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 HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY. 

 _RULES AND EXERCISES_

 ON

 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

 BY THE

 REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M. A. , HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL. 

 [Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT]

 THE AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION. 

 BOSTON: ROBERTS BROTHERS. 1883. 

 UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON. CAMBRIDGE. 

PREFACE. 

Almost every English boy can be taught to write clearly, so far atleast as clearness depends upon the arrangement of words. Force, elegance, and variety of style are more difficult to teach, and farmore difficult to learn; but clear writing can be reduced to rules. Toteach the art of writing clearly is the main object of these Rules andExercises. 

Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement, but also fromother causes--from the misuse of single words, and from confusedthought. These causes are not removable by definite rules, andtherefore, though not neglected, are not prominently considered inthis book. My object rather is to point out some few continuallyrecurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest definite remedies ineach case. Speeches in Parliament, newspaper narratives and articles, and, above all, resolutions at public meetings, furnish abundantinstances of obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of somedozen simple rules. 

The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuableacquisition--almost as valuable as the art of writing clearly. Butforcible expression is not, like clear expression, a mere question ofmechanism and of the manipulation of words; it is a much higher power, and implies much more. 

Writing clearly does not imply thinking clearly. A man may think andreason as obscurely as Dogberry himself, but he may (though it is notprobable that he will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writingclearly--so far as arrangement of words is concerned--is a mere matterof adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, placedand repeated according to definite rules. [1] Even obscure or illogicalthought can be clearly expressed; indeed, the transparent medium ofclear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the illogicalnature of the meaning beneath it. 

On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly, he must (to use awell-known illustration) describe Jerusalem as "sown with salt, " notas "captured, " and the Jews not as being "subdued" but as "almostexterminated" by Titus. But what does this imply? It impliesknowledge, and very often a great deal of knowledge, and it impliesalso a vivid imagination. The writer must have eyes to see the vividside of everything, as well as words to describe what he sees. Henceforcible writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less amatter of rules than is clear writing; and hence, though forciblewriting is exemplified in the exercises, clear writing occupies mostof the space devoted to the rules. 

Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in especial need of helpto enable them to write a long English sentence clearly. The periodsof Thucydides and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiomwithout some knowledge of the links that connect an English sentence. 

There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well as logical, than the task of construing Thucydides into genuine English; but theflat, vague, long-winded Greek-English and Latin-English imposturethat is often tolerated in our examinations and is allowed to passcurrent for genuine English, diminishes instead of increasing thepower that our pupils should possess over their native language. Bygetting marks at school and college for construing good Greek andLatin into bad English, our pupils systematically unlearn what theymay have been allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare. 

I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor Bain's treatiseon "English Composition and Rhetoric, " and also to his EnglishGrammar. I have not always been able to agree with Professor Bain asto matters of taste; but I find it difficult to express my admirationfor the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his book onComposition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule on the use of "that"and "which" (see Rule 8) deserves to be better known. [2] The ambiguityproduced by the confusion between these two forms of the Relative isnot a mere fiction of pedants; it is practically serious. Take, forinstance, the following sentence, which appeared lately in one of ourablest weekly periodicals: "There are a good many Radical members inthe House _who_ cannot forgive the Prime Minister for being aChristian. " Twenty years hence, who is to say whether the meaning is"_and they_, i. E. _all the Radical_ members in the House, " or "thereare a good many Radical members of the House _that_ cannot &c. "?Professor Bain, apparently admitting no exceptions to his useful rule, amends many sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh. Therefore, while laying due stress on the utility of the rule, I haveendeavoured to point out and explain the exceptions. 

The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and are intended not somuch for use by themselves as for reference while the pupil is workingat the exercises. Consequently, there is no attempt to prove the rulesby accumulations of examples. The few examples that are given, aregiven not to prove, but to illustrate the rules. The exercises areintended to be written out and revised, as exercises usually are; butthey may also be used for _vivâ voce_ instruction. The books beingshut, the pupils, with their written exercises before them, may bequestioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they havemade. Experienced teachers will not require any explanation of thearrangement or rather non-arrangement of the exercises. They have beenpurposely mixed together unclassified to prevent the pupil fromrelying upon anything but his own common sense and industry, to showhim what is the fault in each case, and how it is to be amended. Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to each sentence, so that the exercises ought not to present any difficulty to apainstaking boy of twelve or thirteen, provided he has first beenfairly trained in English grammar. 

The "Continuous Extracts" present rather more difficulty, and areintended for boys somewhat older than those for whom the Exercises areintended. The attempt to modernize, and clarify, so to speak, thestyle of Burnet, Clarendon, and Bishop Butler, [3] may appearambitious, and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has, ofcourse, not been to _improve upon_ the style of these authors, but toshow how their meaning might be expressed more clearly in modernEnglish. The charm of the style is necessarily lost, but if the lossis recognized both by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in myopinion, to counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises. Professor Bain speaks to the same effect:[4] "For an English exercise, the matter should in some way or other be supplied, and the pupildisciplined in giving it expression. I know of no better method thanto prescribe passages containing good matter, but in some respectsimperfectly worded, to be amended according to the laws and theproprieties of style. Our older writers might be extensively, thoughnot exclusively, drawn upon for this purpose. "

To some of the friends whose help has been already acknowledged in"English Lessons for English People, " I am indebted for further helpin revising these pages. I desire to express especial obligations tothe Rev. J. H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and valuablesuggestions; also to several of my colleagues at the City of LondonSchool, among whom I must mention in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 

 * * * * *

Before electrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition, I wish to say oneword as to the manner in which this book has been used by my highestclass, as a collection of Rules for reference in their construinglessons. In construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found Rules5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 40_a_, of great use. The rules about Metaphorand Climax have also been useful in correcting faults of taste intheir Latin and Greek compositions. I have hopes that, used in thisway, this little book may be of service to the highest as well as tothe middle classes of our schools. 

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Punctuation is fully discussed in most English Grammars, and istherefore referred to in this book only so far as is necessary topoint out the slovenly fault of trusting too much to punctuation, andtoo little to arrangement. 

[2] Before meeting with Professor Bain's rule, I had shown that thedifference between the Relatives is generally observed by Shakespeare. See "Shakespearian Grammar, " paragraph 259. 

[3] Sir Archibald Alison stands on a very different footing. Theextracts from this author are intended to exhibit the dangers ofverbosity and exaggeration. 

[4] "English Composition and Rhetoric, " p. Vii. 

CONTENTS. 

 PAGE

 INDEX OF RULES 11-13

 RULES 14-40

 SHORT EXERCISES 41-63

 CONTINUOUS EXERCISES--CLARENDON 64-70

 " " BURNET 70-73

 " " BUTLER 74-75

 " " SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON 76-78

INDEX OF RULES. 

I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE. 

WORDS. 

1. Use words in their proper sense. 

2. Avoid exaggerations. 

3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing. "

4. Be careful in the use of "not . . . And, " "any, " "but, " "only, " "not. . . Or, " "that. "

4 _a_. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, _e. G. _ "certain. "

5. Be careful in the use of "he, " "it, " "they, " "these, " &c. 

6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to avoidambiguity. 

6 _a_. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the speaker arenot intended to be given. 

6 _b_. Omission of "that" in a speech in the Third Person. 

7. When you use a Participle implying "when, " "while, " "though, " or"that, " show clearly by the context what is implied. 

8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" or "which, " if themeaning is "and he" or "and it, " "for he" or "for it. " In other casesuse "that, " if euphony allows. Exceptions. 

9. Do not use "and which" for "which. "

10. Equivalents for the Relative: (_a_) Participle or Adjective; (_b_)Infinitive; (_c_) "Whereby, " "whereto, " &c. ; (_d_) "If a man;" (_e_)"And he, " "and this, " &c. ; (_f_) "what;" (_g_) omission of Relative. 

10 _a'_. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where thenon-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38. 

11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns. 

11 _a_. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used. 

12. Use particular persons instead of a class. 

13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement. 

14. Do not confuse metaphor. 

14 _a_. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement. 

14 _b_. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject. 

ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 

15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; _i. E. _, for themost part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence. 

15 _a_. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end. Exceptions. 

15 _b_. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis. 

16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferredfrom the beginning of the sentence. 

17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for emphasis. 

18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the mostemphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or anintensifying word. 

19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which theyare grammatically connected. 

20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended toqualify. 

21. "Only"; the strict rule is that "only" should be placed before theword it affects. 

22. When "not only" precedes "but also, " see that each is followed bythe same part of speech. 

23. "At least, " "always, " and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimesproduce ambiguity. 

24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define. 

25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer, without theintervention of any other Noun. 

26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as closetogether as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55. 

27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or "if-clauses" must bekept distinct from the consequent clauses. 

28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct fromthose that are independent. 

29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are dependent onthe same word must be kept distinct from those that are not. 

30. The principle of Suspense. 

30 _a_. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to introduceunexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphaticclause beginning with (_a_) "not, " (_b_) "which. "

31. Suspense must not be excessive. 

32. In a sentence with "if, " "when, " "though, " &c. , put the"if-clause, " antecedent, or protasis, first. 

33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective, thatqualifies the Subject, before the Subject. 

34. Suspensive Conjunctions, _e. G. _ "either, " "not only, " "on the onehand, " &c. , add clearness. 

35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause obscurity orambiguity. 

36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especiallyif a Verb and an Object also intervene. 

37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal Adjectives. 

37 _a_. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than, " "as, " &c. 

38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary ofwhat has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult tokeep the thread of meaning unbroken. 

39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentenceprepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the wholeforming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax. "

40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called"bathos. "

40 _a_. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly. 

41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness. 

42. Epigram. 

43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject ofthought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences. 

44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up byAdverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connectingwords at the beginning of the sentence. 

45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimesrequires a short intervening sentence showing the transition ofthought. 

II. BREVITY. 

46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement. 

47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particularterms. 

47 _a_. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word. 

48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimesambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs. 

49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may beused as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative. 

50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of beingexpressed at length. 

51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, _e. G. _ "very, " "so. "Exaggerated epithets, _e. G. _ "incalculable, " "unprecedented. "

51 _a_. The imperative may be used for "if &c. "

52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences into one. 

53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the commonSubject of several Verbs; (2) the common Object of several Verbs orPrepositions. 

54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied. 

55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26. 

56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the firstconsideration. 

CLEARNESS AND FORCE. 

_Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules. _

WORDS. 

*1. Use words in their proper sense. *

Write, not "His _apparent_ guilt justified his friends in disowninghim, " but "his _evident_ guilt. " "Conscious" and "aware, " "unnatural"and "supernatural, " "transpire" and "occur, " "circumstance" and"event, " "reverse" and "converse, " "eliminate" and "elicit, " are oftenconfused together. 

This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It isin my _power_ to refuse your request, and since I have _power_ to dothis, I may lawfully do it. " Here the second "power" is used for"authority. "

This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice, " "awfully, ""delicious, " "glorious, " &c. See (2). 

*2. Avoid exaggerations. *

"The _boundless_ plains in the heart of the empire furnished_inexhaustible_ supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed fortwice the population. "

Here "inexhaustible" is inconsistent with what follows. The words"unprecedented, " "incalculable, " "very, " and "stupendous" are oftenused in the same loose way. 

*3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing. "*

"Her Majesty here _partook of lunch_. " Write "_lunched_. "

"Partook of" implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as lengthy. 

So, do not use "apex" for "top, " "species" for "kind, " "individual"for "man, " "assist" for "help, " &c. 

*4. Be careful how you use the following words: "not . . . And, " "any, ""only, " "not . . . Or, " "that. "*[5]

*And. * See below, "Or. "

*Any. *--"I am not bound to receive _any_ messenger that you send. "Does this mean _every_, or _a single_? Use "every" or "a single. "

*Not. *--(1) "I do _not_ intend to help you, because you are my enemy&c. " ought to mean (2), "I intend not to help you, and my reason fornot helping you is, because you are my enemy. " But it is often wronglyused to mean (3), "I intend to help you, not because you are my enemy(but because you are poor, blind, &c. ). " In the latter case, _not_ought to be separated from _intend_. By distinctly marking the limitsto which the influence of _not_ extends, the ambiguity may be removed. 

*Only* is often used ambiguously for _alone_. "The rest help me torevenge myself; you _only_ advise me to wait. " This ought to mean, "you only _advise_, instead of _helping_;" but in similar sentences"you only" is often used for "you alone. " But see 21. 

*Or. *--When "or" is preceded by a negative, as "I do not want butter_or_ honey, " "or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be used like "and, "nor like "nor. " The strict use of "not . . . Or" would be as follows:--

"You say you don't want both butter _and_ honey--you want butter _or_honey; I, on the contrary, _do not want butter or honey_--I want themboth. "

Practically, however, this meaning is so rare, that "I don't wantbutter _or_ honey" is regularly used for "I want neither butter norhoney. " But where there is the slightest danger of ambiguity, it isdesirable to use _nor_. 

The same ambiguity attends "not . . . And. " "I do not see Thomas _and_John" is commonly used for "I see neither Thomas nor John;" but itmight mean, "I do not see them both--I see only one of them. "

*That. *--The different uses of "that" produce much ambiguity, _e. G. _"I am so much surprised by this statement _that_ I am desirous ofresigning, _that_ I scarcely know what reply to make. " Here it isimpossible to tell, till one has read past "resigning, " whether thefirst "that" depends upon "so" or "statement. " Write: "The statementthat I am desirous of resigning surprises me so much that I scarcelyknow &c. "

*4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e. G. "certain. "*

"Certain" is often used for "some, " as in "Independently of hisearnings, he has a _certain_ property, " where the meaning might be"unfailing. "

Under this head may be mentioned the double use of words, such as"left" in the same form and sound, but different in meaning. Evenwhere there is no obscurity, the juxtaposition of the same word twiceused in two senses is inelegant, _e. G. _ (Bain), "He turned to the_left_ and _left_ the room. "

I have known the following slovenly sentence misunderstood: "Ourobject is that, with the aid of practice, we may sometime arrive atthe point where we think eloquence in its most praiseworthy form _tolie_. " "To lie" has been supposed to mean "to deceive. "

*5. Be careful how you use "he, " "it, " "they, " "these, " &c. * (For"which" see 8. ) The ambiguity arising from the use of _he_ applying todifferent persons is well known. 

"He told his friend that if _he_ did not feel better in half an hourhe thought _he_ had better return. " See (6) for remedy. 

Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phrases as _inthis way_, _of this sort_, &c. 

"God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given us certainpassions and affections which arise from, or whose objects are, thesedisorders. _Of this sort_ are fear, resentment, compassion. "

Repeat the noun: "Among these passions and affections are fear &c. "

Two distinct uses of _it_ may be noted. _It_, when referring tosomething that precedes, may be called "retrospective;" but when tosomething that follows, "prospective. " In "Avoid indiscriminatecharity: _it_ is a crime, " "it" is retrospective. [6] In "_It_ is acrime to give indiscriminately, " "it" is prospective. 

The prospective "it, " if productive of ambiguity, can often be omittedby using the infinitive as a subject: "To give indiscriminately is acrime. "

*6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person, wherenecessary to avoid ambiguity. * Speeches in the third person afford aparticular, though very common case, of the general ambiguitymentioned in (5). Instead of "He told his friend that if _he_ did notfeel better &c. , " write "He said to his friend, 'If, _I_ (or _you_)don't feel better &c. '"

*6 a. Sometimes, where the writer cannot know the exact words, orwhere the exact words are unimportant, or lengthy and uninteresting, the Third Person is preferable. * Thus, where Essex is asking SirRobert Cecil that Francis Bacon may be appointed Attorney-General, thedialogue is (as it almost always is in Lord Macaulay's writings) inthe First Person, _except where it becomes tedious and uninterestingso as to require condensation_, and then it drops into the ThirdPerson:

"Sir Robert _had nothing to say but_ that he thought his own abilitiesequal to the place which he hoped to obtain, and that his father'slong services deserved such a mark of gratitude from the Queen. "

*6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech reported in the ThirdPerson. *--Even when a speech is reported in the third person, "that"need not always be inserted before the dependent verb. Thus, insteadof "He said that he took it ill that his promises were not believed, "we may write, "'He took it ill, ' he said, 'that &c. '" This gives alittle more life, and sometimes more clearness also. 

*7. When you use a Participle, as "walking, " implying "when, " "while, ""though, " "that, " make it clear by the context what is implied. *

"Republics, in the first instance, are never desired for their ownsakes. I do not think they will finally be desired at all, _unaccompanied_ by courtly graces and good breeding. "

Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is "_since_ they are, or, _if_ they are, unaccompanied. "

*That or when. *--"Men _walking_ (_that_ walk, or _when_ they walk) onice sometimes fall. "

It is better to use "men walking" to mean "men _when_ they walk. " Ifthe relative is meant, use "men that walk, " instead of the participle. 

 (1) "_While_ he was } _Walking_ on { (1) the road, } he fell. " (2) "_Because_ he was } { (2) the ice, }

When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies acause: "_Seeing_ this, he retired. " Otherwise it generally has itsproper participial meaning, _e. G. _ "He retired, _keeping_ his facetowards us. " If there is any ambiguity, write "_on_ seeing, "--"_at thesame time_, or _while_, keeping. "

 (1) "_Though_ he was} {(1) he nevertheless stood } { his ground. " (2) "_Since_ he was } _Struck_ with terror, {(2) he rapidly retreated. " (3) "_If_ he is } {(3) he will soon retreat. "

*8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" and "which" where themeaning is "and he, it, &c. , " "for he, it, &c. " In other cases use"that, " if euphony allows. *

"I heard this from the inspector, _who_ (and he) heard it from theguard _that_ travelled with the train. "

"Fetch me (all) the books _that_ lie on the table, and also thepamphlets, _which_ (and these) you will find on the floor. "

An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity. Thus: "Therewas a public-house next door, _which_ was a great nuisance, " means"_and this_ (_i. E. _ the fact of its being next door) was a greatnuisance;" whereas _that_ would have meant "Next door was apublic-house _that_ (_i. E. _ the public-house) was a great nuisance. "*"Who, " "which, " &c. Introduce a new fact about the antecedent, whereas "that" introduces something without which the antecedent isincomplete or undefined. * Thus, in the first example above, "inspector" is complete in itself, and "who" introduces a new _fact_about him; "guard" is incomplete, and requires "_that_ travelled withthe train" to complete the meaning. 

It is not, and cannot be, maintained that this rule, though observedin Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern authors. (Probably a general impression that "that" cannot be used to refer topersons has assisted "who" in supplanting "that" as a relative. ) Butthe convenience of the rule is so great that beginners in compositionmay with advantage adhere to the rule. The following are some of thecases where _who_ and _which_ are mostly used, contrary to the rule, instead of _that_. 

*Exceptions:*--

(_a_) When the antecedent is defined, _e. G. _ by a possessive case, modern English uses _who_ instead of _that_. It is rare, though itwould be useful, [7] to say "His English friends _that_ had not seenhim" for "the English friends, or those of his English friends, thathad not seen him. "

(_b_) _That_ sounds ill when separated from its verb and from itsantecedents, and emphasized by isolation: "There are many persons_that_, though unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and _that_, if not strongly incited by self-interest, are ready for the most partto think of the interest of their neighbours. " Shakespeare frequentlyuses _who_ after _that_ when the relative is repeated. See"Shakespearian Grammar, " par. 260. 

(_c_) If the antecedent is qualified by _that_, the relative must notbe _that_. Besides other considerations, the repetition isdisagreeable. Addison ridicules such language as "_That_ remark _that_I made yesterday is not _that_ _that_ I said _that_ I regretted _that_I had made. "

(_d_) _That_ cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws thepreposition to the end. "This is the rule _that_ I adhere _to_. " Thisis perfectly good English, though sometimes unnecessarily avoided. But, with some prepositions, the construction is harsh andobjectionable, _e. G. _ "This is the mark _that_ I jumped _beyond_, ""Such were the prejudices _that_ he rose _above_. " The reason is thatsome of these disyllabic prepositions are used as adverbs, and, whenseparated from their nouns, give one the impression that they are usedas adverbs. 

(_e_) After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns, modernEnglish prefers _who_. "There are many, others, several, those, _who_can testify &c. "

(_f_) After _that_ used as a conjunction there is sometimes a disliketo use _that_ as a relative. See (_c_). 

*9. Do not use redundant "and" before "which. "[8]*

"I gave him a very interesting book for a present, _and which_ cost mefive shillings. "

In short sentences the absurdity is evident, but in long sentences itis less evident, and very common. 

"A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the bye-lawswhich permits application of public money to support sectarianschools over which ratepayers have no control, this being a violationof the principle of civil and religious liberty, _and which_ thememorialists believe would provoke a determined and conscientiousresistance. "

Here _which_ ought grammatically to refer to "portion" or "schools. "But it seems intended to refer to "violation. " Omit "and, " or repeat"a violation" before "which, " or turn the sentence otherwise. 

*10. Equivalents for Relative. *

*(_a_) Participle. *--"Men _thirsting_ (for 'men _that thirst_') forrevenge are not indifferent to plunder. " The objection to theparticiple is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity. Theabove sentence may mean, "men, _when_ they thirst, " or "_though_ theythirst, " as well as "men _that_ thirst. " Often however there is noambiguity: "I have documents _proving_ this conclusively. "

*(_b_) Infinitive. *--Instead of "He was the first _that_ entered" youcan write "_to_ enter;" for "He is not a man _who_ will actdishonestly, " "_to_ act. " This equivalent cannot often be used. 

