LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM

A MANUAL OF ANALYSIS

OF ALL THE STRUCTURAL FACTORS AND DESIGNS

EMPLOYED IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION

BY

PERCY GOETSCHIUS, MUS. DOC. 

(Royal Württemberg Professor)

AUTHOR OF

THE MATERIAL USED IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION, THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OFTONE-RELATIONS, THE HOMOPHONIC FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION, MODELS OFTHE PRINCIPAL MUSIC FORMS, EXERCISES IN MELODY WRITING, APPLIEDCOUNTERPOINT, ETC. 

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CHAS. H. DITSON & CO. -------- LYON & HEALY

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MADE IN U. S. A. 

[Transcriber's note: This book contains a few page references, e. G. , ". .. On page 122". In such cases the target page number has beenformatted between curly braces, e. G. "{122}", and inserted into thise-text in a location matching that page's physical location in theoriginal book. ]

FOREWORD. 

The present manual treats of the structural designs of musicalcomposition, not of the styles or species of music. Read our AFTERWORD. 

It undertakes the thorough explanation of each design or form, from thesmallest to the largest; and such comparison as serves to demonstratethe principle of natural evolution, in the operation of which theentire system originates. 

This explanation--be it well understood--is conducted solely with aview to the _Analysis_ of musical works, and is not calculated toprepare the student for the application of form in practicalcomposition. For the exhaustive exposition of the technical apparatus, the student must be referred to my "Homophonic Forms. "

The present aim is to enable the student to recognize and trace themental process of the composer in executing his task; to define eachfactor of the structural design, and its relation to every other factorand to the whole; to determine thus the synthetic meaning of the work, and thereby to increase not only his own appreciation, interest, andenjoyment of the very real beauties of good music, but also his powerto _interpret_, intelligently and adequately, the works that engage hisattention. 

 * * * * * *

The choice of classic literature to which most frequent reference ismade, and which the student is therefore expected to procure beforebeginning his lessons, includes:--

The Songs Without Words of Mendelssohn; the _Jugend Album_, Op. 68, ofSchumann; the pianoforte sonatas of Mozart (Peters edition); thepianoforte sonatas of Beethoven. 

Besides these, incidental reference is made to the symphonies ofBeethoven, the sonatas of Schubert, the mazurkas of Chopin, and otherpianoforte compositions of Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Chopin, and Brahms. 

PERCY GOETSCHIUS. 

BOSTON, MASS. , Sept. , 1904. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. --INTRODUCTION. 

 THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC THE EVIDENCES OF FORM IN MUSIC UNITY AND VARIETY

CHAPTER II. --FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS. 

 TIME TEMPO BEATS MEASURES RHYTHM MELODY

CHAPTER III. --FIGURE AND MOTIVE. 

 THE MELODIC FIGURE DEFINING THE FIGURES THE MELODIC MOTIVE, OR PHRASE-MEMBER PRELIMINARY TONES

CHAPTER IV. --THE PHRASE. 

 THE PHRASE LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE EXCEPTIONS CONTENTS OF THE PHRASE

CHAPTER V. --CADENCES. 

 CADENCES IN GENERAL MODIFICATION, OR DISGUISING OF THE CADENCE THE ELISION SPECIES OF CADENCE PERFECT CADENCE SEMICADENCE LOCATING THE CADENCES

CHAPTER VI. --IRREGULAR PHRASES. 

 CAUSES OF IRREGULARITY THE SMALL AND LARGE PHRASES THE PRINCIPLE OF EXTENSION INHERENT IRREGULARITY

CHAPTER VII. --THE PERIOD-FORM. 

 PHRASE-ADDITION THE PERIOD

CHAPTER VIII. --ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM. 

 ENLARGEMENT BY REPETITION THE PHRASE-GROUP THE DOUBLE-PERIOD

CHAPTER IX. --THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM. 

 THE SONG-FORM, OR PART-FORM THE PARTS THE FIRST PART THE SECOND PART

CHAPTER X. --THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM. 

 DISTINCTION BETWEEN BIPARTITE AND TRIPARTITE FORMS PART I PART II PART III

CHAPTER XI. --ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM. 

 REPETITION OF THE PARTS EXACT REPETITIONS MODIFIED REPETITIONS THE FIVE-PART FORM GROUP OF PARTS

CHAPTER XII. --THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO. 

 THE PRINCIPAL SONG THE TRIO, OR SUBORDINATE SONG THE "DA CAPO"

CHAPTER XIII. --THE FIRST RONDO-FORM. 

 EVOLUTION THE RONDO-FORMS THE FIRST RONDO-FORM

CHAPTER XIV. --THE SECOND RONDO-FORM. 

 DETAILS

CHAPTER XV. --THE THIRD RONDO-FORM. 

 THE EXPOSITION THE MIDDLE DIVISION THE RECAPITULATION

CHAPTER XVI. --THE SONATINE-FORM. 

 CLASSIFICATION OF THE LARGER FORMS THE SONATINE-FORM

CHAPTER XVII. --THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM. 

 ORIGIN OF THE NAME THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM THE EXPOSITION THE DEVELOPMENT, OR MIDDLE DIVISION THE RECAPITULATION DISSOLUTION RELATION TO THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM

CHAPTER XVIII. --IRREGULAR FORMS. 

 CAUSES AUGMENTATION OF THE REGULAR FORM ABBREVIATION OF THE REGULAR FORM DISLOCATION OF THEMATIC MEMBERS MIXTURE OF CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS

CHAPTER XIX. --APPLICATION OF THE FORMS. 

 APPLICATION OF THE SEVERAL DESIGNS IN PRACTICAL COMPOSITION AFTERWORD

LESSONS IN MUSIC FORM. 

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. 

THE NECESSITY OF FORM IN MUSIC. --So much uncertainty and diversity ofopinion exists among music lovers of every grade concerning thepresence of Form in musical composition, and the necessity of itspresence there, that a few general principles are submitted at theoutset of our studies, as a guide to individual reflection and judgmenton the subject. 

Certain apparently defensible prejudices that prevail in the minds ofeven advanced musical critics against the idea of Form in music, originate in a very manifest mistake on the part of the "formalists"themselves, who (I refer to unimpassioned theorists and advocates ofrigid old scholastic rules) place too narrow a construction upon Form, and define it with such rigor as to leave no margin whatever for theexercise of free fancy and emotional sway. Both the dreamer, with hisindifference to (or downright scorn of) Form; and the pedant, with hisnarrow conception of it; as well as the ordinary music lover, with hisendeavor to discover some less debatable view to adopt for his owneveryday use, --need to be reminded _that Form in music means simplyOrder in music_. 

Thus interpreted, the necessity of form, that is, Order, in theexecution of a musical design appears as obvious as are the laws ofarchitecture to the builder, or the laws of creation to the astronomeror naturalist; for the absence of order, that is, Disorder, constitutesa condition which is regarded with abhorrence and dread by everyrational mind. 

A musical composition, then, in which Order prevails; in which all thefactors are chosen and treated in close keeping with their logicalbearing upon each other and upon the whole; in which, in a word, thereis no disorder of thought or technique, --is music with Form (_i. E. _good Form). A sensible arrangement of the various members of thecomposition (its figures, phrases, motives, and the like) will exhibitboth agreement and contrast, both confirmation and opposition; for wemeasure things by comparison with both like and unlike. Our naturedemands the evidence of _uniformity_, as that emphasizes theimpressions, making them easier to grasp and enjoy; but our nature alsocraves a certain degree of _variety_, to counteract the monotony whichmust result from too persistent uniformity. When the elements of Unityand Variety are sensibly matched, evenly balanced, the form is good. On the other hand, a composition is formless, or faulty in form, whenthe component parts are jumbled together without regard to proportionand relation. 

Which of these two conditions is the more desirable, or necessary, would seem to be wholly self-evident. 

The error made by pedantic teachers is to demand _too much_ Form; toinsist that a piece of music shall be a model of arithmeticaladjustment. This is probably a graver error than apparentformlessness. Design and logic and unity there must surely be; but any_obtrusive_ evidence of mathematical calculation must degrade music tothe level of a mere handicraft. 

 * * * * * *

Another and higher significance involved in the idea of Form, that goesto prove how indispensable it may be in truly good music, rests uponthe opposition of Form to the material. 

There are two essentially different classes of music lovers:--the oneclass takes delight in the mere sound and jingle of the music; notlooking for any higher purpose than this, they content themselves withthe purely sensuous enjoyment that the sound material affords. To suchlisteners, a comparatively meaningless succession of tones and chordsis sufficiently enjoyable, so long as each separate particle, each beator measure, is euphonious in itself. The other class, morediscriminating in its tastes, looks beneath this iridescent surface andstrives to fathom the underlying _purpose_ of it all; not content withthe testimony of the ear alone, such hearers enlist the higher, noblerpowers of Reason, and no amount of pleasant sounds could compensatethem for the absence of well-ordered parts and their logicaljustification. 

This second class is made up of those listeners who recognize in musican embodiment of artistic aims, an object of serious and refinedenjoyment _that appeals to the emotions through the intelligence_, --nota plaything for the senses alone; and who believe that all music thatwould in this sense be truly artistic, must exhibit "Form" as the end, and "Material" only as a means to this end. 

 * * * * * *

Still another, and possibly the strongest argument of all for thenecessity of form in music, is derived from reflection upon thepeculiarly vague and intangible nature of its art-material--tone, sound. The words of a language (also sounds, it is true) haveestablished meanings, so familiar and definite that they recall andre-awaken impressions of thought and action with a vividness but littleshort of the actual experience. Tones, on the contrary, are not andcannot be associated with any _definite_ ideas or impressions; they areas impalpable as they are transient, and, taken separately, leave nolasting trace. 

Therefore, whatever stability and palpability a musical composition isto acquire, _must be derived from its form, or design_, and not fromits totally unsubstantial material. It must fall back upon the networktraced by the disposition of its points and lines upon the musicalcanvas; for this it is that constitutes its real and palpable contents. 

THE EVIDENCES OF FORM IN MUSIC. --The presence of form in music ismanifested, first of all, by the disposition of tones and chords insymmetrical measures, and by the numerous methods of tone arrangementwhich create and define the element of Rhythm, --the distinction ofshort and long time-values, and of accented and unaccented (that is, heavy and light) pulses. 

This is not what is commonly supposed to constitute form in music, butit is the fundamental condition out of which an orderly system of formmay be developed. As well might the carpenter or architect venture todispense with scale, compass and square in their constructive labors, as that the composer should neglect beat, measure and rhythm, in hiseffort to realize a well-developed and intelligible design in thewhole, or any part, of his composition. The beats and measures andphrases are the barley-corn, inch and ell of the musical draughtsman, and without these units of measurement and proportion, neither thevital condition of Symmetry nor the equally important condition ofwell-regulated Contrast could be clearly established. 

The _beat_ is the unit of measurement in music. The _measure_ is agroup of beats, --two, three, four, or more, at the option of thecomposer. The bounds of the measures are visibly represented (on thewritten or printed page) by vertical lines, called bars; and arerendered orally recognizable (to the hearer who does not see the page)by a more or less delicate emphasis, imparted--by some means orother--to the _first_ pulse or beat of each measure, as accent, simplyto mark where each new group begins. Those who play or sing canimagine how vague, and even chaotic, a page of music would look ifthese vertical bars were omitted; and how much more difficult it wouldbe to read than when these (not only accustomed, but truly necessary)landmarks are present. Precisely the same unintelligible impressionmust be, and is, conveyed to the hearer when _his_ landmarks, theaccents, are not indicated with sufficient emphasis or clearness torender him sensible of the beginning of each new measure. 

 * * * * * *

The same primary system of measurement and association which isemployed in enlarging the beats to measures, is then applied to theassociation of the measures themselves in the next larger units ofmusical structure, the Motive, Phrase, Period, and so forth. Unlikethe measures, which are defined by the accents at their _beginning_, these larger factors of form are defined chiefly at their _end_, by theimpression of occasional periodic interruption, exactly analogous tothe pauses at the end of poetic lines, or at the commas, semicolons andthe like, in a prose paragraph. These interruptions of the musicalcurrent, called Cadences, are generally so well defined that even themore superficial listener is made aware of a division of the musicalpattern into its sections and parts, each one of which closes asrecognizably (though not as irrevocably) as the very last sentence ofthe piece. 

Cadences serve the same purpose in music, then, as do the punctuationmarks in rhetoric; and an idea of the senselessness and confusion of amusical composition, if left devoid of cadences in sufficient numberand force, may be gleaned from an experimental test of the effect of apage of prose, read with persistent disregard of its commas, colons, and other marks of "cadence. "

 * * * * * *

Another evidence of Form in music, that is at once subtle and powerful, rests upon what might be termed the _linear_ quality of melody. Thefamous old definition of a line as a "succession of points, " tallies soaccurately with that of melody (as a "succession of single tones"), that it is not only proper, but peculiarly forceful, to speak ofmelodies as _tone-lines_. Our conception of a melody or tune, ourability to recognize and reproduce it, depends far more upon itsundulations, its rising, falling, or resting level, than upon itsrhythmic features (the varying lengths of its tones). These movementstrace a resonant line before our mind's eye as surely, though perhapsnot as distinctly, as the pencil of the artist traces the lines of animage upon the paper; and this process is going on constantly, frombeginning to end, in every piece of music. In a portrait it describesthe contours of face and figure, --in a word, the _Form_; in the musicalcomposition it fulfils, to a great extent, the self-same mission, thatof defining the Form. One clear, predominating tone-line traces the"air" or tune of the piece; and this is often the only line thatarrests the hearer's attention; but there are other tone-lines, lessprominent and less extended and coherent, gliding along harmoniouslybeside the Melody proper, which (something like the shading in apicture) contribute to the richness of the design, and perform theirshare in proving and illuminating the Form of the whole. 

This is most salient in music for orchestra, where each playerdescribes an individual tone-line, rendered all the more distinct andrecognizable by the specific "color" of his instrument; and that is thechief, perhaps the sole, reason why the orchestra is esteemed the mostcomplete and perfect medium of musical expression. 

UNITY AND VARIETY. --As much as opinions and beliefs may differ, amongmusic critics, as to the necessity of Form in music, and the conditionsof its existence, no reasonable objection can be taken to thehypothesis that _Clearness and Attractiveness_ are the two vitalrequisites upon which the enjoyment of any art depends. The artist'sutterances or creations must be intelligible, and they must beinteresting. The lack, partial or total, of either of these qualitiesneutralizes the force of the intended impression, in precise proportionto the default. 

In musical composition these two requisites are embodied in theprinciples of Unity and Variety. 

_Unity_--in its various technical phases of Uniformity, Regularity, Similarity, Equality, Agreement, or whatever other synonym we may findit convenient to use--is the condition out of which the composer mustsecure intelligibility, clearness, definiteness of expression. Glanceat Ex. 2, and note the evidences of unity (similarity) in the rhythmicand melodic formation of the first four measures. 

_Variety_--in its most comprehensive application--is the medium he mustemploy to arouse and sustain the hearer's interest. Glance again atEx. 2, and note the contrast between the two halves of the first fourmeasures, and between these and the following two measures. 

These conditions are, of course, squarely opposed to each other, thoughtheir interaction is reciprocal rather than antagonistic; and, fromwhat has been said, it is obvious that they are of equal importance. Hence, as was declared on the second page, the great problem of theart-creator consists in so balancing their operations that neither mayencroach upon the domain of the other. For too constant and palpableUnity will inevitably paralyze interest; while too much Variety will assurely tend to obscure the distinctness of the design. 

 * * * * * *

The workings of the principle of Unity (to which attention must firstbe given, because it appears to come first in the order of creation)are shown in the following elementary details of composition:--

(1) Music is not an art that deals with space, but with Time; thereforethe units of its metrical structure are not inches and the like, butdivisions of time, the basis of which is the _beat_. The principle ofUnity dictates that the beats which are associated in one and the samemusical sentence shall be of equal duration. Every musician admits thenecessity of keeping "strict time"--that is, marking the beats inregular, equal pulses. The sub-divisions of the beats (for example, the eighth or sixteenth notes within a beat) must also be symmetric. So imperative is this law that it generally prevails through the entirepiece, with only such temporary elongations or contractions (marked_ritardando_ or _accelerando_) as may be introduced for oratoricaleffects. 

(2) The beats are grouped in _measures_ of uniform duration; that is, containing equal numbers of beats. 

(3) The natural _accent_ falls upon the corresponding beat, namely, thefirst, of each measure; therefore it recurs regularly, at uniformintervals of time. 

(4) The _melodic contents_ of the first measure, or measures, arecopied (more or less literally) in the next measure, or measures; andare encountered again and again in the later course of the piece, thusinsuring a fairly uniform melodic impression from which the characterand identity of the composition are derived. Turn to the 8th SongWithout Words of Mendelssohn, and observe how insistently the figure

[Illustration: first fragment of 8th Song]

and its inversion

[Illustration: second fragment of 8th Song]

run through the whole number. 

(5) The specific figure of the _accompaniment_ is usually reproducedfrom measure to measure (or group to group) throughout whole sectionsof the piece. Observe, in the 37th Song Without Words, how constantlythe ascending figure of six tones recurs in the lower part (left hand). Glance also at No. 30; No. 1; No. 25. Many other evidences of Unityare invariably present in good music, so naturally and self-evidentlythat they almost escape our notice. Some of these are left to thestudent's discernment; others will engage our joint attention in duetime. 

 * * * * * *

In every one of these manifestations of unity there lies the germ ofthe principle of Variety, which quickens into life with the action ofthe former, always following, as offspring and consequence of theprimary unity. Thus:--

(1) The _beats_, though uniform in duration, differ from each other inforce. The first pulse in each measure (or metric group of any size)is heavier, stronger, than the following. It--the first--is the"impulse, " and is what is called the accent. This dynamic distinctionit is that gives rise to the two fundamental classes of rhythm, theduple and triple. In duple rhythm the accent is followed by oneunaccented or lighter beat, so that regular alternation of heavy andlight pulses prevails incessantly. In triple rhythm the accent isfollowed by _two_ lighter beats, creating similarly constant, but_irregular_ alternation of heavy and light pulses. 

[Illustration: Duple and Triple Rhythm]

This distinction is so significant and so striking, that the musiclover who is eager to gain the first clues to the structural purpose ofa composition, should endeavor to recognize which one of these tworhythmic species underlies the movement to which he is listening. Itis fairly certain to be one or the other continuously. Of duplemeasure, the march and polka are familiar examples; of triple measure, the waltz and mazurka. The "regularity" of the former rhythm imparts acertain stability and squareness to the entire piece, while triplerhythm is more graceful and circular in effect. 

(2) The same dynamic distinction applies also to whole _measures_, and

(3) to _accents_. The first of two successive measures, or of two ormore accents, is always a trifle heavier than the other. 

(4) The _melodic contents_ of the first measure may be exactlyreproduced in the succeeding measure; but if this is the case, they arevery unlikely to appear still again in the next (third) measure, forthat would exaggerate the condition of Unity and create the effect ofmonotony. 

[Illustration: Example 1. Fragment of Folk-song. ]

The measure marked _b_ is exactly like _a_. But _c_ is all the morecontrasting, on account of this similarity. 

Or, the melodic contents of a measure may be thus reproduced, as far asthe rhythm and direction of the tones are concerned, but--forvariety--they may be shifted to a higher or lower place upon the staff, or may be otherwise modified. 

[Illustration: Example 2. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

Compare the groups marked _a_ and _b_, and observe how the principlesof unity and variety are both active in these four measures, and howtheir effect is heightened by the formation of _c_. 

(5) The figures of the accompaniment, though reproduced in uniformrhythmic values and melodic direction, undergo constant modificationsin pitch and in shape, similar, to those shown in Ex. 2. See, again, No. 37 of the Songs Without Words and note the changes in the formationof the otherwise uniform six-tone groups. 

LESSON 1. --The student is to study this chapter thoroughly, and writeanswers to the following questions; if possible, without reference tothe text:--

1. What does Form in music mean?

2. Define the conditions which constitute good form. 

3. When is a composition faulty in form?

4. What do discriminating listeners recognize in music?

5. What is the difference between the sounds of music and those oflanguage?

6. How does this prove the necessity of form?

7. By what is the presence of form in music shown?

8. What is the beat?

9. What is the measure?

10. By what means are the measures indicated, (1) to the reader; (2) tothe listener?

11. To what does the further multiplication of the beats give rise?

12. What are cadences?

13. What purpose do they serve in music?

14. What is the best general name for a melody?

15. What object does it fulfil in music form?

16. What are the two vital requisites upon which the enjoyment of anart creation depends?

17. What purpose does Unity serve?

18. What purpose does Variety serve?

19. What is the great problem of the art-creator?

20. Define the conditions that confirm the principle of unity in music. 

21. Define the evidences of variety in music. 

CHAPTER II. FUNDAMENTAL DETAILS. 

TIME. --Time is the same thing in music that it is everywhere else innature. It is what passes while a piece of music is being played, sung, or read. It is like the area of the surface upon which themusical structure is to be erected, and which is measured or dividedinto so many units for this, so many for that, so many for the otherportion of the musical Form. Time is that quantity which admits of thenecessary reduction to units (like the feet and inches of a yardstick), whereby a System of Measurement is established that shall determine thevarious lengths of the tones, define their rhythmic conditions, andgovern the co-operation of several melodies sung or played together. Time is the canvas upon which the musical images are drawn--in melodic_lines_. 

TEMPO. --This refers to the degree of motion. The musical picture isnot constant, but panoramic; we never hear a piece of music all atonce, but as a panorama of successive sounds. Tempo refers to the rateof speed with which the scroll passes before our minds. Thus we speakof rapid tempo (_allegro_, and the like), or slow tempo (_adagio_), andso forth. 

BEATS. --The beats are the units in our System of Measurement, --as itwere, the inches upon our yardstick of time; they are the particles oftime that we mark when we "count, " or that the conductor marks with the"beats" of his baton. Broadly speaking, the ordinary beat (in moderatetempo) is about equivalent to a second of time; to less or more thanthis, of course, in rapid or slow tempo. Most commonly, the beat isrepresented in written music by the quarter-note, as in 2-4, 3-4, 4-4, 6-4 measure. But the composer is at liberty to adopt any value hepleases (8th, 16th, half-note) as beat. In the first study inClementi's "Gradus ad Parnassum, " the time-signature is 3-1, the wholenote as beat; in the 8th Sung Without Words it is 6-16, the sixteenthnote as beat; in the last pianoforte sonata of Beethoven (op. 111), last movement, the time-signatures are 9-16, 6-16, and 12-32, thelatter being, probably, the smallest beat ever chosen. 

MEASURES. --A measure is a group of beats. The beats are addedtogether, in measures, to obtain a larger unit of time, because largerdivisions are more convenient for longer periods; just as we prefer toindicate the dimensions of a house, or farm, in feet or rods, ratherthan in inches. 

Measures differ considerably in extent in various compositions, inasmuch as the number of beats enclosed between the vertical bars maybe, and is, determined quite arbitrarily. What is known as a Simplemeasure contains either the two beats (heavy-light) of the fundamentalduple group, or the three beats (heavy-light-light) of the triplegroup, shown in the preceding chapter. Compound measures are such ascontain more than two or three beats, and they must always bemultiplications, or groups, of a Simple measure; for whether so smallas to comprise only the fundamental groups of two or three beats (as in2-4, 3-8, 3-4 measure), or so large as to embrace as many as twelvebeats or more (as in 4-4, 6-4, 6-8, 9-8, 12-8 measure), the measurerepresents, practically, either the duple or triple species, Simple orCompound. Thus, a measure of four beats, sometimes called (needlessly)quadruple rhythm, is merely twice two beats; the species is actually_duple_; the alternation of heavy and light pulses is regular; andtherefore the third beat is again an accent, as well as the first, though _less heavy_. A measure of 6-8 is triple species, with accentsat beats one and four, precisely as if an additional vertical bar wereinserted after the third beat. In a word, then, the size of theadopted measure is of no consequence, as long as it is retaineduniformly through the section to which it belongs; and there is no_real_ difference between 2-4 and 4-4 measure, excepting in the numberof bars used. 

