[Illustration: CAPTAIN COOK. ]

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 THE

 HISTORY

 OF

 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

 FROM 1606 TO 1890

 BY ALEXANDER SUTHERLAND, M. A. AND GEORGE SUTHERLAND, M. A. 

 LONDON LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. AND NEW YORK: 15 EAST 16th STREET

 GEORGE ROBERTSON AND CO. MELBOURNE, SYDNEY, ADELAIDE, AND BRISBANE 1894

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 THE ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS. 

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

 PAGE Captain Cook, _frontispiece. _ William Dampier, 6 Rocks, South Heads, Sydney, 13 Town and Cove of Sydney, in 1798, 17 Matthew Flinders, 21 Cook's Monument, Botany Bay, 24 The Explorers' Tree, Katoomba, N. S. W. , 26 Governor Collins, 33 Governor Macquarie, 39 Blue Mountain Scenery, Wentworth Falls, N. S. W. , 41 St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney, 46 Captain Charles Sturt, 51 The First House Built in Victoria, 56 The First Hotel in Victoria, 57 Edward Henty, 61 John Pascoe Fawkner, 62 Governor Latrobe, 65 Collins Street, Melbourne, in 1840, 66 First Settlement at Adelaide, 1836, 69 Governor Hindmarsh, 71 Proclamation Tree, Glenelg, 74 Colonial Secretary's Office, Sydney, 81 Edward Hargraves, 92 Perth, Western Australia, in 1838, 114 Perth, 1890, 115 Boomerangs, or Kylies, 122 Parliament House, Brisbane, 123 Victoria Bridge, Brisbane, 126 Government House, Brisbane, 130 Robert O'Hara Burke, 144 William John Wills, 145 Sir John Franklin, 156 Queen Truganina, the last of the Tasmanians, 163 King William Street, Adelaide, 167 George Street, Sydney, 169 The Lithgow Zigzag, the Blue Mountains, 172 The Town Hall, Sydney, 174 Collins Street, Melbourne, 177 Town Hall, Melbourne, 182 Port of Melbourne, 183 A Maori Dwelling, 185 Milford Sound, South Island, New Zealand, 191 Rev. S. Marsden, "the Apostle of New Zealand, " 195 Auckland, from the Wharf, 206 Stronghold of the Maoris at Rangiriri, 222 Sir George Grey, 224 Knox Church, Dunedin, 228 Christchurch Cathedral, 230 The Maori King, 232 Rangiriri, from the Waikato, 236 The Cargill Fountain, 243 Victoria Defence Fleet, 245

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CONTENTS. 

 CHAPTER PAGE I. --The Early Discoverers, 1 II. --Convict Settlement at Sydney, 1788 to 1890, 11 III. --Discoveries of Bass and Flinders, 18 IV. --New South Wales, 1800 to 1808, 25 V. --Tasmania, 1803 to 1836, 31 VI. --New South Wales, 1808 to 1837, 38 VII. --Discoveries in the Interior, 1817 to 1836, 48 VIII. --Port Phillip, 1800 to 1840, 55 IX. --South Australia, 1836 to 1841, 67 X. --New South Wales, 1838 to 1850, 75 XI. --South Australia, 1841 to 1850, 84 XII. --The Discovery of Gold, 89 XIII. --Victoria, 1851 to 1855, 98 XIV. --New South Wales, 1851 to 1860, 107 XV. --West Australia, 1829 to 1890, 111 XVI. --Queensland, 1823 to 1890, 119 XVII. --Explorations in the Interior, 1840 to 1860, 131 XVIII. --Discoveries in the Interior, 1860 to 1886, 143 XIX. --Tasmania, 1837 to 1890, 155 XX. --South Australia, 1850 to 1890, 163 XXI. --New South Wales, 1860 to 1890, 168 XXII. --Victoria, 1855 to 1890, 175 XXIII. --The Times of the Maoris, 184 XXIV. --New Zealand Colonised, 200 XXV. --White Men and Maoris, 215 XXVI. --New Zealand, 1843 to 1890, 227

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HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE EARLY DISCOVERERS. 

#1. # To the people who lived four centuries ago in Europe only a verysmall portion of the earth's surface was known. Their geography wasconfined to the regions lying immediately around the Mediterranean, andincluding Europe, the north of Africa, and the west of Asia. Round thesethere was a margin, obscurely and imperfectly described in the reportsof merchants; but by far the greater part of the world was utterlyunknown. Great realms of darkness stretched all beyond, and closelyhemmed in the little circle of light. In these unknown lands ourancestors loved to picture everything that was strange and mysterious. They believed that the man who could penetrate far enough would findcountries where inexhaustible riches were to be gathered without toilfrom fertile shores, or marvellous valleys; and though wild tales weretold of the dangers supposed to fill these regions, yet to the moredaring and adventurous these only made the visions of boundless wealthand enchanting loveliness seem more fascinating. 

Thus, as the art of navigation improved, and long voyages becamepossible, courageous seamen were tempted to venture out into the greatunknown expanse. Columbus carried his trembling sailors over greattracts of unknown ocean, and discovered the two continents of America;Vasco di Gama penetrated far to the south, and rounded the Cape of GoodHope; Magellan, passing through the straits now called by his name, wasthe first to enter the Pacific Ocean; and so in the case of a hundredothers, courage and skill carried the hardy seaman over many seas andinto many lands that had lain unknown for ages. 

Australia was the last part of the world to be thus visited andexplored. In the year 1600, during the times of Shakespeare, the regionto the south of the East Indies was still as little known as ever; therude maps of those days had only a great blank where the islands ofAustralia should have been. Most people thought there was nothing butthe ocean in that part of the world; and as the voyage was dangerous andvery long--requiring several years for its completion--scarcely any onecared to run the risk of exploring it. 

#2. De Quiros. #--There was, however, an enthusiastic seaman who firmlybelieved that a great continent existed there, and who longed to go insearch of it. This was De Quiros, a Spaniard, who had already sailedwith a famous voyager, and now desired to set out on an expedition ofhis own. He spent many years in beseeching the King of Spain to furnishhim with ships and men so that he might seek this southern continent. King Philip for a long time paid little attention to his entreaties, butwas at last overcome by his perseverance, and told De Quiros that, though he himself had no money for such purposes, he would order theGovernor of Peru to provide the necessary vessels. De Quiros carried theking's instructions to Peru, and two ships were soon prepared and filledwith suitable crews--the _Capitana_ and the _Almiranta_, with a smallervessel called the _Zabra_ to act as tender. A nobleman named Torres wasappointed second in command, and they set sail from Peru, on aprosperous voyage across the Pacific, discovering many small islands ontheir way, and seeing for the first time the Coral Islands of the SouthSeas. At length (1606) they reached a shore which stretched as far asthey could see both north and south, and De Quiros thought he haddiscovered the great Southern Continent. He called the place "TierraAustralis del Espiritu Santo, " that is, the "Southern Land of the HolySpirit". It is now known that this was not really a continent, butmerely one of the New Hebrides Islands, and more than a thousand milesaway from the mainland. The land was filled by high mountains, verdure-clad to their summits, and sending down fine streams, which fellin hoarse-sounding waterfalls from the edges of the rocky shore, orwandered amid tropical luxuriance of plants down to the golden sandsthat lay within the coral barriers. The inhabitants came down to theedge of the green and shining waters making signs of peace, and twentysoldiers went ashore, along with an officer, who made friends with them, exchanging cloth for pigs and fruit. De Quiros coasted along the islandsfor a day or two till he entered a fine bay, where his vessels anchored, and Torres went ashore. A chief came down to meet him, offering him apresent of fruit, and making signs to show that he did not wish theSpaniards to intrude upon his land. As Torres paid no attention, thechief drew a line upon the sand, and defied the Spaniards to cross it. Torres immediately stepped over it, and the natives launched some arrowsat him, which dropped harmlessly from his iron armour. Then theSpaniards fired their muskets, killing the chief and a number of thenaked savages. The rest stood for a moment, stupefied at the noise andflash; then turned and ran for the mountains. 

The Spaniards spent a few pleasant days among the fruit plantations, and slept in cool groves of overarching foliage; but subsequently theyhad quarrels and combats with the natives, of whom they killed aconsiderable number. When the Spaniards had taken on board a sufficientsupply of wood and of fresh water they set sail, but had scarcely gotout to sea when a fever spread among the crew, and became a perfectplague. They returned and anchored in the bay, where the vessels laylike so many hospitals. No one died, and after a few days they again putto sea, this time to be driven back again by bad weather. Torres, withtwo ships, safely reached the sheltering bay, but the vessel in which DeQuiros sailed was unable to enter it, and had to stand out to sea andweather the storm. The sailors then refused to proceed further with thevoyage, and, having risen in mutiny, compelled De Quiros to turn thevessel's head for Mexico, which they reached after some terrible monthsof hunger and thirst. 

#3. Torres. #--The other ships waited for a day or two, but no signs beingseen of their consort, they proceeded in search of it. In this voyageTorres sailed round the land, thus showing that it was no continent, butonly an island. Having satisfied himself that it was useless to seek forDe Quiros, he turned to the west, hoping to reach the PhilippineIslands, where the Spaniards had a colony, at Manila. It was hissingular fortune to sail through that opening which lies between NewGuinea and Australia, to which the name of "Torres Strait" was longafterwards applied. He probably saw Cape York rising out of the sea tothe south, but thought it only another of those endless little islandswith which the strait is studded. Poor De Quiros spent the rest of hislife in petitioning the King of Spain for ships to make a fresh attempt. After many years he obtained another order to the Governor of Peru, andthe old weather-beaten mariner once more set out from Spain full ofhope; but at Panama, on his way, death awaited him, and there thefiery-souled veteran passed away, the last of the great Spanishnavigators. He died in poverty and disappointment, but he is to behonoured as the first of the long line of Australian discoverers. Inafter years, the name he had invented was divided into two parts; theisland he had really discovered being called Espiritu Santo, while thecontinent he thought he had discovered was called Terra Australis. Thislast name was shortened by another discoverer--Flinders--to the presentterm Australia. 

#4. The Duyfhen. #--De Quiros and Torres were Spaniards, but the Dutch alsodisplayed much anxiety to reach the great South Continent. From theircolony at Java they sent out a small vessel, the _Duyfhen_, or _Dove_, which sailed into the Gulf of Carpentaria, and passed half-way downalong its eastern side. Some sailors landed, but so many of them werekilled by the natives that the captain was glad to embark again and sailfor home, after calling the place of their disaster Cape Keer-weer, orTurnagain. These Dutch sailors were the first Europeans, as far as cannow be known, who landed on Australian soil; but as they never publishedany account of their voyage, it is only by the merest chance that weknow anything of it. 

#5. Other Dutch Discoverers. #--During the next twenty years various Dutchvessels, while sailing to the settlements in the East Indies, met withthe coast of Australia. In 1616 Dirk Hartog landed on the island inShark Bay which is now called after him. Two years later Captain Zaachenis said to have sailed along the north coast, which he called ArnhemLand. Next year (1619) another captain, called Edel, surveyed thewestern shores, which for a long time bore his name. In 1622 a Dutchship, the _Leeuwin_, or _Lioness_, sailed along the southern coast, andits name was given to the south-west cape of Australia. In 1627 PeterNuyts entered the Great Australian Bight, and made a rough chart ofsome of its shores; in 1628 General Carpenter sailed completely roundthe large gulf to the north, which has taken its name from thiscircumstance. Thus, by degrees, all the northern and western, togetherwith part of the southern shores, came to be roughly explored, and theDutch even had some idea of colonising this continent. 

#6. Tasman. #--During the next fourteen years we hear no more of voyagesto Australia; but in 1642 Antony Van Diemen, the Governor of the Dutchpossessions in the East Indies, sent out his friend Abel Jansen Tasman, with two ships, to make new discoveries in the South Seas. Tasman firstwent to the Island of Bourbon, from which he sailed due south for atime; but finding no signs of land, he turned to the east, and threemonths after setting out he saw a rocky shore in the distance. Stormyweather coming on, he was driven out to sea, and it was not till a weeklater that he was able to reach the coast again. He called the place VanDiemen's Land, and sent some sailors on shore to examine the country. These men heard strange noises in the woods, and saw trees of enormousheight, in which notches were cut seven feet apart. These they believedto be the steps used by the natives in climbing the trees, and theytherefore returned to report that the land was exceedingly beautiful, but inhabited by men of gigantic size. Tasman, next day, allowed thecarpenter to swim ashore and set up the Dutch flag; but having himselfseen, from his ship, what he thought to be men of extraordinary staturemoving about on the shore, he lost no time in taking up his anchor andsetting sail. Farther to the east he discovered the islands of NewZealand, and after having made a partial survey of their coasts, hereturned to Batavia. Two years after he was sent on a second voyage ofdiscovery, and explored the northern and western shores of Australiaitself; but the results do not seem to have been important, and are notnow known. His chief service in the exploration of Australia was thediscovery of Tasmania, as it is now called, after his name. This he didnot know to be an island; he drew it on his maps as if it were apeninsula belonging to the mainland of Australia. 

#7. Dampier. #--The discoveries that had so far been made were veryimperfect, for the sailors generally contented themselves with lookingat the land from a safe distance. They made no surveys such as wouldhave enabled them to draw correct charts of the coasts; they seldomlanded, and even when they did, they never sought to become acquaintedwith the natives, or to learn anything as to the nature of the interiorof the country. The first who took the trouble to obtain information ofthis more accurate kind was the Englishman, William Dampier. 

[Illustration: WILLIAM DAMPIER. ]

When a young man Dampier had gone out to Jamaica to manage a largeestate; but not liking the slave-driving business, he crossed over toCampeachy, and lived for a time in the woods, cutting the more valuablekinds of timber. Here he became acquainted with the buccaneers who madethe lonely coves of Campeachy their headquarters. Being persuaded tojoin them, he entered upon a life of lawless daring, constantly fightingand plundering, and meeting with the wildest adventures. He was oftencaptured by the American natives, still more often by the Spaniards, butalways escaped to enter upon exploits of fresh danger. In 1688 he joineda company of buccaneers, who proposed to make a voyage round the worldand plunder on their way. It took them more than a year to reach theEast Indies, where they spent a long time, sometimes attacking Spanishships or Dutch fortresses, sometimes leading an easy luxurious lifeamong the natives, often quarrelling among themselves, and even going sofar as to leave their captain with forty men on the island of Mindanao. But at length the time came when it was necessary to seek some quietspot where they should be able to clean and repair the bottoms of theirships. Accordingly, they landed on the north-west coast of Australia, and lived for twelve days at the place now called "Buccaneers'Archipelago". They were the first Europeans who held any communicationwith the natives of Australia, and the first to publish a detailedaccount of their voyage thither. Growing tired of a lawless life, andhaving become wealthy, Dampier bought an estate in England, where helived some years in retirement, till his love of adventure led him forthagain. The King of England was anxious to encourage discovery, andfitted out a vessel called the _Roebuck_, to explore the southern seas. Dampier was the only man in England who had ever been to Australia, andto him was given the command of the little vessel, which sailed in theyear 1699. It took a long time to reach Australia, but at last the_Roebuck_ entered what Dampier called Shark Bay, from an enormous sharkhe caught there. He then explored the north-west coast as far as RoebuckBay, in all about nine hundred miles; of which he published a full andfairly accurate account. He was a man of keen observation, and delightedto describe the habits and manners of the natives, as well aspeculiarities in the plants and animals, of the various places hevisited. During the time he was in Australia he frequently met with theblacks and became well acquainted with them. He gives this descriptionof their appearance:--

"The inhabitants are the most miserable wretches in the universe, havingno houses nor garments. They feed upon a few fish, cockles, mussels, andperiwinkles. They are without religion and without government. In figurethey are tall, straight-bodied and thin, with small, long limbs. "

The country itself, he says, is low and sandy, with no fresh water andscarcely any animals except one which looks like a racoon, and jumpsabout on its long hind legs. Altogether, his description is notprepossessing; and he says that the only pleasure he had found in thispart of his voyage was the satisfaction of having discovered the mostbarren spot on the face of the earth. 

This account is, in most respects, correct, so far as regards theportion of Australia visited by Dampier. But, unfortunately, he saw onlythe most inhospitable part of the whole continent. There are many partswhose beauty would have enchanted him, but as he had sailed along nearlya thousand miles without seeing any shore that was not miserable, it isnot to be wondered at that he reported the whole land to be worthless. He was subsequently engaged in other voyages of discovery, in one ofwhich he rescued the famous Alexander Selkirk from his lonely island;but, amid all his subsequent adventures, he never entertained the ideaof returning to Australia. 

Dampier published a most interesting account of all his travels indifferent parts of the world, and his book was for a long time thestandard book of travels. Defoe used the materials it contained for hiscelebrated novel, _Robinson Crusoe_. But it turned away the tide ofdiscovery from Australia; for those who read of the beautiful islandsand rich countries Dampier had elsewhere visited would never dream ofincurring the labour and expense of a voyage to so dull and barren aspot as Australia seemed to be from the description in his book. Thus wehear of no further explorations in this part of the world until nearly acentury after; and, even then, no one thought of sending out shipsspecially for the purpose. 

#8. Captain Cook. #--But in the year 1770 a series of important discoverieswas indirectly brought about. The Royal Society of London, calculatingthat the planet Venus would cross the disc of the sun in 1769, persuadedthe English Government to send out an expedition to the Pacific Oceanfor the purpose of making observations which would enable astronomers tocalculate the distance of the earth from the sun. A small vessel, the_Endeavour_, was chosen; astronomers with their instruments embarked, and the whole placed under the charge of James Cook, a sailor whoseadmirable character fully merited this distinction. At thirteen he hadbeen a shopkeeper's assistant, but, preferring the sea, he had become anapprentice in a coal vessel. After many years of rude life in thistrade, during which he contrived to carry on his education inmathematics and navigation, he entered the Royal Navy, and by diligenceand honesty rose to the rank of master. He had completed so manyexcellent surveys in North America, and, besides, had made himself sowell acquainted with astronomy, that the Government had no hesitation inmaking their choice. That it was a wise one, the care and success ofCook fully showed. He carried the expedition safely to Tahiti, builtfortifications, and erected instruments for the observations, which wereadmirably made. Having finished this part of his task, he thought itwould be a pity, with so fine a ship and crew, not to make somediscoveries in these little-known seas. He sailed south for a timewithout meeting land; then, turning west, he reached those islands ofNew Zealand which had been first seen by Tasman. But Cook made a farmore complete exploration than had been possible to Tasman. For sixmonths he examined their shores, sailing completely round both islandsand making excellent maps of them. 

Then, saying good-bye to these coasts at what he named Cape Farewell, hesailed westward for three weeks, until his outlook man raised the cry of"land, " and they were close to the shores of Australia at Cape Howe. Standing to the north-east, he sailed along the coast till he reached afine bay, where he anchored for about ten days. On his first landing hewas opposed by two of the natives, who seemed quite ready to encountermore than forty armed men. Cook endeavoured to gain their good-will, butwithout success. A musket fired between them startled, but did notdismay them; and when some small shot was fired into the legs of one ofthem, though he turned and ran into his hut, it was only for the purposeof putting on a shield and again facing the white men. Cook made manysubsequent attempts to be friendly with the natives, but always withoutsuccess. He examined the country for a few miles inland, and two of hisscientific friends--Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander--made splendidcollections of botanical specimens. From this circumstance the place wascalled Botany Bay, and its two headlands received the names of CapeBanks and Cape Solander. It was here that Captain Cook, amid the firingof cannons and volleys of musketry, took possession of the country onbehalf of His Britannic Majesty, giving it the name, "New South Wales, "on account of the resemblance of its coasts to the southern shores ofWales. 

Shortly after they had set sail from Botany Bay they observed a smallopening in the land; but Cook did not stay to examine it, merely markingit on his chart as "Port Jackson, " in honour of his friend Sir GeorgeJackson. The vessel still continued her course northward along thecoast, till they anchored in Moreton Bay. After a short stay, they againset out towards the north, making a rough chart of the shores they saw. In this way they had sailed along thirteen hundred miles without seriousmishap, when one night, at about eleven o'clock, they found the sea growvery shallow; all hands were quickly on deck, but before the ship couldbe turned she struck heavily on a sunken rock. No land was to be seen, and they therefore concluded that it was upon a bank of coral they hadstruck. The vessel seemed to rest upon the ridge; but, as the swell ofthe ocean rolled past, she bumped very heavily. Most of the cannons andother heavy articles were thrown overboard, and, the ship being thuslightened, they tried to float her off at daybreak. This they wereunable to do; but, by working hard all next day, they preparedeverything for a great effort at the evening tide, and had thesatisfaction of seeing the rising waters float the vessel off. But nowthe sea was found to be pouring in through the leaks so rapidly that, even with four pumps constantly going, they could scarcely keep herafloat. They worked hard day and night, but the ship was slowly sinking, when, by the ingenious device of passing a sail beneath her and pullingit tightly, it was found that the leakage was sufficiently decreased tokeep her from foundering. Shortly after, they saw land, which CaptainCook called "Cape Tribulation". He took the vessel into the mouth of asmall river, which they called the Endeavour, and there careened her. Onexamining the bottom, it was found that a great sharp rock had pierced ahole in her timbers, such as must inevitably have sent her to the bottomin spite of pumps and sails, had it not been that the piece of coralhad broken off and remained firmly fixed in the vessel's side, thusitself filling up the greater part of the hole it had caused. The shipwas fully repaired; and, after a delay of two months, they proceedednorthward along the coast to Cape York. They then sailed through TorresStrait, and made it clear that New Guinea and Australia are not joined. 

#9. Subsequent Visits. #--Several ships visited Australia during the nextfew years, but their commanders contented themselves with merely viewingthe coasts which had already been discovered, and returned withoutadding anything new. In 1772 Marion, a Frenchman, and next yearFurneaux, an Englishman, sailed along the coasts of Van Diemen's Land. In 1777 Captain Cook, shortly before his death, anchored for a few daysin Adventure Bay, on the east coast of Van Diemen's Land. La Perouse, Vancouver, and D'Entrecasteaux also visited Australia, and, though theyadded nothing of importance, they assisted in filling in the details. Bythis time nearly all the coasts had been roughly explored, and the onlygreat point left unsettled was, whether Van Diemen's Land was an islandor not. 

CHAPTER II. 

THE CONVICT SETTLEMENT AT SYDNEY, 1788-1800. 

#1. Botany Bay. #--The reports brought home by Captain Cook completelychanged the beliefs current in those days with regard to Australia. Fromthe time of Dampier it had been supposed that the whole of thiscontinent must be the same flat and miserable desert as the part hedescribed. Cook's account, on the other hand, represented the easterncoast as a country full of beauty and promise. Now, it so happened that, shortly after Cook's return, the English nation had to deal with a greatdifficulty in regard to its criminal population. In 1776 the UnitedStates declared their independence, and the English then found theycould no longer send their convicts over to Virginia, as they hadformerly done. In a short time the gaols of England were crowded withfelons. It became necessary to select a new place of transportation;and, just as this difficulty arose, Captain Cook's voyages calledattention to a land in every way suited for such a purpose, both byreason of its fertility and of its great distance. Viscount Sydney, therefore, determined to send out a party to Botany Bay, in order tofound a convict settlement there; and in May, 1787, a fleet was ready tosail. It consisted of the _Sirius_ war-ship, its tender the _Supply_, together with six transports for the convicts, and three ships forcarrying the stores. Of the convicts, five hundred and fifty were menand two hundred and twenty were women. To guard these, there were onboard two hundred soldiers. Captain Phillip was appointed Governor ofthe colony, Captain Hunter was second in command, and Mr. Collins wentout as judge-advocate, to preside in the military courts, which it wasintended to establish for the administration of justice. On the 18th, 19th, and 20th of January, 1788, the vessels arrived, one after another, in Botany Bay, after a voyage of eight months, during which many of theconvicts had died from diseases brought on by so long a confinement. 

#2. Port Jackson. #--As soon as the ships had anchored in Botany Bay, convicts were landed and commenced to clear the timber from a portion ofthe land; but a day or two was sufficient to show the unsuitability ofBotany Bay for such a settlement. Its waters were so shallow that theships could not enter it properly, and had to lie near the Heads, wherethe great waves of the Pacific rolled in on them by night and day. Governor Phillip, therefore, took three boats, and sailed out to searchfor some more convenient harbour. As he passed along the coast he turnedto examine the opening which Captain Cook had called Port Jackson, andsoon found himself in a winding channel of water, with great cliffsfrowning overhead. All at once a magnificent prospect opened on hiseyes. A harbour, which is, perhaps, the most beautiful and perfect inthe world, stretched before him far to the west, till it was lost on thedistant horizon. It seemed a vast maze of winding waters, dotted hereand there with lovely islets; its shores thickly wooded down to thestrips of golden sand which lined the most charming little bays; and itsbroad sheets of rippling waters bordered by lines of dusky foliage. Thescene has always been one of surpassing loveliness; but to those whofilled the first boats that ever threw the foam from its surface, whofelt themselves the objects of breathless attention to groups of nativeswho stood gazing here and there from the projecting rocks, it must havehad an enchanting effect. To Captain Phillip himself, whose mind hadbeen filled with anxiety and despondency as to the future prospects ofhis charge, it opened out like the vision of a world of new hope andpromise. 

[Illustration: ROCKS, SOUTH HEADS, SYDNEY. ]

Three days were spent in examining portions of this spacious harbour, and in exploring a few of its innumerable bays. Captain Phillipselected, as the place most suitable for the settlement, a small inlet, which, in honour of the Minister of State, he called Sydney Cove. It wasso deep as to allow vessels to approach to within a yard or two of theshore, thus avoiding the necessity of spending time and money inbuilding wharves or piers. After a few days the fleet was brought roundand lay at anchor in this little cove which is now the crowded CircularQuay. The convicts were landed, and commenced to clear away the trees onthe banks of a small stream which stole silently through a very densewood. When an open space had been obtained, a flagstaff was erected nearthe present battery on Dawe's Point; the soldiers fired three volleys, and the Governor read his commission to the assembled company. Thenbegan a scene of noise and bustle. From dawn to sunset, nothing could beheard but the sound of axes, hammers, and saws, with the crash of treesand the shouts of the convict overseers. They lost no time in preparingtheir habitations on shore; for the confinement of the overcrowded shipshad become intolerably hateful. 

#3. Early Sufferings. #--More than a third of their number were ill withscurvy and other diseases--sixty-six lay in the little hospital whichhad been set up, and many of them never recovered. Those who were wellenough to work began to clear the land for cultivation; but so soon aseverything was ready for the ploughing to begin, the amazing fact wasdiscovered that no one knew anything of agriculture; and had it not beenthat Governor Phillip had with him a servant who had been for a time ona farm, their labour would have been of little avail. As it was, thecultivation was of the rudest kind; one man, even if he had been ahighly experienced person, could do very little to instruct so many. Theofficers and soldiers were smart enough on parade, but they were uselesson a farm; the convicts, instead of trying to learn, expended all theiringenuity in picking each other's pockets, or in robbing the stores. They would do no work unless an armed soldier was standing behind them, and if he turned away for a moment, they would deliberately destroy thefarm implements in their charge, hide them in the sand or throw theminto the water. Thus, only a trifling amount of food was obtained fromthe soil; the provisions they had brought with them were nearlyfinished, and when the news came that the _Guardian_ transport, on whichthey were depending for fresh supplies, had struck on an iceberg and hadbeen lost, the little community was filled with the deepest dismay. Soonafter, a ship arrived with a number of fresh convicts, but noprovisions; in great haste the _Sirius_ was sent to the Cape of GoodHope, and the _Supply_ to Batavia; these vessels brought back as much asthey could get, but it was all used in a month or two. Starvation nowlay before the settlement; every one, including the officers and theGovernor himself, was put on the lowest rations which could keep thelife in a man's body, and yet there was not enough of food, even atthis miserable rate, to last for any length of time. Numbers died ofstarvation; the Governor stopped all the works, as the men were too weakto continue them. The sheep and cattle which they had brought with somuch trouble to become the origin of flocks and herds were all killedfor food, with the exception of two or three which had escaped to thewoods and had been lost from sight. 

#4. Norfolk Island. #--Under these circumstances, Governor Phillip sent twohundred convicts, with about seventy soldiers, to Norfolk Island, wherethere was a moderate chance of their being able to support themselves;for, immediately after his arrival in New South Wales, he had sentLieutenant King to take possession of that island, of whose beauty andfertility Captain Cook had spoken very highly. Twenty-seven convicts andsoldiers had gone along with King, and had cleared away the timber fromthe rich brown soil. They had little trouble in raising ample crops, andwere now in the midst of plenty, which their less fortunate companionscame to share. But the _Sirius_, in which they had been carried over, was wrecked on a coral reef near the island before she could return, andwith her was lost a considerable quantity of provisions. 

#5. The Second Fleet. #--The prospects of the colony at Sydney had grownvery black, when a store-ship suddenly appeared off the Heads. Great wasthe rejoicing at first; but when a storm arose and drove the vesselnorthward among the reefs of Broken Bay, their exultation was changed toa painful suspense. For some hours her fate was doubtful; but, to theintense relief of the expectant people on shore, she managed to makethe port and land her supplies. Shortly after, two other store-shipsarrived, and the community was never again so badly in want ofprovisions. Matters were growing cheerful, when a fresh gloom was causedby the arrival of a fleet filled to overflowing with sick and dyingconvicts. Seventeen hundred had been embarked, but of these two hundredhad died on the way, and their bodies had been thrown overboard. Severalhundreds were in the last stages of emaciation and exhaustion; scarcelyone of the whole fifteen hundred who landed was fit for a day's work. This brought fresh misery and trouble, and the deaths were of appallingfrequency. 

#6. Escape of Prisoners. #--Many of the convicts sought to escape fromtheir sufferings by running away; some seized the boats in the harbourand tried to sail for the Dutch colony in Java; others hid themselvesin the woods, and either perished or else returned, after weeks ofstarvation, to give themselves up to the authorities. In 1791 a band ofbetween forty and fifty set out to walk to China, and penetrated a fewmiles into the bush, where their bleached and whitened skeletons someyears after told their fate. 

#7. Departure of Governor Phillip. #--Amid these cares and trials thehealth of Governor Phillip fairly broke down, and, in 1792, forced himto resign. He was a man of energy and decision; prompt and skilful, yethumane and just in his character; his face, though pinched and pale withill-health, had a sweet and benevolent expression; no better man couldhave been selected to fill the difficult position he held with so muchcredit to himself. He received a handsome pension from the BritishGovernment, and retired to spend his life in English society. MajorGrose and Captain Patterson took charge of the colony for the next threeyears; but in 1795 Captain Hunter, who, after the loss of his ship, the_Sirius_, had returned to England, arrived in Sydney to occupy theposition of Governor. 

#8. Governor Hunter. #--By this time affairs had passed their crisis, andwere beginning to be favourable. About sixty convicts, whose sentenceshad expired, had received grants of land, and, now that they wereworking for themselves, had become successful farmers. Governor Hunterbrought out a number of free settlers, to whom he gave land near theHawkesbury; and, after a time, more than six thousand acres were coveredwith crops of wheat and maize. There was now no fear of famine, and thesettlement grew to be comfortable in most respects. Unfortunately, themore recent attempts to import cattle with which to stock the farms hadproved more or less unsuccessful; so that the discovery of a fine herdof sixty wandering through the meadows of the Hawkesbury was hailed withgreat delight. These were the descendants of the cattle which had beenlost from Governor Phillip's herd some years before. 