*(_c_) Whereby, wherein, &c. , * can sometimes be used for "by _which_, ""in _which_, " so as to avoid a harsh repetition of "_which_. " "Themeans _whereby_ this may be effected. " But this use is somewhatantiquated. 

*(_d_) If. *--"The man _that_ does not care for music is to be pitied"can be written (though not so forcibly), "_If_ a man does not care formusic, he is to be pitied. " It is in long sentences that thisequivalent will be found most useful. 

*(_e_) And this. *--"He did his best, _which_ was all that could beexpected, " can be written, "_and this_ was all that, &c. "

*(_f_) What. *--"Let me repeat _that which_[9] you ought to know, that_that which_ is worth doing is worth doing well. " "Let me repeat, _what_ you ought to know, that _what_ is worth doing is worth doingwell. "

*(_g_) Omission of Relative. *--It is sometimes thought ungrammaticalto omit the relative, as in "The man (that) you speak of. " On thecontrary, _that_ when an object (not when a subject) may be omitted, wherever the antecedent and the subject of the relative sentence arebrought into juxtaposition by the omission. 

*10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form, where there is anyambiguity. * This is particularly useful after a negative: "He saidthat he would not even hear me, _which_ I confess I had expected. "Here the meaning may be, "I had expected that he would, " or "that hewould not, hear me. " Write, "_a refusal_, or, _a favour_, that Iconfess I had expected. " See (38). 

*11. Use particular for general terms. *--This is a most importantrule. Instead of "I have neither the necessaries of life nor the meansof procuring them, " write (if you can _with truth_), "I have not acrust of bread, nor a penny to buy one. "

CAUTION. --There is a danger in this use. The meaning is vividlyexpressed but sometimes may be exaggerated or imperfect. _Crust ofbread_ may be an exaggeration; on the other hand, if the speaker isdestitute not only of bread, but also of shelter and clothing, then_crust of bread_ is an imperfect expression of the meaning. 

In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often to beinclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must be used. 

*11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used instead. * Thedisadvantage of the use of Verbal Nouns is this, that, unless they areimmediately preceded by prepositions, they are sometimes liable to beconfounded with participles. The following is an instance of anexcessive use of Verbal Nouns:

"The pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to laythe jealousies of the king's _favouring_ popery, which still hung uponhim, notwithstanding his _writing_ on the Revelation, and _affecting_to enter on all occasions into controversy, _asserting_ in particularthat the Pope was Antichrist. "

Write "notwithstanding that he wrote and affected &c. "

*12. Use a particular Person instead of a class. *

"What is the splendour of _the greatest monarch_ compared with thebeauty of _a flower_?" "What is the splendour of Solomon compared withthe beauty of a daisy?"

Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for Adjective: "Thisfortress is _weakness_ itself. "

An excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic, _e. G. _, the following paraphrase for "in every British colony:"--"under Indianpalm-groves, amid Australian gum-trees, in the shadow of Africanmimosas, and beneath Canadian pines. "

*13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement. *

"The ship _ploughs_ the sea" is clearer than "the ship _cleaves_ thesea, " and shorter than "the ship _cleaves_ the sea _as a ploughcleaves the land_. "

Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor should not beused. See (14 _a_) and (14 _b_). 

*14. Do not confuse Metaphor. *

"In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them, _deluging_ their countrywith invaders. "

The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche: "Mr. Speaker, I smella rat, I see him brewing in the air; but, mark me, I shall yet nip himin the bud. "

Some words, once metaphorical, have ceased to be so regarded. Hencemany good writers say "_under_ these _circumstances_" instead of "_in_these circumstances. "

An excessive regard for disused metaphor savours of pedantry:disregard is inelegant. Write, not, "_unparalleled_ complications, "but "_unprecedented_ complications;" and "_he threw light on_obscurities, " instead of "_he unravelled_ obscurities. "

*14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately after Metaphor. *

"He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Cork. "

 "He was a very thunderbolt of war, And was lieutenant to the Earl of Mar. "

*14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject. *Thus, we may say "a poet _soars_, " or even, though rarely, "a nation_soars_ to greatness, " but you could not say "Consols _soared to_94-1/2. " Even commonplace subjects may be illustrated by metaphor: forit is a metaphor, and quite unobjectionable, to say "Consols_mounted_, or _jumped_ to 94-1/2. " But commonplace subjects must beillustrated by metaphor that is commonplace. 

ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 

*15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i. E. For themost part, at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. * This ruleoccasionally supersedes the common rules about position. Thus, theplace for an adverb, as a rule, should be between the subject andverb: "He _quickly_ left the room;" but if _quickly_ is to beemphatic, it must come at the beginning or end, as in "I told him toleave the room slowly, but he left _quickly_. "

Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though, " often come atthe beginning for emphasis: "_Insolent_ though he was, he was silencedat last. "

*15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end of thesentence. * It is a common fault to break this rule by placing a shortand unemphatic predicate at the end of a long sentence. 

"To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, _isuseful_. " Write, "It is useful, &c. "

So "the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors _he is_. "

Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end, theaddition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, _e. G. _ above, "is _very_ useful, " "he has _invariably_ been. "

A short "chippy" ending, even though emphatic, is to be avoided. It isabrupt and unrhythmical, _e. G. _ "The soldier, transfixed with thespear, _writhed_. " We want a _longer_ ending, "fell writhing to theground, " or, "writhed in the agonies of death. " A "chippy" ending iscommon in bad construing from Virgil. 

*Exceptions. *--Prepositions and pronouns attached to emphatic wordsneed not be moved from the end; _e. G. _ "He does no harm that I hear_of_. " "Bear witness how I loved _him_. "

*N. B. In all styles, especially in letter-writing, a final emphasismust not be so frequent as to become obtrusive and monotonous. *

*15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis. * "No one can doubtthat the prisoner, had he been really guilty, would have shown somesigns of remorse, " is not so emphatic as "Who can doubt, Is itpossible to doubt, &c. ?"

Contrast "No one ever names Wentworth without thinking of &c. " with"But Wentworth, --who ever names him without thinking of those harshdark features, ennobled by their expression into more than the majestyof an antique Jupiter?"

*16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be removed fromthe beginning of the sentence. * The beginning of the sentence is anemphatic position, though mostly not so emphatic as the end. Thereforethe principal subject of a sentence, being emphatic, and being wantedearly in the sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes asa rule, at or near the beginning: "_Thomas_ built this house. "

Hence, since the beginning is the _usual_ place for the subject, if wewant to emphasize "Thomas" _unusually_, we must remove "Thomas" fromthe beginning: "This house was built by _Thomas_, " or "It was _Thomas_that built this house. "

Thus, the emphasis on "conqueror" is not quite so strong in "_A mereconqueror_ ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due tothe great benefactors of mankind, " as in "We ought not to bestow thereverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind, _upon amere conqueror_. " Considerable, but less emphasis and greatersmoothness (19) will be obtained by writing the sentence thus: "Weought not to bestow upon a mere conqueror &c. "

Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences, it rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, eventhough unusual emphasis be required:

"The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. _He_ firstpointed out the possibility of advancing; _he_ warned them of theapproaching scarcity of provisions; _he_ showed how they mightreplenish their exhausted stock &c. "

*17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis. *This is most common in antithesis. "_Jesus_ I know, and _Paul_ I know;but who are ye?" "_Some_ he imprisoned, _others_ he put to death. "

Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not uncommon:

"Military _courage_, the boast of the sottish German, of the frivolousand prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant Spaniard, heneither possesses nor values. "

This inversion sometimes creates ambiguity in poetry, _e. G. _ "The sonthe father slew, " and must be sparingly used in prose. 

Sometimes the position of a word may be considered appropriate bysome, and inappropriate by others, according to differentinterpretations of the sentence. Take as an example, "Early in themorning the nobles and gentlemen who attended on the king assembled inthe great hall of the castle; and here they began to talk of what adreadful storm it had been the night before. But Macbeth couldscarcely understand what they said, for he was thinking of somethingworse. " The last sentence has been amended by Professor Bain into"_What they said_, Macbeth could scarcely understand. " But thereappears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can thinkabout the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence, "whatthey said" ought not, and "Macbeth" ought, to be emphasized: andtherefore "Macbeth" ought to be retained at the beginning of thesentence. 

The same author alters, "The praise of judgment Virgil has justlycontested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled, " into"Virgil has justly contested with him the praise of judgment, but noone has yet rivalled his invention"--an alteration which does not seemto emphasize sufficiently the antithesis between what had been'contested, ' on the one hand, and what remained as yet 'unrivalled' onthe other. 

More judiciously Professor Bain alters, "He that tells a lie is notsensible how great a task he undertakes; for he must be forced toinvent twenty more to maintain one, " into "for, to maintain one, hemust invent twenty more, " putting the emphatic words in their emphaticplace, at the end. 

*18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the mostemphatic. * Thus, in "The state was made, under the pretence of servingit, in reality the prize of their contention to each of these oppositeparties, " it is unpleasantly doubtful whether the writer means (1)_state_ or (2) _parties_ to be emphatic. 

If (1), "As for the _state_, these two parties, under the pretence ofserving it, converted it into a prize for their contention. " If (2), write, "Though served in profession, the state was in realityconverted into a prize for their contention by these two _parties_. "In (1) _parties_ is subordinated, in (2) _state_. 

Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to emphasize. Thus, instead of "To effect this they used all devices, " we can write"To effect this they used _every conceivable device_. " So, if we wantto emphasize fidelity in "The business will task your skill andfidelity, " we can write "Not only your skill _but also_ yourfidelity. " This, however, sometimes leads to exaggerations. See (2). 

Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in "You _do_ not know this, but you _shall_ know it. " Where antithesis cannot be used, theemphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as "I _will makeyou_ know it, " or by some addition, as "You shall _hereafter_ knowit. "

*19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which theyare grammatically connected. * See Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptionssee 30. 

*20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended toaffect. * When unemphatic, adverbs come between the subject and theverb, or, if the tense is compound, between the parts of the compoundtense: "He _quickly_ left the room;" "He has _quickly_ left the room;"but, when emphatic, after the verb: "He left, or has left, the room_quickly_. "[10] When such a sentence as the latter is followed by apresent participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly, but he left the room _quickly_, dropping the purse on the floor. " Does_quickly_ here modify _left_ or _dropping_? The remedy[11] is, to givethe adverb its unemphatic place, "He _quickly_ left the room, dropping&c. , " or else to avoid the participle, thus: "He _quickly_ dropped thepurse and left the room, " or "He dropped the purse and _quickly_ leftthe room. "

*21. "Only" requires careful use. The strict[12] rule is, that "only"should be placed before the word affected by it. *

The following is ambiguous:

"The heavens are not open to the faithful _only_ at intervals. "

The best rule is to avoid placing "only" between two emphatic words, and to avoid using "only" where "alone" can be used instead. 

In strictness perhaps the three following sentences:

(1) He _only_ beat three, (2) He beat _only_ three, (3) He beat three _only_, ought to be explained, severally, thus:

(1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three. 

(2) He beat no more than three. 

(3) He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here _only_ modifies thewhole of the sentence and depreciates the action. )

But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. "He _only_ lived"ought to mean "he did not die or make any great sacrifice;" but "He_only_ lived but till he was a man" (_Macbeth_, v. 8. 40) means "Helived _only_ till he was a man. " Compare also, "Who _only_ hathimmortality. "

_Only_ at the beginning of a statement = _but_. "I don't like toimportune you, _only_ I know you'll forgive me. " Before an imperativeit diminishes the favour asked: "_Only_ listen to me. " This use of_only_ is mostly confined to letters. 

Very often, _only_ at the beginning of a sentence is used for _alone_:"_Only_ ten came, " "_Only_ Cæsar approved. " _Alone_ is less ambiguous. The ambiguity of _only_ is illustrated by such a sentence as, "Don'thesitate to bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at anytime. _Only_ five (fifteen) came yesterday, " which might mean, "Idon't mind a _few_; _only_ don't bring so many as _fifteen_;" or else"Don't hesitate to bring a few _more_; no more than _five_ cameyesterday. " In conversation, ambiguity is prevented by emphasis; butin a letter, _only_ thus used might cause unfortunate mistakes. Write"Yesterday _only_ five came, " if you mean "no more than five. "

*22. When "not only" precedes "but also, " see that each is followed bythe same part of speech. *

"He _not only_ gave me advice _but also_ help" is wrong. Write "Hegave me, _not only_ advice, _but also_ help. " On the other hand, "He_not only_ gave me a grammar, _but also_ lent me a dictionary, " isright. Take an instance. "He spoke _not only_ forcibly _but also_tastefully (adverbs), and this too, _not only_ before a smallaudience, _but also_ in (prepositions) a large public meeting, and hisspeeches were _not only_ successful, _but also_ (adjective) worthy ofsuccess. "

*23. "At least, " "always, " and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimesproduce ambiguity. *

"I think you will find my Latin exercise, _at all events_, as good asmy cousin's. " Does this mean (1) "my Latin exercise, though notperhaps my other exercises;" or (2), "Though not very good, yet, atall events, as good as my cousin's"? Write for (1), "My Latinexercise, at all events, you will find &c. " and for (2), "I think youwill find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's, at all events. "

The remedy is to avoid placing "at all events" between two emphaticwords. 

As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take "Fromabroad he received most favourable reports, but in the City he heardthat a panic had broken out on the Exchange, and that the funds werefast falling. " This ought to mean that the "hearing, " and not (as isintended) that the "breaking out of the panic, " took place in theCity. 

In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, wherethe latter is _more emphatic than any nearer word_. This is verycommon when the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position atthe beginning of the sentence: "_On this very spot_ our guide declaredthat Claverhouse had fallen. "

*24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define. * In thevery common sentence "The death is announced of Mr. John Smith, anauthor whose works &c. , " the transposition is probably made from afeeling that, if we write "The death of Mr. John Smith is announced, "we shall be obliged to begin a new sentence, "He was an author whoseworks &c. " But the difficulty can be removed by writing "We regret toannounce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr. John Smith, anauthor, &c. "

*25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without theintervention of another noun. * Avoid, "John Smith, the son of ThomasSmith, _who_ gave me this book, " unless _Thomas Smith_ is theantecedent of _who_. Avoid also "John supplied Thomas with money: _he_(John) was very well off. "

When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to theother in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the nounreferred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of inferior emphasisintervenes. Thus: "At this moment the colonel came up, and took theplace of the wounded general. _He_ gave orders to halt. " Here _he_would naturally refer to _colonel_, though _general_ intervenes. A_conjunction_ will often show that a pronoun refers to the subject ofthe preceding sentence, and not to another intervening noun. "Thesentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier, and fired. He_then_ retreated to give the alarm. "

It is better to adhere, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called(Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which aninstance was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes misleading. Adistinction might be drawn by punctuating thus:

"David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath. " "David, the father ofSolomon who built the Temple. " But the propriety of omitting a commain each case is questionable, and it is better to write so as not tobe at the mercy of commas. 

*26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as closetogether as possible. * (But see 55. ) The introduction of parenthesesviolating this rule often produced serious ambiguity. Thus, in thefollowing: "The result of these observations appears to be inopposition to the view now generally received in this country, thatin muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoesdisintegration. " Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of"disintegration" is (1) "the result, " or, as the absence of a commaafter "be" would indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of theseobservations. " If (1) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;"if (2), insert "which is" after "country. "

There is an excessive complication in the following:--"It cannot, atall events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of suchimportance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, bedenied that &c. "

Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connectionof the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat what he has said;_e. G. _ after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he shouldrecommence, "it cannot, I say, be denied. " In writing, however, thislicence must be sparingly used. 

A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere withclearness, especially if antithesis he used, so as to show theconnection between the different parts of the sentence, _e. G. _ "Amodern newspaper statement, _though probably true_, would be laughedat if quoted in a book as testimony; but the letter of a court gossipis thought good historical evidence if written some centuries ago. "Here, to place "though probably true" at the beginning of the sentencewould not add clearness, and would impair the emphasis of the contrastbetween "a modern newspaper statement" and "the letter of a courtgossip. "

*27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be keptdistinct from the consequent clauses. *--There is ambiguity in "Thelesson intended to be taught by these manoeuvres will be lost, if theplan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and theaffair degenerates into a mere review. " Begin, in any case, with theantecedent, "If the plan, " &c. Next write, according to the meaning:(1) "If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c. , thenthe lesson will be lost;" or (2) " . . . Then the lesson . . . Will belost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review. "

*28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct fromthose that are independent. *

Take as an example:

(1) "He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to makepreparations accordingly. "

This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) tomean:

(2) "He replied . . . , and he intended. "

In (1), "intended, " having no subject, must be supposed to beconnected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense, that has a subject, _i. E. _ "wished. " It follows that (1) is acondensation of:

(3) "He replied that he wished . . . , and that he intended. "

(2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practicallyambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subjectunnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or afull stop between the two statements. Thus:

(4) "He replied that he wished to help them, and _indeed_ heintended, " &c. , or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c. "

Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preferenceto (1) or (2). 

*29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent onthe same word must be kept distinct from those that are not. *

"He said that he wished _to_ take his friend with him _to_ visit thecapital and _to_ study medicine. " Here it is doubtful whether themeaning is--

"He said that he wished to take his friend with him, (1) _and also_ to visit the capital and study medicine, " or

(2) "that his friend might visit the capital _and might also_ studymedicine, " or

(3) "on a visit to the capital, _and that he also_ wished to studymedicine. "

From the three different versions it will be perceived that thisambiguity must be met (_a_) by using "that" for "to, " which allows usto repeat an auxiliary verb [_e. G. _ "might" in (2)], and (_b_) byinserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37). 

"In order to, " and "for the purpose of, " can be used to distinguish(wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that_expresses a purpose_, and an infinitive that does not, _e. G. _ "Hetold his servant to call upon his friend, _to_ (in order to) give himinformation about the trains, and not to leave him till he started. "

*30. The principle of suspense. * Write your sentence in such a waythat, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel thesentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in_suspense_. _Suspense_ is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first, and not last, in a conditional sentence; (2) by placing participlesbefore the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions, _e. G. _ _not only_, _either_, _partly_, _on the one hand_, _in thefirst place_, &c. 

The following is an example of an _unsuspended_ sentence. The sense_draggles_, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention. 

"Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience inparliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always a manof business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a goodreputation generally, | though known to be inclined to the Puritanparty; yet not of those furious resolutions (_Mod. Eng. _ so furiouslyresolved) against the Church as the other leading men were, | andwholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford, --who had nothing of thatspirit. "

The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight pointsmarked above. When suspended it becomes:--

"Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer, was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and forhis knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally;for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devotedto the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanaticalspirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men. "

*30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduceunexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphaticclause beginning with (a) " . . . Not" or (b) " . . . Which. "*

(_a_) "This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classesof our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among usindustry, self-dependence, and frugality, _and not, as some say, wastefulness_. "

Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence, and frugality. "

(_b_) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was alittle dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely atYork, _which is a fine old town_. "

*Exception. *--When the short final clause is intended to beunexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something ofthe sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus:

"The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give thepoor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his purseat home--_a habit of his_. "

Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which weare waiting, _i. E. _ on the end of the sentence. It has been pointedout above that *a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable, especially in letter writing and conversation*. 

*31. Suspense must not be excessive. * _Excess of suspense_ is a commonfault in boys translating from Latin. "Themistocles, having securedthe safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when hehad unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down thebridge across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight, and thinking that it might be profitable to secure the friendship ofthe king, wrote as follows to him. " The more English idiom is: "WhenThemistocles had secured the safety of Greece by the destruction ofthe Persian fleet, he made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade theGreeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont. Soonafterwards, hearing &c. "

A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in theintroduction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of_Paradise Lost_ between "Of man's first disobedience" and "Sing, heavenly Muse. " Compare also the beginning of _Paradise Lost_, BookII. :

 "_High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold-- Satan exalted sat. _"

with the opening of Keats' _Hyperion_:

 "_Deep in the shady sadness of a vale, Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn, Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star-- Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone. _"

*32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-clause, " antecedent, or protasis, first. *

Everyone will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnaturalmurder, if thou didst ever love him, " as compared with the suspensethat forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in--

 "_Ghost. _ If thou didst ever thy dear father love-- _Hamlet. _ O, God! _Ghost. _ Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder. "

The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is longand complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-clause. ""I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show youthe objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in theneighbourhood, if you were here. " Where the "if-clause" comes last, itought to be very emphatic: "if you were _only_ here. "

The introduction of a clause with "if" or "though" in the middle of asentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part ofthe sentence depends on "that:" "His enemies answered that, for thesake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for thepresent, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of thedelay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a moreconvenient season. " See (27). 

*33. Suspense[13] is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective thatqualifies the Subject, before the Subject. *

"_Deserted_ by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to thosethat had been his enemies. " Here, if we write, "He, deserted by hisfriends, was forced &c. , " _he_ is unduly emphasized; and if we write, "He was forced to have recourse to his enemies, having been desertedby his friends, " the effect is very flat. 

Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and forced &c. "But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is to be not stated butimplied. 

Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced late inthe sentence, it causes positive ambiguity: "With this small force thegeneral determined to attack the foe, _flushed_ with recent victoryand _rendered_ negligent by success. "

An excessive use of the _suspensive participle_ is French andobjectionable: _e. G. _ "_Careless_ by nature, and too much _engaged_with business to think of the morrow, _spoiled_ by a long-establishedliberty and a fabulous prosperity, _having_ for many generationsforgotten the scourge of war, we allow ourselves to drift on withouttaking heed of the signs of the times. " The remedy is to convert theparticiple into a verb depending on a conjunction: "Because we are bynature careless, &c. ;" or to convert the participle into a verbco-ordinate with the principal verb, _e. G. _ "_We are_ by naturecareless, &c. , and therefore we _allow_ ourselves, &c. "

*34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e. G. "either, " "not only, " "on the onehand, " add clearness. *--Take the following sentence:--"You must takethis extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, andfailure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of yourcountry is endangered. " Here, the meaning is liable to bemisunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence. Write "_Either_ you must, " &c. , and the reader is, from the first, prepared for an alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrasesare _partly_, _for our part_; _in the first place_; _it is true_;_doubtless_; _of course_; _though_; _on the one hand_. 

*35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity orobscurity. *--The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurityafter a Relative standing as Subject:--

"He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is sufferingfrom his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else togive it advice. "

The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of severalVerbs. "All the pleasing illusions _which_ made power gentle andobedience liberal, _which_ harmonized the different shades of life, and _which_, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics thesentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to bedissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason. "

*36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especiallyif a Verb and an Object also intervene. *

"He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all hiscompanions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (_to_) John Smithin particular. " Here, omit _to_, and the meaning may be "that helpedall his companions, and John Smith in particular. " The intervention ofthe verb and object, "helped" and "companions, " causes this ambiguity. 

*37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunctionon which they depend, repeat the Conjunction. *[14]

"When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made inthe ranks of our national authors--and, above all, (_when_) we refertheir rapid disappearance to the quick succession of newcompetitors--we cannot help being dismayed at the prospect that liesbefore the writers of the present day. "

Here omit "when, " and we at once substitute a parenthetical statementfor what is really a subordinate clause. 

In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what otherssay. 

"We might say that the Cæsars did not persecute the Christians;(_that_) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secretassemblies; and (_that_) the refusal to throw frankincense on thealtar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime. "But see (6 _b_). 

*37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than, " "as, " &c. *

"I think he likes me better _than_ you;" _i. E. _ either "than you likeme, " or "he likes you. "

"Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as _did_ theSpaniard Olivares. " Omit "did, " and you cause ambiguity. 

*38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep thethread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphaticword, or a summary of what has been said. *

"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and populouscities--_these_ are not the elements that constitute a great nation. "

This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation, notunpleasant) is more common with speakers than with writers, and withslovenly speakers than with good speakers. 

"The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fairmeasure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate, and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever--I say, if _we adoptso unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition_ that we mayprecipitate a revolution. "

Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated, the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentencewe have the Subject repeated not only in the final summary, but alsoas the antecedent:--

"But if there were, in any part of the world, a national churchregarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation committed to itscare; a _church_ established and maintained by the sword; a _church_producing twice as many riots as conversions; a _church_ which, thoughpossessing great wealth and power, and though long backed bypersecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been foundunable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain itsground; a _church_ so odious that fraud and violence, when usedagainst its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fairplay; a _church_ whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, andwith difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help ofbayonets, --_such a church_, on our principles, could not, we must own, be defended. "

*39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentenceprepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kindof ascent. This ascent is called "climax. "*

In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has threeterms:--

"To gossip(a) is a fault(b); to _libel_(a'), a _crime_(b'); toslander(a''), a _sin_(b''). "

In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how theycontribute to the clearness of a long sentence:--

"Man, working, has _contrived_(a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declarethat it _astonishes_(b) me far more to think _that for his mereamusement_(c), that to _entertain a mere idle hour_(c'), he has_created_(a') 'Othello' and 'Lear, ' and I am more than astonished, Iam _awe-struck_(b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his naturewhich enables him, instead of _turning away_(d) from _calamity andgrief_(e), or instead of merely _defying_(d') them, actually to _makethem the material of his amusement_(d''), and to draw from the_wildest agonies of the human spirit_(e') a pleasure which is notonly _not cruel_(f), but is in the highest degree _pure andennobling_(f'). "

The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with theeven flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address tomankind, had written--

 "Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides; Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides; Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"--

the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth toheaven, and from investigating to governing, is prepared by theintervening climax--

 "Instruct the planets in what orbs to run; Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun; Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere, To the first good, first perfect, and first fair. "

*40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends, feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent iscalled "bathos. "*

"What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the_animated remonstrances_ of the unfortunate prisoners?"

"She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in hermovements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful andloving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she _played beautifullyon the pianoforte_. "

INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that issometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with theline--

 "Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule, "

Pope adds--

 "Then drop into thyself, and be a _fool_. "

*40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause. *--Asudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causesawkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow ofthe sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write"virtuous and accomplished, " or "of many virtues and accomplishments, "not "of many virtues and accomplished;" "riding or walking" or "onfoot or horseback, " not "on foot or riding. " In the same way, do notput adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, intoo close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following:--

"He had good reason _to believe_ that the delay was not _an accident_(accidental) but _premeditated_, and _for supposing_ (to suppose, orelse, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both _by art_and _naturally_ (nature), would be forced by the _treachery of the_governor and the _indolent_ (indolence of the) general to capitulatewithin a week. "

"They accused him of being _bribed_ (receiving bribes from) by theking and _unwilling_ (neglecting) to take the city. "

*41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness. *--The meaning of_liberal_ in the following sentence is ascertained by theantithesis:--

"All the pleasing illusions which made _power_(a) _gentle_(b) and_obedience_(a') _liberal_(b') . . . Are now to be destroyed. "

There is a kind of proportion. As _gentleness_ is to _power_, so_liberality_ (in the sense here used) is to _obedience_. Now_gentleness_ is the check on the excess of power; therefore _liberal_here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, _i. E. _checks servility. Hence _liberal_ here means "free. "

The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the _rule_(a), not at the_destruction_(a'), of their country. They were men of great _civil_(b)and great _military_(b') talents, and, if the _terror_(c), the_ornament_(c') of their age. "

Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome:--

"Who can persuade where _treason_(a) is above _reason_(a'), and_might_(b) ruleth _right_(b'), and it is had for _lawful_(c)whatsoever is _lustful_(c'), and _commotioners_(d) are better than_commissioners_(d'), and _common woe_(e) is named common_wealth_(e')?"

*42. Epigram. *--It has been seen that the neglect of climax results inlameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement:and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect isstriking as well as amusing. Thus:--

(1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous, " is a _climax_. 

(2) "You are not vicious, you are vice, " is not _climax_, nor is it_bathos_: it is _epigram_. [15]

Epigram may be defined as a "short sentence expressing truth under anamusing appearance of incongruity. " It is often antithetical. 

 "The Russian grandees came to { and diamonds, " _climax_. Court dropping pearls { and vermin, " _epigram_. 

 "These two nations were divided { and the bitter remembrance by mutual fear { of recent losses, " _climax_. { and mountains, " _epigram_. 

There is a sort of implied antithesis in:--

"He is full of information--(but flat also) like yesterday's _Times_. "

"Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary. "

The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis;_e. G. _ "An educated man should know something of everything, andeverything of something. "

*43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject ofthought. *

"This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leavingbehind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, ofwhom three were sons; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to hisfather's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland, where most of his father's property was situate, and shortlyafterwards elected member for the county, which had for severalgenerations returned this family to serve in Parliament. " Here we have(1) the "great and good man, " (2) "George, " (3) "the county, "disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if notthree sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoida long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on onelevel. It is called _heterogeneous_. 

*44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up byAdverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connectingwords at the beginning of each sentence. *--Leave out the conjunctionsand other connecting words, and it will be seen that the followingsentences lose much of their meaning:--

"Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. Hisbiographer (_accordingly_) insists on our confessing, that, if theyoung cornet had remained in the service, he would have been one ofthe ablest commanders that ever lived. (_But_) this is not all. Pitt(, _it seems_, ) was not merely a great poet _in esse_ and a greatgeneral _in posse_, but a finished example of moral excellence. . . . (_The truth is, that_) there scarcely ever lived a person who had solittle claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was (_undoubtedly_) agreat man. (_But_) his was not a complete and well-proportionedgreatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somers resembles a regulardrama which can be criticised as a whole, and every scene of which isto be viewed in connection with the main action. The public life ofPitt (, _on the other hand_, ) is, " &c. 

The following are some of the most common connecting adverbs, orconnecting phrases: (1) expressing consequence, similarity, repetition, or resumption of a subject--_accordingly_, _therefore_, _then_, _naturally_, _so that_, _thus_, _in this way_, _again_, _oncemore_, _to resume_, _to continue_, _to sum up_, _in fact_, _uponthis_; (2) expressing opposition--_nevertheless_, _in spite of this_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, _but_, _on the contrary_, _on the otherhand_; (3) expressing suspension--_undoubtedly . . . But_; _indeed . . . Yet_; _on the one hand . . . On the other_; _partly . . . Partly_; _some. . . Others_. 

Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings together anumber of sentences with "and" or "so, " or with no conjunction at all:

"Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he made warupon Spain; _and_ some of his seamen went ashore, _and_ met the Hostcarried about; _and_ not only paid no respect to it, but laughed atthose who did. " Write "_When_ Blake &c. "

*45. The connection between two long sentences sometimes requires ashort intervening sentence, showing the transition of thought. *

"Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierceness ofpride and power; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the softcollar[16] of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit toelegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be subdued bymanners. But now (_all is to be changed_:) all the pleasing illusionswhich made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized thedifferent shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and softenprivate society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire oflight and reason. " If the words italicized were omitted, thetransition would be too abrupt: the conjunction _but_ alone would beinsufficient. 

FOOTNOTES:

[5] _For_, at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes causes temporarydoubt, while the reader is finding out whether it is used as aconjunction or preposition. 

[6] _It_ should refer (1) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or(2) to some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See(25). 

[7] So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adopt"that" here and in several of the following exceptional cases. 

[8] Of course "and which" may be used where "which" precedes. 

[9] "That which, " where _that_ is an _object_, _e. G. _ "then (setforth) _that which_ is worse, " _St. John_ ii. 10, is rare in modernEnglish. 

[10] Sometimes the emphatic Adverb comes at the beginning, and causesthe transposition of an Auxiliary Verb, "_Gladly_ do I consent. "

[11] Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity; but it is betterto express oneself clearly, as far as possible, independently ofpunctuation. 

[12] Professor Bain. 

[13] See (30). 

[14] The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives isalso conducive to clearness. 

[15] Professor Bain says: "In the epigram the mind is roused by aconflict or contradiction between the form of the language and themeaning really conveyed. "

[16] This metaphor is not recommended for imitation. 

 * * * * *

BREVITY. 

*46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement. * See (13). 

"The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb hissleep, " is not so brief as "Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown, "where the effect of care on the mind is assimilated to the effect of aheavy crown pressing on the head. 

*47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particularterms. * Thus: "He devours _literature_, no matter of what kind, " isshorter than, "Novels or sermons, poems or histories, no matter what, he devours them all. "

*47 a. A phrase may be expressed by a word. *

"These impressions _can never be forgotten_, i. E. Are _indelible_. "

"The style of this book is _of such a nature that it cannot beunderstood_, i. E. _unintelligible_. "

The words "of such a nature that" are often unnecessarily inserted. See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison. 

*48. Participles can often be used as brief (though sometimesambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs. *

"Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced. " See (7) for moreinstances. So "phrases _containing_ conjunctions" means "phrases _thatcontain_ conjunctions. " "_This done_, (for, _when this was done_) heretired. "

Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted. "France at our doors, hesees no danger nigh, " for "France being" or "though France is. "

*49. Participles and participial adjectives may be used likeAdjectives, as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative. *

"The never-_ceasing_ wind, " "the _clamouring_ ocean, " "the _drenching_rain, " are instances. The licence of inventing participial adjectivesby adding _-ing_ to a noun, is almost restricted to poetry. You couldnot write "the _crannying_ wind" in prose. 

*50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of beingexpressed at length. * Thus, instead of "The spirit of Christianity washumanizing, and therefore &c. , " or "Christianity, since it was (orbeing) of a humanizing spirit, discouraged &c. , " we can write morebriefly and effectively, "Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged, and finally put down, by the _humanizing spirit of Christianity_. " Soinstead of "The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, andtherefore &c. , " we can write, "The danger of the voyage wasdepreciated and the beauty of the island exaggerated by _thethoughtless nature of youth_. "

Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. "It was in vainthat he offered the Swiss terms: war was deliberately preferred by the_hardy mountaineers_, " _i. E. _ "by the Swiss, _because they weremountaineers and hardy_. " "The deed was applauded by all honest men, but the Government affected to treat it as murder, and set a priceupon the head of (him whom they called) the _assassin. " "The conquerorof Austerlitz_ might be expected to hold different language from _theprisoner of St. Helena_, " _i. E. _ "Napoleon when elated by the victoryof Austerlitz, " and "Napoleon when depressed by his imprisonment atSt. Helena. "

CAUTION. --Different names must not be used for the same person unlesseach of them derives an appropriateness from its context. Thus, if weare writing about Charles II. , it would be in very bad taste to avoidrepeating "he" by using such periphrases as the following: "The thirdof the Stewarts hated business, " "the Merry Monarch died in thefifty-fourth year of his age, " &c. 

*51. Conjunctions may be omitted. * The omission gives a certainforcible abruptness, _e. G. _ "You say this: I (on the other hand) denyit. "

When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunctions maybe advantageously omitted. 

Where a contrast is intended, the conjunction _but_ usually preparesthe way for the second of the two contrasted terms: "He is good _but_dull. " Where _and_ is used instead of _but_, the incongruity savoursof epigram: "He always talks truthfully _and_ prosily. " "He is alwaysamusing _and_ false. "

*51 a. The Imperative Mood may be used for "if. "*

"_Strip_ (for, _if you strip_) Virtue of the awful authority shederives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her of halfher majesty. "

*52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two sentences into one. *

"We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters ofintroduction, _a musician_, and, what is more, a _good friend_ to allyoung students of music. " This is as clear as, and briefer than, "Hewas a musician, &c. "

*53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the commonsubject of several verbs, (2) the common object of several verbs orprepositions. *

(1) "He resided here for many years, and, after he had won the esteemof all the citizens, (_he_) died, " &c. So, (2) "He came to, and wasinduced to reside in, this city, " is shorter than "He came to thiscity, and was induced to reside in it. "

Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there is noobscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light, unemphatic words, such as _to_, _in_, &c. , as in the first example. 

*54. Tautology. *--The fault of repeating the same word several timesunnecessarily is called _tautology_, e. G. :

"This is a painful _circumstance_; it is a _circumstance_ that I much_regret_, and he also will much _regret_ the _circumstance_. " But thefault is not to be avoided by using different words to mean the samething, as, "This is a painful _event_; it is a _circumstance_ that I_much regret_, and he also will _greatly lament_ the _occurrence_. "The true remedy is to arrange the words in such a manner that theremay be no unnecessary repetition, thus: "This is a painfulcircumstance, a circumstance that causes me, and will cause him, deepregret. "

The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words is aworse fault than the repetition of the same word. See, for examples, the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of the book. Thus"_A burning thirst_ for conquests is a characteristic of this nation. It is an _ardent passion_ that &c. " Other instances are--"The_universal_ opinion of _all_ men;" "His judgment is so _infallible_that it is _never deceived_, " &c. 

*55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to brevity. *

"We are all (and who would not be?) offended at the treatment we havereceived, " is shorter and more forcible than the sentence would havebeen if the parenthesis had been appended in a separate sentence:"Who, indeed, would not be offended?"

Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may notobscure the meaning of a long sentence. 

*56. Caution: let clearness be the first consideration. * It is best, at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at being brief, orforcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace says, "While I takepains to be brief, I fall into obscurity, " and it may easily be seenthat several of the rules for brevity interfere with the rules forclearness. 

Forcible style springs from (1) vividness and (2) exactness ofthought, and from a corresponding (1) vividness and (2) exactness inthe use of words. 

(1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to _see_ it anddescribe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man who waskilled, _see_ the man before you, and ask, was he _executed_, _cutdown_, _run through the body_, _butchered_, _shot_, or _hanged_? Ifyou are writing about the capture of a city, was the city _stormed_, _surprised_, _surrendered_, _starved out_, or _demolished beforesurrender_? Was an army _repelled_, _defeated_, _routed_, _crushed_, or _annihilated_?

(2) Exactness in the use of words requires an exact knowledge of theirmeanings and differences. This is a study by itself, and cannot bediscussed here. [17]

FOOTNOTES:

[17] See _English Lessons for English People_, pp. 1-53. 

EXERCISES

_For an explanation of the manner in which these Exercises areintended to be used, see the Preface. _

_A number in brackets by itself, or followed by a letter, _ e. G. _(43), (40 a), refers to the Rules. _

_Letters_ by themselves _in brackets_, e. G. _(b), refer to theexplanations or hints appended to each sentence. _

_N. B. . --(10 a) refers to the first section of Rule (10); (10 a') tothe Rule following Rule (10). _

1. "Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him _than_ (_a_)(36) (37 _a_) _his friend_, and the two companions became estranged(15 _a_) _gradually_. "

 (_a_) Write (1) "than for his friend, " or (2) "than had his friend, " "had more attractions than his friend. "

2. "(_a_) He soon grew tired of solitude even in that beautifulscenery, (36) the pleasures of the retirement (8) _which_ he had oncepined for, and (36) leisure which he could use to no good purpose, (_a_) (30) _being_ (15) _restless by nature_. "

 (_a_) This sentence naturally stops at "purpose. " Also "being restless" seems (wrongly) to give the reason why "leisure" could not be employed. Begin "Restless by nature. . . . "

3. "The opponents of the Government are naturally, and not (_a_) (40_a_) _without justification_, elated at the failure of the boldattempt to return two supporters of the Government at the recentelection, (_b_) (10 _a'_) _which_ is certainly to be regretted. "

 (_a_) "unjustifiably. " (_b_) Write, for "which, " either (1) "an attempt that &c. , " or (2) "a failure that &c. "

4. "Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated withNature to weaken the moral power of a Government that particularlyneeds to be thought efficient in (_a_) (5) _this_ _respect_, (_b_)(29) _to_ counterbalance a general distrust of its excessive _desire_(_c_) (47 _a_) _to please everybody_ in Foreign Affairs. "

 (_a_) Write "the Navy. " (_b_) Instead of "to" write "in order to, " so as to distinguish the different infinitives, (_c_) "obsequiousness. "

5. "(_a_) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly enough, appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly to Italy _than_(37 _a_) _France_, (30) _in this line of action_. "

 (_a_) Begin with "In this line of action. " Why? (_b_) Write "than was France" or "than France was. "

6. "There was something so startling in (_a_) (5) _this_ assertion, (_a_) (4) _that_ the discoveries of previous investigators were to be(_b_) (47 _a_) _treated as though they had never been made_, and (4)_that one who had not yet_ (47 _a_) _attained the age of manhood_ hadsuperseded the grey-headed philosophers (8) _who_ had for centuriespatiently sought after the truth, (4) _that_ (_a_) (5) _it_ naturallyprovoked derision. "

 (_a_) "This, " "that, " and "it, " cause a little perplexity. Write "The startling assertion that the discoveries. . . . " (_b_) "ignored. " (_c_) "a mere youth, " "a mere stripling. "

7. "One of the recommendations (_on which very_ (_a_) (26) (47, _a_)_much depended_) of the Commission was that a council in each provinceshould establish smaller councils, each to have the oversight of asmall district, and (_b_) (37) report to a central council on thestate of Education in (_c_) (5) it. "

 (_a_) Write "cardinal recommendations. " Derive "cardinal. " (_b_) Write, either (1) "and should report, " or (2) "and to report. " (_c_) Write "in its province, " or "district. "

8. "At this (_a_) (1) _period_ an (_b_) (11) _event_ (_c_) (1)_transpired_ that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fellfrom his horse and died two hours after the fall (_d_) (30), _whichwas occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he wason his return from reviewing his soldiers_. "

 (_a_) What is a "period"? (_b_) Express the particular kind of event ("accident"). (_c_) What is the meaning of "transpired"? (_d_) Transpose thus: "While the king was on his return . . . His horse . . . ; the king fell and &c. " The cause should precede the effect. 

9. "He determined (_c_) on selling all his estates, and, as soon asthis was done (40 _a_), _to_ (_c_) _quit_ the country, (_a_) (33)believing that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40) (40 _a_)_in_ (_b_) _the_ hope of satisfying his creditors. "

 (_a_) Begin with "Believing that &c. " (_b_) "hoping thereby to satisfy &c. " (_c_) "to sell" or "on quitting. ". 