A curious and rare exception to this rule of the compound measureoccurs when five or seven beats are grouped together. This involves amingling of the duple and triple species, and, consequently, anirregular disposition of the accents; for instance, 5-4 measure iseither 3+2 or 2+3 beats, with corresponding accentuation:

[Illustration: Beat accentuation]

RHYTHM. --This word signifies arrangement, --a principle applied, inmusic, to the distribution or arrangement of the tones according totheir various _time-values_. The system of measurement (or metricsystem) furnishes tone material with all the details of division, proportion and comparison; but this, alone, is not rhythm. The metricsystem affords the basis for rational and definable rhythm, but"rhythm" itself does not enter into the proposition untildifferentiated factors are associated and opposed to each other. 

[Illustration: Example 3. Rhythm. ]

The first measure of this hymn is, by itself, merely an exponent of themetric principle, for it consists of three uniform quarter-notes. Thesecond measure, however, is a rhythmic one, because, by dotting thefirst of the three beats, three different time-values are obtained(dotted quarter, eighth, and quarter). Further, by association andcomparison with each other, both measures assume a collective rhythmicsignificance. 

The rhythmic disposition of the tones is to a certain extent optionalwith the composer, but by no means wholly so; the rules of rhythm areprobably the most definite and obvious of all the rules of musicwriting. They do not concern the analytical student intimately, but atleast the general distinction between regular and irregular rhythmshould be understood:--We have seen that the natural accent (the"heavy" pulse) is invariably represented by the first beat of arhythmic group; and that one or two lighter pulses intervene before thenext accent appears. Further, it is self-evident that the rhythmicweight of a tone is proportionate to its length, or time-value; longertones produce heavier, and shorter tones lighter, impressions. Thededuction from these two facts is, then, that the rhythmic arrangementis _regular_ when the comparatively longer tones occupy the accentedbeats, or the accented fractions of the beats; and _irregular_ whenshorter tones occupy the accents, or when longer tones are shifted toany comparatively lighter pulse of the measure or group. 

The rhythm of the second measure in Ex. 3 is regular, because thelongest tone stands at the beginning of the measure, thus confirming(and, in fact, creating) the accent. The rhythm in Ex. 1 is alsoregular, throughout, the light eighth-notes occupying the light thirdbeat, and the heavy dotted-quarter the heavy pulse (in the thirdmeasure). Ex. 2 is strikingly definite in rhythm, because thetime-values are so greatly diversified; and the arrangement is regular. 

On the other hand, the following is an example of irregular rhythm:

[Illustration: Example 4. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

The longer (heavier) tones are placed in the middle of the measure, between the beats; the tie at the end of measure 3 places the heavynote at the end, instead of the beginning, of the measure, and cancelsthe accent of the fourth measure. These irregular forms of rhythm arecalled syncopation. See also Ex. 6, second Phrase. 

MELODY. --Any succession of _single_ tones is a melody. If we strikethe keys of the piano with two or more fingers of each handsimultaneously, we produce a body of tones, which--if they are sochosen that they blend harmoniously--is called a Chord; and a series ofsuch chords is an illustration of what is known as Harmony. If, however, we play with one finger only, we produce a melody. The humanvoice, the flute, horn, --all instruments capable of emitting but onetone at a time, --produce melody. 

Melody constitutes, then, a _line of tones_. If, as we have said, Timeis the canvas upon which the musical images are thrown, Melodies arethe lines which trace the design or form of these images. Thisindicates the extreme importance of the melodic idea in music form. Without such "tone-lines" the effect would be similar to that of daubsor masses of color without a drawing, without the evidence of contourand shape. 

A _good_ melody, that is, a melody that appeals to the intelligentmusic lover as tuneful, pleasing, and intelligible, is one in which, first of all, each successive tone and each successive group of tonesstands in a rational harmonic relation to the one before it, and even, usually, to several preceding tones or groups. In other words, thetones are not arranged haphazard, but with reference to theirharmonious agreement with each other. For a model of good melody, examine the very first sentence in the book of Beethoven's pianofortesonatas:--

[Illustration: Example 5. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

The tones bracketed _a_, if struck all together, unite and blend in oneharmonious body, so complete is the harmonic agreement of eachsucceeding tone with its fellows; the same is true of the group marked_c_. The tones bracketed _b_ and _d_ do not admit of being strucksimultaneously, it is true, but they are all parts of the same key (Fminor), and are closely and smoothly connected; hence theirconcurrence, though not one of harmony (chord), is one of intimate tonerelation and proximity. Further, the whole group marked 2 correspondsin its linear formation, its rising, poising and curling, exactly tothe preceding group, marked 1. This, then, is a _good_melody, --tuneful, interesting, intelligible, striking and absolutelydefinite. 

In the second place, the tones and groups in a good melody are measuredwith reference to harmony of time-values; that is, their metriccondition, and their rhythmic arrangement, corroborate the natural lawsalready defined:--uniformity of fundamental pulse, uniform recurrenceof accent, and sufficient regularity of rhythmic figure to insure adistinct and comprehensible total impression. This also may beverified in the time-values of Ex. 5. Scrutinize also, the melodic andrhythmic conditions of Exs. 1 and 2, --and the examples on laterpages, --and endeavor to vindicate their classification as "good"melodies. Ex. 4, though an exposition of irregular rhythm, is none theless excellent on that account; on the contrary, this irregularity, because wisely balanced by sufficient evidence of harmonious andlogical agreement, only heightens the beauty and effectiveness of themelody. 

 * * * * * *

Whenever whole bodies of tone are played successively, a number ofmelody lines are being described, --as many, in fact, as there are tonesin each body. For example, in playing a hymn-tune we describe (on thekeyboard) the four separate melodies known as the soprano, alto, tenorand bass voices. In a duet, unaccompanied, there are two melodiclines; if accompanied, other melodic lines are added to these. Thus werecognize the same system of associated lines in music as inarchitecture or drawing. Very rarely indeed does one single unbrokenline portray a complete image. 

But in music, as in drawing, the lines differ in their degrees ofimportance and prominence; and, very commonly, one line over-shadowsall, or nearly all the rest. This strongest tone-line is therefore aptto be designated, somewhat unfairly, _the_ melody (the "tune" or "air"is more just). But, at all events, _this predominating melodic line isthe most important factor of the form, the one upon which thedefinition and recognition of the "form" depend_; and it is thereforenecessary that the student learn to distinguish it, to acquire thehabit of centring his attention upon it, --in reading, listening to, oranalyzing music; and, in playing, to give it the emphasis it requires. 

The importance of a tone-line depends solely upon its conspicuousness. The principal melody--_the_ Melody--is the one which is most salient, which most attracts the hearer's attention. For this reason thecomposer is induced to place his chief melody _above the rest of thetone-lines, because the uppermost tone strikes the ear more acutelythan the lower ones_, and therefore the succession of highest tonesconstitutes a conspicuous line that attracts and impresses the sensemost keenly. 

Here then, at the top of the harmonic tone-complex, we look for thechief melody; and here it will be found, --excepting when arbitraryemphasis (by accentuation) is imparted to some lower tone-line, so thatit, for the time being, assumes a prominence equal, or superior, tothat of the uppermost line. (This divided prominence is seen in the18th Song Without Words--the _duet_. )

LESSON 2. --Write careful and complete answers to the followingquestions:--

1. What is Time, as applied to music?

2. What is _tempo_?

3. Give a full definition of the beat. 

4. By what time-value is it most commonly indicated?

5. Give a full definition of the measure. 

6. Why do measures differ in size?

7. What is a simple measure?

8. What is a compound measure?

9. Define duple and triple rhythms. (See also Chap. I. )

10. What does the term rhythm signify?

11. How is it applied in music?

12. When is the rhythm regular?

13. When is the rhythm irregular?

14. Define the difference between melody and harmony. 

15. Give a full definition of melody. 

16. What are the conditions of a good melody?

17. In what respect does music resemble architecture or drawing?

18. Are the tone-lines in a composition of equal importance?

19. What significance is to be attached to the principal tone-line?

20. Upon what does the importance of a tone-line depend?

21. Where is the chief melody usually placed?

CHAPTER III. FIGURE AND MOTIVE. 

THE MELODIC FIGURE. --The smallest unit in musical composition is thesingle tone. The smallest cluster of successive tones (from two tofour or five in number) that will convey a definite musical impression, as miniature musical idea, is called a Figure. Assuming the singletone to represent the same unit of expression as a letter of thealphabet, the melodic figure would be defined as the equivalent of acomplete (small) word;--pursuing the comparison further, a series offigures constitutes the melodic Motive, equivalent to the smallestgroup of words (a subject with its article and adjective, for example);and two or three motives make a Phrase, equivalent to the complete, though comparatively brief, sentence (subject, predicate, and object). This definition, amply illustrated in the following examples, servesalso to point out the significant resemblance between the structure oflanguage and of music. The principal melody is, as it were, the voiceof the speaker, whose message is framed wholly out of the primarytones, or letters of the musical alphabet. The association of primarytone-units, in successive order, results first in the figure, then inthe motive, then the phrase, period, and so forth, in the manner ofnatural growth, till the narrative is ended. The following example, though extending beyond our present point of observation, is given asan illustration of this accumulative process (up to the so-calledPeriod):--

[Illustration: Example 6. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

[Illustration: Example 6 continued. ]

The tones bracketed _a_ are the Figures; two (in the last measures, three) of these are seen to form Motives; two of these motives make thePhrase; and the whole sentence, of two phrases, is a Period. See alsoEx. 1 and Ex. 2, in which the formation of figures is very distinct. 

The pregnancy and significance of each of these tiny musical "words"(or figures, as we are to call them), --small and apparently imperfectas they are, --can best be tested by concentrating the attention uponeach as if it stood alone upon the page; it is such vitality of theseparate particles that invests a musical masterwork with its power andpermanency of interest. 

 * * * * * *

DEFINING THE FIGURES. --It is not always easy to distinguish the figuresin a melodic sentence. While they are unquestionably analogous to thewords in speech, they are by no means as concrete, nor are theyseparated as distinctly, as the words upon a written or printed sheet. This is in keeping with the intangible quality of music, and thepeculiar vagueness of its medium of expression; the quality which veilsits intrinsic purport from the mass of music admirers, and lends itsuch exquisite and inexplicable charm to all hearers alike. 

In a word, it is not the common practice for a composer to cut up hismelodic sentences into separately recognizable small particles, bydistinctly marking each component _figure_. Here and there it is done, by way of contrast, or emphasis, or for a definite rhythmic effect, --asshown in Ex. 2 and Ex. 6. But more generally the figures are soclosely interlinked that the whole sentence may impress the hearer asone coherent strain, with an occasional interruption. The very minute"breaks" between figures are often nearly or quite imperceptible; andin many cases it is possible to define the figures of a motive invarious, equally plausible ways, simply because the "breaks" (which areof course surely present, and become more and more apparent between thelarger members of a composition) are likely to be too inconsiderableamong these, smallest factors of the melodic form. 

The following three guides may serve to indicate the extremities of themelodic figures:--

(1) A brief rest, or a longer tone, usually marks the end of a figure. This is fully illustrated in Ex. 6. See also Ex. 10, Ex. 12. 

(2) Similarity of formation (rhythm and melodic direction) almostinvariably defines the mutually opposed, and therefore separable, divisions of the melody, --both small and large. For example (thefigures are bracketed _a_):--

[Illustration: Example 7. Fragments of Czerny, Mendelssohn, andSchumann. ]

See also Ex. 1. The operation of this exceedingly important rule of"corresponding formation" (about which more will be said later on) isseen--on a larger scale--in Ex. 2, Ex. 5, and Ex. 6, where it definesthe whole _motive_. 

(3) In default of more definite signs, the figures may be found tocorrespond to the metric groups (that is, in lengths of whole or halfmeasures). Thus:--

[Illustration: Example 8. Fragments of Beethoven. ]

This example illustrates the interlinking of the figures, and suggeststhe difficulty that may be encountered in the effort to define melodicfigures. The difficulty is probably greatest in melodies of a lyriccharacter, where it is necessary to sustain the coherency of thesentence; for instance, in many of the Songs Without Words, --see No. 40, No. 22, and others, in which an entirely definite separation of thefigures is well-nigh a hopeless task. 

For this reason, --that is, because the melodic divisions are so minuteand vague between these smaller particles of the musical sentence, --itis advisable _to give no heed to any factor smaller than the "motive, "_and to undertake the analysis of nothing less than the latter; for eventhe most scrupulous "phrasing, " in the playing of a composition, mustavoid the risk of incoherency almost certain to result from distinctlyseparating all the figures. The melodies in Ex. 8 should not betraythe secret of their formation. 

THE MELODIC MOTIVE OR PHRASE-MEMBER. --This, as has already been stated, is a somewhat longer section, compounded of two or more figures. Beingthus longer, the "breaks" or spaces between motives are generally moreemphatic and recognizable than those between the figures, and thereforeit is easier, as a rule, to define the extremities of motives. 

Melodic motives differ in length from one to four measures; by far themost common extent, however, is two measures, and the student will dowisely to accept this dimension and analyze accordingly, unless thereis unmistakable evidence to the contrary. The indications areprecisely the same as those illustrated in the preceding two examplesas guides for the definition of figures. 

For example:--

[Illustration: Example 9. Fragments of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, andMozart. ]

In the first of these examples the extent of the motives is proven byeach of the three given guides: the rest, which marks the end of thefirst member; the similarity of melodic and rhythmic formation, whichproclaims the beginning of the second member, parallel with that of thefirst; and the regular (two-measure) dimension. In Nos. 2 and 3 thereare no rests between the motives, and the melodic formation differs;here it is the standard of two measures that defines the members. 

Ex. 3 is a two-measure motive. In Exs. 2, 5, and 6, the motives areall two measures in length. 

In the following:--

[Illustration: Example 10. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

one is tempted to call each _single_ measure a motive, because of thenumber of tones it contains, and the weight (length) of the final tone, which makes a much more emphatic interruption than commonly occursbetween figures. 

And in the following, on the other hand:--

[Illustration: Example 11. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

the entire four-measure sentence is evidently one motive, for there isno recognizable indication of an interruption at any point. The sameis true of the two melodies given in Ex. 8. 

The following illustrates an irregular (uneven) association ofmembers:--

[Illustration: Example 12. Fragment of Mozart. ]

Here again, there may be a disposition to adopt the upper line ofbrackets, assigning a single measure to each motive. But both here, _and in Ex. 10_, the student is advised to adhere to the two-measurestandard; he will avoid much needless confusion by so doing, --at leastuntil he shall have so developed and sharpened his sense of melodicsyntax that he can apprehend the finer shades of distinction in the"motion and repose" of a melody. Adopting the lower line of brackets, we discover successive members of unequal length, the first onecontaining two, the next one three measures. 

PRELIMINARY TONES. --It is a singularly effective and pregnant qualityof the element of musical rhythm, that its operations are not boundedby the vertical bars which mark off the measures. That is to say, arhythmic figure (and, in consequence, a melodic figure or motive) doesnot necessarily extend from bar to bar, but may run from the middle (orany other point) of one measure, to the middle (or corresponding point)of the next; precisely as prosodic rhythm comprises poetic feet whichbegin either with an accented or with an unaccented syllable. See Ex. 10. Hence the significant rule, _that a melodic member may begin atany part of a measure_, upon an accented or an unaccented beat, or uponany fraction of a beat. For example:--

[Illustration: Example 13. Fragments of Mendelssohn. ]

[Illustration: Example 13 continued. Fragments of Mendelssohn andMozart. ]

In No. 1, the motive begins squarely with the measure, upon theaccented beat. In No. 2, the same motive is enlarged by two tones atthe outset, which locates its beginning upon the fourth 8th--the secondhalf of the second beat. In No. 3 the motive begins upon an accentedbeat, but it is the lighter (secondary) accent of the 3d beat. Thevarious conditions of unaccented beginnings in Nos. 4, 5 and 6 areeasily recognizable. In No. 7 quite a large fraction of a measureprecedes the first accent (at the beginning of the full measure). Examine, also, all the preceding examples, and note the differentaccented or unaccented locations of the first tone, in each figure andmotive. 

When a figure or motive starts at the accented beat, it begins, so tospeak, in the right place; _any tone or tones which precede the accentare merely preliminary or introductory tones_. While they are verydesirable and necessary, in the fulfilment of certain purposes, theyare not an _essential_ part of the motive; they appear to represent theornamental rather than the stable element of the melodic sentence, andtheir employment is therefore a matter of option and taste rather thanof absolute necessity. The accent indicates the point where the bodyof the motive begins; the accent is the point where the stake isdriven; all that goes before is simply preparatory, --the changeablematerial which flutters about the fixed center. Therefore thepreliminary tones do not indicate the _essential_ or actual beginningof the motive, but its apparent or conditional beginning only; or whatmight be called its _melodic_ beginning. For this reason, also, theactual "first measure" of a motive or phrase or sentence of any kind isalways the first FULL measure, --the measure which contains the firstprimary accent; that is to say, the preliminary tone or tones do notcount as first measure. For this reason, further, it is evident thatpreliminary tones are invariably to be regarded as borrowed from thefinal measure of the preceding motive or phrase; they must be accountedfor in someway, --must derive their metric pulse from some group, --andas they cannot be a part of the first measure, they obviously form aborrowed portion of the (preceding) last measure. This will be betterunderstood by reference to Ex. 14, No. 3; the two 16ths at the end ofthe 4th measure (preliminary tones of the following phrase) areborrowed from the _f_ which precedes, --the final tone of the firstphrase, that would, but for this reduction, have been the fullhalf-note necessary to complete the four measures (like the final _g_). 

Perhaps the most striking feature of this rule of preliminary tones isthe absolute freedom of its application. It is _always_ whollyoptional with the composer to begin his figure or motive at whateverpart of the measure he may elect; at the accent or not; with or withoutpreliminary tones; to borrow beats from the preceding ending or not, ashis judgment or taste, or possibly some indirect requirement, maydecide. So valid is this license, that it is by no means unusual tofind consecutive members of the same phrase beginning at differentpoints in the measure. This results, apparently, in motives ofirregular, unsymmetric lengths; but no confusion is possible if thestudent will recollect and apply the rule that the objective point (theheart, so to speak) of each motive is the first primary accent itcontains; counting from these points, all irregularities of melodicextent become purely accidental and harmless. For illustration (thepreliminary tones are marked _a_):--

[Illustration: Example 14. Fragments of Mozart, Beethoven, andMendelssohn. ]

In No. 1, the first motive evidently ends with the longer tone, _g_-sharp. In No. 2, each one of the four motives differs from theothers in length; the sum of them is, however, exactly 24 beats, or 8measures; hence, each one is _actually_ a two-measure motive, countingfrom accent to accent. The upper numbers indicate the _actual, vital_beginning of each motive. 

This very natural, and fairly common, inequality increases thedifficulty of analysis somewhat. A knowledge of the principal chords, and familiarity with their manner of employment in composition, greatlyfacilitates the task, because the harmonic design furnishes in manycases the only unmistakable clue to the extremities of the melodicmembers. The difficulty finally vanishes only when the student haslearned to appreciate the declamatory quality of all good melody, andcan detect its inflections, its pauses; can _feel_ which (and how many)of its tones are coherent and inseparable, and where the points ofrepose interrupt the current, and thus divulge the sense of the melodicsentence. 

LESSON 3. --Analyze the third Song Without Words of Mendelssohn (Amajor, the so-called Hunting Song); first of all, locate the principalmelody, --it is not always the uppermost line of tones; then divide thismelody into its melodic motives, marking the "breaks" which separateeach from the following one; the figures may be noted, also, but onlymentally. No. 35 may also be analyzed in the same manner. 

CHAPTER IV. THE PHRASE. 

THE PHRASE. --It is not altogether easy to give a precise definition ofthe phrase. Like so many of the factors which enter into thecomposition of this most abstract, ideal, and intangible of the arts, the phrase demands considerable latitude of treatment, and will notreadily submit to strict limitations or absolute technical conditions. Perhaps the most correct definition is, that the term phrase isequivalent to "sentence, " and represents the smallest musical sectionthat expresses a _complete_ idea; not necessarily wholly finished, andtherefore independent of other adjoining phrases, but at least ascomplete _in itself_ as is an ordinary brief sentence in grammar, withits subject, predicate, and object. It should be sufficiently long toestablish the sense of tonality, the consciousness of beginning, course, and ending, and should exhibit a certain (though limited)amount of palpable and satisfying melodic and harmonic contents. Forthis reason, the Phrase, and nothing smaller, should be regarded as thestructural basis of musical form. 

The factors defined in the preceding chapter (the figure and motive)are, as a rule, decidedly less than is demanded of a complete phrase, which--as has been intimated--usually consists in the union of two(possibly more) motives, --just as the motive is compounded of figures, and the latter of single tones. 

In some, comparatively rare, cases the composer gives a phrase anindependent place upon his page, as complete miniature sentence, notdirectly connected with other phrases. This may be seen, very plainly, at the beginning (the first four or five measures) of the Songs WithoutWords, Nos. 28, 41, 35, 3, 4, 16. Examine each, carefully, and thenature of the phrase in its most definite form will become apparent. 

Such independent phrases are most likely to be found, like the above, at the beginning or end of a larger composition, to which they arerelated indirectly, as isolated introduction, or postlude. Thus, thefollowing complete phrase appears at the beginning of a song:

[Illustration: Example 15. Fragment of Schubert. ]

Its division into two melodic motives, and the subdivision of theseinto figures, is plainly marked. 

When the phrase assumes such a conspicuous position, and is so completeand definite in its effect as the ones just seen, there is naturally nodifficulty in recognizing and defining its extremities. But the taskof phrase analysis is by no means always thus easy. 

LENGTH OF THE REGULAR PHRASE. --Fortunately for the work of analysis, there are certain established landmarks of forms, so conscientiouslyobserved, and so firmly grounded in the practices of classic writing(because the necessary consequences of natural law), that it isgenerally practicable to fix fairly regular and plausible boundaries tothe phrase, notwithstanding the freedom and elasticity whichcharacterize the application of the syntactic principle in music. 

Therefore the student will find that a phrase, in the great majority ofcases, covers exactly _four measures_, and will seldom be misled if helooks for the end of his phrase four measures beyond its beginning. This refers, be it understood, only to measures of average size (in theordinary time denominations, 3-4, 4-4, 6-8 measure). If the measuresare uncommonly large (9-8, 12-8), the phrase will probably cover nomore than two of them; or, if small (2-4, or 3-4 in rapid tempo), thephrase may extend to the eighth measure. The operation of thisfour-measure rule is exhibited with striking regularity and persistencein the _Jugend Album_ of Schumann (op. 68); throughout its forty-threenumbers there are probably no more than a half-dozen phrases whoselength differs from this standard. For example:

[Illustration: Example 16. Fragment of Schumann, Op. 68, No. 11. ]

It will be observed that the first (and also the third) of thesephrases consists of two exactly similar two-measure motives. Thisseems to lend some confirmation to the idea of a two-measure phrase;but the student is warned against deviating from his four-measurestandard, upon such evidence as this. Many instances will be found, like these, in which the impression of a complete phrase is not gaineduntil the motive of two measures has been thus repeated; _therepetition is necessary_, in order to finish the sentence, and thisproves that the two measures alone do not constitute the "completeidea" which we expect the phrase to represent. 