#9. State of the Settlement. #--Twelve years after the foundation ofthe colony, its population amounted to between six and seven thousandpersons. These were all settled near Sydney, which was a straggling townwith one main street 200 feet wide, running up the valley from SydneyCove, while on the slopes at either side the huts of the convicts werestationed far apart and each in a fenced-in plot of ground. On thelittle hills overlooking the cove, a number of big, bare, stonebuildings were the Government quarters and barracks for the soldiers. 

[Illustration: TOWN AND COVE OF SYDNEY IN 1798. (Compare with page 169. )]

Attempts had been made to penetrate to the west, though without success. The rugged chain of the Blue Mountains was an impassable barrier. Seventy miles north of Sydney a fine river--the Hunter--had beendiscovered by Lieutenant Shortland while in pursuit of some runawayconvicts who had stolen a boat. Signs of coal having been seen nearits mouth, convicts were sent up to open mines, and, these provingsuccessful, the town of Newcastle rapidly formed. In 1800 GovernorHunter returned to England on business, intending to come out again; buthe was appointed to the command of a war-ship, and Lieutenant King wassent out to take his place. 

CHAPTER III. 

THE DISCOVERIES OF BASS AND FLINDERS. 

#1. # No community has ever been more completely isolated than the firstinhabitants of Sydney. They were three thousand miles away from thenearest white men; before them lay a great ocean, visited only at rareintervals, and, for the greater part, unexplored; behind them was anunknown continent, a vast, untrodden waste, in which they formed but aspeck. They were almost completely shut out from intercourse with thecivilised world, and few of them could have any hope of returning totheir native land. This made the colony all the more suitable as a placeof punishment; for people shrank with horror at the idea of beingbanished to what seemed like a tomb for living men and women. But, forall that, it was not desirable that Australia should remain always asunknown and unexplored as it then was; and, seven years after the firstsettlement was made, two men arrived who were determined not to sufferit so to remain. 

When Governor Hunter came in 1795, he brought with him, on board hisship the _Reliance_, a young surgeon, George Bass, and a midshipmancalled Matthew Flinders. They were young men of the most admirablecharacter, modest and amiable, filled with a generous and manlyaffection for one another, and fired by a lofty enthusiasm whichrejoiced in the wide field for discovery and fame that spread all aroundthem. Within a month after their arrival they purchased a small boatabout eight feet in length, which they christened the _Tom Thumb_. Itscrew consisted of themselves and a boy to assist--truly a poor equipmentwith which to face a great and stormy ocean like the Pacific. Theysailed out, and after tossing for some time like a toy on the hugewaves, they succeeded in entering Botany Bay, which they thoroughlyexplored, making a chart of its shores and rivers. On their return, Governor Hunter was so highly pleased with their work, that, shortlyafter, he gave them a holiday, which they spent in making a longerexpedition to the south. It was said that a very large river fell intothe sea south of Botany Bay, and they went out to search for its mouth. 

#2. Boat Excursion. #--In this trip they met with some adventures whichwill serve to illustrate the dangers of such a voyage. On one occasion, when their boat had been upset on the shore, and their powder was wettedby the sea-water, about fifty natives gathered round them, evidentlywith no friendly intention. Bass spread the powder out on the rocks todry, and procured a supply of fresh water from a neighbouring pond. Butthey were in expectation every moment of being attacked and speared, andthere was no hope of defending themselves till the powder was ready. Flinders, knowing the fondness of the natives for the luxury of a shave, persuaded them to sit down one after another on a rock, and amused themby clipping their beards with a pair of scissors. As soon as the powderwas dry the explorers loaded their muskets and cautiously retreated totheir boat, which they set right, and pushed off without mishap. 

Once more on the Pacific, new dangers awaited them. They had beencarried far to the south by the strong currents, and the wind wasunfavourable. There was therefore no course open to them but to row asfar as they could during the day, and at night throw out the stone whichserved as an anchor, and lie as sheltered as they could, in order tosnatch a little sleep. On one of these nights, while they lay thusasleep, the wind suddenly rose to a gale, and they were roughly wakenedby the splashing of the waves over their boat. They pulled up theirstone anchor and ran before the tempest--Bass holding the sail andFlinders steering with an oar. As Flinders says: "It required the utmostcare to prevent broaching to; a single wrong movement or a moment'sinattention would have sent us to the bottom. The task of the boy was tobale out the water, which, in spite of every care, the sea threw in uponus. The night was perfectly dark, and we knew of no place of shelter, and the only direction by which we could steer was the roar of the wavesupon the neighbouring cliff's. " After an hour spent in this manner, theyfound themselves running straight for the breakers. They pulled downtheir mast and got out the oars, though without much hope of escape. They rowed desperately, however, and had the satisfaction of roundingthe long line of boiling surf. Three minutes after they were in smoothwater, under the lee of the rocks, and soon they discovered awell-sheltered cove, where they anchored for the rest of the night. 

It was not till two days later that they found the place they wereseeking. It turned out not to be a river at all, but only the little bayof Port Hacking, which they examined and minutely described. When theyreached Sydney they gave information which enabled accurate maps to beconstructed of between thirty and forty miles of coast. 

#3. Clarke. #--On arriving at Port Jackson, they found that an accidenthad indirectly assisted in exploring that very coast on which they hadlanded. A vessel called the _Sydney Cove_, on its way to Port Jackson, had been wrecked on Furneaux Island, to the north of Van Diemen's Land. A large party, headed by Mr. Clarke, the supercargo, had started inboats, intending to sail along the coasts and obtain help from Sydney. They were thrown ashore by a storm at Cape Howe, and had to begin adreary walk of three hundred miles through dense and unknown country. Their small store of provisions was soon used, and they could find nofood and little fresh water on their path. Many dropped down, exhaustedby hunger and fatigue, and had to be abandoned to their fate. Of thosewho contrived to approach within thirty miles of Sydney, the greaterpart were murdered by the same tribe of blacks from whom Bass andFlinders had apprehended danger. Clarke and one or two others reachedPort Jackson; their clothes in tatters, their bodies wasted almost tothe bones, and in such a state that, when a boat was brought to carrythem over the bay to Sydney, they had to be lifted on board likeinfants. Mr. Clarke, on his recovery, was able to give a very usefulaccount of a great tract of land not previously explored. The crew ofthe _Sydney Cove_ were meanwhile living on one of the Furneaux Group, and several small ships were sent down from Sydney to rescue the crewand cargo; these also served to make the coast better known. Flinderswas very anxious to go in one of them, in order to make a chart of theplaces he might pass; but his ship, the _Reliance_, sailed for NorfolkIsland, and he had to be a long time absent. 

[Illustration: MATTHEW FLINDERS. ]

#4. Discovery of Bass Straits. #--His friend Bass was more fortunate; forGovernor Hunter gave him an open whaleboat, together with provisions forsix weeks, and six men to manage the boat. With these he discovered theharbour and river of Shoalhaven; entered and mapped out Jervis Bay;discovered Twofold Bay, then rounded Cape Howe, and discovered thecountry now called Victoria. After sailing along the Ninety-mile Beach, he saw high land to the south-west; and, standing out towards it, discovered the bold headland which was afterwards named Wilson'sPromontory. Bad weather drove him to seek for shelter, and this led tothe discovery of Western Port, where he remained thirteen days. But ashis provisions were running short, he was forced, with a heavy heart, toturn homeward. He had again to seek shelter, however, from strong headwinds, and in doing so discovered what is called Corner Inlet. In all heprolonged his voyage to eleven weeks, before he again reached Sydney:during that time he had explored six hundred miles of coast, and haddiscovered four important bays, as well as what is perhaps the mostimportant cape in Australia. His greatest service, however, was theproof that Van Diemen's Land is not joined to Australia, but is dividedfrom it by the wide strait to which Bass's name is now so justly given. All this, effected in an open whaleboat on a great ocean, may well fillus with admiration for the courage and skill of the young surgeon. 

#5. Flinders. #--When Flinders returned from Norfolk Island, he obtainedleave to join the next vessel that should start for the wreck of the_Sydney Cove_. Having arrived at Furneaux Island, during the time thatthe wreckage and remaining cargo were being gathered, he obtained theloan of a small boat for five days, and in it made careful surveys ofthe islands and straits to the north of Van Diemen's Land. It was inthis trip that he made the first discovery of that peculiar Australiananimal, the wombat. 

#6. Circumnavigation of Van Diemen's Land. #--Next year (1798) GovernorHunter gave to the two ardent young men a small sloop--the _Norfolk_--inwhich to prosecute their discoveries. They received three months' leaveof absence, in which time they proposed to sail round Van Diemen's Land. This they did, and discovered during their voyage the river Tamar andits estuary, Port Dalrymple. It was not in discovery alone that theywere successful. Flinders made the most beautiful and exact charts ofall the coasts; he sometimes spent whole days in careful and laboriousobservations and measurements, in order to have the latitude andlongitude of a single place correctly marked. 

#7. Fate of Bass. #--On their return to Sydney Bass met some friends, who persuaded him to join them in making their fortune by carryingcontraband goods into South America, in spite of the Spaniards. Whatbecame of Bass is not known, but it is supposed that he was captured bythe Spaniards and sent to the silver mines, where he was completely lostfrom sight. He who entered those dreary mines was lost for ever to humanknowledge; and Bass may have perished there after years of wearisome andunknown labour. After all his hardships and adventures, his enthusiasmand his self-devotion, he passed away from men's eyes, and no one wascurious to know whither he had gone; but Australians of these days havelearnt to honour the memory of the man who first, in company with hisfriend, laid the foundation of so much of their geography. 

#8. The Publication of Flinders' Charts. #--Flinders remained in HisMajesty's service, and in the following year was raised to the rank oflieutenant. With his little ship, the _Norfolk_, he examined the coastsof New South Wales, from Sydney northward as far as Hervey Bay. Nextyear (1800) he went to London, where his charts were published, containing the first exact accounts of the geography of Australia. Theywere greatly praised, and the English Government resolved to send out anexpedition to survey all the coasts of Australia in like manner. Flinders was placed at the head of it; a vessel was given to him, whichhe called the _Investigator_; a passport was obtained for him from theFrench Government, so that, though England and France were then at war, he might not be obstructed by French war-ships. Sailing to the southcoast of Australia, he discovered Kangaroo Island and Spencer's Gulf, and then entered Port Phillip under the impression that he was thediscoverer of that inlet, but afterwards learnt that Lieutenant Murray, in his ship the _Lady Nelson_, had discovered it ten weeks before. 

#9. Baudin. #--As Flinders sailed down towards Bass Strait he met with aFrench expedition, under M. Baudin, who had been sent out by Napoleon tomake discoveries in Australia. He had loitered so long on the coast ofTasmania that Flinders had been able to complete the examination of thesouthern coast before he even approached it. Yet Baudin sailed into thevery bays which had already been mapped out, gave them French names, andtook to himself the honour of their discovery. Some months later the twoexpeditions met one another again in Port Jackson. Flinders showed hischarts, and the French officers allowed that he had carried off thehonours of nearly all the discoveries on the south coast; but, in spiteof that, a report was published in France in which Flinders' claimswere quite ignored, and Baudin represented as the hero of Australiandiscovery. The colonists at Port Jackson, however, treated the Frenchsailors with much kindness. Many of them were suffering from scurvy, andthese were carried to the Sydney hospital and carefully tended; andthough the colonists had themselves eaten only salt meat for monthsbefore, in order to preserve their cattle, yet they killed these verycattle to provide fresh meat for the sick sailors. Baudin and hisofficers were feasted, and everything was done both by Flinders and thepeople of Sydney to make their stay agreeable. 

#10. Imprisonment of Flinders. #--Flinders continued his voyagenorthwards, rounded Cape York, and examined the northern coasts, makingan excellent chart of Torres Strait; but his vessel becoming too rottento be longer used, he was forced to return to Sydney. Desiring to carryhis charts and journals to England, he took his passage in an oldstore-ship, but she had not sailed far before she struck on a coralreef; the crew with difficulty reached a small sandbank, from which theywere not released till two months after. Flinders saved his papers, andbrought them back to Sydney. A small schooner, the _Cumberland_, wasgiven him in which to sail for England; but she was too leaky, and toosmall a vessel to carry food for so long a voyage; so that he was forcedto put into the Mauritius, which then belonged to France. He fanciedthat his passport from Napoleon would be his protection; but theGovernor, De Caen, a low and ignorant fellow, seized him, took hispapers from him, and cast him into prison. 

[Illustration: COOK'S MONUMENT, BOTANY BAY. ]

Baudin soon after called at the Mauritius, and would probably haveprocured the release of his brother-mariner had he not died immediatelyafter his arrival. The charts of Flinders, however, were all sent toFrance, where they were published with altered names, as if they werethe work of Frenchmen. Meanwhile, Flinders was spending the weary monthsin close confinement at the Mauritius. 

#11. Death of Flinders. #--Nearly six years passed away before the approachof an English fleet compelled the French to release him; and when hewent to England he found that people knew all about those very placesof which he thought he was bringing the first tidings. He commenced, however, to write his great book, and worked with the utmost pains tomake all his maps scrupulously accurate. After about four years ofincessant labour, the three volumes were ready for the press; but he wasdoomed never to see them. So many years of toil, so many nights passedin open boats or on the wet sands, so many shipwrecks and weeks ofsemi-starvation, together with his long and unjust imprisonment, hadutterly destroyed his constitution; and on the very day when his bookwas being published, the wife and daughter of Flinders were tending hislast painful hours. He was, perhaps, our greatest maritime discoverer: aman who worked because his heart was in his work; who sought no reward, and obtained none; who lived laboriously, and did honourable service tomankind; yet died, like his friend Bass, almost unknown to those of hisown day, but leaving a name which the world is every year more and moredisposed to honour. 

CHAPTER IV. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, 1800-1808. 

#1. Governor King. #--Governor Hunter, who left Sydney in the year 1800, was succeeded by Captain King, the young officer who has been alreadymentioned as the founder of the settlement at Norfolk Island. He was aman of much ability, and was both active and industrious; yet sooverwhelming at this time were the difficulties of Governorship in NewSouth Wales, that his term of office was little more than a distressingfailure. The colony consisted chiefly of convicts, who were--many ofthem--the most depraved and hardened villains to be met with in thehistory of crime. To keep these in check, and to maintain order, was noeasy task; but to make them work, to convert them into industrious andwell-behaved members of the community, was far beyond any Governor'spower. King made an effort, and did his very best; but after a time hegrew disheartened, and, in his disappointment, complained of the follywhich expected him to make farmers out of pickpockets. His chances ofsuccess would have been much increased had he been properly seconded byhis subordinates. But, unfortunately, circumstances had arisen whichcaused the officers and soldiers not only to render him no assistancewhatever, but even to thwart and frustrate his most careful plans. 

[Illustration: THE EXPLORERS' TREE, KATOOMBA, N. S. W. ]

#2. The New South Wales Corps. #--In 1790 a special corps had beenorganised in the British army for service in the colony; it was calledthe New South Wales Corps, and was intended to be permanently settled inSydney. Very few high-class officers cared to enter this service, so farfrom home and in the midst of the lowest criminals. Those who joined itgenerally came out with the idea of quickly gathering a small fortune, then resigning their commissions and returning to England. The favouritemethod of making money was to import goods into the settlement and sellthem at high rates of profit; and, in their haste to become rich, manyresorted to unscrupulous devices for obtaining profits. A trade in whichthose who commanded were the sellers, whilst the convicts and settlersunder their charge were the purchasers, could hardly fail to ruindiscipline and introduce grave evils, more especially when ardentspirits began to be the chief article of traffic. It was found thatnothing sold so well among the convicts as rum, their favourite liquor;and, rather than not make money, the officers began to import largequantities of that spirit, thus deliberately assisting to demoralisestill further the degraded population which they had been sent toreform. So enormous were the profits made in this debasing trade thatvery few of the officers could refrain from joining it. Soon the NewSouth Wales Corps became like one great firm of spirit merchants, engaged in the importing and retailing of rum. The most enterprisingwent so far as to introduce stills and commence the manufacture ofspirits in the colony. By an order of the Governor in Council this wasforbidden, but many continued to work their stills in secret. Thissystem of traffic, demoralising to every one engaged in it, was sharedeven by the highest officials in the colony. In the year 1800 the chiefconstable was a publican, and the head gaoler sold rum and brandyopposite the prison gates. 

#3. State of the Colony. #--Under these circumstances, drunkennessbecame fearfully prevalent; the freed convicts gave themselves up tounrestrained riot, and, when intoxicated, committed the most brutalatrocities; the soldiers also sank into the wildest dissipation; andmany of the officers themselves led lives of open and shamelessdebauchery. This was the community Governor King had to rule. He made aneffort to effect some change, but failed; and we can hardly wonder atthe feeling of intense disgust which he entertained and freelyexpressed. 

#4. Mutiny of Convicts. #--Most of the convicts, on their arrival inthe colony, were "assigned"--that is, sent to work as shepherds orfarm-labourers for the free settlers in the country; but prisoners ofthe worst class were chained in gangs and employed on the roads, or onthe Government farms. One of these gangs, consisting of three or fourhundred convicts, was stationed at Castlehill, a few miles north ofParramatta. The prisoners, emboldened by their numbers and inflamed bythe oratory of a number of political exiles, broke out into openinsurrection. They flung away their hoes and spades, removed theirirons, seized about two hundred and fifty muskets, and marched towardsthe Hawkesbury, expecting to be there reinforced by so many additionalconvicts that they would be able to overpower the military. MajorJohnstone, with twenty-four soldiers of the New South Wales Corps, pursued them; they halted and turned round to fight, but he charged withso much determination into their midst that they were quickly routed, and fled in all directions, leaving several of their number dead on thespot. Three or four of the ringleaders were caught and hanged; theremainder returned quickly to their duty. 

#5. Origin of Wool-growing. #--During Governor King's term of office abeginning was made in what is now an industry of momentous importance toAustralia. In the New South Wales Corps there had been an officer namedMacarthur, who had become so disgusted with the service that, shortlyafter his arrival in Sydney, he resigned his commission, and, havingobtained a grant of land, became a settler in the country. He quicklyperceived that wool-growing, if properly carried on, would be a sourceof much wealth, and obtained a number of sheep from the Dutch colony atthe Cape of Good Hope, with which to make a commencement. These were ofa kind which did not suit the climate, and his first attempt failed; butin 1803, when he was in England on a visit, he spoke so highly of NewSouth Wales as a country adapted for wool-growing, that King George III. Was interested in the proposal, and offered his assistance. Now, thesheep most suitable for Macarthur's purpose were the merino sheep ofSpain; but these were not to be obtained, as the Spaniards, desirous ofkeeping the lucrative trade of wool-growing to themselves, had made it acapital crime to export sheep of this kind from Spain. But it sohappened that, as a special favour, a few had been given to King George, who was an enthusiastic farmer; and when he heard of Macarthur's idea, he sent him one or two from his own flock to be carried out to New SouthWales. They were safely landed at Sydney, Governor King made a grant often thousand acres to Mr. Macarthur, at Camden, and the experiment wasbegun. It was not long before the most marked success crowned theeffort, and in the course of a few years the meadows at Camden werecovered with great flocks of sheep, whose wool yielded annually ahandsome fortune to their enterprising owner. 

#6. Governor Bligh. #--In 1806 Governor King was succeeded by CaptainBligh, whose previous adventures have made his name so well known. Inhis ship, the _Bounty_, he had been sent by the British Government tothe South Sea Islands for a cargo of bread-fruit trees. But his conductto his sailors was so tyrannical that they mutinied, put him, along witheighteen others, into an open boat, then sailed away, and left him inthe middle of the Pacific Ocean. Bligh was a skilful sailor, and thevoyage he thereupon undertook is one of the most remarkable on record. In an open boat he carried his little party over 3, 500 miles of unknownocean to the island of Timor, where they found a vessel that took themhome. 

In appointing Captain Bligh to rule the colony, the English Governmentspoiled an excellent seaman to make a very inefficient Governor. It wastrue that New South Wales contained a large convict population, whorequired to be ruled with despotic rigour; yet there were many freesettlers who declined to be treated like slaves and felons, and who sooncame to have a thorough dislike to the new Governor. Not that he waswithout kindly feeling; his generous treatment of the Hawkesburyfarmers, who were ruined by a flood in 1806, showed him to have beenwarm-hearted in his way; he exerted himself to the utmost, both withtime and money, to alleviate their distress, and received the specialthanks of the English Government for his humanity. And yet his arbitraryand unamiable manners completely obscured all these better qualities. Hecaused the convicts to be flogged without mercy for faults which existedonly in his own imagination; he bullied his officers, and, throughoutthe colony, repeated the same mistakes which had led to the mutiny ofthe _Bounty_. At the same time, he was anxious to do what he conceivedto be his duty to his superiors in England. He had been ordered to put astop to the traffic in spirits, and, in spite of the most unscrupulousopposition on the part of those whose greed was interested, he sethimself to effect this reform by prompt and summary measures, and with acontemptuous disregard of the hatred he was causing; but, in the end, the officers were too strong for him, and in the quarrel that ensued theGovernor was completely defeated. 

#7. Expulsion of Bligh. #--Month after month Bligh became more and moreunpopular; those whom he did not alienate in the course of his duty heoffended by his rudeness, until, at last, there was scarcely any one inthe colony who was his friend. Many were inflamed by so bitter a hatredthat they were ready to do anything for revenge, and affairs seemed tobe in that critical state in which a trifling incident may bring aboutserious results. 

This determining cause was supplied by a quarrel which took placebetween Mr. Macarthur and Mr. Atkin, the new judge-advocate of thecolony. Mr. Macarthur was condemned to pay a heavy fine for neglect, inhaving permitted a convict to escape in a vessel of which he was partlythe owner. He refused to pay, and was summoned before the court, ofwhich Atkin was the president. He declined to appear, on the ground thatAtkin was his personal enemy. Thereupon Atkin caused him to be seizedand put in gaol. Bligh appointed a special court to try him, consistingof six officers, together with Atkin himself. Macarthur was broughtbefore it, but protested against being judged by his enemy, stating hiswillingness, however, to abide by the decision of the six officers. Theofficers supported his protest, and the trial was discontinued. Blighwas exceedingly angry, and, by declaring he would put the six officersin gaol, brought matters to a crisis. The officers of the New SouthWales Corps all took part with their comrades; they assisted Mr. Macarthur to get up a petition, asking Major Johnstone, the militarycommander, to depose Governor Bligh, and himself take charge of thecolony. Major Johnstone was only too glad of the opportunity. He held acouncil of officers, at which Mr. Macarthur and several others werepresent. Their course of action was decided upon, and next morning thesoldiers marched, with colours flying and drums beating, to the gate ofthe Governor's house. Here they were met by Bligh's daughter, whoendeavoured to persuade them to retire; but they made her stand asideand marched up the avenue. Meantime the Governor had hidden himself inthe house; the soldiers entered and searched everywhere for him, till atlength they discovered him behind a bed, where he was seeking to hideimportant papers. He was arrested, and sentinels were posted to preventhis escape. Major Johnstone assumed the Governor's position, andappointed his friends to the most important offices in the Governmentservice. He continued to direct affairs for some time, until ColonelFoveaux superseded him. Foveaux, in his turn, was superseded by ColonelPatterson, who came over from Tasmania to take charge of the colonyuntil a new Governor should be sent out from home. Patterson offeredBligh his liberty if he would promise to go straight to England, and notseek to raise a disturbance in the colony. This promise was given byBligh, and yet no sooner was he free than he began to stir up theHawkesbury settlers in his behalf. They declined to assist him, however, and Bligh went over to Tasmania, where the settlement to be described inthe next chapter had been formed. Here he was received with greatgood-will, until the news arrived from Sydney that, according to thesolemn promise he had given, he ought at that time to have been on hisway to England. An attempt was made to capture him, but he escaped toEngland, where his adventures in New South Wales were soon forgotten, and he rose to be an admiral in the English navy. When the news of therebellion reached the authorities in England, Major Johnstone wasdismissed from the service, and Major-General Lachlan Macquarie was sentout to be Governor of the colony. Major Johnstone retired to a farm inNew South Wales, where he lived and prospered till his death in 1817. 

CHAPTER V. 

TASMANIA, 1803-1836. 

#1. First Settlement. #--After the departure of Baudin from Sydney it wasdiscovered that there was an inclination on the part of the French tosettle in some part of Australia. It was known that the inlet calledStorm Bay, in the island then known as Van Diemen's Land, had especiallyattracted their notice, its shores having been so green and leafy. Itwas now known that Van Diemen's Land was severed by a broad strait fromthe mainland, and the Governor at Sydney thought that if the Frenchproposed to make a settlement anywhere they would be certain toappropriate this island, and deny that the English had any claim to it. He, therefore, prepared an expedition to proceed to Storm Bay and takepossession of its shores. For that purpose he chose Lieutenant JohnBowen, who had recently arrived as an officer of a ship of war, andappointed him commandant of the proposed settlement. The colonial shipcalled the _Lady Nelson_ was chosen as the means of conveying him andeight soldiers, while a whaling ship called the _Albion_ was charteredfor the purpose of carrying twenty-four convicts and six free persons, who were to found the new colony. This was a very small number withwhich to occupy a large country; but Governor King thought that in themeantime they would be sufficient to assert a prior claim, and that theauthorities in England could subsequently decide whether the settlementshould be increased or withdrawn. 

Governor King saw also another object in founding this new colony. Hehad some most unruly convicts in Sydney, who were only a source oftrouble and annoyance to all the rest. It seemed to him an advantageto be able to send these off to a place by themselves, under speciallysevere discipline. In September, 1803, the two ships sailed up Storm Bayand into the mouth of the river Derwent. Lieutenant Bowen caused them toanchor on the right side of the estuary, in a little bay called RisdonCove. The people were soon on shore, and pitched their tents on a grassyhill a little back from the water. Bowen went out to survey the country, while the convicts set to work to build huts for themselves; a littlevillage soon appeared, and in the long grass that surrounded it a fewsheep and goats were pastured for the use of the rising colony. Theplace was named Hobart Town, after Lord Hobart, who was then Secretaryof State for the Colonies. A month later Governor King sent forty-twoconvicts and fifteen soldiers to increase the strength of thesettlement; and the little village was beginning to look populous, when, unexpectedly, there came a great accession from another source. 

#2. Collins. #--During this same year, 1803, the British Government, movedby fears of a French occupation, had resolved to form a settlement onthe shores of Port Phillip. Accordingly David Collins, who had beenjudge-advocate at Sydney, but had taken a trip to England, was chosen tobe Lieutenant-Governor of the new colony, and was despatched with 307convicts, 24 wives of convicts, 51 soldiers, and 13 free settlers, onboard two ships, the _Calcutta_ and the _Ocean_. Collins had made aneffort to form a settlement at Port Phillip, on a sandy shore, near thesite of Sorrento, but had grown disgusted with the place; and early in1804 he carried off all the people, and resolved to abandon Port Phillipin favour of the Derwent. He landed at Risdon on the 15th February, and, after a short examination, came to the conclusion that the situation wasunsuitable. Next day he went in search of a better place, and chose alittle bay on the opposite side, some six miles nearer the mouth of theestuary, and thither the whole settlement was soon after removed. There, at the very foot of the lofty Mount Wellington, Hobart Town began togrow in its new situation. Houses were rapidly erected; most of themconsisted of posts stuck in the ground, interwoven with twigs of wattletrees, and then daubed over with mud. The chimneys were built of stonesand turf, and the roofs were thatched with grass. Whilst the new townwas growing, a party of convicts and soldiers was still busy on thelittle farms at Risdon, and early in May they had a most unfortunateaffray with the natives. A party of two or three hundred blacks, whowere travelling southward, came suddenly in sight of the white men andtheir habitations. These were the first Europeans whom they had seen, and they became much excited at the strange spectacle. While they wereshouting and gesticulating, the Englishmen thought they were preparingfor an attack and fired upon them. The blacks fled and the white menpursued them, killing about thirty of the unfortunate natives. Thus wasbegun a long warfare, which ended only with the complete extinction ofthe native races. 

[Illustration: GOVERNOR COLLINS. ]

#3. Patterson. #--Next year, 1804, the Sydney Government sent another partyof convicts, under Colonel Patterson, to found a colony in the north ofTasmania. The position selected was near the entrance to Port Dalrymple;and here, for eight years, a small settlement continued to exist in anindependent state, until, in 1812, it was placed under the charge of theGovernor at Hobart Town. 

#4. Death Of Collins. #--The colony at the latter place was meanwhileslowly establishing itself; and in 1808, when Bligh visited it after hisexpulsion from Sydney, he found the little township with quite a settledand comfortable appearance. In 1810 it lost its amiable and warm-heartedGovernor. While calmly and cheerfully conversing with a friend, Mr. Collins fell back dead in his chair. He was a man of a good and kindlynature, a little vain and self-important, but earnest and upright, andpossessed of very fair abilities. The distinguished part he played inthe early colonisation of Australia will always render him a prominentperson in our history. 

#5. Governor Davey. #--It took some time for the news of the Governor'sdeath to reach England, and during the three years that elapsed beforehis successor could be sent out, the place was filled in turn by threegentlemen, named Lord, Murray, and Geils, till, in 1813, the newGovernor, Davey, arrived. He had been a colonel of marines, and hadshown himself a good soldier, but he had few of the qualities of aGovernor. He was rough and excessively coarse in his manners, andutterly regardless of all decorum. He showed his defiance of allconventional rules by the manner of his entry. The day being warm, hetook off his coat and waistcoat, and marched into the town in a costumemore easy than dignified; he listened to the address of welcome withcareless indifference, and throughout showed little respect either forhimself or for the people he had come to govern. Yet, under his rule, the colony made progress. In his first year he opened the port toordinary merchant ships; for, previously, as the town was a convictsettlement of the most severe type, no free person was allowed to landwithout special permission. From this time commerce began to spring up;free settlers spread over the country, and cultivated it with suchsuccess that, in 1816, besides supplying all the necessities of theirown community, they were able to export grain to Sydney. 

#6. New Norfolk. #--In 1807 the settlement of Norfolk Island had beenabandoned by the British Government, on account of its expense, and theconvicts, of whom many had there grown to be decent, orderly farmers, were brought to Tasmania. They formed a new settlement on the Derwent, about fifteen miles above Hobart Town, at a place which they called "NewNorfolk, " in affectionate memory of their former island home. 

#7. Bushranging. #--About this time the colony began to be greatly annoyedby bushrangers. From twenty to forty convicts generally escaped everyyear and betook themselves to the wild country around the central lakesof Tasmania. There, among the fastnesses of the western mountains, theyled a desperate and daring life, sometimes living with the natives, whomthey quickly taught all the wickedness they themselves knew. Theirordinary lives were wretchedly debased; and, in search of booty, or inrevenge for fancied injuries, they often committed the most savagecrimes. They treated their native companions like beasts, to be used fora while, and then shot or mangled when no longer wanted; and it is notsurprising that the blacks soon became filled with intense hatred of allthe white invaders of their land. Frequently the aboriginal tribesunited to attack the lonely farm-house and murder all its inhabitants. Hence, every settler in the country districts was well supplied witharms, and taught all his household to use them; the walls were piercedhere and there with holes, through which a musket might be directed insafety against an advancing enemy. The fear of bushrangers who mightattack them for the sake of plunder, and of natives who might massacrethem in revenge, kept the scattered settlers in constant terror andtrouble. 

