduties as the commanding officer may direct. (221) Compliments From Guards =1782. = The compliment from a guard consists in the guard turning outand presenting arms. (See Par. 1612. ) No compliments will be paidbetween retreat and reveille except as provided in paragraphs 361 and362, nor will any person other than those named in paragraph 224receive the compliment. (222) =1783. = Though a guard does not turn out between retreat and reveilleas a matter of compliment, it may be turned out for inspection at anytime by a person entitled to inspect it. (223) =1784. = Between reveille and retreat the following persons areentitled to the compliment: The President, sovereign or chiefmagistrate of a foreign country, and members of a royal family;Vice-President; President and President pro tempore of the Senate;American and foreign ambassadors; members of the Cabinet; ChiefJustice; Speaker of the House of Representatives; committees ofCongress officially visiting a military post; governors within theirrespective States and Territories; governors general[20]; AssistantSecretary of War officially visiting a military post; all generalofficers of the Army; general officers of foreign services visiting apost; naval, marine, volunteer, and militia officers in the service ofthe United States and holding the rank of general officer; American orforeign envoys or ministers; ministers accredited to the Unitedstates: chargés d'affaires accredited to the United States; consulsgeneral accredited to the United States; commanding officer of a coastartillery district, coast defense command, post, fort or camp; officerof the day. (224) (C. M. I. G. D. , No. 1, Feb. 24, 1915. ) =1785. = The relative rank between officers of the Army and Navy is asfollows: General with admiral, lieutenant general with the viceadmiral, major general with rear admiral, brigadier general withcommodore, [21] colonel with captain, lieutenant colonel withcommander, major with lieutenant commander, captain with lieutenant, first lieutenant with lieutenant (junior grade), second lieutenantwith ensign. (A. R. 12. ) (225) =1786. = Sentinels will not be required to memorize paragraph 1784, andexcept in the cases of general officers of the Army, the commandingofficer, and the officer of the day, they will be advised in each caseof the presence in camp or garrison of persons entitled to thecompliment. (226) =1787. = Guards will turn out and present arms when the national orregimental colors or standards, not cased, are carried past by a guardor an armed party. This rule also applies when the party carrying thecolors is at drill. If the drill is conducted in the vicinity of theguardhouse, the guard will be turned out when the colors first pass, and not thereafter. (227) =1788. = In case the remains of a deceased officer or soldier arecarried past, the guard will turn out and present arms. (228) =1789. = In time of war all guards will turn out under arms when armedparties, except troops at drill and reliefs or detachments of theguard, approach their post. (See Par. 1615. ) (229) =1790. = The commander of the guard will be notified of the presence incamp or garrison of all persons entitled to the compliment, exceptgeneral officers of the Army, the commanding officer, and the officerof the day. Members of the guard will salute all persons entitled tothe compliment and all officers in the military or naval service offoreign powers, officers of the Army, Navy and Marine Corps, officersof volunteers, and officers of militia when in uniform. (230) General Rules Concerning Guard Duty =1791. Eighty-sixth Article of War. = Any sentinel who is found drunkor sleeping upon his post, or who leaves it before he is regularlyrelieved, shall, if the offense be committed in time of war, sufferdeath or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct; and ifthe offense be committed in time of peace, he shall suffer anypunishment, except death, that a court-martial may direct. (232) =1792. = All material instructions given to a member of the guard by anofficer having authority will be promptly communicated to thecommander of the guard by the officer giving them. (233) =1793. = Should the guard be formed, soldiers will fall in ranks underarms. At roll call, each man, as his name or number and relief arecalled, will answer "Here, " and come to an =order arms=. (234) =1794. = Whenever the guard or a relief is dismissed, each member notat once required for duty will place his rifle in the arms racks, ifthey be provided, and will not remove it therefrom unless he requiresit in the performance of some duty. (235) =1795. = Without permission from the commander of the guard, members ofthe main guard, except orderlies, will not leave the immediatevicinity of the guard house. Permission to leave will not be grantedexcept in cases of necessity. (236) =1796. = Members of the main guard, except orderlies, will not removetheir accouterments or clothing without permission from the commanderof the guard. (Par. 1628. ) (237) Guarding Prisoners =1797. = The sentinel at the post of the guard has charge of theprisoners except when they have been turned over to the prisoner guardor overseers. (Par. 1798 to 1802 and 300 to 304. ) (a) =He will allow none to escape. = (b) =He will allow none to cross his post leaving the guardhouseexcept when passed by an officer or noncommissioned officer of theguard. = (c) =He will allow no one to communicate with prisoners withoutpermission from proper authority. = (d) =He will promptly report to the corporal of the guard anysuspicious noise made by the prisoners. = (e) =He will be prepared to tell whenever asked how many prisoners arein the guardhouse and how many are out at work or elsewhere. = Whenever prisoners are brought to his post returning from work orelsewhere, he will halt them and call the corporal of the guard, notifying him of the number of prisoners returning. Thus: "=Corporalof the guard, (so many) prisoners. =" He will not allow prisoners to pass into the guardhouse until thecorporal of the guard has responded to the call and ordered him to doso. (299) =1798. = Whenever practicable special guards will be detailed for theparticular duty of guarding working parties composed of such prisonersas cannot be placed under overseers. (300) =1799. = The prisoner guard and overseers will be commanded by thepolice officer; if there be no police officer, then by the officer ofthe day. (301) =1800. = The provost sergeant is sergeant of the prisoner guard andoverseers, and as such receives orders from the commanding officer andthe commander of the prisoner guard only. (302) =1801. = Details for prisoner guard are marched to the guardhouse andmounted by being inspected by the commander of the main guard, whodetermines whether all of the men are in proper condition to performtheir duties and whether their arms and equipments are in propercondition, and rejects any men found unfit. (303) =1802. = When prisoners have been turned over to the prisoner guard oroverseers, such guards or overseers are responsible for them undertheir commander, and all responsibility and control of the main guardceases until they are returned to the main guard. (Par. 1804. ) (304) =1803. = If a prisoner attempts to escape, the sentinel will call"=Halt=. " If he fails to halt when the sentinel has once repeated hiscall, and if there be no other possible means of preventing hisescape, the sentinel will fire upon him. =1804. = On approaching the post of the sentinel at the guardhouse, asentinel of the prisoner guard or an overseer in charge of prisonerswill halt them and call, "=No. 1, (so many prisoners. )=" He will notallow them to cross the post of the sentinel until so directed by theCorporal of the guard. (306) =1805. = Members of the prisoner guard and overseers placed overprisoners for work will receive specific and explicit instructionscovering the required work; they will be held strictly responsiblethat the prisoners under their charge properly and satisfactorilyperform the designated work. (307) Stable Guards =1806. = Under the head of stable guards will be included guards forcavalry stables, artillery stables and parks, mounted infantrystables, machine-gun organization stables and parks, and quartermasterstables and parks. Where the words "troop" and "cavalry" are used theywill be held to include all of these organizations. (308) =1807. = When troop stable guards are mounted they will guard thestables of the cavalry. When no stable guards are mounted, the stableswill be guarded by sentinels posted from the main guard, under thecontrol of the officer of the day. The instructions given for troop stable guard will be observed as faras applicable by the noncommissioned officers and sentinels of themain guard when in charge of the stables. (309) Troop Stable Guards =1808. = Troops stable guards will not be used except in the field, orwhen it is impracticable to guard the stables by sentinels from themain guard. (310) =1809. = Troop stable guards will be under the immediate control oftheir respective troop commanders; they will be posted in each cavalrystable, or near the picket line, and will consist of not less than onenoncommissioned officer and three privates. Stable guards are for the protection of the horses, stables, forage, equipments, and public property generally. They will in additionenforce the special regulations in regard to stables, horses, andparks. (311) =1810. = Sentinels of stable guards will be posted at the stables or atthe picket lines when the horses are kept outside. The troop stableguard may be used as a herd guard during the day time or when grazingis practicable. (312) =1811. = The troop stable guard, when authorized by the post commander, will be mounted under the supervision of the troop commander. It willbe armed, at the discretion of the troop commander, with either rifleor pistol. (313) =1812. = The tour continues for 24 hours, or until the guard isrelieved by a new guard. (314) =1813. = The employment of stable guards for police and fatigue dutiesat the stables is forbidden; but this will not prohibit them frombeing required to assist in feeding grain before reveille. (315) The troop stable guard will attend stables with the rest of the troopand groom their own horses, the sentinels being taken off post for thepurpose. (316) =1814. = Neither the noncommissioned officer nor the members of thestable guard will absent themselves from the immediate vicinity of thestables except in case of urgent necessity, and then for no longertime than is absolutely necessary. No member of the guard will leavefor any purpose without the authority of the noncommissioned officerof the guard. (317) =1815. = The noncommissioned officer and one member of the stable guardwill go for meals at the proper hour; upon their return the othermembers of the guard will be directed to go by the noncommissionedofficer. (318) =1816. = When the horses are herded each troop will furnish its ownherd guard. (319) =1817. = Smoking in the stables or their immediate vicinity isprohibited. No fire or light, other than electric light or stablelanterns, will be permitted in the stables. A special place will bedesignated for trimming, filling, and lighting lanterns. (320) Noncommissioned Officer of the Troop Stable Guard =1818. = The noncommissioned officer receives his orders from his troopcommander, to whom he will report immediately after posting his firstrelief, and when relieved will turn over all his orders to hissuccessor. He instructs his sentinels in their general and specialduties; exercises general supervision over his entire guard; exactsorder and cleanliness about the guardroom; prevents the introductionof intoxicants into the guardhouse and stables; receives, by count, from his predecessor, the animals, horse equipments, and all property(both private and public) pertaining thereto; examines, beforerelieving his predecessor, all locks, windows, and doors, and shouldany be found insecure he will report the fact to his troop commanderwhen he reports for orders. He will personally post and relieve eachsentinel, taking care to verify the property responsibility of thesentinel who comes off post, and see that the sentinel who goes onpost is aware of the property responsibility that he assumes. (321) =1819. = That the noncommissioned officer may be more thoroughlyinformed of his responsibility, =all= horses returning, except thosefrom a regular formation, will be reported to him. He will then notifythe sentinel on post, and, in the absence of the stable sergeant, willsee that the horses are promptly cared for. In case of abuse, he will promptly report to the troop commander. Should the horse be the private property of an officer, he will reportsuch abuse to the owner. (322) =1820. = The noncommissioned officer will report any unusual occurrenceduring his tour direct to his troop commander. (323) =1821. = Horses and other property for which the noncommissionedofficer is responsible will not be taken from the stables without theauthority of the post or troop commander. (324) =1822. = The noncommissioned officer must answer the sentinel's callspromptly. (325) =1823. = In case of fire, the noncommissioned officer will see that therequirements of paragraph 1831 are promptly carried out. (326) =1824. = Whenever it becomes necessary for the noncommissioned officerto leave his guard, he will designate a member of it to take chargeand assume his responsibility during his absence. (327) Sentinels of the Troop Stable Guard =1825. = The sentinel in the discharge of his duties will be governedby the regulations for sentinels of the main guard whenever they areapplicable--such as courtesies to officers, walking post in asoldierly manner, challenging, etc. ; he will not turn out the guardexcept when ordered by proper authority. (328) =1826. = The sentinel will receive orders from the commanding officer, the troop commander, and the noncommissioned officers of the stableguard only, except when the commanding officer directs the officer ofthe day to inspect the stable guard. (329) =1827. = In the field and elsewhere when directed by the commandingofficer the sentinel when posted will verify the number of horses forwhich he is responsible, and when relieved will give the number to hissuccessor. (330) =1828. = The sentinel will not permit any horse or equipments to betaken from the stables, except in the presence of the noncommissionedofficer. (331) =1829. = Should a horse get loose, the sentinel will catch him and tiehim up. If he be unable to catch the horse, the noncommissionedofficer will at once be notified. In case a horse be cast, or in anyway entangled, he will relieve him, if possible; if unable to relievehim, he will call the noncommissioned officer. Sentinels are forbiddento punish or maltreat a horse. (332) =1830. = When a horse is taken sick, the sentinel will notify thenoncommissioned officer, who in turn will call the farrier, and seethat the horse is properly attended to. (333) =1831. = In case of fire the sentinel will give the alarm by steppingoutside the stable and firing his pistol or piece repeatedly, andcalling out at the same time, "=Fire, stables, Troop (----)=. " As soon as the guard is alarmed, he will take the necessaryprecautions in opening or closing the doors so as to prevent thespreading of the fire and make it possible to remove the horses; hewill drop the chains and bars, and, with the other members of theguard, proceed to lead out the horses and secure them at the picketline or such other place as may have been previously designated. (334) =1832. = Sentinels over horses, or in charge of prisoners, receiveorders from the stable sergeant, so far as the care of the horses andthe labor of prisoners are concerned. (335) =1833. = In field artillery and machine-gun organizations, the guardfor the stables has charge of the guns, caissons, etc. , with theirammunition and stores, as well as the horses, harness, and forage. (336) The Flag =1834. = The lowering of the flag will be regulated as to be completedat the last note of "The Star Spangled Banner" or "to the color. "(338) =1835. = When practicable, a detail consisting of a noncommissionedofficer and two privates of the guard will raise or lower the flag. This detail wears side arms or, if the special equipments do notinclude side arms, then belts only. The noncommissioned officer, carrying the flag, forms the detail inline, takes his post in the center, and marches it to the staff. Theflag is then securely attached to the halyards and rapidly hoisted. The halyards are then securely fastened to the cleat on the staff andthe detail marched to the guardhouse. (344) =1836. = When the flag is to be lowered, the halyards are loosened fromthe staff and made perfectly free. At retreat the flag is lowered atthe last note of retreat. It is then neatly folded and the halyardsmade fast. The detail is then reformed and marched to the guardhouse, where the flag is turned over to the commander of the guard. The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and should alwaysbe hoisted or lowered from the leeward side of the staff, the halyardsbeing held by two persons. (345) Reveille and Retreat Gun =1837. = The morning and evening gun will be fired by a detachment ofthe guard, consisting, when practicable, of a corporal and twoprivates. The morning gun is fired at the first note of reveille, or, if marches be played before the reveille, it is fired at the beginningof the first march The retreat gun is fired at the last note ofretreat. The corporal marches the detachment to and from the piece, which isfired, sponged out, and secured under his direction. (346) Guard Mounting =1838. = Guard mounting will be formal or informal as the commandingofficer may direct. It will be held as prescribed in the drillregulations of the arm of the service to which the guard belongs; ifnone is prescribed, then as for infantry. In case the guard iscomposed wholly of mounted organizations, guard mounting may be heldmounted. (347) =1839. = When infantry and mounted troops dismounted are united forguard mounting, all details form as prescribed for infantry. (348) Formal Guard Mounting for Infantry =1840. = Formal guard mounting will ordinarily be held only in posts orcamps where a band is present. (349) =1841. = At the =assembly=, the men designated for the guard fall in ontheir company parade grounds as prescribed in paragraph 106. I. D. R. The first sergeant then verifies the detail, inspects it, replaces anyman unfit to go on guard, turns the detail over to the seniornoncommissioned officer, and retires. The band takes its place on theparade ground so that the left of its front rank shall be 12 paces tothe right of the front rank of the guard when the latter is formed. (350) =1842. = At =adjutant's call=, the adjutant, dismounted, and thesergeant-major on his left, marches to the parade ground. The adjutanthalts and takes post so as to be 12 paces in front of and facing thecenter of the guard when formed; the sergeant-major continues on, moves by the left flank, and takes post, facing to the left, 12 pacesto the left of the front rank of the band; the band plays in quick ordouble time; the details are marched to the parade ground by thesenior noncommissioned officers; the detail that arrives first ismarched to the line so that, upon halting, the breast of thefront-rank man shall be near to and opposite the left arm of thesergeant-major; the commander of the detail halts his detail, placeshimself in front of and facing the sergeant-major, at a distance equalto or a little greater than the front of his detail, and commands: =1. Right, 2. DRESS. = The detail dresses up to the line of thesergeant-major and its commander, the right front-rank man placing hisbreast against the left arm of the sergeant-major; the noncommissionedofficers take post two paces in rear of the rear rank of the detail. The detail aligned, the commander of the detail commands: =FRONT=, salutes, and then reports: "=The detail is correct=;" or "=So manysergeants, corporals, or privates are absent=;" the sergeant-majorreturns the salute with the right hand after the report is made; thecommander then passes by the right of the guard and takes post in theline of noncommissioned officers in rear of the right file or hisdetail. Should there be more than one detail, it is formed in like manner onthe left of the one preceding; the privates, noncommissioned officers, and commander of each detail dress on those of the preceding detailsin the same rank or line; each detail commander closes the rear rankto the right and fills blank files, as far as practicable, with themen from his front rank. Should the guard from a company not include a noncommissioned officer, one will be detailed to perform the duties of commander of the detail. In this case the commander of the detail, after reporting to thesergeant-major, passes around the right flank between the guard andthe band and retires. (351) =1843. = When the last detail has formed, the sergeant-major takes aside step to the right, draws sword, verifies the detail, takes posttwo paces to the right and two paces to the front of the guard, facingto the left, causes the guard to count off, completes the left squad, if necessary, as in the school of the company, and if there be morethan three squads, divides the guard into two platoons, again takespost as described above and commands: =1. Open ranks, 2. MARCH. = At the command march, the rear rank and file closers march backwardfour steps, halt, and dress to the right. The sergeant major alignsthe ranks and file closers and again, taking post as described above, commands: =FRONT=, moves parallel to the front rank until opposite thecenter, turns to the right, halts midway to the adjutant, salutes, and reports: "=Sir, the details are correct=;" or, "=Sir, (so many)sergeants, corporals, or privates are absent=;" the adjutant returnsthe salute, directs the sergeant-major: =Take your post=, and thendraws saber; the sergeant-major faces about, approaches to within twopaces of the center of the front rank, turns to the right, moves threepaces beyond the left of the front rank, turns to the left, halts onthe line of the front rank, faces about, and brings his sword to theorder. When the sergeant-major has reported, the officer of the guardtakes post, facing to the front, three paces in front of the center ofthe guard, and draws saber. The adjutant then commands: =1. Officer (or officers) andnoncommissioned officers, 2. Front and Center, 3. MARCH. = At the command =center=, the officers carry saber. At the command=march=, the officer advances and halts three paces from the adjutant, remaining at the carry; the noncommissioned officers pass by theflanks, along the front, and form in order of rank from right to left, three paces in rear of the officer, remaining at the right shoulder;if there is no officer of the guard the noncommissioned officers halton a line three paces from the adjutant; the adjutant then assigns theofficers and noncommissioned officers according to rank, as follows:=Commander of the guard, leader of first platoon, leader of secondplatoon, right guide of first platoon, left guide of second platoon, left guide of first platoon, right guide of second platoon=, and =fileclosers=, or, if the guard is not divided into platoons: =Commander ofthe guard, right guide, left guide=, and =file closers=. The adjutant then commands: =1. Officer (or officers) andnoncommissioned officers, 2. POSTS, 3. MARCH. = At the command =posts=, all, except the officer commanding the guard, face about. At the command =march=, they take the posts prescribed inthe school of the company with open ranks. The adjutant directs:=Inspect your guard, sir=; at which the officer commanding the guardfaces about, commands: =Prepare for inspection=, returns saber, andinspects the guard. During the inspection, the band plays; the adjutant returns saber, observes the general condition of the guard, and falls out any man whois unfit for guard duty or does not present a creditable appearance. Substitutes will report to the commander of the guard at theguardhouse. (352) =1844. = The adjutant, when so directed, selects orderlies and colorsentinels, as prescribed in paragraphs 140 and 141, and notifies thecommander of the guard of his selection. (353) If there be a junior officer of the guard he takes post at the sametime as the senior, facing to the front, 3 paces in front of thecenter of the first platoon; in going to the front and center hefollows and takes position on the left of the senior and is assignedas leader of the first platoon; he may be directed by the commander ofthe guard to assist in inspecting the guard. If there be no officer of the guard, the adjutant inspects the guard. A