The same regularity of dimension will usually be found in all kinds ofdance music; in technical exercises (for instance, the études of Czernyand others); and in all music of a simple or popular character. 

 * * * * * *

EXCEPTIONS. --In its ordinary, normal condition the phrase is a musicalsentence four measures in length. But this rule has its necessaryexceptions; necessary because, as we have learned, the principle ofVariety is quite as vital as that of Unity or symmetry. The phrase isnot always regular; by various means and for various reasons, itoccasionally assumes an irregular form. When such irregular phrasesare encountered (phrases of less or more than four measures) thestudent will best distinguish them by defining their extremities, theirbeginning and ending--as "beginning" and "ending, " without reference totheir length. This should not be attended with any serious difficulty;at least not to the observant student who reads his musical pagethoughtfully, and attaches some meaning to the figures and motives ofthe melody; who endeavors to recognize the extent to which thesuccessive tones appear to cling together (like the letters in a word)and constitute an unbroken melodic number, --and, in so doing, alsorecognizes the points where this continuity is broken, and a new numberis announced. Much assistance may be derived from the fact--strikingin its simplicity--that the ending of one phrase defines, at the sametime, the beginning of the next, and _vice versa_. The locating ofone, therefore, serves to locate the other. There is, usually, something sufficiently indicative about a "beginning, " to render itnoticeable to a careful observer, and the same is true of an "ending. "This is illustrated in the following:

[Illustration: Example 17. Fragments of Beethoven. ]

No. 1 is from the pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 3, second movement;see the original. This phrase exhibits an ending, unmistakably, in the_fifth_ measure, and not in the fourth. Its form is thereforeirregular. 

In No. 2 (from the first pianoforte sonata), the first phrase ends withthe fourth measure, obviously, for the evidence of a new "beginning" inthe following measure is perfectly clear; the phrase is thereforeregular. But the next phrase runs on to the _sixth_ measure from thispoint (the tenth from the beginning of the whole), because there is noearlier evidence of an "ending. " Observe that the first phrase has apreliminary quarter-note, the second phrase none. Turning toMendelssohn's Songs Without Words, the very first (introductory) phraseof No. 3 is five measures in length; the first one in No. 35 alsocontains five measures; the first one in No. 16, and in No. 9, containsthree measures. The irregular phrase will be again considered (in adifferent aspect) in a later chapter. 

The recognition of these syntactic traits of the melodic sentence is ofgreat moment to the player, for they constitute the information uponwhich conscious, intelligent, effective _phrasing_ depends; and withoutintelligent phrasing, without a clear exposition of the formation andarrangement of the members and phrases, full comprehension and adequateenjoyment of a musical composition is impossible. 

 * * * * * *

CONTENTS OF THE PHRASE. --The question may arise, what is it that makesa phrase, --the rhythm, harmony, or melody? Strictly speaking, allthree; for music subsists in the ceaseless co-operation of these threeprimary elements of composition, and no phrase is wholly completewithout the evidence of each and all. Generalizing the definitionsalready given, the function of each of these primary elements may bethus described: The element of harmony regulates the choice of thetones that are to sound together; the upright shafts of tone (chords)which determine the _body_, or framework, of the music. The element ofmelody regulates the choice of single tones, selected from thesuccessive shafts of harmony, that are to form a connected line orstrand of tones (in horizontal order, so to speak), --something like achain or chains stretched from harmonic post to post, which describethe figure or _outline_ of the musical image. The element of rhythmgives the whole body its _life_, --regulates the choice of varyinglengths, defining the infinitely varied "tapping" of the musicalmechanism. 

It is evident, from this, that no vivid, satisfying musical impressioncan be created in the absence of any one of these essential elements. But, for all that, they are not of equal importance; and, indetermining the extremities of the phrase (and of all other factors ofmusical structure), the melody takes precedence over harmony andrhythm. That is to say, that in his analysis of figures, motives, phrases, periods, and so forth, the student's attention should becentered upon the melody, --that chain of successive single tones which, as repeatedly stated, usually describes the _uppermost_ line of theharmonic and rhythmic body. That is the reason why the illustrationsgiven in this book are so frequently limited to the melody alone; it isthe pencil point which traces the design, describes the form, of themusical composition. 

LESSON 4. --Procure the _Jugend Album_, op. 68, of Schumann, and markthe phrases in Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18, 20, and others. Inthe given numbers the phrases are all regular, --four measures in length. 

Analyze in the same manner Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, Nos. 27, 22 (first phrase, five measures), 48, 28, 35, and others; occasionalirregularities may be encountered. 

Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata; op. 14, No. 2, second movement (Cmajor, _andante_); and op. 26, first movement. 

A few cautious experiments may also be made in analyzing anycomposition which the student may chance to be studying, especially ifnot too elaborate. The necessary safeguard consists in simply passingover every confusing point, limiting the analysis to those phrases thatare self defining, for the present, --until greater experience andfuller information shall have been gained. 

CHAPTER V. CADENCES. 

CADENCES IN GENERAL. --A cadence is the ending of a phrase. Strictlyspeaking, every interruption or "break" between figures, and betweenall melodic members, is a cadence; but the term "cadence" is applied tonothing smaller than entire phrases. 

The cadence is the point of Repose which creates the necessary contrastwith the condition of Action that prevails more or less constantlyduring the phrase; and the effect of this point of repose is, therefore, to separate one phrase from the next. The cadential effectis generally produced by two or three chords, the last one of which iscalled the cadence-chord, and stands, when the cadence is perfectlyregular, upon an accented beat of the final measure. This, accordingto our definition of the phrase, will most commonly be the fourthmeasure. 

For example:

[Illustration: Example 18. Fragment of Schumann. ]

The first chord in the fourth measure, on the accented beat, is the"cadence-chord"; but the preceding chord (and possibly the one beforethat, also) is naturally inseparable from the final one, and thereforethe entire cadence would be defined technically as embracing both (orall three) of these chords. The effect of repose is obtained _by thelength of the final chord_, which exceeds that of any other melody tonein the phrase; its time-value is a dotted quarter, because of thepreliminary tone (_e_, before the first accent) which, in the original(op. 68, No. 28), precedes the next phrase in exactly the same manner. 

Illustrations of the regular cadence will be found, also, in Ex. 15 andEx. 16; in the latter, --consisting as it does of four consecutivephrases, four cadences occur, distinctly marked by the _longer tone_ onthe accented beat of each successive fourth measure. 

MODIFICATION OR DISGUISING OF THE CADENCE. --The most natural andcharacteristic indication of a cadence is the _longer tone_, seen inthe examples to which reference has just been made; for a tone ofgreater length than its fellows is, in itself, the most conclusiveevidence of a point of repose, as compared with the shorter tones inthe course of the sentence, whose more prompt succession indicates theaction of the phrase. (See Ex. 29. )

From this the student is not to conclude that every long tone marks acadence. The rhythmic design of a melody is obtained by a constantinterchange of long and short tones, without direct reference to thecadence alone; and numerous examples will be found in which tones ofequal, or even greater, length than the cadence-tone occur in thecourse of the phrase. We have already seen that the end of a motive, or even of a figure, may be marked by a longer tone, or its equivalentin rests; and have been taught to expect a cadence in the fourthmeasure only, as a rule. 

But the direct evidence of a cadence afforded by a longer tone isconsidered not only unnecessary, but in many cases distinctlyundesirable. While cadences are indispensable, in music of clearlyrecognizable form, it is equally true that they must not be so emphaticas to check the current of melody and harmony too frequently orcompletely, or destroy the continuity and coherence of the members. And it is therefore an almost invariable practice, especially in musicof a higher order, to modify and disguise the cadences by some means orother; that is, to diminish the weight of the characteristic "longertone, "--to counteract, partially or entirely, the impression of actualcadential cessation, by continuing (instead of interrupting) therhythmic pulse. This is so very common, and so confusing a device, that the effect of the various methods employed to conceal or disguisea cadence must be thoroughly understood. 

It is necessary to remember, always, the rule that governs the actualbody of the phrase, and its possible preliminary tones; namely, thatthe vital, essential starting-point of a phrase (and other factors ofmusical form) is _the first primary accent_, the first beat of thefirst _full_ measure. The length of the phrase is reckoned from thispoint, and consequently, the cadence-chord is entitled to all the beatsthat remain, from its accent to the very end of the final measure. Forexample:

[Illustration: Example 19. Fragment of Mozart. ]

In this case the cadence-chord is not modified or disguised in theleast, but takes full advantage of the six beats that make the sum ofthe fourth measure. 

This important fact concerning the actual value of the cadence-chordremains unchanged, through all the licenses taken in disguising or(apparently) diminishing its value. Whatever means may be resorted to, in modifying the cadence, they do not alter the fact that _thecadence-chord is always entitled to this full sum of beats_; and thesebeats virtually represent the cadence-chord, either in its unchangedform (as in Ex. 19 and Ex. 16) or in any of the manifold disguisedforms illustrated in the following examples. 

One of the simplest forms is shown in Ex. 15:--The cadence-chord, onthe accented beat of the fourth measure, is entitled to the six beatscontained in that final measure. One beat is borrowed for thepreliminary tone of the next phrase (that does not appear in ourexample, but corresponds to the preliminary tone at the beginning); andthree beats are represented by rests, which cancel the resonance of themelody-tone _g_, but do not actually negate the effect of thecadence-chord. In consequence of these two reductions, the time-valueof the _cadence-tone_ is diminished to two beats, and the whole cadenceassumes a lighter, less obstinate and stagnant character. Of the sixbeats belonging to the cadence-chord, four are occupied by the tones ofthe accompaniment, which thus serves to bridge over the measure ofrepose without destroying the impression of a cadence. 

The treatment of the cadence is similar to this in Ex. 18. 

In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence-chord falls, properly, upon the primaryaccent (first beat) of the final measure--in this instance the fifthmeasure, as we have learned. The six beats to which it is entitled areall occupied by the simple reiteration of the final melody tone, whilethe sense of "interruption" is imparted by the long rest in the lowerparts. 

It is by thus sustaining the rhythmic pulse, during the measureallotted to the cadence-chord, that the desired dual impression, --thatof cadential interruption without actual cessation, --is secured. It islike rounding off a corner that might otherwise be too angular orabrupt. 

 * * * * * *

The question naturally arises: What tones are chosen to providematerial for this continuation of the rhythm? They are usually derivedfrom the cadence-chord, or its auxiliary embellishments; and themethods employed may be classified as follows:

(1) The rhythmic pulse is marked in the accompanying (subordinate)parts, as seen in Ex. 15, Ex. 18, and the following:--

[Illustration: Example 20. Fragment of Mendelssohn. ]

[Illustration: Example 20 continued. ]

The point of repose is marked by the longer melody tone _f_, on theaccent of the fourth measure. The value of the cadence-chord isrecorded, however, in the living tones of the accompanying figure, which here (as in almost every similar case in composition) continuesits rhythmic movement undisturbed. 

(2) The cadence-chord, or, more properly, the _cadence-tone_ in themelody, is shifted to some later beat in the cadence measure. Thus:

[Illustration: Example 21. Fragment of Mozart. ]

In this example there is in reality no irregularity, because thecadence-tone rests upon an _accented beat_ (the fourth, in 6-8measure), and the conditions of a cadence are fulfilled by _any_accent, primary or secondary, of the final measure. But it belongs, nevertheless, to this class of disguised cadences; for whateverresults, thus, in abbreviating the value of the cadence-chord, lightensthe effect of the cadence, and serves the desirable purpose sopersistently pursued by all good writers. Further:--

[Illustration: Example 22. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

[Illustration: Example 22 continued. Fragments of Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Mozart. ]

Nos. 2 and 3 illustrate the method most commonly adopted in shiftingthe cadence-tone forward to a later beat; namely, by placing anembellishing tone (usually the upper or lower neighbor) of thecadence-tone upon the accented beat belonging properly to the latter. Nos. 4 and 5 are both extreme cases; the actual cadence-tone is shiftedto the very end of the measure, so that the effect of cadentialinterruption is very vague and transient, --and will be quite lostunless the player is intelligent enough to emphasize, slightly, thephrasing (by making a distinct, though very brief, pause beforeattacking the following measure). See also Ex. 17, No. 2, the firstphrase; here, again, the melody runs on (through tones which embellishthe cadence-chord, _f-a-c_) to the last 8th-note of the fourth measure. 

(3) A certain--entirely optional--number of tones are borrowed from thevalue of the cadence-chord, as _preliminary tones_ of the followingphrase. An illustration of this has already been seen in Ex. 14, No. 2and No. 3. It is the employment of such preliminary tones, that, asthoroughly explained in Chapter III, creates a distinction between the_melodic_ beginning and the actual vital starting point of the phrase;or that gives the phrase an apparently shifted location in its measures. 

Further (the actual cadence-tone is marked):--

[Illustration: Example 23. Fragments of Beethoven and Mendelssohn. ]

[Illustration: Example 23 continued. Fragment of Mendelssohn. ]

No. 1 illustrates, again, the absence of preliminary tones in onephrase, and their presence in the next. In each of these examples(excepting, perhaps, No. 2) the cadence is so thoroughly disguised thatthere is little, if any, evidence left of the "point of repose. " InNo. 4, particularly, the cadence-measure is rhythmically the mostactive one in the phrase. And yet the presence of a genuine cadence ateach of these places, marked *, is as certain and indisputable as inEx. 19. The ear will accept a cadence upon the slightest evidence _inthe right place_, --where a cadence is expected. See, also, Mozartpianoforte sonata No. 10 (in D major), first 12 measures; measure 8 isa _cadence-measure_. 

Here follow a few more examples which illustrate the most extremeapplication of this principle of borrowed tones, --a mode of treatmentvery common in the music of Mozart, Haydn, and, in fact, all classicwriters:--

[Illustration: Example 24. Fragments of Mozart. ]

[Illustration: Example 24 continued. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

It is difficult to believe that in each of these cases the long arrayof 16th-notes should not constitute the actual beginning of the phrase, but are only preliminary; and yet this is the only correct view to takeof it, and it is the view which will simplify all analysis, whenthoroughly comprehended. It must be seen that the cluster of16th-notes in the cadence-measure (of the preceding phrase) is_one-sixteenth short of a full measure_, and, therefore, it does notrepresent the first measure of the next phrase, because our inviolablerule is that the first measure of a phrase is its first _full_ measure. The above examples emphasize the correct manner of counting themeasures; and they simply illustrate possible methods of _disguisingthe cadence_. 

In some cases it is difficult to determine whether the tones which thusdisturb the "repose" of the cadence-measure belong to the cadence-chord(that is, to the _present_ phrase), or, as preliminary tones, to thefollowing phrase. Upon careful scrutiny, however, it will be foundpossible to decide, by examining their melodic bearing, to which phrasethey pertain. In Example 22, they are manifestly (even in No. 5) apart of the present phrase; in Example 23 and 24 they are as certainlypreliminary to the phrase which follows. In the following example theyseem to constitute an entirely independent little "interlude, " withoutdirect reference to either phrase:

[Illustration: Example 25. Fragment of Mozart. ]

 * * * * * *

THE ELISION. --Finally, there are some (very rare) instances where thecomposer appears to yield to the seductive influence of such extensivepreliminary groups as those seen in Example 24, and by setting asidethe trifling discrepancy, permits the apparent preliminary tones torepresent the _actual first measure of the next phrase_. This iseasily accomplished, when, as in Example 24, No. 2, it is only one16th-note short of a full measure. And although this 16th, being thecadence-chord, is actually equivalent to the whole measure, it issometimes less confusing to the hearer to silence it. This is calledstifling the cadence (or Elision); and its presence depends simply uponsufficient proof that what was supposed to be the cadence-measure (andto a certain extent is such) is at the same time _really the firstmeasure of the next sentence_. The following contains an illustrationof the elision of a cadence:

[Illustration: Example 26. Fragment of Mozart. ]

[Illustration: Example 26 continued. ]

The proofs of this very singular and apparently untrustworthy analysisare: (1) That there is absolutely no doubt about the first cadence, marked *; (2) that a cadence is consequently due, and expected, fourmeasures later, --this proving the measure in question to be the"cadence-measure of the old phrase, " as it is marked and as it appealsto our sense of cadence; (3) that the last four measures unmistakablyrepresent a regular, compact phrase, --this proving that the"cadence-measure of the old phrase" is unquestionably _at the same timethe first measure, or actual beginning, of the new phrase_. In a word, one measure is lost--not in effect, for the elements of the expectedcadence are all present, --but in the counting. This lost measure isthe stifled cadence-measure, omitted by Elision. 

Such cases are, as stated, very rare; so rare that the student will dowisely to leave them quite out of his calculations. 

In order to elucidate the embarrassing matter still more fully, weshall take two more examples of a very misleading character, which thesuperficial observer would probably define as elisions, but which arealmost certainly regular cases of disguised cadence merely:

[Illustration: Example 27. Fragment of Mozart. ]

Here again there is no doubt of the presence of a cadence at the first*; but this "cadence-measure" appears almost as certainly to be at thesame time the initial measure of a new phrase. This, however, provesnot to be the case, because _there are four measures left, without thisone_. That is, counting backward from the final cadence, we locate the"first measure" after, not _with_, the cadence-measure. And this isthe way the passage was meant to sound by its author, and the way itwill and must sound to the student who has properly cultivated hissense of cadence. 

[Illustration: Example 28. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

This case is extremely misleading; it is hard to believe (and feel)that the characteristic onset of the 16th-triplet figure does notherald the new phrase; but all the indications of strict, unswervinganalysis (not to be duped by appearances) point to the fact that thisis one of the common cases of disguised cadence, and not an elision ofthe cadence. The _sforzando_ marks of Beethoven confirm this view, and, as in Example 27, we have our four measures to the next cadence, without this "cadence-measure. "

The characteristic traits of all these various phases of cadenceformation are:--

(1) That the actual cadence-tone in the melody may be of anytime-value, from the full extent of the cadence-measure down to thesmallest fraction of that measure. In Ex. 19 it was the former, unbroken; in Ex. 17, No. 1, also, but broken into the six pulses of themeasure; in Ex. 20 it was shortened, by a rest, to one-half its realvalue; in Ex. 26 it was reduced to one-quarter of its true value; inEx. 25, to one 8th-note; and in Ex. 24, No. 3, to one 16th-note. 

(2) That the cadence-tone in the melody may be shifted forward toalmost any point beyond its expected position upon the primary accent. In Ex. 20 (and many other of the given illustrations) it stands in itslegitimate place, at the beginning of the measure; in Ex. 21 it standsupon the _second_ accent of the measure; in Ex. 22, No. 1, on thesecond beat in 3-4 measure; in Ex. 22, No. 5, on the third beat of thetriple-measure; in Ex. 22, No. 4, on the last eighth note in themeasure. 

(3) That in almost every case the effect of absolute cessation issoftened by marking the rhythm of the cadence-measure; in no case isthe rhythm permitted to pause (not even in Ex. 19, where theaccompaniment, not shown, is carried along in unbroken 8th-notes). Insome part or other, by some means or other, the cadence-measure is keptalive; either by continuing the accompaniment, as in Exs. 18 and 20, orby quickly picking up a new rhythm, as in Exs. 27 and 28. Conspicuousexceptions to this rule will be found, it is true, in hymn-tunes andthe like; though occasionally even there, as the student may recall, the rhythm, in some cadence-measures, is carried along by one or moreof the inner voices; for example, in the hymn-tune "Lead, KindlyLight, " of J. B. Dykes. (See also Ex. 29. )

SPECIES OF CADENCE. --In text-books and musical dictionaries severalvarieties of the cadence are distinguished, but they are chieflydistinctions without any more than one essential point of difference, namely, difference in force or weight. It is therefore feasible toreduce all these varieties to two, --the heavy cadence and the lightcadence. The former is represented by the so-called Perfect cadence, the latter by the many grades of Semicadence. 

PERFECT CADENCE. --There is one method of checking the current of themelodic phrase with such emphasis and determination as to convey theimpression of finality; either absolute finality, as we observe it atthe very end of a composition, or such relative finality as isnecessary for the completion of some independent section of thepiece, --conclusive as far as that section is concerned, though notprecluding the addition of other sections to this, after the desireddegree of repose has been felt. This is known as the perfect cadence, or full stop. It is always made upon the _tonic harmony_ of some keyas cadence-chord, with the _keynote itself in both outer parts_, and--when desired in its strongest form (without such disguising as wehave seen)--upon an _accented_ beat, and of somewhat longer durationthan its fellow tones. For illustration:--

[Illustration: Example 29. Fragment of Schubert. ]

At the end of this four-measure phrase there is a perfect cadence, exhibited in its strongest, most conclusive form. It is practicallyundisguised, though the cadence-chord is reduced to three beats (fromthe four to which it is entitled) to make room for the preliminary beatof the next phrase (calculated to correspond to the one at thebeginning of this phrase). 

The cadence-chord is the tonic harmony of C minor; upon the primaryaccent of the 4th measure; it is considerably longer than any othertone in the phrase; and the keynote _c_ is placed both at the top andat the bottom of the harmonic body. See also Ex. 15; the cadence isperfect, because the cadence-chord, on the accent of the 4th measure, is the tonic harmony of G major, with the keynote as highest and aslowest tone. It is abbreviated by rests, which very slightly diminishits weight. Ex. 17, No. 2, closes with a perfect cadence; it is thetonic harmony of C major, on an accent, and with the keynote in the twoextreme parts. See also Ex. 20. 

In the following:

[Illustration: Example 30. Fragment of Schumann. ]

the cadence-chord stands upon the secondary accent (3d beat) of thefinal measure. This method of shifting the cadence forward isgenerally adopted in large species of measure (6-8, 9-8, and the like), and has been defined among the devices employed in disguising or_lightening_ the cadence. In Ex. 22, No. 5, the cadence-chord isshifted to the last beat (unaccented) of the final measure; thislightens the cadence very materially, but it does not affect any of itsessential properties as perfect cadence. The following is similar:--

[Illustration: Example 31. Fragment of Schumann. ]

The cadence-chord occupies the unaccented (2d) beat, and is no longerthan any other chord in the phrase. Despite its striking brevity, itis nevertheless a perfect cadence, disguised; it is the tonic chord ofC major, with the keynote at top and bottom. See also Ex. 23, No. 1. 

The following illustrations come under the head of the disguisedcadences seen in Ex. 24:--

[Illustration: Example 32. Fragments of Mendelssohn and Schubert. ]

In No. 1 the cadence is perfect, for it is the tonic chord of G major, keynote _g_ at top and bottom, and on the primary accent of the fourthmeasure; but the uninterrupted continuation of the movement of 16ths, in the right hand, shortens the uppermost keynote to a single16th-note, and would entirely conceal the cadence, were it not for thedistinct evidence of repose in the lower part. 

In No. 2 the movement in the upper part appears to shatter the cadence;the keynote does not appear on the accent, and its announcement at theend of the first triplet is very brief. For all that, it is anunmistakable perfect cadence; the chord thus shattered (or "broken, "technically speaking) is the tonic harmony of the key, and the keynote_does_ appear as uppermost (and therefore most prominent) tone, in thesame order of percussion as that given to each of the preceding melodytones. 

 * * * * * *

At the end of an entire piece of music, or of some larger section ofthe piece, the cadence-chord, on the other hand, is often lengthenedconsiderably, for the sake of the greater weight and decision ofcadential interruption required at that place. Thus:--

[Illustration: Example 33. Fragment of Schubert. ]

The last two measures are merely the prolongation of the finalcadence-chord. See also, Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 4, lastfive measures; No. 8, last eight measures; and others. 