10. "He read patiently on, Leading Articles, Foreign Correspondence, Money Article and all; (_a_) (43) during which his father fell asleep, and he (_b_) went in search of his sister. "

 Point out the absurdity of "during which" applied to the last part of the sentence. (_a_) "Meanwhile. " (_b_) Insert "then. "

11. "The general was quite (_a_) (1) _conscious_ (40 _a_) _how_treacherous were the intentions of _those who were_ (_b_) (49)_entertaining_ him, and (40 _a_) _of the_ dangers from which he had_escaped_ (15) _lately_. "

 (_a_) Distinguish between "conscious" and "aware. " _(b_) "entertainers. "

12. "If _certain_ (_a_) (11) _books_ had been published a hundredyears ago, there can be no doubt that _certain recent_ (_b_) (11)_historians_ would have made great use of them. But it _would_ (_c_)(15 _b_) _not_, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our owntimes to publish an edition of the works of _one of these_ (_b_) (11)_historians_, in which large extracts from these books should beincorporated with the original text. "

 (_a_) "Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs. " (_b_) "Mr. Hume. " (_c_) Add at the end of the sentence, "Surely not. "

13. "He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he did notlike the new representative quite so well _as_ (_a_) (37 _a_) _hiscolleagues_. "

 (_a_) "as did his colleagues" or "as he liked his colleagues. "

14. "Though he was (_a_) (15) _obstinate_ and (15) _unprincipled_, yethe could not face an angered father (15 _a_) _in spite of hiseffrontery_. "

 (_a_) Begin with "Obstinate. "

15. "He was known to his country neighbours (_a_) (15) _during morethan forty years_ as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 _a_) _whoseprinciples were high_, (40 _a_) _with polished address_, happy in hisfamily, and (_b_) (40 _a_) _actively_ discharging local duties; and(40 _a_) _among_ political men, as an honest, industrious, andsensible member of Parliament, (40 a) _without_ (_c_) _eagerness_ todisplay his talents, (40 _a_) _who_ (10 _g_) _was_ stanch to hisparty, and attentive to the interests of _those whose_ (_d_) (47 _a_)_representative he was_. "

 (_a_) "During more &c. , " is emphatic, and affects the latter as well as the former half of the sentence: hence it should stand first. (_b_) "in the discharge of. " (_c_) "not eager. " (_d_) Condense into one word. 

16. "The poor think themselves no more disgraced by taking bribes atelections _than_ (_a_) (37 _a_) _the rich_ by offering them. "

 (_a_) Write (1) "Than the rich think themselves disgraced, " or (2) "Than they think the rich disgraced. "

17. "We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual wars, (_a_)(41) and his tyranny, (_a_) (41) had filled his dominions with (_b_)(1) _misfortune and_ (_c_) (11) _calamity_, and _greatly_ (_d_) (11)_diminished_ the population of the Persian Empire. _This great Sultanhad_ (_e_) (50) _a Vizier_. _We are not_ (_f_) (55) (15) _informed_whether he was a humorist or an enthusiast, (_g_) _but he_ pretended(_h_) that he had learned from (_i_) (11) _some one_ how to understandthe language of birds, so that _he_ (_j_) (5) knew what was said byany bird that opened its mouth. (_k_) (44) One evening he was with theSultan, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls _which_ (10_g_) _were_ sitting upon a tree (_l_) (8) _which_ grew near an oldwall out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should like toknow what the two owls were saying to one another, _and asked the_(_m_) _Vizier to_ listen to their discourse and give him an account ofit. The Vizier, (_n_) (31) pretending to be very attentive to theowls, approached the tree. He (_o_) returned to the Sultan and saidthat (6) he had heard part of their conversation, but did not wish totell him what it was. (_p_) (5) _He_, not (_q_) (31) being satisfiedwith this answer, forced him to repeat everything the owls had said(20) _exactly_. (_r_) (44) (5) (6) _He_ told (5) _him_ that the owlswere arranging a treaty of marriage between their children, and thatone of them, after agreeing to settle five hundred villages upon thefemale owl, had prayed (6) that God would grant a long life to SultanMahmoud, because as long as he reigned over them they would never wantruined villages. The story says (_s_) _that_ (_t_) (5) _he_ wastouched with the fable, (30) and (_s_) _that_ he (_a_) (39) from thattime forward _consulted_ (15) _the good of his people_, and that herebuilt the towns and villages (_v_) _which_ had been destroyed. "

 (_a_) "abroad . . . At home. " (_b_) "ruin. " (_c_) "desolation. " (_d_) "half unpeopled. " (_e_) "The Vizier of &c. " (_f_) "We are not informed" is emphatic, and therefore should be inverted, "whether he was, &c. , we are not informed. " (_g_) "but he" will be omitted when "the Vizier" is made the subject of "pretended. " (_h_) "Pretended" once meant "claimed, " "professed. " Write "professed. " (_i_) "a certain dervish. " (_j_) Introduce a new subject that you may substitute "Vizier" for "he, " thus: "so that not a bird could open its mouth, but the Vizier knew &c. " (_k_) "As he was, one evening, &c. " (_l_) Note that the tree is represented as growing out of _ruins_. This is in accordance with the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done. (_m_) Omit this. (_n_) "Suspense" is out of place in a simple narrative like this; the sentence therefore ends with "owls. " (_o_) "Upon his return. " (_p_) "The Sultan" (_q_) "would not be satisfied. " (_r_) "You must know then, &c. " (_s_) Omit. (_t_) "so touched . . . That. " (_u_) end with "people. " (_v_) Addison here uses "_which_" probably because of the preceding "that. " We have to choose between sound and clearness. "Which" implies that _all_ the villages in the country had been destroyed, whereas the country had been only (see above) "_half_ unpeopled. "

18. "Though this great king never permitted any pastime to interferewith the duties of state, which he considered to be _superior to_ (54)_all other claims and of paramount importance_, and (_a_) (37) kepthimself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit oramusement to run to any excess, yet he _took_ (54) _great pleasure in_the chase, _of which he was_ (_b_) (2) _excessively_ (54) _fond_, andfor the purposes of which he created several _large_ parks _ofconsiderable_ (54) _magnitude_. "

 (_a_) Either repeat "though, " or else strikeout the first "though" and begin a new sentence after "excess. " (_b_) Point out the contradiction between "excessively" and what precedes. 

19. "To inundate (_a_) (11) their land, to man their ships, to leavetheir country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its cities, its villas, and its (_b_) (11) pastures buried under the waves (_c_)(11); to bear to a distant climate their (_d_) (11) faith and theirold (_e_) (11) liberties; to establish, with auspices _that_(10 _a)might perhaps be happier_, the new (_f_) (11) _constitution of theircommonwealth_, in a (_g_) (11) foreign and strange (_h_) (11) land, inthe Spice Islands of the Eastern Seas, (38) were the plans which theyhad the spirit to form. "

 (_a_) Introduce "dykes. " (_b_) Introduce something _peculiar_ to the Dutch, _e. G. _ "canals, " "tulip gardens. " (_c_) "of the German Ocean. " (_d_) The Dutch were Calvinists. (_e_) The country was in old times "Batavia, " so that "Batavian" would be a fit epithet to denote what the Dutch had inherited from their forefathers. (_f_) "Stadthaus, " the German for "town-hall. " (_g_) "other stars. " (_h_) "strange vegetation. "

20. "During twenty years of unexampled prosperity, _during_ (_a_)_which_ the wealth of the nation had shot (14 _a_) _up and extendedits branches_ on every side, and the funds _had_ (14 _a_) _soared_ toa higher point than had been ever attained before, (_b_) (15)speculation had become general. "

 (_a_) Omit. (_b_) Begin a new sentence: "This, _or_ Prosperity, had increased the taste for speculation. "

21. "At that time (_a_) (16) a mere narrow-minded pedant (for hedeserves no better name) had been set up by the literary world as agreat author, and as the supreme (_b_) critic, alone qualified todeliver decisions _which could never be_ (_b_) _reversed_ upon (15_a_) _the literary productions of the day_. "

 (_a_) End with " . . . One who was--for he deserves no better name--a mere narrow-minded pedant. " (_b_) "Which could never be reversed" can be expressed in one word; or else "the supreme . . . Reversed" may be condensed into a personification: "a very Minos of contemporary criticism. "

22. "With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and (40 _a_)_intending also_ to clear himself from the suspicion that attached tohim, he determined to ascertain _how_ (40 _a_) _far this testimony_was corroborated, and (_a_) (40 _a_) the motives of the prosecutor, (_b_) (43) who had begun the suit last Christmas. "

 (_a_) "what were. " (_b_) Begin a new sentence, "The latter &c. , " or "The suit had been begun &c. "

23. "The Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of their prophets, looked forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous as_the heavenly_ (11) _bodies_, and when the _products_ (_a_) (11) _ofthe earth_ should be _so increased as to create an abundant_ (54)_plenty_, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own (_a_)(11) _trees_, and when the _instruments_ (11) _of war_ should be_converted to the_ (11) _uses of peace_. "

 (_a_) Mention some "products, " "trees" of Palestine. 

24. "He replied (32), when he was asked the reason for his suddenunpopularity, that he owed it to his refusal to annul the commercialtreaty, (_a_) (8) _which_(10 _a'_) gave great displeasure to thepoorer classes. "

 (_a_) Point out the ambiguity, and remove it by (8) or (10 _a'_). 

25. "I saw my old schoolfellow again by mere accident when I was inLondon at the time of the first Exhibition, (19) _walking_ down RegentStreet and looking in at the shops. "

 Point out and remove the ambiguity. 

26. "He remained in the House while his speech was taken intoconsideration; _which_ (52) _was_ a common practice with him, becausethe debates amused his sated mind, and indeed _he used to say_ (_a_)(6 _b_) _that they_ were sometimes as good as a comedy. His Majestyhad certainly never seen _a more_ (17) _sudden turn_ in any comedy ofintrigue, either at his own play-house or the Duke's, than that whichthis memorable debate produced. "

 (_a_) "and were sometimes, he used to say, as good &c. "

27. "The Commons would not approve the war (20) _expressly_; neitherdid they as yet condemn it (20) _expressly_; and (_a_) (18) the kingmight even have obtained a supply for continuing hostilities (19) fromthem, on condition _of_ (_b_) _redressing_ grievances _connected withthe_ (_c_) _administration of affairs at home_, among which theDeclaration of Indulgence was a very _important_ (_d_) (15_a_) one. "

 (_a_) Write "they were even ready to grant the king &c. " (_b_) Use the verb with a subject, (_c_) Condense all this into one adjective, meaning "that which takes place at home. " (_d_) End with a noun, "importance, " or "foremost place. "

28. "Next to thinking clearly, (_a_) (5) _it is_ useful to speakclearly, and whatever your position in life may hereafter be _it_cannot be such (54) as not to be improved by _this_, (_b_) so that_it_ is worth while making almost any effort to acquire (_c_) _it_, if_it_ is not a natural gift: (_d_) _it_ being an undoubted (_d_) factthat the effort to acquire _it_ must be successful, to some extent atleast, if (_d_) _it_ be moderately persevered in. "

 (_a_) "Next in utility . . . Comes speaking clearly--a power that must be of assistance to you &c. " (_b_)" If, therefore, you cannot speak clearly by nature, you &c. " (_c_) "this power. " (_d_) Omit "fact;" "for undoubtedly, with moderate perseverance &c. "

29. "_It_ (_a_) (38) _appears to me_ (15) _a greater victory thanAgincourt, a grander triumph of wisdom and faith and courage than eventhe English constitution or_ (_b_) _liturgy_, to have beaten back, oreven fought against and stemmed in ever so small a degree, those_basenesses that_ (_c_) (10_a_) _beset_ human nature, which are nowheld so invincible that the influences of them are assumed as thefundamental axioms of economic science. "

 (_a_) Begin with "To have beaten &c. , " and end with "liturgy. " (_b_) Repeat for clearness and emphasis, "the English. " (_c_) "The besetting basenesses of &c. "

30. "The (_a_) (2) _unprecedented_ impudence of our youthfulrepresentative reminds us forcibly of the _unblushing and_ (54) (40)_remarkable_ effrontery (_c_) (which (26) he almost succeeds inequalling) of the Member for St. Alban's, whom our (_b_) (1)_neophyte_ (_b_) (1) _alluded to_, in the last speech with which hefavoured _those whom_ (47_a_) _he represents_, (19) as his pattern andexample. "

 (_a_) Show that "unprecedented" is inconsistent with what follows. (_b_) What is the meaning of "neophyte, " "alluded to"? (_c_) Begin a new sentence, "Our young adventurer &c. , " and end with "and he almost succeeds in equalling his master. "

31. "The (_a_) (1) _veracity_ of this story is questionable, and thereis the more reason for doubting the (_a_) (1) _truth_ of the narrator, because in his remarks on the (1) _observation_ of the Sabbath hedistinctly (_a_) (1) _alludes to_ a custom that can be shown never tohave existed. "

 (_a_) Distinguish between "veracity" and "truth, " "observation" and "observance. " Show the inconsistency between "allude" and "distinctly. "

32. "It (_a_) (5) is a most just distribution, (10 _a_) _which_ thelate Mr. Tucker has dwelt upon _so_ (_b_) largely in his works, between pleasures in which we are passive, and pleasures in which weare active. And I believe every attentive observer of human life will_assent to_ (_c_) _this position_, that however (_d_) _grateful_ thesensations may occasionally be in which we are passive, it is notthese, but the latter class of our pleasures, (8) _which_ constitutessatisfaction, (_e_) (38) _which_ supply that regular stream ofmoderate and miscellaneous enjoyments in (10 _c_) _which_ happiness, as distinguished from voluptuousness, consists. "

 (_a_) "There is great justice in &c. " (b) Omit "so. " (_c_) "admit. " (_d_) Not often now used in this sense. (_e_) Repeat the antecedent, "I mean those (pleasures) &c. "

33. "The prince seemed to have before him a _limitless_ (54) _prospectof unbounded_ prosperity, carefully (33) _trained_ for the (_a_)_tasks_ of the throne, and stimulated by the (_a_) _pattern_ of hisfather, (_b_) who (43) _breathed his_ (3) _last_ suddenly at the ageof sixty-two, just after the conclusion of the war. "

 (_a_) Find more appropriate words. (_b_) Begin a new sentence. 

34. "On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (_a_) (25) _who_had asked _him_ to call upon _him_ on his journey northward. _He_(_b_) (5) was overjoyed to see _him_, and (_c_) _he_ sent for one of_his_ most intelligent workmen and told (_d_) _him_ to consider_himself_ at (_e_) _his_ service, (30) as _he himself_ could not take(_f_) _him_ as _he_ (_g_) wished about the city. "

 (_a_) If you mean that the "son" had "asked him, " write "An old friend's son who;" if you mean that the "friend" had "asked him, " write "He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his journey northward, upon his son. Accordingly he visited him on his way. " (_b_) Use, instead of _he_, some name meaning "one who entertains others. " (_c_) Use participle, (_d_) "The man. " (_e_) "the stranger's. " (_f_) "his guest. " (_g_) Write "could have wished" to make it clear that "he" means "the host. "

35. "Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved both byKing William and by Queen Mary (43), who nominated Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him. "

36. "(_a_) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence that was(_b_) perfectly _stupendous_ and (_c_) _most unprecedented_, andwhich quite kept up his Lordship's _unrivalled_ reputation for_unparalleled_ hospitality, and, thanks to the _unequalled_ energy ofMr. Smith, who is _rapidly becoming one of the most effective_toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit_quite unexampled_ on occasions of this nature; and indeed we wereforcibly reminded in this respect of the _inimitable_ entertainment ofthree years ago (2). "

 (_a_) Omit most of the epithets, or soften them down. Point out the contradictions in the sentence as it stands. (_b_) Write "a remarkable magnificence that quite &c. , " thus dispensing with the following "and. " (_c_) Show that "most" is superfluous. 

37. "If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic authors of theElizabethan era, _his wonderful superiority to them in the_ (15)_knowledge of human nature_ is _what_ (15 _a_) _principally strikesus_. "

38. "The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity how toprovide himself with the commonest comforts or even necessaries oflife, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33) accustomed toluxury. "

39. "This make-shift policy recommended itself to the succeeding_ministers_ (_a_) (50), _both because they were timid and because theywere prejudiced_, and they were delighted to _excuse_ (_b_) (13)_themselves by quoting_ the example of one who (_c_) (34) hadcontrolled the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, (37) commendedhimself to the country at large by his unfailing good-humour, and(_d_) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman. "

 (_a_) "to the timidity and prejudices of &c. " (_b_) "shelter themselves behind. " (_c_) "while he had at once. " (_d_) "had yet done. "

40. "William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights ofEnglish poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon (14 _a_). "

41. "(15 _b_) I think, gentlemen, you must confess that any one of youwould have done the same (32), if you had been tempted as I was then, placed starving and ragged among wasteful luxury and comfort, deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty by those whom I had beentaught from infancy to love, (_a_) praised when I stole, mocked orpunished when I failed to (15 _a_) _do_ (_b_) _so_. "

 (_a_) Insert another infinitive beside "love. " "Love" produces "obedience. " (b) Repeat the verb instead of "do so. "

42. "So far from being the first (54) _aggressor_, he _not_ (22)_only_ refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourableopportunity presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him, _but also_ his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (_a_) _at all_ (23)_events_ suspected, if he did not know of the coming danger, and hadgiven no information of it. "

 (_a_) If "at all events" qualifies "Smith, " the sentence must be altered. "Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all events Smith suspected. . . . " If the words qualify "suspected, " place them after "suspected. "

43. "It is quite true that he paid 5_s. _ per day to English navvies, _and even 6s. _, (19) in preference to 2_s. _ 6_d. _ to French navvies. "

44. "Having climbed to the _apex_ of the Righi to enjoy the spectacleof the sun-rise, I found myself so _incommoded_ by a number of_illiterate individuals_ who had _emerged_ from the hotel for a (_a_)(1) _similar_ purpose, that I determined to quit them _at the earliestpracticable period_; and therefore, without stopping to _partake ofbreakfast_, I _wended my way_ back _with all possible celerity_. " (3)

 (_a_) "the same. "

45. "You admit that miracles are _not natural_. Now whatever _isunnatural_ is wrong, and since, by your own admission, miracles are_unnatural_, it follows that miracles are wrong. " (1)

46. "Who is the man that has dared to call into _civilized_ alliancethe (_a_) (41) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the (_a_)Indian the defence of our disputed rights?

 (_a_) Insert some antithetical or other epithets. 

47. "A (_a_) _very_ (11) _small proportion_ indeed of those who haveattempted to solve this problem (_b_) (19) have succeeded in obtainingeven a plausible solution. "

 (_a_) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what failed: "not one in a hundred. " (_b_) Begin, "Of all those that &c. "

48. "_To be suddenly_ (_a_) (47 _a_) _brought into contact_ with asystem (8) _which_ forces one to submit to wholesale imposture, and_to being_ (40 _a_) _barbarously ill-treated_, naturally repels (_a_)(15 _a_) _one_. "

 (_a_) Write, either (1) "Collision . . . Causes a natural repulsion, " or (2) "When brought into contact . . . One is naturally repelled, " or (if "ill-treatment" is emphatic), (3) "One is naturally repelled by collision with &c. "

49. "We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. ----'s direction tothe Editor of the ----, in contradiction of statements, equallyuntrue, which appeared in that periodical, _and_ (_a_) (9) _which_ theeditor has undertaken to insert in the next number. . . . I am sure thatall must regret that statements _so_ (_b_) (51) _utterly_ erroneousshould have (_c_) (23) _first_ appeared in a publication of such highcharacter. "

 (_a_) What the writer intended to express was that the editor had undertaken to insert, not the "statements, " but the "contradiction. " (_b_) Omit either "so" or "utterly. " (_c_) "appeared first, " or, "for the first time. "

50. "This is a book _which_ (10 _a_) _is_ short and amusing, _which_(10 _a_) _can be easily_ (_a_) _understood, which_ (10 _a_) isadmirably adapted for _the purpose for which it_ (_b_) _was_ (54)_written_; and (10 _e_) _which_ ought to be more popular than the lastwork _which_ (10 _a_) _was_ published by the same author. "

 (_a_) Express "which can be understood" in one adjective. (_b_) "Its purpose. "

51. "When thousands are _left_ (19) without (40) _pity_ and without(40) _attention_ (19) _on_ a field of battle, amid (40) the insults ofan enraged foe and (40) the trampling of horses, while the blood fromtheir wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth, and (40)they are exposed to the piercing air, _it_ (15 _a_) _must be indeed apainful scene_. "

 The whole sentence must be remedied by (40). 

52. "(_a_) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposed (19)besides by his early training--(31) which had been conducted withgreat care, the object of his parents being to _pave_ (14) _his way_as far as possible over the _stormy_ (14) _sea of temptation_ and to_lead_ him into the _harbour_ of virtue--to a sincere (_b_) (1)_remorse_ (19) for the (_b_) (1) _crimes_ that he had committed in thesight of heaven, and also for his recent (_b_) (1) _sin_ in breakingthe laws of his country. "

 (_a_) First state the reasons for his being "disposed. " "The youth was naturally thoughtful; moreover, his early training had been conducted with great care by his parents, whose &c. . . . . He was therefore disposed &c. " (_b_) What is the difference between "remorse" and "repentance, " between "sin" and "crime"?