noncommissioned officer commanding the guard takes post on the rightof the right guide, when the guard is in line; and takes the post ofthe officer of the guard, when in column or passing in review. (354) =1845. = The inspection ended, the adjutant places himself about 30paces in front of and facing the center of the guard, and draws saber;the new officer of the day takes post in front of and facing theguard, about 30 paces from the adjutant; the old officer of the daytakes post 3 paces to the right of and 1 pace to the rear of the newofficer of the day; the officer of the guard takes post 3 paces infront of its center, draws saber with the adjutant and comes to theorder; thereafter he takes the same relative positions as a captain ofa company. The adjutant then commands: =1. Parade, 2. REST, 3. SOUND OFF=, andcomes to the order and parade rest. The band, playing, passes in front of the officer of the guard to theleft of the line, and back to its post on the right, when it ceasesplaying. The adjutant then comes to attention, carries saber, and commands: =1. Guard, 2. ATTENTION, 3. Close ranks, 4. MARCH. = The ranks are opened and closed as in paragraph 745, I. D. R. The adjutant then commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS=, faces toward thenew officer of the day, salutes, and then reports: =Sir, the guard isformed. = The new officer of the day, after the adjutant has reported, returns the salute with the hand and directs the adjutant: =March theguard in review, sir. = The adjutant carries saber, faces about, brings the guard to an order, and commands: =1. At trail, platoons (or guard) right, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT. = The platoons execute the movements; the band turns to the right andplaces itself 12 paces in front of the first platoon. The adjutant places himself 6 paces from the flank and abreast of thecommander of the guard; the sergeant major, 6 paces from the leftflank of the second platoon. The adjutant then commands: =1. Pass in review, 2. FORWARD, 3. MARCH. = The guard marches in quick time past the officer of the day, accordingto the principles of review, and is brought to =eyes right= at theproper time by the commander of the guard; the adjutant, commander ofthe guard, leaders of platoons, sergeant-major, and drum major salute. The band, having passed the officer of the day, turns to the left outof the column, places itself opposite and facing him, and continues toplay until the guard leaves the parade ground. The field musicdetaches itself from the band when the latter turns out of the column, and, remaining in front of the guard, commences to play when the bandceases. Having passed 12 paces beyond the officer of the day, the adjutanthalts; the sergeant-major halts abreast of the adjutant and 1 pace tohis left; they then return saber, salute, and retire; the commander ofthe guard then commands: =1. Platoons, right by squads, 2. MARCH=, andmarches the guard to its post. The officers of the day face toward each other and salute; the oldofficer of the day turns over the orders to the new officer of theday. When the band is sounding off, and while the guard is marching inreview, the officers of the day stand at parade rest with arms folded. They take this position when the adjutant comes to parade rest, resumethe attention with him, again take the parade rest at the first noteof the march in review, and resume attention as the head of the columnapproaches. The new officer of the day returns the salute of the commander of theguard and the adjutant, making one salute with the hand. (355) =1846. = If the guard be not divided into platoons, the adjutantcommands: =1. At trail, guard right, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT=, andit passes in review as above; the commander of the guard is 3 paces infront of its center; the adjutant places himself 6 paces from the leftflank and abreast of the commander of the guard; the sergeant coversthe adjutant on a line with the front rank. (356) Informal Guard Mounting for Infantry =1847. = Informal guard mounting will be held on the parade ground ofthe organization from which the guard is detailed. If it is detailedfrom more than one organization, then at such place as the commandingofficer may direct. (357) =1848. At assembly=, the detail for guard falls in on the companyparade ground. The first sergeant verifies the detail, inspects theirdress and general appearance, and replaces any man unfit to march onguard. He then turns the detail over to the commander of the guard andretires. (358) =1849. At adjutant's call=, the officer of the day takes his place 15paces in front of the center of the guard and commands: =1. Officer(or officers) and noncommissioned officers, 2. Front and center, 3. MARCH=; whereupon the officers and noncommissioned officers take theirpositions, are assigned and sent to their posts as prescribed informal guard mounting. (Par. 1843. ) The officer of the day will then inspect the guard with especialreference for its fitness for the duty for which it is detailed, andwill select as prescribed in paragraphs 1702, the necessary orderliesand color sentinels. The men found unfit for guard will be returned toquarters and will be replaced by others found to be suitable, ifavailable in the company. If none are available in the company, thefact will be reported to the adjutant immediately after guardmounting. When the inspection shall have been completed, the officer of the dayresumes his position and directs the commander of the guard to marchthe guard to its post. (359) Relieving the Old Guard =1850. = As the new guard approaches the guardhouse, the old guard isformed in line, with its field music 3 paces to its right; and whenthe field music at the head of the new guard arrives opposite itsleft, the commander of the new guard commands: =1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT=;the commander of the old guard commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS=;commanders of both guards salute. The new guard marches in quick timepast the old guard. When the commander of the new guard is opposite the field music of theold guard, he commands: =FRONT=; the commander of the old guardcommands: =1. Order, 2. ARMS=, as soon as the new guard shall havecleared the old guard. The field music having marched 3 paces beyond the field music of theold guard, changes direction to the right, and, followed by the guard, changes direction to the left when on a line with the old guard; thechanges of direction are without command. The commander of the guardhalts on the line of the front rank of the old guard, allows his guardto march past him, and when its rear approaches forms it in line tothe left, establishes the left guide 3 paces to the right of the fieldmusic of the old guard, and on a line with the front rank, and thendresses his guard to the left; the field music of the new guard is 3paces to the right of its front rank. (360) =1851. = The new guard being dressed, the commander of each guard, infront of and facing its center, commands: =1. Present, 2. ARMS=, resumes his front, salutes, carries saber, faces his guard andcommands: =1. Order, 2. ARMS. = Should a guard be commanded by a noncommissioned officer, he stands onthe right or left of the front rank, according as he commands the oldor new guard, and executes the rifle salute. (361) =1852. = After the new guard arrives at its post, and has saluted theold guard, each guard is presented by its commander to its officer ofthe day; if there be but one officer of the day present, or if oneofficer acts in the capacity of old and new officer of the day, eachguard is presented to him by its commander. (362) =1853. = If other persons entitled to a salute approach, each commanderof the guard will bring his own guard to attention if not already atattention. The senior commander of the two guards will then command"=1. Old and new guards, 2. Present, 3. ARMS. =" The junior will salute at the command "=Present Arms=" given by thesenior. After the salute has been acknowledged, the senior brings bothguards to the order. (363) =1854. = After the salutes have been acknowledged by the officers ofthe day, each guard is brought to an order by its commander; thecommander of the new guard then directs the orderly or orderlies tofall out and report, and causes bayonets to be fixed if so ordered bythe commanding officer; bayonets will not then be unfixed during thetour except in route marches while the guard is actually marching, orwhen specially directed by the commanding officer. The commander of the new guard then falls out members of the guard fordetached posts, placing them under charge of the propernoncommissioned officers, divides the guard into three reliefs, =first=, =second=, and =third=, from right to left, and directs a listof the guard to be made by reliefs. When the guard consists of troopsof different arms combined, the men are assigned to reliefs so as toinsure a fair division of duty, under rules prescribed by thecommanding officer. (364) =1855. = The sentinels and detachments of the old guard are at oncerelieved by members of the new guard; the two guards standing at easeor at rest while these changes are being made. The commander of theold transmits to the commander of the new guard all his orders, instructions, and information concerning the guard and its duties. Thecommander of the new guard then takes possession of the guardhouse andverifies the articles in charge of the guard. (365) =1856. = If considerable time is required to bring in that portion ofthe old guard still on post, the commanding officer may direct that assoon as the orders and property are turned over to the new guard, theportion of the old guard at the guardhouse may be marched off anddismissed. In such a case, the remaining detachment or detachments ofthe old guard will be inspected by the commander of the new guard whenthey reach the guardhouse. He will direct the senior noncommissionedofficer present to march these detachments off and dismiss them in theprescribed manner. (366) =1857. = In bad weather, at night, after long marches, or when theguard is very small, the field music may be dispensed with. (367) FOOTNOTES: [20] The term "governors general" shall be taken to meanadministrative officers under whom officers with the title of governorare acting. [21] The grade of commodore ceased to exist as a grade on the activelist of the Navy of the United States on Mar. 3, 1899. By section 7 ofthe act of Mar. 3, 1899, the nine junior rear admirals are authorizedto receive the pay and allowances of a brigadier general of the Army. PART VIII MILITARY ORGANIZATION =1858. = The tabulations that follow are based on the National DefenseAct of June 3, 1916, and on the Tables of Organization. Composition of Infantry Units ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ Regiment | Battalions (3) ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ Each | Each ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ 1 Colonel | 1 Major 1 Lt. Colonel | 1 1st Lieut. , mounted 3 Majors | (battalion adjutant) 15 Captains | 4 Companies. 16 1st Lieuts. | 15 2nd Lieuts. | _Attached_ -- | 51 | 1 Battalion Sergt. Major -- | (from Hdqrs. Co. ) 1 Hdqrs. Co. | 1 Machine Gun Co. | 1 Supply Co. | 12 Infantry Cos. , organized into 3 | battalions of 4 companies each | | _Attached_ | | 1 Major, Med. Dept. | 3 Capts. , or 1st Lieuts. , | Med. Dept. | 1 Chaplain | ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Companies -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- Infantry (12) | Headquarters (1) | Machine Gun (1) | Supply (1) -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- 1 Captain | 1 Captain, mounted, | 1 Captain, Mtd. | 1 Captain, Mtd. 1 1st Lieut. | (Regtl. Adjt. ) | 1 1st Lt. , Mtd. | 1 2nd Lt. , Mtd. 1 2nd Lieut. | | 2 2nd Lts. , Mtd. |-- -- | 1 Regtl. Sergt. |-- | 2 3 | Major, mounted. | 4 |-- -- | 3 Batln. Sergts. |-- | 3 Regtl. Supply | Major, mounted. | 1 1st Sergt. , | Sergts. , Mtd. 1 1st Sergt. | 1 1st Sergt. | Mtd. | 1 1st Sergt. , 1 Mess Sergt. | (drum major) | 1 Mess Sergt. | Mtd. 1 Supply Sergt. | 2 Color Sergts. | 1 Supply Sergt. , | 1 Mess Sergt. 6 Sergts. | 1 Mess Sergt. | Mtd. | 1 Stable Sergt. 11 Corpls. | 1 Supply Sergt. | 1 Stable Sergt. , | 1 Corpl. , Mtd. 2 Cooks | 1 Stable Sergt. | Mtd. | 1 Cook 2 Buglers | 1 Sergt. | 1 Horseshoer | 1 Saddler 1 Mechanic | 2 Cooks | 5 Sergeants | 1 Horseshoer 19 Pvts. (1st | 1 Horseshoer | 6 Corporals | 1 Wagoner for Class) | 1 Band leader | 2 Cooks | each 56 Pvts. | 1 Asst. Band leader| 2 Buglers | authorized --- | 1 Sergt. Bugler | 1 Mechanic | wagon 100 | 2 Band Sergts. | 8 Pvts. , 1st | of the field --- | 4 Band Corpls. | Class | and combat (The President | 2 Musicians, 1st |24 Privates | train. May add 2 | Class |-- | Sergts. , 6 | 4 Musicians, 2nd |53 | Corpls. , 1 | Class |-- | Mechanic, 9 Pvts. |13 Musicians, 3rd |(The President | 1st Class and 31 | Class |may add 2 | Pvts. --total, 49)| 4 Pvts. , 1st Class, |Sergts. , 2 | | Mtd. |Corpls. , | |12 Pvts, Mtd. |1 Mechanic, | |-- |4 Pvts. , 1st | |58 |Class and 12 | |-- |Pvts. --total, | | |21) | -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- =Transportation, orderlies, etc. = To Hdqrs. Co. , 27 riding horses; toMachine Gun Co. , 6 riding horses and 8 pack mules; to Supply Co. , 3riding horses; to each Battalion Hdqrs. , 6 riding horses, 1 wagon, 4draft mules, and 2 mounted orderlies; to Regtl. Hdqrs. , 5 ridinghorses. Composition of Cavalry Units ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ Regiment | Squadrons (3) ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ Each | Each ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ 1 Colonel | 1 Major 1 Lt. Colonel | 1 1st Lieut. , squadron adjutant 3 Majors | 15 Captains | 4 troops 16 1st Lieuts. | 16 2nd Lieuts. | _Attached_ -- | 52 | 1 Squadron Sergt. Major -- | (from Hdqrs. Troop) | 1 Hdqrs. Troop | 1 Machine Gun Troop | 1 Supply Troop | 12 Troops organized into 3 | squadrons of 4 troops each | | _Attached_ | | 1 Major, Med. Dept. | 3 Capts. , or 1st Lieuts. , | Med. Dept. | 1 Chaplain | ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Troops -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- Cavalry (12) | Headquarters (1) | Machine Gun (1) | Supply (1) -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- 1 Captain | 1 Captain, Regtl. | 1 Captain | 1 Captain, 1 1st Lieut. | Adjt. | 1 1st Lieut. | Regtl. Supply 1 2nd Lieut. | 1 Regtl. Sergeant | 2 2nd Lieuts. | Officer -- | Major |-- | 2 2nd Lieuts. 3 | 3 Squadron Sergts. | 4 |-- -- | Major |-- | 3 | 1 1st Sergt. | |-- 1 1st Sergt. | (Drum Major) | 1 1st Sergt. | 1 Mess Sergt. | 2 Color Sergts. | 1 Mess Sergt. | 3 Regtl. Supply 1 Supply Sergt. | 1 Mess Sergt. | 1 Supply Sergt. | Sergts. 1 Stable Sergt. | 1 Supply Sergt. | 1 Stable Sergt. | 1 1st Sergt. 5 Sergts. | 1 Stable Sergt. | 2 Horseshoers | 1 Mess Sergt. 8 Corpls. | 1 Sergt. | 5 Sergts. | 1 Stable Sergt. 2 Cooks | 2 Cooks | 6 Corpls. | 1 Corpl. 2 Horseshoers | 1 Horseshoer | 2 Cooks | 1 Cook 1 Saddler | 1 Saddler | 1 Mechanic | 1 Horseshoer 2 Buglers | 2 Pvts. (1st Class)| 1 Saddler | 1 Saddler 10 Pvts. (1st | 9 Pvts. | 2 Buglers | 1 Wagoner for Class) | 1 Band leader |12 Pvts. 1st | each 36 Pvts. | 1 Asst. Band Leader| Class | authorized -- | 1 Sergt. Bugler |35 Pvts. | wagon of the 70 | 2 Band Sergts. |-- | field and -- | 4 Band Corpls. |70 | combat train. | 2 Musicians, 1st |-- | (The President | Class | | may add 10 Pvts. | 4 Musicians, 2nd |(The President | (1st Class) and | Class |may add 3 | 25 Pvts. --total, |13 Musicians, 3rd |Sergts. , 2 | 35) | Class |Corpls. , 1 | |-- |Mechanic, 1 Pvt. | |54 |1st Class, 14 | |-- |Pvts. --total, 21)| | | | |(The President may | | | add 2 Sergts, 5 | | | Corpls. , 1 | | | Horseshoer, 5 Pvts. | | | 1st Class, 18 | | | Pvts. --total, 31) | | -----------------+--------------------+-----------------+---------------- =Transportation, orderlies, etc. = To each Squadron Hdqrs. , 6 or 7riding horses and 2 orderlies; to each squadron; 292 riding horses, 1wagon and 4 draft mules. Composition of Field Artillery Units ------------------------+------------------------+----------------------- | Battalion | Battery Regiment | (Gun or Howitzer) | (Gun or Howitzer) ------------------------+------------------------+----------------------- Each | Each | Each ------------------------+------------------------+----------------------- 1 Colonel | 1 Major | 1 Captain 1 Lt. Colonel | 1 Captain | 2 1st Lieuts. 1 Captain | -- | 2 2nd Lieuts. -- | 2 | -- 3 | -- | 5 -- | | -- | Batteries as follows: | 1 Hdqrs. Co. , | | 1 1st Sergt. 1 Supply Co. , | Mountain artillery | 1 Supply Sergt. | battalions and light | 1 Stable Sergt. And such number of | artillery gun or | 1 Mess Sergt. Guns and howitzer as | howitzer battalions | 6 Sergts. The President may | serving with the field | 13 Corpls. Direct. | artillery or Infantry | 1 Chief Mechanic | divisions shall contain| 1 Saddler _Attached_ | three batteries; horse | 2 Horseshoers | artillery battalions | 1 Mechanic 1 Major, Med. Dept. | and heavy field | 2 Buglers 3 Capts. Or 1st | artillery gun or | 3 Cooks Lieuts. , Med. Dept. | howitzer battalions | 22 Pvts. , 1st Class 1 Chaplain | shall contain two | 71 Pvts. | batteries. | --- | | 125 | | --- | | | | When no enlisted men | | of the Quartermaster | | Corps are attached for | | such positions there | | shall be added to each | | battery of mountain | | artillery: | | | | 1 Packmaster Sergt. , | | 1st Class | | 1 Asst. Packmaster | | Sergt. | | 1 Cargador, Corpl. | | | | (The President may add | | 3 Sergts. , 7 Corpls. , | | 1 Horseshoer, 2 | | Mechanics, 1 Bugler, | | 13 Pvts. 1st Class, 37 | | Pvts. --total, 64) ------------------------+------------------------+----------------------- ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ Headquarters Company of Regt. , of | 2 battalions | Supply (1) Regt. Of 2 Batlns. ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ 1 Captain | 1 Captain 1 1st Lieut. | 1 1st Lieut. -- | -- 2 | 2 -- | -- | 1 Regtl. Sergt. Major | 2 Regtl. Supply Sergts. 2 Batln. Sergts. Major | 1 1st Sergt. 1 1st Sergt. | 1 Mess Sergt. 2 Color Sergts. | 1 Corpl. 1 Mess Sergt. | 1 Cook 1 Supply Sergt. | 1 Horseshoer 1 Stable Sergt. | 1 Saddler 2 Sergts. | 2 Pvts. 9 Corpls. | 1 Wagoner for each authorized 1 Horseshoer | wagon of the field train. 1 Saddler | 1 Mechanic | When Regt. Consists of 3 Batlns. 3 Buglers | there shall be added 1 2nd Lieut. 2 Cooks | (1), 1 Regtl. Supply Sergt. , 1 5 Pvts. 1st Class | Pvt. , 1 Wagoner for each 15 Pvts. | additional authorized wagon of the 1 Band leader | field train. 1 Asst. Band leader | 1 Sergt. Bugler | (The President may add 1 Corpl. , 1 2 Band Sergts. | Cook, 1 Horseshoer, 1 4 Band Corpls. | Saddler. --total, 4) 2 Musicians, 1st Class | 4 Musicians, 2nd Class | Supply Co. , of Regt. Of 3 Batlns. 13 Musicians, 3rd Class | may have added, the same number as -- | given above for Regt. Of 2 Batlns. 76 | -- | | When a regiment consists of three | battalions there shall be added to | Hdqrs. Co. : 1 Batln. Sergt. Major, | 1 Sergt. , 3 Corpls. , 1 Bugler, 1 | Pvt. 1st Class, 5 Pvts. --total, 12. | | When no enlisted men of the | Quartermaster Corps are attached | for such positions there shall be | added to each mountain artillery | Hdqrs. Co. , | | 1 Packmaster Sergt. , 1st Class | 1 Asst. Packmaster, Sergt. | 1 Cargador, Corpl. --total, 3. | | (The President may add 2 Sergts. , | 5 Corpls. , 1 Horseshoer, 1 | Mechanic, 1 Pvt. 1st Class, 6 | Pvts. --total 16 to a regiment of 2 | battalions; and to a regiment of 3 | battalions 1 Sergt. , 7 Corpls. , | 1 Horseshoer, 1 Mechanic, 2 Cooks, | 2 Pvts. 1st Class, 7 Pvts. --total, | 21) | ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ =Transportation, orderlies, etc. = To Battery Hdqrs. , 8 riding horses;to each Battery, 24 riding horses, 88 draft horses, 1 Battery wagon, 1Store wagon, 8 Caissons and 4 Guns. PART IX MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING CHAPTER I MAP READING =1859. Definition of map. = A map is a representation on paper of acertain portion of the earth's surface. A military map is one that shows the things which are of militaryimportance, such as roads, streams, bridges, houses, depressions, andhills. =1860. Map reading. = By map reading is meant the ability to get aclear idea of the ground represented by the map, --of being able to_visualize_ the ground so represented. For some unknown reason, military map reading is generally considereda very difficult matter to master, and the beginner, starting out withthis idea, seemingly tries to find it difficult. However, as a matter of fact, map reading is not difficult, if onegoes about learning it in the right way, --that is, by first becomingfamiliar with scales, contours, conventional signs, and other thingsthat go to make up map making. Practice is most important in acquiring ability in map reading. Practice looking at maps and then _visualizing_ the actual countryrepresented on the map. =1861. Scales. = In order that you may be able to tell the distancebetween any two points on a map, the map must be drawn to scale, --thatis, it must be so drawn that a certain distance on the map, say, oneinch, represents a certain distance on the ground, say, one mile. Onsuch a map, then, two inches would represent two miles on the ground;three inches, three miles, and so on. Therefore, we may say-- _The scale of a map is the ratio between actual distances on theground and those between the same points as represented on the map. _ =1862. Methods of representing scales. = There are three ways in whichthe scale of a map may be represented: 1st. By words and figures, as 3 inches = 1 mile; 1 inch = 200 feet. 2d. By Representative Fraction (abbreviated R. F. ), which is afraction whose numerator represents units of distance on the map andwhose denominator, units of distance on the ground. For example, R. F. = 1 inch (on map)/1 mile (on ground) which isequivalent to R. F. = 1/63360, since 1 mile = 63, 360 inches. So theexpression, "R. F. 1/63360" on a map merely means that 1 inch on themap represents 63, 360 inches (or 1 mile) on the ground. This fractionis usually written with a numerator 1, as above, no definite unit ofinches or miles being specified in either the numerator ordenominator. In this case the expression means that one unit ofdistance on the map equals as many of the same units on the ground asare in the denominator. Thus, 1/63360 means that 1 inch on the map =63, 360 inches on the ground, 1 foot on the map = 63, 360 feet on theground; 1 yard on the map = 63, 360 yards on the ground, etc. 3d. By Graphical Scale, that is, a drawn scale. A graphical scale is aline drawn on the map, divided into equal parts, each part beingmarked not with its actual length, but with the distance which itrepresents on the ground. Thus: [Illustration: Fig. 1] For example, the distance from 0 to 50 represents fifty yards on theground; the distance from 0 to 100, one hundred yards on the ground, etc. If the above scale were applied to the road running from A to B inFig. 2, it would show that the length of the road is 675 yards. [Illustration: Fig. 2] =1863. Construction of Scales. = The following are the most usualproblems that arise in connection with the construction of scales: 1. Having given the R. F. On a map, to find how many miles on theground are represented by one inch on the map. Let us suppose that theR. F. Is 1/21120. Solution Now, as previously explained, 1/21120 simply means that one inch onthe map represents 21, 120 inches on the ground. There are 63, 360inches in one mile. 21, 120 goes into 63, 360 three times--that is tosay, 21, 120 is 1/3 of 63, 360, and we, therefore, see from this thatone inch on the map represents 1/3 of a mile on the ground, andconsequently it would take three inches on the map to represent onewhole mile on the ground. So, we have this general rule: To find outhow many miles one inch on the map represents on the ground, dividethe denominator of the R. F. By 63, 360. 2. Being given the R. F. To construct a graphical scale to read yards. Let us assume that 1/21120 is the R. F. Given--that is to say, oneinch on the map represents 21, 120 inches on the ground, but, as thereare 36 inches in one yard, 21, 120 inches = 21, 120/36 yds. = 586. 66yds. --that is, one inch on the map represents 586. 66 yds. On theground. Now, suppose about a 6-inch scale is desired. Since one inchon the map = 586. 66 yards on the ground, 6 inches (map) = 586. 66 × 6 =3, 519. 96 yards (ground). In order to get as nearly a 6-inch scale aspossible to represent even hundreds of yards, let us assume 3, 500yards to be the total number to be represented by the scale. Thequestion then resolves itself into this: How many inches on the mapare necessary to represent 3, 500 yards on the ground. Since, as wehave seen, one inch (map) = 586. 