Another peculiarity of the final cadence is, that sometimes the_uppermost_ tone is the 3d or 5th of the tonic chord, instead of thekeynote, --a significant device to counteract the dead weight of thecadence-chord, especially when prolonged as just seen. See No. 10 ofthe Songs Without Words, last six measures; it is the tonic chord of Bminor, but the tone _d_ (the 3d) is placed at the top, instead of _b_. Also No. 16, last chord; No. 38, last chord; No. 6, last three measures(the 5th of the tonic chord as uppermost tone). At any other point inthe piece this default of the keynote would, as we shall presently see, almost certainly reduce the weight of the cadence from "perfect" to"semicadence"; at the very end, however, it cannot mislead, because itdoes not affect the condition of actual finality. 

SEMICADENCE. --Any deviation from the formula of the perfectcadence--either in the choice of some other than the tonic chord, or inthe omission of the keynote in either (or both) of the outerparts--weakens the force of the interruption, and transforms thecadence into a lighter, more transient, point of repose, for which theterm semicadence (or half-stop) is used. The semicadence indicatesplainly enough the end of its phrase, but does not completely sever itfrom that which follows. 

It is these lighter, transient forms of cadence to which a number ofdifferent names are given; for the student of analysis (and thecomposer, also, for that matter) the one general term "semicadence, " orhalf-cadence, is sufficient, and we shall use no other. 

If, then, a cadence is final in its effect, it is a perfect one; ifnot, it is a semicadence. The harmony most commonly chosen as theresting-place of a semicadence is the chord of the _dominant_, --thefifth step of the momentary key, --that being the harmony next inimportance to that of the tonic (the one invariably used for theperfect cadence). The following example illustrates the dominantsemicadence:--

[Illustration: Example 34. Fragment of Brahms. ]

The cadence-chord is the dominant harmony (root _e_) in the key of Aminor; neither of the two upper tones on the first and second beats isthe root of the chord; it is quite sufficient that the root appears aslowermost tone, and even this is not necessary. The "point of repose"is shifted to the second beat, in the manner so amply illustrated inthe examples of the disguised cadence; the methods we have seen may beapplied to _any_ kind of cadence. 

See also Ex. 18; the key, and therefore the chord, at the semicadenceis the same as that of the above example (simply major instead ofminor). 

Also Ex. 23, No. 4; the semicadence chord is the dominant harmony ofE-flat major; it is skillfully disguised. Ex. 25, dominant harmony ofA major. Ex. 26, last four measures; the semicadence is made upon thedominant of C minor. 

In the following:

[Illustration: Example 35. Fragment of Schumann. ]

the semicadence in the fourth measure is made with the dominant harmonyof C major (the tones _g-b-d-f_); it is so disguised as to remove allsigns of interruption; but the chord _prevails_ throughout the measure, and (as may be seen by reference to the original, op. 68, No. 3) thenext measure--the fifth--exactly corresponds to the first; thisindicates another "beginning, " and proves our "ending. "

But though the dominant is thus generally employed at the semicadence, it is by no means the only available chord. It must be remembered thatevery cadence which does not fulfil the definite conditions of theperfect cadence, is a semicadence. Examine each of the following, anddetermine why the point of repose is each time a semicadence:--Ex. 1;Ex. 9, No. 3; Ex. 14, No. 2, fourth measure; Ex. 14, No. 3, fourthmeasure; Ex. 19; Ex. 22, Nos. 3 and 4; Ex. 23, No. 2, fourth measure. 

The distinction between the two species of cadence becomes most subtlewhen the _tonic harmony_ is chosen for the semicadence, _but with someother part of the chord than the keynote as uppermost (or lowermost)tone_. This might appear to lighten the perfect cadence tooimmaterially to exercise so radical an influence upon the value(weight) of the interruption. The _keynote_, however, is so decisiveand final in its harmonic and melodic effect--everywhere in music--thatits absence more or less completely cancels the terminating quality ofthe cadence-chord; in other words, the force of a tonic cadence dependsupon the weight and prominence of the _keynote_. 

For example:

[Illustration: Example 36. Fragment of Schubert. ]

The first, second, and third of these cadences is made upon the tonicharmony, on the accent of each successive fourth measure. But they areonly _semicadences_, as the melody (uppermost part) rests upon theThird of the chord, _c_, instead of the keynote; this substitution of_c_ for _a-flat_ is sufficient to frustrate the perfect cadence anddiminish it to a transient interruption. The final cadence is perfect, however, because there the uppermost tone _is_ the keynote. See alsoEx. 21; and Ex. 17, No. 2, fourth measure (semicadence, with _a_instead of _f_ as principal tone in upper part, and disguised by thecontinuation of rhythmic movement to the end of the cadence-measure). In Ex. 17, No. 1, the cadence is made with the tonic harmony of Gminor, but with the Third (_b-flat_) at the top. 

LOCATING THE CADENCES. --Next to the recognition and comparison of thedifferent melodic sections of a composition (in a word, the _melodicdelineation_ of the whole), the most significant task in music analysisis the locating and classifying of the cadences. They are the anglesof the design, so to speak; and have the same bearing upon the sense ofthe music as punctuation marks have in rhetoric. Intelligent andeffective phrasing, adequate interpretation of the composer's purpose, is impossible without a distinct exposition of the cadences, --if not ofthe inferior points of interruption between motives, also. 

The best general rule for locating cadences is, probably, to look forthem in the right place, namely, in the _fourth measure_ from thebeginning of each phrase. The fairly regular operation of this rulehas been verified in Lesson 4. But exceptions have also been seen (inEx. 17), and many more are certain to be encountered, simply becausethe principle of Unity (exemplified by the prevalence of thefour-measure standard) must interact with the principle of Variety(exemplified in all phrases of irregular extent). 

Therefore, the more reliable method, as already stated, is _to definethe beginning of the following phrase_, --for each successive beginninginvolves a foregone cadence, of course. No very definite directionscan be given; experience, observation, careful study and comparison ofthe given illustrations, will in time surely enable the student torecognize the "signs" of a beginning, --such as the recurrence of somepreceding principal member of the melody, or some such change inmelodic or rhythmic character as indicates that a new phrase is beingannounced. 

LESSON 5. Analyze, again, Schumann, _Jugend Album_ (op. 68), No. 6, locating every cadence and defining its quality, --as perfect cadence orsemicadence. Also Nos. 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 33, 14, 15, 16, 3, --andothers. As a curious illustration of the difficulty which maysometimes attend the analysis of phrases and cadences, the student mayglance at No. 31 (_Kriegslied_, D major); a more baffling example willrarely be found, for the piece abounds in irregular phrase-dimensions, and cadences that are disguised to the verge of unrecognizability; theonly fairly reliable clue the composer has given lies in the formationof the melodic members (the clue intimated in the explanatory textfollowing Ex. 35). 

Also Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 34 (first phrase sixmeasures long); No. 40; No. 18. 

Also Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 22, third movement(_Menuetto_); op. 28, second movement (_Andante_). 

Again the student is reminded that it is not only permissible, but wiseand commendable, to pass by all confusing cases; without being carelessor downright superficial, to observe a certain degree of prudentindifference at confusing points, trusting to that superiorintelligence which he shall surely gain through wider experience. 

CHAPTER VI. IRREGULAR PHRASES. 

CAUSES. --The possibility of deviating from the fundamental standard ofphrase-dimension (four measures) has been repeatedly intimated, and istreated with some detail in the text preceding Example 17, which shouldbe reviewed. It is now necessary to examine some of the conditions thatlead to this result. 

The causes of irregular phrase-dimension are two-fold; it may result

(1) from simply inserting an additional cadence, or from omitting one. Or

(2) it may be the consequence of some specific manipulation of thephrase-melody with a view to its extension or expansion, its developmentinto a broader and more exhaustive exposition of its contents. 

THE SMALL AND LARGE PHRASES. --If a cadence is inserted before it isproperly due, it is almost certain to occur exactly _half-way_ along theline toward the expected (regular) cadence, --that is, in the _second_measure. This is likely to be the case only when the tempo is so slow, or the measures of so large a denomination, that two of them arepractically equal to four _ordinary_ measures. By way of distinction, such a two-measure phrase is called a Small phrase. For example:--

[Illustration: Example 37. Fragment of Mendelssohn. ]

There is no reasonable doubt of the semicadence in the second measure, because enough pulses have been heard, up to that point, to represent thesum of an ordinary phrase. If this were written in 6-8 measure (as itmight be), it would contain four measures. See, also, Song No. 22 ofMendelssohn, --9-8 measure, adagio tempo; the phrases are "Small"; noteparticularly the last two measures. The same is true in No. 17. AboutSchumann, op. 68, No. 43 (_Sylvesterlied_), there may be some doubt; butthe measures, though of common denomination, contain so many tones, inmoderate tempo, that the effect of a cadence is fairly complete in thesecond measure. 

If, on the other hand, one of the regular cadences is omitted, --owing tothe rapidity of the tempo, or a small denomination of measure, --thephrase will attain just double the ordinary length; that is, _eight_measures. An eight-measure phrase is called a Large phrase. Forillustration:--

[Illustration: Example 38. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

There is not the slightest evidence of repose or interruption in thefourth measure, nor of a new beginning in the fifth, wherefore thecadence is not expected until four more measures have passed by. Theinferior points of repose in the upper parts, at the beginning of the5th, 6th and 7th measures, serve only to establish melodic, or ratherrhythmic, variety, and have no cadential force whatever. SeeMendelssohn, Song No. 8; the first cadence appears to stand in the_eighth_ measure; the tempo is rapid and the measures are small; it isobviously a large phrase. The phrase which follows is regular, however;there _is_ a cadence in the twelfth measure, thus proving that Largephrases may appear in company with regular phrases, in the samecomposition. In other words, the omission of an expected cadence (or theinsertion of an additional one) may be an _occasional_ occurrence, --notnecessarily constant. See, again, No. 22 of the Songs Without Words; thefirst and second phrases are small; the third phrase, however (reachingfrom measure 6 to 9 without cadential interruption), is of regulardimensions. 

THE PRINCIPLE OF EXTENSION. --The other cause of modified phrase-dimensionis one of extreme importance, as touching upon the most vital process inmusical composition, namely, that of _phrase-development_. 

Setting aside all critical discussion with reference to the question, "What is good music?" and simply accepting those types of classiccomposition universally acknowledged to be the best, as a defensiblestandard (to say the least), we find that such a page of music exhibitsthe pursuit of some leading thought (melodic motive or phrase), withprecisely the same coherence and consistency, the same evidence ofdetermined aim, as is displayed in the creation of a forcible essay, amasterly poem, an imposing architectural plan, or any other work of artthat betrays intelligence and a definite, fixed, purpose. This is nomore nor less than might be expected from the dominion of the law ofUnity. 

The equally inflexible demands of Variety are satisfied by presentingthis self-same leading thought in ever new and changing aspects, --_not_by exchanging the thought itself for a new one at each successive angle. This latter faulty process would naturally lead to a conglomeration ofimpressions, baffling comprehension and jeopardizing real enjoyment. 

In a classic page of music we perceive that each successive unit grows, more or less directly, out of those which go before; not so directly, orwith such narrow insistence as to produce the impression of sameness andmonotony, but with such consistency of design as to impart a unifiedphysiognomy to the whole. Hence, it will often be found that everymelodic figure, during a certain section (if not the whole) of acomposition, may be traced to one or another of the figures whichcharacterized the first phrase, or the first two or three phrases, of thepiece. This was emphasized by our reference, near the end of the firstchapter, to the 8th Song Without Words of Mendelssohn. If the student, in analyzing the melody of that composition, will endeavor to penetratesome of the clever disguises employed by the composer (for the sake ofVariety), he will find the whole piece reducible to a very few melodicfigures, announced at or near the beginning. See also No. 45 (C major), No. 36, No. 26. Also Schumann, op. 68, No. 7, No. 8, No. 18, No. 23. Also Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 2, last movement; op. 26, last movement. 

In musical composition this process is known as thematic development, andit generally extends over the whole, or a greater part, of the piece. 

Its operation on a smaller scale, with more limited reference to onephrase alone, effects the development of the phrase _by extension_. 

The process of extension or expansion, by means of which the phraseusually assumes a somewhat irregular length, consists mainly in thevaried repetition of the figures or motives that it contains; and thecontinuity of the whole, as extension of the _one phrase_, is maintainedby suppressing the cadence--suspending all cadential interruption--duringthe lengthening process. For example:

[Illustration: Example 39. Fragment of Mendelssohn. ]

These six measures result from a repetition (variated) of the third andfourth measures of the original--regular--four-measure phrase. A cadenceis due in the fourth measure, but it is not permitted to assert itself;and if it did, its cadential force would be neutralized by the entirelyobvious return to (repetition of) the motive just heard. Further:--

[Illustration: Example 40. Fragment of Mendelssohn. ]

There is no cadence in the fourth measure, --the current of the melodyobliterates it and hurries on, voicing the last measure again and againuntil it dies away in the tenth measure, where a cadence ends it. Thatit should be the _tenth_ measure is purely accidental; the number ofmeasures is of little account in the act of extension; here, it wascontinued until a convenient place was found (with reference to chord andkey) for the cadence. Further:--

[Illustration: Example 41. Fragment of Mendelssohn. ]

Measures 1, 2, 3 and 8 constitute the original regular four-measurephrase. 

The following regular phrase (to be found in the last movement ofBeethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 28):--

[Illustration: Example 42. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

is immediately followed by this lengthy and elaborate extension:--

[Illustration: Example 43. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

[Illustration: Example 43 continued. ]

The portion marked _b_ is a complete repetition, with quaint variation, of the original four-measure phrase, marked _a_ in Ex. 42; _c_ is arepetition of the last figure (just one measure) of the phrase, with themelodic parts inverted, or exchanged; _d_ and _e_ are a literalrepetition of the two preceding measures--(_c_) and _c_; _f_ is anotherrecurrence of (_c_), with still another inversion of the melodies; _g_repeats _e_ an octave higher; and _h_ is nothing more or less than acurious repetition of _g_, in longer tones, and in reversed direction. Distinct cadential interruption is carefully avoided after the originalphrase has been announced, that is, throughout Ex. 43, --which is thesignificant proof (borne out by the manifest identity of the _melodic_members) that these measures form part and parcel of the original phrase, as extension or development of it, and _not_ a new phrase. The totallength is sixteen measures, developed thus out of the original four. 

For an exhaustive explanation of phrase-extension, with all the technicaldetails, the student is referred to my HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter III. 

 * * * * * *

Another method of extending a phrase consists in prefacing a measure ortwo of purely _introductory_ material; it is, therefore, ratheranticipation than prolongation, and is composed most commonly of thefigure of the accompaniment, announced briefly before the actualphrase-melody begins. 

This is shown very clearly in the first measure of the 22d Song WithoutWords; also in the first measure of No. 7, No. 31, No. 42, No. 40, andothers; the first _two_ measures of No. 34, and No. 1; the first _three_measures of No. 19, No. 26, and No. 37, --and needs no furtherillustration. It emphasizes the necessity of vigilance in defining thecorrect _starting-point_ of the first phrase; for a mistake at thebeginning may interfere seriously with the locating of the cadences(according to our fundamental four-measure rule). For instance, in No. 42 the cadences do _not_ fall in the 4th, 8th, 12th measures--and soon--but in the 5th, 9th, 13th, 17th, from the very beginning of the piece. 

When the introductory passage is longer than _three_ measures, itprobably constitutes a complete phrase by itself, with its own cadence;in which case, of course, it must not be analyzed as "extension. " Forexample, at the beginning of No. 29; still more apparently at thebeginning of No. 28, No. 41, and others. 

 * * * * * *

INHERENT IRREGULARITY. --Finally, --there exists another, third, condition, besides those mentioned at the head of this chapter, whereby a phrase mayassume an irregular dimension; not by doubling or dividing its length (asin the large and small phrases) nor by the processes of extension, --butby an arbitrary and apparently incalculable act of _melodic liberty_, --byallowing the melody to choose its own time for the cadentialinterruption. This comparatively rare occurrence is illustrated in Ex. 17, No. 1 (five-measure phrase), and Ex. 17, No. 2, second phrase (sixmeasures long). It is true that in each of these cases the "extra"measures might be accounted for as "extension by modifiedrepetition, "--for instance, in No. 1 the _second_ measure might be calleda reproduction (or extension) of the first measure. But cases will beencountered where a phrase of three, five, six, or seven measures willadmit of no such analysis. In such instances the student is compelled torely simply upon the evidence of _the cadence_. As was advised in thecontext of Ex. 17, he must endeavor to define the phrase by recognitionof its "beginning" and "ending, " as such; or by exercising his judgmentof the "cadential impression. " See also Ex. 48, second phrase (sixmeasures). 

See Schubert, pianoforte sonata No. 1 (A minor, op. 42)_Scherzo_-movement; first 28 measures, divided into 5 phrases, --asdemonstrated by the melodic formation--of 5, 5, 5, 7 and 6 measures. Also Schubert, _Impromptu_, op. 90, No. 3, measures 42 to 55 (phrases of5, 5 and 4 measures. )

LESSON 6. Analyze the following examples, locating the cadences anddefining their value (as perfect or semicadence); and determining thenature of each irregular phrase (as small, large, or extended phrase):

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 22, second movement (_Adagio_), first30 measures. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, _Scherzo_-movement. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 3, _Menuetto_. 

Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words: No. 4, first 5 measures. 

No. 46, last 9 1/2 measures. 

No. 42, last 15 measures. 

No. 45, last 11 measures. 

No. 12, last 12 measures. 

No. 14, last 11 measures. 

No. 36, last 22 measures. 

No. 37, last 11 measures. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 27, No. 2, last movement; measures 7 to23 from the second double-bar. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, first movement; from the double-bar(near the middle of the movement) measures 21 to 94 (_fermata_ symbol);in this extraordinary specimen of phrase-development, the originalfour-measure phrase yields seventy-four successive measures, with veryfew cadences to divide it even into sections. Same sonata, lastmovement, last eighteen measures. 

CHAPTER VII. THE PERIOD-FORM. 

PHRASE-ADDITION. --The phrase is the structural basis of all musicalcomposition. By this is meant, not necessarily the single phrase, butthe phrase in its collective sense. 

The phrase is, after all, only a unit; and the requirements of Varietycannot be wholly satisfied by the mere development and extension of asingle phrase, except it be for a certain limited section of the piece, or for a brief composition in small form (like Schumann, op. 68, No. 8). 

The act of _addition_ does therefore enter into the processes ofmusic-writing, as well as _extension_. Phrase may be added to phrase, in order to increase the primary material, and to provide for greaterbreadth of basis, and a richer fund of resources. The condition to berespected is, that such aggregation shall not become the ruling trait, and, by its excess, supplant the main purpose, --that of _development_. That is, it must be held rigidly within the domain of Unity. Thestudent of the classic page will therefore expect to find a more orless marked family resemblance, so to speak; prevailing throughout thevarious phrases that may be associated upon that page. 

Each additional phrase should be, and as a rule will be, sufficiently"new" in some respect or other to impart renewed energy to themovement; but--so long as it is to impress the hearer as being the samemovement--there will still remain such points of contact with theforegoing phrase or phrases as to demonstrate its derivation from them, its having "grown out" of them. 

This process of addition (not to be confounded with the methods ofextending a single phrase, illustrated in the preceding chapter) isexhibited first, and most naturally, in the so-called Period-form. 

THE PERIOD. --The Period-form is obtained by the addition of a secondphrase to the first. It is therefore, in a sense, a double phrase;that is, it consists of two connected phrases, covering _eight ordinarymeasures_, or just double the number commonly assigned to the singlephrase. 

Each one of these phrases must, of course, have its individual cadence, or point of repose; the first--called the _Antecedent phrase_--has itscadence in the fourth measure, and the second--called the _Consequentphrase_--in the eighth measure. The effect of the Period-form is thatof a longer sentence interrupted exactly in the middle, --not unlike abridge of two spans, resting on a central pier. But, precisely as thecentral pier is only an intermediate point of support, and not terrafirma, so the ending of the Antecedent phrase is never anything moreweighty than a semicadence, while the definite, conclusive, perfectcadence appears at the end of the Consequent phrase, --or of the entireperiod-form. 

The reason for this distinction of cadence is obvious. A period is nottwo separate phrases, but two related and coherent phrases whichmutually balance each other. The Consequent phrase is not merely an"addition" to the first, but is its complement and "fulfilment. " Thetwo phrases represent the musical analogy of what, in rhetoric, wouldbe called thesis and antithesis, or, simply, question and answer. In awell-constructed period the Antecedent phrase is, therefore, alwaysmore or less _interrogative_, and the Consequent phrase _responsive_, in character. 

For illustration (Mendelssohn, No. 28):--

[Illustration: Example 44. Fragment of Mendelssohn. ]

The co-operation, or interaction, of the principles of Unity andVariety, is nowhere more strikingly shown than in the formulation ofthe musical period. Either element has the right to predominate, to areasonable degree, though never to the exclusion or injury of theother. In the above example, the principle of Unity predominates to asomewhat unusual extent:--not only the figures (marked 1-2-3-4), andthe motives (_a-b_), are uniform, in the Antecedent phrase itself, butthe melody of the Consequent phrase corresponds very closely throughoutto that of the Antecedent, only excepting a trifling change in thecourse (marked _N. B. _), and the last few tones, which are necessarilyso altered as to transform the semicadence into a perfect cadence. Itis this significant change, _at the cadence_, which prevents the secondphrase from being merely a "repetition" of the first one, --which makesit a "Consequent, " a response to the one that precedes. 

Further (Mendelssohn, No. 23):--

[Illustration: Example 45. Fragment of Mendelssohn. ]

In this example also, the Consequent phrase is a complete affirmationof its Antecedent, agreeing in its melodic form with the latter untilthe cadence is nearly due, when an extra measure is inserted (asextension), and the usual digression into the necessary perfect cadenceis made. The condition of Unity predominates, but a noticeableinfusion of Variety takes place. 

Further (Mozart, pianoforte sonata):--

[Illustration: Example 46. Fragment of Mozart. ]

Here, again, the condition of Unity prevails, but with a still greaterinfusion of Variety; the melody of the Consequent phrase _resembles_that of the Antecedent in every detail; the rhythm is identical, and itis evident that the second phrase is designed to balance the first, figure for figure, the principal change being that some of the figuresare simply turned upside down (compare the places marked _N. B. _). Thesemicadence rests upon a dominant chord (fifth-step) of D major; theperfect cadence upon the same chord, it is true, but as _tonic_ harmonyof A major, with keynote in the extreme parts. Being a keynote, thoughnot in the original key, it is valid as perfect cadence. 

Further (Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13):--

[Illustration: Example 47. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

[Illustration: Example 47 continued. ]

In this example, the condition of Variety predominates decidedly. TheConsequent melody differs totally from the Antecedent, even in rhythm, and the necessary portion of Unity is exhibited only in equality oflength, _uniformity of accompaniment_, and similarity of character(tonality, and general harmonic and rhythmic effect). Observe thediversity of melodic extent, in the two phrases, in consequence of thepreliminary tone borrowed from the semicadence for the Consequentphrase. Greater variety than here will rarely be found between twosuccessive phrases that are intended to form the halves of one coherentperiod. 

For more minute technical details see the HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapter V. 

LESSON 7. Analyze the following examples. Locate the cadences;compare the phrases and define the degrees of Unity and of Varietyexhibited in the melody, or elsewhere; and mark such irregularities offorms (or extensions) as may be found:--

Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 35, measures 5 1/2-13. (By 5 1/2is meant the _middle_ of the fifth measure, instead of its beginning. )

No. 45, first 8 measures. 

No. 29, measures 4 1/2-12. 

No. 14, " 1-8. 

No. 34, " 1-10. 

No. 18, " 1-9; 10-17. 

No. 9, " 3 1/2-7. 

No. 27, " 5-12. 

Schumann, op. 68, No. 3, measures 1-8; 9-16. 