53. "(_a_) _One day_ (54) _early in the morning_, the general wasapproached by a messenger, (30) in the midst of the _entanglements andperplexities_ which had _unexpectedly surprised_ him, when the_perilous hour of_ (54) _danger_ was at hand, and (37), in spite oftheir promises, even the tribes that were _well disposed_ (54) _andfriendly_, were threatening to _desert him, and_ (54) _leave him toface the enemy_ (_b_) (23) _alone_. "

 Condense the sentence by omitting some of the italicized words, _e. G. _ (_a_) "Early one morning. " (_b_) Though there is no real ambiguity (unless a wrong emphasis is placed on "enemy"), yet, in strictness, "alone" ought to qualify "enemy. " Write therefore, "alone in the face of the enemy. "

54. "_A man_ (_a_) (10 _d_) _who_ neglected the ordinary duties *of*life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for thebenefit of mankind, (_b_) (44) _and_ refused to provide for the wantsof those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to becomepaupers because he would not help them, (_c_) would, in my opinion, (34) be a bad man, and not altogether (_d_) (40 _a_) withouthypocrisy. "

 (_a_) "If a man. " (_b_) "if he refused, " or "while he refused. " (_c_) "such a man" or "he. " (_d_) "to some extent a hypocrite. "

55. "I cannot believe in the guilt of (_a_) _one_ (_b_) (10 _e_)_who_, whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, andhas been shown by competent testimony proceeding from those who aresaid to have carefully examined the facts, _in spite_ (23) _of manyobstacles_, to have resisted all attempts to (29) induce him to leavehis situation, (_c_) (29) to consult his own interests and to (29)establish a business of his own. "

 (_a_) "his guilt;" (_b_) (1) "for, whatever &c. . . . It can be shown by &c. . . . That, in spite of &c. , he resisted. " Or (2) insert "in spite . . . Obstacles" between "have" and "carefully. " (_c_) (1) "for the purpose of consulting . . . And establishing. " Or (2) write "and to consult his own interests by establishing &c. "

56. "We must seek for the origin of our freedom, (_a_) (37)prosperity, and (_a_) (37) glory, in _that and only_ (_b_) _that_[18]portion of our annals, (30) though _it_ (_c_) _is_ sterile andobscure. The great English people was (_d_) _then_ formed; thenotional (_e_) _disposition_ began (_d_) _then_ to exhibit thosepeculiarities which it has ever since (_e_) _possessed_; and ourfathers (_d_) _then_ became emphatically islanders, (_f_) in theirpolitics, (_a_) feelings, and (_a_) manners, _and_ (30 _a_) _notmerely in their geographical position_. "

 (_a_) Repeat the Pronominal Adjective, (_b_) Express the emphatic "only that" by beginning the sentence thus: "It is in that portion of our annals &c. " (_c_) Omit. (_d_) "It was then that &c. " (_e_) Use words implying something more _marked_ than "disposition, " and more _forcible_ than "possessed;" in the latter case, "retained. " (_f_) Repeat "islanders. "

57. "(_a_) He was _the universal_ (54) _favourite of_ (54) _all_ (8)_who knew him_, and cemented many friendships at this period, (_a_)(33) (moving in the highest circle of society, and, _as he_ (_b_) (50)_had a_ (4 _a_) _certain property, being independent_ of the profitsof literature), and soon completely extinguished the breath of slanderwhich at the outset of his career had threatened to sap thefoundations of his reputation. "

 (_a_) Begin "Moving in &c. " (_b_) "rendered independent of . . . By &c. " Show that Rule (14) is violated by the metaphors. 

58. "The outward and material form of that city which, during thebrief period _which_ (10 _a_) _is_ comprised in our present book, reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory, _was of this_ (_a_) (15) _nature_. The progress of _the_ (_b_) (5)_first_ has been already traced. "

 (_a_) Begin the sentence with "Such was. " (_b_) By "the first" is meant "military glory. "

59. "The detachment not only failed to take the fort, (30) spite oftheir numbers and the weakness of the garrison, but also to capturethe small force that was encamped outside the town, and was, aftersome sharp fighting, driven back with inconsiderable loss. "

 Point out the ambiguity. Remedy it by inserting either "which, " or "the assailants. "

60. "(_a_) (_b_) _Believing_ that these reforms can _only_ (_c_) (21)be effected as public opinion is prepared for them, and that (5)_this_ will be more or less advanced in different localities, the Billof the Association, (_a_) (31) which has been for _a_ (3)_considerable period_ in draft, and will be introduced in the nextSession of Parliament, provides for _placing_ (_d_) (3) _the controlin regard to the points above-mentioned in the_ (3) _hands_ of theratepayers of each locality; the power to be exercised throughrepresentative Licensing Boards to be periodically elected by them. "

 (_a_) Place the parenthesis first, as an independent sentence: "The Bill of the Association has been . . . Parliament. " (_b_) What noun is qualified by "believing?" Write "In the belief. " (_c_) "effected only so far as they are in accordance with public opinion, which &c. " (_d_) "it, or, the Bill provides that the ratepayers . . . Shall receive control . . . And shall exercise this control. "

61. "I think they are very (1) _nice_ persons, for they kept me amusedfor a _long_ (_a_) (11) _time together_ yesterday by their (1) _nice_stories all about _what they_ (_b_) _have experienced_ in Japan, wherethey had been for (_a_) _ever so long_, and (_c_) (43) where they saidthat the natives ripped up _their_ (_d_) (5) stomachs. "

 (_a_) Mention some time. (_b_) "experiences" or "adventures. " (_c_) "among other things, they told us &c. " (_d_) "their own. "

62. "To contend for advantageous monopolies, which are regarded with adislike and a suspicion (_a_) _which daily_ (10 _a_) _increases_, (30)_however natural it may be to be annoyed at the loss of that which onehas once possessed_, (15 _a_) is _useless_. "

 (_a_) A compound adjective can be used, including "daily. "

63. "Upon entering the rustic place of entertainment to partake ofsome refreshment, my nerves were horrified by lighting on a number ofboisterous individuals who were singing some species of harvest song, and simultaneously imbibing that cup which, if it cheers, alsoinebriates; and when, banished from their society by the fumes of thefragrant weed, I wended my way to the apartment which adjoined the onein which I had hoped to rest my weary limbs, I found an interestingassortment of the fairer sex, who were holding a separateconfabulation apart from the revels of their rougher spouses. "

 Write "village inn, " "next room, " &c. , for these absurd circumlocutions. See (3). 

64. "When Burgoyne was born, in 1782, Napoleon and Wellington _wereboth boys_ (11). "

 Napoleon studied at Brienne, Wellington at Eton. Mention this, and, in order to imply the _boyhood_, call Wellington "Arthur Wellesley. "

65. "An honourable friend of mine, who is now, I believe, nearme--(38) to whom I never can on any occasion refer without feelings ofrespect, and, on this subject, (36) feelings of the most gratefulhomage; (38) whose abilities upon this occasion, as upon some formerones, are not entrusted merely to the perishable eloquence of the(_a_) day, but will live to be the admiration of that (_a_) hour whenall of us are mute and most of us forgotten: (_b_) (38) has told youthat prudence _is_ (52) the first of virtues, _and_ (52) can never beused in the cause of vice. "

 (_a_) Though "of the day" is a recognized expression for "ephemeral" or "transitory, " yet to use "day" for a short time, and "hour" for a longer, is objectionable. Write _moment_ for _day_. Else write _future_ for _hour_. (_b_) "--this gentleman has told &c. "

66. "To see the British artisan and his wife on the Sabbath, neat andclean and cheerful, with their children by their sides, (_a_) (19)_disporting_ themselves under the open canopy of heaven, _is_ (15)_pleasant_. "

 (_a_) There is no reasonable ground for mistaking the sense here, as the context makes it clear; but since Lord Shaftesbury was questioned whether he meant _disporting_ to qualify "artisan and his wife" or "children, " write "and, by their sides, their children disporting &c. "

67. "Even if (_a_) _it were_ attended with extenuating circumstances, such conduct would deserve severe reprobation, (_b_) _and it_ is themore called for because _it_ would seem that (_c_) _it_ was theintention of _the author of the crime_, in perpetrating (_e_) _it_, toinflict all the misery that was possible, upon his victim. " See (5). 

 (_a_) Omit "it were. " (_b_) "which. " (_c_) "to have been. " (_d_) Express "author of the crime" in one word. (_e_) Use the noun. 

68. "The (_a_) (1) _observance_ of the heavenly bodies must have beenattended with great difficulties, (_b_) (30) before the telescope was(_a_) (1) _discovered_, and it is not to be wondered at if theinvestigations of astronomers were often unsatisfactory, and failed toproduce complete (_a_) (1) _persuasion_, (30) (15, _a_) under thesedisadvantages. "

 (_a_) What is the difference between "observance" and "observation, " "discover" and "invent, " "persuasion" and "conviction"? (_b_) Begin "Before &c. "

69. "He plunged into the sea once more, (30) not content with hisprevious exertions. After a long and dangerous struggle, he succeededin reaching a poor woman that was crying piteously for help, and (_a_)(35) was at last hauled safely to shore. "

 (_a_) Point put and remedy the ambiguity by inserting "he" or by writing "who, " according to the meaning. 

70. "Sir John Burgoyne himself, face to face with Todleben, became(_a_) (1) _conscious_ of the difference between the fortifications ofSan Sebastian and of Sebastopol, (_b_) _which_ (10 _e_) was (_c_) (12)_very weak_ compared with Metz or Paris. "

 (_a_) What is the exact meaning of _conscious_? (_b_) Avoid the relative, by repeating the name, with a conjunction, (_c_) "weakness itself. "

71. "Upon Richard's leaving the (_c_) stage, the Commonwealth wasagain set up; and the Parliament which Cromwell had (_a_) _broken_ wasbrought together; but the army and they fell into new disputes: sothey were again (_a_) _broken_ by the army: and upon that the nationwas like to fall into (_b_) (11) _great_ convulsions. "

 (_a_) Modern Eng. , "broken up. " (_b_) "violently convulsed. " (_c_) It is a question whether this metaphor is in good taste. The meaning is that Richard "retired from public life. " It might be asserted that Richard, the Commonwealth, the Parliament are regarded as so many puppets on a "stage. " But this is extremely doubtful. Make _Parliament_ the principal subject: "When Richard retired . . . And when the Commonwealth &c. . . . The Parliament was . . . But, falling into a dispute with &c. , it was. . . . " See (18) and (43). 

72. "What a revolution in the military profession! He began with (_a_)(11) _unnecessary formality_, and (_b_) (11) _inefficient weapons_, and ended with (_c_) (_b_) (11) _greatly improved fire-arms_. "

 (_a_) "pig-tail and pipe-clay. " (_b_) "Six-pounders and flint-locks" are now inefficient compared with "twenty-four-pounders and breech-loaders. " (_c_) Something is wanted antithetical to (_a_), perhaps "loose drill" or "open order. "

73. "Children fear to go in the dark. Men fear death in the same way. The fear of children is increased by tales. So is the fear of death. The contemplation of death, as the 'wages of sin, ' and passage toanother world, is holy and religious. The fear of it, as a tribute dueunto nature, is weak. In religious meditations on death there issometimes mixture of vanity and of superstition. "

 Insert connecting adverbs or conjunctions. See (44). 

74. "I have often heard him _reiterate_ (54) _repeatedly_ that hewould never again, if a _safe_ (54) _and secure path_ was open to him, prefer the _perilous_ (54) _road of danger_, however _alluring_ (54)_and attractive_ the latter might be. "

75. "I thought in my dream that when my friend asked me whether I didnot observe anything curious in the conduct of the pigeons, I (_a_) (4_a_) _remarked_ that if any one of the birds was so bold as to take anatom from a heap of grain in the midst of them, (31) (which (_b_) adetachment guarded, and which, being continually increased and nevereaten, seemed useless), all the rest turned against him and pecked himto death for the (_c_) (50) _action_. "

 (_a_) Point out the ambiguity. (_b_) This should come earlier in the sentence, and not as a parenthesis. "I noticed a heap of grain in the midst of them, guarded by . . . Being continually . . . , to all appearance, useless: yet. " (_c_) "theft. "

76. "If this low view of the royal office becomes generally adopted, then sovereigns _who_ (8) have always hitherto commanded the respectof Englishmen will by degrees fall into disrespect. "

 Point out the ambiguity. Show how it might be removed (_a_) by punctuation, (_b_) by altering "who. "

77. "I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to themagistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to supportmy statements. He committed me to prison. He had the right to do this. It is a right that is rarely exercised in such circumstances. Iremonstrated. "

 See (44). Insert conjunctions or connecting adverbs. 

78. "He attained a very distinguished position by mere (15)perseverance and common sense, which (52) (10 _a_) qualities areperhaps mostly underrated, (30) though he was deficient in tact andnot remarkable for general ability. "

79. "_Vindictiveness, which_ (_a_) (50) _is a fault_, (_b_) _and_which may be defined as _anger_ (10 _a_) _which is caused_ not by sinnor by crime but by personal injury, ought to be carefullydistinguished from _resentment, which_ (_a_) (50) _is a virtue_, (_b_) _and_ which is _anger_ (49) _which is natural and_ (_c_) _right_caused by an act (_d_) which is unjust, because it is unjust, (30 _a_)not because it is inconvenient. "

 (_a_) "The fault of vindictiveness;" "the virtue of resentment. " (_b_) Omit _(c_) "Right" cannot be used as an adjective, but "righteous" can. (_d_) "an act of injustice. "

80. "(_a_) He told his friend that (_a_) _his_ brother was surprisedthat (_a_) _he_ had given so small a contribution, for (_a_) _he_ was(_b_) (12) _a very rich man_, in spite of (_a_) _his_ recent lossesand the bad state of trade, (19) (30) compared with himself. "

 (_a_) Use (6). (_b_) What Asian king was proverbial for wealth?

81. "(_a_) (15 _b_) It must be indeed wrong to (_a_) _crucify_ a Romancitizen if to (_b_) (32) _slay_ one is almost parricide, to (_b_)_scourge_ him is a monstrous crime, and to (_b_) _bind_ him is anoutrage. "

 (_a_) "What must it be. . . ?" (_b_) See (40). 

82. "The _universal_ (54) _opinion of all the_ citizens was that thecitadel _had been_ (15) _betrayed_, (30) having been captured in broaddaylight by a very small number of the enemy, and those unprovidedwith scaling ladders, and admitted by a postern gate, (15 _a_) andmuch wearied by a long march. "

 In any case "betrayed" must come at the end of a sentence. The sentence may be converted into two sentences: "The citadel had been captured. . . . Naturally therefore . . . ;" or, "The opinion . . . For it had been captured. . . . " Else, if one sentence be used, write "As the citadel had been captured &c. "

83. "This author surpassed all _those who were living_ (_a_) _at thesame time with him_ in the _forcible_ (_b_) _manner in_ which he could_address_ (_c_) _an_ appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the easewith which he could _draw towards_ (_a_) _himself_ the hearts of hisreaders. "

 (_a_) Express in one word. (_b_) "force with. " (_c_) Omit. 

84. "This great statesman was indeed a pillar of commerce, and a starin the financial world. He guided or impelled the people from thequicksands of Protection and false political economy to the safeharbour of Free Trade; and (_a_) (14 _a_) saved the country severalmillions. "

 (_a_) It would be well to literalize the preceding metaphors. Else the literal statement must be changed into a metaphor. 

85. "The ministers were most unwilling to meet the Houses, (_a_) (43)(51) _because_ even the boldest of them (though their counsels were_lawless_ (15) _and desperate_) had too much value for his (_b_) (11)_personal safety_ to think of resorting to the (_c_) (12) unlawfulmodes of extortion that had been familiar to the preceding age. "

 (_a_) Begin a new sentence with "Lawless and desperate though their counsels had been &c. " (_b_) "neck. " (_c_) Insert some of these unlawful modes, "benevolences, ship-money, and the other &c. "

86. "_We will not_ (_a_) (15) _pretend to guess what_ ourgrandchildren may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited_in_ (15 _a_) _his poetry_. " No writer ever had the whole eloquence ofscorn, misanthropy, _and_ (_a_) (15) _despair_ (15 _a_) _so completelyat his command_. That _fountain_ (_b_) (12) _of bitterness_ was neverdry. "

 (_a_) "We will not pretend to guess" and "despair" are intended by the author to be emphatic. (_b_) "Marah. "

87. "The captain asked to be allowed fifty men, a supply of food, andone hundred and fifty breech-loaders. (44) The general replied coldlythat he could not let his subordinate have (_a_) (4) _anything_ thathe wanted. (44) The captain was forced to set out (34) with aninsufficient force, spite of the superabundance of soldiers doingnothing in the camp (34), and with every obstacle put in his way by ageneral who from the first had resolved not even to give him ordinaryassistance, (_b_) (10 _a'_) _which_ the captain had for some timeanticipated. "

 (_a_) Point out and remove the ambiguity. (_b_) Write, according to the meaning, " . . . Assistance that" or " . . . A resolution that. "

88. "I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything (8) _which_ isnot practical; theories (_a_) _which_ amuse philosophers and pedantshave no attractions for me, (30) _for this reason_. "

 (_a_) What difference in the meaning would be caused by the use of "that" for the second "which"?

89. "Yet, when that discovery drew no other severity but the (11 _a_)_turning_ (_a_) _him out of office_, and _the_ (11 _a_) _passing asentence_ (_b_) _condemning him to die for it_ (31) (which waspresently pardoned, and he was after a short confinement restored tohis liberty), all men _believed_ that the king knew of the letter, (_c_) (43) and that (6 _b_) the pretended confession of the secretarywas only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's (_d_) (11 _a_)_favouring_ popery, (_e_) (43) which still hung upon him, (30)notwithstanding his (_e_) _writing_ on the Revelation, and his (_e_)_affecting_ to enter on all occasions into controversy, (_e_)asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist. "

 (_a_) "expulsion from. " (_b_) "a pretended sentence to death--a pretence that was soon manifested by his pardon and liberation. " (_c_) Begin a new sentence: "'The secretary's pretended confession, ' it was said, 'was &c. '" (_d_) "the suspicion that the king favoured Popery. " (_e_) The juxtaposition of the two verbal nouns, "writing" and "affecting, " with the participle "asserting, " is harsh. Write, "For, notwithstanding that he affected controversy, and attacked the Pope as Antichrist in his treatise on the Book of Revelation, the king was still suspected. "

90. "The opinion that the sun is fixed was once too (_a_) (1)_universal_ to be easily shaken, and a similar prejudice has often(_b_) _rendered_ the progress of new inventions (15 _a_) _very slow_, (19) arising from the numbers of the believers, and not (36) thereasonableness of the belief. "

 (_a_) Write "general. " Show the absurdity of appending "too" to "universal. " (_b_) What single word can be substituted for "rendered slow"?

91. "The rest of the generals were willing to surrenderunconditionally, (30) _depressed by this unforeseen calamity_; (4)_only_ the young colonel, who retained his presence of mind, represented to them that they were increasing the difficulties of aposition in itself very difficult (19) (15, _a_) _by their conduct_. "

92. "To (_a_) (31) _an author who_ is, in his expression of anysentiment, wavering between _the_ (_b_) _demands of_ perspicuity andenergy (of which _the_ (_c_) (40 _a_) _former of course_ requires thefirst care, lest (40 _a_) he should fail of both), and (37) doubtingwhether the (_d_) phrase _which_ (8) _has_ (_e_) _the_ most force andbrevity will be (_f_) readily _taken_ (_g_) _in, it may_ (_h_) (3) _berecommended to use_ both (_d_) expressions; first, (_h_) _to expound_the sense sufficiently to be clearly understood, and then (_i_) _to_contract it into the most compendious and striking form. "

 (_a_) Write "When an author &c. " (_b_) Can be omitted. (_c_) Assimilate the constructions: "Of which the former must, of course, be aimed at first, lest both be missed. " (_d_) Use "expression" or else "phrase" in _both_ places. (_e_) Assimilate the construction to what follows; write "that is most forcible and brief. " (_f_) Insert "also. " (_g_) "understood. " (_h_) "let him use . . . ; first let him expound. " (_i_) Omit. 