66 yards (ground), as many inches arenecessary to show 3, 500 yards as 586. 66 is contained in 3, 500; or3500/586. 66 = 5. 96 inches. [Illustration: Fig. 3] Now lay off with a scale of equal parts the distance A-I (Figure 3) =5. 96 inches (about 5 and 9-1/2 tenths), and divided it into 7 equalparts by the construction shown in figure, as follows: Draw a lineA-H, making any convenient angle with A-I, and lay off 7 equalconvenient lengths (A-B, B-C, C-D, etc. ), so as to bring H aboutopposite to I. Join H and I and draw the intermediate lines through B, C, etc. , parallel to H-I. These lines divide A-I into 7 equal parts, each 500 yards long. The left part, called the Extension, is similarlydivided into 5 equal parts, each representing 100 yards. =3. To construct a scale for a map with no scale. = In this case, measure the distance between any two definite points on the groundrepresented, by pacing or otherwise, and scale off the correspondingmap distance. Then see how the distance thus measured corresponds withthe distance on the map between the two points. For example, let ussuppose that the distance on the ground between two given points isone mile and that the distance between the corresponding points on themap is 3/4 inch. We would, therefore, see that 3/4 inch on the map =one mile on the ground. Hence 1/4 inch would represent 1/3 of a mile, and 4-4, or one inch, would represent 4 × 1/3 = 4/3 = 1-1/3 miles. The R. F. Is found as follows: R. F. 1 inch/(1-1/3 mile) = 1 inch/(63, 360 × 1-1/3 inches) = 1/84480. From this a scale of yards is constructed as above (2). 4. To construct a graphical scale from a scale expressed in unfamiliarunits. There remains one more problem, which occurs when there is ascale on the map in words and figures, but it is expressed inunfamiliar units, such as the meter (= 39. 37 inches), strides of a manor horse, rate of travel of column, etc. If a noncommissioned officershould come into possession of such a map, it would be impossible forhim to have a correct idea of the distances on the map. If the scalewere in inches to miles or yards, he would estimate the distancebetween any two points on the map to be so many inches and at onceknow the corresponding distance on the ground in miles or yards. Butsuppose the scale found on the map to be one inch = 100 strides(ground), then estimates could not be intelligently made by oneunfamiliar with the length of the stride used. However, suppose thestride was 60 inches long; we would then have this: Since 1 stride =60 inches, 100 strides = 6, 000 inches. But according to oursupposition, 1 inch on the map = 100 strides on the ground; hence 1inch on the map = 6, 000 inches on the ground, and we have as our R. F. , 1 inch (map)/6, 000 inches (ground) = 1/6000. A graphical scale cannow be constructed as in (2). Problems in Scales =1864. = The following problems should be solved to become familiarwith the construction of scales: =Problem No. 1. = The R. F. Of a map is 1/1000. Required: 1. Thedistance in miles shown by one inch on the map; 2. To construct agraphical scale of yards; also one to read miles. =Problem No. 2. = A map has a graphical scale on which 1. 5 inches reads500 strides. 1. What is the R. F. Of the map? 2. How many miles arerepresented by 1 inch? =Problem No. 3. = The Leavenworth map in back of this book has agraphical scale and a measured distance of 1. 25 inches reads 1, 100yards. Required: 1. The R. F. Of the map; 2. Number of miles shown by1 inch on the map. =Problem No. 4. = 1. Construct a scale to read yards for a map of R. F. = 1/21120. 2. How many inches represent 1 mile? =1865. Scaling distances from a map. = There are four methods ofscaling distances from maps: 1. Apply a piece of straight edged paper to the distance between anytwo points, A and B, for instance, and mark the distance on the paper. Now, apply the paper to the graphical scale, (Fig. 2, Par. 1862), andread the number of yards on the main scale and add the numberindicated on the extension. For example: 600 + 75 = 675 yards. 2. By taking the distance off with a pair of dividers and applying thedividers thus set to the graphical scale, the distance is read. 3. By use of an instrument called a map measurer, Fig. 4, set the handon the face to read zero, roll the small wheel over the distance; nowroll the wheel in an opposite direction along the graphical scale, noting the number of yards passed over. Or, having rolled over thedistance, note the number of inches on the dial and multiply this bythe number of miles or other units per inch. A map measurer isvaluable for use in solving map problems in patrolling, advance guard, outpost, etc. [Illustration: Fig. 4] 4. Apply a scale of inches to the line to be measured, and multiplythis distance by the number of miles per inch shown by the map. =1866. Contours. = In order to show on a map a correct representationof ground, the depressions and elevations, --that is, theundulations, --must be represented. This is usually done by_contours_. Conversationally speaking, a _contour_ is the outline of a figure orbody, or the line or lines representing such an outline. In connection with maps, the word _contour_ is used in these twosenses: 1. It is a projection on a horizontal (level) plane (that is, a map)of the line in which a horizontal plane cuts the surface of theground. In other words, it is a line on a map which shows the routeone might follow on the ground and walk on the absolute level. If, forexample, you went half way up the side of a hill and, starting there, walked entirely around the hill, neither going up any higher nor downany lower, and you drew a line of the route you had followed, thisline would be a _contour line_ and its projection on a horizontalplane (map) would be a _contour_. By imagining the surface of the ground being cut by a number ofhorizontal planes _that are the same distance apart_, and thenprojecting (shooting) on a horizontal plane (map) the lines so cut, the elevations and depressions on the ground are represented on themap. It is important to remember that the imaginary horizontal planescutting the surface of the ground must be the same distance apart. Thedistance between the planes is called the _contour interval_. 2. The word _contour_ is also used in referring to _contourline_, --that is to say, it is used in referring to the line itself inwhich a horizontal plane cuts the surface of the ground as well as inreferring to the projection of such line on a horizontal plane. An excellent idea of what is meant by contours and contour-lines canbe gotten from Figs. 5 and 6. Let us suppose that formerly the islandrepresented in Figure 5 was entirely under water and that by a suddendisturbance the water of the lake fell until the island stood twentyfeet above the water, and that later several other sudden falls of thewater, twenty feet each time, occurred, until now the island stands100 feet out of the lake, and at each of the twenty feet elevations adistinct water line is left. These water lines are perfectcontour-lines measured from the surface of the lake as a reference (ordatum) plane. Figure 6 shows the contour-lines in Figure 5 projected, or shot down, on a horizontal (level) surface. It will be observedthat on the gentle slopes, such as F-H (Fig. 5), the contours (20, 40)are far apart. But on the steep slopes, as R-O, the contours (20, 40, 60, 80, 100) are close together. Hence, it is seen that contours farapart on a map indicate gentle slopes, and contours close together, steep slopes. It is also seen that the shape of the contours gives anaccurate idea of the form of the island. The contours in Fig. 6 givean exact representation not only of the general form of the island, the two peaks, O and B, the stream, M-N, the Saddle, M, the water shedfrom F to H, and steep bluff at K, but they also give the slopes ofthe ground at all points. From this we see that the slopes aredirectly proportional to the nearness of the contours--that is, thenearer the contours on a map are to one another, the steeper is theslope, and the farther the contours on a map are from one another, thegentler is the slope. A wide space between contours, therefore, represents level ground. [Illustration: Fig. 5] [Illustration: Fig. 6] The contours on maps are always numbered, the number of each showingits height above some plane called a datum plane. Thus in Fig. 6 thecontours are numbered from 0 to 100 using the surface of the lake asthe datum plane. The numbering shows at once the height of any point on a given contourand in addition shows the contour interval--in this case 20 feet. Generally only every fifth contour is numbered. The datum plane generally used in maps is mean sea level, hence theelevations indicated would be the heights above mean sea level. The contours of a cone (Fig. 7) are circles of different sizes, onewithin another, and the same distance apart, because the slope of acone is at all points the same. [Illustration: Fig. 7] The contours of a half sphere (Fig. 8), are a series of circles, farapart near the center (top), and near together at the outside(bottom), showing that the slope of a hemisphere varies at all points, being nearly flat on top and increasing in steepness toward thebottom. [Illustration: Fig. 8] The contours of a concave (hollowed out) cone (Fig. 9) are closetogether at the center (top) and far apart at the outside (bottom). [Illustration: Fig. 9] The following additional points about contours should be remembered: (a) A Water Shed or Spur, along with rain water divides, flowing awayfrom it on both sides, is indicated by the higher contours bulging outtoward the lower ones (F-H, Fig. 6). (b) A Water Course or Valley, along which rain falling on both sidesof it joins in one stream, is indicated by the lower contours curvingin toward the higher ones (M-N, Fig. 6). (c) The contours of different heights which unite and become a singleline, represent a vertical cliff (K, Fig. 6). (d) Two contours which cross each other represent an overhangingcliff. (e) A closed contour without another contour in it, represents eitherin elevation or a depression, depending on whether its referencenumber is greater or smaller than that of the outer contour. A hilltopis shown when the closed contour is higher than the contour next toit; a depression is shown when the closed contour is lower than theone next to it. If the student will first examine the drainage system, as shown by thecourses of the streams on the map, he can readily locate all thevalleys, as the streams must flow through valleys. Knowing thevalleys, the ridges or hills can easily be placed, even withoutreference to the numbers on the contours. =For example:= On the Elementary Map, Woods Creek flows north and YorkCreek flows south. They rise very close to each other, and the groundbetween the points at which they rise must be higher ground, slopingnorth on one side and south on the other, as the streams flow northand south, respectively (see the ridge running west from Twin Hills). The course of Sandy Creek indicates a long valley, extending almostthe entire length of the map. Meadow Creek follows another valley, andDeep Run another. When these streams happen to join other streams, thevalleys must open into each other. =1867. Map Distances (or horizontal equivalents). = The horizontaldistance between contours on a map (called map distance, or M. D. ; orhorizontal equivalents or H. E. ) is inversely proportional to theslope of the ground represented--that it to say, the greater the slopeof the ground, the less is the horizontal distance between thecontours; the less the slope of the ground represented, the greater isthe horizontal distance between the contours. [Illustration: Fig. 10] +-----------+--------+--------------+ | Slope | Rise | Horizontal | | (degrees) | (feet) | Distance | | | | (inches) | +-----------+--------+--------------+ | 1 deg. | 1 | 688 | | 2 deg. | 1 | 688/2 = 344 | | 3 deg. | 1 | 688/3 = 229 | | 4 deg. | 1 | 688/4 = 172 | | 5 deg. | 1 | 688/5 = 138 | +-----------+--------+--------------+ It is a fact that 688 inches horizontally on a 1 degree slope gives avertical rise of one foot; 1376 inches, two feet, 2064 inches, threefeet, etc. , from which we see that on a slope of 1 degree, 688 inchesmultiplied by vertical rises of 1 foot, 2 feet, 3 feet, etc. , gives usthe corresponding horizontal distance in inches. For example, if thecontour interval (Vertical Interval, V. I. ) of a map is 10 feet, then688 inches × 10 equals 6880 inches, gives the horizontal grounddistance corresponding to a rise of 10 feet on a 1 degree slope. Toreduce this horizontal ground distance to horizontal map distance, wewould, for example, proceed as follows: Let us assume the R. F. To be 1/15840--that is to say, 15, 840 incheson the ground equals 1 inch on the map, consequently, 6880 inches onthe ground equals 6880/15840, equals . 44 inch on the map. And in thecase of 2 degrees, 3 degrees, etc. , we would have: M. D. For 2° = 6880/(15840 × 2) = . 22 inch; M. D. For 3° = 6880/(15840 × 3) = . 15 inch, etc. From the above, we have this rule: To construct a scale of M. D. For a map, multiply 688 by the contourinterval (in feet) and the R. F. Of the map, and divide the results by1, 2, 3, 4, etc. , and then lay off these distances as shown in Fig. 11, Par. 1867a. FORMULA M. D. (inches) = (688 × V. I. (feet) × R. F. ) / (Degrees (1, 2, 3, 4, etc. )) =1867a. Scale of Map Distances (or, Scale of Slopes). = On theElementary Map, below the scale of miles and scale of yards, is ascale similar to the following one: [Illustration: Fig. 11] The left-hand division is marked 1/2°; the next division (one-half aslong) 1°; the next division (one-half the length of the 1° division)2°, and so on. The 1/2° division means that where adjacent contours onthe map are just that distance apart, the ground has a slope of 1/2 adegree between these two contours, and slopes up toward the contourwith the higher reference number; a space between adjacent contoursequal to the 1° space shown on the scale means a 1° slope, and so on. What is a slope of 1°? By a slope of 1° we mean that the surface ofthe ground makes an angle of 1° with the horizontal (a level surface. See Fig. 10, Par. 1867). The student should find out the slope of somehill or street and thus get a concrete idea of what the differentdegrees of slope mean. A road having a 5° slope is very steep. By means of this scale of M. D. 's on the map, the map reader candetermine the slope of any portion of the ground represented, that is, as steep as 1/2° or steeper. Ground having a slope of less than 1/2°is practically level. =1868. Slopes. = Slopes are usually given in one of three ways: 1st, indegrees; 2d, in percentages; 3d, in gradients (grades). 1st. A one degree slope means that the angle between the horizontaland the given line is 1 degree (1°). See Fig. 10, Par. 1867. 2d. A slope is said to be 1, 2, 3, etc. , per cent, when 100 unitshorizontally correspond to a rise of 1, 2, 3, etc. , units vertically. [Illustration: Fig. 12] 3d. A slope is said to be one on one (1/1), two on three, (2/3), etc. , when one unit horizontal corresponds to 1 vertical; three horizontalcorrespond to two vertical, etc. The numerator usually refers to thevertical distance, and the denominator to the horizontal distance. [Illustration: Fig. 13] Degrees of slope are usually used in military matters; percentages areoften used for roads, almost always of railroads; gradients are usedof steep slopes, and usually of dimensions of trenches. =1869. Effect of Slope on Movements= 60 degrees or 7/4 inaccessible for infantry; 45 degrees or 1/1 difficult for infantry; 30 degrees or 4/7 inaccessible for cavalry; 15 degrees or 1/4 inaccessible for artillery; 5 degrees or 1/12 accessible for wagons. The normal system of scales prescribed for U. S. Army field sketchesis as follows: For road sketches, 3 inches = 1 mile, verticalinterval between contours (V. I. ) = 20 ft. ; for position sketches, 6inches = 1 mile, V. I. = 10 ft. ; for fortification sketches, 12 inches= 1 mile, V. I. = 5 ft. On this system any given length of M. D. Corresponds to the same slope on each of the scales. For instance, . 15inch between contours represents a 5° slope on the 3-inch, 6-inch and12-inch maps of the normal system. Figure 11, Par. 1867a, gives thenormal scale of M. D. 's for slopes up to 8 degrees. A scale of M. D. 'sis usually printed on the margin of maps, near the geographical scale. =1870. Meridians. = If you look along the upper left hand border of theElementary Map (back of Manual), you will see two arrows, as shown inFig. 14, pointing towards the top of the map. [Illustration: Fig. 14] They are pointing in the direction that is north on the map. The arrowwith a full barb points toward the north pole (the True North Pole) ofthe earth, and is called the True Meridian. The arrow with but half a barb points toward what is known as theMagnetic Pole of the earth, and is called the Magnetic Meridian. The Magnetic Pole is a point up in the arctic regions, near thegeographical or True North Pole, which, on account of its magneticqualities, attracts one end of all compass needles and causes them topoint towards it, and as it is near the True North Pole, this servesto indicate the direction of north to a person using a compass. Of course, the angle which the Magnetic needle makes with the TrueMeridian (called the Magnetic Declination) varies at different pointson the earth. In some places it points east of the True Meridian andin others it points west of it. It is important to know this relation because maps usually show theTrue Meridian and an observer is generally supplied with a magneticcompass. Fig. 15 shows the usual type of Box Compass. It has 4cardinal points, N, E, S and W marked, as well as a circle graduatedin degrees from zero to 360°, clockwise around the circle. To read themagnetic angle (called magnetic azimuth) of any point from theobserver's position the north point of the compass circle is pointedtoward the object and the angle indicated by the north end of theneedle is read. [Illustration: Fig. 15] You now know from the meridians, for example, in going from York toOxford (see Elementary Map) that you travel north; from Boling toSalem you must travel south; going from Salem to York requires you totravel west; and from York to Salem you travel east. Suppose you arein command of a patrol at York and are told to go to Salem by the mostdirect line across country. You look at your map and see that Salem isexactly east of York. Next you take out your field compass (Figure 15, Par. 1870), raise the lid, hold the box level, allow the needle tosettle and see in what direction the north end of the needle points(it would point toward Oxford). You then know the direction of northfrom York, and you can turn your right and go due east towards Salem. Having once discovered the direction of north on the ground, you cango to any point shown on your map without other assistance. If youstand at York, facing north and refer to your map, you need no guideto tell you that Salem lies directly to your right; Oxford straight infront of you; Boling in a direction about halfway between thedirections of Salem and Oxford, and so on. =1871. Determination of positions of points on map. = If the distance, height and direction of a point on a map are known with respect to anyother point, then the position of the first point is fully determined. The scale of the map enables us to determine the distance; thecontours, the height; and the time meridian, the direction. Thus (see map in pocket at back of book), Pope Hill (sm') is 800 yardsfrom Grant Hill (um') (using graphical scale), and it is 30 feethigher than Grant Hill, since it is on contour 870 and Grant Hill ison contour 840; Pope Hill is also due north of Grant Hill, that is, the north and south line through Grant Hill passes through Pope Hill. Therefore, the position of Pope Hill is fully determined with respectto Grant Hill. Orientation =1872. = In order that directions on the map and on the ground shallcorrespond, it is necessary for the map to be oriented, that is, thetrue meridian of the map must lie in the same direction as the truemeridian through the observer's position on the ground, which is onlyanother way of saying that the lines that run north and south on themap must run in the same direction as the lines north and south on theground. Every road, stream or other feature on the map will then runin the same direction as the road, stream or other feature itself onthe ground, and all the objects shown on the map can be quicklyidentified and picked out on the ground. Methods of Orienting a Map 1st. By magnetic needle: If the map has a magnetic meridian marked onit as is on the Leavenworth map (in pocket at back of book), place thesighting line, a-b, of the compass (Fig. 15) on the magnetic meridianof the map and move the map around horizontally until the north end ofthe needle points toward the north of its circle, whereupon the map isoriented. If there is a true meridian on the map, but not a magneticmeridian, one may be constructed as follows, if the magneticdeclination is known: (Figure 16): Place the true meridian of the map directly under themagnetic needle of the compass and then move the compass box untilthe needle reads an angle equal to the magnetic declination. A line inextension of the sighting line a'-b' will be the magnetic-meridian. Ifthe magnetic declination of the observer's position is not more than4° or 5°, the orientation will be given closely enough for ordinarypurposes by taking the true and magnetic meridians to be identical. 