No. 5, measures 1-8; 9-16. (Do not overlook the preliminary toneswhich precede the first measure. )

The first eight measures of Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 22, 23, 24, 26, 30, 32, 39. Also Nos. 13 and 28, first _ten_ measures. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, _Adagio_, measures 1-8. Same sonata, third movement, "Trio, " measures 1-10. 

Op. 2, No. 2, _Largo_, measures 1-8; also _Scherzo_, measures 1-8; also_Rondo_, measures 1-8. 

Op. 2, No. 3, measures 1-13; also _Scherzo_, measures 1-16; also lastmovement, measures 1-8. 

Op. 10, No. 1, _Finale_, measures 1-8; and measures 16 1/2-28. 

Op. 10, No. 3, measures 1-10; also _Largo_, measures 1-9; 9 1/2-17;also _Menuetto_, measures 1-16; also _Rondo_, measures 1-9. 

Op. 14, No. 2, measures 1-8; also _Andante_, measures 1-8; also_Scherzo_, measures 1-8. 

After analyzing these examples, the student may venture to define theperiods in other compositions, classic or popular, especially such ashe may chance to be learning. 

CHAPTER VIII. --ENLARGEMENT OF THE PERIOD-FORM. 

The processes of extension and development are applied to the period inthe same general manner as to the phrase. The results, however, arebroader; partly because every operation is performed on acorrespondingly larger scale, and partly because the resources oftechnical manipulation increase, naturally, with the growth of thethematic material. 

Among the various methods adopted, there are three, each significant inits own peculiar way, that provide sufficiently exhaustive directionsfor the student of structural analysis. 

ENLARGEMENT BY REPETITION. --The first and simplest method is toincrease the length of the period-form by the process of _repetition_;repetition of the entire sentence, or of any one--or several--of itscomponent members, in a manner very similar to that already seen inconnection with the single phrase (Chap. VI, Ex. 39, etc. ), and underthe same conditions of Unity and Variety; that is, the repetitions maybe nearly or quite literal, or they may have been subjected to suchalterations and variations as the skill and fancy of the composersuggested. 

An example of complete repetition (that is, the repetition of theentire period), with simple but effective changes, may be found inBeethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13, _Adagio_, measures 1 to 16. Examine it carefully, and observe, among other details, the treatmentof the perfect cadence (in the 8th measure). See also, Song WithoutWords, No. 27, measures 5 to 20. 

The repetition of one of the two phrases is exhibited in the following(Mozart, sonata No. 14):--

[Illustration: Example 48. Fragment of Mozart. ]

The Antecedent is a regular four-measure phrase, with semicadence (madeon the tonic chord, but with _3d_ as uppermost tone); the Consequent isa six-measure phrase, with perfect cadence, and is repeated, withpartial change of register. The whole is a "period with repeatedConsequent. "

A somewhat elaborate example of extension by detail-repetition is seenin the following (Chopin, Mazurka No. 20, op. 30, No. 3--see theoriginal):

[Illustration: Example 49. Fragment of Chopin. ]

[Illustration: Example 49 continued. ]

These sixteen measures are the product out of eight measures, byextension; that is, they are reducible to a simple period-form (as maybe verified by omitting the passages indicated under dotted lines), andthey represent in reality nothing more than its manipulation anddevelopment. The original 8-measure period makes a complete musicalsentence, and was so devised in the mind of the composer, _without theextensions_. The method of manipulation is ingenious; observe thevariety obtained by the striking dynamic changes from _ff_ to _pp_;and, hand in hand with these, the changes from major to minor, and back(as shown by the inflection of _b_-flat to _b_-double-flat). These arefirst applied to members only, of the Antecedent, as indicated by thebrackets _a_ and _b_, and then to the entire Consequent phrase. Observe, also, that in the repeated form of the latter, the rhythm ismodified to a smoother form, during two measures. The result hereachieved is constant Unity and constant Variety from almost every pointof view, admirably counterbalanced. 

THE PHRASE-GROUP. --A second method consists in enlarging theperiod-form to three phrases, by the same process of addition which, asexplained in the preceding chapter, transforms the single phrase intothe double-phrase or period. In order to preserve the continuity ofthe three phrases, it is evident that the second phrase must _also_close with a semicadence, --the perfect cadence being deferred until thelast phrase is concluded. 

{78}

This form, be it well understood, does not include any of thetriple-phrase designs which may result from merely repeating one or theother of the two phrases that make a period, as is shown in Ex. 48. _All such phrase-clusters as are reducible to two phrases_, becausenothing more than simple repetition has been employed in theirmultiplication, should always be classed among ordinary periods; fortwo successive phrases, if connected (that is, unless they arepurposely broken asunder by a definite perfect cadence at the end ofthe first phrase) always represent the analogy of Question and Answer. 

The enlarged form we are at present considering consists of three_different_ phrases, as a general rule; probably very closely related, or even distinctly resembling one another; but too independent, nevertheless, to constitute actual repetition, and therefore to admitof reduction to two phrases. For this very reason it cannot justly becalled "period" at all, but takes the name of "phrase-group. " Anillustration by diagram will make the distinction clear:--

[Illustration: Phrase group diagram. ]

Observe that the classification depends upon the number ofphrases, --upon the _melodic_ identity of the phrases, --and upon the_quality of the cadences_. 

No. 1 is illustrated in Ex. 15; No. 2, in Ex. 42 and the first fourmeasures of Ex. 43 (cadence not perfect, it is true, but samephrase-melody and _same cadence_); No. 3 is seen in Ex. 44(phrase-melody similar, but cadences different)--also in Ex. 47; No. 4is seen in Ex. 48; No. 5 is rare, but an example will be discovered inLesson 8; No. 6 is illustrated in the following (Grieg, op. 38, No. 2):--

[Illustration: Example 50. Fragment of Grieg. ]

Comparing this sentence with Ex. 48, we discover the followingsignificant difference: There, no more than two phrases were present;the whole sentence was _reducible_ to two phrases. Here (Ex. 50), however, no such reduction is possible; three sufficiently similar--andsufficiently different--phrases are coherently connected, withoutevidence of mere repetition; it is the result of Addition, and the formis a _phrase-group_. The first cadence is, strictly speaking, a_perfect_ one; but of that somewhat doubtful rhythmic character, which, in conjunction with other indications, may diminish its conclusiveeffect, and prevent the decided separation which usually attends theperfect cadence. This is apt to be the case with a perfect cadence _sonear the beginning_ (like this one) that the impression of "conclusion"is easily overcome. In a word, there is no doubt of the unbrokenconnection of these three phrases, despite the unusual weight of thefirst cadence. See also the first cadence in Ex. 51. 

By simply continuing the process of addition (and avoiding a decisiveperfect cadence) the phrase-group may be extended to more than threephrases, though this is not common. 

THE DOUBLE-PERIOD. --A third method consists in expanding the periodinto a double-period (precisely as the phrase was lengthened into adouble-phrase, or period), _by avoiding a perfect cadence at the end ofthe second phrase_, and adding another pair of phrases to balance thefirst pair. It thus embraces four _coherent_ phrases, with a totallength of sixteen measures (when regular and unextended). 

An important feature of the double-period is that the second periodusually resembles the first one very closely, at least in its firstmembers. That is, the second phrase contrasts with the first; _thethird corroborates the first_; and the fourth either resembles thesecond, or contrasts with all three preceding phrases. This is notalways--though nearly always--the case. 

The double-period in music finds its poetic analogy in almost anystanza of four fairly long lines, that being a design in which weexpect unity of meaning throughout, the progressive evolution of onecontinuous thought, uniformity of metric structure (mostly in_alternate_ lines), the corroboration of rhyme, and, at the same time, some degree and kind of contrast, --as in the following stanza ofTennyson's:

 Phrase 1. "The splendor falls on castle walls, Phrase 2. And snowy summits old in story; Phrase 3. The long light shakes across the lakes, Phrase 4. And the wild cataract leaps in glory. "

The analogy is not complete; one is not likely to find, anywhere, absolute parallelism between music and poetry; but it is near enough toelucidate the musical purpose and character of the double-period. Andit accounts for the very general choice of this form for the hymn-tune. 

The following illustrates the double-period, in its most regular andconvincing form (Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 49, No. 1):--

[Illustration: Example 51. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

Each phrase is four measures long, as usual; the first one ends (as inEx. 50) with one of those early, transient perfect cadences that do notbreak the continuity of the sentence; the second phrase ends with asemicadence, --therefore the sentence remains unbroken; phrase three is_exactly_ like the first, and is therefore an Antecedent, as before;phrase four bears close resemblance to the second one, but differs atthe end, on account of the perfect cadence. The evidences of Unity andVariety are easily detected. The main points are, that the second pairof phrases balances the first pair, and that the two periods areconnected (not _separate_ periods). See also Ex. 53, first 16 measures. 

LESSON 8. --Analyze the following examples. They are not classified;therefore the student must himself determine to which of the abovethree species of enlargement each belongs:

Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 29, measures 1-21, (first 4measures an introductory phrase). 

No. 37, first 17 measures. 

No. 30, first 15 measures (last phrase irregular). 

No. 16, measures 4-9 (small phrases). 

No. 33, first 12 measures. 

No. 27, first 20 measures (introductory phrase). 

No. 3, first 29 measures, to double-bar (introductory phrase). 

No. 36, first 27 measures (the similarity between phrase one and phrasethree proves the double-period form; the extra phrases are extension by"addition, " as in the group form). 

No. 6, measures 8-17. 

Mozart, pianoforte sonata. No. 13 (Peters edition), first 16 measures. 

Sonata No. 2, first 16 measures (last four measures are extension). 

Sonata No. 3, last movement, first 16 measures. 

Sonata No. 10, second movement, first 16 measures. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 49, No. 2, first 12 measures. 

Op. 10, No. 3, first 16 measures. 

Op. 10, No. 2, first 12 measures. 

Op. 26, first 16 measures. 

Op. 31, No. 2, last movement, first 31 measures (extension byrepetition). 

Schumann, op. 68, Nos. 16, 20, 33, first 16 measures of each; No. 13, first 10 measures; No. 15, first 16 measures. 

CHAPTER IX. THE TWO-PART SONG-FORM. 

THE SONG-FORM OR THE PART-FORM. --Almost every musical composition ofaverage (brief) dimensions, if designed with the serious purpose ofimparting a clear formal impression, will admit of division into eithertwo or three fairly distinct sections, or Parts, of approximately equallength. The distinctness with which the points of separation aremarked, and the degree of independence of each of these two or threelarger sections, are determined almost entirely by the length of thewhole. And whether there be two or three such divisions depends tosome extent also upon the length of the piece, though chiefly upon thespecific structural idea to be embodied. 

A composition that contains two such sections is called a Two-Part (orbipartite, or binary) form; and one that contains three, a Three-part(tripartite, or ternary) form. 

Such rare exceptions to these structural arrangements as may beencountered in musical literature, are limited to sentences that, onone hand, are so brief as to require no radical division; and, on theother, to compositions of very elaborate dimensions, extending beyondthis structural distinction; and, furthermore, to fantastic pieces inwhich the intentional absence of classified formal disposition ischaracteristic and essential. 

The terms employed to denote this species ("Song-form" or "Part-form")do not signify that the music is necessarily to be a vocal compositionof that variety known as the "Song"; or that it is to consist ofseveral voices (for which the appellation "parts" is commonly used). They indicate simply a certain _grade_, --not a specific variety, --ofform; an intermediate grade between the smallest class (like briefhymn-tunes, for example), and the largest class (like completesonata-movements). An excellent {84} type of this grade of Form isfound in the Songs Without Words of Mendelssohn, the Mazurkas ofChopin, and works of similar extent. 

The word Part (written always with a capital in these lessons) denotes, then, one of these larger sections. The design of the Part-forms wasso characteristic of the early German _lied_, and is so common in the_song_ of all eras, that the term "Song-form" seems a peculiarlyappropriate designation, irrespective of the vocal or instrumentalcharacter of the composition. 

The student will perceive that it is the smallest class of forms--thePhrase-forms, --embracing the phrase, period and double-period, to whichthe preceding chapters have been devoted. These are the designs which, as a general rule, _contain only one decisive perfect cadence_, andthat at the end; and which, therefore, though interrupted bysemicadences, _are continuous and coherent_, because the semicadencemerely interrupts, and does not sever, the continuity of the sentence. (This grade of forms might be called One-Part forms). 

THE PARTS. --If we inquire into the means employed, in the largerPart-forms, to effect the division of the whole into its broader Parts, we find that the prime factors, here again, are Cadence and Melody. The strongest sign of the consummation of a Part is a _decisive perfectcadence_, resting, as usual, upon the tonic harmony of the chosen key;a cadence sufficiently emphatic to interrupt the closer cohesion of thephrases which, precede, and bring them, as completed Part, to aconclusion. Such a cadence, marking the end of the First Part, may beverified in Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, No. 23, measure 15; No. 3, measure 29 (at the double-bar, --a sign which frequently appears atthe termination of Part One); No. 20, measure 21; No. 27, measure 12;No. 34, measure 10. 

Another indication of the Part-form is a palpable change in melodiccharacter in passing from one Part into the next; sufficient to denotea more striking "new beginning" than marks the announcement of a new_phrase_ only. The change, however, is as a rule _not very marked_; itis sometimes, in fact, so slight as to be no more than simply palpable, though scarcely definable on the page. For these divisions are, afterall, the several "Parts" of one and the same song-form, and, therefore, any such radical change in melodic or rhythmic character, or in generalstyle, as would make each Part appear to be a _wholly independent_musical idea (subject or theme), would be manifestly inconsistent. 

Generally, both these factors (cadence and melody) unite to define theend of one Part and the beginning of the next. Should either one befeeble, or absent, the other factor will be all the more pronounced. Thus, the cadence of Part One may be less decisive, if the change inmelodic character at the beginning of Part Two is well marked; this isseen in No. 33, measure 12. The reverse--a strong cadence and butlittle melodic change, --in No. 13, measure 20. 

THE FIRST PART. --Part One may be designed as period, double-period, orphrase-group; sometimes, though very rarely, as single phrase, repeated. It ends, usually, with a strong perfect cadence on the tonicchord of the original key, or of some related key (that is, one whose_signature_ closely resembles that of the original key). Anintroductory phrase, or independent prelude, may precede it. 

THE SECOND PART. --Part Two, as intimated, is likely to begin with amore or less palpable change of melodic character, --by no means is thisalways the case. It may be designed, also, as period, double-period, or phrase-group, and is somewhat likely to be a little longer (moreextended) than Part One. A concluding section (called codetta ifsmall, coda if more elaborate) often follows, after a decided perfectcadence in the original key has definitely concluded the Part. 

The following is one of the simplest examples of the Two-Part Song-form(a German _lied_ by Silcher):--

[Illustration: Example 52. Fragment of German _lied_. ]

The whole embraces four phrases, and might, for that reason, bemistaken for a double-period. But the _strong perfect cadence_ at theend of the first period (reinforced by the repetition), and thecontrasting melodic formation of the second period, so separate anddistinguish the two periods as to make them independent "Parts" of thewhole. It is not one "double-period, " but _two fairly distinctperiods_. The first cadence (in measure 4) has again, strictlyspeaking, the elements of a perfect cadence, but, like others we haveseen (Exs. 50, 51), too near the beginning to possess any plausibleconcluding power. 

A somewhat similar specimen may be found in the theme of Mendelssohn'sVariations in D minor, op. 54, which see. Each Part is a regularperiod-form, with correct semicadence and perfect cadence. The problemof "agreement and independence" in the relation of Part II to Part I isadmirably solved; it is a masterly model of well-matched Unity andVariety, throughout. 

For a longer and more elaborate example, see No. 6 of the Songs WithoutWords, in which, by the way, the principle of enlargement by theaddition of an independent prefix (introduction) and affix (coda) isalso illustrated:--

First number the forty-six measures with pencil. 

The first cadence occurs in measure 7, and marks the end of theprélude. Part I begins in measure 8. In measure 11 there is asemicadence, at end of Antecedent phrase; in measure 17, a strongperfect cadence, which, in connection with the subsequent change ofmelodic form, distinctly defines the end of Part I (period-form, extended). Part II therefore begins in measure 18. In measures 21, 25, 29, cadences occur, but none conclusive enough to close the Part. This conclusion takes place, however, in measure 34. Part II proves tobe a double-period. A coda begins in measure 35; its first membersresemble the first phrase of Part I. In measure 40 another section ofthe coda begins, borrowed from the prélude. For exhaustive technicaldetails of the Two-Part Song-form, see the HOMOPHONIC FORMS, Chapters 9and 10. 

LESSON 9. --Analyze the following examples of the Two-Part Song-form. Define the form of each Part, marking and classifying all cadences; andindicate introductions and codas (or codettas), if present. _The firststep in the analysis of these forms is to divide the whole compositioninto its Parts, by defining the end of Part One_. The next step is todefine the beginning of Part One, and end of Part Two, by separatingthe introduction and coda (if present) from the body of the form. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 57, Andante, Theme. 

Op. 109, _Andante_, Theme. 

Op. 111, last movement, Theme of Variations. 

Op. 79, _Andante_, first 8 measures (unusually small); same sonata, last movement, first 16 measures. 

Op. 54, first 24 measures (each Part repeated). 

Op. 31, No. 3, _Menuetto_ (without Trio). 

Op. 26, "Trio" of _Scherzo_; also last movement, first 28 measures(second Part repeated). 

Op. 27, No. 2, "Trio" of _Allegretto_. 

Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 2 (Peters edition), _Andante_, measures1-20; and measures 21-40. 

Schumann, op. 68, No. 7; No. 4; No. 35; No. 42; No. 23 repeated; last16 1/2 measures, (coda). 

CHAPTER X. --THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM. 

DISTINCTION BETWEEN BIPARTITE AND TRIPARTITE FORMS. --We learned, in thepreceding chapter, that the Two-Part Song-form is a composition ofrather brief extent, with so decisive a perfect cadence in its courseas to divide it, in a marked manner, into two separate and fairlyindividual sections or "Parts. "

Between this and the next higher form, --that with _three_ suchParts, --there is a distinction far more essential and characteristicthan that of mere extent; a distinction that does not rest simply uponthe number of Parts which they respectively contain. Each of the twoclasses of formal design, the Two-Part and the Three-Part, embodies apeculiar structural idea; and it is the evidence of these respectiveideas, --the true content of the musical form, --which determines thespecies. The "number" of sections is, in this connection, nothing morethan the external index of the inherent idea. 

The Two-Part forms embody the idea of _progressive growth_. To thefirst Part, a second Part (of similar or related melodic contents) isadded, in coherent and logical succession. It should not be, and ingood clear form it is not, a purely numerical enlargement, for theassociation of the second Part with a foregoing one answers thepurposes of confirmation and of balance, and is supposed to be soeffectuated as to institute and maintain unity of style, and somedegree of progressive development. But the second Part, in thisbipartite design, does little or nothing more, after all, than thus toproject the musical thought on outward in a straight line (or alongparallel lines) to a conclusion more or less distant from thestarting-point, --from the melodic members which constitute the actualgerm, or the "text" of the entire musical discourse. A very desirable, not to say vital, condition is therefore {90} lacking, in the Two-Partforms; namely, the corroboration of this melodic germ by an emphaticreturn to the beginning and an unmistakable re-announcement of thefirst (leading) phrase or phrases of the composition. 

Nothing could be more natural than such corroboration. Any line ofconduct, if pursued without deviation, simply carries its objectfarther and farther away from its origin. If, as in the circle, thisline is led back to the starting-point, it describes the mostsatisfying and perfect figure; it perfects, by enclosing space. Whereas, if it goes straight onward, it ultimately loses itself, orloses, at least, its connection with its beginning and source. 

Nowhere is this principle of _Return_ more significant and imperativethan in music, which, because of its intangibility, has need of everymeans that may serve to define and illuminate its design; and hence thesuperior frequency and perfection of the Three-Part form, _which, inits Third Part, provides for and executes this Return to thebeginning_. Its superiority and greater adaptability is fullyconfirmed in the practice of composition; the number of Three-Partforms exceeds the Two-Part, in musical literature, to an almostsurprising degree; and it may therefore be regarded as the designpeculiarly adapted to the purposes of ordinary music writing withinaverage limits. 

The three successive divisions of the Three-Part Song-form may then becharacterized as follows:--

PART I. --The statement of the principal idea; the presentation of themelodic and rhythmic contents of the leading thought, out of which thewhole composition is to be developed. It is generally a period-form, at least, closing with a firm perfect cadence in the principal key, orone of its related keys. 

PART II. --The departure (more or less emphatic) from this leadingmelodic statement. It is, for a time, probably an evident continuationand development of the melodic theme embodied in the First Part; but itdoes not end there; it exhibits a retrospective bent, and--whenthoroughly legitimate--its last few measures prepare for, and leadinto, the melodic member with which the piece began. Its form isoptional; but, as a rule, decisive cadence-impressions are avoided, unless it be the composer's intention to _close_ it with a perfectcadence (upon any _other_ than the principal tonic), and accomplish the"return to the beginning" by means of a separate returning passage, called the Re-transition. 

PART III. --The recurrence and corroboration of the original statement;_the reproduction of Part I_, and therewith the fulfilment of theimportant principle of return and confirmation. The reproduction issometimes exact and complete; sometimes slight changes, or evenstriking variations, possibly certain radical alterations, occur;sometimes it is only a partial recurrence, the first few measures beingsufficient to prove the "Return"; sometimes, on the other hand, considerable material (more or less related) is added, so that Part IIIis longer than the First Part. 

From this it appears that much latitude is given to the composer, inhis formulation of the Third Part. All that the Part has to prove, isits identity as confirmation of the leading motive, and this it may doin many ways, and with great freedom of detail, without obscuring themain purpose. It is precisely this richness of opportunity, thisfreedom of detail, which enhances the beauty and value of thetripartite forms. 

The following is a very regular example of the Three-Part Song-form(Schumann, op. 68, No. 20):--

[Illustration: Example 53. Fragment of Schumann. ]

[Illustration: Example 53 continued. ]

This version is as complete as it can conveniently be made upon onesingle staff (chosen in order to economize space); but the student willfind the formal design somewhat more plastically defined in theoriginal, complete form, and he is therefore expected to refer to thelatter. Part I is an unusually regular double-period, with threesemicadences and a strong perfect cadence, on the original tonic, tomark its conclusion; the double-bar is an additional confirmation ofthe end of the Part. The second Part runs in the key of E major (thedominant of the original key) throughout; its form is only a phrase, but repeated, --as is proven by the almost literal agreement of thesecond phrase with the preceding one, _cadence and all_. Part IIIagrees literally with Part I in its melodic formation, but differs alittle in the treatment of the lower (accompanying) voices. 

In the theme of Mendelssohn's pianoforte Variations in E-flat major(op. 82), which see, the design is as follows:--Part I is a period ofeight measures. Part II is also an 8-measure period, ending upon thetonic chord of B-flat major (the dominant key), as first eighth-note ofthe 16th measure; the following eighth-note, b-natural, represents whatwe have called the Retransition (in its smallest conceivable form), asit fulfils no other purpose than that of leading back into the firsttone of the First Part. Part III is _only a phrase_, and thereforeshorter than Part I; but it corroborates the _beginning_, and, in fact, the entire contents of the First Part. 

The plan of Mendelssohn's 28th Song Without Words is as follows:--Firstnumber the 38 measures, _carefully_. The first four measures are anintroductory phrase, or prélude; Part I begins in the second half ofmeasure 4 (after the double-bar) and extends, as regular 8-measureperiod, to measure 12. Part II follows, during the same measure; itsform is a period, extending to measure 20, and closing with a verydistinctly marked semicadence on the dominant chord (chord of D). PartIII is 14 measures long, containing therefore six more measures thanthe First Part; its first phrase is almost exactly like the firstphrase of Part I; its second phrase (measures 25-28) differs from anyportion of Part I, but closely resembles the melodic formation of PartII; its third phrase is based upon the preceding one (_not_ asrepetition, however), and is expanded to the 34th measure. The form ofPart III is phrase-group. The last four measures are codetta, orpostlude, and corroborate the prélude. 