#8. Governor Sorell. #--But in 1817, when Governor Davey grew tired of hisposition and resigned it, choosing rather to live an easy-going life onhis estate near Hobart Town, than be troubled with the cares of office, Colonel Sorell, the new Governor, set himself with vigour to suppressthese ruthless marauders. He was to some extent successful, and theyoung colony enjoyed an interval of peace. Farming was profitable, andthe exports of wheat began to assume large dimensions. The best breedsof sheep were brought into the island, and Van Diemen's Land wool, whichat first had been despised in England, and used only for stuffingmattresses, grew into favour, and was bought by the manufacturers athigh prices. Thus many of the settlers became wealthy, and the estatesfrom which their wealth was derived began to have a correspondinglyhigh value, so as to give the colony an assured prosperity which wascertainly remarkable in the sixteenth year from its foundation. Anotherindustry was added, which indirectly contributed to the wealth ofTasmania. The captain of a merchant vessel, on his way to Sydney, hadseen a great shoal of whales off the south coast of Tasmania, and, alongwith the Governor of New South Wales, secretly formed a scheme to fitout a whaling expedition. But his crew also had seen the whales, andsoon made the fact widely known; so that, by the time the captain'sparty was ready to sail, there were several other whaling vessels on thepoint of starting. They were all successful, and very soon a largenumber of ships was engaged in whale fishing. Now, as Hobart Town wasthe nearest port, the whalers found that it saved time to go thitherwith their oil, and to buy their provisions and refit their ships there;so that the trade and importance of the little city received a verymaterial impetus in this way. 

Much of the progress was due to the sensible management of GovernorSorell, who spared no effort to reform the convicts, as well as toelevate and refine the free settlers. Hence it was with great regretthat the colonists saw his term of office expire in 1824. Theypetitioned the English Government to allow him to stay for another sixyears; and when the reply was given that this could not be done, asColonel Sorell was required elsewhere, they presented him with ahandsome testimonial, and settled on him an income of £500 a year fromtheir own revenues. 

#9. Governor Arthur. #--After Colonel Sorell had left, bushranging becameas troublesome as ever. Governor Arthur arrived in 1824, and found thecolony fast relapsing into its former unsettled state. He learnt that, shortly before, some thirteen or fourteen convicts had succeeded inescaping from the penal settlement in an open boat, and had landed on alonely part of the coast. They were joined by a great crowd of concealedconvicts, and, under the leadership of Crawford and Brady, formed adangerous horde of robbers, who, for years, kept the whole colony interror. For a while they plundered without hindrance, till a party ofabout a dozen attacked the house of an old gentleman named Taylor, whohad the courage to fight and defeat them. With his three sons, hiscarpenter, and his servant, he fired upon the advancing ruffians, whilsthis daughters rapidly reloaded the muskets. The robbers retreated, leaving their leader--Crawford--and two or three others, who had beenwounded, to be captured by Mr. Taylor and sent to Hobart Town, wherethey were executed. Brady then became chief leader of the band, andthough his encounter with Mr. Taylor had taken away all his ardour forfighting, he contrived to plunder and annoy for a long time. Deep inthe woods, along the silent banks of the Shannon, the outlaws livedsecurely; for, even when the soldiers ventured to penetrate into theselonely regions, the outlaws could easily escape to the rugged mountainsides, where they could hide or defend themselves. Governor Arthur'stask was not an easy one, for Brady could command a powerful force, andhis was not the only one of the kind; the result was that, for a longtime, the country was unsettled and trade was paralysed. Seeing no othercourse open, Governor Arthur offered a pardon and a free passage home tothose who surrendered. So many were thus induced to submit peaceablythat, at length, Brady was almost alone; and whilst he wandered in asecluded valley, without followers, he was surprised by John Batman, who, several years after, assisted in the settlement of Victoria. Bradysurrendered and was executed; the bushrangers, by degrees, disappeared, and the colonists once more breathed freely. 

#10. Separation. #--Hitherto Tasmania had only been a dependency of NewSouth Wales, but in 1825 it was made a separate colony, with a SupremeCourt of its own. In 1829 it received its first legislative body, fifteen gentlemen being appointed to consult with the Governor and makelaws for the colony. For some years after, the history of Tasmania issimply an account of quiet industry and steady progress. Hobart Town, bydegrees, grew to be a fine city, with handsome buildings and well keptstreets. The country districts were fenced in and well tilled, goodroads and bridges were made, and everything looked smiling andprosperous. The only serious difficulty was the want of coin for theordinary purposes of trade. So great was the scarcity of gold and silvermoney that pieces of paper, with promises to pay a certain sum--perhapsa sixpence or a shilling--were largely used in the colony, in place ofthe money itself. At the request of Governor Arthur, coins to the valueof a hundred thousand pounds were sent out from England for the use ofthe colonists. 

Governor Arthur's period of office expired in 1836, and he left thecolony, greatly to the regret of the colonists, who subscribed £1, 500 topresent him with a testimonial. He was succeeded by Sir John Franklin, the famous voyager, whose history will be related in a subsequentchapter. 

CHAPTER VI. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, 1808-1837. 

#1. Governor Macquarie. #--In 1808 the English Government held an inquiryas to the circumstances which had caused the expulsion of GovernorBligh; and though they cashiered Major Johnstone, and indeed ordered thewhole of the New South Wales Corps to be disbanded, yet, as it was clearthat Bligh had been himself very much to blame, they yielded to thewishes of the settlers in so far as to appoint a new Governor in hisplace, and therefore despatched Major-General Macquarie to take theposition. He was directed to reinstate Bligh for a period of twenty-fourhours, in order to indicate that the authorities in England would notsuffer the colonists to dictate to them in these matters; but that theyreserved completely to themselves the right to appoint and dismiss theGovernors. However, as Bligh had by this time gone to Tasmania, Macquarie was forced to content himself, on his arrival, with merelyproclaiming what had been his instructions. 

[Illustration: GOVERNOR MACQUARIE. ]

In the early days of the colonies their destinies were, to a greatextent, moulded by the Governors who had charge of them. Whether forgood or for evil, the influence of the Governor was decisive; and itwas, therefore, a matter of great good fortune to Sydney that, duringthe long administration of Governor Lachlan Macquarie, this influencewas almost wholly on the side of good. Not that Macquarie had no faults. He was a man full of vanity and self-conceit; a man who, instead ofsober despatches to his superiors in England, wrote flowery accounts ofhimself and his wonderful doings; a man who, in his egoism, affixed thenames of himself and of his family to nearly every place discovered inthe colony during his term of office. Yet, apart from this weakness, Macquarie may be characterised as an exemplary man and an admirableGovernor. He devoted himself heartily to his work; his chief thought fortwelve years was how to improve the state of the little colony, and howto raise the degraded men who had been sent thither. An ardent feelingof philanthropy gave a kindly tone to his restless activity. Once everyyear he made a complete tour of the settled portions of the colony, toobserve their condition and discover what improvements were needed. Hetaught the farmers to build for themselves neat houses, in place of therude huts they had previously been content with; he encouraged them toimprove their system of farming, sometimes with advice, sometimes withmoney, but more often with loans from the Government stores. He builtchurches and schools; he took the warmest interest in the progress ofreligion and of education; and neglected nothing that could serve toelevate the moral tone of the little community. Certainly, no communityhas ever been in greater need of elevation. The fact that the BritishGovernment thought it necessary to send out 1, 100 soldiers to keep orderamong a population of only 10, 000 indicates very plainly what was thecharacter of these people, and almost justifies the sweeping assertionof Macquarie, that the colony consisted of those "who had beentransported, and those who ought to have been". Yet Macquarie uniformlyshowed a kindly disposition towards the convicts; he settled greatnumbers of them as free men on little farms of their own; and if theydid not succeed as well as they might have done, it was not for want ofadvice and assistance from the Governor. 

#2. Road over the Blue Mountains. # The most important result ofMacquarie's activity was the opening up of new country. He had quite apassion for road-making; and though, on his arrival in the colony, hefound only forty-five miles of what were little better than bush tracks, yet, when he left, there were over three hundred miles of excellent andsubstantial roads spreading in all directions from Sydney. He marked outtowns--such as Windsor, Richmond, and Castlereagh--in suitable places;then, by making roads to them, he encouraged the freed convicts to leaveSydney and form little communities inland. But his greatest achievementin the way of road-making was the highway across the Blue Mountains. This range had for years presented an insurmountable barrier. Manypersons--including the intrepid Bass--had attempted to cross it, but invain; the only one who succeeded even in penetrating far into that wildand rugged country was a gentleman called Caley, who stopped at theedge of an enormous precipice, where he could see no way of descending. But in 1813 three gentlemen--named Wentworth, Lawson, andBlaxland--succeeded in crossing. After laboriously piercing through thedense timber which covers some of the ranges, they traversed a wild anddesolate country, sometimes crawling along naked precipices, sometimesfighting their way through wild ravines, but at length emerging on thebeautiful plains to the west. On their return they found that by keepingconstantly on the crest of a long spur, the road could be made mucheasier, and Governor Macquarie, stimulated by their report, sentSurveyor Evans to examine the pass. His opinion was favourable, andMacquarie lost no time in commencing to construct a road over themountains. The difficulties in his way were immense; for fifty miles thecourse lay through the most rugged country, where yawning chasms had tobe bridged, and oftentimes the solid rock had to be cut away. Yet, inless than fifteen months, a good carriage highway stretched from Sydneyacross the mountains; and the Governor was able to take Mrs. Macquarieon a trip to the fine pasture lands beyond, where he founded a town andnamed it Bathurst, after Lord Bathurst, the Secretary of State. This wasa measure of great importance to the colony, for the country between themountains and the sea was too limited and too much subject to droughtsto maintain the two hundred and fifty thousand sheep which theprosperous colony now possessed. Many squatters took their flocks alongthe road to Bathurst, and settled down in the spacious pasture lands ofthe Macquarie and Lachlan Rivers. 

[Illustration: BLUE MOUNTAIN SCENERY, WENTWORTH FALLS, NEW SOUTH WALES. ]

#3. Governor Brisbane. #--In 1821 Governor Macquarie left for England, muchregretted by the colonists. The only serious mistake of his policy hadbeen that he had quietly discouraged the introduction of free settlers, "because, " as he said, "the colony is intended for convicts, andfree settlers have no business here". His successor--Sir ThomasBrisbane--and, afterwards, Sir Ralph Darling--adopted a more liberalpolicy, and offered every inducement to free immigrants to make theirhomes in the colony. It was never found possible, however, to obtainmany of that class which has been so successful in America, consistingof men who, having with difficulty gathered sufficient money for theirpassages, landed in their adopted country without means and with noresources beyond the cheerful labour of themselves and of theirfamilies, yet settled down in the deep, untrodden forests, and theremade for themselves happy and prosperous homes. This was not the classof immigrants who arrived in New South Wales during the times ofBrisbane and Darling. For in 1818 free passages to Australia had beenabolished, and the voyage was so long and so expensive that a poor mancould scarcely hope to accomplish it. Hence, those who arrived inSydney were generally young men of good education, who brought with thema few hundred pounds, and not only were willing to labour themselves, but were able to employ the labour of others. In America, the "squatter"was a man who farmed a small piece of land. In Australia, he was one whobought a flock of sheep and carried them out to the pasture lands, where, as they increased from year to year, he grew rich with the annualproduce of their wool. Sir Thomas Brisbane was pleased with the adventof men of this class: he gave them grants of land and assigned to themas many convicts as they were able to employ. Very speedily the finelands of the colony were covered with flocks and herds; and theapplications for convicts became so numerous that, at one time, twothousand more were demanded than could be supplied. Hence began animportant change in the colony. The costly Government farms were, oneafter another, broken up, and the convicts assigned to the squatters. Then the unremunerative public works were abandoned; for many of thesehad been begun only for the purpose of occupying the prisoners. All thistended for good; as the convicts, when thus scattered, were much moremanageable, and much more likely to reform, than when gathered in largeand corrupting crowds. In Macquarie's time, not one convict in ten couldbe usefully employed; seven or eight years after, there was not aconvict in the colony whose services would not be eagerly sought for ata good price by the squatters. 

This important change took place under Governors Brisbane and Darling, and was in a great measure due to those Governors; yet, strange to say, neither of them was ever popular. Brisbane, who entered upon office in1821, was a fine old soldier, a thorough gentleman, honourable andupright in all his ways. Yet it could not be doubted that he was out ofhis proper sphere when conducting the affairs of a young colony, and in1825 the British Government found it necessary to recall him. 

#4. Governor Darling. #--He was succeeded by Sir Ralph Darling, who wasalso a soldier, but was, at the same time, a man well adapted forbusiness. Yet he, too, failed to give satisfaction. He was precise andmethodical, and his habits were painfully careful, exhibiting that sortof diligence which takes infinite trouble and anxiety over details, tothe neglect of larger and more important matters. His administrationlasted six years, from 1825 to 1831. During this period an associationwas formed in England, consisting of merchants and members ofParliament, who subscribed a capital of one million pounds, and receivedfrom Government a grant of one million acres in New South Wales. Theycalled themselves the Australian Agricultural Company, and proposed toimprove and cultivate the waste lands of Australia, to import sheep andcattle for squatting purposes, to open up mines for coal and metals, and, in general, to avail themselves of the vast resources of thecolony. Sir Edward Parry, the famous Polar navigator, was sent out asmanager. The servants and _employés_ of the association formed quite aflourishing colony on the Liverpool Plains, at the head of the DarlingRiver; and though, at first, it caused some confusion in the financialstate of New South Wales, yet, in the end, it proved of great benefit tothe whole colony. 

#5. The Legislative Council. #--In 1824 a small Executive Council had beenformed to consult with Governor Brisbane on colonial matters. In 1829this was enlarged and became the Legislative Council, consisting offifteen members, who had power to make laws for the colony. But as theirproceedings were strictly secret, and could be completely reversed bythe Governor whenever he chose, they formed but a very imperfectsubstitute for a truly legislative body. Yet this Council was of someservice to the colony: one of its first acts was to introduce theEnglish jury system, in place of arbitrary trials by Governmentofficials. 

#6. The Newspaper War. #--Governor Darling was never popular. During thegreater part of his period of office intrigues were continually on footto obtain his recall; and from this state of feeling there arose whathas been called the newspaper war, which lasted for four years withgreat violence. The first Australian newspaper had been established in1803 by a convict named Howe. It was in a great measure supported by thepatronage of the Government, and the Governors always exercised theright of forbidding the insertion of what they disliked. Hence thispaper, the _Sydney Gazette_, was considered to be the Government organ, and, accordingly, its opinions of the Governors and their acts weregreatly distrusted. But, during the time of Brisbane, an independentnewspaper, the _Australian_, was established by Mr. Wentworth and Dr. Wardell. A second of the same kind soon followed, and was called the_Monitor_. These papers found it to their advantage, during theunpopularity of Darling, to criticise severely the acts of thatGovernor, who was defended by the _Gazette_ with intemperate zeal. Thisaltercation had lasted for some time, when, in the third year ofDarling's administration, a very small event was sufficient to set thewhole colony in an uproar. 

A dissipated soldier named Sudds persuaded his companion, Thompson, thattheir prospects were not hopeful so long as they remained soldiers; butthat, if they became convicts, they had a fair chance of growing richand prosperous. Accordingly, they entered a shop and stole a piece ofcloth. They were tried, convicted, and sentenced to be transported toTasmania for seven years. This was what they wished; but GovernorDarling, having heard of the scheme they were so successfully carryingout, took it upon himself to alter the course of the law, and directedthem to be chained together with heavy spiked collars of iron abouttheir necks, and to be set to labour on the roads. Sudds was sufferingfrom liver disease; he sank beneath the severity of his punishment, andin a few days he died--while Thompson, about the same time, becameinsane. This was an excellent opportunity for the opposition papers, which immediately attacked the Governor for what they called his illegalinterference and his brutality. The _Gazette_ filled its columns withthe most fulsome flattery in his defence, and Darling himself was soimprudent as to mingle in the dispute, and to do what he could to annoythe editors of the two hostile papers. Very soon the whole colony wasdivided into two great classes--the one needlessly extolling theGovernor, the other denouncing him as the most cowardly and brutal ofmen. For four years this abusive warfare lasted, till at length theopponents of Darling won the day; and in 1831 he was recalled by theEnglish Government. 

#7. Governor Bourke. #--Sir Richard Bourke, who succeeded him, was the mostable and the most popular of all the Sydney Governors. He had the talentand energy of Macquarie; but he had, in addition, a frank and heartymanner, which insensibly won the hearts of the colonists, who, for yearsafter his departure, used to talk affectionately of him as the "good oldGovernor Bourke". During his term of office the colony continued in asober way to make steady progress. In 1833 its population numbered60, 000, of whom 36, 000 were free persons. Every year there arrived threethousand fresh convicts; but as an equal number of free immigrants alsoarrived, the colony was benefited by its annual increase of population. 

[Illustration: ST. ANDREW'S CATHEDRAL, SYDNEY. ]

#8. The Land Question. #--Governor Bourke, on his landing, found that muchdiscontent existed with reference to what was called the Land Question. It was understood that any one who applied for land to the Government, and showed that he would make a good use of it, would receive a suitablearea as a free grant. But many abuses crept in under this system. Intheory, all men had an equal right to obtain the land they required;but, in practice, it was seldom possible for one who had no friendsamong the officials at Sydney to obtain a grant. An immigrant had oftento wait for months, and see his application unheeded; while, meantime, afew favoured individuals were calling day by day at the Land Office, andreceiving grant after grant of the choicest parts of the colony. Governor Bourke, under instructions from the English Parliament, made anew arrangement. There were to be no more free grants. In the settleddistricts all land was to be put up for auction; if less than fiveshillings an acre was offered, it was not to be sold; when the offersrose above that price, it was to be given to the highest bidder. Thiswas regarded as a very fair arrangement; and, as a large sum of moneywas annually received from the sale of land, the Government was able toresume the practice, discontinued in 1818, of assisting poor people toemigrate from Europe to the colony. 

#9. The Squatters. #--Beyond the surveyed districts the land was occupiedby squatters, who settled down where they pleased, but had no legalright to their "runs, " as they were called. With regard to these landsnew regulations were urgently required; for the squatters, who wereliable to be turned off at a moment's notice, felt themselves in a veryprecarious position. Besides, as their sheep increased rapidly, and theflocks of neighbouring squatters interfered with one another, violentfeuds sprang up, and were carried on with much bitterness. To put an endto these evils Governor Bourke ordered the squatters to apply for theland they required. He promised to have boundaries marked out; but gavenotice that he would, in future, charge a rent in proportion to thenumber of sheep the land could support. In return, he would secure toeach squatter the peaceable occupation of his run until the time camewhen it should be required for sale. This regulation did much to securethe stability of squatting interests in New South Wales. 

After ruling well and wisely for six years, Governor Bourke retired inthe year 1837, amid the sincere regrets of the whole colony. 

CHAPTER VII. 

DISCOVERIES IN THE INTERIOR, 1817-1836. 

#1. Oxley. #--After the passage over the Blue Mountains had beendiscovered--in 1813--and the beautiful pasture land round Bathurst hadbeen opened up to the enterprise of the squatters, it was natural thatthe colonists should desire to know something of the nature andcapabilities of the land which stretched away to the west. In 1817 theysent Mr. Oxley, the Surveyor-General, to explore the country towards theinterior, directing him to follow the course of the Lachlan and discoverthe ultimate "fate, " as they called it, of its waters. Taking with him asmall party, he set out from the settled districts on the Macquarie, andfor many days walked along the banks of the Lachlan, through undulatingdistricts of woodland and rich meadow. But, after a time, the explorerscould perceive that they were gradually entering upon a region oftotally different aspect; the ground was growing less and less hilly;the tall mountain trees were giving place to stunted shrubs; and thefresh green of the grassy slopes was disappearing. At length theyemerged on a great plain, filled with dreary swamps, which stretched asfar as the eye could reach, like one vast dismal sea of waving reeds. Into this forbidding region they penetrated, forcing their way throughthe tangled reeds and over weary miles of oozy mud, into which they sankalmost to the knees at every step. Ere long they had to abandon thiseffort to follow the Lachlan throughout its course; they thereforeretraced their steps, and, striking to the south, succeeded in goinground the great swamp which had opposed their progress. Again theyfollowed the course of the river for some distance, entering, as theyjourneyed, into regions of still greater desolation; but again they wereforced to desist by a second swamp of the same kind. The Lachlan hereseemed to lose itself in interminable marshes, and as no trace could befound of its further course, Oxley concluded that they had reached theend of the river. As he looked around on the dreary expanse, hepronounced the country to be "for ever uninhabitable"; and, on hisreturn to Bathurst, he reported that, in this direction at least, therewas no opening for enterprise. The Lachlan, he said, flows into anextensive region of swamps, which are perhaps only the margin of a greatinland sea. 

Oxley was afterwards sent to explore the course of the Macquarie River, but was as little successful in this as in his former effort. The riverflowed into a wide marsh, some thirty or forty miles long, and he wasforced to abandon his purpose; he started for the eastern coast, crossedthe New England Range, and descended the long woodland slopes to thesea, discovering on his way the river Hastings. 

#2. Allan Cunningham. #--Several important discoveries were effected by anenthusiastic botanist named Allan Cunningham, who, in his search for newplants, succeeded in opening up country which had been previouslyunknown. In 1825 he found a passage over the Liverpool Range, through awild and picturesque gap, which he called the Pandora Pass; and on theother side of the mountains he discovered the fine pastoral lands of theLiverpool Plains and the Darling Downs, which are watered by threebranches of the Upper Darling--the Peel, the Gwydir, and the Dumaresq. The squatters were quick to take advantage of these discoveries; and, after a year or two, this district was covered with great flocks ofsheep. It was here that the Australian Agricultural Company formed theirgreat stations already referred to. 

#3. Hume and Hovell. #--The southern coasts of the district now calledVictoria had been carefully explored by Flinders and other sailors, butthe country which lay behind these coasts was quite unknown. In 1824Governor Brisbane suggested a novel plan of exploration; he proposed toland a party of convicts at Wilson's Promontory, with instructions towork their way through the interior to Sydney, where they would receivetheir freedom. The charge of the party was offered to Hamilton Hume, ayoung native of the colony, and a most expert and intrepid bushman. Hewas of an energetic and determined, though somewhat domineeringdisposition, and was anxious to distinguish himself in the work ofexploration. He declined to undertake the expedition in the mannerproposed by Governor Brisbane, but offered to conduct a party ofconvicts from Sydney to the southern coasts. A sea-captain named Hovellasked permission to accompany him. With these two as leaders, and sixconvict servants to make up the party, they set out from Lake George, carrying their provisions in two carts, drawn by teams of oxen. As soonas they met the Murrumbidgee their troubles commenced; the river was sobroad and swift that it was difficult to see how they could carry theirgoods across. Hume covered the carts with tarpaulin, so as to make themserve as punts. Then he swam across the river, carrying the end of arope between his teeth; and with this he pulled over the loaded punts. The men and oxen then swam across, and once more pushed forward. But thecountry through which they had now to pass was so rough and woody thatthey were obliged to abandon their carts and load the oxen with theirprovisions. They journeyed on, through hilly country, beneath the shadesof deep and far-spreading forests; to their left they sometimes caught aglimpse of the snow-capped peaks of the Australian Alps, and at lengththey reached the banks of a clear and rapid stream, which they calledthe Hume, but which is now known as the Murray. Their carts being nolonger available, they had to construct boats of wicker-work and coverthem with tarpaulin. Having crossed the river, they entered the lightlytimbered slopes to the north of Victoria, and holding their coursesouth-west, they discovered first the river Ovens, and then a splendidstream which they called the Hovell, now known as the Goulburn. Theirgreat object, however, was to reach the ocean, and every morning whenthey left their camping-place they were sustained by the hope of coming, before evening, in view of the open sea. But day after day passed, without any prospect of a termination to their journey. Hume and Hovell, seeing a high peak at some little distance, left the rest of the partyto themselves for a few days, and with incredible labour ascended themountain, in the expectation of beholding from its summit the greatSouthern Ocean in the distance. Nothing was to be seen, however, but thewaving tops of gum trees rising ridge after ridge away to the south. Wearily they retraced their steps to the place where the others wereencamped. They called this peak Mount Disappointment. Having altered thedirection of their course a little, in a few days they were rejoiced bythe sight of a great expanse of water. Passing through country whichthey declared to resemble, in its freshness and beauty, the well-keptpark of an English nobleman, they reached a bay, which the nativescalled Geelong. Here a dispute took place between the leaders, Hovellasserting that the sheet of water before them was Western Port, Humethat it was Port Phillip. Hume expressed the utmost contempt forHovell's ignorance; Hovell retorted with sarcasms on Hume's dogmatismand conceit; and the rest of the journey was embittered by so great anamount of ill-feeling that the two explorers were never again onfriendly terms. Hume's careful and sagacious observations of the routeby which they had come enabled him to lead the party rapidly and safelyback to Sydney, where the leaders were rewarded with grants of land andthe convicts with tickets-of-leave. 

[Illustration: CAPTAIN CHARLES STURT. ]

#4. Captain Sturt. #--The long drought which occurred between 1826 and 1828suggested to Governor Darling the idea that, as the swamps which hadimpeded Oxley's progress would be then dried up, the exploration of theriver Macquarie would not present the same difficulties as formerly. Thecharge of organising an expedition was given to Captain Sturt, who wasto be accompanied by Hume, with a party of two soldiers and eightconvicts. They carried with them portable boats; but when they reachedthe Macquarie they found its waters so low as to be incapable offloating them properly. Trudging on foot along the banks of the riverthey reached the place where Oxley had turned back. It was no longer amarsh; but, with the intense heat, the clay beneath their feet was bakedand hard; there was the same dreary stretch of reeds, now withered andyellow under the glare of the sun. Sturt endeavoured to penetrate thissolitude, but the physical exertion of pushing their way through thereeds was too great for them. If they paused to rest, they were almostsuffocated in the hot and pestilent air; the only sound they could hearwas the distant booming of the bittern, and a feeling of the most lonelywretchedness pervaded the scene. At length they were glad to leave thisdismal region and strike to the west through a flat and monotonousdistrict where the shells and claws of crayfish told of frequentinundations. Through this plain there flowed a river, which Sturt calledthe Darling, in honour of the Governor. They followed this river forabout ninety miles, and then took their way back to Sydney, Sturt beingnow able to prove that the belief in the existence of a great inland seawas erroneous. 

#5. The Murray. #--In 1829, along with a naturalist named Macleay, Sturtwas again sent out to explore the interior, and on this occasion carriedhis portable boats to the Murrumbidgee, on which he embarked his partyof eight convicts. They rowed with a will, and soon took the boat downthe river beyond its junction with the Lachlan. The stream then becamenarrow, a thick growth of overhanging trees shut out the light fromabove, while, beneath, the rushing waters bore them swiftly overdangerous snags and through whirling rapids, until they were suddenlyshot out into the broad surface of a noble stream which flowed gentlyover its smooth bed of sand and pebbles. This river they called theMurray; but it was afterwards found to be only the lower portion of thestream which had been crossed by Hume and Hovell several years before. 

Sturt's manner of journeying was to row from sunrise to sunset, thenland on the banks of the river and encamp for the night. This exposedthe party to some dangers from the suspicious natives, who oftenmustered in crowds of several hundreds; but Sturt's kindly manner andpleasant smile always converted them into friends, so that the worstmishap he had to record was the loss of his frying-pan and otherutensils, together with some provisions, which were stolen by the blacksin the dead of night. After twilight the little encampment was oftenswarming with dark figures; but Sturt joined in their sports, andMacleay especially became a great favourite with them by singing comicsongs, at which the dusky crowds roared with laughter. The natives aregenerally good-humoured, if properly managed; and throughout Sturt'strip the white men and the blacks contrived to spend a very friendlyand sociable time together. 

After following the Murray for about two hundred miles below the Lachlanthey reached a place where a large river flowed from the north into theMurray. This was the mouth of the river Darling, which Sturt himself hadpreviously discovered and named. He now turned his boat into it, inorder to examine it for a short distance; but after they had rowed amile or two they came to a fence of stakes, which the natives hadstretched across the river for the purpose of catching fish. Rather thanbreak the fence, and so destroy the labours of the blacks, Sturt turnedto sail back. The natives had been concealed on the shore to watch themotions of the white men, and seeing their considerate conduct, theycame forth upon the bank and gave a loud shout of satisfaction. Theparty in the boat unfurled the British flag, and answered with threehearty cheers, as they slowly drifted down with the current. This humanedisposition was characteristic of Captain Sturt, who, in after life, wasable to say that he had never--either directly or indirectly--caused thedeath of a black fellow. 

When they again entered on the Murray they were carried gently by thecurrent--first to the west, then to the south; and, as they went onward, they found the river grow deeper and wider, until it spread into a broadsheet of water, which they called Lake Alexandrina, after the name ofour present Queen, who was then the Princess Alexandrina Victoria. Oncrossing this lake they found the passage to the ocean blocked up by agreat bar of sand, and were forced to turn their boat round and face thecurrent, with the prospect of a toilsome journey of a thousand milesbefore they could reach home. They had to work hard at their oars, Sturttaking his turn like the rest. At length they entered the Murrumbidgee;but their food was now failing, and the labour of pulling against thestream was proving too great for the men, whose limbs began to growfeeble and emaciated. Day by day they struggled on, swinging more andmore wearily at their oars, their eyes glassy and sunken with hunger andtoil, and their minds beginning to wander as the intense heat of themidsummer sun struck on their heads. One man became insane; the othersfrequently lay down, declaring that they could not row another stroke, and were quite willing to die. Sturt animated them, and, with enormousexertions, he succeeded in bringing the party to the settled districts, where they were safe. They had made known the greatest river ofAustralia and traversed one thousand miles of unknown country, so thatthis expedition was by far the most important that had yet been madeinto the interior; and Sturt, by land, with Flinders, by sea, standsfirst on the roll of Australian discoverers. 

#6. Mitchell. #--The next traveller who sought to fill up the blank map ofAustralia was Major Mitchell. Having offered, in 1831, to conduct anexpedition to the north-west, he set out with fifteen convicts andreached the Upper Darling; but two of his men, who had been left behindto bring up provisions, were speared by the blacks, and the storesplundered. This disaster forced the company soon after to return. In1835, when the major renewed his search, he was again unfortunate. Thebotanist of the party, Richard Cunningham, brother of the AllanCunningham already mentioned, was treacherously killed by the natives;and, finally, the determined hostility of the blacks brought theexpedition to an ignominious close. 

In 1836 Major Mitchell undertook an expedition to the south, and in thishe was much more successful. Taking with him a party of twenty-fiveconvicts, he followed the Lachlan to its junction with the Murrumbidgee. Here he stayed for a short time to explore the neighbouring country; butthe party was attacked by hordes of natives, some of whom were shot. Themajor then crossed the Murray; and, from a mountain top in the Loddendistrict, he looked forth on a land which he declared to be like theGarden of Eden. On all sides rich expanses of woodland and grassy plainsstretched away to the horizon, watered by abundant streams. They thenpassed along the slopes of the Grampians and discovered the riverGlenelg, on which they embarked in the boats which they had carried withthem. The scenery along this stream was magnificent; luxurious festoonsof creepers hung from the banks, trailing downwards in the eddyingcurrent, and partly concealing the most lovely grottos which the currenthad wrought out of the pure white banks of limestone. The river woundround abrupt hills and through verdant valleys, which made the latterpart of their journey to the sea most agreeable and refreshing. Beingstopped by the bar at the mouth of the Glenelg, they followed the shorefor a short distance eastward, and then turned towards home. PortlandBay now lay on their right, and Mitchell made an excursion to exploreit. What was his surprise to see a neat cottage on the shore, with asmall schooner in front of it at anchor in the bay. This was the lonelydwelling of the brothers Henty, who had crossed from Tasmania andfounded a whaling station at Portland Bay. On Mitchell's return he had aglorious view from the summit of Mount Macedon, and what he saw inducedhim, on his return to Sydney, to give to the country the name "AustraliaFelix". As a reward for his important services he received a vote of onethousand pounds from the Council at Sydney, and he was shortlyafterwards knighted; so that he is now known as Sir Thomas Mitchell. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

PORT PHILLIP, 1800-1840. 