2d. If neither the magnetic nor the true meridian is on the map, butthe observer's position on the ground is known: Move the maphorizontally until the direction of some definite point on the groundis the same as its direction on the map; the map is then oriented. Forexample, suppose you are standing on the ground at 8, q k' (FortLeaven worth Map), and can see the U. S. Penitentiary off to thesouth. Hold the map in front of you and face toward the U. S. Penitentiary, moving the map until the line joining 8 and the U. S. Penitentiary (on the map) lies in the same direction as the linejoining those two points on the ground. The map is now oriented. [Illustration: Fig. 16] Having learned to orient a map and to locate his position on the map, one should then practice moving over the ground and at the same timekeeping his map oriented and noting each ground feature on the map asit is passed. This practice is of the greatest value in learning toread a map accurately and to estimate distances, directions and slopescorrectly. True Meridian =1873. = The position of the true meridian may be found as follows(Fig. 17): Point the hour hand of a watch toward the sun; the linejoining the pivot and the point midway between the hour hand and XIIon the dial, will point toward the south; that is to say, if theobserver stands so as to face the sun and the XII on the dial, he willbe looking south. To point the hour hand exactly at the sun, stick apin as at (a) Fig. 17 and bring the hour hand into the shadow. Atnight, a line drawn toward the north star from the observer's positionis approximately a true meridian. [Illustration: Fig. 17] The line joining the "pointers" of the Great Bear or Dipper, prolongedabout five times its length passes nearly through the North Star, which can be recognized by its brilliancy. [Illustration: Fig. 18] =1874. Conventional Signs. = In order that the person using a map maybe able to tell what are roads, houses, woods, etc. , each of thesefeatures are represented by particular signs, called conventionalsigns. In other words, conventional signs are certain marks or symbolsshown on a map to designate physical features of the terrain. (Seediagram, Par. 1875 Plate I and II. ) On the Elementary Map theconventional signs are all labeled with the name of what theyrepresent. By examining this map the student can quickly learn todistinguish the conventional signs of most of the ordinary featuresshown on maps. These conventional signs are usually graphicalrepresentations of the ground features they represent, and, therefore, can usually be recognized without explanation. For example, the roads on the Elementary Map can be easilydistinguished. They are represented by parallel lines (======). Thestudent should be able to trace out the route of the Valley Pike, theChester Pike, the County Road, and the direct road from Salem toBoling. Private or farm lanes, and unimproved roads are represented by brokenlines (= = = =). Such a road or lane can be seen running from theBarton farm to the Chester Pike. Another lane runs from the Mills farmto the same Pike. The small crossmarks on the road lines indicatebarbed wire fences; the round circles indicate smooth wire; the small, connected ovals (as shown around the cemetery) indicate stone walls, and the zigzag lines (as shown one mile south of Boling) representwooden fences. Near the center of the map, by the Chester Pike, is an orchard. Thesmall circles, regularly placed, give the idea of trees planted inregular rows. Each circle does not indicate a tree, but the areacovered by the small circles does indicate accurately the area coveredby the orchard on the ground. Just southwest of Boling a large woods (Boling Woods) is shown. Otherclumps of woods, of varying extent, are indicated on the map. The course of Sandy Creek can be readily traced, and the arrows placedalong it, indicate the direction in which it flows. Its steep banksare indicated by successive dashes, termed _hachures_. A few trees areshown strung along its banks. Baker's Pond receives its water from thelittle creek which rises in the small clump of timber just south ofthe pond, and the hachures along the northern end represent the steepbanks of a dam. Meadow Creek flows northeast from the dam and thennorthwest toward Oxford, joining Woods Creek just south of that town. York Creek rises in the woods 1-1/4 miles north of York, and flowssouth through York. It has a west branch which rises in the valleyssouth of Twin Hills. A railroad is shown running southeast from Oxford to Salem. Thehachures, unconnected at their outer extremities, indicate the fillsor embankments over which the track runs. Notice the fills orembankments on which the railroad runs just northwest of Salem; nearthe crossing of Sandy Creek; north of Baker's Pond; and where itapproaches the outskirts of Oxford. The hachures, connected alongtheir outer extremities, represent the cut through which the railroadpasses. There is only one railroad cut shown on the ElementaryMap--about one-quarter of a mile northeast of Baker's Pond--where itcuts through the northern extremity of the long range of hills, starting just east of York. The wagon roads pass through numerouscuts--west of Twin Hills, northern end of Sandy Ridge, southeasternend of Long Ridge, and so on. The small T's along the railroad andsome of the wagon roads, indicate telegraph or telephone lines. The conventional sign for a bridge is shown where the railroad crossesSandy Creek on a trestle. Other bridges are shown at the points thewagon roads cross this creek. Houses or buildings are shown in Oxford, Salem, York and Boling. They are also shown in the case of a number offarms represented--Barton farm, Wells farm, Mason's, Brown's, Baker'sand others. The houses shown in solid black are substantial structuresof brick or stone; the buildings indicated by rectangular outlines are"out buildings, " barns, sheds, etc. Plates I and II give the Conventional Signs used on military maps andthey should be thoroughly learned. [Illustration: Plate I] [Illustration: Plate II] In hasty sketching, in order to save time, instead of using theregulation Conventional Signs, very often simply the outline of theobject, such as a wood, a vineyard, a lake, etc. , is indicated, withthe name of the object written within the outline, thus: [Illustration: Fig. 19] Such means are used very frequently in rapid sketching, on account ofthe time that they save. By reference to the map of Fort Leavenworth, the meaning of all itssymbols is at once evident from the names printed thereon; forexample, that of a city, woods, roads, streams, railroad, etc. ; whereno Conventional Sign is used on any area, it is to be understood thatany growths thereon are not high enough to furnish any cover. As anexercise, pick out from the map the following conventional signs:Unimproved road, cemetery, railroad track, hedge, wire fence, orchard, streams, lake. The numbers on the various road crossings have noequivalent on the ground, but are placed on the maps to facilitatedescription of routes, etc. Often the numbers at road crossings onother maps denote the elevation of these points. Visibility =1875. = The problem of visibility is based on the relations ofcontours and map distances previously discussed, and includes suchmatters as the determination of whether a point can or can not be seenfrom another; whether a certain line of march is concealed from theenemy; whether a particular area is seen from a given point. On account of the necessary inaccuracy of all maps it is impossible todetermine exactly how much ground is visible from any givenpoint--that is, if a correct reading of the map shows a certain pointto be just barely visible, then it would be unsafe to say positivelythat on the ground this point could be seen or could not be seen. Itis, however, of great importance for one to be able to determine at aglance, within about one contour interval, whether or not such andsuch a point is visible; or whether a given road is generally visibleto a certain scout, etc. For this reason no effort is made to give anexact mathematical solution of problems in visibility further thanwould be useful in practical work with a map in the solution of mapproblems in patrolling. In the solution of visibility problems, it is necessary that oneshould thoroughly understand the meaning of profiles and theirconstruction. A profile is the line supposed to be cut from thesurface of the earth by an imaginary vertical (up and down) plane. (See Fig. 21. ) The representation of this line to scale on a sheet ofpaper is also called a profile. Figure 21 shows a profile on the lineD--y (Figure 20) in which the horizontal scale is the same as that ofthe map (Figure 20) and the vertical scale is 1 inch = 40 feet. It iscustomary to draw a profile with a greater vertical than horizontalscale in order to make the slopes on the profile appear to the eye asthey exist on the ground. Consequently, always note especially thevertical scale in examining any profile; the horizontal scale isusually that of the map from which the profile is taken. [Illustration: Fig. 20] [Illustration: Fig. 21] A profile is constructed as follows: (Fig. 21): Draw a line D'--y'equal in length to D--y on the map. Lay off on this line from D'distances equal to the distances of the successive contours from D onthe map. At each of these contour points erect a perpendicular equalto the elevation of this particular contour, as shown by the verticalscale (960, 940, 920, etc. ) on the left. Join successively theseverticals by a smooth curve, which is the required profile. Crosssection paper with lines printed 1/10 inch apart horizontally andvertically simplifies the work of construction, by avoiding thenecessity of laying off each individual distance. =1876. Visibility Problem. = To determine whether an observer with hiseye at D can see the bridge at XX (Figure 20). By examining theprofile it is seen that an observer, with his eye at D, looking alongthe line D--XX, can see the ground as far as (a) from (a) to (b), ishidden from view by the ridge at (a); (b) to (c) is visible; (c) to(d) is hidden by the ridge at (c). By thus drawing the profiles, thevisibility of any point from a given point may be determined. The workmay be much shortened by drawing the profile of only the observer'sposition (D) of the point in question, and of the probable obstructingpoints (a) and (c). It is evidently unnecessary to construct theprofile from D to x, because the slope being concave shows that itdoes not form an obstruction. The above method of determining visibility by means of a profile isvaluable practice for learning slopes of ground, and the forms of theground corresponding to different contour spacings. Visibility of Areas =1877. = To determine the area visible from a given point the samemethod is used. First mark off as invisible all areas hidden by woods, buildings, high hills, and then test the doubtful points along linessuch as D--XX, Figure 20. With practice the noncommissioned officercan soon decide by inspection all except the very close cases. This method is a rapid approximation of the solution shown in theprofile. In general it will not be practicable to determine thevisibility of a point by this method closer than to say the line ofsight pierces the ground between two adjoining contours. CHAPTER II MILITARY SKETCHING (While this chapter presents the principal features of military sketching in a simple, clear manner, attention is invited to the fact that the only way that any one who has never done any sketching can follow properly the statements made, is to do so with the instruments and the sketching material mentioned at hand. In fact, the only way to learn how to sketch is to _sketch_. ) =1878. = A military sketch is a rough map showing the features of theground that are of military value. Military sketching is the art of making such a military sketch. Military sketches are of three kinds: Position sketches, Fig. 1; Outpost sketches; Road sketches. All kinds of military sketches are intended to give a militarycommander detailed information of the ground to be operated over, whenthis is not given by the existing maps, or when there are no maps ofthe area. The general methods of sketching are: (1) The location of points by intersection. (2) The location of points by resection. =1879. Location of points by intersection. = To locate a point byintersection proceed as follows: Set up, level and orient thesketching board (Par. 1872), at A, Fig. 1. The board is said to beoriented when the needle is parallel to the sides of the compasstrough of the drawing board, Fig 2. (At every station the needle musthave this position, so that every line on the sketch will be parallelto the corresponding line or direction on the ground. ) Assume a point(A) on the paper, Fig. 1 Y, in such a position that the ground to besketched will fall on the sheet. Lay the ruler on the board and pointit to the desired point (C), all the while keeping the edge of theruler on the point (A), Fig. 1 Y. Draw an indefinite line along theedge. Now move to (B), Fig. 1 X, plotted on the map in (b), Fig. 1 X, and having set up, leveled and oriented as at (A), Fig. 1 Y, sighttoward (C) as before. The intersection (crossing) of the two lineslocates (C) on the sketch at (c), Fig. 1 X. [Illustration: Fig. 1] =1880. Locating points by resection. = A sketcher at an unknown pointmay locate himself from two visible known points by setting up andorienting his sketching board. He then places his alidade (ruler) sothat it points at one of the known points, keeping the edge of thealidade touching the corresponding point on the sketch. He then drawsa ray (line) from the point toward his eye. He repeats the performancewith the other visible known point and its location on the map. Thepoint where the rays intersect is his location. This method is called_resection_. However, local attractions for the compass greatly affectthis method. =1881. The location of points by traversing. = To locate a point bytraversing is done as follows: With the board set up, leveled andoriented at A, Fig. 1 Y, as above, draw a line in the direction of thedesired point B, Fig. 1 X, and then move to B, counting strides, keeping record of them with a tally register, Fig. 3, if one isavailable. Set up the board at B, Fig. 1 X, and orient it by layingthe ruler along the line (a)-(b), Fig. 1 X, and moving the board untilthe ruler is directed toward A, Fig. 1 Y, on the ground; or elseorient by the needle as at A. With the scale of the sketcher's strideson the ruler, lay off the number of strides found from A, Fig. 1 Y, toB, Fig. 1 X, and mark the point (b), Fig. 1 X. Other points, such asC, D, etc. , would be located in the same way. =1882. The determination of the heights of hills, shapes of theground, etc. , by contours. = To draw in contours on a sketch, thefollowing steps are necessary: [Illustration: Fig. 2] (a) From the known or assumed elevation of a located station as A, Fig. 1 Y, (elevation 890), the elevations of all hill tops, streamjunctures, stream sources, etc, are determined. (b) Having found the elevations of these critical points the contoursare put in by spacing them so as to show the slope of the ground alongeach line such as (a)-(b), (a)-(c), etc. , Fig. 1 Y, as these slopesactually are on the ground. [Illustration: (Tally Register)--Fig. 3] [Illustration: (Clinometer)--Fig. 4] To find the elevation of any point, say C (shown on sketch as c), proceed as follows: Read the vertical angle with slope board, Fig. 2, or with aclinometer, Fig. 4. Suppose this is found to be 2 degrees; lay thescale of M. D. [22] (ruler, Fig. 2) along (a)-(c), Fig. 1 Y, and notethe number of divisions of -2 degrees (minus 2°) between (a) and (c). Suppose there are found to be 5-1/2 divisions; then, since eachdivision is 10 feet, the total height of A above C is 55 feet (5-1/2 ×10). C is therefore 835 ft. Elev. Which is written at (c), Fig. 1 Y. Now looking at the ground along A-C, suppose you find it to be a verydecided concave (hollowed out) slope, nearly flat at the bottom andsteep at the top. There are to be placed in this space (a)-(c), Fig. 1Y, contours 890, 880, 870, 860 and 850, and they would be spaced closeat the top and far apart near (c), Fig. 1 Y, to give a true idea ofthe slope. The above is the entire principle of contouring in making sketches andif thoroughly learned by careful repetition under differentconditions, will enable the student to soon be able to carry thecontours with the horizontal locations. =1883. = In all maps that are to be contoured some plane, called the_datum plane_, must be used to which all contours are referred. Thisplane is usually mean sea level and the contours are numbered fromthis plane upward, all heights being elevations above mean sea level. In a particular locality that is to be sketched there is generallysome point the elevation of which is known. These points may be benchmarks of a survey, elevation of a railroad station above sea level, etc. By using such points as the reference point for contours theproper elevations above sea level will be shown. In case no point of known elevation is at hand the elevation of somepoint will have to be assumed and the contours referred to it. Skill in contouring comes only with practice but by the use ofexpedients a fairly accurate contoured map can be made. In contouringan area the stream lines and ravines form a framework or skeleton onwhich the contours are hung more or less like a cobweb. These linesare accurately mapped and their slopes determined and the contours arethen sketched in. If the sketcher desires he may omit determining the slopes of thestream lines and instead determine the elevations of a number ofcritical points (points where the slope changes) in the area and thendraw in the contours remembering that contours bulge downward onslopes and upward on streams lines and ravines. If time permits both the slopes of the stream lines and the elevationof the critical points may be determined and the resulting sketch willgain in accuracy. Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 show these methods of determining andsketching in contours. [Illustration: Fig. 5] [Illustration: Fig. 6] [Illustration: Fig. 7] [Illustration: Fig. 8] [Illustration: Fig. 9] =1884. Form lines. = It frequently happens that a sketch must be madevery hastily and time will not permit of contouring. In this case formlines are used. These lines are exactly like contours except that theelevations and forms of the hills and depressions which they representare estimated and the sketcher draws the form lines in to indicate thevarying forms of the ground as he sees it. =1885. Scales. = The Army Regulations prescribe a uniform system ofscales and contour intervals for military maps, as follows: Road sketches and extended positions; scale 3 inches to a mile, vertical (or contour) interval, 20 feet. Position or outpost sketches; scale 6 inches to a mile, vertical (orcontour) interval, 10 feet. This uniform system is a great help in sketching as a given mapdistance, Par. 1867a, represents the same degree of slope for both the3 inch to the mile or the 6 inch to the mile scale. The map distancesonce learned can be applied to a map of either scale and this is ofgreat value in sketching. Construction of Working Scales =1886. Working scale. = A _working scale_ is a scale used in making amap. It may be a scale for paces or strides or revolutions of a wheel. =1887. Length of pace. = The length of a man's pace at a natural walkis about 30 inches, varying somewhat in different men. Each man mustdetermine his own length of pace by walking several times over a knowndistance. In doing this be sure to take a natural pace. When you knowyour length of pace you merely count your paces in going over adistance and a simple multiplication of paces by length of pace givesyour distance in inches. In going up and down slopes one's pace varies. On level ground carefulpacing will give you distances correct to within 3% or less. The following tables give length of pace on slopes of 5 degrees to 30degrees, corresponding to a normal pace on a level of 30. 4 inches: +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Slopes | 0°| 5°| 10°| 15°| 20°| 25°| 30°| +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Length of step ascending | 30. 4| 27. 6| 24. 4| 22. 1| 19. 7| 17. 8| 15. 0| |Length of step descending| 30. 4| 29. 2| 28. 3| 27. 6| 26. 4| 23. 6| 19. 7| +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ For the same person, the length of step decreases as he becomes tired. To overcome this, ascertain the length of pace when fresh and whentired and use the first scale in the morning and the latter in theafternoon. The result of the shortening of the pace due to fatigue or going overa slope, is to make the map larger than it should be for a givenscale. This is apparent when we consider that we take more paces incovering a given distance than we would were it on a horizontal planeand we were taking our normal pace. In going up or down a slope of 3 or 4 we actually walk 5 units, butcover only 4 in a horizontal direction. Therefore, we must makeallowance when pacing slopes. In counting paces count each foot as it strikes. In counting stridescount only 1 foot as it strikes. A stride is two paces. In practice it has been found that the scale of strides is far moresatisfactory than a scale of paces. =1888. How to make a scale of paces. = Having determined the length ofour pace, any one of the following three methods may be used in makinga working scale: _1st method. _ The so-called "One thousand unit rule" method is asfollows: Multiply the R. F. (representative fraction) by the number of inchesin the unit of measure multiplied by 1000; the result will be thelength of line in inches necessary to show 1000 units. For example, let us suppose that we desire a graphic scale showing1000 yards, the scale of the map being 3 inches equal 1 mile: Multiply 1/21120 (R. F. ) by 36 (36 inches in 1 yard, the unit ofmeasure) by 1000, --that is, (1/21120) × 36 × 1000 = 36000/21120 = 1. 7046 inches. Therefore, a line or graphic scale 1. 7 inches in length will represent1000 yards. If we desire a working scale of paces at 3 inches to the mile, and wehave determined that our pace is 31 inches long, we would have(1/21120) × 31 × 1000 = 31000/21120 = 1. 467 inches. We can now lay off this distance and divide it into ten equal parts, and each will give us a 100-pace division. _2nd method. _ Lay off 100 yards; ascertain how many of your paces arenecessary to cover this distance; multiply R. F. By 7, 200, 000, anddivide by the number of paces you take in going 100 yards. The resultwill be the length of line in inches which will show 2000 of yourpaces. _3rd method. _ Construct a scale of convenient length, about 6 inches, as described in Par. 1863, to read in the units you intend to measureyour distance with (your stride, pace, stride of a horse, etc. ), tothe scale on which you intend to make your sketch. For example, suppose your stride is 66 inches long (33 inch pace) andyou wish to make a sketch on a scale of 3 inches = 1 mile. The R. F. Of this scale is 3 inches/1 mile = 3 inches/63360 inches = 1/21120. That is 1 inch on your sketch is to represent 21120 inches on theground. As you intend to measure your ground distances by countingyour strides of 66 inches length, 1 inch on the sketch will representas many of your strides on the ground as 66 is contained into 21120 =320 strides. For convenience in sketching you wish to make your scaleabout 6 inches long. Since 1 inch represents 320 strides, 6 incheswill represent 6 × 320 = 1, 920 strides. As this is an odd number, difficult to divide into convenient subdivisions of hundreds, fifties, etc. , construct your scale to represent 2, 000 strides, which will giveit a length slightly in excess of 6 inches--6. 25. Lay off this lengthand divide it into ten main divisions of 200 strides each, andsubdivide these into 50 stride divisions as explained in Par. 1862. =1889. Position sketching. = The following are the instruments used inposition sketching: 1. Drawing board with attached compass (Fig. 2); 2. Loose ruler, on board (Fig. 2); 3. Rough tripod or camera tripod; 4. Scale of M. D. 's (shown on ruler, Fig. 2); 5. Scale of sketchers, strides or paces (at six inches to one mile), on ruler; 6. Clinometer (not necessary if board has slope board, Fig. 6); 7. Scale of hundreds of yards shown on ruler; 8. Scale of paces. Methods to be used (1) Select a base line, --that is, a central line 1/4 to 1/2 mile longin the area to be sketched. It should have at its ends some plainlymarked objects, such as telegraph poles, trees, corners of buildings, etc. , and from its ends, and intermediate points, a good view of thearea should be possible. The base line selected should be capable ofbeing measured. (2) Set up, level and orient the drawing board at one end of the base(A), Fig. 1, Y, for example. Draw a meridian on the sheet parallel tothe position of the magnetic needle. Assume a point (A), Fig. 1, Y, corresponding to the ground point (A), 890, on the sheet, in such aposition that the area to be sketched will lie on the sheet. (3) Sight at hilltops, stream junctures, stream heads, etc. , to beginthe locations of these points by intersection, labelling each ray soas to be able to identify it later. (4) Traverse to (b) and complete the locations by intersection aspreviously explained. If the base line is not accurately measured, themap will be correct within itself in all of its proportions, but itsscale will not necessarily be the scale desired. (5) Draw the details of the country between A and B and in thevicinity of this line, using the conventional signs for roads, houses, etc. (6) The lines from station (b), Fig. 1, X, to any of the other locatedpoints may now be used as a new base line to carry the work overadditional area. (7) In case parts of the area are not visible from a base line, theseparts are located by traversing as before explained. (8) Having learned by several repetitions the above steps, thesketcher will then combine contouring with his horizontal locations. =1890. Outpost sketching. = The same instruments are used as inposition sketching, and so are the methods the same, except that thesketcher cannot advance beyond the outpost line, toward the supposedposition of the enemy. It is often possible to select a measurablebase line well in rear of the line of observation, --for instance, along the line of resistance. Secondary base lines may then be takenon or near the line of observation, from the extremities of whichadditional base lines may be selected, if necessary, and points towardthe enemy's position located by intersection. Details are sketched inas in position sketching. For obvious reasons, no traversing should bedone along the line of observation. =1891. Road sketching. = The following are the instruments used in roadsketching: 1. Drawing board or sketching case; 2. Loose ruler; 3. Scale of strides, or paces, if made dismounted; scale of timetrotting or walking, if mounted; 4. Scale of hundreds of yards, at three inches to 1 mile; 5. Scale of M. D. 