For exhaustive technical details of the Three-Part Song-form, see theHOMOPHOBIC FORMS, Chapters 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15. 

LESSON 10. --Analyze the following examples of the Three-Part Song-form. The first step, here again, is to fix _the end of the First Part_; thenext, to mark the beginning of the Third Part, by determining where the_return to the beginning_ is made. These points established, itremains to fix the beginning of Part I, by deciding whether there is anintroductory sentence or not; then the end of Part II, by decidingwhether it leads directly into Part III, or comes to a conclusionsomewhat earlier, to make room for a Retransition; then the end of PartIII, by deciding whether a codetta or coda has been added. Theextremities of the three Parts being thus determined, there will be nodifficulty in defining the _form_ of each. Very particular attentionmust be devoted to _the comparison of Part III with Part I_, in orderto discover, and accurately define, the difference between them, --inform, in extent, in melodic formation, or in technical treatment. 

Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words: No. 22, No. 35, No. 32, No. 45, No. 42, No. 31, No. 27, No. 46, No. 25, No. 20, No. 26 (Re-transition, middle of measure 25 to measure 29); No. 36 (beginning of Part III, measure 60, somewhat disguised); No. 47, No. 12, No. 15, No. 3, No. 43, No. 40, No. 37, No. 2, No. 33, No. 30, No. 1. 

Schumann, op. 68; No. 3; No. 12, first 24 measures; No. 14, No. 16, No. 17, No. 21 (Part I closes with a semicadence, but made in such a mannerthat it answers its purpose without the least uncertainty); No. 24, No. 25, No. 26, No. 28; No. 29, last 48 measures (including coda); No. 33(long coda); No. 34; No. 37, first 32 measures; No. 38; No. 40, firstmovement (2-4 measure); No. 41. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, third movement, --both the_Menuetto_ and the _Trio_. Op. 2, No. 2, third movement, --both_Scherzo_ and _Trio_. Same sonata, last movement, first 16 measures(Parts II and III consist of a single phrase each; therefore the wholeis diminutive in extent; but it is unquestionably Three-Part Song-form, because of the completeness of Part I, and the unmistakable _return tothe beginning_). 

Op. 7, _Largo_, first 24 measures. Same sonata, third movement; alsothe _Minore_. Same sonata, last movement, first 16 measures. 

Op. 10, No. 2, second movement, first 38 measures. 

Op. 10, No. 3, _Menuetto_. 

Op. 14, No. 1, third movement; also the _Maggiore_. 

Op. 14, No. 2, second movement, first 20 measures. 

Op. 22, _Menuetto_; also the _Minore_. 

Op. 26, first 34 measures; same sonata. _Scherzo_; same sonata, _Funeral march_ (also the _Trio_; what is its form?). 

Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 15 (Peters Edition), _Andante_, first32 measures. 

No. 1, last movement, first 50 measures. 

No. 12, first 18 measures. Same sonata, _Trio_ of the second movement(Part III returns to the beginning very briefly, and is otherwisedifferent from the First Part almost throughout). 

No. 13, _Adagio_, first 16 measures. 

Chopin, _Mazurkas_ (Peters edition), No. 11, No. 22, No. 24, No. 40, No. 49. 

In the following examples, the student is to determine whether the formis Two-Part or Three-Part:--

Mendelssohn, op. 72 (six pianoforte pieces), No. 1; No. 2; No. 3, No. 4, No. 6. --Etudes, op. 104, No. 1, No. 3. 

A curious example may be found in Schumann, op. 68, No. 32; the form isactually Two-Part, but with a very brief reminiscence of the beginning(scarcely to be called a Return) in the _last two measures_, --whichare, strictly speaking, no more than a codetta. The Second Part isrepeated. 

In Schumann's op. 68, Nos. 8, 9, and 11 (first 24 measures), the_second_ Part is unusually independent in character; completelydetached from Part III, and exhibiting no symptoms of leading into thelatter, as second Parts have commonly been observed to do. 

CHAPTER XI. ENLARGEMENT OF THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM. 

REPETITION OF THE PARTS. --The enlargement of the Three-Part Song-formis effected, in the majority of cases, by simply repeating the Parts. The composer, in extending the dimensions of his original design, resorts as usual to the most legitimate and natural means at hisdisposal--that of _repetition_. By so doing, he reinforces theprinciple of Unity, and, instead of obscuring, places the contents ofhis design in a stronger and more convincing light. It is true thatthe act of mere repetition involves the risk of monotony; but againstthis the composer has an efficient safeguard, --that of _variation_. Hemay modify and elaborate the repetition in any manner and to any extentthat seems desirable or necessary, the only limitations being that theidentity of the original Part must be preserved beyond all danger ofmisapprehension, and (as a rule) that the cadences shall not be altered. 

The act of repetition is applied to the First Part alone, and to the_Second and Third Parts together_; very rarely to the Second Partalone, or to the Third Part alone. 

EXACT REPETITIONS. --When Part I, --or Parts II and III together, --are tobe repeated without any changes, it is customary to employ the familiarrepetition-marks (double-bar and dots); with "first and second ending, "if, for any reason, some modification of the cadence-measure isrequired. This is illustrated in the 7th Song Without Words; Part I isrepeated alone, and Parts II and III together; both repetitions areindicated by the customary signs, and each has a double ending. Seealso, Schumann, op. 68, No. 1; Part I is repeated exactly, withrepetition-marks; Parts II and III are also repeated literally (all butthe very last tone in the lower part), but written out, --apparentlywithout necessity. Also No. 2; the literal repetition of Part I iswritten out; Parts II and III have the repetition-marks. 

MODIFIED REPETITIONS. --The quality and extent of the changes that maybe made, in order to enrich the composition without altering itsstructural design, depend, as has been intimated, upon the judgment andfancy of the composer. The student will find no part of his analyticalefforts more profitable and instructive than the careful comparison ofthese modified repetitions with the original Parts; nothing can be morefascinating and inspiring to the earnest musical inquirer, than thus totrace the operation of the composer's mind and imagination; to witnesshis employment of the technical resources in re-stating the same ideaand developing new beauties out of it, --especially when the variationsare somewhat elaborate. 

It must be remembered that mere repetition (even when modified, --aslong as it can be proven to be nothing more than repetition) does notalter the form. A phrase, repeated, remains a phrase; _nothing lessthan a decided alteration of the cadence itself_ will transform it intoa double-phrase (or period). Similarly, a period, repeated, remains aperiod, and does not become a double-period; and a Part, repeated, remains the same Part. Therefore, the student will find it necessaryto concentrate his attention upon these larger forms, and exercise bothvigilance and discrimination in determining which sections of hisdesign come under the head of "modified repetition. "

For an illustration of the _repeated First Part_, see the 9th SongWithout Words; Part I is a four-measure period (of two small phrases)closing in the seventh measure; the following four measures are itsmodified repetition. For an example of the _repeated Second and ThirdParts_, see No. 48. In No. 29, both repetitions occur, withinteresting changes; the repetition of Part I begins in measure 13;that of Parts II and III in measure 35; the last 10 1/2 measures are acoda. 

{98}

THE FIVE-PART FORM. The repetition of the Second and Third Partstogether is sometimes subjected to changes that are almost radical intheir nature, and therefore appear to modify the form itself. Theseimportant changes chiefly _affect the Second Part, when it reappears as"Fourth" Part_. When the alteration of the Second Part (that is, thedifference between Part IV and Part II) is sufficiently radical tosuggest the presence of a virtually new Part, the design is called theFive-part Song-form. The possible repetition of the First Part, itwill be inferred, does not affect this distinction in the least; ithinges solely upon the treatment of the reproduction of _Part Two_. For illustration:

[Illustration: Diagram of Parts. ]

The Five-Part form is illustrated in the 14th Song WithoutWords;--(first, number the measures; observe that the two endings ofPart I are to be counted as the _same measure_, and not separately;they are both measure 8):--Part I extends to the double-bar, and isrepeated literally, only excepting the _rhythmic_ modification of thefinal measure; Part II extends from measure 9 to 23; Part III, measures24-35; Part IV, measures 36-47; Part V, measures 48-60; coda to theend. The comparison of Part IV with Part II discloses both agreementand diversity; they are, obviously, _practically the same Part_, butdiffer in key, in form, and in extent. The comparison of Parts I, III, and V reveals a similar condition, though the agreement here is muchcloser, and each confirms the leading statement. 

A more characteristic example will be found in the familiar F major_Nachtstück_ of Schumann, op. 23, No. 4, which see:--Part I extendsfrom measure 2 to 9 (after 1 1/2 measures of recitative introduction);Part II, measures 10-13; Part III, measures 14-21; Part IV, measures22-32; Part V, measures 33-40; codetta to end. The Fourth Part bearsvery little resemblance to the Second, and assumes rather the characterof a wholly independent Part. 

GROUP OF PARTS. --In some, comparatively rare, instances, thearrangement of perfect cadences is such that, --coupled withindependence of melodic formation and character, --the composition seemsto separate into _four or more individual sections_ or Parts, with orwithout a recurrence of the First one; or into three _different_ Parts, lacking the evidence of the return to the beginning. When suchirregularities are encountered, or when any conditions appear whichelude or baffle natural classification among the Three-Part Song-forms(simple or enlarged), the piece may be called a group of Parts. Theuse of this term is entirely legitimate, and is commended to thestudent on account of its convenience, for all examples of theSong-form which, _upon thoroughly conscientious analysis_, presentconfusing features, at variance with our adopted classification. Ofone thing only he must assure himself, --that the design is a_Song-form_ (_i. E. _ an association of _Parts_), and not one of thelarger forms to be explained in later chapters. The definition isgiven in Chapter IX (on page 84). 

A fair illustration of the utility of the term "Group of Parts" is seenin Schumann, op. 68, No. 18. Others will be cited in the followingLesson. 

LESSON 11. --Analyze the following examples of the enlarged Three-PartSong-form. As before, the form of each Part should be defined, andintroductions and codas (if present) properly marked. All of the givenexamples belong to this chapter, but are not classified; it ispurposely left to the student to determine where repetitions occur, andwhether they are exact, or variated, --in a word, to decide which of theabove diagrams the composition represents. 

Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 3, No. 4, No. 8, No. 10, No. 11, No. 12, No. 16, No. 17, No. 19, No. 21, No. 23, No. 24, No. 27, No. 31, No. 34, No. 39, No. 43, No. 44, No. 46. 

Schumann, op. 68, No. 5; No. 6; No. 10; No. 13; No. 15; No. 19; No. 22;No. 30; No. 36; No. 43. 

Mendelssohn, op. 72, No. 5. 

Chopin, _Prélude_, op. 28, No. 17. 

Mozart, pianoforte sonata No. 8, _Andante_ (entire). 

Mozart, No. 18, _Andantino_ (of the "Fantasia"). 

Chopin, _Mazurkas_, No. 1, No. 2, No. 4, No. 5, No. 8, No. 15, No. 16, No. 18, No. 37, No. 44, No. 48. 

GROUPS OF PARTS:

Chopin, _Mazurkas_, No. 3 (apparently five Parts, not countingrepetitions; Part V corroborates Part I, but the intervening sectionsare too independent to be regarded as one long Second Part, --as wouldbe the case if this corroboration were Part III). Also No. 7 (samedesign); No. 14 (four Parts, the last like the first); No. 19 (fourParts, the fourth like the second); No. 20: No. 21; No. 27 (Part V likeI, Part IV like II); No. 34; No. 39; No. 41. 

Schubert, _Momens musicals_, op. 94, No. 3. 

CHAPTER XII. THE SONG-FORM WITH TRIO. 

Another method of enlargement consists in associating twodifferent--though somewhat related--Song-Forms. The practice was socommon in certain of the older dances, particularly in the minuet, thatthis design is also known as the _Minuet Form_. 

THE PRINCIPAL SONG. --The first division, called the principal song, iseither a Two-Part or a Three-Part Song-form, --most commonly the latter. It is generally entirely complete in itself; the fact that anotherdivision is to be added, does not affect its character, form, orconception. 

THE "TRIO, " OR SUBORDINATE SONG. --The division which follows, as secondsong-form, was formerly called the "Trio, " and it has retained the namein the majority of examples of this form, although the old custom thatgave rise to the term has long since been discontinued. A moreaccurate designation, and one that we shall here adopt, is "SubordinateSong. " (Other names, which the student will encounter, are "maggiore, ""minore, " "intermezzo, " "alternative, " etc. ). 

Like the principal song, its fellow (the subordinate song) may beeither a Two-Part or a Three-Part design. It is very likely toresemble its principal song in species of measure, tempo, and generalstyle; and its key may be the same as that of the principal division, or, at least, related to it. But similarity of style is by no meansobligatory, the element of contrast having become more important thanUnity, in a design of such extent. It is also usually complete initself, though its connection with its principal song may involve a fewmeasures of transitional material. 

THE "DA CAPO. "--This association of song-forms is subject to theprinciple which governs all tripartite forms, namely, the return to thebeginning, and confirmation of the first (or principal) statement; notonly because of the general desirability of such a return, but because_the necessity for it increases with the growth of the form_. In adesign that comprises a number of entire song-forms, it may be regardedas indispensable. 

Therefore, the subordinate song is followed by a recurrence of theprincipal song, --called the _da capo_ (or "from the beginning"), because of those Italian words of direction given to the player uponreaching the end of the "Trio, " or subordinate song. The reproductionof the principal division is likely to be literal, so that the simpledirections "_da capo_" suffice, instead of re-writing the entiredivision. But, here again, changes may be made, --generally unimportantvariations which do not obscure the form; or an abbreviation, or evenslight extension. And a codetta or coda is sometimes added to thewhole. 

The Song with Trio is thus seen to correspond to the Three-PartSong-form, upon a larger scale. The several _Parts_ of the latterbecome complete _Song-forms_. An important distinction, to whichespecial attention must be directed, is the _completeness_ of thecontents of each song-form, and their fairly distinct _separation_ fromeach other, in the Song with Trio. The significance of these traitswill become apparent to the analytic student, as he progresses alongthe line of form-evolution into the still larger designs. 

LESSON 12. --The following examples all belong to the Song with Trio. They should be analyzed as usual, each Song separately, defining theParts, their form, and other details, as minutely as possible. Carefulanalysis is the first condition of intelligent interpretation; and themore complete the analysis, the fuller and more authoritative theinterpretation:--

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, third movement; thedivisions are called _Menuetto_ and _Trio_, therefore this is anauthentic type of the present design; each is a complete Three-PartSong-form; the key is the same, though a change from minor into majortakes place; after the _Trio_, the _Menuetto_ does not re-appear (onthe printed page), but its reproduction is demanded by the words_Menuetto da capo_, at the end of the Trio. 

Op. 2, No. 2, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_. 

Op. 2, No. 3, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_. 

Op. 7, third movement, _Allegro_ and _Minore_. 

Op. 10, No. 2, second movement, _Allegretto_ (the subordinate song isnot marked, but is easily distinguished; there are no _da capo_directions, because the principal song is re-written, with alterations). 

Op. 10, No. 3, _Menuetto_ and _Trio_. 

Op. 14, No. 1, second movement. _Allegretto_ and _Maggiore_; a coda isadded. 

Op. 22, _Menuetto_ and _Minore_. 

Op. 26, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_. 

Op. 27, No. 1, second movement, _Allegro molto_; the Trio is notmarked; the "_da capo_" is variated, and a coda follows. 

Op. 27, No. 2, _Allegretto_ and _Trio_. 

Op. 28, _Scherzo_ and _Trio_. 

Op. 31, No. 3, _Menuetto_ and _Trio_. 

Schumann, op. 68, No. 11; here there are no outward indications of theSong with Trio, but that is the design employed; for the subordinatesong the measure is changed from 6-8 to 2-4, but the key remains thesame; the reproduction of the principal song is indicated in German, instead of Italian. 

No. 12, No. 29, No. 39 (here the _da capo_ is considerably changed). 

In No. 37 the "subordinate song" is represented by no more than a briefInterlude (measures 33-40) between the principal song and itsrecurrence, --just sufficient to provide an occasion for the latter(which, by the way, is also abbreviated). 

Mozart, pianoforte sonatas: No. 2, _Andante cantabile_; each song-formhas two Parts; the subordinate song changes into the minor. 

No. 9, second movement, _Menuettos_; the subordinate song is marked"Menuetto II, " a custom probably antedating the use of the word "Trio"(see Bach, 2d English Suite, _Bourrée_ I and II). 

No. 12, _Menuetto_. 

Schubert, _Momens musicals_, op. 94, Nos. 1, 4, and 6. 

Schumann, op. 82 (_Waldscenen_), Nos. 7 and 8. 

Chopin, _Mazurkas_, Nos. 6, 12, 23, 47, 50. In Nos. 10, 45, 46 and 51, the subordinate song consists of one Part only, but is sufficientlydistinct, complete, and separate to leave no doubt of the form. 

Also Chopin, _Nocturne_ No. 13 (op. 48, No. 1). 

Examples of this compound Song-form will also be found, almost withoutexception, in Marches, Polonaises, and similar Dance-forms; and in manypianoforte compositions of corresponding broader dimensions, which, _ifextended beyond the very common limits of the Three-Part form_, willprobably prove to be Song with Trio. This the student may verify byindependent analysis of pianoforte literature, --never forgetting thatuncertain examples may need (if small) to be classed among thegroup-forms, or (if large) may be suspected of belonging to the higherforms, not yet explained, and are therefore to be set aside for futureanalysis. Mention must be made of the fact that in some rare cases--asin Mendelssohn's well-known "Wedding March"--_two Trios_, andconsequently two _da capos_, will be found. 

CHAPTER XIII. THE FIRST RONDO-FORM. 

EVOLUTION. --It cannot have escaped the observant student of theforegoing pages, that the successive enlargement of the structuraldesigns of musical composition is achieved by a process of naturalgrowth and progressive evolution. No single form intrudes itself in anarbitrary or haphazard manner; each design emerges naturally andinevitably out of the preceding, in response to the necessity ofexpansion, and conformably with the same constant laws of unity andvariety, --the active agents, along the entire unbroken line ofcontinuous evolution, being _reproduction_ (Unity) and legitimate_modification_ (Variety); or, in other words, _modified repetition_. It is upon the indisputable evidence of such normal evolution in thesystem of musical structure, that our conviction of the legitimacy andpermanence of this system rests. 

The diagrams which appear on pages 78 and 98 partly illustrate the lineof evolution, which, in its fullest significance, may be traced asfollows: the _tone_, by the simplest process of reproduction, became a_figure_; the figure, by multiplication or repetition, gave rise to the_motive_; the latter, in the same manner, to the _phrase_. Therepetition of the phrase, upon the infusion of a certain quality anddegree of modification (chiefly affecting the cadences) became the_period_; the latter, by the same process, became the double-period. The limit of coherent phrase-succession (without a determinedinterruption) being therewith reached, the larger Part-forms becamenecessary. The _Two-Part_ form emerged out of the double-period, thetwo "connected" periods of which separated into two "independent"Parts, by the determined interruption in the center. And, be it wellunderstood, each new design having once been thus established, itsenlargement within its own peculiar boundaries followed as a matter ofcourse; I mean, simply, that the two Parts did not need to remain the_periods_ that were their original type; the process of growth cannotbe stopped. The _Three-Part_ form resulted from adding to the Two-Partthe perfecting reversion to the starting-point, and confirmation of theprincipal statement. The _Five-part_ form, and the _Song with Trio_are enlargements of the Three-Part forms by repetition ormultiplication; and with the latter the limit of this particularprocess appears to be achieved. Any further growth must take placefrom within, rather than by addition from without. 

But the process of evolution continues steadily, as the student willwitness. To one vital fact his attention is here called, --a fact whichhe is enjoined to hold in readiness for constant application, --namely, _that perfection of structural design is attained in the Three-Partform, and that every larger (or higher) form will have its type in thisdesign, and its basis upon it_. The coming designs will prove to beexpansions of the Three-Part form. 

THE RONDO-FORMS. --The structural basis of the Rondo, and other largeror (as they are sometimes called) higher forms, is the Subject orTheme. The form and contents of this factor, the Theme, are sovariable that a precise definition can scarcely be given. It is amusical sentence of very distinct character, as concerns its melodic, harmonic and, particularly, its rhythmic consistency; and of sufficientlength to establish this individuality, --seldom, if ever, less than anentire period or double-period; often a Two-Part, not infrequently acomplete Three-Part Song-form, though never more than the latter. 

In the Rondo-forms, two or three such Themes are associated in such_alternating succession that, after each new Theme, the first orPrincipal Theme recurs_. The term "Rondo" may be referred to thistrait, the periodic return of the Principal theme, which, in thus"coming round" again, after each digression into another theme, impartsa characteristic circular movement (so to speak), to the design. Inthe rondos, then, all the movements of musical development revolveabout one significant sentence or theme, the style of which thereforedetermines the prevailing character of the whole composition. This, which is naturally called the Principal theme, is placed at thebeginning of the rondo. Its end being reached, it is temporarilyabandoned for a second sentence, called the Subordinate theme, of moreor less emphatically contrasting style and of nearly or quite equallength (generally shorter, however), and always in a different key. After this there occurs the momentous _return to the beginning_, --themost insistent and vital fundamental condition of good, clear, musicalform, of whatsoever dimension or purport, --and the _Principal_ themereasserts itself, recurring with a certain degree of variation andelaboration (occasionally abbreviation), thus vindicating its title asPrincipal theme, and stamping its fellow-theme as a mere digression. After this, --if a still broader design is desired, --another digressionmay be made into a new Subordinate theme, in still another key, followed by the persistent return to the Principal theme. And so on. Upon the Subordinate theme, or themes, devolves the burden of varietyand contrast, while the Principal theme fulfils the requirements ofcorroboration and concentration. A coda, sometimes of considerablelength, is usually added; it appears to be necessary, as a means ofsupplying an instinctive demand for balance, increased interest, andcertain other scarcely definable conditions of very real importance insatisfactory music form. 

Of the Rondo-forms there are three grades, distinguished respectively_by the number of digressions_ from the Principal theme:--

The First Rondo-form, with one digression (or Subordinate theme), andone return to the Principal theme;

The Second Rondo-form, with two digressions, and two returns;

The Third Rondo-form, with three digressions and three returns. Thepersistent recurrence of the Principal theme, something like a refrain, and the consequent regular alternation of the chief sentence with itscontrasting subordinate sentences, are the distinctive structuralfeatures of the Rondo. 

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THE FIRST RONDO-FORM. --This consists, then, of a Principal theme(generally Two-Part or Three-Part Song-form); a Subordinate theme in adifferent key (probably a smaller form); a recurrence of the Principaltheme (usually more or less modified or elaborated); and a coda. Thus:--

 _Principal Theme. Subordinate Theme. Prin. Theme. Coda. _ 2- or 3-Part Period, Double-period, As before, Optional Song-form. 2- or 3-Part usually Probably a form. Different variated. Perfect cadence. Style and key. Sometimes Possibly a few Possibly a brief abbreviated. Beats or measures codetta; and of transitional usually a few material, leading measures of into next theme. Re-transition. 

The design is that of the tripartite forms. But it is not to beconfounded with the Three-Part _Song-form_, because at least one of itsThemes, and probably both, will be a Part-form by itself. It is anassociation of Song-forms, and therefore corresponds in design to the_Song with Trio_. The first Rondo differs from the latter, however, inbeing more compact, more coherent and continuous, and more highlydeveloped. This manifests itself in the relation of the Themes to eachother, which, despite external contrast, is more intimate than thatbetween the Principal and Subordinate Song (or Trio); further, in thetransitional passages from one Theme into the other (especially theRe-transition, or "returning passage"); in the customary elaboration ofthe recurring Principal Theme; and in the almost indispensable coda, which often assumes considerable importance, and an elaborate form andcharacter. 