#1. Discovery of Port Phillip. #--The discovery of Bass Strait in 1798had rendered it possible for the captains of ships bound for Sydney toshorten somewhat their voyage thither; and as this was recognised by theEnglish Government to be a great advantage, a small vessel, the _LadyNelson_, was sent out under the command of Lieutenant Grant, in order tomake a thorough exploration of the passage. She reached the Australiancoast at the boundary between the two present colonies of Victoriaand South Australia. Grant called the cape he first met with CapeNorthumberland. He saw and named Cape Nelson, Portland Bay, CapeSchanck, and other features of the coast. When he arrived in Sydney hecalled the attention of Governor King to a small inlet which he had notbeen able to examine, although it seemed to him of importance. In 1802the Governor sent back the _Lady Nelson_, now under the command ofLieutenant Murray, to explore this inlet. Lieutenant Murray enteredit, and found that a narrow passage led to a broad sheet of water, thoroughly landlocked, though of very considerable extent. He reportedfavourably of the beauty and fertility of its shores, and desired toname it Port King, in honour of the Governor; but Governor Kingrequested that this tribute should be paid to the memory of his oldcommander, the first Australian Governor, and thus the bay received itspresent name, Port Phillip. Only sixty days later Flinders also enteredthe bay; but when he arrived, some time afterwards, in Sydney, he wassurprised to find he was not the first discoverer. 

It was at this time that the Governor in Sydney was afraid of theintrusion of the French upon Australian soil, and when he heard howfavourable the appearance of this port was for settlement he resolved tohave it more carefully explored. Accordingly he sent a small schooner, the _Cumberland_, under the charge of Mr. Robbins, to make theexamination. The vessel carried Charles Grimes, the Surveyor-General ofNew South Wales, and his assistant, Meehan; also a surgeon namedM'Callum, and a liberated convict named Flemming, who was to report onthe agricultural capabilities of the district. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST HOUSE BUILT IN VICTORIA. ]

On arriving at Port Phillip they commenced a systematic survey, Robbinssounding the bay, and making a careful chart, while the other four wereevery morning landed on the shore to examine the country. They walkedten or fifteen miles each day, and in the evening were again taken onboard the schooner. Thus they walked from the site of Sorrento round byBrighton till they reached the river Yarra, which they described as alarge fresh-water stream, but without naming it. Then they went roundthe bay as far as Geelong. They carried a good chart and several longreports to the Governor at Sydney, who would probably have sent a partydown to settle by the Yarra, had it not been that an expedition hadalready set sail from England for the purpose of occupying the shores ofPort Phillip. 

#2. Governor Collins. #--This was the expedition of David Collins, alreadymentioned. He brought out nearly 400 persons, of whom over 300 wereconvicts. There is good reason to believe that Collins from the firstwould have preferred to settle at the Derwent, in Tasmania, but at anyrate he carried out his work at Port Phillip in a very half-heartedmanner. Tuckey chose for the settlement a sandy shore at Sorrento, wherescarcely a drop of fresh water was to be had, and where the blazing sunof midsummer must have been unusually trying to a crowd of people freshfrom colder climates. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST HOTEL IN VICTORIA. ]

It soon became apparent that the site selected would never provesuitable, and Collins sent Lieutenant Tuckey in search of a betterplace. That officer seems to have made a very inefficient search. Hefound no river, and no stream better than the little one on which thetown of Frankston now stands. Here he was attacked by a great crowd ofblacks, and had a conflict with them sufficiently severe to prevent hislanding again. He was thus debarred from exploration by land, and thestormy weather prevented him from remaining long in the open bay. Tuckeytherefore returned with a very gloomy report, and increased thedespondency of the little community. Every one was dull and dispirited, except the two or three children who had been allowed to accompany theirconvict parents. Among these, the leader of all their childish sports, was a little lad named John Pascoe Fawkner, who was destined to beafterwards of note in the history of Port Phillip. Everybody grewdispirited under the heat, the want of fresh water, and the generalwretchedness of the situation; and very soon all voices were unanimousin urging the Governor to remove. Collins then sent a boat, withletters, to Sydney, and Governor King gave him permission to crossover to Tasmania. He lost not a moment in doing so, and founded thesettlement at the Derwent, to which reference has already been made. 

Before he left, there were four convicts who took advantage of theconfusion to escape into the bush, hoping to make their way to Sydney. One returned, footsore and weary, just in time to be taken on board; theother three were not again seen. Two are believed to have perished ofhunger, and thirty-two years passed away before the fate of the thirdwas discovered. 

#3. Western Port. #--When Hume and Hovell returned to Sydney after theirexploring expedition, Hovell insisted that the fine harbour he had seenwas Western Port. He had really been at Geelong Harbour, but was allthat distance astray in his reckoning. Induced by his report, theGovernment sent an expedition under Captain Wright to form a settlementat Western Port. Hovell went with him to give the benefit of hisexperience. They landed on Phillip Island; but the want of a stream ofpermanent water was a disadvantage, and soon after they crossed to themainland on the eastern shore, where they founded a settlement, buildingwooden huts and one or two brick cottages. Hovell had now to confessthat the place he had formerly seen was not Western Port, and he wentoff in search of the fine country he had previously seen, but came backdisappointed. The settlement struggled onward for about a year, and wasthen withdrawn. 

It is not easy to explain in a few words why they abandoned theirdwellings and the land they had begun to cultivate. It seems to havebeen due to a general discontent. However, there were private settlersin Tasmania who would have carried out the undertaking with much moreenergy. For in Tasmania the sheep had been multiplying at a great rate, while the amount of clear and grassy land in that island was verylimited. One of the residents in Tasmania, named John Batman, who hasbeen already mentioned, conceived the idea of forming an associationamong the Tasmanian sheep-owners, for the purpose of crossing BassStrait and occupying with their flocks the splendid grassy lands whichexplorers had seen there. 

#4. Batman. #--John Batman was a native of Parramatta, but when he wasabout twenty-one years of age he had left his home to seek his fortunein Tasmania. There he had taken up land and had settled down to the lifeof a sheep-farmer in the country around Ben Lomond. But he was fond of alife of adventure, and found enough of excitement for a time in thetroubled state of the colony. It was he who captured Brady, the leaderof the bushrangers, and he became well known during the struggle withthe natives on account of his success in dealing with them and ininducing them to surrender peaceably. But when all these troubles wereover, and he had to settle down to the monotonous work of drafting anddriving sheep, he found his land too rocky to support his flocks. Knowing that others in Tasmania were in the same difficulty, he and hisfriend Gellibrand, a lawyer in Hobart, in the year 1827 asked permissionto occupy the grassy lands supposed to be round Western Port, but theGovernor in Sydney refused. In 1834 some of them resolved to go withoutpermission, and an association of thirteen members resolved to sendsheep over to Port Phillip, which was now known to be the more suitableharbour. 

Before they sent the sheep, they resolved to send some one to exploreand report. John Batman naturally volunteered, and the associationchartered for him a little vessel, the _Rebecca_, in which, afternineteen days of sea-sickness and miserable tossing in the strait, hesucceeded in entering Port Phillip on the 29th of May, 1835. Nextmorning he landed near Geelong and walked to the top of the BarraboolHills, wading most of the way through grass knee-deep. On the followingday he went in search of the aboriginals, and met a party of abouttwenty women, together with a number of children. With these he sooncontrived to be on friendly terms; and after he had distributed amongthem looking-glasses, blankets, handkerchiefs, apples and sugar, he leftthem very well satisfied. 

#5. The Yarra. # A day or two later the _Rebecca_ anchored in Hobson's Bay, in front of the ti-tree scrub and the lonely shores where now thestreets of Williamstown extend in all directions. Batman again startedon foot to explore that river whose mouth lay there in front of him. With fourteen men, all well armed, he passed up the river banks; but, being on the left side, he naturally turned up that branch which iscalled the Saltwater, instead of the main stream. After two days ofwalking through open grassy lands, admirably suited for sheep, theyreached the site of Sunbury. From a hill at that place they could seefires about twenty miles to the south-east; and, as they were anxious tomeet the natives, they bent their steps in that direction till theyovertook a native man, with his wife and three children. To his greatsatisfaction, he learnt that these people knew of his friendly meetingwith the women in the Geelong district. They guided him to the banks ofthe Merri Creek, to the place where their whole tribe was encamped. Hestayed with them all night, sleeping in a pretty grassy hollow besidethe stream. In the morning he offered to buy a portion of their land, and gave them a large quantity of goods, consisting of scissors, knives, blankets, looking-glasses, and articles of this description. In return, they granted him all the land stretching from the Merri Creek toGeelong. Batman had the documents drawn up, and on the Northcote Hill, overlooking the grass-covered flats of Collingwood and the sombreforests of Carlton and Fitzroy, the natives affixed their marks to thedeeds, by which Batman fancied he was legally put in possession of600, 000 acres. Trees were cut with notches, in order to fix theboundaries, and in the afternoon Batman took leave of his black friends. He had not gone far before he was stopped by a large swamp, and so sleptfor the night under the great gum trees which then spread their shadeover the ground now covered by the populous streets of West Melbourne. In the morning he found his way round the swamp, and in trying to reachthe Saltwater came upon a noble stream, which was afterwards called theYarra. In the evening he reached his vessel in the bay. Next day heascended the Yarra in a boat; and when he came to the Yarra Falls, hewrote in his diary, "This will be the place for a village, " unconsciousthat he was gazing upon the site of a great and busy city. Returning toIndented Head, near the heads of Port Phillip, he left three white menand his Sydney natives to cultivate the soil and retain possession ofthe land he supposed himself to have purchased. Then he set sail forTasmania, where he and his associates began to prepare for transportingtheir households, their sheep and their cattle, to the new country. 

#6. The Henty Brothers. #--But even earlier than this period a quietsettlement had been made in the western parts of Victoria. There, asearly as 1828, sealers had dwelt at Portland Bay, had built their littlecottages and formed their little gardens. But they were unauthorised, and could only be regarded by the British Government as intruders, having no legal right to the land they occupied. In 1834, however, therecame settlers of another class--Edward, Stephen, and Frank Henty. Theirfather--a man of some wealth--had in 1828 emigrated with all his familyto Western Australia, carrying with him large quantities of fine stock. But the settlement at Swan River proving a failure, he had removed toTasmania, where his six sons all settled. Very soon they found thepastoral lands of Tasmania too limited, and as Edward Henty had in oneof his coasting voyages seen the sealers at Portland Bay and noticed hownumerous the whales were in that bay, and how fine the grassy lands thatlay within, he chartered a vessel, the _Thistle_, and crossed in her tosettle at Portland Bay with servants, sheep, cattle, and horses. 

[Illustration: EDWARD HENTY. ]

The land was all that had been anticipated, and soon Frank, and thenStephen, arrived, with more stock and more men to tend them. Houses andstores were put up, and fields were ploughed. Ere long other settlersfollowed, and in the course of five or six years all the district lyinginland from Portland Bay was well settled and covered with sheep, whileat Portland Bay itself so many whales were caught that there were nottanks enough to hold the oil, and much of it was wasted. The EnglishGovernment after some delay agreed to sell land to the settlers, andbefore 1840 a thriving little town stood on the shores of Portland Bay. 

[Illustration: JOHN PASCOE FAWKNER. ]

#7. Fawkner. #--John Pascoe Fawkner, who, as a boy, had landed at Sorrentoin 1803, had grown up to manhood in Tasmania through stormy times, andhad at length settled down as an innkeeper in Launceston; with thatbusiness, however, combining the editing and publishing of a smallnewspaper. For he was always a busy and active-minded worker, and haddone a great deal to make up for the defective education of his earlieryears. When Batman arrived in Launceston with the news of the finepastoral country across the water, Fawkner became quite excited at theprospects that seemed possible over there. He accordingly began toagitate for the formation of another association, and five membersjoined him. At his expense, the schooner _Enterprise_ was chartered andloaded with all things necessary for a small settlement. On the 27thJuly, 1835, he set sail from Launceston; but the weather was so roughthat, after three days and two nights of inexpressible sickness, Fawknerfound himself still in sight of the Tasmanian coast. He therefore askedto be put ashore, and left Captain Lancey to manage the trip as hethought best. The captain took the vessel over to Western Port, as hadbeen originally arranged; but the land there was not nearly so good asthey understood it to be in the Port Phillip district. So they sailedround and safely anchored in Hobson's Bay, bringing with them horses andploughs, grain, fruit trees, materials for a house, boats, provisions, and, indeed, everything that a small settlement could want. Getting outtheir boat, they entered upon the stream which they saw before them;but, unfortunately, they turned up the wrong arm, and, after rowing manymiles, were forced to turn back, the water all the way being salt andunfit for drinking. For this reason they called this stream theSaltwater; but next morning they started again and tried the otherbranch. After pulling for about an hour and a half they reached a basinin the river whose beauty filled them with exultation and delight. Arocky ledge over which the river flowed kept the water above it fresh;the soil was rich, and covered with splendid grass, and they instantlycame to the conclusion to settle in this favoured spot. Next day theytowed the vessel up, and landed where the Custom House now is. At nightthey slept beside the falls, where the air was fragrant with the sweetscent of the wattle trees just bursting into bloom. 

They had not been on the river many days before Mr. Wedge--one ofBatman's party--in crossing the country from Indented Head to the Yarra, was astonished to see the masts of a vessel rising amid the gum trees. On reaching the river bank, what was his surprise to find, in thatlonely spot, a vessel almost embedded in the woods, and the rocks andglades echoing to the sound of hammer and saw and the encouraging shoutsof the ploughmen! Wedge informed Fawkner's party that they weretrespassers on land belonging to John Batman and Company. CaptainLancey, having heard the story of the purchase, declared that such atransaction could have no value. When Wedge was gone, the settlers laidtheir axes to the roots of the trees, and began to clear the land forextensive cultivation. A fortnight later Wedge brought round all hisparty from Indented Head in order to occupy what Batman had marked asthe site for a village, and the two rival parties were encamped side byside where the western part of Collins Street now stands. A little laterFawkner arrived with further settlers and with a wooden house, which hesoon erected by the banks of the Yarra, the first regularly built houseof Melbourne. He placed it by the side of the densely wooded stream, which was afterwards turned into Elizabeth Street. Great crowds of blackand white cockatoos raised their incessant clamour at the first strokesof the axe; but soon the hillside was clear, and man had taken permanentpossession of the spot. 

#8. William Buckley. #--Meanwhile a circumstance had happened whichfavoured Batman's party in no small degree. The men left at IndentedHead were surprised one morning to see an extremely tall figureadvancing towards them. His hair was thickly matted; his skin was brown, but not black, like that of the natives; he was almost naked, and hecarried the ordinary arms of the aborigines. This was William Buckley, the only survivor of the three convicts who had escaped from GovernorCollins's expedition. He had dwelt for thirty-two years among thenatives. During this long time he had experienced many strangeadventures, but had not exercised the smallest influence for good uponthe natives. He was content to sink at once to their level, and to leadthe purely animal life they led. But when he heard that there was aparty of whites on Indented Head, whom the Geelong tribes proposed tomurder, he crossed to warn them of their danger. Batman's party clothedhim and treated him well, and for a time he acted as interpreter, smoothing over many of the difficulties that arose with the natives, andrendering the formation of the settlement much less difficult than itmight have been. 

#9. Excitement in Tasmania. #--The news taken over by Batman caused acommotion in Tasmania. Many settlers crossed in search of the newcountry, and, before a year had passed, nearly two hundred persons, withmore than 15, 000 sheep, had landed on the shores of Port Phillip. Butthey soon spread over a great extent of country--from Geelong toSunbury. They were in the midst of numerous black tribes, who now, toolate, began to perceive the nature of Batman's visit, and commenced toseek revenge. Frequent attacks were made, in one of which a squatter andhis servant were killed beside the Werribee. Their bodies lie buried inthe Flagstaff Gardens. 

#10. Governor Bourke. #--These were not the only troubles of the settlers;for the Sydney Government declared that all purchases of land fromignorant natives were invalid, and Governor Bourke issued aproclamation, warning the people at Port Phillip against fixing theirhomes there, as the land did not legally belong to them. 

Still new settlers flocked over, and a township began to be formed onthe banks of the Yarra. Batman's association found that their claims tothe land granted them by the natives would not be allowed; and, aftersome correspondence on the subject with the Home Government, they hadto be content with 28, 000 acres, as compensation for the money they hadexpended. 

#11. Lonsdale. #--Towards the close of 1836 Governor Bourke found himselfcompelled to recognise the new settlement, and sent Captain Lonsdale toact as a magistrate; thirty soldiers accompanied him to maintain orderand protect the settlers. Next year (1837) the Governor himself arrivedat Port Phillip, where he found the settlers now numbering 500. Heplanned out the little town, giving names to its streets, and finallysettling that it should be called Melbourne, after Lord Melbourne, whowas then the Prime Minister of England. 

#12. Latrobe. #--in 1838 Geelong began to grow into a township, and thesettlers spread west as far as Colac. Next year Mr. Latrobe was sent totake charge of the whole district of Port Phillip, under the title ofSuperintendent, but with almost all the powers of a Governor. Thesettlers held a public meeting, in an auction-room at Market Square, forthe purpose of according a hearty welcome to their new Governor, whosekindliness and upright conduct soon made him a great favourite. 

[Illustration: GOVERNOR LATROBE. ]

A wattle-and-daub building was put up as a police-office, on the site ofthe Western Markets, where it did duty for some time, until one night itfell; some say because it was undermined by a party of imprisonednatives; but others, because a bull belonging to Mr. Batman had rushedagainst it. A court-house was erected, and four policemen appointed. Apost-office next followed, and, one by one, the various institutions ofa civilised community arose in miniature form. Numerous ships began toenter the bay, and a lucrative trade sprang up with Tasmania. In 1838the first newspaper appeared. It was due to the enterprise of Fawkner. Every Monday morning sheets containing four pages of writing weredistributed to the subscribers, under the title of the _Advertiser_. After nine issues of this kind had been published, a parcel of oldrefuse type was sent over from Tasmania; and a young man being found inthe town who had, in his boyhood, spent a few months in a printingoffice, he was pressed into the service, and thenceforward the_Advertiser_ appeared in a printed form--the pioneer of the press ofVictoria. Mr. Batman had fixed his residence not far from the place nowoccupied by the Spencer Street Railway Station. Here, in the year 1839, he was seized with a violent cold; and, after being carefully nursed byone of his daughters, died without seeing more than the beginning ofthat settlement he had laboured so hard to found. Mr. Fawkner lived toan advanced age, and saw the city--whose first house he hadbuilt--become a vast metropolis. 

[Illustration: COLLINS STREET, MELBOURNE, IN 1840. (Compare with page 177. )]

The year 1839 brought further increase to the population; and before thebeginning of 1840 there were 3, 000 persons, with 500 houses and 70shops, in Melbourne. In 1841, within five years of its foundation, itcontained 11, 000 persons and 1, 500 houses. 

CHAPTER IX. 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA, 1836-1841. 

#1. Edward Gibbon Wakefield. #--In 1829 a small book was published inLondon which attracted a great deal of attention, not only by reason ofits charming style and the liveliness of its manner, but also on accountof the complete originality of the ideas it contained. It purported tobe a letter written from Sydney, and described the annoyances to beendured by a man of taste and fortune if he emigrated to Australia. Hecould have no intellectual society; he could not enjoy the pleasures ofhis library or of his picture gallery; he could hope for none of thedelights of easy retirement, seeing that he had to go forth on his land, and with his own hands labour for his daily food. For, said Mr. Wakefield, the author of this little book, you cannot long have freeservants in this country; if a free man arrives in the colony, though hemay for a short time work for you as a servant, yet he is sure to save alittle money, and as land is here so excessively cheap, he soon becomesa landed proprietor. He settles down on his farm, and, though he mayhave a year or two of heavy toil, yet he is almost certain to becomeboth happy and prosperous. Thus, the colony is an excellent place for apoor man, but it is a wretched abode for a man of means and of culture. Wakefield therefore proposed to found in Australia another colony, whichshould be better adapted to those who had fortunes sufficient tomaintain them and yet desired to emigrate to a new country. His schemefor effecting this purpose was to charge a high price for the land, andso to prevent the poorer people from purchasing it; the money receivedfrom the sale of land he proposed to employ in bringing out young menand women, as servants and farm labourers, for the service of thewealthier colonists. Now, said Wakefield, on account of the immensenatural resources of these colonies, their splendid soil, theirmagnificent pasture lands, their vast wealth in minerals, and theirwidespread forests of valuable timber, which stand ready for the axe, agentleman possessed of only £20, 000 will obtain as large an income fromit as could be procured from £100, 000 in England; yet he will be able toenjoy his learned and cultured leisure, just as he does at home, becauseall the work will be done for him by the servants he employs. For threeor four years this agreeable fallacy made quite a stir in England:famous authors, distinguished soldiers, learned bishops were deceived byit; noblemen, members of Parliament, bankers and merchants, all combinedto applaud this novel and excellent idea of Mr. Wakefield. 

#2. South Australian Association. #--in 1831 the first effort was made togive a practical turn to these theories, and the southern shores ofAustralia were selected as a suitable locality for the proposed colony. A company was formed; but when it applied to the British Government fora charter, which would have conceded the complete sovereignty of thewhole southern region of Australia, Lord Goderich, the Secretary ofState, replied that it was asking a great deal too much, and abruptlyclosed the negotiation. Two years later the South Australian Associationwas formed, and as this company asked for nothing beyond the power tosell waste lands and apply the proceeds to assist immigration, theBritish Government gave its consent, and an Act was passed by theImperial Parliament to give the association full power to found acolony. This Act directed that commissioners should be appointed toframe laws for the colony, to establish courts, and to nominate itsofficers; land was to be thrown open for sale at not less than twelveshillings an acre, and even this comparatively high price was to beraised, after a short time, to £1 per acre, in order to keep the land inthe hands of the wealthy. It was expressly stated that no convict wouldbe allowed to land in the new settlement, which, it was hoped, wouldbecome in every respect a model community. The British Governmentdeclined to incur any expense in establishing or in maintaining thecolony, which was to be purely self-supporting. Eleven commissionerswere appointed, of whom Colonel Torrens was chairman in England, and Mr. Fisher the representative in Australia, where he was to take charge ofthe sale of lands and supervise the affairs of the colony. At the sametime, Captain Hindmarsh was appointed Governor, and Colonel Light wassent out to survey the waste lands preparatory to their being offeredfor sale. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST SETTLEMENT AT ADELAIDE, 1836. (Compare with page 167. )]

In May, 1835, during the very month in which Batman was wandering forthe first time on the banks of the Yarra, these appointments for thefoundation of a fourth Australian colony were being published in theEnglish _Government Gazette_. Thus Victoria and South Australia tooktheir widely different origins at almost the same time; but while thefirst actual settlers landed at Port Phillip towards the end of 1835, the pioneers of South Australia did not reach that colony until themiddle of 1836. 

#3. Adelaide. #--The first emigrants to South Australia landed on KangarooIsland, of which Flinders had given a most attractive account; butthough the place was beautifully wooded, and of the most picturesqueaspect, it was found to be in many respects unsuitable for thefoundation of a city; and when Colonel Light shortly afterwards arrivedwith his staff of surveyors, he at once decided to remove the settlementto St. Vincent's Gulf. Here, about six miles from the shores of thegulf, he selected a broad plain between the sea and the pleasant hillsof the Mount Lofty Range; and on the bank of a small stream, which hecalled the Torrens, he marked out the lines of the infant city. QueenAdelaide was the wife of the reigning King of England, and, as she wasexceedingly popular, the colonists, with enthusiasm, adopted her namefor their capital. A harbour was found seven miles distant from thecity, and on it a town was established, to which the name Port Adelaidewas given. 

#4. Governor Hindmarsh. #--In December, 1836, Governor Hindmarsh landed, and beneath a spreading gum tree near the beach he read his commissionto a small audience of emigrants and officials; but when he proceeded toexamine what had been done, he was filled with disgust and indignation. The only landing-place for vessels was in the midst of a mangrove swampat the mouth of a muddy little creek; and all goods would have to becarried six or seven miles inland to the city. To a sailor's eye, itseemed the most reckless folly to make so unusual a choice, and he atonce determined to remove the settlement to Encounter Bay; but neitherColonel Light nor Mr. Fisher would permit any change to be made, and aviolent quarrel took place. As resident commissioner, Mr. Fisher hadpowers equal to those of the Governor, and was thus enabled to prolongthe contest. Of the settlers, some sided with the Governor; others gavetheir support to the commissioner, and the colony was quickly dividedinto two noisy factions. After fourteen months of constant wrangling, the English Government interfered. Mr. Fisher was dismissed and GovernorHindmarsh recalled, while the offices of both were conferred on ColonelGawler, who arrived in the colony during the year 1838. 

[Illustration: GOVERNOR HINDMARSH. ]

#5. Early Failures. #--The Wakefield system could not possibly realise thehopeful anticipations which had been formed of it; for the foundation ofa new colony and the reclaiming of the lonely forest wilds are not to beaccomplished by merely looking on at the exertions of hired servants. Ladies and gentlemen who had, in England, paid for land they had neverseen, were, on their arrival, greatly disgusted at the sight of thetoils before them. They had to pull their luggage through the dismalswamp, for there were neither porters nor cabs in waiting; they had tosettle down in canvas tents, on a grassy plain, which was called a city, but where a few painted boards here and there, fastened to the trunks ofgum trees, were the only indications of streets. Then, when they wentout to see their estates, and beheld great stretches of rude andunpromising wilderness--when they considered how many years must passaway before there could possibly arise the terraces and gardens, theorchards and grassy lawns, which make an English country-housedelightful--their courage failed them, and, instead of going forth uponthe land, they clustered together in Adelaide. Every one wished tosettle down in the city, and as it was expected that, with the growth ofpopulation, the value of town allotments would rapidly increase, theidea became prevalent that to buy land in the city and keep it for salein future years would be a profitable investment. But there were so manywho entertained the same astute design that, when they all came to putit in practice, there was little gain to any one; and the only resultwas that Adelaide was turned into a scene of reckless speculation andgambling in land. 

#6. Governor Gawler. #--Meantime poorer emigrants were arriving inexpectation of obtaining employment from their wealthier predecessors, who had been able to pay the high price demanded for land. They foundthat those whom they expected to be their employers had abandoned theidea of going out into the country to cultivate the soil. There was, therefore, nothing for them to do; they had no money with which tospeculate in town allotments, they had no land on which to commencefarming for themselves, and they were in a wretched plight. Provisionshad rapidly increased in price, so that flour rose from £20 to £80 perton; no food was being produced from the land, and nothing whatever wasbeing done to develop the resources of the colony, whilst the moneywhich the settlers had brought with them was rapidly being spent inimporting shiploads of provisions from other countries. 

In order to give employment to those of the settlers who were reallydestitute, Governor Gawler commenced a series of Government works. Heconstructed a good road between Adelaide and its port. He formedwharves, and reclaimed the unwholesome swamp; he built a Custom House, with warehouses and many other costly buildings, the Government Housealone costing £20, 000. Now, these were all in themselves very desirablethings; but it was difficult to see how they were to be paid for. Colonel Gawler spent nearly the whole of his own private fortune inpaying the wages of the unfortunate persons he employed, but that couldnot long support so great a concourse of people. He persuaded merchantsin England to send out provisions and clothing for the famished people;but the only means he had of paying for these goods was by drafts on theBritish Treasury, which were accepted at first as equivalent to money, for it was believed that, whenever they were presented in London, payment would immediately be made by the British Government. But thiswas a serious mistake: though the first series of drafts were paidreadily enough, yet when the authorities in England found that others, for larger and larger amounts, continued to pour in, they refused topay, and reminded the colony that, by the terms of its charter, it wasto be entirely self-supporting. A series of drafts, to the amount of£69, 000, were therefore dishonoured; and the merchants, finding thedrafts to be worth no more than so much paper, demanded their money fromthe Governor; but he had nothing with which to pay, and the colony hadto be declared insolvent, having debts to the amount of about £400, 000which it could not meet. 

#7. The Collapse. #--Matters were now in a very gloomy condition. Most ofthe colonists became anxious to return to England, and therefore soughtto sell their land. But when nearly all wished to sell, and scarcely anywished to buy, the price went down to a trifle, and men who had investedfortunes in town allotments, realised no more than enough to pay theirpassage home. In the meantime the English merchants declined to sendout any further supplies, and those who had not the means of leavingAdelaide seemed in great danger of starving. But as land could now bebought very cheaply, many industrious people of the poorer class settleddown to clear the country for farming. This was what should have beendone at the very beginning; for no colony can be prosperous, or look foranything but bankruptcy, until it commences to produce grain, or wool, or minerals, or some other commodity with which it can purchase fromother lands the goods which they produce. The lands of South Australiaare admirably adapted for the growth of wheat; and, after a time, success attended the efforts of the farmers, who thus laid thefoundations of future prosperity. 

[Illustration: PROCLAMATION TREE, GLENELG. (The colony of S. Australia proclaimed a British dependency, 28th December, 1836. )]

Another industry was also added about this time. The young squatters ofNew South Wales, attracted by the high prices given for sheep in theearly days of Adelaide, had been daring enough, in spite of the blacksand of the toilsome journey, to drive their flocks overland; and thenew-comers soon gave quite a wool-growing tone to the community. These"overlanders, " as they were called, affected a bandit style of dress; intheir scarlet shirts and broad-brimmed hats, their belts filled withpistols, and their horses gaily caparisoned, they caused a sensation inthe streets in Adelaide, which rang all evening with their merrimentand dissipation. But as they brought about fifty thousand sheep into thecolony during the course of only a year or so, they were of essentialbenefit to it. Many of them settled down and taught the new arrivals howto manage flocks and prepare the wool, and thus they assisted in raisingAdelaide from the state of despondency and distress into which it hadsunk. 

#8. Recall of Governor Gawler. #--The British Government eventually decidedto lend the colony a sufficient sum of money to pay its debts; but itwas resolved to make certain changes. The eleven commissioners wereabolished, Captain George Grey, a young officer, was appointed Governor;and one day in May, 1841, he walked into the Government House atAdelaide, presented his commission to Governor Gawler, and at once tookthe control of affairs into his own hands. This summary mode ofdismissing Governor Gawler must now be regarded as somewhat harsh; forhe had laboured hard and spent his money freely in trying to benefit thecolony, and the mistakes which were made during his administration werenot so much due to his incapacity as to the impracticable nature of thetheory on which the colony had been founded. In 1841 he sailed forEngland, deeply regretted by many who had experienced his kindness andgenerosity in their time of trouble. 

CHAPTER X. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, 1838-1850. 

#1. Gipps. #--In 1838, when Governor Bourke left Australia to spend theremainder of his life in the retirement of his native county in Ireland, he was succeeded in the government of New South Wales by Sir GeorgeGipps, an officer who had recently gained distinction by his services insettling the affairs of Canada. The new Governor was a man of greatability, generous and well meaning, but of a somewhat arbitrary nature. No Governor has ever laboured more assiduously for the welfare of hispeople, and yet none has ever been more unpopular than Gipps. During histerm of office the colonists were constantly suffering from troubles, due, in most instances, to themselves, but always attributed to others, and, as a rule, to the Governor. It is true that the English Government, though actuated by a sincere desire to benefit and assist the risingcommunity, often aggravated these troubles by its crude and ill-informedefforts to alleviate them. And as Sir George Gipps considered it hischief duty to obey literally and exactly all the orders sent out by hissuperiors in England, however much he privately disapproved of them, itwas natural that he should receive much of the odium and derisionattendant on these injudicious attempts; but, on the whole, the troublesof the colony were due, not so much to any fault of the Governor or toany error of the English Government, as to the imprudence of thecolonists themselves. 