's; 6. Slope board (if clinometer is not available). Methods to be used (1) At station 1, Fig. 10, orient the board as described in par. 1872, holding the board in the hands, in front of the body of the sketcher, who faces toward station 2. [Illustration: Fig. 10] (2) Important points in the vicinity, such as the railroad bridge, thestream juncture, hilltops, are sighted for intersections, lines drawnas shown and the sketcher traverses to station 2. (3) At station 2 he locates and draws in all details between station 1and 2, to include about 300 yards on each side of the road. (4) The traverse is then continued forward as described for 1 and 2. (5) After some practice of horizontal sketching, as just described, the sketcher will be able to take up contouring in combination. Themethods are as described in the paragraph on contouring. (6) When the traverse runs off the paper as at A, Fig. 10, thefollowing method is followed: Reorient the board so that the roadforward will lie across the long dimensions of the paper; draw ameridian parallel to the compass needle and assume a point on the newsheet corresponding to the last point (A) plotted on the first sheet. (7) On completion of the sketch various sections will be pastedtogether, so that all the meridians are parallel. =1892. Combined sketching. = Let us suppose that we have the rectangleW, X, Y, Z, Fig. 11, assigned to us to map and that we have been givenfour sketching parties, and that the locations and elevations of A andB have been previously determined by triangulation and are plotted toscale on our rectangle. A logical step would be to carefully plot the line a' b', and then thelines c' c" and c" d. If the area is densely wooded we run "line of level" by using theslope board or clinometer and by taking elevations at pointsarbitrarily selected. Our lines will look something like this: [Illustration: Fig. 11] Each party will be given its rectangle with the traverses sketched in. They will each then run similar traverses over the other two sides oftheir area and then fill in. In this manner the whole work is tied upto the original lines. Another method The line A B, Fig. 12, is carefully plotted. Each of the foursketching parties has two sketching groups. One group of party No. 1traverses line a' Y; then the other group of the party traverses theline a" y'. The first group of party of No. 2 accompanies them. Thesecond group of party No. 2 traverses the line c" d, accompanied bythe first group of party No. 3; the second group of party No. 3, andthe first group of party No. 4 traverse b" z', and the second group ofparty No. 4 traverses b' Z. When the first group of party No. 1arrives at Y, it traverses Y y'. The second group of party No. 1, arriving at y', cuts the sheet along traverse and gives the firstgroup of party No. 2 the part which shows their area; and thentraverses toward Y from y'. Upon meeting the first group of party No. 1, they join forces and proceed to fill in their area. [Illustration: Fig. 12] In the same manner areas W X a' b' are filled in. [Illustration: Fig. 13] The method described above is useful in working over country which isdensely wooded, and in which a general view cannot be obtained, forexample, in mapping jungles. An additional article of the sketcher's equipment is a holder for hispencils, alidade, eraser, knife, pins, etc. This consists of a seriesof small pockets sewed on to a piece of canvas about 7 inches by 4inches. This can be attached to the left breast of the sketcher's coator shirt by means of two pins. In addition to keeping all of hisimplements in a handy place the holder prevents the loss of theseveral articles. Nothing is so discouraging to the sketcher as tolook for his pencil, eraser, knife or even alidade and find that hehas left it several hundred yards back where he sat down last tosketch in details. By using the holder the sketcher gets into thehabit of replacing articles after they are used and consequentlyalways has them with him when needed. These holders ready made can beobtained from the Secretary, Army Service Schools at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In sketching a good quality of paper should always be used as erasureswill be frequent. A specially prepared paper that has the appearanceof oiled paper can be obtained commercially and is excellent forsketching in damp weather. It has considerable resistance to rain. Sheets of celluloid prepared for sketching are invaluable in sketchingin the rain. These are a part of the equipment of the case ofsketching instruments supplied battalions in the regular army. Thesesheets may be procured at most any dealers. Points for Beginners to Remember =1893. = 1. Always keep your pencils sharpened and have an eraserhandy. No one but an expert can sketch with a dull pencil. 2. Use hard pencils when learning to sketch--4H to 6H--and go overyour work afterwards with a softer pencil--2H. 3. Do not try to put down on your sketch a mass of small details thatare too small to be shown on the scale at which you are sketching. Forexample, if you are making a sketch on a scale of 3 inches = 1 mile, do not try to show each house in a row of houses; simply indicate thatthere is a row of houses, by putting down several distinctconventional signs for houses in a row; nor should you try to showevery little "cut" through which the road may run. Only use about onesign to the inch of telegraph or telephone lines, for wire fences, etc. 4. When first practicing sketching only plot the route over which youwalk, indicating it by a single line. When you can do this withfacility, go back over one of these plotted routes and fill in thewoods, houses, streams and the other large features. 5. The beginner should sketch the same ground several times over--atleast three or four times. Practice alone will make perfect. 6. Always try to compare your finished sketch with an accurate map ofthe ground, if one is obtainable. Try to practice on ground of whichyou can obtain a map. 7. Make each course (the distance you go between points where thedirection of your route changes) as long as possible. 8. Do not try to contour until you are expert at making a sketchshowing all the flat details (roads, streams, woods, houses, etc. ). 9. Never try to "sketch in" the contours until you have plotted thestream lines or the direction of the valleys, ravines, etc. Thecontours are fitted to or sketched around the drainage system; not thedrainage system to the contours. 10. Always "size up" ground before you sketch it; that is, take ageneral view of it, noticing the drainage system (the direction inwhich the streams flow or ravines run), the prominent hills andridges, the direction the roads run, etc. 11. Above all things, DON'T FAKE ANY PART OF YOUR MAP. If the man using your map happens to strike the faked portion, heimmediately condemns your whole map as incorrect. Every other part maybe highly accurate, but your whole map is discredited because the userstrikes the bad part first. You will naturally put little faith in theman who has told you something you know to be untrue. You will alwayssuspect him. So it is with maps. Don't put down anything that youdon't know to be correct. If any guess work is to be done, let the manusing the map do it, --he knows that he is guessing and will begoverned accordingly, but if you do the guessing, he doesn't knowwhere the guessing begins and the accurate work leaves off. Don'tfudge. Your name is on the map, --_don't have any questionable workhitched up to your name_. FOOTNOTES: [22] Sheets of working scales reading in paces, strides, minutes, etc, at a scale of 3 and 6 inches to the mile can be obtained at littlecost from the Secretary, Army Service Schools, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas INDEX (The numbers refer to paragraphs) A Par. No. Abatis 1176 About face, how executed 105 1. About, 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH 229 About, turning by mounted officer 74 Abstract of clothing 905 Abstract record of memorandum receipts 901 Adjustment of fire 1428 Adjutant, formation of battalion 307; 308 Adjutant of general officer, post of 73 Adjutant's call 616; 693 Advance by crawling, etc. 261 ADVANCE BY RUSHES: Commands 259 Company as whole led by captain 260 Position, fire 293 When impossible for company to advance as a whole 258 ADVANCE GUARD: Commander with 542 Connecting files 584 Machine guns 553 Meeting engagement 542; 543 ADVANCE OF: Battalion acting as part of firing line 343 Company into an engagement 249-257 Firing line 346 ADVANCING: Improvised formations for 257 In succession of thin lines 255; 256 The attack 467; 471 Aerial mines 1200 Aides, post of 73 Aim, commands for 189 Aiming and sighting 1350 Aiming exercise 1368 Aiming point 1357 AIMING POINT: Announced before or after range 181 Designations, practice in repeating 201 Once designated not changed unless ordered 182 Use 284 ALIGNMENT: Battalion, rectifying 310; 312 Command of captains in battalion drill at command guide right (left) 301 Company 218 Definition 24 Deployed lines preserve general alignment 240 Dressing companies in formation of battalion in line 308 Placing left hand on hip 70 Position of captain and platoon leaders in prolongation 218 Position of captains in dressing companies in battalion drill 302 Preservation while marching 155 Rules for guides in close order 210; 211 Squad 154 AMMUNITION: Bandoleers 573 Combat train and major's responsibility for ammunition in belts 572 Destination of combat wagons when refilled 571 Expenditure of 432; 433 For company, husbanding and distribution 286 Issue before deployment of battalion 269 Issue upon deployment of battalion 331 Men not to be sent back from firing line for ammunition 574 Of dead and wounded 572 Rendezvous for each brigade 570 Replenishment of ammunition after engagement 575 Sent forward with reinforcements 574 Supply 360; 569-575 Thirty rounds in right pocket section 573 Amusement room 879 Appearance of objects in firing 1396 Appendices, Infantry Drill Regulations 696-710 and pp. 192 a b c d Arm, disengaged, position at double time 121 (eighth) Arm signals 92; 401 Arrangement of companies in battalion formation 297 Art of instruction on varied ground 933 Art of leadership 372 Art of war, definition 943 ARTILLERY: Action of infantry in case enemy has powerful artillery 418 Change of target by infantry warranted in case of flanking fire against artillery 424 Communication with firing line 402 Covering deployment of artillery in meeting engagement 541 Deployment of troops when exposed to hostile artillery 463 Effect on deployed infantry usually unimportant 345 Infantry against 597-600 Infantry passing through deployed artillery 470 In pursuit 494 In withdrawal from action 546 Part played in pursuit 491; 494 Supported by infantry 434-437 Use against machine guns 555 Use in delaying action 533 Withdrawal of attacking troops covered by artillery 489 ARTILLERY SUPPORTS: Charged only with protection of artillery 605 Detailing of supports 602 Formation and location in action 604 Formation on march 603 Purpose 601 Asphyxiating gases 1194 Asphyxiation, first aid 1478 ASSEMBLE FROM: Deployment Battalion 326 Company 248 Squad 173 Distances 159 Intervals 157 Platoon or squad columns 254 Assembled skirmishers not while marching to rear 173 ASSEMBLY: Arm signals 92 Call 693 Point indicated by company flag 95 AS SKIRMISHERS: Action of squad leaders at preparatory command 237 Deployment squad 170 Deployment in oblique direction 245 Deployment to flank or rear 246 From a column of twos or files 244 From platoon or squad column 253 Guide right (left or center) (being in column of squads) 244 Guide right (left or center) (being in line) 243 Rules for deployment 236-247 To increase or decrease intervals 172 'As you were' 64 AT EASE: Applicable to any marching formation 233 Extended order executed at ease 55 (b) How executed 100 To march 233 With arms, executed as without arms 121 (fifth) Athletic apparatus, company 880 ATTACK: Advancing 467-471 Battalion in 342-356 Company in 249-294 Deployment for 463-466 Enveloping 461; 462 Feint 502 Fire attack 258-261; 414-438 Flank 459-462 Fortifications 495-498 Frontal 457; 462 General principles 456-502 Holding attack 499-502 Machine guns 555 Opening fire 417 Pursuit 490-494 Range 344; 426 The charge 478-489 Unit, the battalion 342 ATTENTION: Command for 82 Drills at are disciplinary exercises 55 (a) Forced at first word of command note of bugle or whistle 82 From parade rest 138 From rest and at ease resumed at order 121 (fifth) From route step or at ease 233 Position of 99 At trail (command) 121 (sixth) At will fire 190 Automatic alarms trenches 1192 Auxiliary aiming points 1431 B Back Step (backward march) 115 Bacon can, care of 1308 Balance position of left hand 122 (first) Ballistic qualities of rifle 1410 BAND: In reviews 623; 624 Post of 71; 72; 299 Bandoleers ammunition in to be used first 573 Barricades 1185 Base company in advancing by rushes 348 Base, definition 25 Base squad in deployment 236-329; 243-245 BATTALION: Adjutant, formation of battalion 307; 308 Advance close in on enemy as much as possible before opening fire 344 Advance when part of firing line 343 Advance of firing line 346 Alignment rectifying 310; 311 Ammunition issue upon deployment 331 Arrangement of companies in battalion 297 Assembly from deployment 326 Attack principles 342-356 Attack unit, the 342 Base company in attack 329 Battalion a tactical unit 295 Battalion right (left) 318 Bayonets order to fix given by major 355; 361 Charge, the 356 Close on first (fourth) company 320 Close order drill 300-326 Column rectifying 312 Column of companies, first company squads right (left) 315 Column of squads first company, squads right (left) 316 Column of squads first (fourth) company, squads right (left) (from close column) 323 Column of squads first (fourth) company forward (from close line) 324 Column right (left) 317; 319 Combat principles 327-363 Command for guides repeated by captain 301 Commands repeated by captains 300 Consolidation to provide war strength organizations 55 (d) Counter attack 363 Covering fire rushes made under 349 Defense 371 Defense opening fire 360 Deployment Avoidance of premature 332 Companies and detachments taking their places 334 Depth of 334 Designation of base company 329 Designation of companies 298 Dismissing 309 Division of battalion into support and firing line 335 Dressing battalion 310; 311 Dressing companies, action of guides 302 Dressing companies, position of captains 302 Extend on first (fourth) company 321 File closers, post in route marches 325 Fire, delayed opening as long as possible 344 Fire fight, where and when to begin, indicated by major 341 Fire to be directed against hostile infantry 345 Firing line: Advance 346 Companies to be kept closed in on center 354 Placing entire battalion or regiments into 339 Fix bayonets, ordered by major 355 Flanks, protection 330 Flank units to begin rush 348 Formations 307; 308 Front occupied by 334-339 Guides, action when companies are dressed 302 Guides, command for, repeated by captains 301 Hostile infantry target 345 Inspection 650-654 Intervals between battalions on firing line 465 Largest unit executing movement at command of the commander 88 Loading and firing 306 Mass formations 320 Major: Apportions target 340 Duties and responsibilities 295 Gives orders to charge 356 Gives order to fix bayonet 355; 361 His order making disposition of battalion for combat 329 Indicates where or when fire fight begins 341 Locates trenches and obstacles 358 Post during attack 352 Post in route march 325 Reënforces firing line (See "Battalion Commander") 359 Movements executed as in school of the company 325 Movements executed as in school of soldier, squad and company 303; 304 Movements explained for four companies 296 Musicians repeat signals to charge 356 Musicians repeat signal to fix bayonet 355 Muster 655-657 On right (left) into line 313 Opening fire on defense 360 Order of companies 297 Parade 636 Plate showing formations 300 Positions of captains in dressing companies 302 Post of band and other special units 299 Post of major during attack 352 Reconnaissance 330 Rectifying column 312 Reënforcing firing line, two methods 354 Reënforcements size 353 Repetition of command by captains 300 Review 631-633 Right (left) 318 Right (left) (center) dress 310; 311 Right front (left) into line (from column of squads or companies) 314 Right front into line (from close column) 322 Rushes: Advance made under covering fire 349 Begin by flank company 348 Prearranged methods prohibited 351 Subsequent to advancing 350 Rushing units, size 346; 347 School of 295 Simultaneous movements by companies or platoons 305 Size of reënforcements 353 Staff officers 579 Support: Battalion acting alone in defense 362 None at beginning 339 Position 337 Size 336 To cover withdrawal 362 Tactical unit best suited for defense 357 Target, apportioned by major 340 Target, hostile infantry 345 Trenches located by major 358 Withdrawal covered by support 362 BATTALION COMMANDERS: Duty regarding reconnaissance 412-413 Equipped with different tone of whistle 83 Responsibility regarding ammunition 570 Signal to rear when ready to charge 480 See "Major" under "Battalion" Battalion drill 300-363 Battalion inspection 650-654 Battalion parade 636 Battalion staff officers, training in patrolling and reconnaissance 579 BATTLE: Integrity of squads in 151 Separated officers and others placing themselves under order of nearest higher commander 390; 391 Battlefields, bugle signals used on 90 Battle order 392 Battle sight 26; 1352 (c) BAYONET: Charge in combat 356 Confidence in 485 Fixing 142 Habitually not fixed 121 (fourth) Order to fix in combat given by major 355-361 Position at charge 144 Unfixing 143 When fixed in combat 355; 361; 590 Beaten zone 1413 Bite of dog 1480 Bite of snake 1480 Blank cartridges, use 273 Bleeding, first aid 1481 Books and records, company 887-909 Bombs and grenades 1197-1199 Bombs from air craft 1202 Bore of rifle, care 1322-1324; 1328; 1330 Bridges 1111-1125 BRIGADE: Commander, action in deployment 440 Review 628; 629 Broken bones 1483 Bruises, first aid 1487 Brush work, field engineering 1117 Bugle calls, explanation 692-695 BUGLE SIGNALS: Communication between firing line and rear 401 Those used on and off battlefields 90 Bunks, camping 1251 Burning clothes 1486 Burns, first aid 1485 By platoon (squad, etc. ), from right (left) rush 259 "By the numbers" 122 (fifth) By the right (left) flank, how executed 117 By the right (left) flank in forming skirmish line 237 C CADENCE OF: Manual of arms 122 (fourth) Marching 108 CALLS: Alarm 694 Formation 693 Service 695 Warning 692 CAMPS: Camping on fordable stream 1237 Desirable sites 1231 Form and dimensions of camps 1233 Making camp 1234 Making tent poles and pegs fast in loose soil 1239 Parade ground 1236 Retreat in camp 1235 Sanitation. See "Camp Sanitation" Selection of site 1230 Trees in camp 1240 Undesirable sites 1232 Windstorms 1238 See "Camp Sanitation" CAMP SANITATION: Avoiding old camp sites 1249 Bunks 1251 Camp expedients 1242 Canteen, care 1311 Changing camp site 1250 Definition 1241 Drainage 1248 Incinerators 1247 Kitchens 1245 Kitchen pits 1246 Latrines 1243 Rules of sanitation 1254 Urinal tubs 1244 Water 1253 Wood 1252 Your camp, your home 1255 CAPTAIN: Directs the fire 285; 286 Duties, etc. 868; 871 Indicates point on which base squad marches in deployment 238 Leads depleted company as platoon 209 Leads company as whole in rushes 260 Position at alignment 218; 302 Post during firings 269; 306 Responsible for instruction 202 CARE OF: Clothing 1277 Equipment 1276 Feet 1229 Rifle 1321 Shoes 1292 Cartridges not to be carried in piece 121 (first) Cased colors, defined 659 Cat and mouse contest 1089 CAVALRY: Infantry against 591-596 In pursuit 494 In withdrawal from action 546 Patrols 411 CEASE FIRING: Bugle signal for 90 How executed 194 Krag rifle 705 Center company, defined 298 Center, definition 27 Center of impact 1412 CEREMONIES: Battalion parade 636 Battalion review 631 Escorts of-- Funeral 640-645 Honor 639 The Color 637-639 Formation of battalion 308 General rules 614-616 Mounted enlisted men formed into detachment 76 Parades, general rules 634; 635 Post of dismounted noncommissioned staff officers 77 Reviews, general rules 617-630 Ceremonies and drills at attention teach precision, etc. 55 (a) CHALLENGING ON: Guard 1746 Outpost 1103 Chancroid 1466 Change elevation; signal for 92 CHANGE OF DIRECTION: Battalion 317-319 Company 219; 223; 224 Partial 67 Squad 164; 165 Change step, how executed 119 CHARGE, THE: Additional force for pursuit 483 Avoiding too dense a mass 481 Battalion commanders signal commanders of line when ready to charge 480 Bayonet, confidence in ability to use 485 Charging without authority from rear 484 Counter attack, preparations to meet 487 Fire superiority, what it accomplishes 478 Line to be strengthened by prolongations 482 Not to be made without sufficient troops 481 Premature charges to be avoided 484 Psychological moment for charge determined by tactical instinct 478 Pursuing fire 486 Pursuing troops 487 Pursuit, disordered units not to participate in 486 Reorganization of charging line 487 Reserves give impetus to charge 481 Steps to be taken in case of temporary set back 488 Steps to be taken if attack is abandoned 489 Strength of charging line 449 To be made simultaneously 480 To be made with approval of commander of attacking line 480 When and distance over which charge should be made 479 Without fire preparation 497 Charge bayonet 144 Charges, preferring 882 Cheerfulness, factor in training 930 Cheveaux de frise 1179; 1189 Chiggers 1488 Choking, first aid 1489 "Chop-chop" signal 863 Clap 1466 Classes of firing 278-280 Clearness in instruction 922 CLIP FIRE: How executed 192 Krag rifle 704 Use 280 Clock system of target designation 1446; 1447 Clock system of wind designation 1391 Close on first (fourth) company 320 CLOSE ORDER: Advantage of formation 539 Battalion 300; 326 Company 210 Double rank, habitual formation 70 Firings in 269 Necessity for 379 Close packs 648 Close range 275 Close ranks 648 Cloth equipment, care 1301 Clothing, care of 1277 Cohesion and order in combat 376 Cold, effect on shooting 1397 COLOR: Escort of 637; 638 Manual of 670 Receiving 667-669 Regimental saluting 622 Saluting in reviews 618 With reserve in battle 665 See "The Color" COLOR COMPANY: Defined 663 Receiving the colors 668 COLOR GUARD: Carrying of color 661 Composition 661 Escorting color to office or quarters of colonel 670 Formation and marching 662 In battle joins reserve 665 Loadings and firings 666 Manual of the color 670 Manual of arms 660 Movements executed 666 Post in various formations 664 Receiving the color 667-669 Remains with color company 663 Colors and standards 1575 Column, definition 28 Column half right (left) 67 Columns of companies to form successively to right or left 315 Column of squads, first (fourth) company forward (from close line) 324 Column of squads, first (fourth) company, squads right (from close column) 323 Column of squads, first company, squads right (left) 316 Column of squads, habitual column of route 233; 276 Column of subdivisions, full distance defined 69 Column, rectifying (battalion) 312 Column, right (left) (battalion) 317; 319 Column, right (company) 224 COMBAT EXERCISES: Definition 55 (d) Effective method of conducting 371 Explained 1408 To be conducted under assumed tactical situations 370 To be followed by brief drill at attention 55 (d) Combat, modern, demands upon infantry 365 Combats offering no chance of valuable results to be avoided 374 Combat patrols to protect flanks of company acting alone 268 Combat practice 1404 COMBAT PRINCIPLES: Battalion 327 Summary 550 Combat reconnaissance 403 Combat tactics, general 364 Combined sights 1430 Combined sketching 1892 Commander of the guard 1603 Commanding officer accountable for training 51 Commanding officer, guard duty 1591 COMMANDS: Battalion and higher commanders repeat commands of superiors 88 Battalion largest unit executing movement at command of its commander 88 Definition 86 Facing troops and avoiding indifference when giving commands 89 For guides, repeated by captains at battalion drill 301 How given 86; 89 Loading and firing 179 Of executions 87 Preparatory 57; 87 Repetition by: Battalion and higher commanders 88 Captains at battalion drill 300 Leaders of subdivisions when necessary 83 Platoon leaders and platoon drill 214 Use in battalion combat 328 When used 80 Commander's post in fight 383 Commence firing, bugle signal for 90 Common tents 688; 690 Communication between firing line and reserve 96 Communicating trenches 1157 Communication, how maintained, etc. 398-402 Communication in fire control and direction 1447 (b) COMPANY: Abstract of clothing 905 Abstract record of memorandum receipts 901 Acting alone 267; 268 Arrangement in battalion formation 297; 614 Arrangement of men according to height 203 Athletic apparatus 880 Base 329-348 Books and records 887-909 Captain, duties etc. 868; 871 Center 298 Certain movements executed by company and platoons as prescribed in school of the Soldier and the squad 208 Close order drill 210 Column right (being in column of squads) 224 Companies to be consolidated to provide war strength organizations 55 (a) Company attention, from route step or at ease 233 Company fund book 