93. "When I say 'a great man, ' I _not_ (22) _only_ mean a manintellectually great but also morally, (38) _who_ (8) has nopreference for diplomacy (_a_) (23) _at all events which_ (10 _a_)_is_ mean, petty, and underhanded to secure ends _which_ (8) can besecured by an honest policy _equally_ (20) _well_, (38) _who_ (8) doesnot resemble Polonius, (_b_) who prefers to get at truth by untruthfultricks, and (_b_) who considers truth a carp _which_ (10 _g_) _is_ tobe caught by the bait falsehood. We cannot call a petty intriguergreat (_c_), (30) though we may be forced to call an unscrupulous _manby that_ (15 _a_) _name_. "

 (_a_) "at all events no preference. " (_b_) Why is _who_ right here? If you like, you can write, "does not, like Polonius, prefer . . . And consider. " (_c_) End with "we cannot give the name to a petty intriguer. "

94. "I regret that I have some (_a_) (3) _intelligence which_ (10 _a_)_is of a most_ (3) _painful nature_, and which I must tell you atonce, though (_b_) _I should like to defer it_ on (_c_) (40 _a_)account of your ill-health, and _because_ (_c_) (40 _a_) _you havealready had_ many troubles, and (40 _a_) _owing to_ the naturaldislike _which_ (8) a friend must always feel to say _that_ (10 _f_)_which_ is unpleasant. Many old friends in this district have turnedagainst you: I scarcely like to write the words: _only_ (21) I remainfaithful to you, and I am sure you will believe that I am doing _that_(10 _f_) _which_ is best for your interests. "

 (_a_) "news. " (_b_) In a letter these words should remain is they are; but if a _period_ is desired, they must (30) come last, after "unpleasant. " (_c_) Write "because of your ill-health . . . And the troubles . . . And because of. . . . "

95. "The general at once sent back word that the enemy had suddenlyappeared on the other side of the river, and [(35) or (37)] then (_a_)retreated. (_b_) _It_ was thought that (_b_) _it_ would have shownmore (_c_) (1) _fortitude_ on his (3) _part_ if he had attacked thefortifications, (_d_) _which_ were not tenable for more than a week atall events. Such was the (54) _universal_ opinion, _at_ (23) _least, of_ (54) _all_ the soldiers. "

 (_a_) Point out the ambiguity. (_b_) "It was thought he would have shown &c. " (_c_) Distinguish between "fortitude" and "bravery. " (_d_) What would be the meaning if "that" were substituted for "which"? It will be perhaps better to substitute for "which, " "since they. "

96. "A notion has sprung up that the Premier, though he can legislate, cannot govern, and has attained an influence which renders itimperative, if this Ministry is to go on, that (_a_) _it_ should bedispersed. "

 (_a_) Who or what "has attained"? Write "and this notion has become so powerful that, unless it is dispersed. . . . "

97. "Those who are _habitually silent_ (_a_) (3) _by disposition_ andmorose are less liable to the fault of exaggerating than those who are_habitually_ (_a_) (3) _fond of talking_, and (40 _a_) _of_ (_a_) (3)_a pleasant disposition_. "

 (a) Each of these periphrases must be condensed into a single adjective. 

98. "This author, (_a_) (31) though he is not (_b_) _altogether_ (_c_)_guiltless of_ (_b_) _occasional_ (_c_) _faults_ of exaggeration, which are to be found as plentifully in his latest works as in _thosewhich he_ (_d_) _published when he was beginning his career as anauthor_, yet, _notwithstanding these_ (_e_) _defects_, surpassed all_those who were living_ _at the_ (_f_) _same time with him_ in the_clear_ (_g_) _manner in_ which he could, as it were, see into thefeelings of the people at large, and in the power--_a power thatindeed could not be_ (_f_) _resisted_--with which he _drew_ (_f_)_toward himself_ the sympathy of _those who_ (_f_) _perused hisworks_. " See (54). 

 (_a_) Convert the parenthesis into a separate sentence. (_b_) One of these words is unnecessary. (_c_) One of these is unnecessary. (_d_) Condense: "his earliest. " (_e_) Omit these words as unnecessary. (_f_) Express all this in one word. (_g_) "clearness with. "

99. "_Among the North_ (_a_) (23) _American Indians_ I had indeedheard of the perpetration of similar atrocities; but it seemedintolerable that such things should occur in a civilized land: and Irushed from the room at once, leaving the wretch where he stood, withhis tale half told, (30) _horror-stricken at his crime_. "

 (_a_) Make it evident whether the speaker once _lived_ among the North American Indians, or not, and show who is "horror-stricken. "

100. "His (1) _bravery_ under this painful operation and the (1)_fortitude_ he had shown in heading the last charge in the recentaction, (30) _though he was_ wounded at the time and had been unableto use his right arm, and was the only officer left in his regiment, out of twenty who were alive the day before, (19) inspired every onewith admiration. "

 Begin, "Out of twenty officers &c. . . . Though wounded &c. . . . He had headed. " "The bravery he had then shown and. . . . "

101. "_Moral_ as well as (41) _other_ considerations must have weightwhen we are selecting an officer (_a_) _that_ (10 _b_) _will be placedin_ a position that will task his intelligence (_b_) (18) _and hisfidelity_. "

 (_a_) The repetition of "that" is objectionable. Use "to fill. " (_b_) "and" can be replaced by some other conjunction to suit what precedes. 

102. "It happened that at this time there were a few Radicals in theHouse _who_ (8) could not forgive the Prime Minister for being aChristian. "

 Point out the difference of meaning, according as we read "who" or "that. "

103. "_It cannot be doubted_ (15 _b_) _that_ the minds of a vastnumber of men would be left poor shrunken things, full of melancholyand indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves, if (32) there weretaken out of men's minds vain opinions, false valuations, imaginationsas one (_a_) would, and _the_ (15 _a_) _like_. "

 (_a_) The meaning (which cannot easily be more tersely expressed than in the original) is "castles in the air, " "pleasant fancies. "

104. "God never wrought a miracle to refute atheism, because Hisordinary works refute it. (_a_) A little philosophy inclines man'smind to atheism: depth in philosophy brings men's minds back toreligion. (44) While the mind of man looks upon second causesscattered, it may sometimes rest in them; (44) when it beholds thechain of them confederate and linked together, it must needsacknowledge a Providence. (44) That school which is most accused ofatheism most clearly demonstrates the truth of religion. "

 (_a_) Insert a suspensive conjunction. See (34). 

105. "The spirit of Liberty and the spirit of Nationality were oncefor all dead; (_a_) (5) _it_ might be for a time a pious duty, but itcould not continue always _expedient or_ (_c_) (15) (18) _profitableto_ (_b_) (13) _mourn_ (_c_) (15 _a_) _for their loss_. Yet this isthe (_b_) (13) _feeling_ of the age of Trajan. "

 (_a_) Omit. (_b_) "To sit weeping by their grave;" "attitude. " (_c_) Notice that "expedient or profitable" are emphatic, as is shown by "yet" in the next sentence. Make it evident therefore, by their position, that these words are more emphatic than "to mourn &c. "

106. "(_a_) _If we ask_ (15 _b_) what was the nature of the force bywhich this change was effected, (_a_) _we find it to have been_ (_b_)the force that had seemed almost dead for many generations--(38) oftheology. "

 (_a_) Omit these words. (_b_) Begin a new sentence: "It was a force &c. "

107. "I remember Longinus highly recommends a description of a stormby Homer, because (_a_) (5) (_c_) _he_ has not amused himself withlittle fancies upon the occasion, as authors of an inferior genius, whom he mentions, (_b_) (15 _a_) have done, (30) _but_ (_c_) _because_he has gathered together those (_d_) (1) _events_ which are the mostapt to terrify the imagination, and (35) really happen in the ragingof a tempest. "

 (_a_) "The poet. " (_b_) Omit "have done" and write "like some authors. " (_c_) Suspend the sentence by writing "the poet . . . Instead of . . . Has. " (_d_) What is the word for "that which happens _around_ one, or in connection with some central object?"

108. "To have passed (_a_) (3) _in a self-satisfied manner_ throughtwenty years of office, letting things take their own course; to have(_b_) _sailed_ with consummate sagacity, never against the tide ofpopular (_c_) _judgement_; to have left on record as the sole title todistinction among English ministers a peculiar art of (_d_) _sportingwith_ the heavy, the awful responsibility of a nation's destiny withthe jaunty grace of a juggler (11) (_e_) _playing with_ his goldenball; to have joked and intrigued, and bribed and (_f_) _deceived_, with the result of having done nothing (_g_), (_h_) _either_ for thepoor, (_h_) _or_ for religion (for (_i_) which indeed he did worsethan nothing), (_h_) _or_ for art and science, (_h_) _or_ for thehonour or concord or even the financial prosperity of the nation, (38)is surely a miserable basis on which the reputation of a great (15)statesman _can be_ (_k_) (15 _a_) _founded_. "

 (_a_) "complacently. " (_b_) "Sail" implies will and effort: use a word peculiar to a helpless ship, so as to contrast paradoxically with "sagacity. " (_c_) Use a word implying less thought and deliberation. (_d_) _With_ is too often repeated; write "bearing" so as to introduce the illustration abruptly. (_e_) "tossing. " (_f_) Use a word implying a particular kind of "deceit, " not "lying, " but the next thing to "lying. " (_g_) Insert the word with a preceding and intensifying adverb, "absolutely nothing. " (_h_) Instead of "either, " "or, " repeat "nothing. " (_i_) The parenthesis breaks the rhythm. Write "nothing, or worse than nothing. " (_k_) "to found. "

109. "A glance at the clock will make you (1) _conscious_ that it isnearly three in the morning, and I therefore ask you, gentlemen, instead of wasting more time, to put this question to yourselves, 'Arewe, or are we not, here, for the purpose of (1) _eliminating_ thetruth?'"

110. "The speech of the Right Honourable member, so far from_unravelling_ (14) _the obscurities of this knotty question_, iseminently calculated to mislead his supporters (_a_) (8 _a_) _who_have not made a special study of it. It may be (_b_) (23) _almost_asserted of every statement (8) _which_ he has made that the very (1)_converse_ is the fact. "

 (_a_) The meaning appears to be, not "_all_ his supporters, " but "_those of_ his supporters who:" the convenience of writing "his supporters _that_" is so great that I should be disposed to use "that. " (_b_) "Every, " not "asserted, " requires the juxtaposition of "almost. "

111. "The provisions of the treaty _which_ (8) require the consent ofthe Parliament of Canada await its assembling. "

 Point out the meaning conveyed by _which_, and by _that_. 

112. "Mrs. Smith demonstrated (26), in opposition to the generaldictum of the press, that (_a_) _there had been_ a reaction againstwoman's suffrage, that there had really been a gain of one vote in theHouse of Commons. "

 (_a_) Substitute "instead of, " and erase the second "that. "

113. "The practice of smoking hangs like a gigantic (14 _a_) cloud ofevil over the country. "

FOOTNOTES:

[18] That which treats of the thirteenth century. 

CONTINUOUS EXERCISES. 

CLEARNESS. 

The following exercises consist of extracts from Burnet, Butler, andClarendon, modernized and altered with a view to remove obscurity andambiguity. The modernized version will necessarily be inferior to theoriginal in unity of style, and in some other respects. The charm ofthe author's individuality, and the pleasant ring of the old-fashionedEnglish, are lost. It is highly necessary that the student shouldrecognize this, and should bear in mind that the sole object is toshow how the meaning in each case might have been more _clearly_expressed. 

Occasionally expressions have been altered, not as being in themselvesobscure or objectionable, but as indicating a habit of which beginnersshould beware. For example, in the extract from Burnet, _he_ is oftenaltered, not because, in the particular context, the pronoun presentsany obscurity, but because Burnet's habit of repeating _he_ is faulty. 

These exercises can be used in two ways. The pupil may either have hisbook open and be questioned on the reasons for each alteration, or, after studying the two versions, he may have the original versiondictated to him, and then he may reproduce the parallel version, orsomething like it, on paper. 

 LORD CLARENDON. 

The principal faults in this style are, long heterogeneous sentences(43), use of phrases for words (47 _a_), ambiguous use of pronouns(5), excessive separation of words grammatically connected together(19). 

 ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION. 

 (44) It will not be impertinent And now, in order to explain, as nor _unnatural to this_ (50) far as possible, how so prodigious _present discourse_, to set down an alteration could take place in in this place the present temper so short a time, and how the[19] and constitution of both Houses royal power could fall so low as of Parliament, and (34) of the to be unable to support itself, court itself, (30) that (5) _it_ its dignity, or its faithful may be the less wondered at, that servants, it will be of use to set so prodigious an alteration should down here, where it comes most be made in so short a time, and naturally, some account of the[20] (37) the crown fallen so low, that present temper and composition, it could neither support itself not only of both Houses of nor its own majesty, nor _those Parliament, but also of the court who would_ (47 _a_) _appear itself. Faithful to it_. 

 * * * * * * * * * *

 (Here follows a description of the House of Lords. )

 In the House of Commons were many In the House of Commons persons of wisdom and gravity, who there were many men of wisdom (7) _being possessed_ of great and and judgment whose high plentiful fortunes, though they position and great wealth disposed were undevoted enough to the them, in spite of their indifference court, (19) had all imaginable to the court, to feel duty for the king, and affection a most loyal respect for the to the government _established_(47 king, and a great affection for _a_) _by law_ or ancient custom; the ancient constitutional (43) and without doubt, the _major government of the country. Indeed, part of that_ (54) _body_ it cannot be doubted that consisted of men who had no mind the majority had no intention to to break the peace of the kingdom, break the peace of the kingdom or to make any considerable or to make any considerable alteration in the government of alteration in Church or State. Church or State: (43) and Consequently, from the very therefore (18) _all_ inventions outset, it was necessary to resort were set on _foot from the_ (15) to every conceivable device _beginning_ to work upon (5) for the purpose of perverting _them_, and (11) corrupt (5) this honest majority into rebellion. _them_, (43) (45) by suggestions "of the dangers (8) _which_ With some, the appeal was threatened all that was precious addressed to their patriotism. To the subject (19) in their They were warned "of the liberty and their property, by dangers that threatened [all _overthrowing_ (47 _a_) _or that was precious in] the liberty overmastering_ the law, _and_ (47 and property of the subject, _a_) _subjecting_ it to _an if the laws were to be made arbitrary_ (47_a_) _power_, and by subservient to despotism, and countenancing Popery to the if Popery was to be encouraged subversion of the Protestant to the subversion of the Protestant religion, " and then, by religion. " infusing terrible apprehensions into some, and so working upon The fears of others were appealed their fears, (6 _b_) "of (11 _a_) to. "There was danger, " so[21] it being called in question for was said, "that they might be somewhat they had done, " by which called to account for something (5) _they_ would stand in need of they had done, and they would then (5) _their_ protection; and (43) stand in need of the help of those (45) raising the hopes of others, who were now giving them this "that, by _concurring_ (47 _a_) timely warning. " In others, hopes _with_ (5) _them_ (5) _they_ were excited, and offices, should be sure to obtain offices honours, and preferments were held and honours and any kind of out as the reward of adhesion. Preferment. " Though there were too Too many were led away by one or many corrupted and misled by these other of these temptations, and several temptations, and (19) indeed some needed no other others (40 _a_) who needed no temptation than their innate other temptations than from the fierceness and barbarity and the fierceness and barbarity _of malice they had contracted against their_ (47 _a_) _own natures_, and the Church and the court. But the the malice they had contracted leaders of the conspiracy were not against the Church and against the many. The flock was large and court; (43) yet the number was not submissive, but the shepherds were great _of those in whom the very few. Government of the rest_ (47 _a_) _was vested_, nor were there many who had the absolute authority (13) to lead, though there were a multitude (13) that was disposed to follow. 

 (44) (30) Mr. Pym was looked upon Of these, Mr. Pym was thought as the man of greatest experience superior to all the rest in in parliaments, _where he had_ parliamentary experience. To this (50) _served very long_, and _was advantage he added habits of always_ (50) _a man of business_, business acquired from his (7) being an officer in the continuous service in the Exchequer, (43) and of a good Exchequer. He had also a good reputation generally, (30) though reputation generally; for, though known to be inclined to the known to be inclined to the Puritan party; yet not of those Puritan party, yet he was not so furious resolutions against the fanatically set against the Church Church as the other leading men as the other leaders. In this were, and (44) wholly devoted to respect he resembled the Earl of the Earl of Bedford, who had Bedford, to whom he was nothing of that spirit. Thoroughly devoted. 

 (Here follow descriptions of Hampden and Saint John. )

 It was generally believed that These three persons, with the these three persons, with the three peers mentioned before, were other three lords mentioned united in the closest confidence, before, were of the most intimate and formed the mainspring of the and entire trust with each other, party. Such at least was the and made _the engine which_ (47 general belief. But it was clear _a_) _moved_ all the rest; (30) that they also admitted to their yet it was visible, that (15) unreserved confidence two others, _Nathaniel Fiennes, the second son (45) whom I will now of the Lord Say, and Sir Harry describe, --Nathaniel Fiennes, Vane, eldest son to the Secretary, second son of Lord Say, and Sir and Treasurer of the House_, were Harry Vane, eldest son of the received by them with full Secretary, and Treasurer of the confidence and without reserve. House. 

 The former, being a man of good Nathaniel Fiennes, a man of good parts of learning, and after some parts, was educated at New years spent in New College in College, Oxford, where[22] his Oxford, (43) of which his father family claimed and enjoyed some had been formerly fellow, (43) privileges in virtue of their that family pretending[23] and kindred to the founder, and enjoying many privileges there, as where[22] his father had formerly of kin to the founder, (43) (19) been a fellow. He afterwards spent had spent his time abroad in some time in Geneva and in the Geneva and amongst the cantons of cantons of Switzerland, where[22] Switzerland, (30) where he he increased that natural improved his disinclination to the antipathy to the Church which he Church, with which milk he had had imbibed almost with his been nursed. From his travels he mother's milk. [24] By a singular returned through Scotland (52) coincidence, he came home through (which[24] few travellers took in Scotland (not a very common route their way home) at the time when for returning travellers) just (5) _that_ rebellion was in bud: when the Scotch rebellion was in (30) (43) (44) and was very little bud. For some time he was scarcely known, except amongst (5) _that_ known beyond the narrow and people, _which conversed_ (47 _a_) exclusive circle of his sect, _wholly amongst themselves, _ until until at last he appeared in he was now (15) _found in Parliament. Then, indeed, it was Parliament_, (30) (43) (44) when quickly discovered that he was it was quickly discovered that, likely to fulfil even the fond as he was the darling of his hopes of his father and the high father, so (5) _he_ was like to promise of many years. Make good whatsoever _he_ had for many years promised. 

 (5) _The other_, Sir H. Vane, was Fiennes' coadjutor, Sir H. Vane, a man of great natural parts[25] was a man of great natural (45) and of very profound ability. [25] Quick in understanding dissimulation, of a quick and impenetrable in dissembling, conception, and of very ready, he could also speak with sharp, and weighty expression. He promptness, point, and weight. His had an (50) unusual aspect, which, singular appearance, though it though it might naturally proceed might naturally proceed from his from his father and mother, parents, who were not noted for neither of which were beautiful their beauty, yet impressed men persons, yet (19) made men think with the belief that he had in him there was somewhat in him of something extraordinary, an extraordinary: and (52) his whole impression that was confirmed by life made good that imagination. The whole of his life. His Within a very short time after he behaviour at Oxford, where he returned from his studies in studied at Magdalen College, was Magdalen College in Oxford, where, not characterized, in spite of the (43) though he was under the care supervision of a very worthy of a very worthy tutor, he lived tutor, by a severe morality. Soon not with great exactness, (43) he after leaving Oxford he spent some spent some little time in France, little time in France, and more in and more in Geneva, and, (43) Geneva. After returning to after his return into England, England, he conceived an intense (38) contracted a full prejudice hatred not only against the and bitterness against the Church, government of the Church, which both against the form of the was disliked by many, but also government and the Liturgy, (43) against the Liturgy, which was which was generally in great held in great and general reverence, (15 _a_) _even with reverence. Many of those who were not friends_ to (5) _the other_. In Incurring or seeming to incur, by his giddiness, which then much his giddiness, the displeasure of displeased, or seemed to his father, who at that time, displease, (30) (43) his father, beside strictly conforming to the who still appeared highly Church himself, was very bitter conformable, and exceedingly sharp against Nonconformists, the young against those who were not, Vane left his home for New (5) _he_ transported himself into England. New England, (43) a colony within few years before planted by a This colony had been planted a few mixture of all religions, [26] which years before by men of all sorts of disposed the professors to dislike religions, and their the government of the Church; who differences[26] disposed them to (30) (43) (44) were qualified by dislike the government of the the king's charter to choose their Church. Now, it happened that their own government and governors, privilege (accorded by the king's under the obligation, "that every charter) of choosing their own man should take the oaths of government and governors was allegiance and supremacy;" (30) subject to this obligation, "that (43) (5) _which_ all the first every man should take the oaths of planters did, when they received allegiance and supremacy. " These their charter, before they oaths had been taken, not only by transported themselves from hence, all the original planters, on nor was there in many years after receiving their charter, before the least scruple amongst them of leaving England, but also for many complying with those obligations: years afterwards, without exciting so far men were, _in the infancy_ the slightest scruple. Indeed, (15) _of their schism_, from scruples against lawful oaths were refusing to take lawful oaths. Unknown[27] in the infancy of the (45) He was no sooner landed English schism. But with the there, but his parts made him arrival of Vane all this was quickly taken notice of, (26) and changed. No sooner had he landed very probably his quality, being than his ability, and perhaps to the eldest son of a some extent his position, as eldest Privy-councillor, might give him son of a Privy-councillor, some advantage; _insomuch_ (51) recommended him to notice: and at _that_, when the next season came the next election he was chosen for the election of their Governor. Magistrates, he was chosen their governor: (30) (45) (43) in which In his new post, his restless and place he had so ill fortune (26) unquiet imagination found (his working and unquiet fancy opportunity for creating and raising and infusing a thousand diffusing a thousand conscientious scruples of conscience, which (5) scruples that had not been brought _they_ had not brought over with over, or ever even heard of, by the them, nor heard of before) (19) colonists. His government proved a that he unsatisfied with failure: and, mutually them and they with him, dissatisfied, (45) governed and he retransported himself governor parted. Vane returned into England; (30) (43) (44) to England, but not till he had having sowed such seed of accomplished his mischievous task, dissension there, as grew up too not till he had sown the seeds of prosperously, and miserably those miserable dissensions which divided the poor colony into afterwards grew only too several factions, and divisions prosperously, till they split the and persecutions of each (15 _a_) wretched colony into distinct, _other_, (30) (43) which still hostile, and mutually persecuting continue _to the great_ (54) factions. His handiwork still _prejudice of that plantation_: remains, and it is owing to (15) insomuch as some of (5) _them_, _him_ that some of the colonists, upon the ground of their first on the pretext of liberty of expedition, liberty of conscience, conscience, the original cause of have withdrawn themselves from (5) their emigration, have withdrawn _their_ jurisdiction, and obtained themselves from the old colonial other charters from the king, by jurisdiction and have obtained which, (30) (43) in other forms of fresh charters from the king. Government, they have enlarged These men have established new their plantations, within new forms of government, unduly limits adjacent to (5) (15 _a_) enlarged their boundaries, and set _the other_. Their plantations, up rival settlements on the within new limits adjacent to (5) borders of the original colony. (15 _a_) _the other_. 