#2. Monetary Crisis. #--During twelve years of unalloyed prosperity, somany fortunes had been made that the road to wealth seemed securelyopened to all who landed in the colony. Thus it became common for newarrivals to regard themselves, on their first landing, as already men offortune, and, presuming on their anticipated wealth, they often lived inan expensive and extravagant style, very different from the prudent andabstemious life which can alone secure to the young colonist the successhe hopes for. In Sydney the most profuse habits prevailed, and inMelbourne it seemed as if prosperity had turned the heads of theinhabitants. The most expensive liquors were the ordinary beverages ofwaggoners and shepherds; and, on his visit to Port Phillip in 1843, Governor Gipps found the suburbs of Melbourne thickly strewed withchampagne bottles, which seemed to him to tell a tale of extravaganceand dissipation. 

#3. Land Laws. #--Whilst many of the younger merchants were thus on theirway to ruin, and the great bulk of the community were kept impoverishedby their habits, the English Government brought matters to a crisis byits injudicious interference with the land laws. The early years ofSouth Australia, and its period of trouble, have been already described. In 1840 South Australia was on the verge of bankruptcy, and theWakefield policy of maintaining the land at a high price had notproduced the results anticipated. Now, many of the greatest men inEngland were in favour of the Wakefield theory; and, in particular, theSecretary of State for the Colonies--that is, the member of the BritishGovernment whose duty it is to attend to colonial affairs was a warmsupporter of the views of Wakefield; so that when the people of SouthAustralia complained that their scheme could not be successful solong as the other colonies charged so low a price for their land, hesympathised with them in their trouble. "Who, " they asked, "will pay onepound an acre for land in South Australia, when, by crossing to PortPhillip, he can obtain land equally good at five shillings an acre?" Toprevent the total destruction of South Australia, the Secretary of Stateordered the other colonies to charge a higher price for land. New SouthWales was to be divided into three districts. (1) The Middle District, round Port Jackson, where land was never to be sold for less than twelveshillings an acre. (2) The Northern District, round Moreton Bay, wherethe same price was to be charged. (3) The Southern District, round PortPhillip, where the land was of superior quality, and was never to besold for less than one pound an acre. 

A great amount of discontent was caused throughout New South Wales bythis order; but South Australia was saved from absolute ruin, and theSecretary of State declined to recall the edict. In vain it was urgedthat a great part of the land was not worth more than two or threeshillings an acre; the answer was that land was worth whatever peoplewere willing to pay for it. For a time it seemed as if this view hadbeen sound, and land was eagerly purchased, even at the advanced prices;in 1840 the amounts received from land sales were three times as greatas those received in 1838. But this was mostly the result ofspeculation, and disastrous effects soon followed; for the prices paidby the purchasers were far above the real value of the land. If a manbrought a thousand pounds into the colony and paid it to the Governmentfor a thousand acres of land, he reckoned himself to be still worth athousand pounds, and the banks would be willing to lend him nearly athousand pounds on the security of his purchase. But if he endeavoured, after a year or two, to resell it, he would then discover its truevalue, and find he was in reality possessed of only two or three hundredpounds: every purchaser had found the land to be of less value than hehad expected; every one was anxious to sell; and, there being fewbuyers, most of it was sold at a ruinous price. Men who had borrowedmoney were unable to pay their debts, and became insolvent. The banks, who had lent them money, were brought to the verge of ruin; and one ofthe oldest--the Bank of Australia--became bankrupt in 1843, andincreased the confusion in monetary affairs. In order to pay theirdebts, the squatters were now forced to sell their sheep and cattle; butthere was scarcely any one willing to buy, and the market being glutted, the prices went down to such an extent that sheep, which two yearsbefore had been bought for thirty shillings, were gladly sold foreighteenpence. Indeed, a large flock was sold in Sydney at sixpence perhead. Fortunately, it was discovered by Mr. O'Brien, a squatter livingat Yass, that about six shillings worth of tallow could be obtained fromeach sheep by boiling it down; and, if this operation had not beenextensively begun by many of the sheep-owners, they would, withoutdoubt, have been completely ruined. So great was the distress that, in1843, the Governor issued provisions at less than cost price, in orderto prevent the starvation of large numbers of the people. 

Yet, the Secretary of State in England knew nothing of all this, and in1843 he raised the price of land still higher, ordering that, throughoutall Australia, no land should be sold for less than one pound an acre. 

#4. Immigration. #--It is not to be imagined, however, that the EnglishGovernment ever took to itself any of this land revenue. Every penny wasused for the purpose of bringing immigrants into the colony. Agents inEurope were appointed to select suitable persons, who received what werecalled bounty orders. Any one who possessed an order of this kindreceived a free passage to Sydney, all expenses being paid by theColonial Government with the money received from the sale of land. TheGovernor had the power of giving these orders to persons in New SouthWales, who sent them home to their friends or relatives, or to servantsand labourers, whom they wished to bring to the colonies. Now, GovernorGipps imagined that the land would continue to bring in as much revenueevery year as it did in 1840, and, in the course of that year and thenext, gave bounty orders to the extent of nearly one million pounds. But in 1841 the land revenue fell to about one-twentieth of what it hadbeen in 1840; so that the colony must have become bankrupt had it notbeen that more than half of those who received bounty orders, hearing ofthe unsettled state of the colony, never made use of the permissiongranted. Governor Gipps was blamed by the colonists, and received fromthe Secretary of State a letter of sharp rebuke. 

As for the immigrants who did arrive in New South Wales, their prospectswere not bright. For a long time many of them found it impossible toobtain employment. Great numbers landed friendless and penniless inSydney, and in a few weeks found themselves obliged to sleep in theparks, or in the streets, and, but for the friendly exertions of abenevolent lady, Mrs. Chisholm, who obtained employment at differenttimes for about two thousand of them, their position would, indeed, havebeen wretched. 

Mrs. Chisholm founded a home for defenceless and friendless girls, of whom nearly six hundred were at one time living in Sydney indestitution, having been sent out from home with bounty orders, underthe impression that employment was certain whenever they might land atPort Jackson. 

Gradually the return of the colonists to habits of prudence and thriftremoved the financial distress which had been the primary cause of allthese troubles. Land ceased to be bought at the ruinously high rates, and goods returned to their former prices. 

#5. Separation. #--But these were not the only cares which pressed upon themind of Sir George Gipps. He was entrusted with the management of theeastern half of Australia, a region stretching from Cape York toWilson's Promontory. There were, it is true, but 150, 000 inhabitants inthe whole territory. But the people were widely scattered, and therewere in reality two distinct settlements--one consisting of 120, 000people round Sydney, the other of 30, 000 round Port Phillip. The latter, though small, was vigorous, and inclined to be discontented; it was sixhundred miles distant from the capital, and the delays andinconveniences due to this fact caused it no little annoyance. 

There was, indeed, a Superintendent in Melbourne, and to him the controlof the southern district was chiefly entrusted. But Mr. Latrobe wasundecided and feeble. Though personally a most worthy man, yet, as aruler, he was much too timid and irresolute. He seldom ventured to takeany step on his own responsibility; no matter how urgent the matter was, he always waited for instructions from his superior, the Governor. 

Under these circumstances, it was natural that the people of Melbourneshould wish for an independent Governor, who would have full power tosettle promptly all local affairs. In 1840 they held a meeting in a roomat the top of the hill in Bourke Street, to petition for separation fromNew South Wales. But, next year, the Sydney people held a meeting in thetheatre to protest against it. Here, then, was another source of troubleto Gipps; for, from this time, the colony was divided into two parties, eagerly and bitterly disputing on the separation question. GovernorGipps and Mr. Latrobe were not in favour of separation, and, by theiropposition, they incurred the deep dislike of the people of PortPhillip. The authorities at home, however, were somewhat inclined tofavour the idea, and as Gipps was necessarily the medium of announcingtheir views to the colonists, and carrying them into force, he becameunpopular with the Sydney colonists also. No man has ever occupied amore trying position; and a somewhat overbearing temperament was not atall suited for smoothing away its difficulties. 

[Illustration: COLONIAL SECRETARY'S OFFICE, SYDNEY. ]

#6. Representative Government. #--In 1842 a meeting was held in Sydney topetition for representative government. The British Parliament saw itsway clear to concede this privilege; and in July, 1843, the firstrepresentatives elected by the people assembled in Sydney. The newCouncil consisted of thirty-six members, of whom twelve were eitherofficials or persons nominated by the Governor, and the othertwenty-four were elective. It was the duty of this body to consult withthe Governor, and to see that the legitimate wishes of the people wereattended to. Six gentlemen were elected for Port Phillip; but residentsof Melbourne found it impossible to leave their business and go to livein Sydney. The people of Port Phillip were therefore forced to electSydney gentlemen to take charge of their interests. However, these didtheir duty excellently. Dr. Lang was especially active in the interestsof his constituents, and in the second session of the Council, duringthe year 1844, he moved that a petition should be presented to theQueen, praying that the Port Phillip district should be separated fromNew South Wales, and formed into an independent colony. The Port Philliprepresentatives, together with the now famous Robert Lowe, gave theirsupport to the motion; but there were nineteen votes against it, andthis effort was supposed to have been completely baffled. But Dr. Langdrew up a petition of his own, which was signed by all the Port Phillipmembers and sent to England. Nothing further was heard on the subjectfor some time, until Sir George Gipps received a letter from LordStanley, the Secretary of State, directing him to lay the matter beforethe Executive Council in Sydney; and stating that, in the opinion of theEnglish Government, the request of Port Phillip was very fair andreasonable. An inquiry was held, the Sydney Council sent to England areport on the subject, and received a reply to the effect that stepswould at once be taken to obtain from the Imperial Parliament therequired Act. 

The people of Port Phillip were overjoyed, and in 1846 gave a grandbanquet to Dr. Lang to celebrate the occasion. But they were notdestined to quite so speedy a consummation of their desires. The EnglishGovernment which had given so favourable an ear to their petition wasdefeated and succeeded by another Government, to whom the whole questionwas new. Year after year passed away, and the people of Port Phillipbegan to grow impatient, and to complain loudly of their grievances. First of all, they complained that, although it was a well-recognisedprinciple that the money received by Government for the waste lands ofany district should be employed in bringing out emigrants to thatdistrict, yet the Sydney Government used much of the money obtainedfrom the sale of land in Port Phillip for the purpose of bringing outnew colonists--not to Melbourne or Geelong, but to Sydney itself. Andthus, it was said, the people of Sydney were using the money of the PortPhillip district for their own advantage. And, again, the people ofMelbourne complained that, although they were allowed to elect sixmembers of the Legislative Council, yet this was merely a mockery, because none of the Port Phillip residents could afford to live inSydney for five months every year and to neglect their own privatebusiness. The former of these accusations seems, so far as we can nowdetermine, to have been unfounded; the latter was undoubtedly apractical grievance, though more or less unavoidable in every system ofrepresentation. 

#7. Earl Grey. #--For a year or two the English Government forgot all aboutthe separation question; and, in 1848, the wearied colonists at PortPhillip determined to call attention to their discontent. Accordingly, when the elections for that year approached, they determined not toelect any member, so that the English Government might see of how littleuse to them their supposed privilege really was. It was agreed that noone should come forward for election, and it seemed likely that therewould be no election whatever, when a gentleman named Foster offeredhimself as a candidate. This placed the non-election party in a dilemma;for if they declined to vote at all, and if Mr. Foster could persuadeonly two or three of his friends to vote for him, then, since there wasno other candidate, he would be legally elected. 

Now, at this time, Earl Grey was Secretary of State for the Colonies;and when some one proposed to nominate him for election, in oppositionto Mr. Foster, the idea was hailed as a happy one. The non-electionparty could then vote for Earl Grey, and he would be returned by a largemajority. But Earl Grey, being an English nobleman and a member of theBritish Government, would certainly never go to Sydney to attend a smallColonial Council; so that there would be, in reality, no member elected. But the attention of the Secretary of State would be drawn to thedesires of the district. Earl Grey was triumphantly elected, and whenthe news went home it caused some merriment. He was jokingly asked inthe House of Lords when he would sail for Sydney. And for several weekshe underwent so much banter on the subject that his attention was fullyaroused to the long-neglected question. He weighed the matter carefully, and, resolving to do the people of Port Phillip full justice, sent outword that he would at once prepare a Bill for the Imperial Parliament, in order to obtain the necessary powers. At the same time he intimatedthat Queen Victoria would be pleased if the new colony should adopt hername. Nothing could give the colonists more satisfaction, and theywaited with patience until affairs should be properly arranged inEngland. 

#8. Sir Charles Fitzroy. #--All this agitation, however, had not takenplace without much irritation and contention between the people at PortPhillip and their Governor at Sydney, from whose authority they wishedto free themselves. Sir George Gipps had much to harass him, and in 1846he was glad to retire from his troublesome position. He was succeeded bySir Charles Fitzroy, a gentleman in every respect his opposite. By nomeans clever, yet good-tempered and amiable, he troubled himself verylittle with the affairs of the colony. The Sydney Council managedeverything just as it pleased; Sir Charles was glad to be rid of thetrouble, and the colonists were delighted to have their own way. As forthe separation question, he cared very little whether Port Phillip waserected into a colony or not. 

In 1850 the news arrived that Port Phillip was to be separated from NewSouth Wales, and in the middle of the next year its independence wasdeclared. Its Superintendent, Latrobe, was raised to the dignity ofGovernor, and the new colony received its Constitution, conferring on itall the legislative and other powers which had previously been possessedonly by New South Wales. 

#9. Abolition of Transportation. #--It was during this period that theEnglish Government resolved on sending no more convicts to Australia. Acommittee of the Imperial Parliament held an inquiry into the effects oftransportation, and reported that it would be unwise to continue thesystem. From 1842, therefore, there was practically a cessation oftransportation, although the majority of the squatters were averse tothe change. They found that the convicts, when assigned to them, madegood shepherds and stockmen, and that at cheap rates. They subsequentlypetitioned for a revival of transportation; but, after some hesitation, the British Government resolved to adhere to their resolution to send nomore convicts to Sydney. Van Diemen's Land was still unfortunate; it wasto receive, indeed, the full stream of convicts, but from 1842 Australiaitself ceased to be the receptacle for the criminals of Great Britain. 

CHAPTER XI. 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA, 1841-1850. 

#1. Governor Grey. #--The colonists of South Australia had, in 1841, received a sharp but salutary lesson, and we have seen that theyprofited by it. They had discovered that the land was their only sourceof wealth, and many, who had sufficient means to purchase farms orstations, went out into the country, determined to endure a year or twoof hardship in hopes of prosperity to come. Nor had they very long towait; in 1844 they were able to export corn to the extent of £40, 000, and in that year the colony possessed 355, 000 sheep and 22, 000 cattle. 

The new Governor, Captain George Grey, took every care to assist thecolonists in returning to more prudent courses. Many changes wereneeded; for in 1840, while the colony had a revenue of only £30, 000, ithad spent at the rate of £171, 000 per annum. Such imprudence could leadto nothing but ruin, and the first task of the Governor was to reduceall expenses as far as possible. In the first year the expenditure wascut down to £90, 000; in the next, to £68, 000; and in 1843, to £34, 000. 

Instead of employing the poorer labourers on costly and unnecessarypublic works, he persuaded them to take employment in the country withthe farmers and squatters, who were rapidly opening up the interiorparts of the colony. He settled many on small farms or stations of theirown, but in this he was greatly impeded by the high price of land; forWakefield's friends in England were not yet convinced that theirfavourite scheme was defective--they attributed every mishap to theincompetence of Governors Hindmarsh and Gawler. "To lower the price, "said they, "will be to ruin the colony;" and lest such a thing shouldhappen, they raised the price of all lands, whether good or bad, to onepound per acre. But many of those who had bought land in the first daysof the settlement had been so anxious to part with it during the crisisthat they had sold it for much less than it cost them; and thus a greatnumber of the poorer people became possessed of land at very moderateprices. In 1839 there were but 440 acres under cultivation; three yearsafterwards there were 23, 000 acres bearing wheat, and 5, 000 acres ofother crops. So rich and fertile was the soil that, in 1845, thecolonists not only raised enough of corn to supply their own wants, but were able to export about 200, 000 bushels at cheap rates to theneighbouring colonies, and even then were left with 150, 000 bushels, which they could neither sell nor use. So rapid a development ofresources and so sudden an accession of prosperity have probably neveroccurred in the history of any other country. 

#2. Mineral Wealth. #--Such was the success attendant upon carefulindustry, exercised with prudence, and under favourable circumstances;but the colony was to owe yet more to accidental good fortune. Duringthe year 1841, a carrier, while driving his team of bullocks over theMount Lofty Range, had been obliged, by the steepness of the road, tofasten a log to the back of his waggon in order to steady the load andprevent its descending too quickly. As the log dragged roughly behind onthe road, it tore great furrows in the soil, and in one of these thecarrier noticed a stone which glanced and glittered like a metal. Onlooking more closely, he saw that there were large quantities of thesame substance lying near the surface of the earth in all directions. Having taken some specimens with him, he made inquiries in Adelaide, andlearned that the substance he had discovered was galena, a mineral inwhich sulphur is combined with lead and small quantities of silver. Theland on which this valuable ore had been found was soon purchased, andmines opened upon it. At first there was a large profit obtained fromthe enterprise; and though, in after years, the mines became exhausted, yet they served to call the attention of the colonists to thepossibility of discovering more permanent and lucrative sources ofmineral wealth. 

#3. Copper. #--At the Kapunda Station, about forty miles north-west ofAdelaide, there lived a squatter named Captain Bagot. One day, duringthe year 1842, he sent his overseer--Mr. Dutton--to search for a numberof sheep which had strayed into the bush. After spending some time infruitless efforts, Mr. Dutton ascended a small hill in order to have amore extensive view of the country, but still he saw nothing of the lostsheep. On turning to descend, his attention was attracted by a brightgreen rock jutting from the earth. It seemed to him peculiar, so hebroke a small piece off and carried it down to Captain Bagot's house, where he and the captain examined the specimen, and came to theconclusion that it consisted of the mineral malachite, containing copperin combination with water and carbonic dioxide. They let no one know ofthe discovery, but proceeded to apply for the land in the usual manner, without breathing a word as to their purpose. The section of eightyacres was advertised for a month, and then put up to auction; but as noone was anxious for this barren piece of ground, they had nocompetitors, and the land fell to them for the price of eighty pounds. As soon as they became possessed of it, they threw off all appearance ofmystery, and commenced operations. During the first year the minesyielded £4, 000; during the next, £10, 000; and for several years theycontinued to enrich the two proprietors, until each had realised ahandsome fortune, when the land was bought by an English company. 

#4. The Burra Mines. #--The discovery of copper at Kapunda caused muchexcitement in the colony. Every one who possessed land examined itcarefully for the trace of any minerals it might contain; and soon itwas rumoured that, at a place about one hundred miles north of Adelaide, a shepherd had found exceedingly rich specimens of copper ore. The landon which these were discovered had not yet been sold by the Government, and in great haste a company was formed to purchase it. This companyconsisted of the merchants, professional men, and officials of Adelaide;but a rival company was immediately started, consisting of shopkeepersand tradesmen, together with the farmers of the country districts. Theformer always maintained a haughty air, and soon came to be knownthroughout the colony as the "nobs"; while they, in their turn, fixed ontheir rivals the nickname of the "snobs". For a week or two thejealousies of the companies ran high, but they were soon forced to makea temporary union; for, according to the land laws of the colony, if anyone wished to buy a piece of land, he had to apply for it and have itadvertised for a month; it was then put up for auction, and he whooffered the highest price became the purchaser. But a month was a longtime to wait, and it was rumoured that a number of speculators were ontheir way from Sydney to offer a large sum for the land, as soon as itshould be put up to auction. It was, therefore, necessary to takeimmediate action. There was another regulation in the land laws, according to which, if a person applied for 20, 000 acres, and paid down£20, 000 in cash, he became at once the proprietor of the land. The"nobs" determined to avail themselves of this arrangement; but when theyput their money together, they found they had not enough to pay so largea sum. They therefore asked the "snobs" to join them, on theunderstanding that, after the land had been purchased, the two companieswould make a fair division. By uniting their funds they raised therequired amount, and proceeded with great exultation to lodge the money. But part of it was in the form of bills on the Adelaide banks; and asthe Governor refused to accept anything but cash, the companies werealmost in despair, until a few active members hunted up their friends inAdelaide, and succeeded in borrowing the number of sovereigns requiredto make up the deficiency. The money was paid into the Treasury, the twocompanies were the possessors of the land, and the Sydney speculatorsarrived a few days too late. 

Now came the division of the 20, 000 acres. A line was drawn across themiddle; a coin was tossed up to decide which of the two should have thefirst choice, and fortune favoured the "snobs, " who selected thenorthern half, called by the natives Burra Burra. To the southern partthe "nobs" gave the name of "Princess Royal". The companies soon beganoperations; but though the two districts appeared on the surface to beof almost equal promise, yet, on being laid open, the Princess Royal wassoon found to be in reality poor, while the Burra Burra mines providedfortunes for each of the fortunate "snobs". During the three years aftertheir discovery they yielded copper to the value of £700, 000. Minerswere brought from England, and a town of about 5, 000 inhabitantsrapidly sprang into existence. The houses of the Cornish miners were ofa peculiar kind. A creek runs through the district, with highprecipitous banks of solid rock; into the face of these cliffs theminers cut large chambers to serve for dwellings; holes bored throughthe rock, and emerging upon the surface of the ground above, formed thechimneys, which were capped by small beer barrels instead ofchimney-pots. The fronts of the houses were of weatherboard, in whichdoors were left; and for two miles along each side of the stream theseprimitive dwellings looked out upon the almost dry bed of the creek, which formed the main street of the village. Here the miners dwelt foryears, until the waters rose one night into a foaming flood, whichdestroyed the houses and swept away several of their inhabitants. 

In 1845 Burra Burra was a lonely moor; in 1850 it was bustling with men, and noisy with the sounds of engines, pumps and forges. Acres of landwere covered with the company's warehouses and offices, and the handsomeresidences of its officers; behind these there rose great mounds ofblue, green, and dark-red ores of copper, worth enormous sums of money. Along the roads eight hundred teams, each consisting of eight bullocks, passed constantly to and fro, whilst scores of ships were employed inconveying the ore to England. From this great activity the wholecommunity could not but derive the utmost benefit, and for a time SouthAustralia had every prospect of taking the foremost place among thecolonies. 

#5. Governor Robe. #--In 1841 Governor Grey had been of the greatestservice to the colony in changing the state of its prospects, but he wasnot permitted to see more than the commencement of its great prosperity;for, in 1845, he was sent to govern New Zealand, where troubles hadarisen similar to those which he had helped to cure in South Australia. His place was filled by Colonel Robe, a military gentleman, of what iscalled the old school, honourable and upright, but inclined to thinkthat everything ought always to be as it has been. He disliked allinnovation, and did what he could to prevent it, much to the discontentof the young and thriving colony, which was of necessity the scene ofconstant and rapid changes. He passed a very troublous time for threeyears, and in 1848 was heartily glad to be recalled. 

#6. Governor Young. #--The colony was then placed under the care of SirHenry Young, whose policy was completely the reverse. He sought by everymeans in his power to encourage the ceaseless activity of the people. His failing was, perhaps, an injudicious zeal for progress. Forinstance, in his desire to open up the river Murray to navigation, hewasted large sums of money in schemes that proved altogether useless. Hemade an effort to remove the bar at the mouth of the river, but freshdeposits of sand were constantly being brought down by the current, andlashed up into a new bar by the waves that rolled ceaselessly in fromthe Southern Ocean. He spent about £20, 000 in trying to construct aharbour called Port Elliot, near the entrance to the Murray; but thereare now only a few surf-beaten stones to indicate the scene of hisfruitless attempt. He offered a bonus of £4, 000 to the first person whoshould ascend the Murray in an iron steamer as far as the river Darling. A gentleman called Cadell made the effort, and succeeded; he obtainedthe reward, but it was not enough to pay his heavy expenses, and when heendeavoured afterwards to carry on a trade, by transporting wool to thesea in flat-bottomed steamers, he found that the traffic on the riverwas not sufficiently great to repay his heavy outlay, and in a shorttime he was almost ruined. The attempt was premature; and though, in ourtime, the navigation of the Murray is successfully carried on, and is, undoubtedly, of immense advantage not only to South Australia, but alsoto New South Wales and Victoria, yet, at the time when the first effortswere made, it led to nothing but loss, if not ruin to the pioneers. 

CHAPTER XII. 

THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD. 

#1. Importance of the Year 1851. #--The year 1851 was in many ways aneventful one to Australia. In that year the colonies received fromthe Imperial Parliament the amended Constitutions they had so longexpected. Tasmania, South Australia, Port Phillip, and Western Australiawere now no longer under the absolute control of Governors sent out bythe colonial authorities in England; they could henceforth boast thedignity of being self-governed communities, for, in 1851, they wereinvested with political powers which had previously been possessed byNew South Wales alone. They now had the privilege of electing two-thirdsof the members of a Legislative Council which not only had the power ofmaking laws each for its own colony, but also of framing any newconstitution for itself according to its own taste and requirements. Each colony kept its Legislative Council for only a year or two until itcould discuss and establish a regular system of parliamentary governmentwith two Houses and a Cabinet of responsible Ministers. Again, it was onthe 1st of July in the same year that Port Phillip gained itsindependence; from that date onward its prosperous career must berelated under its new title--Victoria. 

But the event which made the year 1851 especially memorable in theannals of Australia was the discovery, near Bathurst, of the first ofthose rich goldfields which, for so long a time, changed the prospectsof the colonies. For several years after the date of this occurrence thehistory of Australia is little more than the story of the feverishsearch for gold, with its hopes, its labour, its turmoil, and itsmadness; its scenes of exultation and splendid triumph, and its stillmore frequent scenes of bitter and gloomy disappointment. 

#2. Early Rumours of Gold. #--For many years there had been rumours thatthe Blue Mountains were auriferous. It was said that gold had been seenby convicts in the days of Macquarie, and, indeed, still earlier; but tothe stories of prisoners, who claimed rewards for alleged discoveries, the authorities in Sydney always listened with extreme suspicion, moreespecially as no pretended discoverer could ever find more than hisfirst small specimens. 

In 1840 a Polish nobleman named Strzelecki, who had been travellingamong the ranges round Mount Kosciusko, stated that, from indications hehad observed, he was firmly persuaded of the existence of gold in thesemountains; but the Governor asked him, as a favour, to make no mentionof a theory which might, perhaps, unsettle the colony, and fill theeasily excited convicts with hopes which, he feared, would provedelusive. Strzelecki agreed not to publish his belief; but there wasanother man of science who was not so easily to be silenced. The Rev. W. B. Clarke, a clergyman devoted to geology, exhibited specimens inSydney, on which he based an opinion that the Blue Mountains would, eventually, be found to possess goldfields of great extent and value. Some of these were taken to London by Strzelecki; and in 1844 a greatEnglish scientist, Sir Roderick Murchison, read a paper before the RoyalGeographical Society in which he expressed a theory similar to that ofMr. Clarke. In 1846 he again called attention to this subject, andshowed that, from the great similarity which existed between the rocksof the Blue Mountains and those of the Urals, there was everyprobability that the one would be found as rich as the other was knownto be in the precious metals. So far as theory could go, the matter hadbeen well discussed before the year 1851, but no one had ventured tospend his time and money in making a practical effort to settle thequestion. 

[Illustration: EDWARD HARGRAVES. ]

#3. Edward Hargraves. #--About that, time, however, the rich mines ofCalifornia attracted a Bathurst settler, named Edward Hargraves, to seekhis fortune on the banks of the Sacramento; and though, among the greatcrowds of struggling and jostling diggers, he met with but littlesuccess, yet he learned the methods by which gold is discovered andsecured, and laid the foundation for adventures in Australia which wereafterwards to bring him both wealth and renown. Whilst he toiled withincreasing disappointment on one of these famous goldfields, the sceneryaround him, and the appearance of the rocks, recalled to his memory acertain secluded valley beyond the Blue Mountains, which he had visitedthirteen years before; the notion floated vaguely through his mind that, perhaps, in that silent spot, there might lie great treasures, such ashe saw his more fortunate companions from time to time draw forth fromthe rocks and soil around him. Day after day the image of that windingcreek among the hills near Bathurst recurred with increasing vividnessto stimulate his imagination and awaken his hopes. At length thisfeeling impelled him to seek once more the shores of Australia in orderto examine the spot which had so often been present to his day-dreams. He lost no time in sailing, and scarcely had he arrived in Sydney erehe set out on horseback to cross the Blue Mountains. On the 11th ofFebruary, 1851, he spent the night at a little inn a few miles from theobject of his journey, and shortly after dawn he sallied forth on hisride through the forest, carrying with him a spade and a trowel and alittle tin dish. In the cool air of the morning the scent of thespreading gum trees braced up his frame as he plunged deeper and deeperamong those lonely hollows and wood-clad hills. In an hour or two hereached the well-remembered spot--the dry course of a mountain torrentwhich, in rainy seasons, finds its way into the Summerhill Creek. Helost no time in placing a little of the grey-coloured soil into his tindish, and at once carried it to the nearest pool, where he dipped thewhole beneath the water. By moving the dish rapidly, as he had learnedto do in California, he washed away the sand and earth; but theparticles of gold, which are more than seven and a half times heavierthan sand, were not so easily to be carried off. They sank to the cornerof the dish, where they lay secure--a few small specks, themselves oflittle value, yet telling of hidden treasures that lay scattered in allthe soil around. 

A few days were spent in a careful examination of the neighbouringvalleys, and when he was absolutely certain that the hopes he had sowarmly indulged would not prove empty, he set out for Sydney, takingcare, however, to breathe no word of what he thought or of what he hadproved. On the 3rd of April he wrote a letter to the Colonial Secretary, in which he stated that, if the Government were willing to give him£500, he would point out localities in New South Wales where gold wasabundantly to be found. In reply, the Colonial Secretary announced thatno preliminary reward could be given; but that, if he chose first of allto point out the localities, he would afterwards be recompensed inproportion to the results. He accepted these conditions; and Mr. Stutchbury, the Colonial Geologist, was sent to accompany him to theSummerhill Creek. On the 8th of May they set to work, and soon obtainedseveral ounces of grain gold; on the 13th, they discovered a singlepiece worth £30, and next day Mr. Stutchbury reported to the Governmentthat he had seen enough to convince him that the district was rich inthe precious metal. Five days afterwards, the little valley of theSummerhill contained four hundred persons, all stooping over the creekin a row about a mile long, each with a dish in his hand, scarcely everraising his head, but busily engaged in washing the sand for gold. Lumpswere frequently found of value varying from £5 to £200. A week later, there were a thousand persons at work on the creek near the formerlylonely gully. 