892 Company return 908 Company musicians carry company flags 402 Company right 219 Complete equipment carried into action 382 Completion of task, rejoining command after 390 Contentment and harmony 877 Correspondence book 893 Delinquency record 895 Depleted company led as platoon 209 Deployment as skirmishers 241; 243; 244 Deployment in oblique direction 245 Descriptive card of animals 898 Descriptive list 897 Designation in battalion formation 297 Devolution of work and responsibility 869 Division into platoons 204 Division into squads 205 Document file 894 Dressing 218 Drill 202 Duty roster 890 Establishing outpost 1080 Extended order drill 236 Files of orders 891 First Sergeant duties 873 First sergeant's report when company is formed 215 Flags 94; 95; 401 Formations in single rank 216 Formed in double rank 203 Forms of company punishment 883 Half right 67; 219 Inspection 646-649 Inspections, object of 88 Instruction. See "Training and instruction" In support 262-266 Largest unit executing extended order 55 (b); 328 Library and amusement room 879 Lieutenants, duties, etc. 870; 871 Lieutenants taking post when company is formed 215 Memorandum receipts 900 Mess 878 Morning report 888 Muster 655-657 Noncommissioned officers 874 Noncommissioned officers confining enlisted men 875 Paperwork 887 Platoons, assignment 206 Platoons, designation 205 Property responsibility 886; 896 Protection against surprise 268 Punishment 882 Ration return 909 Record of rifles 902 Record of size of clothing 906 Reduction and resignation of noncommissioned officers 876 Retained copies of rolls, etc. 899 Rewards and privileges 881 Right 219 School of 210-294 Sick report 889 Squads designation 205 Statement of clothing charged to enlisted men 904 Summary Court records 903 Target records 907 To be kept closed in on center on firing line 354 To dismiss 217 To form 215-216 Training. See "Training and instruction" Treatment of soldiers 872 Trials by court martial 882 Withholding privileges 884 Compass, points of 1084 Complaints to captain 1528 COMPLICATED MANEUVERS: Impracticable 365 To be avoided 375 Compliments from guards 1782 Compliments not paid on marches 1227 Composition of infantry and other units 1858 Comradeship, factor in training 931 Concealment and dodging, training in 1087 Condiment can, care 1309 Cone of fire or dispersion 1411 Conical wall tent 689 Connecting Files at night 584 Consolidation of organizations to provide war strength 55 (d) Contentment and harmony in company 877 Contentment, factor in training 931 Contours 1882; 1866 Cooking individual 1256 Contract 249; 403-413 Conventional signs 1874 Coöperation between frontal and enveloping attacks 462 Coöperation of subordinates 387 Corduroying 1116 Corporal is squad leader 150 Corporal of the Guard 1666 Correction of errors, staying of execution of movements for 63-64 Correspondence book 893 COUNTER ATTACK: Battalion 363 General principles 525-530 Preparations 487 Countermining 1211 Countersigns and paroles 1769 Counting, indicating cadence 108 Counting off 153; 203 Courage 927 COVER: Skirmishers take advantage of, on halting 240 Use 195-199; 420 Training in use of 939 Covering fire, rushes made under 349 Cover trenches 1155 Crawling, advance of firing line 261 Cup, care 1310 "Cut off" habitually turned off 218 (third) Cuts, first aid, 1490 Courtesy. See "Military courtesy" D Daily sick report 889 Datum plane 1883 Decreasing intervals 247 DEFENSE: Action when target disappears 294 Active defense 527 Battalion on 357 Counter attack: Communicating and cover trenches head cover, etc. , construction 505 Cover, utilization 504 Importance of counter-attack 527 Manner of making 529 Minor 530 Post of troops 528 Delaying action: Important considerations 531 Purposes of support and reserve 532 Thin firing line to be used 532 Value of artillery 533 Deployment: Advance posts and other dispersion to be avoided 520 Assignment of front to units 516 Battalions to be kept intact 518 Dead space to be covered by adjoining section or machine guns 519 Density 509; 510 Division of positions into sections 517 Fire alone unable to stop attack; use of bayonet 522 Night attack, steps to be taken if expected 523 Position not to be fully occupied until infantry attack begins 521 Reserve, detaching part of, to protect opposite flank 515 Reserve posts 513; 514 Sections, divisions of positions into 517 Size of units occupying sections 518 Short range fire and bayonet in night attack 524 Strength in rear to be increased when change from defensive to offensive is contemplated 511 Supports, post and cover 512 Dummy trenches 506 Field works: Construction 504 Location, extent, garrison, etc. 507 Machine guns 556; 566 Obstacles, construction 504 Opening fire 360; 418 Passive 525 Position and intrenchments 503-508 Requisites of defensive position 503 Trenches, outlining trace in combat exercises 508 Defilade 1420 Deflection 1384 Deflection and elevation connection drills 1383 Deliberate intrenchments 1147 Delinquency record 895 Delivery of messages 958; 1530 Density of firing line 446-453; 532 Deploy, definition 29 Deployed line, faces to front and takes advantage of cover on halting 239 Deployed lines, alignment 239 Deployed troops, leading difficult 379 DEPLOYMENT: Action of brigade and regimental commanders in deployment of division 440 As skirmishes 65; 92; 170; 239-246 Battalion, depth of 334 Battalions furnish firing lines and support 455 Company, rules for 236 Companies and detachments taking their places 334 Dense, well directed and controlled fire gives fire superiority 446 Density of charging line 449 Density of one man per yard 447 Density of whole deployment varies with size of command 451 Division of battle line into battle districts 452 Each commander to guard his command against surprise 442 Extent of front occupied by unit depends upon security of flanks 453 For attack: Distance for hostile position at which deployment is made 463 Each unit to deploy on its own direction line 463 Foreground to be cleared of hostile detachments before deployment 463 Intervals between battalions 465 Moving well forward and deploying at night 464 Post of reserve 466 Reserve charged with flank protection 466 Formations of troops before and during 439 In defense. See "Deployment" under "Defense" In oblique direction 245 Length of firing line employed by whole force 449 Mechanism taught by extended order 55 (b) Occupation of only sections of long lines 447 Of squads when company is deployed 239 On wrong lines, avoided by reconnaissance 403 Orders for 392 Personal reconnaissance before deployment 441 Premature to be avoided 332; 443 Rectification of deployments in wrong direction 444 Reserves, how employed 455 Reserves furnished by units larger than battalion 441 Rules for 236-242 Side by side of regiments, battalions and companies 454 Strength of support and reserves 449; 450 Supports furnished by battalion 455 To flank or rear 246 Troops deployed vary from 1 to 10 men per yard 450 Use of thin firing lines 448 When made 463 Deportment, military 1523 Depth, definition 30 Descriptive card of animals 898 Descriptive list 897 DESIGNATION OF: Companies in battalion formation 298 Squads and platoons 205 Designation of targets 1445-1147 a Designation of winds 1391 Details and roster of guards 1585 Details to be left to subordinates 384; 385 Determination, factor in warfare 924 Deviation from orders 388 Devolution of work and responsibility 869 Diarrhoea 1491 Diminish intervals 172 Directions given subordinates through immediate superiors 397 DISCIPLINE: Definition 910 General principles 916 Importance 912 Methods of attaining good discipline 911; 914 Punishment 915 Sound system 913 Disciplinary exercises--drills at attention and ceremonies 55 a Discipline and training necessary 379 Discipline, fire 291; 430; 431 Dislocations, first aid 1492 DISMISSING: Battalion 309 Company 217 Squad 147 Dismounted noncommissioned staff officers, posts 77; 78 Dismounting, before addressing dismounted superior 1558 Dismounting before saluting dismounted senior 75 DISTANCE: Between firing line and support 338 Between front and rear rank 153 Between units in column of subdivisions 69 Definition 31 Plates showing distances: Battalion near, 300 Company near, 207 Taken by file closers in "take distance" and "take interval" 213 DISTANCE TAKING: Action of guides 213 How executed 158 Distant range 275 Distance to target, determination of 276 Distribution of fire 1441-1444 Distribution of fire and target 282; 283; 427 Division of battalion into firing line and support 335 Document file 894 Dog's bite 1480 Do something 386 DOUBLE RANK: Company to be formed in 203 Habitual close order formation 70 Kneeling and lying down in 178 Rear rank loading and firing 179 Double sleeping bag 686 DOUBLE TIME: Adding preparatory command 109 Any movement executed in, unless excepted 60 Cadence 108 Command for 111 Command for precedes command of execution 60 Dropping hands by side upon halting 116 Half step, length 113 In successive movements, base unit marches in quick time 61 Position of disengaged hand 111; 121 To hasten movements begun in quick time 177 To the rear 118 Drainage, camping, 1248 Drainage of trenches 1167 Draw saber 671 Dress, appearance 1523 DRESSING: Battalion 310; 311 Company 218 Companies, position of captain 218; 302 Deployed lines 240 Drill at attention after combat exercises 55 (d) Squad (right or left) 154 Verify both ranks 154 DRILL: Battalion 295-363 Company 202-294 Squad 148-202 Drills at attention and ceremonies designed to teach precision, etc. 55 (a) Drill regulations furnished as guide, providing principles for training, etc. 53 Drill regulations, interpretation of 53 Drowning 1493 Drum major at battalion inspection 650 Dugouts, trenches 1156 Dummy trenches 1163 Duties of infantry, many and difficult 366 Duties of officers and noncommissioned officers in battle 389 Duty roster 890 E Earache 1494 Ear, foreign body in 1495 Echelon definition 49 Effect of fire 1410 Effect of heat, light, etc. 1397-1403 Effectiveness of fire 1416 Effective range 275 Efficiency dependent upon thorough and uniform training 51 Elastic formations essential to correct battle training 52 Electric shock 1496 Element, definition 32 Elevation, change of 92 Encroachment upon functions of subordinates 396 Endurance, limit of, exacted 380 Enemy--imaginary outlined and represented 56; 370 Entrenching at night 1099 ENVELOPING ATTACK: Advantages 459; 461 Resulting in local frontal attack 461 To be started at considerable distance from enemy 462 Envelopment of both flanks, when allowable 460 EQUIPMENT: Carried into action 382 Display for inspection 682 EQUIPMENT, CARE OF: Cloth equipment: General instructions 1301 Intrenching tools 1312 Shelter tent 1303 Washing 1302 Clothing: Grease spots 1285; 1289 Ink stains 1287 Leggins 1280 Paint spots 1290 Rust 1286 Stains 1284 Importance 1276 Leather equipment: Cleaning 1316 Cleaning materials 1315 New equipment 1318 Oiling 1317; 1319 Points to be remembered 1320 Mess outfit: Bacon can 1308 Canteen 1311 Condiment can 1309 Cup 1310 Fork 1305 Knife 1304 Meat can 1307 Spoon 1306 Rifle 1321 Shoes: Care 1292 Polishing 1295; 1299; 1300 Repairing 1294 Selection 1293 Wet shoes 1297 Equipment. See "Care and preservation" Errors staying execution of movement, for correction of 63; 64 ESCORTS OF: Funeral 640-645 Honor 639 The Color 637; 638 Establishing outpost by company 1080 Estimate of situation 950 Estimating distance 1393-1395 Estimating distances, training in 201 Estimators of ranges 278 Exercises in fire control and direction 1450 EXTENDED ORDER: Certain movements executed as in close order 241 Company 236-268 Company largest unit executing 55 (b) Company largest unit to execute movements by prescribed commands 328 Exercises to be in nature of combat exercise 370 Purpose 55 (b) Squad 170 To be executed at ease 55 (b) Extended on first (fourth) company 321 Eye, foreign body in 1497 Eyes left, when post of reviewing officer is on left of column 626 EYES RIGHT: How executed 103 Battalion review 631; 632 Eyesight in scouting 1083 Eyes, use of 200 F Facings 104 Facing about to give commands, staff stands fast 74 Facing about, mounted officer turns to left 74 Facing troops when giving commands 89 Fainting, first aid 1498 "Fall in" 100; 153 "Fall in" executed at order 121 (fifth) "Fall out" 100 "Fall out" executed as without arms 121 (fifth) Falling in with hands on hips 70 Fascines 1117; 1118 Faster, command for increasing rate of fire 191 Fear 926 Feet, care of 1229 Feint attacks 502 Field efficiency of organization 51 FIELD ENGINEERING: Bridges: Double lock 1114 Roadway of spar 1115 Single lock 1113 Spar 1112 Brush work 1117 Corduroying 1116 Fascines 1117; 1118 Gabions 1121-1123 Hurdles 1119 Knots: Bowline 1130 Clove hitch 1128 Eye splice 1135 Long splice 1134 Sheep shank 1132 Short splice 1133 Square or reef 1126 Timber hitch 1129 Two-half hitches 1127 Lashings 1136-1139 Revetments 1124; 1125 Field exercises, definition 55 (c); 56 FIELD FORTIFICATIONS: Classification 1142 Communicating trenches 1157 Concealment of trenches 1162 Cover trenches 1155 Deliberate intrenchments 1147 Drainage 1167 Dugouts 1156 Dummy trenches 1163 Example of trench system 1160 Fire trenches 1148 Hasty intrenchments 1143 Head cover 1152 Illumination of foreground 1170 Kneeling trench 1145 Latrines 1169 Length of trench 1164 Location of trenches 1161 Lookouts 1158 Loopholes and notches 1153 Lying trench 1144 Notches and loopholes 1153 Object 1140 Overhead cover 1154 Parados 1151 Preparation of foreground 1165 Revetments 1166 Siege works 1172 Sortie steps 1150 Standing trench 1146 Supporting points 1159 Telephones 1171 Traverses 1149 Trench recesses 1150 Water supply 1168 Field officers, habitually mounted 73 File definition 33 FILE CLOSER: Darting through column of squads 221 Execution of loadings and manual of arms 212 On the right (left) flank 211 Post in column of squads 221 Post in route marches 325 To correct mistakes 71 Files, advancing by 255 Files of orders, company 891 Fill magazine 702 Finding way in strange country 1084 Fine sight 1353 (b) Finger system of target designation 1447 (a) FIRE: By volley 189; 278 Classes of 179; 194; 278-280 Clip 192; 280 Commands for 179; 189; 194 Delay opening as long as possible 344 In deployment controlled by platoon leaders 269 Long range, when effective 416 Observation of 428; 429 Opening in attack 344; 417 Opening in defense 417 Purpose and nature 414; 415 Rate of 191; 292 To be directed against hostile infantry 345 Fire action 269 FIRE ATTACK: Fire superiority sought at first firing position and to be maintained until charging point is reached 472 Futility of advancing without fire superiority 473 General principles 258; 472 Intrenching 475 Retiring under fire suicidal 475 Signs that fire superiority has been gained 474 Size of rushing units 472 Supports and reserves occupying trenches vacated by firing line to improve same 476 FIRE AT WILL: How executed 190 Use 279 Fire control, company 287-290 Fire direction, company 285; 286 FIRE CONTROL AND DIRECTION: General considerations 416 Signals 431 Fire direction and control 1434-1440 Fire discipline 291; 430; 431 Fire discipline, definition 1406 Fire distribution 427; 1441-1444 Fire fight, where and when to begin, indicated by major 341 FIRE OF POSITION: Use of machine guns 555 When used 438 FIRE SUPERIORITY: Futility of advancing without 473 Purpose and nature 414 Signs that it has been gained 474 Sought at first firing position 472 To be maintained until charging point is reached 472 What it accomplishes 478 Fire trenches 1148 Fire unit, platoon 287 Firing at night 1101 Firing at stationary targets 1428 Firing by sentries at night 1104 Firing, classes of 278-280 FIRING LINE: Advance 258-261; 346 Advance as far as possible before opening fire 467 Advanced elements not to open fire on main position 471 Companies to be kept closed in on center 354 Control by signals 55 (d) Controlled by commander when whole line has been absorbed 383 Density 446-453 Furnished by battalion 455 Placing entire battalion or regiment into 339 Premature formation to be avoided 443 Reënforcement by major 359 To advance as far as possible before opening fire 467 Firing line and support, division of battalion 335 Firings in close order 269 Firings and loadings, see "Loadings and firings" First aid packet 1521 First aid to sick and injured 1478 FIRST SERGEANT: Accompanies captain when company is deployed 207 Assists in fire control in case of depleted company 209 Duties 873 Never assigned as guide 207 Post 207 Report when company is formed 215 Fish hook, first aid 1499 Fits, first aid 1500 Fix bayonets, how executed 142 Fix bayonet order, given by major 355 Fixed forms covering all cases impossible 369 FIXED PIVOT, TURN ON: Company 219-221 Squad 165 When used 66 FLAG: Company signal carried by company musicians (now buglers) 401 Defined 1575 Of general officers, post of 73; 618 Respect paid to 1574; 1575 Signals 94; 400; 401 Signaling to artillery 437 To outline enemy 371 Flag-stealing contest 1090 FLANK: By the right, how executed 117 Definition 35; 54 Deployment as skirmishers 246 Movements executed towards either, explained toward but one flank 58 Unit to begin rush 348 FLOURISHES AT: Funeral 641 Review 624 Fly, disease carrier 1460 Folding tents 691 FOLLOW ME: In forming skirmish line 237 In rushes 259 To follow corporal 169 Footmarks, following 1088 Forced marches 1225 Fork, care 1305 FORM: Column of companies 315 Column of squads 316 For shelter tents 181 Formation calls 693 Formation definition 36 FORMATIONS FOR: Advancing improvised 257 Support 262 FORMATION OF: Battalion 307; 308 Company 215 Squad 153 Form lines 1884 Forms of speech 1526 Fortifications, attack 495-498 FORWARD MARCH: From half step, halt and mark time 113 From halt 110 From oblique 163 Pieces brought to right shoulder from order, at command 121 (sixth) Fractures 1483 Fraise 1178 Freezing, first aid 1502 Front, definition 37 Front, extent of in deployment 446-453 FRONT OF: Deployed battalion 334-337 Deployed squad 171 Frontal attacks, when they may be successful 457 FRONT INTO LINE: Battalion 314 Company 231 Frost-bite, first aid 1503 Full distance, definition 69 Full sight 1353 (c) Full step, length and cadence 108 Funeral escort 640-645 G Gabions 1121-1123 Gallery practice 1385 Gangrene 1482 Gases, asphyxiating 1194 GENERAL COMMON SENSE PRINCIPLES OF APPLIED MINOR TACTICS: Art of war, definition 943 Estimating the situation 950 Maneuvers 947; 949 Map problems 945; 949 Mission, defined 950 Noncommissioned officers, responsibilities in time of war 944 Orders, tactical, preparation 952 Terrain exercises 945; 949 War game 946; 949 General officers habitually mounted 73 General plan to be furthered by subordinates 386 GENERAL RULES FOR: Ceremonies 614-616 Drills and formations 57-79 Parades 634; 635 Reviews 617-630 Gentle reverse slopes 1427 Germs 1452 Gonorrhoea 1466 Grazing fire 1423 Grease spots, how removed 1285; 1289 Grenades and bombs 1197-1199 Ground, use of 420; 421 GUARD DUTY: Challenging 1746 Classification of guards 1584 Commander of the guard 1603 Commanding officer 1591 Compliments from guard 1782 Corporal of the guard 1666 Countersigns and paroles 1769 Details and roster 1585 Duty of sentinels 1578 General rules concerning guard duty 1792 Guarding prisoners 1797 Guard mounting: Formal 1840 Informal 1847 Guard patrols 1778 Importance 1576 Musicians of the guard 1700 Officer of the day 1593 Orderlies and color sentinels 1702 Orders for sentinels 1716 Paroles and countersigns 1769 Privates of the guard 1715 Relieving old guard 1850 Respect for sentinels 1577 Reveille and retreat gun 1837 Sentinels of troops stable guard 1825 Sentinels' orders 1716 Sergeant of the guard 1642 Special orders for sentinels at post of guard 1759 Stable guards 1806 Troop stable guards 1808 Watchmen 1781 GUARD MOUNTING: Formal 1840 Informal 1847 Guard patrols 1778 Guarding prisoners 1797 GUIDE: Announcing before executing platoons right (left) 220 Definition 38 In deployment 236 In successive formations 65 Right (left) 155 What it is, unless otherwise announced 65 When given in connection with movement, follows command of execution 65 GUIDES: Alignment of battalion 311 Assignment to platoons 206 Battalion formed in line 308 Battalion marching in column of companies or platoons 325 Battalion parade 636 Close on first (fourth) company 320 Column of companies, first company, squads right 315 Column right (left) battalion 317 Dressing company when battalion is in line 302 Duties in battle 389 Duties in fire fight 289 Equipped with whistles 83 Execution of loading and manual of arms as file closers 212 First Sergeant never assigned as 207 Guide 65 Guide of leading subdivision charged with step and direction in column of subdivisions 69 In successive formation guide is toward base 65 Manual of arms, execution by file closers 212 Partial changes of direction 67 Platoon guides 210 Platoon guides accompany leader when platoon is deployed 206 Positions shown in plates of company and battalion 166 Post in column of squads 211 Post of file closers in route marches 325 Rectifying column (battalion) 313 Repeating signals 83 Taking intervals and distances 213 Taking place in front rank at command about face 229 To change guides to opposite flank 211 Guide center designate left guide of center company 301 Guide right (left) command 155 H Half step (command) 113 HALT: Any movement executed from, unless otherwise prescribed 59 Firing executed at 179 From half step and mark time 113 How executed 116 Piece brought to the order 121 (seventh) Halting, skirmishers face to the front and take advantage of cover 240 Halts on marches 1222 HAND: Disengaged, position at double time 111; 121 (Eighth) Left, position at balance 122 (First) On hip falling in with 70 Salute 106 Hand grenades 1198 Harmony and contentment in company 877 Hasty intrenchments 1143 Head, definition 39 Headache 1504 Head cover, trenches 1152 HEALTH, CARE OF: Chancroid 1466 Clap 1466 Five ways of catching disease 1453 Fly, disease carrier 1460 Germs 1452 Gonorrhoea 1466 Importance 1451 Malaria fever 1469 Mosquito, carrier of disease 1469 Syphilis 1466 Vegetables, distributer of disease 1458 Venereal disease 1466 Water, distributer of disease 1457 Yellow fever 1469 Hearing at night 1095 Hearing in scouting 1083 Heat, effect on shooting 1397 Heat exhaustion 1505 Height, men to fall in according to 203 Heliographing 864 Helmets, steel 1205 Hits, percentage 1417 Holding attack 499-502 Horizontal clock face system of target designation 1446 Horizontal equivalents 1867 Hostile Infantry, target 345 Human element in training and instruction 925 Hurdles 1119 Hygiene. See "Personal hygiene" I Illumination of foreground of trenches 1170 Imaginary enemy, definition 56; 370 Improvised formations for advancing 257 Incinerators, camp 1247 "Incline to the right (left)" 67 INCREASING INTERVALS: Company 247 Squad 172 INDIVIDUAL COOKING: Fire, how to make 1257 Importance 1256 Recipes 1258-1275 Individual intelligence, factor in warfare 924 INFANTRY: Against artillery: Action against artillery limbering or coming into action 600 Action against guns out of ammunition 599 Flank attack 598 Frontal attack usually futile 597 Machine guns 597 Wheel horses best targets 600 Against Cavalry: Cavalry charge against infantry usually futile 591 Infantry attacking dismounted cavalry 596 Measures to check charges from front and flanks 592 Meeting of cavalry charge by infantry in column 595 Rifle fire main dependence of infantry 594 Standing position, best to meet charge 593 Demands upon it by modern combat 365 Duties many and difficult 366 Good Infantry can defeat superior troops of poor quality 368 Modern war requires good infantry 366 Moving to attack, passing through deployed artillery 470 Requisites of good infantry 368 Trained to bear heaviest burdens 368 Infantry Drill Regulations 24 Influence of ground 1420 Initial combat order 394 Initiative in warfare 923 Initiative of subordinates not to be hampered 384; 385; 386 Ink stains, how removed 1287 "In place halt" 63 INSPECTION: Band 650; 653 Battalion 650; 654 Company 646-649 Display of equipment 682 Equipment 648 Of pieces when troop are formed and when dismissed 121 (Second) Pistol 646 Prepare for 646; 649-651; 653 Quarters 647; 654 Saber 646; 680 Seniority at 630; 650 Inspection and port arms when dismissing squad 147 Inspection arms from order 145 Inspection arms, Krag rifle 698 Inspections, object of 885 INSTRUCTION: Captain's responsibility for 202 Commanding officers accountable for 51 In use of signals 81 Of battalion, major responsible for 295 Of recruits 97-98 (a); 120 Without arms 98 (a) Instruction given subordinates through immediate superiors 397 Instruction. See "Training and instruction" Integrity