The evolution of the First Rondo-form of the Song with Trio may beclearly traced in classic literature. Many intermediate stages appear, naturally; and it is sometimes difficult to determine whether thedesign is Rondo or compound Song-form, simply because it is scarcelypossible to decide just when the "Trio" assumes the more intimaterelation of a Subordinate theme, or when the freedom and comparativelooseness of association (peculiar to the Song with Trio) istransformed into the closer cohesion and greater smoothness of finish_which fuses all the component Parts of the design into one compactwhole_, --the distinctive stamp of all so-called "higher" forms. 

The thoughtful examination and comparison of the following fourexamples will elucidate the matter:--

1. Beethoven, first pianoforte sonata (op. 2, No. 1), _Menuetto_ and_Trio_. Already analyzed as a perfectly genuine Song with Trio. 

2. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 28, second movement, _Andante_. The principal Song is in the Three-Part form, with exact repetitions. The subordinate song differs so radically in style, and each song is socomplete and distinct from the other, that the form is almost certainlySong with Trio; but there is a strong intimation of the Rondo-form inthe elaborate variation of the _da capo_, and in the treatment of thecoda (last 17 measures), in which motives from both Songs areassociated so closely as to vindicate their kinship. In a word, thismovement possesses, --despite the apparent independence of itsSongs, --some degree of that continuity, compactness and artistic finishwhich culminate in the genuine Rondo-form. 

3. Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 10, second movement (_Rondeau enpolonaise_). The continuity and unity of this composition is socomplete that it is certainly a Rondo-form; the principal theme is afairly large Three-Part form; the subordinate theme (measure 47-69) isa Two-Part form, the second part corresponding in contents to thesecond Part of the principal theme; the _recurrence_ of the principaltheme is abbreviated to one of its three Parts, and is merged in thecoda (last seven measures), which assumes the nature of a mereextension. Despite all this evidence, there still remains a certainimpression of structural independence, which, so to speak, betrays the"seams, " and militates somewhat against the spirit of the perfectRondo-form. See also, No. 13, Adagio. 

4. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 2, _Largo_; the unessentialdetails omitted in the following (in order to economize space) appear, of course, in the original, --to which the student is expected to refer. 

[Illustration: Example 54. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

[Illustration: Example 54 continued. ]

[Illustration: Example 54 continued. ]

This is a genuine First Rondo-form. All the factors of which it iscomposed, Phrases, Parts and Themes, are so closely interlinked thatthe continuity, cohesion and _unity_ of the whole is complete. Thevariety of contents which these factors exhibit (greatest, naturally, between the two themes), does not disturb the impression that the wholemovement is a unit. This is due, at least partly, to the manner inwhich the perfect cadences are disguised; each one is passed over withthe least possible check of rhythmic movement (measures 8, 19, etc. ), thus snugly dove-tailing the structural factors. The coda is elaborateand unusually long; it consists of several "sections, " as follows (seethe original): from measure 1 (the last measure in Ex. 54) to measure4, a phrase, derived from the second Part of the Principal theme;measures 5-7, an abbreviated repetition; measures 8-14, a phrase, derived from the Principal theme; measures 15-17, a transitionalpassage; measures 18-25, a period, closely resembling Part I of thePrincipal theme; measures 26-30, final phrase. 

LESSON 13. --Analyze the following examples. They are not classified;the student must determine whether the form is pure First Rondo, or anintermediate grade between Rondo and "Song with Trio. " One of theexamples is a genuine Song with Trio; and one is a _Three-PartSong-form_; with reasonable vigilance the student will detect these"catches. " To distinguish these three designs from each other, recollect--

That the Three-Part Song-form consists of three _single Parts_, fairlysimilar in character, fairly small in form, and severed either by afirm cadence, or by unmistakable proof of new "beginning;"

That in the first Rondo-form, at least one of the themes (if not both)contains _two_ (or three) Parts; and, That in the Song with Trio, the two "Songs" are more independent ofeach other, and more decisively separated, than are the "themes" of theRondo-form. 

With reference to all uncertain cases, it must be remembered that _themore doubtful a distinction is, the less important is its decision_. These designs naturally merge one in another, and at times it is follyto impose a definite analysis upon them. 

The analysis should be as minute as possible, nevertheless. The firststep is to define the extremities of the two themes. This fixes thecoda (and the introduction, if present); the re-transition (returningpassage into the Principal theme); and the transition into theSubordinate theme--if present. The form of each theme must be definedin detail, as in Ex. 54:--

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 2, No. 1, _Adagio_. 

Op. 7, _Largo_. 

Op. 2, No. 3, _Adagio_. 

Op. 79, _Andante_. 

Op. 27, No. 1, _Allegro molto_. 

Schubert, pianoforte _Impromptus_, op. 90, No. 2; and No. 3. 

Chopin, _Mazurka_, No. 26. 

Chopin, _Nocturnes_: op. 27, No. 1. 

Op. 32, No. 2. 

Op. 37, No. 2. 

Op. 48, No. 1. 

Op. 55, No. 1; and No. 2

Op. 62, No. 1. 

Op. 72, No. 1 (E minor, posthumous). 

CHAPTER XIV. THE SECOND RONDO-FORM. 

As described in the preceding chapter, the Second Rondo-form containstwo digressions from the Principal theme, called respectively the firstand second Subordinate themes. It bears the same relation to theFive-Part Song-form, that the First Rondo-form bears to the Three-PartSong-form. 

For the sake of effective contrast, _the two Subordinate themes aregenerally differentiated_ to a marked degree; more precisely stated, the _second_ Subordinate theme is likely to differ strikingly both fromthe Principal theme and from the first Subordinate theme; the result isthat, as a general rule, the second digression is more emphatic thanthe first. 

To prevent the enlarged design from assuming too great dimensions, theseveral themes are apt to be more concise than in the first Rondo-form;the Two-Part form is therefore more common than the Three-Part; thefirst Subordinate theme is generally brief, and the Principal themeupon its recurrences, is frequently abbreviated, --especially the lastone, which often merges in the coda. 

An example of the second Rondo-form (which may be sufficientlyillustrated without notes) will be found in the last movement ofBeethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 49, No. 2 (G major). Number the onehundred and twenty measures, and define the factors of the form withclose reference to the following indications--the figures inparenthesis denoting the measures:

_Principal theme_. Part I (1-8), period-form; Part II (9-12), phrase;Part III (13-20), period-form. 

_Transition_, period-form (21-27), leading into the new key. 

_First Subordinate theme_, period-form (28-36), with

_Codetta_, repeated (37-42). 

_Re-transition_ (43-47). 

_Principal theme_, as before (48-67). 

_Second Subordinate theme_, double-period (68-83); the process of_Re-transition_ manifests its inception about one measure before (82), and is carried on to measure 87. 

_Principal theme_, as before (88-107). 

_Coda_, period, with modified repetition of consequent phrase(108-119), --followed by an extra perfect cadence, as extension. 

LESSON 14. --Analyze the following examples, as usual. Review thedirections given in Lesson 13:--

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 10, No. 3, last movement. 

Op. 14, No. 2, last movement (called _Scherzo_). 

Op. 79, last movement (very concise). 

Op. 13, _Adagio_ (still more concise. Is this not a Five-PartSong-form?)

Beethoven, _Polonaise_ for the pianoforte, op. 89. 

Mozart, _Rondo_ in A minor, for pianoforte. 

CHAPTER XV. THE THIRD RONDO-FORM. 

In this form of composition there are three digressions from thePrincipal theme. But, in order to avert the excess of variety, soimminent in a design of such length, the digressions are so plannedthat _the third one corresponds to the first_. That is, there are hereagain only two Subordinate themes (as in the Second Rondo-form), whichalternate with each other, so that the succession of thematic factorsis as follows: Principal Theme; 1st Subordinate Theme; Principal Theme;2d Subordinate Theme; Principal Theme; 1st Subordinate Theme; PrincipalTheme; and coda. 

It will be observed that this arrangement is another confirmation andembodiment of the Three-Part (tripartite) form, with its "recurrence ofthe first section, " magnified into larger proportions than any examplesthus far seen. The three portions are called, _Divisions_. The firstis known as the _Exposition_, comprising the Principal Theme, FirstSubordinate Theme, and recurrence of the Principal Theme; the seconddivision consists of the Second Subordinate Theme only; the ThirdDivision is the _Recapitulation_ of the first Division. 

THE EXPOSITION. --This first Division, the "statement, " compounded oftwo themes and a recurrence, is in itself a complete (though probablyvery concise) First Rondo-form; therefore, in order to confirm theintended design, at least one of its themes must contain two (or more)Parts, --otherwise it would be no more, all together, than a Three-PartSong-form, and the _whole_ Rondo would be reduced to the design of theFirst Rondo-form. In a word, the Exposition must correspond conciselyto the table given on page 108. The First Subordinate theme takes itsusual emphatic position in a different key, --generally closely relatedto the key of the Principal theme. 

Sometimes, but by no means regularly, the Exposition closes with adecisive perfect cadence in the original key. 

The Middle Division. --As this should balance (at least approximately), the Exposition, it is likely to be a fairly broad design, --not greater, however, than a Three-Part Song-form (possibly with repetitions), andoften no more than a Two-Part form. As intimated in the precedingchapter, the Second Subordinate theme is usually strongly contrastedwith the other themes, in character, key, and length; but the sameunity of total effect is necessary, as in the smaller Rondo-forms. There-transition (or returning passage) is often quite lengthy andelaborate; it is seldom an independent section of the form, however, but generally developed out of the last phrase of the theme, by theprocess of "dissolution, "--to be explained more fully in Chapter XVII. 

THE RECAPITULATION. --This corresponds, theoretically, to the _da capo_in the Song with Trio, or to the variated recurrence of the Principaltheme in the First Rondo-form. But it is more than either of these. The term "Recapitulation" is more comprehensive than "recurrence" (inthe sense in which we have thus far employed the latter word), as italways refers to the reproduction of a _collection_ of themes, and, chiefly on this account, is subject to certain specific conditions oftechnical treatment. 

Recapitulation, in the larger designs of composition, _invariablyinvolves transposition_, or change of key, --the transposition of theFirst Subordinate theme, from the key chosen for its first announcement(in the Exposition) back _to the principal key_ of the piece. This, as may be inferred, greatly affects the original transition andre-transition; and it may necessitate changes within the theme itself, in consequence of the change of register. 

Further, the last recurrence of the Principal theme being no less thanits fourth announcement, is rarely complete; as a rule, a briefintimation (the first motive or phrase) is deemed sufficient, and thisis then dissolved into the coda; or the Principal theme, as such, isomitted, or affiliated with the coda, or one of its sections. 

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For an illustration of the Third Rondo-form, the student is referred tothe last movement of Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 2, thediagram of which is as follows:--

 _Middle_ _Exposition. _ _Division_ _Recapitulation. _ ------------------------ ---------- ---------------------------------- Pr. Th. 1stSub. Th. Pr. Th. 2d Sub. Th. Pr. Th. 1st Sub. Th. Pr. Th. And Coda ------------------------ ---------- ---------------------------------- A maj. E maj. A maj. A minor A maj. A maj. A maj. 

For its detailed analysis, number the measures as usual (there are 187, the "second ending" not being counted), and define each factor of theform by reference to the given indications, --the figures in parenthesisagain denoting the measures:--

_Principal Theme_, Part I (1-8), period-form. Part II (9-12), phrase. Part III (13-16), phrase. 

_Transition_, period-form (17-26), leading into the new key. 

_First Sub. Theme_, period, Antecedent (27-32), Consequent (33-39). 

_Re-transition_ (40). 

_Principal Theme_, as before, (41-56). This ends the EXPOSITION. 

_Second Sub. Theme_, Part I (57-66), period, literal repetition. PartII (67-74) period-form. Part III (75-79) phrase. 

Parts II and III repeated (80-92); the process of _re-transition_begins one measure earlier (91), and is pursued to measure 99. 

The RECAPITULATION begins in the next measure with the

_Principal Theme_, as before, slightly modified (100-115). 

_Transition_, as before, slightly abbreviated (116-123). 

_First Subordinate Theme_, as before, but transposed to the principalkey, A major, and somewhat modified (124-135). 

_Principal Theme_ begins in measure 135, where the preceding themeends; consequently, there is an Elision. In measure 140 it isdissolved into the

_Coda_: Section 1 (to measure 148). 

Section 2 (149-160). 

Section 3 (161-172). 

Section 4 (173-180). 

Section 5 (to end). 

LESSON 15. --Analyze the following examples, as usual. They representchiefly the Third Rondo-form, but _one example each_ of the First andSecond Rondo-forms have been introduced, to stimulate the vigilance ofthe student. Review the directions given in Lesson 13:

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 26, last movement, (very concise, but a perfect model of the form). 

Op. 28, last movement. 

Op. 7, last movement. 

Op. 2, No. 3, last movement. 

Op. 13, last movement. 

Op. 22, last movement. 

Op. 14, No. 1, last movement. 

Op. 31, No. 1, _Adagio_. 

Beethoven, _Rondos_ for pianoforte, op. 51, No. 1; and op. 51, No. 2. 

Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 4, last movement; No. 3, last movement. 

CHAPTER XVI. THE SONATINE FORM. 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE LARGER FORMS. --The Sonatine form is the smallervariety of two practically kindred designs, known collectively as theSonata-allegro forms. In order to obtain a clear conception of itsrelation to the latter, and also to the Rondo-forms, it is necessary tosubject the entire group of so-called "higher" forms to a briefcomparison. 

The larger, broader, or "higher" designs of musical composition aredivided into two classes: the three _Rondo-forms_, and the two_Sonata-allegro forms_. The latter constitute the superior of the twoclasses, for the following reasons:--

In the first place, the rondos rest upon a narrower thematic basis, centering in one single theme--the Principal one--about which the otherthemes revolve. Further, their most salient structural feature isnothing more significant than simple _alternation_ (of the Principaltheme with its one or more Subordinates) the Principal theme recursafter each digression with a persistence that lends a certainone-sidedness to the form, --only excepting in the Third (and highest)Rondo-form, which, by virtue of its broad Recapitulation of the firstDivision, approaches most nearly the rank of the Sonata-allegro design, as will be seen. 

In the Sonata-allegro forms, on the other hand, the leading purpose is_to unite two co-ordinate themes upon an equal footing_; one is toappear as often as the other; and the two themes _together_ constitutethe thematic basis of the design. These are, as in the rondos, aPrincipal theme (called principal because it appears first, and thusbecomes in a sense the index of the whole movement), and a Subordinatetheme (so called in contradistinction to the other), --contrasting incharacter, as usual, but actually of equal importance, and of nearly orquite equal length. To these, there is commonly added a codetta (or"concluding theme" as it is {122} sometimes called, though it seldomattains to the dignity of a _theme_), --sometimes two, or even more, codettas, which answer the general purpose of a coda, rounding off andbalancing this Division of the design. This union of the two or threethematic components that are to represent the contents of the design, is the _Exposition_, or first Division, of the Sonata-allegro forms. It indicates a point of contact between the latter and the rondo, --inthe _Third_ form of which we also find an Exposition. Carefulcomparison of the two types of exposition reveals the significantdifference between the two classes, however; in the Third Rondo, theexposition was an _alternation_ of themes, with decided preference forthe principal one; in the Sonata-allegro it is a _union_ of themes, without preference, resulting in a broader thematic basis. 

THE SONATINE FORM. --In the Sonatine-form, or the smaller variety of thesonata-allegro designs, this Exposition (or first Division) is followed_at once_, --or after a few measures of interlude, or re-transitionalmaterial, --by a Recapitulation of the Division, as was seen in theThird Rondo-form, and under the same conditions of transposition asthere. The diagram of the form is therefore as follows:--

 Exposition. Recapitulation. ----------------------------- ------------------------------ PR. TH. SUB. TH. CODETTA. Very PR. TH. SUB. TH. CODETTA. ----------------------------- brief ------------------------------ As usual. In some Optional. Inter- As In the Also in related lude before. Principal principal key. Key. Key. 

An additional coda is, as usual, likely to appear at the end. 

This diagram should be very carefully compared with that of the ThirdRondo-form on page 119, and the points both of agreement anddissimilarity noted. More minute details of the Sonatine form will begiven in the next chapter, in connection with the larger and more fullydeveloped Sonata-allegro form. 

An illustration of the Sonatine-form will be found in Mozart, 6thpianoforte sonata, _adagio_. Number the measures, as usual, andanalyze with reference to the indications given; the figures inparenthesis again denote the measures. 

_Principal Theme_, B-flat major, period-form, --possibly double-period, because of the slow tempo and large measures (1-8). There is noTransition. 

_Subordinate Theme_, F major, period-form, extended. Antecedent(9-12); consequent, very similar (13-16); extension by addition of newphrase, as in the group-form (16 1/2-19). 

_Codetta_, also in F major, very brief, only one-half measure, andrepeated as usual (19 1/2-20). This ends the Exposition. 

_Interlude_, the remaining beats of measure 20; it is, of course, abrief re-transition, and is therefore strongly suggestive of the FirstRondo-form, the _details of which exactly coincide, thus far, with theabove factors of the sonatine-form_. Such coincidences merely confirmthe unbroken line of evolution, and are to be expected in the system oflegitimate, rational music designs. The RECAPITULATION (the original_da capo_) follows, beginning with the

_Principal Theme_, B-flat major, as before (21-28) but somewhatembellished. Again, there is no Transition. (Here the similarity tothe First Rondo ends. )

_Subordinate Theme_, corresponds very closely to the former version, but transposed to B-flat major, the principal key, and variated (29-39). 

_Codetta_, also in B-flat major (39 1/2-40), slightly extended. Thereis no coda. 

LESSON 16. --Analyze the following examples of the sonatine-form, in theusual exhaustive manner:--

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 10, No. 1, _Adagio_. 

Op. 31, No. 2, _Adagio_. 

Mendelssohn, _Andante cantabile_ in B-flat major (pianoforte). 

Mozart, pianoforte sonata. No. 17, _Andante amoroso_ (somewhat longerinterlude). 

Mendelssohn, _Presto agitato_ in B minor for pianoforte (preceded by an"Andante cantabile" which has no connection with the sonatine-form ofthe _presto_, but may also be analyzed). This design is very broad;each factor is expanded to its fullest legitimate extent, especiallythe "codetta" section. 

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CHAPTER XVII. THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM. 

ORIGIN OF THE NAME. --The fully developed Sonata-allegro form is thedesign in which the classic overture and the first movement of thesymphony, sonata and concerto are usually framed. The student must becareful not to confound this musical form with the _complete_ sonata ofthree or four movements. It is not to be called the "sonata form, " butthe "sonata-allegro form. " It is to one movement only, generally thefirst one, which is (or was) very commonly an _allegro_ tempo in thesonata and symphony, that the present design refers; and its name, sonata-allegro, is derived from that old historic species of the sonatawhich consisted originally of but one movement, generally an _allegro_. 

THE SONATA-ALLEGRO FORM. --As distinguished from the sonatine-form, withits two Divisions, this larger species, based upon precisely the samestructural idea, has _three Divisions_, --the Exposition, a middleDivision called the Development (growing out of the brief interlude ofthe sonatine-form), and the Recapitulation. The diagram (the keys ofwhich correspond to the plan of Beethoven, op. 14, No. 2, firstmovement) is as follows:

 Exposition. Middle Div. Recapitulation. ---------------------- ------------- ------------------------- Pr. Sub. Codetta. Development, Phr. Sub. Codetta Th. Th. Various keys, Th. Th. And Coda. ---------------------- ending with ------------------------- G maj. D maj. D maj. Retransition. G maj. G maj. G maj. 

Compare this diagram, also, with that of the Third Rondo-form, andnote, accurately, the points of resemblance and contrast. 

Compare it, further, with the diagram of the sonatine-form, on page122. It will be observed that here the Recapitulation does not followthe Exposition at once, as there, but that a complete middle divisionintervenes, instead of the brief interlude or re-transition; from whichthe student may conclude that the sonatine-form gradually grows intothe sonata-allegro form, as this interlude becomes longer, moreelaborate, and more like an independent division of the design. Orinversely, and perhaps more correctly, the sonata-allegro becomes asonatine-design _by the omission (or contraction) of the middleDivision_. 

THE EXPOSITION. --The presentation of the thematic factors, thestatement or Exposition of the two themes and codetta, is made exactlyas in the sonatine-form, though probably upon a broader scale. ThePrincipal theme is usually a Two-Part Song-form, at least; oftenThree-Part. In broader designs, a separate transitional passageappears; in more concise designs, the transition is developed out ofthe last Part of the Principal theme by the process of dissolution--aswill be seen. The object of the transition is, as usual, _to lead intothe new key_ (of the Subordinate theme). It is sometimes, though veryrarely, omitted. 

The Subordinate theme contrasts notably with its fellow, but assertsequal importance, as a rule, and may be of equal, or nearly equal, length. The addition of a codetta is almost indispensable, andfrequently two or more appear, growing successively shorter, andgenerally repeated. In the sonata-allegro _the Exposition closes, as arule, with a very decisive perfect cadence_, followed by a double-bar, and--especially in older sonatas--repetition-marks; the repetition ofthe Exposition being justly considered important, as a means ofemphasizing the "statement, " and enforcing the hearer's attention tothe thematic contents before preceding to their development in thesecond division of the form. In the sonatine-form, on the contrary, this positive termination of the Exposition (and consequently thedouble-bar and repetition) will very rarely be found. 

THE DEVELOPMENT, OR MIDDLE DIVISION. The second division of thesonata-allegro form is devoted to a more or less extensive andelaborate manipulation and combination of such figures, motives, phrases or Parts of the Exposition as prove inviting and convenient forthe purpose, or challenge the imaginative faculty of the composer. Inthis division, opportunity is provided for the exhibition of technicalskill, imagination and emotional passion; for the creation of ingeniouscontrasts and climaxes, and, in a word, for the development ofunexpected resources not strikingly manifest in the more soberpresentation of the thematic factors during the Exposition. Theintermingling of _new material_ is naturally also involved in theprocess of development; sometimes to such an extent that the newpredominates over the old, --in which case the middle Division is moreproperly called an EPISODE. 

This second Division of the sonata-allegro form (the Development orEpisode) corresponds precisely, as will be recognized, to the secondPart of the Three-Part Song-form; consequently, it represents the"departure" (see page 90), and entails, in rational form, thesignificant "return" to the beginning. Further, it matches to somedegree the "digression" in the rondo-forms. At all events, itsimportant structural function is to establish contrast; and thenecessity for corroboration of the leading thematic ideas--inconsequence of this contrast--is satisfied in the Division whichsucceeds. 

It is sometimes possible to mark the exact point where the Developmentends and the process of re-transition commences; but usually the returnto the beginning is accomplished so gradually that no sensibleinterruption occurs. 

THE RECAPITULATION. --This, the third Division, is, as usual, a reviewof the original presentation of the thematic material, --the recurrenceof the Exposition. It is sometimes a nearly exact reproduction, _excepting the necessary change of key in the Subordinate theme andcodetta_, and such modification of the transitional section as may bethereby involved. Sometimes, however, considerable alteration is made, at times so elaborate (especially in broader examples) that, thoughpreserving easy recognizability, the Recapitulation assumes theappearance of a new version of the Exposition, and becomes a moreindependent part of the design. 