#4. Rush to the Goldfield. #--The excitement throughout the colony nowbecame intense: workmen quitted their employment, shepherds desertedtheir flocks, shopkeepers closed their stores, and a great tide offortune-seekers pressed onward, day by day, to the west. Most of thesehad sold everything they possessed, in order to make up a little bundleof necessary articles. Yet there were very many but ill-provided for alengthened stay; they hurried along the road with the fallacious ideathat gold was simply to be shovelled into bags and carted to Sydney. Butwhen they came upon the scene, and saw that in the case of most of themit would only be after weeks and months of severe and constant toil thatthey could be rich, they grew faint-hearted, lounged for a week or twoon the diggings, and then started for home again; so that, for sometime, there was a counter-current of grumbling and discontented menpassing back to Sydney by the road. These men thought themselvesbefooled by Hargraves, and it might, perhaps, have cost him his life hadhe fallen into their hands. On his trip to Sydney he was careful todisguise himself, to avoid their threatened revenge. He received fromGovernment, however, his preliminary reward of £500, and, in afteryears, New South Wales voted him the sum of £10, 000, which wassupplemented by a present of £2, 381 from Victoria. Other profits alsoaccrued to Hargraves; so that he was, in the end, recompensed for histoil and trouble with a handsome competency. 

The gloomy reports of returning diggers checked for a time the flow ofpeople to the west; but in the month of July an aboriginal shepherd on astation near Bathurst burst in upon his master while seated at dinner, his eyes glistening with excitement. He was only able to stammer out:"Oh, massa, white man find little fellow, me find big fellow". When hismaster drove him in a buggy through the forest, the shepherd pointed towhere a hundredweight of gold was sticking out from a rock. It was soheavy that they had to chop it in two with their axes before they couldlift it into the buggy. It was afterwards sold for £4, 000. So splendid aprize, obtained in so easy a manner, was a temptation too dazzling to beresisted; and the stream of people along the Bathurst road was nowtenfold denser than before. 

#5. Government Regulations. #--When the population on the goldfields beganto grow numerous, the Government found it necessary to make arrangementsfor the preservation of law and order. A commissioner was appointed, whowas to act as a magistrate; he was to be assisted by a small body ofpolice, and was to take charge of the gold escorts. As the lands onwhich the gold was being found were the public property of the colony, it was thought to be but just that the community, as a whole, shouldparticipate, to some small extent, in the wealth raised from them; andthe order was, therefore, issued that diggers should in all cases takeout licences before seeking for gold, and should pay for them at therate of thirty shillings per month. 

New diggings were, from time to time, opened up, and fresh crowds ofeager men constantly pressed towards them, leaving the towns desertedand the neighbouring colonies greatly reduced in population. For somemonths the Turon River was the favourite; at one time it had no lessthan ten thousand men upon its banks. At Ophir, and Braidwood, and Maroothe most industrious and sagacious miners were generally rewarded bythe discovery of fine pieces of gold, for which the Californian name of"nuggets" now began to be extensively used. 

#6. Gold in Victoria. #--When Latrobe was sworn in to fill the office ofGovernor of Victoria on the 16th July, 1851, it appeared probable thathe would soon have but a small community to rule over. So great were thenumbers of those who were daily packing up their effects and setting offfor the goldfields of New South Wales that Victoria seemed likely tosink into a very insignificant place on the list of Australian colonies. In alarm at this prospect, a number of the leading citizens of Melbourneon the 9th of June united to form what was called the Gold DiscoveryCommittee, and offered a reward of £200 to the person who should givethe first intimation of a paying goldfield within two hundred miles ofMelbourne. Many persons set out, each in hopes of being the fortunatediscoverer; and a report having been circulated that signs of gold hadbeen seen on the Plenty Ranges, there were soon no less than two hundredpersons scouring those hills, though for a long time without success. The first useful discovery in Victoria seems to have been made on 1stJuly, by a Californian digger named Esmond, who, like Hargraves, hadentered on the search with a practical knowledge of the work. Hisexperience had taught him the general characteristics of a country inwhich gold is likely to be found, and he selected Clunes as a favourablespot. He found the quartz rock of the district richly sprinkled withgold; and his discovery having been made known, several hundred peoplewere quickly on the scene. Almost on the same day, gold was discoveredby a party of six men, at Anderson's Creek, only a few miles up theYarra from Melbourne. It is thus difficult to determine with certaintywhether or not Esmond was in reality the first discoverer; but, at anyrate, he received honours and emoluments as such; and in after years theVictorian Parliament presented him with £1, 000 for his services. 

#7. Ballarat. #--On the 10th of August the Geelong newspapers announcedthat deposits of auriferous earth had been discovered at Buninyong, andvery soon the sunny slopes of that peaceful and pastoral district wereswarming with prospecting parties; the quietly browsing sheep werestartled from their favourite solitudes by crowds of men, who hastenedwith pick and spade to break up the soil in every direction, each eagerto out-strip the other in the race for wealth. This region, however, didnot realise the expectations that had been formed of it, and many of thediggers began to move northwards, in the direction of Clunes. But atClunes, also, there had been disappointment, for the gold was mostlyembedded in quartz rock, and these early miners were not prepared toextract it; parties from Clunes were therefore moving southwards toBuninyong, and the two currents met on the slopes of the Yarrowee, astreamlet whose banks were afterwards famous as the Ballarat diggings. The first comers began to work at a bend in the creek, which they calledGolden Point. Here, for a time, each man could easily earn from £20 to£40 a day, and crowds of people hurried to the scene. Every one selecteda piece of ground, which he called his claim, and set to work to dig ahole in it; but when the bottom of the sandy layer was reached, andthere seemed to be nothing but pipe-clay below, the claim was supposedto be worked out, and was straightway abandoned. However, a miner namedCavanagh determined to try an experiment, and, having entered one ofthese deserted claims, he dug through the layer of pipe-clay, when hehad the good fortune to come suddenly upon several large deposits ofgrain gold. He had reached what had been in long past ages the bed ofthe creek, where, in every little hollow, for century after century, theflowing waters had gently deposited the gold which they had washed outof the rocks in the mountains. In many cases these "pockets, " as theywere called, were found to contain gold to the value of thousands ofpounds, so that very soon all the claims were carried down a few feetfurther, and with such success that, before a month had passed, Ballarattook rank as the richest goldfield in the world. In October there wereten thousand men at work on the Yarrowee; acre after acre was coveredwith circular heaps of red and yellow sand, each with its shaft in themiddle, in which men were toiling beneath the ground to excavate thesoil and pass it to their companions above, who quickly hurried with itto the banks of the creek, where twelve hundred "cradles, " rocked bybrawny arms, were washing the sand from the gold. 

#8. Mount Alexander. #--In the month of September a party, who had goneabout forty miles north-east of Clunes to Mount Alexander, discoverednear the present site of Castlemaine a valuable seam of gold-bearingearth. The fame of this place soon spread through all the colony; manyleft Ballarat to seek it, and crowds of people hastened from Melbourneand Geelong to share in the glittering prizes. In October, eightthousand men had gathered in the district; in November, there were notless than twenty-five thousand diggers at work, and three tons of goldwere waiting in the tent of the commissioner to be carried to Melbourne. The road to Mount Alexander was crowded with men of all ranks andconditions, pressing eagerly onward to be in time. 

#9. Sandhurst. #--A few weeks later the glories both of Ballarat and ofMount Alexander were dimmed for a time by the discovery of gold on theBendigo Creek, which seemed at first to be the richest of all thegoldfields. In the course of a few months nearly forty thousand personswere scattered along the banks of the streamlet where the handsomestreets of Bendigo now stand. 

In the month of May, 1852, there must have been close upon seventythousand men in the country between Buninyong and Bendigo, all engagedin the same occupation. Melbourne and Geelong were silent and deserted;for all classes were alike infected with the same excitement--lawyers, doctors, clerks, merchants, labourers, mechanics, all were to be foundstruggling through the miry ruts that served for a highway to Bendigo. The sailors left the ships in the bay with scarcely a man to take careof them; even the very policemen deserted, and the warders in the gaolsresigned in a body. The price of labour now became excessive, for no manwas willing to stay away from the diggings unless tempted by the offerof four or five times the ordinary wage. 

#10. Immigration. #--Meanwhile the news of these great discoveries hadtravelled to Europe, so that, after the middle of 1852, ships began toarrive freighted with thousands of men of all nations, who no soonerlanded in Melbourne than they started for the diggings. During this yearnearly one hundred thousand persons were thus brought into the country, and the population was doubled at a bound. Next year ninety-two thousandfresh arrivals landed, and Victoria thus became the most populous ofthe colonies. During the two following years it received a furtheraccession of a hundred and fifty thousand; so that, in 1856, itcontained four hundred thousand inhabitants, or about five times thenumber it possessed in 1850. The staple industry was, of course, themining for gold, of which, in 1852, one hundred and seventy-four tonswere raised, valued at £14, 000, 000. During the next ten years£100, 000, 000 worth of gold was exported from Victoria. 

Some of the nuggets that were found are of historic note. The "SarahSands, " discovered in 1853, was worth about £6, 500. In 1857 the "BlancheBarkly, " worth £7, 000, was discovered; and the following year producedthe "Welcome Nugget, " which was sold for £10, 500, and was the greateston record, until, in 1869, the "Welcome Stranger" was dug out, whichproved to be slightly larger. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

VICTORIA, 1851-1855. 

#1. Effects of Gold Excitement. #--For the first few months after thediscovery of gold in Victoria, many shrewd persons believed that thecolony would be ruined by its seeming good fortune. None of the ordinaryindustries could be carried on whilst workmen were so scarce and wagesso high. But, happily, these expectations proved fallacious; for, in1852, when the great stream of people from Europe began to flow into thecolony, every profession and every trade sprang into new and vigorouslife. The vast crowds on the goldfields required to be fed, so thefarmers found ample market for their corn, and the squatters for theirbeef and mutton. The miners required to be clothed, and the tailor andshoemaker must be had, whatever might be the prices they charged. Mechanics and artisans of every class found their labours in demand, andhandsomely paid for. The merchants, also, found trade both brisk andlucrative; while the imports in 1850 were worth only three-quarters of amillion, those of three years later were worth about twenty times thatamount. After this enormous increase in population and business, it wasfound that there was quite as great an opportunity of gaining riches byremaining quietly engaged in one's own occupation as by joining therestless throng upon the goldfields. The public revenue of the colonywas in 1852 six times, and in 1853 twelve times as great as it had beenbefore the discovery of gold; so that, both as individuals and as anation, the people of Victoria had reason to be satisfied with thechange. 

#2. Convicts Prevention Act. #--There existed, however, one drawback; forthe attractions of the goldfields had drawn from the neighbouringcolonies, and more especially from Tasmania, great numbers of that classof convicts who, having served a part of their time, had been liberatedon condition of good behaviour. They crossed over by hundreds, and soongave rise to a serious difficulty; for, in the confused and unsettledstate of the colony, they found only too great an opportunity for thedisplay of their criminal propensities and perverted talents. Being byno means charmed with the toilsome life of the gold-miner, many of thembecame bushrangers. There were, in 1852, several bands of these lawlessruffians sweeping the country and robbing in all directions. As the goldwas being conveyed from the diggings, escorted by bands of armedtroopers, the bushrangers lurked upon the road, treacherously shot thetroopers, and rifled the chests. On one occasion, their daring rose tosuch a height that a band of them boarded the ship _Nelson_ whilst itlay at anchor in Hobson's Bay, overpowered the crew, and removed gold tothe value of £24, 000--remarking, as they handed the boxes over the sideof the vessel, that this was the best goldfield they had ever seen. 

To prevent any further introduction of these undesirable immigrants, theLegislature, in 1852, passed what was called the "Convicts PreventionAct, " declaring that no person who had been convicted, and had notreceived an absolutely free pardon, should be allowed to enter thecolony; and that all persons who came from Tasmania should be requiredto prove that they were free, before being allowed to land. Any shipcaptain who brought a convict into the colony was to be fined £100 forthe offence. 

#3. Aspect of Goldfields. #--Meanwhile the goldfields were growing apace. The discovery of the Eureka, Gravel Pits, and Canadian Leads madeBallarat once more the favourite; and in 1853 there were about fortythousand diggers at work on the Yarrowee. Hotels began to be built, theatres were erected, and here and there a little church rose among thelong line of tents which occupied the slopes above the creek. 

#4. Scene on the Goldfields. #--Below, on the flats, the scene was a busyone. Thousands upon thousands of holes covered the earth, where menemerged and disappeared like ants, each bearing a bag of sand which heeither threw on a wheelbarrow or slung over his shoulder, and thencarried forward, running nimbly along the thin paths among a multitudeof holes, till he reached the little creek where he delivered the sandto one of the men who stood shoulder to shoulder, in long rows, formiles on either bank, all washing the sand and clay into the shallowcurrent, whose waters were turned to a tint of dirty yellow. Such is thescene which presents itself by day; but at sunset a gun is fired fromthe commissioner's tent and all cease work: then, against the eveningsky, ten thousand fires send up their wreaths of thin blue smoke, andthe diggers prepare their evening meals. Everything is hushed for atime, except that a dull murmur rises from the little crowds chattingover their pannikins of tea. But, as the darkness draws closer around, the noises begin to assume a merrier tone, and, mingling pleasantly inthe evening air, there rise the loud notes of a sailor's song, the merryjingle of a French political chant, or the rich strains of a Germanchorus. 

In some tents the miners sit round boxes or stools, while, by the lightof flaming oil-cans, they gamble for match boxes filled with gold-dust;in others they gather to drink the liquors illicitly sold by the"sly grog shops". Many of the diggers betake themselves to thebrilliantly-lighted theatres, and make the fragile walls tremble withtheir rough and hearty roars of applause: everywhere are heard thesounds of laughter and good humour. Then, at midnight, all to bed, except those foolish revellers who have stayed too late at the "grogshop". 

At dawn, again, they are all astir; for the day's supply of water mustbe drawn from the stream ere its limpid current begins to assume theappearance of a clay-stained gutter. Making the allowances proper tothe occasion, the community is both orderly and law-abiding, and thedigger, in the midst of all his toil, enjoys a very agreeable existence. 

#5. The Licence Fee. #--He had but one grievance to trouble his life, andthat was the monthly payment of the licence fee. This tax had beenimposed under the erroneous impression that every one who went upon thegoldfields must of necessity earn a fortune. For a long time thismistake prevailed, because only the most successful diggers were muchheard of. But there was an indistinguishable throng of those who earnedmuch less than a labourer's wage. 

The average monthly earnings throughout the colony were not more thaneight pounds for each man; and of this sum he had to pay thirtyshillings every month for the mere permission to dig. To those who werefortunate this seemed but a trifle; but for those who earned little ornothing there was no resource but to evade payment, and many were thetricks adopted in order to "dodge the commissioners". As there were morethan one-fifth of the total number of diggers who systematically paid nofees, it was customary for the police to stop any man they met anddemand to see his licence; if he had none, he was at once marched off tothe place that served for a gaol, and there chained to a tree. 

The police were in the habit of devoting two days a week to what wascalled "digger hunting"; and as they often experienced much trouble andvexation in doing what was unfortunately their duty, they were sometimesrough and summary in their proceedings. Hence arose a feeling ofhostility among the diggers, not only to the police, but to all theofficials on the goldfields. The first serious ebullition of theprevailing discontent took place on the Ovens, where a commissioner whohad been unnecessarily rough to unlicensed diggers was assaulted andseverely injured. But as violence was deprecated by the great body ofminers, they held large meetings, in order to agitate in a moreconstitutional manner for the abolition of the fee. At first they sent apetition to Governor Latrobe, who declined to make any change. It wasthen hinted that, possibly, they might be driven to use force; and theGovernor replied that, if they did, he was determined to do his duty. But in August, 1853, when the agitation was increasing, Latrobehurriedly reduced the fee to twenty shillings per month. This appeasedthe miners for a time; but the precipitancy with which the Governor hadchanged his intention showed too plainly the weakness of the Government, for there was at that time scarcely a soldier in Victoria to repress aninsurrection, if one should break out. Among the confused crowds on thegoldfields there were numbers of troublesome spirits, many of themforeigners, who were only too happy to foment dissension. Thousands ofminers had been disappointed in their hopes of wealth, and, being in adiscontented frame of mind, they blamed the Governor for theirmisfortunes. 

In spite of the concession that had been made to them, a spirit ofdissatisfaction prevailed throughout all the goldfields; mutterings wereheard as of a coming storm, and Latrobe, in alarm, sent to all theneighbouring colonies to ask for troops. As the Ninety-ninth Regimentwas lying idle in Hobart Town, it was at once despatched to Melbourne. 

#6. Governor Hotham. #--While matters were in this state, Governor Latroberetired from office; and in June, 1854, Sir Charles Hotham arrived tofill the position. On his first arrival, he showed that his sympathieswere, to a great extent, with the diggers. But he could scarcely beexpected to make any important change until he had been a few months inthe colony, and had learnt exactly the state of affairs, and, meanwhile, the discontent on the goldfields was daily increasing. The months ofSeptember and October, in 1854, were exceedingly dry; the creeks weregreatly shrunk in volume, and in many places the diggers could find nowater either for drinking or for gold-washing; and their irritation wasnot at all soothed by the manners of the commissioners and police. Besides this, the Government had thought it necessary to form a camp onthe goldfields, so that a large body of soldiers dwelt constantly in themidst of the miners. The soldiers and officers, of course, supported thecommissioners, and, like them, soon came to be regarded with thegreatest disfavour. 

The goldfield population was in this irritable state when a triflingincident kindled revolt. 

#7. Riot at Ballarat. #--A digger named Scobie, late one evening, knockedat the door of Bentley's Hotel, at Ballarat. Finding the place closedfor the night, he tried to force an entrance, and continued his clamourso long that Bentley became angry, and sallied forth to chastise him. Acrowd gathered to see the fight, and, in the darkness, Scobie's head wassplit open with a spade. Whose hand it was that aimed the blow no onecould tell; but the diggers universally believed that Bentley washimself the murderer. He was therefore arrested and tried, but acquittedby Mr. Dewes, the magistrate, who was said by the diggers to be secretlyhis partner in business. A great crowd assembled round the hotel, and adigger, named Kennedy, addressed the multitude, in vigorous Scottishaccents, pointing out the spot where their companion's blood had beenshed, and asserting that his spirit hovered above and called forrevenge. The authorities sent a few police to protect the place, butthey were only a handful of men in the midst of a great and seethingcrowd of over eight thousand powerful diggers. For an hour or two themob, though indulging in occasional banter, remained harmless. But amischievous boy having thrown a stone, and broken the lamp in front ofthe hotel, the police made a movement as if they were about to seize theoffender. This roused the diggers to anger, and in less than a minuteevery pane of glass was broken; the police were roughly jostled and cutby showers of stones; and the doors were broken open. The crowd bursttumultuously into the hotel, and the rooms were soon swarming with mendrinking the liquors and searching for Bentley, who, however, hadalready escaped on a swift horse to the camp. As the noise and disorderincreased, a man placed a handful of paper and rags against the woodenwalls of the bowling alley, deliberately struck a match, and set fire tothe place. The diggers now deserted the hotel and retired to a safedistance, in order to watch the conflagration. Meanwhile a company ofsoldiers had set out from the camp for the scene of the riot, and ontheir approach the crowd quietly dispersed; but by this time the hotelwas reduced to a heap of smouldering ruins. 

#8. Conviction of Rioters. #--For this outrage three men were apprehendedand taken to Melbourne, where they were tried and sentenced toimprisonment. But Bentley was also re-arrested and tried, and as hisfriend Dewes could on this occasion be of no assistance to him, he wassentenced to three years of hard labour on the roads. Dewes wasdismissed from the magistracy, and Sir Charles Hotham did everything inhis power to conciliate the diggers. They were not to be thus satisfied, however, and held a stormy meeting at Ballarat, in which they appointeda deputation, consisting of Kennedy, Humffray, and Black, to demand fromthe Governor the release of the three men condemned for burningBentley's Hotel. Hotham received them kindly, but declined to accepttheir message, because, he said, the word "demand" was not a suitableterm to use in addressing the representative of Her Majesty. As thediggers were haughty, and refused to alter the phrase, the Governorintimated that, under these circumstances, no reply could be given. Thedelegates having returned to Ballarat, a great meeting was held, andKennedy, Humffray, Black, Lalor, and Vern made inflammatory speeches, inwhich they persuaded the diggers to pass a resolution, declaring theywould all burn their licences and pay no more fees. 

#9. Insurrection at Ballarat. #--Skirmishes between the soldiers anddiggers now became frequent; and, on the 30th of November, when the last"digger hunt" took place, the police and soldiers were roughly beatenoff. The diggers, among their tents, set up a flagstaff, and hoisted abanner of blue, with four silver stars in the corner. Then the leadersknelt beneath it, and, having sworn to defend one another to the death, proceeded to enrol the miners and form them into squads ready fordrilling. Meantime the military camp was being rapidly fortified withtrusses of hay, bags of corn, and loads of firewood. The soldiers werein hourly expectation of an attack, and for four successive nights theyslept fully accoutred, and with their loaded muskets beside them. Allnight long lights were seen to move busily backwards and forwards amongthe diggers' tents, and the solid tread of great bodies of men could beheard amid the darkness. Lalor was marshalling his forces on theslopes of Ballarat, and drilling them to use such arms as theypossessed--whether rifles, or pistols, or merely spikes fastened at theends of poles. 

#10. The Eureka Stockade. #--Sir Charles Hotham now sent up the remainingeight hundred soldiers of the Ninety-ninth Regiment, under Sir RobertNickle, and to these he added all the marines from the men-of-war andnearly all the police of the colony. They were several days on themarch, and only arrived when the disturbance was over. The diggers hadformed an entrenchment, called the Eureka Stockade, and had enclosedabout an acre of ground with a high slab fence. In the midst of thisstronghold they proclaimed the "Republic of Victoria"; and here theywere able to carry on their drilling unmolested, under the command ofthe two leaders--Vern, a German, and Peter Lalor, the son of an Irishgentleman. They sent out parties in every direction to gather all thearms and ammunition they could obtain, and made extensive preparationsfor an assault; but, imagining that the soldiers would never dream ofattacking them until the arrival of Sir Robert Nickle, they kept guardbut carelessly. Captain Thomas--who commanded the troops in thecamp--determined to finish the affair by a sudden attack; and, onSaturday night, whilst the diggers were amusing themselves in fanciedsecurity, he was carefully making his preparations. On Sunday morning, just after daybreak, when the stockade contained only two hundred men, Captain Thomas led his troops quietly forth, and succeeded inapproaching within three hundred yards of the stockade without beingobserved. The alarm was then given within; the insurgents rushed totheir posts, and poured a heavy volley upon the advancing soldiers, ofwhom about twelve fell. The attacking party wavered a moment, but againbecame steady, and fired with so calm and correct an aim, that, whenevera digger showed himself, even for a moment, he was shot. Peter Lalorrose on a sand heap within the stockade to direct his men, butimmediately fell, pierced in the shoulder by a musket ball. After thefiring had lasted for twenty minutes there was a lull; and theinsurgents could hear the order "Charge!" ring out clearly. Then therewas an ominous rushing sound--the soldiers were for a moment seen abovethe palisades, and immediately the conflict became hand-to-hand. Thediggers took refuge in the empty claims, where some were bayoneted andothers captured, whilst the victors set fire to the tents, and soonafterwards retired with 125 prisoners. A number of half-burnt palisades, which had fallen on Lalor, concealed him from view; and, after thedeparture of the soldiers, he crawled forth, and escaped to the ranges, where a doctor was found, who amputated his arm. The Governmentsubsequently offered a reward of £500 for his capture; but his friendsproved true, and preserved him till the trouble was all past. 

The number of those who had been wounded was never exactly known, but itwas found that twenty-six of the insurgents had died during the fight, or shortly afterwards; and in the evening the soldiers returned andburied such of the dead bodies as were still lying within the stockade. On the following day, four soldiers who had been killed in theengagement were buried with military honours. Many of the wounded diedduring the course of the following month, and in particular the colonyhad to lament the loss of Captain Wise, of the Fortieth Regiment, whohad received his death wound in the conflict. 

#11. Trial of the Rioters. #--When the news of the struggle and its issuewas brought to Melbourne, the sympathies of the people were powerfullyroused in favour of the diggers. A meeting, attended by about fivethousand persons, was held near Prince's Bridge, and a motion, proposedby Mr. David Blair, in favour of the diggers, was carried almostunanimously. Similar meetings were held at Geelong and Sandhurst, sothat there could be no doubt as to the general feeling against theGovernment; and when, at the beginning of 1855, thirteen of theprisoners were brought up for trial in Melbourne, and each in his turnwas acquitted, crowds of people, both within and without the courts, greeted them, one after another, with hearty cheers as they stepped outinto the open air, once more free men. 

#12. Improvements on the Goldfields. #--The commission appointed by SirCharles Hotham commenced its labours shortly after the conclusion of theriot, and in its report the fact was clearly demonstrated that theminers had suffered certain grievances. Acting upon the advice of thiscommission, the Legislative Council abolished the monthly fee, andauthorised the issue of "Miners' Rights, " giving to the holders, onpayment of one pound each per annum, permission to dig for gold in anypart of the colony. New members were to be elected to the Council, inorder to watch over the interests of the miners, two to representSandhurst, two for Ballarat, two for Castlemaine, and one each for theOvens and the Avoca Diggings. Any man who held a "Miner's Right" wasthereby qualified to vote in the elections for the Council. 

These were very just and desirable reforms, and the Government added tothe general satisfaction by appointing the most prominent of the diggersto be justices of the peace on the goldfields. Thus the colony veryrapidly returned to its former state of peaceful progress, and thegoldfields were soon distinguished for their orderly and industriousappearance. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, 1851-1860. 

#1. Effects of Gold Discovery. #--For some years after 1851 the colony ofNew South Wales passed through a severe ordeal. The separation of PortPhillip had reduced her population by one-fourth and decreased herwealth by fully a third; the discoveries of gold at Ballarat and Bendigohad deprived her of many of her most desirable colonists. But theresources of the colony were too vast to allow of more than a merelytemporary check, and, after a year or two, her progress was steady andmarked. The gloomy anticipations with which the gold discoveries hadbeen regarded by the squatters and employers of labour were by no meansrealised; for though men were for a time scarce, and wages exceedinglyhigh, yet, when the real nature of a gold-digger's life and themeagreness of the average earnings became apparent, the great majorityof the miners returned to their ordinary employments and the colonyresumed its former career of steady progress, though with thisdifference, that the population was greater, and business consequentlybrisker than it had ever been before. 

Fortune, however, had given to Victoria so great an impetus in 1851, that the firm prosperity of New South Wales was completely lost sight ofin the brilliant success of its younger neighbour. The yield of gold inNew South Wales was never great as compared with that of Victoria; for, with the exception of 1852, no year produced more than two millionpounds worth. But the older colony learnt more and more to utilise itsimmense area in the growth of wool, an industry which yielded greaterand more permanent wealth than has ever been gained from gold mining. 

#2. Governor Denison. #--Governor Fitzroy, who had been appointed in 1847, remained eight years in office, and thus was present during the eventswhich made so great a change in the prospects of the colonies. In 1855he returned to England, and his place was taken by Sir William Denison, who had previously been Governor of Tasmania. In 1854 great excitementhad been caused in Sydney by the outbreak of the Crimean War, and thepeople, in their fear lest they might suddenly receive an unwelcomevisit from Russian cruisers, hastened to complete a system offortifications for the harbour. The new Governor, who had in youth beentrained as an officer of the Royal Engineers in England, took a warminterest in the operations. He built a small fortress on an islet in themiddle of the harbour, and placed batteries of guns at suitable spotsalong the shores. The advance of the science of warfare in recent timeshas left these little fortifications but sorry defences against modernironclads; but they have since been replaced by some of thoseimprovements in defence which have accompanied the invention of newmethods of attack. 

#3. Constitutional Changes. #--The Constitutions which had been framed forthe colonies by the Imperial Parliament in 1850 were not expected to bemore than temporary. The British Government had wisely determined toallow each of the colonies to frame for itself the Constitution which itdeemed most suitable to its requirements, and had instructed theLegislative Councils which were elected in 1851 to report as to thewishes of their respective colonies. In Sydney the Council entrusted theframing of the new Constitution to a committee, which decided to adoptthe English system of government by two Houses--the one to represent thepeople as a whole, the other to watch over the interests of those who, by their superior wealth, might be supposed to have more than anordinary stake in the welfare of the country. It was very quicklyarranged that the popular House should consist of not less thanfifty-four members, to be elected by men who paid a small rental, orpossessed property of a certain annual value. But with regard to thenature of the Upper House, it was much more difficult to come to adecision. Wentworth proposed that the Queen should establish a colonialpeerage to form a small House of Lords, holding their seats byhereditary right; but this idea raised so great an outcry that he madehaste to abandon it. Several of the committee were in favour of thescheme, afterwards adopted in Victoria, of making the Upper Houseelective, while limiting the choice of members to those who possessed atleast £5, 000 worth of real property. After much discussion, however, itwas decided to give to the Governor the power of nominating the membersof this chamber, which was to consist of not less than twenty-onepersons. 

The Legislative Council adopted this scheme, and sent it to England forthe assent of the Queen; they also requested that their Constitutionmight be still further assimilated to that of Great Britain by theintroduction of responsible government, so that the Ministers whocontrolled the affairs of the colony should be no longer officialsappointed or dismissed by the Governor and Secretary of State, butshould, in future, be chosen by the Parliament to advise the Governor onall matters of public interest, and should be liable to dismissal fromoffice so soon as the Parliament lost confidence in their ability orprudence. The British Government at once gave its assent to thisConstitution, which was accordingly inaugurated in 1856; and from thatdate the political management of New South Wales has been an imitationof that of the British Empire. In 1858 two small modifications wereintroduced: the Lower House was increased in numbers to sixty-eightmembers, and the privilege of voting for it was extended to every maleperson over twenty-one years of age who had dwelt not less than sixmonths in the colony. 

#4. Floods and Droughts. #--From the very commencement of its existence, New South Wales has been subject to the two extremes of heavy floods anddreary periods of drought. The mountains are so near to the coast thatthe rivers have but short courses, and the descent is so steep that, during rainy seasons, the rush of waters deluges the plains near thesea, causing floods of fatal suddenness. At the same time, the watersare carried off so rapidly that there are no supplies of moisture leftto serve for those seasons in which but little rain falls. Thedistricts along the banks of the Hunter, Hawkesbury, and ShoalhavenRivers have been especially liable to destructive inundations; and, from time to time, the people of Sydney have been obliged to send uplifeboats for the purpose of releasing the unfortunate settlers from theroofs and chimneys of their houses, where they have been forced to seekrefuge from the rising waters. The Murrumbidgee also used occasionallyto spread out into a great sea, carrying off houses and crops, cattle, and, oftentimes, the people themselves. In 1852 a flood of thisdescription completely destroyed the town of Gundagai, and no less thaneighty persons perished, either from drowning or from being exposed tothe storm as they clung to the branches of trees. 

#5. The Dunbar. #--A great gloom was cast over the colony in 1857 by theloss of a fine ship within seven miles of the centre of Sydney. The_Dunbar_ sailed from Plymouth in that year with about a hundred andtwenty people on board, many of them well-known colonists who hadvisited England, and were now on their way homewards. As the vesselapproached the coast, a heavy gale came down from the north-east, and, ere they could reach the entrance to Port Jackson, night had closedaround them. In the deep and stormy gloom they beat to and fro for sometime, but at length the captain thought it safer to make for SydneyHeads than to toss about on so wild a sea. He brought the vessel closein to the shore in order to search for the entrance, and when againstthe stormy sky he perceived a break in the black cliff's he steered forthe opening. This, however, was not the entrance, but only a hollow inthe cliffs, called by the Sydney people the "Gap". The vessel wasstanding straight in for the rocks, when a mass of boiling surf wasobserved in the place where they thought the opening was, and ere shecould be put about she crashed violently upon the foot of a cliff thatfrowned ninety feet above; there was a shriek, and then the surf rolledback the fragments and the drowning men. At daybreak the word was giventhat a ship had been wrecked at the Gap, and during the day thousands ofpeople poured forth from Sydney to view the scene of the disaster. Onthe following morning it was discovered that there was a solitarysurvivor, who, having been washed into a hollow in the face of therock, lay concealed in his place of refuge throughout that dreadfulnight and all the succeeding day. A young man was found who volunteeredto let himself down by a rope and rescue the half-dead seaman. 