FOOTNOTES:

[19] The original metaphor uses the crown as a prop, which seems aconfusion. Though the metaphor is so common as scarcely to be regardedas a metaphor, it is better to avoid the appearance of confusion. 

[20] We sometimes say, briefly but not perhaps idiomatically, "the_then_ sovereign, " "the _then_ temper, " &c. 

[21] The personality of the tempters and organizers of the conspiracyis purposely kept in the background. 

[22] The relative is retained in the first two cases, because itconveys the _reason why_ Fiennes was educated at New College; and inthe third case, because the increased "antipathy" is regarded as thenatural _consequence_ of the residence in Calvinistic Geneva. 

[23] Claiming. 

[24] An insinuation of sedition seems intended. 

[25] This sentence is a preliminary summary of what follows. 

[26] If "which" is used here according to Rule (8), the meaning is, (_a_) "and their differences;" if it is used for "that, " the meaningwill be, (_b_) "all religions that were of a nature to dispose &c. " Ibelieve (_a_) is the meaning; but I have found difference of opinionon the question. 

[27] The following words appear to be emphatic, bringing out thedifference between the _infancy_ and the development of schism. 

 BURNET. 

The principal faults in Burnet's style are (_a_) the use ofheterogeneous sentences (see 43); (_b_) the want of suspense (see 30);(_c_) the ambiguous use of pronouns (see 5); (_d_) the omission ofconnecting adverbs and conjunctions, and an excessive use of _and_(see 44); and (_e_) an abruptness in passing from one topic to another(see 45). The correction of these faults necessarily lengthens thealtered version. 

 ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION. 

 And his maintaining the honour of He also gratified the English the nation in all foreign feeling of self-respect by countries gratified the (1) maintaining the honour of the _vanity which is very natural_ nation in all foreign countries. (50) _to Englishmen_; (30) (43) of So jealous was he on this point which he was _so_ (15) (17 _a_) that, though he was not a crowned _careful_ that, though he was not head, he yet secured for his a crowned head, yet his (40 _a_) ambassadors all the respect that ambassadors had all the respects had been paid to the ambassadors paid them which our (15) _kings'_ of our kings. The king, he said, ambassadors ever had: he said (6 received respect simply as the _b_) the dignity of the crown nation's representative head, was upon the account of the and, since the nation was the nation, _of which the king was_ same, the same respect should (50) _only the representative be paid to the[28] nation's head_; so, the nation being the ministers. Same, he would have the same regards paid to (41) his ministers. 

 Another[29] instance of (5) _this_ The following instance of jealousy pleased _him_ much. Blake with the for the national honour pleased fleet _happened_ (50) _to be_ at him much. When Blake was at Malaga Malaga before he made war upon with his fleet, before his war Spain: (44) _and_ some of his with Spain, it happened that some seamen went ashore, _and_ met the of his sailors going ashore and Host carried about; (44) _and_ not meeting the procession of the only paid no respect to it, but Host, not only paid no respect to laughed at those who did; (43) it, but even laughed at those who (30) (51) so one of the priests did. Incited by one of the priests put the people upon resenting this to resent the indignity, the indignity; _and_ they fell upon people fell on the scoffers and (5) _them and_ beat them severely. Beat them severely. On their When they returned to their ship return to the ship the seamen (5) _they_ complained of (5) complained of this ill-usage, _this_ usage; and upon that Blake whereupon Blake sent a messenger sent a trumpet to the viceroy to to the viceroy to demand the demand the priest who was the priest who was the instigator of chief (1) _instrument_ in that the outrage. The viceroy answered ill-usage. The viceroy answered that he could not touch him, as he _he_ had no authority over the had no authority over the priests. (15) _priests_, and so could not To this Blake replied, that he did dispose of him. Blake upon that not intend to inquire to whom the sent him word that _he_ would not authority belonged, but, if the inquire who had the (1) power to priest were not sent within three send the priest to him, but if hours, he would burn the town. The _he_ were not sent within three townspeople being in no condition hours, _he_ would burn their town; to resist, the priest was at once (43) and (5) _they_, being in no sent. On his arrival, he defended condition to resist _him_, sent himself, alleging the insolence of the priest to _him_, (43) (44) who the sailors. But the English (50) justified himself upon the Admiral replied that a complaint petulant behaviour of the seamen. Should have been forwarded to him, and then he would have punished (44) Blake answered that, if (5) them severely, for none of his _he_ had sent a complaint to (5) sailors should be allowed to _him of_(5) _it_, (5) _he_ would affront the established religion have punished them severely, since of any place where they touched. (5) _he_ would not suffer _his_ "But, " he added, "I take it ill men to affront the established that you should set on your religion of any place at which (5) countrymen to do my work; for I _he_ touched; but (5) (6) _he_ will have all the world know that took it ill, that _he_ set on the an Englishman is only to be Spaniards to do (5) _it_; for _he_ punished, by an Englishman. " Then, would have all the world to know satisfied with having had the (50) that an Englishman was only to be offender at his mercy, Blake punished by an Englishman; (43) entertained him civilly and sent (44) and so he treated the priest him back. Civilly, and sent him back (30), being satisfied that he had him at his mercy. 

 Cromwell was much delighted with Cromwell was much delighted with (5) _this_, (43) and read the Blake's conduct. Reading the letters in council with great letters in council with great satisfaction; _and_ said he (6) satisfaction, he said, "I hope I hoped he should make the name of shall make the name of an an Englishman as great as ever Englishman as much respected as that of a Roman (15 _a_) _had ever was the name of Roman. " been_. (44) The States of Holland Among other countries the States were in such dread of (5) him that of Holland were in such dread of they took care to give him no sort Cromwell that they took care to of umbrage; (43) (44) _and_ when give him no sort of umbrage. At any time the king or his Accordingly, whenever the king or brothers came to see their sister his brothers came to see the the Princess Royal, (23) within a Princess Royal their sister, they day or two after, (5) _they_ used were always warned in a day or two to send a deputation to let _them_ by a deputation that Cromwell had know that Cromwell had required of required of the States to give the States that (5) _they_ should them no harbourage. Give _them_ no harbour. 

 * * * * * * * * * *

 Cromwell's favourite alliance was The free kingdom of Sweden was Sweden. [30] (44) Carolus Gustavus Cromwell's favourite ally; not and he lived in great conjunction only under Charles Gustavus, with of counsels. (44) Even Algernon whom he was on most confidential Sydney, (10 _a_) _who_ was not terms, but also under Christina. Inclined to think or speak well of Both these sovereigns had just kings, commended _him_ (5) to me; notions of public liberty; at and said _he_ (5) had just least, Algernon Sydney, a man notions of public liberty; (44) certainly not prejudiced in favour (43) _and_ added, that Queen of royalty, assured me this was Christina seemed to have _them_ true of Gustavus. He also held the likewise. But (44) she was same opinion of Queen Christina; much changed from that, when but, if so, she was much changed I waited on her at Rome; for when I waited on her at Rome; for she complained of us as a factious she then complained of the factious nation, _that did not readily and unruly spirit of our nation. Comply with the commands_ (47 _a_) _of our princes_. (44) All Italy All Italy, no less than trembled at the name of Cromwell, Holland, [31] trembled at the name and seemed under a (1) _panic_ as of Cromwell, and dreaded him till long as he lived; (43) his fleet he died. Nor durst the Turks scoured the Mediterranean; and the offend the great (50) Protector Turks durst not offend him; but whose fleet scoured the delivered up Hyde, who kept up the Mediterranean; and they even gave character of an ambassador from up Hyde, who, for keeping up in the king there (23) (43), and was Turkey the character of ambassador brought over and executed for (5) from the king, was brought to _it_. England and executed. 

 (44) (11 _a_) The _putting_ the In another instance of severity brother of the king of Portugal's towards foreigners--the execution ambassador to death for murder, of the brother of the Portuguese was (11 _a_) _carrying_ justice ambassador for murder--Cromwell very far; (43) since, though in carried justice very far. For, the strictness of the law of though in strictness the law of nations, it is only the nations exempts from foreign ambassador's own person that is jurisdiction the ambassador alone, exempted from (4) _any authority_ yet in practice the exemption has (47 _a_) _but his master's that extended to the whole of the sends him_, yet the practice has ambassador's suite. Gone in favour of _all that the ambassador owned_ (47 _a_) _to Successful abroad, Cromwell was no belong to him_. (41) (44) Cromwell less successful at home in showed his good (11) selecting able and worthy men for _understanding_ in nothing more public duties, especially for the than in seeking[32] out capable courts of law. In nothing did he and worthy men for all employments, show more clearly his great but most particularly for the natural insight, and nothing courts of law, (43) (30 _a_) contributed more to his popularity. (10 _a_) which gave a general satisfaction. 

FOOTNOTES:

[28] The meaning is "_his_, and therefore _the nation's_, ministers. "There is a kind of antithesis between "the nation" and "the nation'sministers. "

[29] No instance has yet been mentioned. 

[30] The thought that is implied, and should be expressed, by thewords, is this: "Cromwell's favourite ally was a free country. "

[31] The remarks about Christina are a digression, and Burnet is nowreturning to the respect in which Cromwell was held by foreignnations. 

[32] He not only sought, but sought successfully. That "find" is notnecessarily implied by "seek out" seems proved by the use of the wordin the Authorized Version, 2 Tim. Ii. 17: "He _sought_ me _out_ verydiligently, and _found_ me. "

 BISHOP BUTLER. 

The principal faults in this style are (_a_) a vague use of pronouns(5), and sometimes (_b_) the use of a phrase, where a word would beenough (47 _a_). 

 ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION. 

 Some persons, (15) _upon Some persons avowedly reject all pretence[33] of the sufficiency of revelation as[34]essentially the light of Nature_, avowedly incredible and necessarily reject all revelation as, _in its_ fictitious, on the ground that the (47 _a_) _very notion_, light of Nature is in itself incredible, _and what_ (47 _a_) sufficient. And assuredly, had the _must be fictitious_. And indeed light of Nature been sufficient in (32) it is certain that no such a sense as to render revelation would have been given, revelation needless or useless, no (32) had the light of Nature been revelation would ever have been sufficient in such a sense as to given. But let any man consider render (5) _one_ not[35] wanting, the spiritual darkness that once or useless. But no (15 _b_) man in (41) prevailed in the heathen seriousness and simplicity can world before revelation, and that possibly think _it_ (5) _so_, who (41) still prevails in those considers the state of religion in regions that have not yet received the heathen world before the light of revealed truth; above revelation, and _its_ (5) present all, let him mark not merely the state in those (11) _places_ (8) natural inattention and ignorance _which_ have borrowed no light of the masses, but also the from (5) it; particularly (19) the doubtful language held even by a doubtfulness of some of the (12) Socrates on even so vital a greatest men concerning _things of subject as[36] the immortality of the utmost_ (11) _importance_, as the soul; and then can he in well as the (15 _a_) _natural seriousness and sincerity maintain inattention and ignorance of that the light of Nature is mankind in general_. It is (34) sufficient? impossible to say (12) who would have been able to have reasoned It is of course impossible to deny out that whole system which we that some second[36] Aristotle call natural religion, (30) in its might have reasoned out, in its genuine simplicity, clear of genuine simplicity and without superstition; but there is a touch of superstition, the certainly no ground to affirm whole of that system which we that the generality could. Call natural religion. But there (44) If they could, there is is certainly no ground for no sort of probability that affirming that this complicated they would. (44) Admitting there process would have been possible were, they would highly want a for ordinary men. Even if they had standing admonition to remind them had the power, there is no of (5) _it_, and inculcate it upon probability that they would have them. And further still, were (5) had the inclination; and, even if _they_ as much _disposed_ (47 _a_) we admit the probable inclination, _to attend to_ religion as the they would still need some better sort of men (15 _a_) _are_; standing admonition, whereby yet, even upon this supposition, natural religion might be there would be various occasions suggested and inculcated. Still for supernatural instruction and further, even if we suppose these assistance, _and the greatest ordinary men to be as attentive to advantages_ (50) _might be religion as men of a better sort, afforded_ (15 _a_) _by_ (5) yet even then there would be _them_. So that, to say revelation various occasions when is a thing superfluous, _what supernatural instruction and there_ (47 _a_) _was no need of_, assistance might be most and _what can be of_ (47 _a_) _no beneficially bestowed. Service_, is, I think, to talk wildly and at random. Nor would it Therefore, to call revelation be more extravagant to affirm that superfluous, needless, and (40 _a_) _mankind_ is so entirely useless, is, in my opinion, to (40 _a_) _at ease_ in the present talk wildly and at random. A man state, and (40 _a_) _life so_ might as reasonably assert that we completely (40 _a_) _happy_, that are so entirely at ease and so (5) _it_ is a contradiction to completely happy in this present suppose (40 _a_) our condition life that our condition cannot capable of _being in any respect_ without contradiction be supposed (47 _a_) _better_. --(_Analogy of capable of being in any way Religion_, part ii. Chap. 1. ) improved. 

FOOTNOTES:

[33] "To pretend" once meant "to put forward, " "maintain. "

[34] It has been suggested, however, that by "in its very notionincredible, " is meant "inconceivable. "

[35] "Wanting" is used for modern "wanted. "

[36] This use of the particular for the general would be out of placein Butler's style, but it adds clearness. 

BREVITY. 

 SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON. 

The following extract exhibits examples of tautology and lengthiness. The "implied statement" (50) can often be used as a remedy, but, moreoften, the best remedy is omission. 

 ORIGINAL VERSION. PARALLEL VERSION. 

 The Russian empire is (50) _a Russia, with her vast strength and state of_ (54) _such_ vast boundless resources, is obviously strength and boundless destined to exercise on the course resources, _that_ it is of history a great and lasting obviously destined to make a influence. The slowness of her great and lasting impression on progress only renders her human affairs. Its (50) progress durability more probable. The has been slow, but (5) _it_[37] is Russian Empire has not, like the only on that account the more empires of Alexander the Great and likely to be durable. (5) _It_ has Napoleon, been raised to sudden not suddenly risen to greatness, greatness by the genius of like the empire of Alexander in individuals or the accidents of ancient (19) (31), or that of fortune, but has been slowly Napoleon in modern, times, from enlarged and firmly consolidated the force of individual genius, or by well-guided ambition and the accidents of (54) casual persevering energy, [38] during a fortune, but has slowly advanced, long succession of ages. And (40 _a_) been firmly consolidated (15) _during a succession of ages_, from the combined influence of ambition skilfully directed and energy (15 _a_) _perseveringly applied_. 

 * * * * * * * * * *

 The extent and fertility of the The extent and fertility of her Russian territory are _such_ (54) territory furnish unparalleled _as to_ furnish facilities of facilities for the increase of her increase and elements of strength population and power. European _which no nation_ (47 _a_) _in the Russia, that is, Russia to the world enjoys_. European west of the Ural Mountains, Russia--that is, Russia to the contains one million two hundred westward of the Ural thousand square geographical Mountains--contains a hundred and miles, or ten times the surface of fifty thousand four hundred square Great Britain and Ireland. Marine leagues, or about one million two hundred thousand square geographical miles, being ten times the surface of the British Islands, which contain, including Ireland, one hundred and twenty-two thousand. Great part, This vast territory is intersected no doubt, of this _immense_ (54, by no mountain ranges, no arid see below) _territory is covered_ deserts; and though much of it is with forests, or (40 _a_) _lies_ rendered almost unproductive of so far to the north as to be food either by the denseness of almost unproductive of food; but forests, or by the severity of the no ranges of mountains or arid northern winter, yet almost all, deserts intersect the _vast_ (54, except that part which touches see above) _extent_, and almost the Arctic snows, is capable of the whole, excepting that which yielding something for the use touches the Arctic snows, is of man. Capable of yielding something for the use of man. The (3) (54) The steppes of the south present _boundless_ steppes of the south an inexhaustible pasturage to present (54) _inexhaustible_ those nomad tribes whose numerous fields of pasturage, and give and incomparable horsemen form the birth to those nomad tribes, in chief defence of the empire. Whose numerous and incomparable horsemen the chief defence of the empire, [39] as of all Oriental states, (15 _a_) _is to be found_. The rich arable lands in the heart The rich arable lands in the _of the_ (54) _empire_ produce an interior produce grain enough to (2) _incalculable_ quantity of support four times the present grain, capable not only of population of the empire, and yet maintaining four times (5) _its_ leave a vast surplus to be present inhabitants, but affording transported by the Dnieper, the a vast surplus for exportation by Volga, and their tributaries, into the Dnieper, the Volga, and their the Euxine or other seas. Tributary streams, (30) which _form so many_ (54) _natural outlets_ into the Euxine or other seas; (44) while the cold and Lastly, the cold bleak plains shivering plains which stretch stretching towards Archangel and towards Archangel and the shores towards the shores of the White of the White Sea are (48) covered Sea, and covered with immense with immense forests of fir and forests of oak and fir, furnish oak, furnishing at once (54)[40] materials for shipbuilding and _inexhaustible_ materials for supplies of fuel that will for shipbuilding and supplies of fuel. Many generations supersede the (54) _These ample stores_ for many necessity of searching for coal. Generations will supersede the necessity of searching in the (14 _a_) _bowels_ of the earth for _the purposes of_ (54) _warmth or manufacture_. 

 Formidable as the power of Russia Much as we may dread Russia for is from the vast extent of its the vastness of her territory and territory, and the great and of her rapidly increasing numbers, rapidly increasing number _of there is greater cause for fear its_ (54) _subjects_, (5) _it_ is in the military spirit and the still more (5) _so_ from the docility of her people. Military spirit and docile disposition _by which they are_ (54)[41] _distinguished_. The prevailing (54) _passion_ of the A burning thirst for conquest is nation is the (54) _love of as prevalent a passion in Russia conquest_, and this (54) _ardent_ as democratic ambition in the free (54) _desire_, which (54) _burns states of Western Europe. This as_ (54) _fiercely_ in them as passion is the unseen spring[2] democratic ambition does in the which, while it retains the free states of Western Europe, is Russians in the strictest the unseen spring[42] which both discipline, unceasingly impels retains them _submissive_ (54) their united forces against all _under the standard of their adjoining states. Chief_ and impels their accumulated forces in ceaseless The national energy, which is as violence over all the adjoining great as the national territory, states. The energies of the rarely wastes itself in disputes people, great as[43] the territory about domestic grievances. For all they inhabit, are rarely wasted in internal evils, how great soever, internal disputes. Domestic the Russians hope to find a grievances, how great soever, are compensation, and more than a (54) overlooked in the thirst for compensation, in the conquest of foreign aggrandizement. (15) In the world. The conquest of the world the people hope to find a compensation, and more than a compensation, (15 _a_) _for all the evils of their interior administration_. 

FOOTNOTES:

[37] Apparently "it" means, not "progress, " but the "Russian empire. "

[38] Not "energy, " but "a long succession of ages, " needs to beemphasized. 

[39] There is nothing in the context that requires the words, "as ofall Oriental states. "

[40] If they were really "inexhaustible, " the "necessity of searchingin the bowels of the earth" would be "superseded, " not for "many, " butfor all generations. 

[41] The words can be implied, and besides they are expressed in thefollowing sentence. 

[42] The metaphor is questionable; for a "spring, " _qua_ "spring, "does not retain at all; and besides, "a passion" ought not to "burn"in one line, and be a "spring" in the next. 

[43] The meaning appears _not_ to be, "great as" (is), _i. E. _ "thoughthe territory is great. "

THE END. 

 * * * * *

ENGLISH LESSONS

FOR

ENGLISH PEOPLE. 

BY

THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M. A. , HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL;

AND

J. R. SEELEY, M. A. , PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. 

"It is not so much a merit to know English as it is a shame not toknow it; and I look upon this knowledge as essential for anEnglishman, and not merely for a fine speaker. "--ADAPTED FROM CICERO. 

 BOSTON: ROBERTS BROTHERS. 1883. 

[Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT]

 UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON, CAMBRIDGE. 

TO THE

REV. G. F. W. MORTIMER, D. D. , _Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, late Head Master of the City ofLondon School_. 

DEAR DOCTOR MORTIMER, We have other motives, beside the respect and gratitude which must befelt for you by all those of your old pupils who are capable ofappreciating the work you did at the City of London School, for askingyou to let us dedicate to you a little book which we have entitled"English Lessons for English People. "

Looking back upon our school life, we both feel that among the manyeducational advantages which we enjoyed under your care, there wasnone more important than the study of the works of Shakspeare, towhich we and our school-fellows were stimulated by the special prizesof the Beaufoy Endowment. 