A _coda_ is almost always added; sometimes brief, but occasionally soelaborate and extensive as to merit the appellation "secondDevelopment. "

DISSOLUTION. --When any section of a higher form starts out with aperfectly definite structural intention, pursues this intention for atime (sufficient to establish it), but then insensibly diverges andgradually adopts a new modulatory direction, --as transition into thefollowing section, --the form is said to be dissolved. Such dissolutiontakes place, naturally, within the _later_ section of the theme, orPart, or whatever it may be, whose actual, definite ending in theexpected key is thus frustrated. For instance, the second (or third)Part of a theme may be dissolved; or the last phrase of a period ordouble-period; or the repetition of a phrase. And the dissolution isinvariably applied before a transition or re-transition, as a means ofinterlocking the factors of the form more closely and coherently. Therefore it is a process peculiarly adapted to the higher designs ofcomposition, and is seldom omitted in the sonata-allegro form. For anillustration, see Beethoven's sonata, op. 14, No. 2, first movement:The Principal theme is a Two-Part Song-form; Part I, a period, frommeasures 1 to 8; Part II begins in measure 9, and has every appearanceof becoming also a period; its Antecedent phrase closes in measure 12, its Consequent begins in measure 13--but its end, _as Second Part_, inthe usual definite manner, cannot be indicated; the key is quietlychanged from G to D, and then to A, in obedience to the call of theSubordinate theme (beginning in measure 26), into which these last 10or 12 measures have evidently been a Transition. The Second Part ofthe Principal theme therefore includes the transition; but where theSecond Part (as such) ends, and the transition (as such) begins, it isimpossible to point out accurately. The definition of this Principaltheme is, "Two-Part form with dissolved Second Part, " or, still better, "_with transitional Second Part_. "

 * * * * * *

In our illustration of the sonata-allegro form it is necessary, onaccount of limited space, to select a very concise example, of unusualbrevity, --Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 1, first movement; theoriginal may be referred to, for the omitted details:--

[Illustration: Example 55. Fragment of Beethoven. ]

[Illustration: Example 55 continued. ]

[Illustration: Example 55 continued. ]

[Illustration: Example 55 continued. ]

The thematic factors are small, but none is omitted; every essentialcomponent is represented. 

For a more extended and fully developed example of the sonata-allegroform, see Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 2, first movement;number the 200 measures, and verify all the details according to thefollowing analysis (figures in parenthesis refer as usual to themeasures):--

_Principal Theme_, Part I, period-form (1-8). Part II (9- ), dissolved(about 14) into _Transition_ ( -25). 

_Subordinate Theme_, Part I, period, extended (26-36). Part II, period, probably (37-41-47). 

_Codetta I_, period, extended (48-58). 

_Codetta II_, Small phrase, extended (59-63). Here the Expositioncloses, with the customary double-bar and repetition marks. 

_Development_, Section I (64-73), from Principal theme. Section 2(74-80), from Subordinate theme. Section 3 (81-98), from Principaltheme. Section 4 (99-107), closely resembling the Principal theme, butin a remote key. This section practically ends the Development, inasmuch as it culminates upon the _dominant of the original key_. Section 5 (107-115), establishment of the dominant. Section 6(115-124), the _Re-transition_. The _Recapitulation_ begins with the

_Principal Theme_, Part I, period (125-132). Part II, group ofphrases, longer than before (133-152). 

_Subordinate Theme_, as before, but in the principal key (153-174). 

_Codetta (I)_, as before, but slightly extended (175-187). The secondcodetta is omitted. 

_Coda_, phrase, repeated and extended (188-200). 

RELATION TO THE THREE-PART SONG-FORM. --In a former chapter (XIII) theThree-Part form was defined as the type of perfect structural design, upon which every larger (or higher) form is based. Nowhere is theconnection more striking, and the process of natural evolution out ofthis germ more directly apparent, than in the sonata-allegro design. See the diagram on page 124. The Exposition corresponds to the FirstPart, _so expanded as to comprise the two themes and codetta_, fusedinto one larger division; the "statement" of a more comprehensivethematic group than the ordinary Part contains, but no more, for allthat, than the usual initial "statement. " The Development correspondsto the Second Part (proportionately expanded), and the Recapitulationto the Third Part, or recurrence and confirmation of the "statement. "

Any Three-Part Song-form, the moment that its First Part expands anddivides into the semblance of two fairly distinct thematic sections, becomes what might be called a miniature sonata-allegro form. ManyThree-Part Song-forms are so broad, and many sonata-allegros sodiminutive, that it is here again often difficult to determine the lineof demarcation between them. Example 55 (cited because of itscomparative brevity) is scarcely more than such a broadly expandedThree-Part Song-form. An example which approaches much more nearly theunmistakable Three-Part song, may be found in Mozart, sonata No. 12, _Menuetto_:--

_Part I_, section one (embryo of a principal theme), measures 1-10, period, extended; section two (embryo of a subordinate theme) measures11-18, period, _in different key_. 

_Part II_, group of three phrases, measures 19-30. 

_Part III_, section one, as before, measures 31-40; section two, asbefore, _but in the principal key_, measures 41-48. 

This is, of course, a Three-Part Song-form; but the essential featuresof the Sonata-allegro are unquestionably present, in miniature. 

See also, Beethoven, sonata, op. 101, first movement; certainly asonata-allegro design, but diminutive. 

 * * * * * *

The superiority of the sonata-allegro form over all other musicaldesigns, is amply vindicated by the breadth of its thematic basis, thestraightforwardness and continuity of its structural purpose, theperfection of its thematic arrangement, and the unexcelled provisionwhich it affords for unity, contrast, corroboration, balance, andwhatever else a thoroughly satisfactory structural design seems todemand. Hence, while brief triumphs of apparent "originality" may beachieved by simply running counter to this and similar designs, itseems scarcely possible that any musical form could be contrived thatwould surpass the sonata-allegro, the last and highest of the forms ofcomposition. 

LESSON 17. --Analyze the following examples, as usual, carefullydefining all the details of the form, according to the general planadopted in our text:--

Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 2, No. 1, first movement(diminutive, but very complete and perfect). 

Op. 2, No. 2, first movement. 

Op. 10, No. 3, _Largo_. 

Op. 22, first movement (four or five codettas). 

Op. 14, No. 1, first movement. 

Op. 22. _Adagio_. 

Op. 27, No. 2, last movement. 

Op. 28, first movement. 

Op. 31, No. 1, first movement. 

Op. 31, No. 3, first movement (the last 2 1/2 measures of theExposition are a transitional Interlude, which leads back into therepetition, and on into the Development). 

Same sonata, _Scherzo_. 

Op. 31, No. 2, last movement (coda contains the entire principal theme). 

Op. 78, first movement (diminutive). 

Op. 79, first movement. 

Op. 90, first movement, (no "double-bar"). 

Op. 57, first movement. 

Same sonata, last movement. 

Mozart, sonatas: No. 7, first movement. 

No. 3, first movement. No. 4, first movement; also _Andante_. 

No. 8, first movement. No. 5, first movement. 

No. 10, first movement. No. 6, first movement. 

No. 1, _Andante_. No. 6, last movement. 

Mendelssohn, pianoforte _Caprice_, op. 33, No. 2 (brief introduction). 

Sonata, op. 6, first movement. 

Op. 7, No. 7. 

_Fantasia_, op. 28, last movement. 

Schubert, pianoforte sonatas: op. 143, first movement. 

Op. 42, first movement. 

Op. 120, first movement. 

Op. 147, first movement (in the Recapitulation, the principal theme istransposed). 

Op. 164, first movement (the same). 

Beethoven, symphony, No. 5, first movement. 

Symphony, No. 1, first _Allegro_; also the second movement; and the_Finale_. 

CHAPTER XVIII. IRREGULAR FORMS. 

CAUSES. --Despite the many points of resemblance between the variousforms to which our successive chapters have been devoted, --the naturalconsequence of a continuous line of structural evolution to which eachplan owes its origin, --they are separate and independent designs, withindividual character and purpose; so much so, that the composer may, and usually does, select and apply his form according to the purposewhich he has in view. But the form is made for the music, not themusic for the form; no serious composer writes music for the sake ofthe form, but chooses the form merely as a means to an end. Thehighest ideal of structural dignity and fitness is, to work from thethematic germ _outward_, and to let the development of this germ, _themusical contents_, determine and justify the structural plan andarrangement. 

But the aims of the composer outnumber the regular forms, and thereforemodifications are unavoidable, in order to preserve the latitude whichperfect freedom of expression demands. The student may rest assured ofthe existence of many irregular species of these fundamental forms (asexceptions to the rule) and must expect to encounter no littledifficulty and uncertainty in defining the class to which his examplebelongs, --until wider experience shall have made him expert. 

All such irregular (or, in a sense, intermediate) varieties of formmust necessarily either admit of demonstration as modification of theregular designs; or they will evade demonstration altogether, aslacking those elements of logical coherence which constitute the vitaland only condition of "form and order" in musical composition. 

To these latter comparatively "_formless_" designs belong:--all thegroup-forms; the majority of fantasias, the potpourri, and, as a rule, all so-called tone-poems, and descriptive (program) music generally. 

On the other hand, those irregular designs which nevertheless admit ofanalysis according to the fundamental principles of structural logic, and are therefore directly referable to one or another of the regularforms, may be classified in the following four-fold manner--asAugmentation, Abbreviation, Dislocation, or Mixture, of the proximatefundamental design. 

1. AUGMENTATION OF THE REGULAR FORM. --To this species belong thoseforms (small and large) which are provided with a separateIntroduction, or Interludes, or an _independent_ Coda (in addition to, or instead of, the usual consistent coda). 

For example, Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 13, first movement; thefirst ten measures (_Grave_) are a wholly independent Introduction, inphrase-group form, with no other relation to the following than that ofkey, and no connection with the fundamental design excepting that of anextra, superfluous, member. The principal theme of the movement (whichis a sonata-allegro) begins with the _Allegro di molto_, in the 11thmeasure. Similar superfluous sections, derived from this Introduction, reappear as Interlude between the Reposition and Development, and nearthe end, as independent sections of the coda. 

In a manner closely analogous to that just seen, the fundamental designof any movement in a _concerto_ is usually expanded by the addition ofperiodically recurring sections, called the "_tutti_-passages, " and bya "_cadenza_, " occurring generally within the regular coda. In someconcerto-allegros (for instance, in the classic forms of Mozart, Beethoven and others), the first orchestral _tutti_ is a complete_introductory_ Exposition, in concise form, of the thematic materialused in the body of the movement. See the first piano-forte concertoof Beethoven, first movement. 

Further, when the design is one of unusual breadth, as in somesymphonic movements, or in elaborate chamber music, the number offundamental thematic members may be so multiplied that it is necessaryto assume the presence of _two successive Subordinate themes_, of equalindependent significance, --such significance that neither of them couldbe confounded with a mere codetta, or any other inferior thematicmember. See Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 7, first movement; theSubordinate theme runs from measure 41 to 59; it is followed by anotherthematic section (60-93) which is so independent, important andlengthy, that it evidently ranks coordinate with the former, as _secondSubordinate theme_. It might, it is true, be called the second Part ofthe Subordinate theme (the latter being no more than a repeatedperiod); or it might be regarded as the first codetta; its thematicindependence seems, however, to stamp it Second Subordinate theme. 

Further, it is not uncommon to extend the sonatine-form by adding, atthe end, a more or less complete recurrence of the Principaltheme, --instead of, or dissolved into, the customary coda. This may beseen in Mozart, pianoforte sonata, No. 3, _Andantino_; the superfluousrecurrence of the Principal theme begins in measure 19 from the end, after the regular sonatine-design has been achieved, fully, thoughconcisely. 

2. ABBREVIATION OF THE REGULAR FORM. --This consists chiefly in theomission of the Principal theme after the Development (that is, inbeginning the Recapitulation with the Subordinate theme). Othercontractions, by omission of _portions_ (Parts) of important thematicmembers, during the Recapitulation, are also possible, but not socommon. 

An illustration of the omitted Principal theme may be found inMendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 5:--

_Principal Theme_, period, extended (measures 1-11, dissolved intoTransition--18). 

_Subordinate Theme_, phrase, repeated and extended (19-28). _Codetta_(28-33). _Double-bar_. 

_Development_ (measures 34-58). _Retransition_ (59-62). 

_Principal Theme_--omitted. 

_Subordinate Theme_, as before (63-76). _Codetta_. 

3. DISLOCATION OF THEMATIC MEMBERS. --By this is meant, any exchange oralteration of the regular and expected arrangement of members. Thiscan refer, naturally, only to what occurs _after the Exposition_, --thatis, during the Recapitulation; for it is the Exposition whichdetermines the plan, and regular order, of the thematic members. Forexample, Mozart, pianoforte sonata. No. 13, first movement:--

_Principal Theme_, with _Transition_ (measures 1-27). 

_Subordinate Theme_ (28-41). 

_Codetta I_ (42-53). 

_Codetta II_ (54-58). In the Recapitulation, the arrangement is thus:--

_Principal Theme, Codetta I, Subordinate Theme, Codetta II_; that is, the first codetta appears before, instead of after, the Subordinatetheme. 

4. MIXTURE OF CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS. --This process tends to affiliatethe two distinct classes of larger or higher forms, whose respectivecharacteristics were explained and compared at the beginning of ChapterXVI. Upon very careful revision of this explanation, and reference tothe given diagrams, the student will perceive that the distinctivetrait of the sonata-allegro form is the section of Development which itcontains; and that of the three Rondo-forms is the absence of such aDevelopment. Of the mixed forms under consideration there are two: onein which a section of _Development_ is introduced into the Rondo (assubstitute for one of its Subordinate themes); and the other asonata-allegro, in which the Development is omitted, and a new theme (asort of additional Subordinate theme) inserted in its place. In otherwords, a Rondo (second or third form--probably _not_ the firstrondo-form) with a Development; and a sonata-allegro with a new Middletheme, or Episode (as we have already called it). 

The Rondo with Development is illustrated in Beethoven, pianofortesonata, op. 27, No. 1, last movement; it is the third rondo-form, designed as follows:--

_Principal Theme_, Two-Part form (measures 1-24). 

_Transition_ (25-35). 

_First Subordinate Theme_, period, extended, --or phrase-group (36-56). _Codetta_ (57-72). 

_Re-transition_ (73-81). 

_Principal Theme_ (82-97). 

_Transition_ (98-106). Then, instead of the Second Subordinate theme, a

_Development_ (106-138); followed by an elaborate

_Re-transition_ (139-166), and a regular

_Recapitulation_. Two wholly independent coda-sections are added, an_Adagio_ (derived from the third movement of the sonata) and a_Presto_, based upon the Principal theme. 

The sonata-allegro with new Middle theme is illustrated in Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 14, No. 1, first movement; the middle Divisioncontains a preliminary allusion to the Principal theme, but isotherwise an entirely new thematic member, very suggestive of the"Second Subordinate theme" of the Rondos (17-measures long, --up to theRe-transition, in which, again, the Principal theme is utilized). 

LESSON 18. --Analyze the following examples of Irregular form. They areclassified, as in the text:--

1. Beethoven, sonata, op. 81, first movement. 

Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 2, first movement. 

Beethoven, sonata, op. 2, No. 3, first movement. 

Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 1, last movement (_not_ "Rondo, " asmarked, but sonatine-form, augmented). 

Mozart, sonata No. 1, first movement. 

Mozart, sonata No. 17, last movement (Rondo, with three Subordinatethemes). 

Mendelssohn, _Capriccio brillant_, in B minor. Schubert, pianofortesonata No. 8 (Peters ed. ). _Adagio_. 

2. Mendelssohn, _Praeludium_, op. 35, No. 3. 

Mozart, sonata No. 8, last movement. 

Schubert, sonata No. 8, last movement. 

Brahms, pianoforte _Capriccio_, op. 116, No. 1. 

Chopin, pianoforte sonata, op. 35, first movement. 

3. Mozart, sonata No. 3, first movement. 

Mozart, sonata No. 13, last movement (the Development occurs _after_instead of before the Principal theme, --in the Recapitulation). 

4. Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 31, No. 1, last movement. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 90, last movement. 

Mendelssohn, pianoforte étude, op. 104, No. 2. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 10, No. 1, first movement. 

Beethoven, pianoforte sonata, op. 2, No. 1, last movement. 

Mozart, sonata No. 7, _Andante_. 

Mozart, sonata No. 14, last movement. 

CHAPTER XIX. APPLICATION OF THE FORMS. 

The use of the various forms of composition, that is, their selectionwith a view to general fitness for the composer's object, is, primarily, simply a question of length. The higher aesthetic law ofadjusting the design to the contents, of which we spoke in thepreceding chapter, comes into action after the main choice has beendetermined. 

The smallest complete form, that of the PHRASE, can scarcely beexpected to suffice for an independent piece of music, though itsoccurrence as independent _section_ of an entire composition is by nomeans rare. The nearest approach to the former dignity is the use ofthe Large phrase in one instance by Beethoven, as theme for hiswell-known pianoforte Variations in C minor; this theme, andconsequently each variation, is a complete and practically independentcomposition. At the beginning of Beethoven's pianoforte sonata, Op. 27, No. 1, the student will find a succession of independentfour-measure phrases, each with a definite perfect cadence, andtherefore complete in itself; this chain of independent phrases is, infact, the structural basis of the entire first movement, interruptedbut briefly by the contrasting _Allegro_. The simple phrase may, also, find occasional application in brief exercises for song or piano; andwe have witnessed its use as introduction, and as codetta, in many ofthe larger designs. 

The next larger complete form, the PERIOD, is somewhat more likely tobe chosen for an entire composition, but by no means frequently. Theearly grades of technical exercises (public-school music, and similarphases of elementary instruction) are commonly written in period-form, and some of the smallest complete songs in literature (a few ofSchumann's, Schubert's, and others) may be defined as period-forms, extended. The theme of the Chaconne (found in the works of Handel, Bach, and even some modern writers) is usually a period. Of thePréludes of Chopin for pianoforte (op. 28), at least four do not exceedthe design of the extended period. But these are, naturally, exceptional cases; the proper function of the period-form in music is, to represent the _Parts_, and other fairly complete and independentthematic members of larger forms. This is very largely true of theDOUBLE-PERIOD, also; though it is a very appropriate and common designfor the hymn-tune, and similar vocal compositions; and is somewhat morelikely to appear as complete composition (in exercises, smaller pianopieces and songs) than is the single period. Nine of Chopin's Préludesare double-periods. 

The TWO-PART SONG-FORM, as already intimated, is not as common as mightbe supposed. It is sometimes employed in smaller compositions forpiano (variation-themes and the like), or voice; and is probably theform most frequently chosen for the hymn-tune. But its most importantplace in composition is in the larger forms, as its design adapts itpeculiarly to the purposes of the themes, both principal andsubordinate. 

The THREE-PART SONG-FORM, on the contrary, is unquestionably the mostcommon of all the music designs. Probably three-fourths of all ourliterature are written in this form, with or without the repetitions, or in the related Five-Part form. It is therefore difficult toenumerate the styles of composition to which this admirable design iswell adapted, and for which it is employed. 

The GROUP-FORMS will be found in many songs, études, anthems, andcompositions of a fantastic, capricious, rather untrammeled character, in which freedom of expression overrules the consideration of clear, definite form. It is the design perhaps most commonly selected for theInvention, Fugue, and--particularly--the various species of Prélude;though these styles, and others of decidedly fanciful purpose, are notunlikely to manifest approximate, if not direct, correspondence to theThree-Part Song-form. The modern Waltz is usually a group ofSong-forms. 

The SONG-FORM WITH TRIO is encountered in older dances, especially theMenuetto, Passapied, Bourrée, and Gavotte (though even these are oftensimple Three-Part form, without Trio); and in many modernones, --excepting the Waltz. It is characteristic of the March, Polonaise, modern Minuet, Gavotte and other dances, and of theMinuet--or Scherzo-movement, in sonatas and symphonies. 

The FIRST RONDO-FORM is sometimes substituted for the Song with Trio(to which it exactly corresponds in fundamental design, as we havelearned) in compositions whose purpose carries them beyond the limitsof the Three- or Five-Part forms, and in which greater unity, fluencyand cohesion are required than can be obtained in the song with trio;for instance, in larger Nocturnes, Romanzas, Ballades, Études, and soforth. The peculiar place for the First Rondo-form in literature, however, is in the "slow movement" (_adagio, andante, largo_) of thesonata, symphony and concerto, for which it is very commonly chosen. It may also be encountered in the _small_ Rondos of a somewhat earlydate; and is of course possible in broader vocal compositions (largeopera, arias, anthems, etc. ). 

From what has just been said, the student will infer that therondo-form is not employed exclusively in pieces that are called"Rondo. " In the sense in which we have adopted the term, it applies toa _design_, and not to a style, of composition; precisely as thesonata-allegro form may appear in a composition that is not a sonata. This must not be overlooked. Furthermore, there are a few cases inliterature in which a movement marked "Rondo" is not written accordingto the rondo-form. 

The Second and Third Rondo-forms are so similar in purpose andcharacter that they are generally applied in the same manner, with noother distinction than that of length. Besides occasional occurrenceas independent compositions (for instance, the two Rondos of Beethoven, op. 51, the A minor Rondo of Mozart, the Rondos of Field, Dussek, Hummel, Czerny, etc. ), these designs are most commonly utilized for the_Finale_ (last movement) of the complete sonata, concerto, string-quartet, trio, and other chamber-music styles; more rarely forthe finale of the symphony. 

The SONATINE and SONATA-ALLEGRO FORMS, likewise, serve correspondingpurposes, and are chosen according to the length or breadth of designdesired. The sonatine-form may therefore be expected in the firstmovement of smaller sonatas, or sonatinas (as they are often called), but it is not infrequently employed in the "slow movement" of largersonatas or symphonies. 

The most distinguished of all music-designs, the sonata-allegro form, is almost invariably chosen for the opening movement of sonatas, symphonies, concertos, trios, string-quartets and similar compositions, sometimes in greatly augmented dimensions. It is also not unlikely toappear in the slow movement, and _finale_, of the symphony. 

LESSON 19. --The student may now indulge in independent research, in thecareful analysis of the following works:

The pianoforte sonatas of Haydn (every movement of each). The sonatasfor pianoforte and violin of Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms, Rubinstein, Grieg, and others. 

The Trios of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schubert. 

The String-quartets (in pianoforte arrangement) of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Brahms, Schubert. 

The Overtures (in pianoforte arrangement) of Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Cherubim. 

The Concertos (pianoforte or violin) of Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Rubinstein, Saint-Saëns, Schumann, Grieg, Chopin. Also a number ofsmaller (single) pianoforte compositions:--the études of Chopin; a fewétudes of Czerny, Cramer, Clementi, Heller; the mazurkas, nocturnes, and préludes of Chopin; and miscellaneous pieces by modernwriters, --Grieg, Rubinstein, Tschaikowsky (and other Russians), Sgambati, Saint-Saëns, Moszkowski, Raff, Reinecke, Scharwenka, Schütte, MacDowell, --or any other compositions, vocal or instrumental, in whichthe student may be interested, or which he may be studying. 

 * * * * * *

AFTERWORD. 

The expression "Musical Forms" is often used, somewhat carelessly anderroneously, with reference to _Styles_ or _Species_ of composition, instead of to the structural design upon which the music is based. The"Barcarolle, " "Mazurka, " "Étude, " "Anthem, " and so forth, are _styles_of composition, and not necessarily identified with any of thestructural _designs_ we have been examining. Read, again, ourFOREWORD. The general conditions which enter into the distinctions of_style_ are enumerated in my "Homophonic Forms, " paragraph 97, whichthe student is earnestly advised to read. As to the manifold stylesthemselves, with which the present book is not directly concerned, thestudent is referred to Ernst Pauer's "Musical Forms, " and to the musicdictionaries of Grove, Baker, Riemann, and other standard writers, where a description of each style or species of composition may befound. 

THE END.