of squads in battle 151 Intelligence, factor in warfare 924 Interest in training and instruction 922 Intermingling of units in firing line 389 Interpretations of Drill Regulations, spirit to govern 53 INTERVAL: Action of guides in taking 213 Battalion in deployment 454; 465 Between companies in deployment 354; 447 Between files obtained by placing hands on hip 70 Between platoon columns 252 Between regiments in deployment 454 Between skirmishers 171 Definition 40 Increasing or decreasing between skirmishers 172; 247 Of file closers in column of squads 221 Plates showing intervals: Battalion near, 300 Company near, 207 To take 156 Intrenching tools, care 1312 INTRENCHMENTS: Construction in action 475 Order of importance of operations in construction 606 Intrenchments. See "Field Fortifications" Introduction 50-79; 364-371 Inundations, trenches 1186 Invisibility best protection while advancing 468 J "Jab, " bayonet 824 (d) K Kitchen pits, camping 1246 Kitchens, camp 1245 KNEEL: From lying down 177 From standing 174 Position of piece 185 To aim 189 Use of position 178 Kneeling trench 1145 Knife, care of 1304 Knots 1126-1135 Knowledge of subordinates 378 Krag rifle (Infantry Drill Regulations) 696 L Landmarks, observing 1086 Largest unit executing extended order 55 (b); 328 Lashings 1136 Latitude allowed subordinates 384; 385 Latrines, camping 1243 Latrines in trenches 1169 LEADERSHIP: General consideration 372-384 Necessary to success in battle 365 LEADING: Company 209; 260 Platoon 250; 251; 259 Rush 260 Squad 150; 169; 237; 259; 289 LEATHER EQUIPMENT: Cleaning 1316 Cleaning materials 1315 Oiling 1317; 1319 Left arm, position when piece is "diagonally across the body" 122 (Second) Left, definition 41 Left foot, stepping off with 107 Left hand, position at balance 122 (First) LEFT SHOULDER FROM: Order 136 Port 136 Present 136 Right shoulder 136 Leggins, how cleaned 1280 Length of steps 107-115 Library, company 879 LIEUTENANTS: Assisting captain in fire control of depleted company 209 Assignment of platoons to 206 Duties, etc. , 870; 871 Fire control 270; 287-289 Intermingling of units in firing line 389 Leading in charges 356 Posts of 71 Rushes by platoons 259; 293 Suspending fire when target disappears 294 Taking post when company is formed 215 Training 369 LIEUTENANT COLONEL: Salute in ceremonies 615 Light, effect on shooting 1399 Lightning, struck by 1507 Line, definition 42 Line of platoons, companies, etc. , definition 68 Line of skirmishers 169-172; 236-247 Lines of information 398-402 Liquid fire 1196 Listening posts, trenches 1191 Litters, improvised 1522 Loaded pieces not to be carried 121 (First) Loading pieces before deployment 269 Loading, with Krag rifle 701 LOADINGS AND FIRINGS: Aiming point: Announced before or after range 181 Once designated, not changed unless ordered 182 By battalion 306 Cease firing 194 Clip fire 192 Color guard does not execute 666 Commands 179; 185-194 Continuing the fire (command) 189 Execution by file closers 212 Fire at will 190 Fire faster (slower) 191 Firing: Executed in line and skirmish line only 179 Instruction in, preceded by command to load 179 Rear rank kneeling or lying down 179 Firings executed at halt 179 Instruction in firing to be preceded by command for loading 179 Load: Command 185 Position of, when taken 183 Rear rank, kneeling or lying down 179 Target: Announced before or after range 181 Once designated, not changed unless ordered 182 Loadings executed in line and skirmish line only 179 Long whistle blast 193 Pieces once loaded, so kept until command to unload 180 Position of load, when taken 183 Range and command announcing 188 Sight setting, aiming point announced before or after 181 Simulate load (command) 186 Single loader, use of piece as 186 Sling, use when deployed 184 Suspend firing 193; 194 Local successes necessary to general success 367 Location of trenches 1426 Lock pieces 700 Long blast of whistle 193; 271 Long range 275 Long-range fire 1414 Long-range fire, when effective 416 Lookouts in trenches 1158 Loopholes and notches 1153 Loose pieces 161 Lost, what to do 1085 Lying down 175; 185; 189 Lying down position, use 178 Lying trench 1144 M MACHINE GUNS: Concealment 564 Covering dead spaces on defensive 519 Covering withdrawal 546; 557 Effectiveness against skirmish line 559 Fire of position 438; 555 In attack 555 In defense 555 In infantry attack against artillery 597 In meeting engagements 553 Lessons of European war 561-568 Location on defense 566 Methods of transportation 563 Not to form part of firing line of attack 558 Silencing of machine guns by infantry 560 To be used for short periods 552 Use in villages 565 Weapons of emergency 551 With advance guard 553 With rear guard 554 With reserve 557 MACHINE GUN COMPANY: Post in formations 71; 72 Post when attached to battalion 299 MAJOR: Apportions target 340 Controls support 263 Duties and responsibilities as battalion commander 295 Duty regarding protection of flanks 412; 413 Gives order to charge 356 Gives order to fix bayonets 355 Indicates where or when fire fight begins 341 Locates trenches and obstacles 358 Order making disposition of battalion for combat 329 Orders bayonets fixed on defense 361 Post during attack 352 Post in route march 325 Reënforces firing line 359 Responsibility regarding ammunition 570 See "Battalion commander" Malarial fever 1469 Maneuvers 947; 949 Maneuvers effective method of conducting 371 MANUAL OF: Arms: "By the numbers" 122 (Fifth) Cadence 122 (Fourth) Carrying rifle in any position 122 (Sixth) Executed by color guard 666 General principles and the manual 120-147 Regular positions assume without regard to previous ones 122 (Sixth) "Without the numbers" 122 (Fifth) Bugle 692-695 Color 658-670 Saber 671-680 Tent pitching 681-691 The color 670 MANUAL OF BAYONET: Bayonet combat 760 Combined movements 802 Fencing at will 807 Fencing exercises 772 General remarks 711 Guard 725 Hints for instructors 823 Instruction with rifle 734 Instruction without bayonet 755 Instruction without rifle 723 Jab 824 (d) Lessons of European war 824 Nomenclature 721 Short point 824 (d) Map, definition 1859 Map distances 1867 Map problems 945; 949 Map problems, instruction in 954 MAP READING: Contours 1866 Conventional signs 1874 Definition of map 1859 Determination of positions of points on map 1871 Horizontal equivalents 1867 Map distances 1867 Meaning of map reading 1860 Meridians 1870 North star 1873 Orientation 1872 Problems in scales 1864 Scale of map distances 1867 (a) Scales 1861-1863 Scaling distances from map 1865 Slopes 1868 True meridian 1873 Visibility problem 1875 Map sketching. See "Military map sketching" MARCH: At funeral 641 Played as honor 624 MARCHES: A successful march 1215 At night 1102 Care of feet and fitting of shoes 1229 Compliments not paid on marches 1227 Conduct on march 1220 Crossing bridges and fords 1223 Elongation of column 1224 Fitting shoes and care of feet 1229 Forced matches 1225 Halts 1222 Hardening new troops 1213 Long march not to be made with new troops 1214 Marching capacity 1221 Marching, principal occupation of troops in campaign 1212 Night marches 1226 No compliments paid on 1564 Physical training 1213 Preparation for march 1216-1218 Protection on march 1228 Rate of march 1220 Starting on march 1219 Straggling 1224 Marching, any movement executed when, unless otherwise prescribed 59 Marching to rear, skirmishes, not assembled 173 Marchings and steps 107-119 MARK TIME: Executed from half step, halt and mark time 113 How executed 112 While obliquing 163 Masks, protection against gases 1206 Mass formation, battalion 320 Meat can, care 1307 Mechanism of deployment taught by extended order 55 (b) Meeting engagements: Action of advance guard prior to receipt of order 543 Action of column 542 Action of the leading troops 541 Advantage accrues to side deploying the faster 539 Afford ideal opportunity to certain commanders 537 Boldness and determination of commander 536 Characteristics of 534 First troops deploying have advantage 539 Function of advance guard 542 General action 535 Machine guns, use 552 Main body not to be put into action piece meal 544 Meagerness of information 536 Mission determines method of attack 538 Post of commander 542 Memorandum receipts, company 900 Meridians 1870 Mess, company 878 Mess outfit care 1304 Messages, delivery 1530 Messages, instruction in delivering 958 Metal fouling, removing from bore 1327 Method in training and instruction 918 Military appearance and deportment 1523 MILITARY COURTESY: Colors and standards 1575 Headdress not raised in saluting 1569 National anthem 1572 National anthems of other nations 1573 Nature and origin of salutes 1533; 1534 Prisoners do not salute 1567 Soldier walking with officer 1566 Unmilitary salutes 1568 Usual mistakes in saluting 1571 When and how to salute: At meals 1543 At work 1547 Bringing command to present before commander salutes 1563 Commanders of detachments or other commands 1561 Dismounting before addressing, superior not mounted 1558 General rule 1539 How to salute in uniform 1551 Indoors 1545 In public places and conveyances 1560 Man addressed in formation 1559 No compliments paid at drill, on march, etc. 1564 No saluting at double time, trot or gallop 1565 Officer approaching number of soldiers in open 1546 Officer entering room occupied by soldiers 1542 Officer passing in rear of troops 1562 Passing officer on staircase 1549 Riding in wagon 1548 Rifle salute 1552 Saber salute 1553 Saluting distance 1541 Saluting in civilian dress 1555 Saluting in military manner 1556 Sentinels on post 1554 Several officers together 1557 Soldier addressing or being addressed by officer 1550 When making and receiving reports 1540 When seated 1544 Whom to salute: Army officers 1535 Foreign, naval and military attaches 1538 Navy, Marine Corps, Volunteer and National Guard officers 1536 Reserve Corps officers 1537 MILITARY MAP SKETCHING: Combined sketching 1892 Contours 1882 Datum plane 1883 Different methods of sketching 1878 Form lines 1884 Kinds of military sketches 1878 Location of points by intersection 1879 Location of points by resection 1880 Location of points by traversing 1881 Outpost sketching 1890 Points for beginners to remember 1893 Position sketching 1889 Road sketching 1891 Scales 1885; 1888 Military organization 1858 Military pits 1184 Military training object of 50 Mine warfare. See, "Trench and mine warfare" MINOR WARFARE: Camp or bivouac protection 612 Dividing marching column into two or more detachments 611 Formations in close country 610 Formation in open country 609 Irregular operations 607 March and bivouac formations to admit of rapid action in any direction 608 Night operations frequently advisable 613 Regular operations 606 Selection of site for camp or bivouac 612 What it embraces 606 Mirage 1400 Mission, defined 950 Mistakes, staying execution of movement for correction of 63; 64 Modern combat, demands upon infantry 365 Modern war requires good infantry 366 Moisture, effect on shooting 1398 Morning report 888 Morse code 866 Mosquito, carrier of disease 1469 Mounted enlisted men formed into a detachment for ceremonies 76 Mounted officer in making about face, turns to left 74 MOUNTED SCOUTS: Battalion staff officers, training in patrolling and reconnaissance 579 Dismounted patrolling 578 How used 576 Post when attached to battalion 299 To be trained in patrolling and reconnaissance 576 Use for reconnoitering 577; 578 Mouse and cat contest 1089 Movement, any executed in double time unless excepted 60 MOVEMENTS: Begun in quick time, hastened by command, "Double time" 62 Executed toward either flank, explained toward but one flank 58 General rules 57; 63 May be executed from halt or when marching 59 MOVING PIVOT, TURNING ON: Company 222; 227 Squad 164 When used 66 Moving targets, firing at 1432 MUSICIANS: (now buglers) Duties during firing 272 Equipped with whistles and repeating signals 83 Join their companies at battalion inspection 650 Post 207 To carry signal flags 94; 401 To repeat signal to fix bayonet and charge 355; 356 Musicians (now buglers) of the Guard 1700 Muster 655-657 N NATIONAL AIR: At funeral 641 Playing as honor at review 624 National Anthem 1572 National color does not salute 660 Next to last motion in resuming order from any position 122 (Third) Night firing 1433 Night marches 1226 NIGHT OPERATIONS: Advance and rear guards 584 Approaching charging point under cover of darkness 496 Attack, time of making 588 Bayonet use 583; 586; 589 Challenging 1103 Connections 1107 Defense, measures taken to resist night attacks 590 Deployment at night 464 Equipment 1100 Finding bearings 1096 Fire action to be avoided 583 Fire not effective beyond 50 yards 590 Formations 581; 586; 589 Hearing 1095 Importance 1091 Individual training 1093 Marches 1102 Marking route outguards to supports 1105 Moving in dark 1097 Night advance followed by attack by day 585 Night entrenching 1099 Night fencing 1098 Night firing 1101 Night matches 584 Outposts 1103 Practice in offensive and defensive operations 581 Preparation 1108 Purposes 580 Readiness for action 1106 Reconnaissance 587 Secrecy 583 Sentries firing 1104 Surprise 587 Trained troops necessary 586 Training of company 1092 Unfriendly guides 583 Vision 1094 White rag, tying around muzzle of rifle 590 Nomenclature of rifle 1342 Noncommissioned officer commanding platoon or company carrying of piece and taking of post 79 Noncommissioned officers, post of 71 Noncommissioned officers to be obeyed and respected 1525 Noncommissioned officers, company, duties 874 Noncommissioned officers confining men 875 Noncommissioned officers; instructions in map problems 954 Noncommissioned officers; reduction and resignation 876 Noncommissioned officers; responsibilities in time of war 944 "Normal" forms covering all cases impossible 369 Normal sight 1353 (a) North star 1873 Nose, foreign body in 1507 Notches and loopholes 1153 Number of troops to be deployed in beginning 445 "Numbers, by the" 122 (fifth) O Obedience 1524 Object of military training 150 OBJECTIVE-- Announced before or after range 181 Once designated not changed unless ordered 182 Oblique deployment as skirmishers 245 Oblique march 162-163 Observation 200-201 Observation of target and fire 428-429 OBSTACLES: Abatis 1176 Against cavalry 1180 Automatic alarms 1192 Barricades 1185 Cheveaux de frise 1179; 1189 Fraise 1178 Guarding obstacles 1190 In front of outguards 1187 Inundations 1186 Kinds 1176 Lessons from European War 1188 Listening posts 1191 Location 1175 Military pits 1184 Necessity for 1174 Object 1173 Palisade 1177 Search lights 1193 Trous de loup 1184 Wire entanglements 1181; 1182; 1188 Wire fence 1183 Obstacles located by Major 358 Occupation of ground 1426 Offensive necessary for decisive results 367 Office, how to enter 1527 Officer of the Day 1593 OFFICERS: Posts of 71 To be true leaders 377 To comply with spirit of orders 377 Oil, use on rifle 1330; 1339 ON RIGHT (LEFT) INTO LINE: Battalion 313 Company 230 Open packs 648 Open ranks 646 Open sight 1352 (a) Opening fire on defense 360 ORDER: Assumed in resuming attention from rest or at ease 121 (fifth) Piece brought to, upon halting 121 (seventh) Piece striking ground gently 122 (third) Position in next to last motion 122 (third) Position of piece at 123 Order and cohesion in combat 376 Order, close, definition 43 Order, extended, definition 44 ORDER FROM: Inspection 146 Left shoulder 136 Port 128 Present 128 Right shoulder 130 Trail 140 ORDERLIES: Carrying signal flags 400 Do not change position when commander faces about to give command 74 Posts of 73; 78 ORDERS: Battle 392 Brigade and division, usually written 392 Compliance with spirit of 377 Composition of combat order 395 Definition 85 Deployment 392 Deviation from 388 Encroaching upon functions of subordinates, prohibited 396 Given subordinates through immediate superiors 397 Reconnaissance to precede issuing of initial combat orders 394 Regiment, usually verbal 393 Repetition of 83 To be definite 396 Use in battalion combat 328 Verbal 393 When used 80; 85 Orders, files of, company 891 Orders for sentinels 1716 Orders, tactical preparation 952 Organization, military 1858 Orientation 1872 Outlined enemy 56; 273; 370; 371 Outpost, establishing by company 1080 Outpost sketching 1890 Outposts at night 1103 Overhead cover, trenches 1154 P Pace, definition 45 PACK: Close 648 Display of contents for inspection 682 Laid aside in action 382 Open 648 Packs, unslinging, old equipment 706 Paint spots, how removed 1290 Palisade 1177 Paperwork, company 887 PARADE REST: With arms 137 Without arms 101 PARADES: Battalion 636 General rules 634; 635 Post of color guard 663; 664 Parados 1151 Paroles and countersigns 1769 Partial changes of direction, commander of 67 Patrolling. See, "Scouting and patrolling" Payment of soldier 1529 Peep sight 1352 (b) Percentage of hits 1417 Periscopes 1207 Personal hygiene 1470 PERSONAL RECONNAISSANCE: Deployment 441 Formation of plan 394 PHYSICAL TRAINING: Commands 826 Double timing 846 Methods 825 Rifle exercises 847 Setting up exercises 826; 837 Starting positions 834 Walking and marching 845 PIECE: Carrying in any position 122 (Sixth) "Diagonally across the body" 122 (Second) Loading before deployment 269 Not to be carried loaded 121 (First) Once loaded, so kept until command to unload 180 Rules governing carrying 121 To strike ground gently in coming to order 122 (Third) Use as single loader 186 Pitching tents 684 PLAN: Of battle preceded by personal reconnaissance 394 Of combat, adherence to original 373 PLATES: Battalion near, 300 Company near, 207 Equipment near, 646 PLATOON COLUMN: Assembly from 254 Deployment 253 How executed 250 Use in advancing 249-252 PLATOON DRILL: Assembling from deployment 248 Column right (left) (company being in column of platoon) 223 Extended order 242 On right into line (being in column of platoons) 230 Platoons column right (left) (company being in column of squad) 225 Platoon light (left) 220 Platoons right (left) by squads (being in line) 227 Platoons right (left) front into line 232 Squads right about (being in line of platoons) 228 Squads right (left), platoons column right (left) (being in line) 227 PLATOON GUIDES: Close order drill 210 Duties in fire fight 289 PLATOON LEADER: Allotment of target to 282 Control the fire in deployment 270 Duties on fire fight 288; 289 Equipped with whistles 83 Of flank platoons when company acts alone 268 Positions in verifying alignments 218 Repeating commands 214 Platoon, the fire unit of 287 PLATOONS: Advance into an engagement 249 Assignment 206 Designation 205 Division of company into 204 Point of aim 1357 Point of rest, definition 46 Point on which base squad marches in deployment 238 Points of compass 1084 Poison, first aid 1508 PORT ARMS FROM: Inspection 146 Left shoulder 136 Order 125 Present 126 Right shoulder 132 Position and aiming drills 1365 POSITION FIRE: Advance by rushes 293 When used 438 POSITION OF: Captain in dressing company 302 Load, when taken 183 Piece at order 123 Piece "diagonally across the body" 122 (Second) The soldier 99 Position sketching 1889 POST OF: Band 71; 299 Commander in fight 383 Color 637; 638; 650; 664; 665 File closers in column of squads 221 Major during attack 352 Major in route order 325 Mounted enlisted men 73; 76; 78 Noncommissioned officer in command of troops 79 Noncommissioned staff officers 77; 78 Officers, noncommissioned officers and special units (band and machine gun company) shown in plates 71; 72 Reviewing officer 617 Special units 71; 72; 299 Staff officers 73 Powder fouling, removing from bore 1327 Practical instruction, purpose 369 Precision taught by drill at attention 55 (a) Preliminary drills 1355 PREPARATORY COMMAND: Arrangements of elements 57 To revoke 64 What it indicates 87 PRESENT ARMS FROM: Left shoulder 136 Order 124 Port 127 Right shoulder 133 Present saber 673 Principles of combat, extent to which treated in Part I 54 Prisoners do not salute 1567 Privates of the Guard 1715 Privileges, awarding 881 Privileges, withholding 884 Program of training 919 Progression in training and instruction 917 Property, responsibility, company 886; 896 PROTECTION: By reconnaissance 410; 412 When battalion is acting alone 330 When company is acting alone 268 Protection against surprise when company is acting alone 268 PUNISHMENT: Awarding 915 Company 882; 883 PURSUIT: Additional force for 483 General principles 490; 494 Pursuing fire 486 Troops used for 487 Q Quartermaster sergeant (now supply sergeant) assignment at drill 207 Quibbling, avoiding, in interpreting drill regulations 53 QUICK TIME: Cadence 108 From double time 111 Movements habitually executed in 109 R RANGE: Classification 275-277 Command announcing 188 Determining of 276; 277; 426 Finders 277 Importance of correct sight setting 425 In attack 344; 426 In defense 426 Signal for announcing 92 Range, how determined 1429 Range practice 1386 Ranging volleys 278 Rank, definition 47 Rapid fire exercises 1372 RATE OF: Fire 191; 292; 415; 1419 Quick and double time 108 Ration return 909 Ready 189 Reality in training 922 Rear guard, use of machines guns as part of 554 Rear marching, skirmishers, not assembled 173 Rear rank not loading nor firing kneeling or lying down 179 Rear sight, description 1343 Rear, to the, how to execute 118 RECONNAISSANCE: Battalion acting alone 330 Combat 403-413 Company acting alone 268 Company advancing into an engagement 249 Each commander to guard against surprise 442 Meeting engagement 534; 538 Minor warfare 608 Night operations 587 Personal before deployment 441 To precede formation of plan 394 Record of rifles 902 Record of size of clothing 906 Records, company 887-909 Recruits, instruction 97-98; 120; 152-156 Rectifying column, (battalion) 312 Red bugs 1488 Reduction and resignation of noncommissioned officers 876 Reënforcement of firing line by major 359 Reënforcements, size 353 Reënforcing firing line 263-366; 354 REGIMENT: Interval in deployment 454 Lines of communication established by 400 Muster 655-657 REGIMENTAL COLOR: Salutes by 660 Saluting reviewing officer 622 REGIMENTAL COMMANDER: Action in deployment of division 440 Decide equipment carried into action 382 Rejoining command after completion of task 390 REPETITION OF: Command for guides, by captains at battalion drill 301 Commands by captains at battalion drill 300 Orders, commands and signals 83; 88 Report, first sergeant's when company is formed 215 Reports, saluting when making or receiving 75 Represented enemy, definition 56 Requisites of good scout 1031 RESERVE: Captured position strengthened by reserves 492 Commander of troops in action habitually with reserve 383 Covering withdrawal of attacking troops 489 Deployment to enable withdrawal of faulty firing line 444 Enveloping attack 461; 462 Fire of position in decisive action 438 Furnished by units larger than battalion 455 Gives impetus to charge 481 How used 455 In attack charged with flank protection 466 In withdrawal from action 547 Machine guns as part of 557 Occupying trenches vacated by firing line to improve same 476 Of firing line, strength 449; 450 Part played by, in pursuit 491 Post and strength in holding attack 500 Post of, in attack 466 Post of, in defense 513 Post of, in delaying action 532 Reduction of reserve in case of protected flanks 452 Regimental: Ammunition sent from 574 Use of, in case of victory 383 Respect, factor in training 929 Respect for sentinels 1577 Respect to noncommissioned officers 1525 Responsibility, devolution of 869 Responsibility for proper training 921 Rest, executed as without arms 121 (Fifth) Rests, the 100; 101; 121 "1. Resume 2. March" 63 Retained copies of rolls, etc. , company 899 Retiring under fire 475 Return saber 679 Reveille and retreat gun 1837 Reverse slopes 1427 Revetments 1124; 1125; 1166 REVIEWS: Band 623; 624 Battalion 631-633 Battalions, after passing reviewing officer 628 Brigades, or larger commands 628; 629 Cadence at which troops pass in review 627 Commander faces command 614 Flank to pass 12 paces from reviewing officer 617 Flourishes 624 Formation of companies, battalions and regiments 616 General rules 617-630 March, played as honor 624 National air, playing as honor 624 Order in which troops are arranged 614 Passing around line 618; 631 Points where column changes direction 617 Post of reviewing officer on left of column 626 Post of reviewing officer and others 617 Reviewing officer returns only salute of commanding officer 618 Reviewing officer, post 617 Reviewing officer junior to commanding officer 630 Riding around troops 618 Ruffles 524 Salute by regimental color 622 Salute returned by reviewing officer 618 Salute by lieutenant colonel 615 Saluting by staff 615; 619 Saluting the color 618 Standing "at ease" etc. , in case of brigade or larger command 629 