We owe you a debt of gratitude not always owed by pupils to theirteachers. Many who have passed into a life of engrossing activitywithout having been taught at school to use rightly, or to appreciatethe right use of, their native tongue, feeling themselves foreignersamid the language of their country, may turn with some point againsttheir teachers the reproach of banished Bolingbroke:--

 My tongue's use is to me no more Than an unstringed viol or a harp, Or like a cunning instrument cased up, Or, being open, put into his hands That knows no touch to tune the harmony; Within my mouth you have engaoled my tongue, Doubly portcullis'd with my teeth and lips, And dull, unfeeling, barren ignorance Is made my gaoler to attend on me. I am too old to fawn upon a nurse, Too far in years to be a pupil now. 

It is our pleasant duty, on the contrary, to thank you for encouragingus to study the "cunning instrument" of our native tongue. 

Our sense of the benefits which we derived from this study, and ourrecollection that the study was at that time optional, and did notaffect more than a small number of the pupils, lead us to anticipatethat when once the English language and literature become recognized, not as an optional but as a regular part of our educational course, the advantages will be so great as to constitute nothing short of anational benefit. 

The present seems to be a critical moment for English instruction. Thesubject has excited much attention of late years; many schools havealready taken it up; others are on the point of doing so; it forms animportant part of most Government and other examinations. But there isa complaint from many teachers that they cannot teach English for wantof text-books and manuals; and, as the study of English becomes yearby year more general, this complaint makes itself more and moredistinctly heard. To meet this want we have written the followingpages. If we had had more time, we might perhaps have been tempted toaim at producing a more learned and exhaustive book on the subject;but, setting aside want of leisure, we feel that a practicaltext-book, and not a learned or exhaustive treatise, is what is wantedat the present crisis. 

We feel sure that you will give a kindly welcome to our little book, as an attempt, however imperfect, to hand on the torch which you havehanded to us; we beg you also to accept it as a token of our sinceregratitude for more than ordinary kindnesses, and to believe us

 Your affectionate pupils, J. R. SEELEY. EDWIN A. ABBOTT. 

 * * * * *

_Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications. _

ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. By Rev. E. A. ABBOTT, M. A. , andProf. J. R. SEELEY, M. A. Part I. --Vocabulary. Part II--Diction. PartIII. --Metre. Part IV. --Hints on Selection and Arrangement. Appendix. 16mo. Price $1. 50. 

_From the London Athenæum. _

 The object of this book is evidently a practical one. It is intended for ordinary use by a large circle of readers; and though designed principally for boys, may be read with advantage by many of more advanced years. One of the lessons which it professes to teach, "to use the right word in the right place, " is one which no one should despise. The accomplishment is a rare one, and many of the hints here given are truly admirable. 

_From the Southern Review. _

 The study of Language can never be exhausted. Every time it is looked at by a man of real ability and culture, some new phase starts into view. The origin of Language; its relations to the mind; its history; its laws; its development; its struggles; its triumphs; its devices; its puzzles; its ethics, --every thing about it is full of interest. 

 Here is a delightful book, by two men of recognized authority, --the head Master of London School, and the Professor of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, the notable author of "Ecce Homo. " The book is so comprehensive in its scope that it seems almost miscellaneous. It treats of the vocabulary of the English Language; Diction as appropriate to this or that sort of composition; selection and arguments of topics; Metre, and an Appendix on Logic. All this in less than three hundred pages. Within this space so many subjects cannot be treated exhaustively; and no one is, unless we may except Metre, to which about eighty pages are devoted, and about which all seems to be said that is worth saying, --possibly more. But on each topic some of the best things are said in a very stimulating way. The student will desire to study more thoroughly the subject into which such pleasant openings are here given; and the best prepared teacher will be thankful for the number of striking illustrations gathered up to his hand. 

 The abundance and freshness of the quotations makes the volume very attractive reading, without reference to its didactic value. 

_Sold by all booksellers. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers_, ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON. 

PREFACE. 

This book is not intended to supply the place of an English Grammar. It presupposes a knowledge of Grammar and of English idiom in itsreaders, and does not address itself to foreigners, but to those who, having already a familiar knowledge of English, need help to write itwith taste and exactness. Some degree of knowledge is presumed in thereader; nevertheless we do not presume that he possesses so much as torender him incapable of profiting from _lessons_. Our object is, ifpossible, not merely to interest, but to _teach_; to write lessons, not essays, --lessons that may perhaps prove interesting to some whohave passed beyond the routine of school life, but still lessons, inthe strictest sense, adapted for school classes. 

Aiming at practical utility, the book deals only with thosedifficulties which, in the course of teaching, we have found to bemost common and most serious. For there are many difficulties, evenwhen grammatical accuracy has been attained, in the way of Englishpersons attempting to write and speak correctly. First, there is thecramping restriction of an insufficient vocabulary; not merely a looseand inexact apprehension of many words that are commonly used, and aconsequent difficulty in using them accurately, but also a totalignorance of many other words, and an inability to use them at all;and these last are, as a rule, the very words which are absolutelynecessary for the comprehension and expression of any thought thatdeals with something more than the most ordinary concrete notions. There is also a very common inability to appreciate the differencesbetween words that are at all similar. Lastly, where the pupil hasstudied Latin, and trusts too much for his knowledge of English wordsto his knowledge of their Latin roots, there is the possibility ofmisderiving and misunderstanding a word, owing to ignorance of thechanges of letters introduced in the process of derivation; and, onthe other hand, there is the danger of misunderstanding andpedantically misusing words correctly derived, from an ignorance ofthe changes of meaning which a word almost always experiences inpassing from one language to another. The result of all thisnon-understanding or slovenly half-understanding of words is a habitof slovenly reading and slovenly writing, which when once acquired isvery hard to shake off. 

Then, following on the difficulties attending the use of words, thereare others attending the choice and arrangement of words. There is thedanger of falling into "poetic prose, " of thinking it necessary towrite "steed" or "charger" instead of "horse, " "ire" instead of"anger, " and the like; and every teacher, who has had much experiencein looking over examination papers, will admit that this is a dangerto which beginners are very liable. Again, there is the temptation toshrink with a senseless fear from using a plain word twice in the samepage, and often from using a plain word at all. This unmanly dread ofsimplicity, and of what is called "tautology, " gives rise to apatchwork made up of scraps of poetic quotations, unmeaningperiphrases, and would-be humorous circumlocutions, --a style of allstyles perhaps the most objectionable and offensive, which may beknown and avoided by the name of _Fine Writing_. Lastly, there is thedanger of _obscurity_, a fault which cannot be avoided without extremecare, owing to the uninflected nature of our language. 

All these difficulties and dangers are quite as real, and require asmuch attention, and are fit subjects for practical teaching in ourschools, quite as much as many points which, at present, receiveperhaps an excessive attention in some of our text-books. To use theright word in the right place is an accomplishment not less valuablethan the knowledge of the truth (carefully recorded in most EnglishGrammars, and often inflicted as a task upon younger pupils) that theplural of _cherub_ is _cherubim_, and the feminine of _bull_ is _cow_. 

To smooth the reader's way through these difficulties is the object ofthe first three Parts of this book. Difficulties connected withVocabulary are considered first. The student is introduced, almost atonce, to _Synonyms_. He is taught how to _define_ a word, with andwithout the aid of its synonyms. He is shown how to _eliminate_ from aword whatever is not essential to its meaning. The processes of_Definition_ and _Elimination_ are carefully explained: a system orscheme is laid down which he can exactly follow; and examples aresubjoined, worked out to illustrate the method which he is to pursue. A system is also given by which the reader may enlarge his vocabulary, and furnish himself easily and naturally with those general orabstract terms which are often misunderstood and misused, and stillmore often not understood and not used at all. Some information isalso given to help the reader to connect words with their roots, andat the same time to caution him against supposing that, because heknows the roots of a word, he necessarily knows the meaning of theword itself. Exercises are interspersed throughout this Part which canbe worked out with, or without, an English EtymologicalDictionary, [44] as the nature of the case may require. The exerciseshave not been selected at random; many of them have been subjected tothe practical test of experience, and have been used in classteaching. 

The Second Part deals with Diction. It attempts to illustrate withsome detail the distinction--often ignored by those who are beginningto write English, and sometimes by others also--between the Diction ofProse, and that of Poetry. It endeavors to dissipate that excessiveand vulgar dread of tautology which, together with a fondness formisplaced pleasantry, gives rise to the vicious style described above. It gives some practical rules for writing a long sentence clearly andimpressively; and it also examines the difference between slang, conversation, and written prose. Both for translating from foreignlanguages into English, and for writing original English composition, these rules have been used in teaching, and, we venture to think, withencouraging results. 

A Chapter on Simile and Metaphor concludes the subject of Diction. Wehave found, in the course of teaching, that a great deal of confusionin speaking and writing, and still more in reading and attempting tounderstand the works of our classical English authors, arises from theinability to express the literal meaning conveyed in a Metaphor. Theapplication of the principle of Proportion to the explanation ofMetaphor has been found to dissipate much of this confusion. Theyoungest pupils readily learn how to "expand a Metaphor into itsSimile;" and it is really astonishing to see how many difficultiesthat perplex young heads, and sometimes old ones too, vanish at oncewhen the key of "expansion" is applied. More important still, perhaps, is the exactness of thought introduced by this method. The pupil knowsthat, if he cannot expand a metaphor, he does not understand it. Allteachers will admit that to force a pupil to see that he does notunderstand any thing is a great stride of progress. It is difficultto exaggerate the value of a process which makes it impossible for apupil to delude himself into the belief that he understands when hedoes not understand. 

Metre is the subject of the Third Part. The object of this Part (asalso, in a great measure, of the Chapter just mentioned belonging tothe Second Part) is to enable the pupil to read English Poetry withintelligence, interest, and appreciation. To teach any one how to reada verse so as to mark the metre on the one hand, without on the otherhand converting the metrical line into a monotonous doggerel, is notso easy a task as might be supposed. Many of the rules stated in thisPart have been found of practical utility in teaching pupils to hitthe mean. Rules and illustrations have therefore been given, and thedifferent kinds of metre and varieties of the same metre have beenexplained at considerable length. 

This Chapter may seem to some to enter rather too much into detail. Wedesire, however, to urge as an explanation, that in all probabilitythe study of English metre will rapidly assume more importance inEnglish schools. At present, very little is generally taught, andperhaps known, about this subject. In a recent elaborate edition ofthe works of Pope, the skill of that consummate master of the art ofepigrammatic versification is impugned because in one of his lines hesuffers _the_ to receive the metrical accent. When one of thecommonest customs (for it is in no sense a license) of Englishpoets--a custom sanctioned by Shakspeare, Dryden, Milton, Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson--can be censured as a fault, and this ina leading edition of a leading poet of our literature, it must beevident that much still remains to be done in teaching English Metre. At present this Part may seem too detailed. Probably, some few yearshence, when a knowledge of English Metre has become more widelydiffused, it will seem not detailed enough. 

The Fourth Part (like the Chapter on Metaphor) is concerned not morewith English than with other languages. It treats of the differentStyles of Composition, the appropriate subjects for each, and thearrangement of the subject-matter. We hope that this may be of someinterest to the general reader, as well as of practical utility in thehigher classes of schools. It seems desirable that before pupils beginto write essays, imaginary dialogues, speeches, and poems, they shouldreceive some instruction as to the difference of arrangement in apoem, a speech, a conversation, and an essay. 

An Appendix adds a few hints on some Errors in Reasoning. Thisaddition may interfere with the symmetry of the book; but if it isfound of use, the utility will be ample compensation. In readingliterature, pupils are continually meeting instances of falsereasoning, which, if passed over without comment, do harm, and, ifcommented upon, require some little basis of knowledge in the pupil toenable him to understand the explanation. Without entering into thedetails of formal Logic, we have found it possible to give pupils somefew hints which have appeared to help them. The hints are soelementary, and so few, that they cannot possibly delude the youngestreader into imagining that they are any thing more than hints. Theymay induce him hereafter to study the subject thoroughly in a completetreatise, when he has leisure and opportunity; but, in any case, a boywill leave school all the better prepared for the work of life, whatever that work may be, if he knows the meaning of _induction_, andhas been cautioned against the error, _post hoc, ergo propter hoc_. Nolesson, so far as our experience in teaching goes, interests andstimulates pupils more than this; and our experience of debatingsocieties, in the higher forms of schools, forces upon us theconviction that such lessons are not more interesting than necessary. 

Questions on the different paragraphs have been added at the end ofthe book, for the purpose of enabling the student to test hisknowledge of the contents, and also to serve as home lessons to beprepared by pupils in classes. [45]

A desire, expressed by some teachers of experience, that these lessonsshould be published as soon as possible, has rather accelerated thepublication. Some misprints and other inaccuracies may possibly befound in the following pages, in consequence of the short time Whichhas been allowed us for correcting them. Our thanks are due to severalfriends who have kindly assisted us in this task, and who have alsoaided us with many valuable and practical suggestions. Among these wedesire to mention Mr. Joseph Payne, whose labors on Norman French arewell known; Mr. T. G. Philpotts, late Fellow of New College, Oxford, and one of the Assistant Masters of Rugby School; Mr. Edwin Abbott, Head Master of the Philological School; Mr. Howard Candler, Mathematical Master of Uppingham School; and the Rev. R. H. Quick, oneof the Assistant Masters of Harrow School. 

In conclusion, we repeat that we do not wish our book to be regardedas an exhaustive treatise, or as adapted for the use of foreigners. Itis intended primarily for boys, but, in the present unsatisfactorystate of English education, we entertain a hope that it may possiblybe found not unfit for some who have passed the age of boyhood; and inthis hope we have ventured to give it the title of _English Lessonsfor English People_. 

FOOTNOTES:

[44] An Etymological Dictionary is necessary for pupils studying theFirst Part. Chambers's or Ogilvie's will answer the purpose. 

[45] Some of the passages quoted to illustrate style are intended tobe committed to memory and used as repetition-lessons. --See pp. 180, 181, 212, 237, 238, etc. 

 * * * * *

ON THE RIGHT USE OF BOOKS. 

A LECTURE. By WILLIAM P. ATKINSON, Professor of English and History inthe Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 16mo. Cloth. Price 50cents. 

 "Full of good sense, sound taste, and quiet humor. . . . It is the easiest thing in the world to waste time over books, which are merely tools of knowledge like any other tools. . . . It is the function of a good book not only to fructify, but to inspire, not only to fill the memory with evanescent treasures, but to enrich the imagination with forms of beauty and goodness which leave a lasting impression on the character. "--_N. Y. Tribune. _

 "Contains so many wise suggestions concerning methods in study and so excellent a summary of the nature and principles of a really liberal education that it well deserves publication for the benefit of the reading public. Though it makes only a slight volume, its quality in thought and style is so admirable that all who are interested in the subject of good education will give to it a prominent and honorable position among the many books upon education which have recently been published. For it takes only a brief reading to perceive that in this single lecture the results of wide experience in teaching and of long study of the true principles of education are generalized and presented in a few pages, each one of which contains so much that it might be easily expanded into an excellent chapter. "--_The Library Table. _

 * * * * *

READING AS A FINE ART. 

By ERNEST LEGOUVÉ, of the Académie Française. Translated from theNinth Edition by ABBY LANGDON ALGER. 16mo. Cloth. 50 cents. 

(_Dedication. _)

 TO THE SCHOLARS OF THE HIGH AND NORMAL SCHOOL. 

 For you this sketch was written: permit me to dedicate it to you, in fact, to intrust it to your care. Pupils to-day, to-morrow you will be teachers; to-morrow, generation after generation of youth will pass through your guardian hands. An idea received by you must of necessity reach thousands of minds. Help me, then, to spread abroad the work in which you have some share, and allow me to add to the great pleasure of having numbered you among my hearers the still greater happiness of calling you my assistants. E. LEGOUVÉ. 

 We commend this valuable little book to the attention of teachers and others interested in the instruction of the pupils of our public schools. It treats of the "First Steps in Reading, " "Learning to Read, " "Should we read as we talk, " "The Use and Management of the Voice, " "The Art of Breathing, " "Pronunciation, " "Stuttering, " "Punctuation, " "Readers and Speakers, " "Reading as a Means of Criticism, " "On Reading Poetry, " &c. , and makes a strong claim as to the value of reading aloud, as being the most wholesome of gymnastics, for to strengthen the voice is to strengthen the whole system and develop vocal power. 

 * * * * *

HOW TO PARSE. 

AN ATTEMPT TO APPLY THE PRINCIPLES OF SCHOLARSHIP TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. With Appendixes in Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. By EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M. A. , Head Master of the City of London School. 16mo. Cloth. Price $1. 00. 

 "We recommend this little book to the careful attention of teachers and others interested in instruction. In the hands of an able teacher, the book should help to relieve parsing from the reproach of being the bane of the school-room. The Etymological Glossary of Grammatical Terms will also supply a long-felt want. " _N. Y. Nation. _

 "'How to Parse' is likely to prove to teachers a valuable, and to scholars an agreeable, substitute for most of the grammars in common use. "--_Boston Daily Advertiser. _

 "The Rev. E. A. Abbott, whose books, 'English Lessons for English People, ' and 'How to Write Clearly, ' have been accepted as standard text-books on both sides of the ocean, has added another work to his list of sensible treatises on the use of English. It is called 'How to Parse, ' and is best described by the further title, 'An Attempt to apply the Principles of Scholarship to English Grammar, with Appendices on Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. ' The little book is so sensible and so simple that the greater number of its readers will perhaps forget to observe that it is profoundly philosophical also, but it is so in the best sense of the term. "--_N. Y. Evening Post. _

 "Of all subjects of study, it may be safely admitted that grammar possesses as a rule the fewest attractions for the youthful mind. To prepare a work capable of imparting a thorough knowledge of this important part of education in an attractive and entertaining form, to many may appear extremely difficult, if not impossible; nevertheless, the task has been accomplished in a highly successful manner by Edwin A. Abbott, Head Master of the City of London School, in a neat little volume entitled 'How to Parse. ' The author has succeeded admirably in combining with the exercises a vast amount of useful information, which impacts to the principles and rules of the main subject a degree of interest that renders the study as attractive as history or fiction. The value of the book is greatly increased by an excellent glossary of grammatical forms and a nicely arranged index. The work deserves the attention and consideration of teachers and pupils, and will doubtless prove a highly popular addition to the list of school-books. "--_N. Y. Graphic. _

 * * * * *

_Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications. _

GOETHE'S

HERMANN AND DOROTHEA. 

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN

BY ELLEN FROTHINGHAM. 

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. 

 _Thin 8vo, cloth, gilt, bevelled boards. Price $2. 00. _ _A cheaper edition, 16mo, cloth. Price $1. 00. _

 "Miss Frothingham's translation is something to be glad of: it lends itself kindly to perusal, and it presents Goethe's charming poem in the metre of the original. . . . It is not a poem which could be profitably used in an argument for the enlargement of the sphere of woman: it teaches her subjection, indeed, from the lips of a beautiful girl, which are always so fatally convincing; but it has its charm, nevertheless, and will serve at least for an agreeable picture of an age when the ideal woman was a creature around which grew the beauty and comfort and security of home. "--_Atlantic Monthly. _

 "The poem itself is bewitching. Of the same metre as Longfellow's 'Evangeline, ' its sweet and measured cadences carry the reader onward with a real pleasure as he becomes more and more absorbed in this descriptive wooing song. It is a sweet volume to read aloud in a select circle of intelligent friends. "--_Providence Press. _

 "Miss Frothingham has done a good service, and done it well, in translating this famous idyl, which has been justly called 'one of the most faultless poems of modern times. ' Nothing can surpass the simplicity, tenderness, and grace of the original, and these have been well preserved in Miss Frothingham's version. Her success is worthy of the highest praise, and the mere English reader can scarcely fail to read the poem with the same delight with which it has always been read by those familiar with the German. Its charming pictures of domestic life, the strength and delicacy of its characterization, the purity of tone and ardent love of country which breathe through it, must always make it one of the most admired of Goethe's works. "--_Boston Christian Register. _

_Sold everywhere. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers_, ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON

 * * * * *

 DR. ABBOTT'S WORKS. 

HOW TO PARSE. An Attempt to Apply the Principles of Scholarship toEnglish Grammar. With Appendixes on Analysis, Spelling, andPunctuation. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $1. 00. 

HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. An Introduction to English Grammar. American edition, revised and enlarged by Prof. JOHN G. R. McELROY, ofthe University of Pennsylvania. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 75 cents. 

HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY. Rules and Exercises in English Composition. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 60 cents. 

ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. Jointly by Dr. ABBOTT and Prof. J. R. SEELEY, M. A. , of Cambridge University, Eng. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $1. 50. 

 ROBERTS BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, _Boston_. 

 * * * * *

[Transcriber's Notes:

Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully aspossible, including obsolete and variant spellings and otherinconsistencies. 

The transcriber made the following changes to the text to correctobvious errors:

1. P. 90, "inpugned" --> "impugned"2. P. 51, to qualify "enemy. --> to qualify "enemy. "

Text set in bold print is indicated by asterisks, i. E. , *Bold*. 

It is common to have footnotes referenced multiple times in the text. 

Advertisements for Dr. Abbott's other works published by RobertsBrothers have been moved from the front of the book to the end. 

End of Transcriber's Notes]