To prevent the repetition of so sad an occurrence, lighthouses wereerected for the guidance of ship captains entering the harbour. 

In 1852 the people of Sydney had the satisfaction of inaugurating thefirst Australian University--a structure whose noble front, magnificenthalls, and splendid appointments for the furtherance of science willalways do credit to the liberality and high aspirations of the colony. In 1857 the "Australian Museum" was opened, and formed the nucleus ofthe present excellent collection of specimens. During this periodseveral newspapers sprang into existence, railways began to stretch outfrom the metropolis, and lines of telegraph united Sydney with theleading cities of the other colonies. In August, 1853, the first mailsteamer from England, named the _Chusan_, arrived in Port Jackson, andhelped to make the settlers of Australia feel less exiled, as they nowcould have regular news of their friends and of European events littlemore than two months old. 

CHAPTER XV. 

WEST AUSTRALIA, 1829-1890. 

#1. King George's Sound. #--In 1825, when Sir Ralph Darling was appointedGovernor of New South Wales, his commission was supposed to extend overall that part of Australia which lies between the 139th meridian and theeastern coast. Not that the whole of this country, or even the twentiethpart of it, was occupied by settlers--the region was merely claimed asBritish territory. But the remainder of Australia, comprising abouttwo-thirds of the continent, had not, as yet, been annexed by anyEuropean nation; and when, in 1826, a rumour prevailed that the Frenchwere about to occupy that region, the Sydney people were alarmed lest sogreat a territory should thus be lost for ever to the British Empire;they, therefore, in that year, sent a detachment of soldiers to takeformal possession of the country and to found a settlement at KingGeorge's Sound. From this early effort, however, no practical resultensued; and, during the few years of its existence, the place continuedto be nothing more than a small military station. 

#2. Swan River. #--But, in 1827, an English captain, named Stirling, afterhaving sailed along the western coast, gave a most favourable account ofa large river he had seen on his voyage. He was not the first discovererof this river, which, as early as 1697, had been visited by a Dutchnavigator, named Vlaming, who was sailing in quest of a man-of-warsupposed to have been wrecked on these shores. Vlaming had seen thisstream, and, astonished by the wonderful sight of thousands of jet blackswans on its surface, had given to it the name of Swan River. But it hadremained unthought of till Captain Stirling, by his report, awakened awarm and hopeful interest in this district. 

Shortly afterwards the British Government resolved to found a colony onthe banks of this river, and Captain Fremantle arrived as the pioneer ofthe intended settlement. When he landed on the shore, he found that anearer view of the country was far from realising the expectationsformed by those who had viewed it merely from the open sea. He began tohave forebodings, but it was now too late--the ships, containing eighthundred of the first settlers, were already close at hand; and, in thecourse of a week or two, after narrowly escaping shipwreck on the reefsalong the shore, they landed Captain Stirling, the first Governor, withhis little band, on the wilderness of Garden Island. Here, in thistemporary abode, the colonists remained for several months--shelteringthemselves in fragile tents, or in brushwood huts, from the rough blastsand the rains that beat in from the winter storms of the Indian Ocean. Exploring parties set out from time to time to examine the adjoiningmainland; but, however fair it seemed from a distance, they found it tobe merely a sandy region, covered with dense and scrubby thickets. Theonly port was at a place called Fremantle, where there was but littleshelter from the storms of the open ocean; and the only place suitablefor a town was several miles up the Swan River, where the waters expandinto broad but shallow lagoons. Here the colonists determined to buildtheir city, to which they gave the name of Perth. But the site was notfavourable to enterprise; an impassable bar stretched across the mouthof the river, which was, therefore, inaccessible to vessels. The goodsof the colonists had to be landed on an exposed beach at Fremantle, andthen carried overland through miles of sand and scrub. 

In 1830 about a thousand new immigrants arrived; and towards the end ofthis year the colonists succeeded in settling down in their new homes atPerth. 

#3. Land Grants. #--Most of these immigrants were attracted to WesternAustralia by the prospect of obtaining large estates; they knew howvaluable land was in the well-settled countries of Europe, and, whenthey heard of square miles in Australia to be had for a few pounds, theywere captivated by the notion of so easily becoming great landedproprietors. But the value of land depends upon surroundingcircumstances, and ten acres in England may be worth more than a wholewilderness in West Australia. At that time foolish notions were in everyquarter prevalent as to what could be done by means of land. The BritishGovernment thought it possible to make the colony self-supporting bypaying for everything with grants which cost it nothing, but which wouldbe readily accepted by others as payment. Thus the Governor, instead ofhis yearly salary, was to receive a hundred thousand acres, and all theofficials were to be paid in the same manner. The land was distributedin great quantities to people who had no intention of using it, but whoexpected that, by the progress of colonisation, it would increaseenormously in value, and might then be sold for splendid prices. 

To induce immigrants to bring with them useful property, the Governmentoffered a bonus of twenty acres for every three pounds worth of goodsimported; and the colonists--quite unconscious of the future that laybefore them--carried out great numbers of costly, though oftenunsuitable, articles, by means of which the desired grants wereobtained. It was found difficult to convey this property to the town, and much of it was left to rot on the shore, where carriages, pianos, and articles of rich furniture lay half-buried in sand and exposed tothe alternations of sun and rain. 

[Illustration: PERTH, WESTERN AUSTRALIA, IN 1838. ]

[Illustration: PERTH, 1890. ]

Splendid horses and cattle of the finest breed had been brought out, butthey wandered useless in the bush. For, till the country was surveyed, nothing could be done in the way of agriculture; and, even after thesurveys were completed, owing to a regulation that those whose grantsexceeded a square mile should be allowed the first choice, all thesections nearest to the town were obtained by officials and wealthyspeculators, who had no intention of using them. Many of these personsheld a district almost as large as an English county, and, therefore, the lands remaining for selection by farmers and small purchasers weregenerally far in the interior. The sections were pointed out on themaps, but the places themselves had never been trodden by a white man'sfoot, and were held by tribes of hostile savages. Some, indeed, tried tosettle upon these distant regions, but they were lonely and isolated, and many of them perished, either from disease and hunger, or by thespears of the natives. Yet there were very few who made any attempt atagriculture, and the costly ploughs and implements that had beenimported lay rusting on the beach. The horses and cattle died off, thesheep that had been introduced at great expense were almost all killedthrough feeding on a poisonous plant, which grew in patches over thecountry; and the men themselves were forced to loiter at Perth, consuming their provisions and chafing at their ruinous inaction. 

#4. Mr. Peel. #--There was one gentleman who had spent fifty thousandpounds in bringing with him to the colony everything that could berequired for farming and sheep-breeding on a magnificent scale. Hebrought with him three hundred labourers; but the land was by no meansso fertile as he had imagined, and he had scarcely commenced his farmingoperations when he found that his only escape from ruin was to enter, single-handed, on the self-dependent life of the ordinary settler. 

#5. Gloomy Prospects. #--Matters grew worse and worse, and those of thedisappointed colonists who had sufficient prudence to start before theirmeans were all exhausted either returned to Europe or sought the othercolonies, where several achieved success--notably the brothers Henty, who settled at Launceston and established at Portland Bay the whalingstation already mentioned. The gloomy reports of those who reachedEngland prevented any further accession of immigrants, and in 1835 itwas rumoured, though erroneously, that the British Government intendedto abandon the place. 

In the following year (1836) the colony of South Australia was founded;and a great extent of territory previously marked as belonging to WestAustralia was assigned to the new settlement. These two colonies, duringtheir early years, experienced trials and difficulties of the same kind;but while South Australia, in a short time, emerged to a career ofbrilliant prosperity through sturdy determination to make the landproductive, West Australia for forty years never enjoyed more than atransitory gleam of success. 

#6. Introduction of Convicts. #--This little improvement consisted of amessage received from Earl Grey in 1848 asking the settlers if they werewilling to accept convicts in their midst. The other colonies hadrefused them, but it was thought not unlikely that West Australia mightbe glad to get them. Opinions were divided as to the reply which oughtto be given: while some were averse to the idea, others believed thatthe money sent out by the British Government to maintain the convictsand soldiers would originate a trade which might give to the colony newlife and fresh prospects. These arguments prevailed, and in 1849 thefirst shipload of convicts arrived. From time to time new gangs werereceived, and the place began to be much more populous than before. Theshopkeepers in Perth became rich, and the farmer squatters of thesurrounding districts found a ready market for their produce. Yet thissuccess was only partial; and there was nothing which might be said toconstitute general prosperity. In the little town of Fremantle, the fewand scattered houses had still a rural aspect, and the streets echoed tothe sound of no commercial bustle. In Perth the main street was still agrassy walk, shaded by avenues of trees, and even in the businessquarter the houses stood each in the midst of its spacious garden. 

#7. Evils of Convictism. #--West Australia had now to suffer theconsequences of having become a penal settlement. Many of the convicts, on being liberated, took up their abode in the colony; but theirdispositions were seldom either amiable or virtuous, and from the vicesof these men the whole population began to lose character in the eyes ofother countries. A large number of the prisoners were no soonerliberated than they set off for the goldfields in the eastern colonies, which thus began to share in the evils of convictism. These colonieswere not inclined to suffer long in this manner; and, to defendthemselves, they refused admission to any person who came from WestAustralia, unless he could show that he had never been a convict. Thusthe colony at Swan River was branded, and held to be contaminated; nofree immigrants sought its shores, and many of its best inhabitantsdeparted. 

This stigma continued to rest on West Australia until the year 1868, when the transportation of criminals from Great Britain altogetherceased, and the colony no longer received its periodical supply ofconvicts. Since that time it has, in a great measure, retrieved itscharacter; it is now doing what it can to attract free immigrants, andoffers large tracts of pastoral land at low rentals, while the farmingclasses are attracted by free selection at only ten shillings an acre, with ten years in which to pay it. It has joined Perth to Albany by agood railway, and several branch railways have been constructed, as wellas a large number of telegraph lines; and at Albany, the town on KingGeorge's Sound, it has established a coaling depōt for the mail steamerson their way to Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney. But West Australia isstill what it was called twenty years ago, "the giant skeleton of acolony, " consisting of about forty thousand people, scattered over ahundred thousand square miles of territory, behind which stretches avast region of unexplored wilderness. There is every indication, however, that its progress in the near future will be rapid. Up to 1870it formed what was called a Crown colony: the people had no voice intheir own government; their affairs were managed for them by theofficers of the English Government. At that date, however, whentransportation was abolished, the colony was promoted to the partialmanagement of its own affairs, and the people began periodically toelect a Legislative Council. In 1890 it was still further promoted, being raised to the full dignity of an independent colony, having, likethe other colonies of Australia, a Parliament of two Houses, with powerto make and unmake its own laws as it pleases. Perth is now rapidlyincreasing, and the colony is on the eve of its palmy days. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

QUEENSLAND, 1823-1890. 

#1. Moreton Bay. #--When Captain Cook, in 1770, sailed into the wideopening of Moreton Bay, several of his friends on board observed the seato be paler than usual, and formed the opinion that, if a careful searchwere made along the shores, it would be found that a large river fellinto the sea somewhere in the neighbourhood. Cook attached so littleweight to this idea that he did not stay to make any examination; andwhen, about twenty years later, Captain Flinders surveyed the same bay, he saw no trace of a river, though he made special search for one. 

But the reports of both these travellers were subsequently found to beerroneous; for, in 1823, when Governor Brisbane sent the discovererOxley, in the _Mermaid_, to select a place for a new convict station inthe northern district of New South Wales, Moreton Bay was found toreceive the waters of a large and important river. His success was, atleast in part, due to accident. Among the blacks, on the shores of thebay, was a naked man, who was seen to be white. This man was taken onboard. He had sailed in an open boat from Sydney, with three others, about a year before, but had been driven by gales out to sea and far tothe north. They had landed and had been well received by the blacks. Therest had started to walk along the shore to Sydney, but one man, namedPamphlett, had remained with the natives; and it was he who now wasrescued by Oxley, to whom he gave the information that, when rovinginland with the tribe among whom he was living, he had seen a fine riverof fresh water. Under the guidance of Pamphlett, Oxley left his littlevessel in the bay, and with a boat entered upon the broad current of thestream. Before sunset he had ascended about twenty miles, and had beendelighted by the richness of the scenery and the magnificence of thetimber. On the following day he proceeded thirty miles farther up, andthroughout the whole distance found the stream to be broad and ofsufficient depth to be navigable for vessels of considerable size. Oxleywas justly proud of his discovery, and wished to penetrate still fartherinto the forests that lay beyond; but his boat's crew had been soexhausted by their long row under a burning sun that he could go nofarther, and found it necessary to turn and glide with the current downto his vessel, which he reached late on the fourth night. To the streamhe had thus discovered he gave the name of the Brisbane River. 

#2. Convict Station. #--On his return he recommended this district as asuitable position for the new convict station, and during the followingyear (1824) he was sent to form the settlement. With a small party, consisting of convicts and their guards, he landed at Redcliff, nowknown as Humpy Bong, a peninsula which juts out into Moreton Bay a fewmiles above the mouth of the Brisbane. Here the settlement remained fora few months, but afterwards it was moved twenty miles up the river tothat pleasant bend which is now occupied by the city of Brisbane. Here, under Captain Logan, the first permanent commandant of the settlement, large stone barracks for the soldiers were erected, and lines of gaolsand other buildings for the convicts. And in these for twelve orfourteen years the lonely community dwelt--about a thousandtwice-convicted prisoners, and a party of soldiers and officials to keepthem in order. No free person was allowed to approach within fifty milesof the settlement, unless with special permission, which was verysparingly granted. The place was a convict settlement of the harshesttype; and stern were the measures of that relentless commandant, CaptainLogan, who flogged and hanged the unfortunate people under his chargeuntil he became hated with a deadly hatred. He was an active explorer, and did much to open up the interior country, till at length, on a tripin which he was accompanied only by some convicts, they glutted theirvengeance by spearing him and battering his head with a native tomahawk. 

#3. The Squatters. #--For thirteen years the settlement was not affected byanything that went on in that outside world from which it was socompletely excluded. But in 1840 the onward progress of squattingenterprise brought free men with sheep and cattle close to Moreton Bay. That fine district, discovered by Allan Cunningham in 1827, and calledby him the Liverpool Plains, had almost immediately attractedsquatters, who by degrees filled up the whole of the available land, and those who were either new-comers, or who found their flocksincreasing too fast for the size of their runs, were forced to moveoutward, and, as a rule, northward. It was about the year 1840 thatthe pioneers entered that fine tableland district called by AllanCunningham, in 1829, the Darling Downs, and when the year 1844 was endedthere were at least forty squatters over the Queensland borders, withnearly 200, 000 sheep and 60, 000 cattle, and with many hundreds ofshepherds and stockmen to attend them. 

#4. A Free Settlement. #--Whilst the squatters were gathering all round, achange took place at Brisbane itself. We have seen that about 1840 theEnglish Government had resolved to discontinue transportation, except toVan Diemen's Land. The word, therefore, went forth that Brisbane was nolonger to be a place of exile for criminals. It was to be the home offree men and the capital of a new district. In 1841 Governor Sir GeorgeGipps arrived from Sydney, and laid out the plan of what is now ahandsome city. Blocks of land were offered for sale to free settlers, and eagerly bought. The Governor also laid out a little town, now calledIpswich, farther inland. Meanwhile the township of Drayton, and thatwhich is now much larger, Toowoomba, began to gather round two waysideinns established for the convenience of travellers. Captain Wickham wassent up to assume the position of Superintendent of Moreton Bay, whichthus became practically a new colony, just as Port Phillip was in thesouth, though both were then regarded as only districts of New SouthWales. 

#5. The Natives. #--In these early years the squatters of the district werescattered, at wide intervals, throughout a great extent of country, and, being in the midst of native tribes who were not only numerous but of apeculiarly hostile disposition, they often found themselves in a veryprecarious situation. The blacks swarmed on the runs, killing the sheep, and stealing the property of the squatters, who had many annoyances tosuffer and injuries to guard against. But their retaliation oftentimesexhibited a ferocity and inhumanity almost incredible in civilised men. 

[Illustration: BOOMERANGS, OR KYLIES. ]

The Government troopers showed little compunction in destroying scoresof natives, and, strange to say, the most inhuman atrocities werecommitted by blacks, who were employed to act as troopers. On oneoccasion, after the murder of a white man by two blacks, a band oftroopers, in the dead of night, stealthily surrounded the tribe to whichthe murderers belonged, whilst it was holding a corrobboree, and, at agiven signal, fired a volley into the midst of the dancing crowd--ablind and ruthless revenge, from which, however, the two murderersescaped. On another occasion the shepherds and hutkeepers out on alonely plain had begun to grow afraid of the troublesome tribes in theneighbourhood, and cunningly made them a present of flour, in whichwhite arsenic had been mixed. Half a tribe might then have been seenwrithing and howling in the agony of this frightful poison till deathrelieved them. On such occasions the black tribes took a terriblerevenge when they could, and so the hatred of black for white and whitefor black became stronger and deadlier. 

#6. Separation. #--In less than five years after the removal of convictsthe district began to agitate for separation from New South Wales; and, in 1851, a petition was sent to the Queen, urging the right of MoretonBay to receive the same concession as had, in that year, been made toPort Phillip. On this occasion their request was not granted, but, onbeing renewed about three years later, it met with a very favourablereception; and, in the following year, an Act was passed by the ImperialParliament giving to the British Government power to constitute the newcolony. Again, as in the case of Port Phillip, delays occurred; and, in1856, a change of Ministry caused the matter to be almost forgotten. Itwas not until the year 1859 that the territory to the north of thetwenty-ninth parallel of latitude was proclaimed a separate colony, under the title of QUEENSLAND. 

[Illustration: PARLIAMENT HOUSE, BRISBANE. ]

In the December of that year Sir George F. Bowen, the first Governor, arrived; and the little town of Brisbane, with its 7, 000 inhabitants, was raised to the dignity of being a capital, the seat of government ofa territory containing more than 670, 000 square miles, though inhabitedby only 25, 000 persons. A few months later Queensland received itsConstitution, which differed but little from that of New South Wales. There were established two Houses of Legislature, one consisting ofmembers nominated by the Governor, and the other elected by the people. 

#7. Gold. #--In 1858 it was reported that gold had been discovered far tothe north, on the banks of the Fitzroy River, and in a short time manyvessels arrived in Keppel Bay, their holds and decks crowded with men, who eagerly landed and hastened to Canoona, a place about sixty orseventy miles up the river. Ere long there were about fifteen thousanddiggers on the scene; but it was soon discovered that the gold wasconfined to a very small area, and by no means plentiful; and those whohad spent all their money in getting to the place were in a wretchedplight. A large population had been hurriedly gathered in an isolatedregion, without provisions, or the possibility of obtaining them; theirexpectations of the goldfield had been disappointed, and for some timethe Fitzroy River was one great scene of misery and starvation till theGovernments of New South Wales and Victoria sent vessels to convey theunfortunate diggers away from the place. Some, however, in the extremityof the famine, had selected portions of the fertile land on the banks ofthe river, and had begun to cultivate them as farms. They were pleasedwith the district, and, having settled down on their land, founded whatis now the thriving city of Rockhampton. 

A great amount of success, however, attended a subsequent effort in1867. The Government of Queensland offered rewards, varying from twohundred to a thousand pounds, for the discovery of paying goldfields. The result was that during the course of the next two or three yearsmany districts were opened up to the miner. Towards the end of 1867 aman named Nash, who had been wandering in an idle way over the country, found an auriferous region of great extent at Gympie, about 130 milesfrom Brisbane. He concealed his discovery for a time, and set to work tocollect as much of the gold as possible, before attracting others to thespot. In the course of a day or two he gathered several hundred poundsworth of gold, being, however, often disturbed in his operations by theapproach of travellers on the adjacent road, when he had to crouch amongthe bushes, until the footsteps died away and he could again pursue hissolitary task. After some time it seemed impossible to avoid discovery;and lest any one should forestall him in making known the district, heentered Maryborough, not far away, announced his discovery, and receivedthe reward. A rush took place to the Gympie, which was found to beexceedingly rich, and it was not long before a nugget worth about fourthousand pounds was met with close to the surface. 

Far to the north, on the Palmer River, a tributary of the Mitchell, there have been discovered rich goldfields, where, in spite of the greatheat and dangers from the blacks, there are crowds of diggers at work. Many thousands of Chinamen have settled down in the district, and tothese the natives seem to have a special antipathy, as they spear themon every possible occasion. 

But all the stories which Australia offers of gold-digging romance areeclipsed by that of the Mount Morgan Mine. Near Rockhampton, and in themidst of that very district to which the diggers had rushed in 1858, butin which they had starved through being unable to find gold, a youngsquatter bought from the Government of Queensland a selection of 640acres. It was on a rocky hill, so barren that he considered it useless, and was glad to sell it for £640 to three brothers of the name ofMorgan. These gentlemen were lucky enough to find out that the dirtygrey rocks of which the hill was composed were very richly mixed withgold, so that twenty or thirty pounds worth of gold could be got bycrushing and washing every cart-load of rock. They immediately set towork, and before long showed that they were the possessors of therichest gold mine in the world. A year or two later the hill was sold ata price equivalent to eight millions of pounds, and it is now reckonedthat it contains gold to the value of at least double that sum. What astrange adventure for the man who owned it and reckoned it worth almostnothing!

#8. Cotton. #--Throughout most of the colony the climate is either tropicalor semi-tropical, and it is therefore, in its more fertile parts, wellsuited to the growth of cotton and sugar. About the year 1861 thecultivation of the cotton plant was commenced on a small scale; but, although the plantations were found to thrive, yet the high rate ofwages which prevailed in Queensland, and the low price of cotton inEurope, caused the first attempts to be very unprofitable. 

Matters were changed, however, in 1863, for then a great civil war wasraging in America; and as the people of the Southern States wereprevented, by the long chain of blockading vessels stationed by theNorthern States along their coasts, from sending their cotton to Europe, there was a great scarcity of cotton in England, and its price rose tobe exceedingly high. This was a favourable opportunity for Queensland. The plantations were, of course, still as expensive as ever, but thehandsome prices obtained for the cotton not only covered this greatexpense, but also left considerable profits. The cultivation of thesugar cane was introduced in 1865, and, after a few years had passedaway, great fields of waving cane were to be seen in various parts ofthe country, growing ripe and juicy beneath the tropical sun. 

#9. Polynesian Labour. #--The prices of cotton and sugar remained high forsome years; but when the American Civil War was over they fell to theirformer rates, and the planters of Queensland found it necessary toobtain some cheaper substitute for their white labourers. At first itwas proposed to bring over Hindoos from India, but nothing came of thisidea; and afterwards, when Chinese were introduced, they were not foundto give the satisfaction expected. But it happened that one of theplanters, named Robert Towns, was the owner of a number of ships whichtraded to the South Sea Islands, and having persuaded a few of theislanders to cross to Queensland, he employed them on his sugarplantation. He took some little trouble in teaching them the work hewished them to do, and found that they soon became expert at it. As theremuneration they required was very small, they served admirably tosupply the necessary cheap labour. 

[Illustration: VICTORIA BRIDGE, BRISBANE. ]

The practice of employing these South Sea Islanders, or "Kanakas, " asthey were called, soon became general, and parts of Queensland had allthe appearance of the American plantations, where crowds of duskyfigures, decked in the brightest of colours, plied their labours withlaughter and with song, among the tall cane brakes or the bursting podsof cotton. The "Kanakas" generally worked for a year or two in thecolony, then, having received a bundle of goods--consisting of cloth, knives, hatchets, beads, and so forth, to the value of about £10--theywere again conveyed to their palm-clad islands. A system of this kindwas apt to give rise to abuses, and it was found that a few of the moreunscrupulous planters, not content with the ordinary profits, stoopedto the shameful meanness of cheating the poor islander out of hishard-earned reward. They hurried him on board a vessel, and sent afterhim a parcel containing a few shillings worth of property; then, when hereached his home, he found that all his toil and his years of absencefrom his friends had procured him only so much trash. 

Happily, this was not of very frequent occurrence; but there was anotherabuse both common and glaring. As the plantations in Queenslandincreased, they required more labourers than were willing to leave theirhomes in the South Sea Islands; and, as the captains of vessels werepaid by the planters a certain sum of money for every "Kanaka" theybrought over, there was a strong temptation to carry off the natives byforce, when, by other means, a sufficient number could not be obtained. There were frequent conflicts between the crews of labour vessels andthe inhabitants of the islands. The white men burnt the native villages, and carried off crowds of men and women; while, in revenge, theislanders often surprised a vessel and massacred its crew; and in suchcases the innocent suffered for the guilty. The sailors often had thebaseness to disguise themselves as missionaries, in order the moreeasily to effect their purpose; and when the true missionaries, suspecting nothing, approached the natives on their errand of good will, they were speared or clubbed to death by the unfortunate islanders. But, as a rule, the "Kanakas" were themselves the sufferers; the Englishvessels pursued their frail canoes, ran them down, and sank them; then, while struggling in the sea, the men were seized and thrust into thehold, and the hatches were fastened down. When in this dastardly mannera sufficient number had been gathered together, and the dark interior ofthe ship was filled with a steaming mass of human beings denselyhuddled together, the captains set sail for Queensland, where theylanded those of their living cargoes who had escaped the deadlypestilence which filth and confinement always engendered in such cases. 

#10. Polynesian Labourers' Act. #--These were the deeds of a few ruthlessand disreputable seamen; but the people of Queensland, as a whole, hadno sympathy with such barbarities, and in 1868 a law was passed toregulate the labour traffic. It enacted that no South Sea Islanders wereto be brought into the colony unless the captain of the vessel couldshow a document, signed by a missionary or British consul, stating thatthey had left the islands of their own free will; Government agents wereto accompany every vessel, in order to see that the "Kanakas" were welltreated on the voyage; and, on leaving the colony, no labourer was toreceive less than six pounds worth of goods for every year he hadworked. 

These regulations were of great use, but they were often evaded; for, bygiving a present to the king of an island, the sailors could bribe himto force his people to express their willingness before the missionary. The trembling men were brought forward, and, under the fear of theirchief's revenge, declared their perfect readiness to sail. Sometimes theGovernment agents on board the vessels were bribed not to report themisdeeds of the sailors; and in the case of the _Jason_, on which theagent was too honest to be so bribed, he was chained below by thecaptain, on the pretence that he was mad. When the ship arrived inQueensland, the unfortunate man was found in a most miserable state offilth and starvation. For this offence the captain was arrested, tried, and imprisoned. Whatever regulations may be made, a traffic of this sortwill occasionally have its dark and ugly features, yet it may be trulyenough said that while the "Kanakas" have been of great service toQueensland, the colony has also been of service to them. The islandersare generally glad to be taken; they have better food and easier liveson the plantations than they have in their homes; they gather a trunkfulof property such as passes for great wealth in the islands, and whenthey are sent home, after two years' absence, to their palms and coralshores, it is in full costume, generally in excellent spirits, andalways more or less civilised. Sometimes, poor fellows, they arestripped and plundered by their naked relatives, but at any rate theyhelp, by what they have learnt, to improve the style of life in thosenative groves, so sunny but so full of superstition and barbarous rites. 

#11. Present State of the Colony. #--In 1868 Sir George Bowen was sent togovern New Zealand, and Governor Blackall took charge of affairs inQueensland. He was a man of fine talents, and amiable character, and wasgreatly respected by the colonists; but he died not long after hisarrival, and was succeeded by the Marquis of Normanby, who, in his turn, was succeeded, in 1874, by Mr. Cairns. Sir Arthur Kennedy, in 1877, SirAnthony Musgrave, in 1883, Sir Arthur Hunter Palmer, in 1888, andGeneral Sir H. Wylie Norman bring the list of Governors to the presentyear (1894). 

Queensland possesses magnificent resources, which have only recentlybeen made known, and are now in process of development. Her exports ofgold exceed two million pounds a year; she produces large quantities oftin, copper, silver, and other minerals. The wool clipped from her sheepexceeds one million four hundred thousand pounds in annual value; andher total exports, including cotton, sugar, and other tropicalproductions, amount to about six million pounds per annum. Thepopulation is now about half a million, and immigrants continue toarrive at the rate of about sixteen thousand a year. Though the youngestof the Australian colonies, Queensland now ranks fourth on the list, andappears to have a most promising future before her. Her cotton industryhas almost vanished, and her sugar plantations have passed throughtroublous times, but there seem to be good hopes for them in the future. However, it will be in the raising of sheep and of cattle, as well as ingold-mining, that the colony will have to look for her most permanentresources. She has now nearly twenty million sheep and six millioncattle, and sends wool, tallow, hides, and frozen meat to England, whileshe supplies prime bullocks for the Melbourne Market. 

#12. The Aborigines. #--Australian history practically begins with thearrival of the white man, for before that time, though tribe fought withtribe and there were many doings of savage men, there is nothing thatcould be told as a general story. Each tribe of from twenty to a coupleof hundred dusky forms wandered over the land, seeking animals to huntand fresh water to drink. They were very thinly spread, not more thanone person to ten square miles, yet every little tribe was at deadlyfeud with its neighbour. 

[Illustration: GOVERNMENT HOUSE, BRISBANE. ]

The tribe wandered over the grassy and park-like lands, the men stalkingahead with spears and boomerang in hand; the women trudging behindloaded with babies, and utensils. At evening they camp and the men putup frail break-winds, consisting of a few branches and leafy tufts;behind this on the sheltered side a few leaves made a bed. Meantime thefire was lit close by, and soon a dozen little columns of blue smokecurl up among the trees. The opossum, or duck, or wallaby is soon cookedor half-cooked; the men devour as much as they want and pass on theremains to the women and children. A frog or two and a lizard, or a fewgrubs taken out of decayed timber, or perhaps a few roots that have beendug up on the march by the women, form a sort of dessert. After duskthere is the sound of chatter round the fires; then all retire to rest, with the glowing embers of the fires to give them warmth. At daybreakall are awake. If there is food at hand they may stay in the same campfor weeks together, but if not they journey on. 

Each man had as many wives as he could obtain. He did not support them, but they supported him, and when children became too numerous helessened his family by killing off a few. More than half the childrenwere thus destroyed. Their enjoyments consisted of games with a kind ofball, and mock-fights, but especially in a wild dance they called thecorrobboree. They were in general good-humoured when things wentpleasantly; but a man would spear his wife through the leg or dash hischild's brains out readily enough when things were not to his taste, andnobody would think any the worse of him for it. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

EXPLORATIONS IN THE INTERIOR, 1840-1860. 