Subordinates face to front 614 To the color 624 Turning out of column by commanding officer of troops 620; 621 Revoking preparatory command 64 Rewards and privileges, company 881 Ricochet shots 1425 RIFLE, care and description: Army regulations 1341 Bore 1322-1324; 1328 Description 1342 Importance 1321 Kinds of fouling 1325 Oil, how to apply 1339 Oiling barrel 1330 Rear-sight leaf 1343 Removing metal fouling 1327 Removing powder fouling. See "Piece" 1326 Rifle exercises 847 RIFLE SALUTE AT: Order or trail 141 Right shoulder 140 RIFLE TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION: Adjustment of fire 1428 Aiming exercise 1368 Aiming point 1357 Aiming and sighting 1350 Appearance of objects 1396 Auxiliary aiming points 1431 Ballistic qualities of rifle 1410 Battle sight 1352 (c) Beaten zone 1413 Center of impact 1412 Clock system of target designation 1446; 1447 Clock system of wind designation 1391 Cold, effect on shooting 1397 Collective instruction 1404 Combat exercises 1408 Combat practice 1404 Combined sights 1430 Communication in fire control and direction 1447 (b) Cone of fire or dispersion 1411 Defilade 1420 Deflection 1384 Deflection and elevation correction drills 1383 Designation of targets 1445-1447 (a) Designation of winds 1391 Distribution of fire 1441-1444 Effect of fire 1410 Effect of heat, light, etc. 1397; 1403 Effectiveness of fire 1416 Estimating distance 1393-1395 Exercises in fire control and direction 1450 Finger system of target designation 1447 (a) Fine sight 1353 (b) Fire direction and control 1434-1440 Fire discipline, definition 1406 Fire distribution 1441-1444 Firing at stationary targets 1428 Full sight 1353 (c) Gallery practice 1385 Gentle reverse slopes 1427 Grazing fire 1423 Heat, effect on shooting 1397 Hits, percentage 1417 Horizontal clock face system of target designation 1446 Individual instruction 1349 Influence of ground 1420 Light, effect on shooting 1399 Location of trenches 1426 Long range fire 1414 Mirage 1400 Moisture, effect on shooting 1398 Moving targets, firing at 1432 Night firing 1433 Normal sight 1353 (a) Object of system 1344 Occupation of ground 1426 Open sight 1352 (a) Peep sight 1352 (b) Percentage of hits 1417 Point of aim 1357 Position and aiming drills 1365 Preliminary drills 1355 Program of instruction 1348 Range, how determined 1429 Range practice 1386 Rapid fire exercise 1372 Rate of fire 1419 Reverse slopes 1427 Ricochet shots 1425 Sighting and aiming 1350 Shot group 1412 Sighting drills 1356; 1383 Sights, kinds of 1352 Sling, use 1387 Slopes gentle reverse 1427 Stationary targets firing at 1428 Target designation 1445-1447 (a) Targets, number hit 1418 Technical principles of firing 1409 Trajectory 1349 Trial shots, determination of range 1395 Triangle of sighting 1359 Trigger squeeze exercise 1370 Vertical clock face system of target designation 1447 Volleys, determination of range 1395 Windage 1384 Zero of rifle 1392 Zone of effective fire 1415 Right (left) about, squad 167 RIGHT (LEFT) BY: File 235 Squads 226 Two's 234; 235 Right, definition 48 Right (left, center) dress 154; 310; 311 Right face 104 RIGHT (LEFT) FRONT INTO LINE FROM: Close column 322 Column of platoons or squads (company) 231 Column of squads or companies 314 Column of two's 235 Right half face 104 RIGHT (LEFT) HALF TURN: Command 67 Squad 164 Right (left) oblique 163 RIGHT SHOULDER FROM: Inspection 146 Left shoulder 136 Order 129 Port 131 Present 134 Right shoulder, pieces brought to, from order at command "March" 121 (Sixth) Right (left) step, how executed 114 RIGHT (LEFT) TURN: Company 222 Squad 164 Rise, how executed 176 Road sketching 1891 Route march, post of major and file closers 325 Route step 233 RUFFLES AT: Funeral 641 Review 624 RULES FOR: Carrying piece 121 (First) Ceremonies 614-616 Close order (battalion) 300-306 Close order, company 210-214 Deployment 236-242 Drills and formations 57-79 Execution of manual 122 Parades 634; 635 Reviews 617-630 Salutes 75 Steps and marchings 107-119 RUSHES: Advances made under covering fire 349 Begun by flank company 348 Command for 259 Company as whole led by captain 260 Prearranged methods prohibited 351 Size of rushing units 346; 347 Subsequent advancing 350 Use of position fire 293 When impossible for company to advance as a whole 258 Rust, how removed 1286 S Saber, manual of 671-680 Safety lock 121; 185 SALUTES: Hand 106 Returned by reviewing officer 618 Rifle 141 Saber 75; 673 With color 660 See "Honors and salutes" also "Military Courtesy" SALUTING: By lieutenant colonel in ceremonies 615 By staffs in ceremonies 619 Mounted junior to dismount before saluting dismounted senior 75 On marches 1227 Regimental color 622 The color in reviews 618 When making or receiving reports 75 Saluting volleys fired in close order 269 Sapping, advancing to charging point 498 Scalds, first aid 1509 Scale of map distances 1867 (a) Scales 1861-1869 Scales of maps 1885-1888 Scaling distances from map 1865 SCHOOL OF THE: Battalion 295-363 Company 202-294 Soldier 97-147 Squad 148-201 SCOUTING AND PATROLLING: Eyesight and hearing 1083 Cat and mouse contest 1089 Concealment and dodging 1087 Finding way in strange country 1084 Flag stealing contest 1090 Footmarks, following 1088 Landmarks, observing 1086 Lost, what to do 1085 Mouse and cat contest 1089 Points of compass 1084 Requisites of good scouts 1031 "Tracking" 1088 Scouts; See, "Mounted Scouts" Scratches, first aid 1510 Search lights, trench warfare 1193 Seeing at night 1094 Semaphore signaling 863 Semi-blindness 1512 Sentinel's orders 1716 Sentinels, respect for 1517 Sentries firing at night 1104 Separated officers and others placing themselves under order of nearest higher commander 390; 391 Sergeant of the guard 1642 Service calls 695 SERVICE OF INFORMATION: Bridges, facts to be obtained about 1000 Bridges, reconnoitering of 992 Buildings, reconnoitering of 996 Camp noises 985 Camps, abandoned 986 Canals, facts to be obtained about 1003 Cross roads, how reconnoitered 989 Defiles, facts to be obtained about 1006 Defiles, reconnoitering of 991 Demolitions 1011 Enclosures, reconnoitering of 994 Facts to be obtained about various objects 998 Fords, reconnoitering of 992 Heights, facts to be obtained about 1010 Heights, reconnoitering of 990 Houses, reconnoitering of 996 Indications to be noticed by patrols 983 Marches, facts to be obtained about 1007 Patrolling: Facts to be obtained about various objects by patrols 998 Civilians 970 Flames and smoke 987 Messages 979; 980 Model reports 1016 Night work 975 Patrol fighting 977 Principles of patrolling 967 Patrols: Acting upon meeting hostile patrols 971 By whom furnished 962 Coördination before departure 966 Definition 959 Formation 968 Guarding against being cut off 974 Halts 970 Inspection before departure 961 Leaders 961 Orders and instructions 963 Preparation for starting 965 Prisoners to be captured 984 Problems 1017-1019 Rate of march 969 Report on return 1015 Returning by different route 973 Scattered patrols 972 Signals 978 Size 960 Ponds, facts to be obtained about 1007 Positions, reconnoitering of 995 Railroads: Demolitions 1013 Facts to be obtained about 999 Reconnaissance of positions 989 Rivers, facts to be obtained about 1001 Roads, facts to be obtained about 998 Signs to be noticed by patrols 983 Springs, facts to be obtained about 1008 Suggestions for gaining information about the enemy 983 Suggestions for reconnaissance of positions 989 Telegraph line, demolition 1012 Telegraphs, facts to be obtained about 1004 Valleys, facts to be obtained about 1009 Villages, facts to be obtained about 1005 Villages, reconnoitering of 997 Vision limits of 988 Wagon roads, demolition 1014 Woods, facts to be obtained about 1002 Woods, reconnoitering of 993 SERVICE OF SECURITY: Advance guard, general principles 1021-1024 Advance guard order 1025-1026 Advance guard problems 1033-1046 General principles 1020 Outposts: Advance cavalry 1056 Cavalry outpost 1071 Changes for the night 1075 Communication between subdivision 1074 Composition 1053 Concealment 1068 Cossack post 1061 Definition and duties 1051-1052 Detached posts 1069 Distances between subdivisions 1055 Entrenchments 1067 Establishing the outpost 1073 Examining posts 1070 Flags of truce 1066 Formation 1054 Intercommunication 1074 Obstacles 1067 Outguards 1058 Outpost order 1073 Patrols 1064-1065 Pickets 1059 Problems 1077; 1078; 1079 Relieving outpost 1076 Reserves 1063 Sentinels 1062 Sentry squad 1060 Subdivisions 1054 Supports 1057 Problems, advance guards 1033-1046 Rear guard, general principles 1047-1050 Setting-up exercises 826; 837 SHELTER TENT: Care of 1303 Pitching: New model 682 Old model 707-710 Striking 687 Shock, first aid 1511 SHOES: Care 1292 On marches 1229 Polishing 1295; 1299; 1300 Repair 1294 Selection 1293 "Short point" 824 (d) Shot group 1412 Shots grazing enemy have approximate value of hits 291 Sick report 889 Side step 114 Siege operations 496 Siege works 1172 Sight rear, description 1343 SIGHT SETTING: Command 188 Importance 425 Sighting and aiming 1350 Sighting drills 1356; 1383 Sights, kinds of 1352 Signal Corps, establishment of lines of communication 399 SIGNAL FLAGS: Carried by musician (now bugler) 94; 401 Carried by orderlies 400 Description 94 Use 95 SIGNALING: "Chop chop" signal 863 General service code 861 Heliograph, flash lantern, searchlight 864 Morse code 866 Semaphore code 863 Sound signals 865 Wigwag 862 SIGNALS: Arm 92 Attention fixed at first motion 82 Bugle used on and off the battlefield 90 Captain of supporting company to look out for major's signals 263 Cease firing 90 Change elevation 92 Commence firing 90 Communication between firing line and reserve 96 Flag 94; 96 For "Platoon" and "Squad, " use of 93 Instruction in use of 81 Limitation of 84 Long blast of whistle: Signifies suspension of firing 193 To be avoided as signal for cease firing in rushes 234 Movement commences when signal is understood 82 Range, to announce 92 Repetition of 83 Special prearranged 84 Training in use of, to control firing line 55 (d) Use during firing 271 Use on firing line 431 Use of saber, rifle, or headdress in making 81 When used 80 Whistle 91 Simple maneuvers best 375 Simple movements essential to correct battle training 52 Simulate load, how executed 186 Simultaneous movements by companies or platoons in battalion drill 305 Single loader, use of rifle as 186 Single rank 98 (a); 616 Sitting position used instead of kneeling one 178 Size of clothing, record 906 SKIRMISHERS: Deployment: Company 243 General rules 236-244 Squad 170 To rear 246 Face to front and take advantage of cover on halting 240 Interval between 170; 172; 247; 255; 447 Not assembled, marching to rear 173 To form from platoon or squad column 253 Skulking of troops carrying back wounded 381 Sky lines to be avoided 421 Sleeping bag 685; 686 SLING, GUN: Adjustment and use 1387 Included in grip of piece at balance 122 (First) Use when deployed 184 Sling packs, old equipment 706 Slopes, gentle reverse 1427 Slopes on maps 1868 Slower, fire 191 Small arms firing. See "Rifle training and instruction" Smartness taught by drills at attention, etc. 55 (a) Snake's bites 1480 Sniperscope 1208 Snow blindness 1512 Sore throat 1513 Sortie steps 1150 Sound signals 865 Special units; posts of 71; 72 Spider bites 1514 Spirit of order to be complied with by officers 377 Spirit to govern in interpreting drill regulations 53 Splicing 1133-1135 Splints 1484 Spoon, care 1306 Sprains, first aid 1516 SQUAD: Base 236; 239 Composition 149 Dressing 154 Front when deployed 171 Integrity in battle 151 Movements executed as prescribed in school of the soldier 152 Right 165 Right (left) about 167 To dismiss 147 To form 153 SQUAD COLUMN: Deployment 253 How executed 251 To assemble from 254 Use in advancing 249; 252 Squad drill, object 149 SQUAD LEADER: Action at preparatory command for forming skirmish line 237 Corporal is 150 Duties in fire fight 289 Post 150 SQUADS: Deployment when company is deployed 239 Designation 205 Division of company into 203 Grouping soldiers into 148 Preservation of integrity in battle 151 Right (left) about 228 Right (left) column right (left) 226 Right (left) front into line 235 Stable guards 1806 Stack arms 160; 161 STAFF: Does not change position when commander faces about to give command 74 Draws and returns saber with chief 73 Habitually mounted 73 Post of 73 Saluting by, in review 619 Turning out of column in review 620; 621 Stains, how removed 1284 Standards and colors 1575 Standing trench 1146 "Star Spangled Banner" 1572 "STAR SPANGLED BANNER" PLAYED AT: Funeral 641 Review 624 Statement of clothing charged to enlisted men 904 Stationary targets, firing at 1428 Step, change, how executed 119 Stepping off with left foot 107 Steps and marchings 107-119 Stings, first aid 1517 Straggling in marches 1224 Strange country, finding way in 1084 Striking tents 687; 690 SUBORDINATES: Coöperation 387 Latitude allowed and initiative 384; 385; 386 SUCCESS IN BATTLE: Depends upon leadership, etc. 365 Factors entering into 373; 376 Object of military training 50 Principles for increasing probability of, provided for in drill regulations 53 SUCCESSION OF THIN LINES: Command for advancing 255 Use in advancing 249 Use and purpose 256 Successive formations, guide toward point of rest 65 Successive movements in double time, base unit marches in quick time 61 Suffocation, first aid 1478 Summary court records 903 Summary of combat principles 550 Sunburn, first aid 1485; 1518 Sunstroke 1519 Superiority of fire 414-438 SUPPORT: Artillery 601-605 Battalion: Battalion acting alone in defense 357 Distance from firing line 338 Division of battalion into support and firing line 335 Furnished by battalion 455 None at beginning 339 Position 337 Size 336 Company: Captain to look out for major's signals 363 Control by major 263 Duties of officers and sergeants upon joining firing line 266 Formations for 262 Original platoon divisions to be maintained 266 Promptness in reënforcing firing line 265 Reënforcements joining firing line 264 Occupying trenches vacated by firing line, to improve same 476 Of firing line, strength 449; 450 Post and strength, in holding attack 500 To cover withdrawal 362 Supporting artillery 434-437 Supreme will, but one in battle 387 SURPRISE: Each commander to guard his command against 442 Human element 92 Protection against, when company is acting alone 26 Suspend firing 193; 194 Syphilis 146 T Tactical exercises, methods of conducting 37 Tactical orders 32 Tactical principles, application of 5 Take arms 16 TAKE INTERVAL: Actions of guides and file closers 213 How executed 156 TAKING DISTANCE: Actions of guides and file closers 66 How executed 158 "Tanks" 1204 TARGET: Action in defense when it disappears 294 Aiming points, use 284 Announced before or after range 181 Allotment to platoon leaders 282 Apportioned by major 340 Assignment by major 281 Change to be avoided 281 Choice of, etc. 422 Designation 201; 1445; 1447 (a) Determination of distance to 276 Distribution of fire 282; 283; 427 Hostile firing line usual target 281; 345 Observation of 424; 429 Once designated, not changed unless ordered 182 Target practice. See "Rifle training and instruction" Target records, company 907 Targets, number hit 1418 TEAMWORK: Developed by thorough and uniform training 51 General principles 385-391 Technical principles of firing 1409 Telegraph code 866 Telephones in trenches 1171 Tent folding 691 TENT PITCHING: All types except shelter and conical wall 688 Conical wall 689 Shelter 681; 682 Tent striking 687; 690 Terrain exercises 945; 949 THE COLOR: Cased, defined 659 Meaning of "Color" 658 National, renders no salute 660 Receiving of 669 Salute by regimental 660 Where kept 659 Theoretical instruction, purpose 369 "The Star Spangled Banner, " see "Star Spangled Banner" THIN LINES SUCCESSION OF: Commands for advancing 255 Use and purpose 256 Use in advancing 249 Thoroughness in training 922 "To the Color" sounded at review 624 To the rear, how executed 118 Tourniquet 1481 "Tracking" 1088 Trail, at, (command) 121 (sixth) Trail from order 139 TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION: Art of instruction on varied ground 933 Captain's responsibility for 202 Cheerfulness 930 Clearness 922 Commanding officers accountable for 51 Comradeship 932 Contentment 931 Courage 927 Cover, training in use of 939 Delivery of messages 958 Determination and individual intelligence 924 Fear 926 For battle, simple movements and elastic formations 52 Human element 925 Individual initiative 923 Interest 922 In use of signals to control fire line 55 (d) Map problems 954 Method and progression 918 Object 50; 917 Of battalions, major responsible for 295 Operating against other troops 941 Practice in commanding mixed squads 940 Principles provided for in Drill Regulations 53 Program 919 Reality 922 Respect 929 Responsibility 921 See, "General Common Sense Principles of Applied Minor Tactics" Simultaneous instruction and training 920 Surprise 928 Thoroughness 51; 922 Vanity 922 Trajectory 1349 Traveling in strange country 1084 Traverses 1149 Treatment of soldiers 872 TRENCH AND MINE WARFARE: Aerial mines 1200 Aids to firing 1209 Asphyxiating gases 1194 Bombs from air-craft 1202 Countermining 1211 Grenades and bombs 1197; 1198; 1199 Helmets 1205 Liquid fire 1196 Masks 1206 Mining 1210 Periscopes 1207 Protection against gases 1195 Protection against hand grenades 1203 Sniperscope 1208 "Tanks" 1204 Winged torpedoes 1201 TRENCHES: Located by major 351 Occupied by supports and reserves, to be improved 462 See "Field fortifications" Trial shots, determination of range 1395 Trials by court-martial 882 Triangle of sighting 1359 Trigger-squeeze exercise 1370 Troops stable guards 1808 Trous de loup 1184 True meridian 1873 Turning about, mounted officer 74 Turning movements when allowable 458 TURNING ON FIXED PIVOT: How executed 164 When used 66 Two's right (left) front into line 235 U Umpire 55; 371 UNFIX BAYONET: Krag rifle 694 Springfield rifle 143 Uniform, dignity of 1523 UNIT: Attack 342 Fire 287 Units not to be broken up 378 Unload 180; 187 Unload, Krag rifle 703 Unnecessary hardship to be avoided 380 Unsling equipment 648 Unsling packs, old equipment 706 Urinal tubs 1244 Use of cover 195-199 Use of ground 420; 421 V Valleys determination of range 1395 Variety in instruction 922 Vegetables, distribution of disease 1458 Venereal disease 1466 Verbal orders 393 Vertical clock face system of target designation 1447 Visibility problem 1875 Vision at night 1094 VOLLEY FIRING: How executed 189 Use 278 W Wall tents 688 War game 946; 949 Warning calls 692 Watchmen 1781 WATER: Distribution of disease 1457 In camp 1253 In trenches 1168 Whistle, long blast 193 Whistle signals 91 Whistles, by whom carried, different tones, etc. 83 Wigwag 862 Will supreme, but one in battle 387 Windage 1384 Winged torpedoes 1201 Wire entanglements 1181; 1182; 1188 Wire fence, trenches 1183 WITHDRAWAL FROM ACTION: Action by commander 549 Covered by support 362 Generally effected at heavy cost 545 Part of line to be withdrawn first 548 Rear guard and distance to be placed between enemy and defeated troops 545 Reserve used to check pursuit 547 Retreating troops to be gotten under control as soon as possible 548 Selection of rendezvous point 549 Under fire 475 Use of artillery, machine guns and cavalry 546 Use of machine guns 557 With dummy (blank or ball) cartridges, load 185 "Without the numbers" 122 (Fifth) Witness, appearance as 1531 Wood, camping 1252 Work, devolution of 869 Wounded not to be carried back by fighting troops 381 Wounds, first aid 1520 Y Yellow fever 1469 Z Zero of rifle 1392 Zone of effective fire 1415 THE MOSS PUBLICATIONS OFFICERS' MANUAL $2. 50 NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS' MANUAL 1. 50 PRIVATES' MANUAL 1. 00 MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING 2. 25 QUESTIONS ON MANUAL OF MILITARY TRAINING . 50 APPLIED MINOR TACTICS 1. 25 FIELD SERVICE 1. 25 INFANTRY DRILL REGULATIONS SIMPLIFIED . 75 SPANISH FOR SOLDIERS 1. 00 SELF-HELPS FOR THE CITIZEN-SOLDIER 1. 25 RIOT DUTY . 50 ARMY CHANGES Single copies, 50c; 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[Illustration] CORONA _The Pen of the Army_ Note the ease with which this portable writing machine may be usedunder service conditions. Its parts never work loose or drop off. It has no attachments and doesnot take down. You can carry Corona anywhere for, case and all, it weighs but 9 lbs. And measures only 10 × 11-1/4 × 4-1/4 ins. Being built almost entirely of aluminum and steel, Corona ispractically indestructible. The Corona Folding Stand adds greatly to the convenience of usingCorona in the field. This stand has three telescopic brass legs, stands 24 ins. High and collapses to 10-3/4 ins. It weighs 2 lbs. _Price of Corona and case, $50_ _Price of Folding Stand, $5_ Corona Typewriter Co. , Inc. GROTON, NEW YORK To make your shoes waterproofTo make your shoes soft and comfortableTo make your shoes wear 3 times longerTo keep the harness and saddle in good order Use Viscol [Illustration] Viscol makes the leather soft and pliable and also waterproof. Viscolized leather remains soft and pliable under continuous hardservice, even when it is worn in salt water or in snow. Viscol is asolution of a rubber-like material which amalgamates with the leathersubstance and is not driven out of the leather by heat or by water, the way oils are. Its beneficial effect is lasting. Leather that istreated with Viscol wears several times as long as leather that hasnot been thus treated. Viscol is sold by many of the Post Exchanges and by most shoe dealers. If you can not procure it at the nearest Post Exchange or from yourshoe dealer, write to VISCOL COMPANY East Cambridge Boston, Mass. TROPHIES AND PRIZES For Military, Athletic and Sporting Events Of Quality as Designed and made for the U. S. Army and Navy, West Point Academy and U. S. Naval Academy _Catalogues and Information upon Request_ BAILEY, BANKS & BIDDLE CO. _Diamond Merchants, Jewelers, Silversmiths, Goldsmiths, Heraldists_ PHILADELPHIA [Illustration] Eisner UNIFORMS For U. S. 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Pasquale Company 115-117 Post St. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. _The Only Manufacturers of_ Army and Navy Equipments and Uniforms on the Pacific Coast "QUALITY AND FIT GUARANTEED" (Write for Catalogue) THE MILITARY HISTORIAN AND ECONOMIST QUARTERLY Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. _Subscription, $3. 00 per annum. _ Edited by MAJOR A. L. CONGER, U. S. A. , and PROFESSOR R. M. JOHNSTON, Harvard University. Advisory Board: General J. F. Morrison, U. S. A. , Colonel J. W. McAndrew, U. S. A. , Professors C. J. Bullock, A. Bushnell Hart, O. M. W. Sprague, and Justin H. Smith, Esq. Original articles and notes on military history, the Conduct of War, Strategy, Tactics. Military economics by the best American and foreignauthorities. CLAUSEWITZ TO DATE Edited by R. M. JOHNSTON Synopsis of the views of Clausewitz with selected quotations from thebest military theorists, systematically modernized. The volume measures only 1-3/4 × 2-1/2 inches. Field service binding. _Price, postpaid $1. 00. _ THE MILITARY HISTORIAN AND ECONOMIST 275 Widener Hall CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS +--------------------------------------------------------------------+| TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE. || =================== || || Irregularities within the original book have been preserved, || notably: || || Part I has appendicies A, B and D. There is no Appendix C. || || Part I Chapter I contains plates II, III and VI. Plates I, IV || and V are not present nor referenced. || || References to other paragraphs within the text mostly use the || book paragraph number. However, there are some cases where the || paragraph number relates to the source document paragraph number || (in brackets at the end of the paragraph)--these have been left || as shown in the book. The link in the html version does, however, || point to the intended paragraph. || || Spelling variants (e. G. Reinforce vs reënforce) have been || preserved. || || The 'pointing finger' picture has been transcribed as --> in the || text version. || || Brackets have been added as necessary to equations to aid clarity. || || For consistency, subheadings which originally appeared next to a || paragraph number have been extracted out to the line above (i. E. || they do not appear on the same line as the paragraph number in || this transcription. ) Affected paragraphs are: || || 817, 818, 826, 828-34, 836-47, 860, 862, 864-6, 1016-9, 1034-45, || 1078, 1277, 1320, 1340-1, 1352-3, 1356, 1358-65, 1367-70, 1372, || 1376, 1379-80, 1383. || |+--------------------------------------------------------------------+