#1. Progress of Exploration. #--The coasts of Australia had all beenexamined before the year 1815. From that date those who wished to makefresh discoveries were obliged to penetrate into the interior; and wehave already seen that, previous to the year 1836, explorers were busyin opening up the south-east portion of the continent. Oxley had madeknown the northern districts of New South Wales, and Allan Cunninghamthe southern part of what is now the colony of Queensland. Hume andHovell, Sturt and Mitchell, had traversed the southern districts of NewSouth Wales and the territory now occupied by Victoria. Followingclosely in the footsteps of these intrepid discoverers, the squattershad entered all these districts, and, wherever the land was suitable, had settled down with their flocks; so that, ere long, all that cornerof Australia which would be cut off by drawing a straight line fromBrisbane to Adelaide was fully surveyed. But there still remained to beexplored about seven-eighths of the continent; and from this date onwardthere was an unbroken succession of adventurous travellers, who enteredthe vast central territory for the purpose of making known its natureand capacities. But the manner of conducting an expedition was now verydifferent from what it had been. Previous explorers had been providedwith parties of convicts, and had traversed lands for the greater partgrassy and well watered. These expeditions had their dangers, arisingchiefly from the hostility of the blacks; and Allan Cunningham, hisbrother Richard, with many others, sacrificed their lives in theirardour for discovery. But subsequent travellers had to encounter, inaddition, the pangs of hunger and thirst in that dry and desolatecountry which occupies so great a portion of Central Australia. 

#2. Eyre. #--The first on this roll of gallant discoverers was Edward JohnEyre, who, in 1840, offered to conduct an expedition to the interior. Hehimself provided about half the money required, the South AustralianGovernment--which was then in difficulties--gave a hundred pounds, and anumber of Eyre's personal friends made up the remainder. With fiveEuropeans, three natives, and thirteen horses, and with forty sheep toserve as food on the way, he set out from Adelaide and travelled to thehead of Spencer's Gulf, where a small vessel lay waiting to supply themwith provisions sufficient for three months. Having traversed forty orfifty miles of desert land, he turned to the west, and came in sight ofwhat he called Lake Torrens. It was now dried up, so that in place of asheet of water twenty miles broad, he saw only a dreary region coveredwith glittering salt. When he entered upon it the thin crust of saltbroke, and a thick black mud oozed up. The party plunged onward forabout six miles, the mud becoming always deeper and deeper, till atlength it half covered the saddles of their horses. He was then forcedto turn back, and to seek a passage round this lake of mud; but, havingfollowed its shores for many miles, there seemed to be so littleprospect of reaching the end of the obstacle, that he turned his courseagain, from west to north. After travelling about two hundred milesthrough a very desolate country, he was once more arrested by comingupon a similar sheet of salt-encrusted mud, which he called Lake Eyre. Again there appeared no hope of either crossing the lake or going roundit; no water was to be found, and his supplies were fast failing, sothat he was forced to hasten back a long distance to the nearest stream. Setting out once more, he twice attempted to penetrate westward into theinterior, but, on each occasion, the salt lakes barred his progress, andas a last effort he urged his failing party towards the north-east. Herethe country was the most barren and desolate that can be imagined. Itwas not always so, but after a period of drought, when the grass isburnt to the roots and not a drop of fresh water to be seen in a hundredmiles, it has all the appearance of a desert. His supplies of water ranshort, and frequently the explorers were on the point of perishing. Whenthey approached the Frome River--a creek which flows northwards intoLake Eyre--they were inexpressibly delighted to view from afar thewinding current; but its waters were found to be as salt as the ocean. After a long and dreary journey, Eyre ascended a hill, in order to seeif there was any hope of finding better country; but the view was only agreat and barren level, stretching far away to the horizon on everyside. He had now no water, and his only course was to turn back; so, leaving this place--which he called Mount Hopeless--he retraced hissteps to the head of Spencer's Gulf. 

#3. Australian Bight. #--Here he changed the object of his journey, andmade efforts to go along the shores of the Great Australian Bight, inorder to reach West Australia. Three times he rounded Streaky Bay; butin that bare and desert land the want of water was an insuperableobstacle, and each time he was forced to retreat to less desolatecountry. Governor Gawler now sent word to him to return to Adelaide, asit seemed madness to make further efforts; but Eyre replied that to goback without having accomplished anything would be a disgrace he couldnever endure. Seeing that his only chance of reaching West Australia wasto push rapidly forward with a simple and light equipment, he sent backthe whole of his party except Mr. Baxter, his black servant Wylie, andthe other two natives; and taking with him a few horses, carrying asupply of water and provisions for several weeks, he set out to followthe coast along the Great Australian Bight. His party had to scramblealong the tops of rough cliffs which everywhere frowned from threehundred to six hundred feet above the sea; and if they left the coast totravel inland they had to traverse great stretches of moving sands, which filled their eyes and ears, covered them when asleep, and, whenthey sat at meals, made their food unpleasant. But they suffered mostfrom want of water; for often they were obliged to walk day after daybeneath a broiling sun when all their water was gone, and not a drop tobe seen on the burning soil beneath them. On one occasion, after theyhad thus travelled 110 miles, the horses fell down from exhaustion, andcould not be induced to move. Eyre and a native hastened forward; but, though they wandered for more than eighteen miles, they saw no sign ofwater, and when darkness came on they lay down, with lips parched andburning, and tossed in feverish slumber till morning. At early dawn theyperceived a ridge of sand-hills not far away, and making for them theyfound a number of little wells--places where the natives had dug intothe sand for six or eight feet, and so had reached fresh water. HereEyre and his black companion drank a delicious draught, and hastenedback with the precious beverage to revive the horses. The whole partywas then able to go forward; and there, around these little waterholes, Eyre halted for a week to refresh his men and animals before attemptinganother stretch of similar country. They saw some natives, who told themthat there was plenty of water farther on, and when Eyre set out againhe carried very little with him, so as not to overburden the horses. Butafter sixty miles of the desert had been traversed without meeting anyplace in which water was to be found, he became alarmed, and sent backMr. Baxter with the horses to bring up a better supply, whilst hehimself remained to take charge of the baggage. When Baxter returnedthey all set forward again, and reached a sandy beach, where they hadgreat difficulty in preventing the horses from drinking the sea-water, which would certainly have made them mad. As it was, two of them laydown to die, and part of the provisions had to be abandoned. Baxter nowgrew despondent, and wished to return; but Eyre was determined not yetto give up. Onward they toiled through the dreary wilderness, and twomore horses fell exhausted; 126 miles from the last halting-place, andstill no signs of water. Still onward, and the horses continued to dropby the way, Baxter constantly entreating Eyre to return. It was onlyafter a journey of 160 miles that they came to a place where, bydigging, they could obtain fresh water in very small quantities. They were now forced to eke out their failing provisions by eatinghorseflesh. Baxter was altogether disheartened; and, if to return hadnot been as dangerous as to go forward, Eyre would himself haveabandoned the attempt. The three natives, however, were still aslight-hearted and merry as ever; whilst the food lasted they werealways full of frolic and laughter. 

#4. Death of Baxter. #--Each evening Eyre formed a little camp, loaded themuskets, and laid them down ready for use in case of an attack by theblacks; the horses were hobbled, and set free to gather the littlevegetation they could find. But this forced Eyre and Baxter to keepwatch by turns, lest they should stray so far as to be lost. One eveningwhen Eyre had taken the first watch, the horses, in their search forgrass, had wandered about a quarter of a mile from the camp. He hadfollowed them, and was sitting on a stone beneath the moonlight, musingon his gloomy prospects, when he was startled by a flash and a report. Hastening to the camp, he was met by Wylie, who was speechless withterror, and could only wring his hands and cry: "Oh, massa". When heentered, he saw Baxter lying on his face, whilst the baggage was brokenopen, and scattered in all directions. He raised the wounded man in hisarms, but only in time to support him as his head fell back in death. Then placing the body on the ground, and looking around him, heperceived that two of his natives had plundered the provisions, shot Mr. Baxter as he rose to remonstrate with them, and had then escaped. Themoon became obscured, and in the deep gloom, beside the dead body of hisfriend, Eyre passed a fearful night, peering into the darkness lest themiscreants might be lurking near to shoot him also. He says, in hisdiary: "Ages can never efface the horrors of that single night, norwould the wealth of the world ever tempt me to go through a similarone". The slowly-spreading dawn revealed the bleeding corpse, theplundered bags, and the crouching form of Wylie, who was stillfaithful. The ground at this place consisted of a great hard sheet ofrock, and there was no chance of digging a grave; so Eyre could onlywrap the body in a blanket, leave it lying on the surface, and thus takefarewell of his friend's remains. 

#5. Arrival at King George's Sound. #--Then he and Wylie set out togetheron their mournful journey. They had very little water, and seven dayselapsed before they reached a place where more was to be obtained. Atintervals they could see the murderers stealthily following theirfootsteps, and Eyre was afraid to lie down lest his sleep should proveto have no awaking; and thus, with parching thirst by day, and hours ofwatchfulness by night, he slowly made his way towards King George'sSound. After a time the country became better; he saw and shot twokangaroos, and once more approached the coast. His surprise was greaton seeing two boats some distance out at sea. He shouted and fired hisrifle, without attracting the attention of the crews. But, on rounding asmall cape, he found the vessel to which these boats belonged. It was aFrench whaling ship; and the two men, having been taken on board, werehospitably entertained for eleven days. Captain Rossiter gave them newclothes and abundance of food; and when they were thoroughly refreshed, they landed to pursue their journey. The country was not now soinhospitable; and three weeks afterwards they stood on the brow of ahill overlooking the little town of Albany, at King George's Sound. Herethey sat down to rest; but the people, hearing who they were, came outto escort them triumphantly into the town, where they were received withthe utmost kindness. They remained for eleven days, and then set sailfor Adelaide, which they reached after an absence of one year andtwenty-six days. 

This expedition was, unfortunately, through so barren a country that ithad but little practical effect beyond the additions it made to ourgeography; but the perseverance and skill with which it was conductedare worthy of all honour, and Eyre is to be remembered as the firstexplorer who braved the dangers of the Australian desert. 

#6. Sturt. #--Two years after the return of Eyre, Captain Sturt, the famousdiscoverer of the Darling and Murray, wrote to Lord Stanley offering toconduct an expedition into the heart of Australia. His offer wasaccepted; and in May, 1844, a well-equipped party of sixteen persons wasready to start from the banks of the Darling River. Places which Sturthad explored sixteen years before, when they were a deep and unknownsolitude, were now covered with flocks and cattle; and he could use, asthe starting-place of this expedition, the farthest point he had reachedin that of 1828. Mr. Poole went with him as surveyor, Mr. Browne assurgeon, and the draughtsman was Mr. J. M'Douall Stuart, who, in thisexpedition, received a splendid training for his own great discoveriesof subsequent years. Following the Darling, they reached Laidley'sPonds, passed near Lake Cawndilla, and then struck northward for theinterior. The country was very bare--one dead level of cheerless desert;and when they reached a few hills which they called Stanley Range, nowbetter known as Barrier Range, Sturt, who ascended to one of thesummits, could see nothing hopeful in the prospect. How little did hedream that the hills beneath him were full of silver, and that one day apopulous city of miners should occupy the waterless plain in front ofhim! In this region he had to be very careful how he advanced, for hehad with him eleven horses, thirty bullocks, and two hundred sheep, andwater for so great a multitude could with difficulty be procured. He hadalways to ride forward and find a creek or pond of sufficient size, asthe next place of encampment, before allowing the expedition to move on;and, as water was often very difficult to find, his progress was butslow. Fortunately for the party, it was the winter season, and a few ofthe little creeks had a moderate supply of water. But after they hadreached a chain of hills, which Sturt called the Grey Range, the warmseason was already upon them. The summer of 1844 was one of the mostintense on record; and in these vast interior plains of sand, under thefiery glare of the sun, the earth seemed to burn like plates of metal:it split the hoofs of the horses; it scorched the shoes and the feet ofthe men; it dried up the water from the creeks and pools, and left allthe country parched and full of cracks. Sturt spent a time of greatanxiety, for the streams around were rapidly disappearing; and, when allthe water had been dried up, the prospects of his party would, indeed, be gloomy. His relief was therefore great when Mr. Poole found a creekin a rocky basin, whose waters seemed to have a perennial flow. Sturtmoved forward, and formed his depōt beside the stream; and here he wasforced to remain for six weeks. For it appeared as though he had entereda trap; the country before him was absolutely without water, so that hecould not advance; while the creeks behind him were now only drycourses, and it was hopeless to think of returning. He made manyattempts to escape, and struck out into the country in all directions. In one of his efforts, if he had gone only thirty miles farther, hewould have found the fine stream of Cooper's Creek, in which there wassufficient water for the party; but hunger and thirst forced him toreturn to the depōt. He followed down the creek on which they wereencamped, but found that, after a course of twenty-nine miles, it lostitself in the sand. 

Meantime the travellers passed a summer such as few men have everexperienced. The heat was sometimes as high as 130 deg. In the shade, and in the sun it was altogether intolerable. They were unable to write, as the ink dried at once on their pens; their combs split; their nailsbecame brittle and readily broke, and if they touched a piece of metalit blistered their fingers. In their extremity they dug an undergroundroom, deep enough to be beyond the dreadful furnace-glow above. Herethey spent many a long day, as month after month passed without a showerof rain. Sometimes they watched the clouds gather, and they could hearthe distant roll of thunder, but there fell not a drop to refresh thedry and dusty desert. The party began to grow thin and weak; Mr. Poolebecame ill with scurvy, and from day to day he sank rapidly. At length, when winter was again approaching, a gentle shower moistened the plain;and, as the only chance of saving the life of Poole, half of the partywas sent to carry him quickly back to the Darling. They had been goneonly a few hours when a messenger rode back with the news that he wasalready dead. The mournful cavalcade returned, bearing his remains, anda grave was dug in the wilderness. A tree close by, on which hisinitials were cut, formed the only memorial of the hapless explorer. 

#7. Journey to the Centre. #--Shortly afterwards there came a succession ofwet days, and, as there was now an abundance of water, the whole partyonce more set off; having travelled north-west for sixty-one milesfarther, they formed a new depōt, and made excursions to explore thecountry in the neighbourhood. M'Douall Stuart crossed over to LakeTorrens; while Sturt, with Dr. Browne and three men, pushing to thenorth, discovered the Strzelecki Creek, a stream which flows throughvery agreeable country. But as they proceeded farther to the north theirtroubles began again; they came upon a region covered with hill afterhill of fiery red sand, amid which lay lagoons of salt and bitter water. They toiled over this weary country in hopes that a change for thebetter might soon appear; but when they reached the last hill, they hadthe mortification to see a great plain, barren, monotonous and dreary, stretching with a purple glare as far as the eye could reach on everyside. This plain was called by Sturt the "Stony Desert, " for, ondescending, he found it covered with innumerable pieces of quartz andsandstone, among which the horses wearily stumbled. Sturt wished topenetrate as far as the tropic of Capricorn; but summer was again athand, their water was failing, and they could find neither stream norpool. When the madness of any farther advance became apparent, Sturt, with his head buried in his hands, sat for an hour in bitterdisappointment. After toiling so far, and reaching within 150 miles ofhis destination, to be turned back for the want of a little water was amisfortune very hard to bear, and, but for his companions, he would havestill gone forward and perished. As they hastened back their water wasexhausted, and they were often in danger of being buried by moving hillsof sand; but at length they reached the depōt, having traversed 800miles during the eight weeks of their absence. 

It was not long before Sturt started again, taking with him M'DouallStuart as his companion. On this trip he suffered the same hardships, but had the satisfaction of discovering a magnificent stream, which hecalled Cooper's Creek. On crossing this creek he again entered the StonyDesert, and was once more compelled reluctantly to retrace his steps. When he reached the depōt he was utterly worn out. He lay in bed for along time, tenderly nursed by his companions; and, when the whole partyset out on its return to the settled districts, he had to be lifted inand out of the dray in which he was carried. As they neared their homeshis sight began to fail. The glare of the burning sands had destroyedhis eyes, and he passed the remainder of his days in darkness. Hisreports of the arid country gave rise to the opinion that the wholeinterior of Australia was a desert; but this was afterwards found to befar from correct. 

#8. Leichardt. #--Allan Cunningham's discoveries extended over the northernparts of New South Wales and the southern districts of Queensland. Butall the north-eastern parts of the continent were left unexplored until1844, when an intrepid young German botanist, named Ludwig Leichardt, made known this rich and fertile country. With five men he started fromSydney, and, passing through splendid forests and magnificent pasturelands, he made his way to the Gulf of Carpentaria, discovering andfollowing up many large rivers--the Fitzroy, with its tributaries--theDawson, the Isaacs and the Mackenzie; the Burdekin, with several of itsbranches; then the Mitchell; and, lastly, the Gilbert. He also crossedthe Flinders and Albert, without knowing that, a short time previously, these rivers had been discovered and named by Captain Stokes, who wasexploring the coasts in a British war-ship. Having rounded the gulf, hediscovered the Roper, and followed the Alligator River down to VanDiemen's Gulf, where a vessel was waiting to receive his party. On hisreturn to Sydney the utmost enthusiasm prevailed; for Leichardt had madeknown a wide stretch of most valuable country. The people of Sydneyraised a subscription of £1, 500, and the Government rewarded hisservices with £1, 000. Leichardt was of too ardent a nature to remaincontent with what he had already done; and, in 1847, he again set out tomake further explorations in the north of Queensland. On this occasion, however, he was not so successful. He had taken with him great flocks ofsheep and goats, and they impeded his progress so much that, afterwandering over the Fitzroy Downs for about seven months, he was forcedto return. In 1848 he organised a third expedition, to cross the wholecountry from east to west. He proposed to start from Moreton Bay, and totake two years in traversing the centre of the continent, so as toreach the Swan River settlement. He set out with a large party, and soonreached the Cogoon River, a tributary of the Condamine. From this pointhe sent to a friend in Sydney a letter, in which he described himselfas in good spirits, and full of hope that the expedition would be asuccess. He then started into the wilderness, and was lost for ever frommen's view. For many years parties were, from time to time, sent out torescue the missing explorers, if perchance they might still be wanderingwith the blacks in the interior; but no traces of the lost company haveever been brought to light. 

#9. Mitchell. #--Whilst Leichardt was absent on his first journey, SirThomas Mitchell--the discoverer of the Glenelg--had prepared anexpedition for the exploration of Queensland. Having waited till thereturn of Leichardt, in order not to go over the same ground, he set outtowards the north, and, after discovering the Culgoa and Warrego--twoimportant tributaries of the Darling--he turned to the west. Hetravelled over a great extent of level country, and then came upon ariver which somewhat puzzled him. He followed the current for 150 miles, and it seemed to flow steadily towards the heart of the continent. Hethought that its waters must eventually find their way to the sea, andwould, therefore, after a time, flow north to the Indian Ocean. If thatwere the case, the river--which the natives called the Barcoo--must bethe largest stream on the northern coast, and he concluded that it wasidentical with the Victoria, whose mouth had been discovered about nineyears before by Captain Stokes. He, therefore, provisionally gave it thename of the Victoria River. 

#10. Kennedy. #--On the return of Mitchell, the furtherprosecution of exploration in these districts was left to hisassistant-surveyor--Edmund Kennedy--who, having been sent to trace thecourse of the supposed Victoria River, followed its banks for 150 milesbelow the place where Mitchell had left it. He was then forced to returnthrough want of provisions; but he had gone far enough, however, to showthat this stream was only the higher part of Cooper's Creek, discoverednot long before by Captain Sturt. This river has a course of about 1, 200miles; and it is, therefore, the largest of Central Australia. But itswaters spread out into the broad marshes of Lake Eyre, and are therelost by evaporation. 

In 1848 Kennedy was sent to explore Cape York Peninsula. He was landedwith a party of twelve men at Rockingham Bay, and, striking inland tothe north-west, travelled towards Cape York, where a small schooner wasto wait for him. The difficulties met by the explorers were immense;for, in these tropical regions, dense jungles of prickly shrubs impededtheir course and lacerated their flesh, while vast swamps often madetheir journey tedious and unexpectedly long. Thinking there was nonecessity for all to endure these hardships, he left eight of hiscompanions at Weymouth Bay, intending to call for them on his way backin the schooner. He was courageously pushing through the jungle towardsthe north with three men and his black servant Jackey, when one of theparty accidentally received a severe gunshot wound, which made itimpossible for him to proceed. Kennedy was now only a few miles distantfrom Cape York; and, leaving the wounded man under the care of the tworemaining whites, he started--accompanied by Jackey--to reach the capeand obtain assistance from the schooner. They had not gone far, and wereon the banks of the Escape River, when they perceived that their stepswere being closely followed by a tribe of natives, whose swarthy bodies, from time to time, appeared among the trees. Kennedy now proceededwarily, keeping watch all around; but a spear, urged by an unseen handfrom among the leaves, suddenly pierced his body from behind, and hefell. The blacks rushed forward, but Jackey fired, and at the reportthey hastily fled. Jackey held up his master's head for a short time, weeping bitterly. Kennedy knew he was dying, and he gave his faithfulservant instructions as to the papers he was to carry, and the course hemust follow. Not long after this he breathed his last, and Jackey, withhis tomahawk, dug a shallow grave for him in the forest. He spread hiscoat and shirt in the hollow, laid the body tenderly upon them, andcovered it with leaves and branches. Then, packing up the journals, heplunged into the creek, along which he walked, with only his head abovethe surface, until he neared the shore. Hastily making for the north, he reached the cape, where he was taken on board the schooner. Thisexpedition was one of the most disastrous of the inland explorations. The wounded man, and the two who had been left with him, were neverafterwards heard of--in all probability they were slaughtered by thenatives; whilst the party of eight, who had been left at Weymouth Bay, after constant struggles with the natives, had been reduced, bystarvation and disease, to only two ere the expected relief arrived. 

#11. Gregory. #--In 1856 A. C. Gregory went in search of Leichardt, and, thinking he might possibly have reached the north-west coast, took asmall party to Cambridge Gulf. Travelling along the banks of theVictoria River, he crossed a low range of hills and discovered a stream, to which he gave the name of "Sturt Creek". By following this, he wasled into a region covered with long ridges of glaring red sand, resembling those which had baffled Captain Sturt, except that in thisdesert there grew the scattered blades of the spinifex grass, which cutlike daggers into the hoofs of the horses. The creek was lost in marshesand salt lakes, and Gregory was forced to retrace his steps till hereached the great bend in the Victoria River; then, striking to theeast, he skirted the Gulf of Carpentaria about fifty miles from theshore; and, after a long journey, arrived at Moreton Bay, but withoutany news regarding Leichardt and his party. His expedition, however, hadexplored a great extent of country, and had mapped out the courses oftwo large rivers--the Victoria and the Roper. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

DISCOVERIES IN THE INTERIOR, 1860-1886. 

#1. Burke and Wills. #--In the year 1860 a merchant of Melbourne offered£1, 000 for the furtherance of discovery in Australia; the Royal Societyof Victoria undertook to organise an expedition for the purpose ofcrossing the continent, and collected subscriptions to the amount of£3, 400; the Victorian Government voted £6, 000, and spent an additionalsum of £3, 000 in bringing twenty-six camels from Arabia. Under anenergetic committee of the Royal Society, the most completearrangements were made. Robert O'Hara Burke was chosen as leader;Landells was second in command, with special charge of the camels, for which three Hindoo drivers were also provided; W. J. Wills, anaccomplished young astronomer, was sent to take charge of the costlyinstruments and make all the scientific observations. There were twoother scientific men and eleven subordinates, with twenty-eight horsesto assist in transporting the baggage. On the 20th August, 1860, thelong train of laden camels and horses set out from the Royal Park ofMelbourne, Burke heading the procession on a little grey horse. Themayor made a short speech, wishing him God-speed; the explorers shookhands with their friends, and, amid the ringing cheers of thousands ofspectators, the long and picturesque line moved forward. 

[Illustration: ROBERT O'HARA BURKE. ]

The journey, as far as the Murrumbidgee, lay through settled country, and was without incident; but, on the banks of that river, quarrellingbegan among the party, and Burke dismissed the foreman; Landells thenresigned, and Wills was promoted to be second in command. Burkecommitted a great error in his choice of a man to take charge of thecamels in place of Landells. On a sheep station he met with a man namedWright, who made himself very agreeable; the two were soon greatfriends, and Burke, whose generosity was unchecked by any prudence, gave to this utterly unqualified person an important charge in theexpedition. 

On leaving the Murrumbidgee they ascended the Darling, till they reachedMenindie--the place from which Sturt had set out sixteen years before. Here Burke left Wright with half the expedition, intending himself topush on rapidly, and to be followed up more leisurely by Wright. 

Burke and Wills, with six men and half the camels and horses, set offthrough a very miserable country--not altogether barren, but coveredwith a kind of pea, which poisoned the horses. A rapid journey broughtthem to the banks of Cooper's Creek, where they found fine pastures andplenty of water. Here they formed a depōt and lived for some time, waiting for Wright, who, however, did not appear. The horses and camels, by this rest, improved greatly in condition, and the party were incapital quarters. But Burke grew tired of waiting, and, as he was nownear the centre of Australia, he determined to make a bold dash acrossto the Gulf of Carpentaria. He left one of his men, called Brahe, andthree assistants, with six camels and twelve horses, giving theminstructions to remain for three months; and if within that time he didnot return, they might consider him lost, and would then be at libertyto return to Menindie. On the 16th December Burke and Wills, along withtwo men, named King and Gray, started on their perilous journey, takingwith them six camels and one horse, which carried provisions to last forthree months. 

[Illustration: WILLIAM JOHN WILLS. ]

#2. Rapid Journey to Gulf of Carpentaria. #--They followed the broadcurrent of Cooper's Creek for some distance, and then struck off to thenorth, till they reached a stream, which they called Eyre Creek. Fromthis they obtained abundant supplies of water, and, therefore, keptalong its banks till it turned to the eastward; then abandoning it, theymarched due north, keeping along the 140th meridian, through forests ofboxwood, alternating with plains well watered and richly covered withgrass. Six weeks after leaving Cooper's Creek they came upon a finestream, flowing north, to which they gave the name "Cloncurry, " and, byfollowing its course, they found that it entered a large river, on whosebanks they were delighted to perceive the most luxuriant vegetation andfrequent clusters of palm trees. They felt certain that its watersflowed into the Gulf of Carpentaria, and therefore, by keeping close toit, they had nothing to fear. But they had brought only three months'provisions with them; more than half of that time had now elapsed, andthey were still 150 miles from the sea. Burke now lost no time, buthurried on so fast that, one after another, the camels sank exhausted;and, when they had all succumbed, Burke and Wills took their only horseto carry a small quantity of provisions, and, leaving Gray and Kingbehind, set out by themselves on foot. They had to cross several patchesof swampy ground; and the horse, becoming inextricably bogged, wasunable to go farther. But still Burke and Wills hurried on by themselvestill they reached a narrow inlet on the Gulf of Carpentaria, and foundthat the river they had been following was the Flinders, whose mouth hadbeen discovered by Captain Stokes in 1842. They were very anxious toview the open sea; but this would have required another couple of days, and their provisions were already exhausted; they were, therefore, obliged to hasten back as quickly as possible. The pangs of hungerovertook them before they could reach the place where King and Gray hadremained with the provisions. Burke killed a snake, and ate a part ofit, but he felt very ill immediately after; and when, at length, theyreached the provisions, he was not able to go forward so quickly as itwas necessary to do, if they wished to be safe. However, they recoveredthe horse and camels, which had been greatly refreshed by their rest;and, by taking easy stages, they managed to move south towards home. Buttheir hurried journey to the north, in which they had traversed, beneatha tropical sun, about 140 miles every week, had told severely on theirconstitutions; Gray became ill, and it was now necessary to be socareful with the provisions that he had little chance of regaining hislost strength. One evening, after they had come to a halt, he was foundsitting behind a tree, eating a little mixture he had made for himselfof flour and water. Burke said he was stealing the provisions, fell uponhim, and gave him a severe thrashing. He seems after this never to haverallied; whilst the party moved forward he was slowly sinking. Towardsthe end of March their provisions began to fail; they killed a camel, dried its flesh, and then went forward. At the beginning of April thiswas gone, and they killed their horse. Gray now lay down, saying hecould not go on; Burke said he was "shamming, " and left him. However, the gentler counsel of Wills prevailed; they returned and brought himforward. But he could only go a little farther; the poor fellow breathedhis last a day or two after, and was buried in the wilderness. Burke nowregretted his harshness, all the more as he himself was quickly sinking. All three, indeed, were utterly worn out; they were thin and haggard, and so weak that they tottered rather than walked along. The last fewmiles were very, very weary; but, at last, on the 21st of April, theycame in sight of the depōt, four months and a half after leaving it. Great was their alarm on seeing no sign of people about the place; and, as they staggered forward to the spot at sunset, their hearts sankwithin them when they saw a notice, stating that Brahe had left thatvery morning. He would be then only seven hours' march away. The threemen looked at one another in blank dismay; but they were so worn outthat they could not possibly move forward with any hope of overtakingthe fresh camels of Brahe's party. On looking round, however, they sawthe word "dig" cut on a neighbouring tree; and, when they turned up thesoil, they found a small supply of provisions. 

Brahe had remained a month and a half longer than he had been told towait; and as his own provisions were fast diminishing, and there seemed, as yet, to be no signs of Wright with the remainder of the expedition, he thought it unsafe to delay his return any longer. This man Wright wasthe cause of all the disasters that ensued. Instead of following closelyon Burke, he had loitered at Menindie for no less than three months andone week, amusing himself with his friends; and, when he did set out, hetook things so leisurely that Brahe was half-way back to the Darlingbefore they met. 

#3. Sufferings. #--On the evening when they entered the depōt, Burke, Wills, and King made a hearty supper; then, for a couple of days, theystretched their stiff and weary limbs at rest. But inaction wasdangerous, for, even with the greatest expedition, their provisionswould only serve to take them safely to the Darling. They now began todeliberate as to their future course. Burke wished to go to Adelaide, because, at Mount Hopeless--where Eyre had been forced to turn back in1840--there was now a large sheep station, and he thought it could notbe more than 150 miles away. Wills was strongly averse to this proposal. "It is true, " he said, "Menindie is 350 miles away, but then we know theroad, and are sure of water all the way. " But Burke was not to bepersuaded, and they set out for Mount Hopeless. Following Cooper's Creekfor many miles, they entered a region of frightful barrenness. Here, asone of the camels became too weak to go farther, they were forced tokill it and to dry its flesh. Still they followed the creek, till atlast it spread itself into marshy thickets and was lost; they then madea halt, and found they had scarcely any provisions left, while theirclothes were rotten and falling to pieces. Their only chance was toreach Mount Hopeless speedily; they shot their last camel, and, whilstBurke and King were drying its flesh, Wills struck out to find MountHopeless; but no one knew which way to look for it, and Wills, afterlaboriously traversing the dry and barren wastes in all directions, cameback unsuccessful. A short rest was taken, and then the whole partyturned southward, determined this time to reach the mount. But they weretoo weak to travel fast; day after day over these dreary plains, andstill no sign of a hill; till at length, when they were within fiftymiles of Mount Hopeless, they gave in. Had they only gone but a littlefarther, they would have seen the summit of the mountain rising upon thehorizon; but just at this point they lost hope and turned to go back. After a weary journey, they once more reached the fresh water and thegrassy banks of Cooper's Creek, but now with provisions for only a dayor two. They sat down to consider their position, and Burke said he hadheard that the natives of Cooper's Creek lived chiefly on the seed of aplant which they called nardoo; so that, if they could only find anative tribe, they might, perhaps, learn to find sufficient subsistencefrom the soil around them. Accordingly, Burke and King set out to seek anative encampment; and, having found one, they were kindly received bythe blacks, who very willingly showed them how to gather the littleblack seeds from a kind of grass which grows close to the ground. 

With this information they returned to Wills; and, as the nardoo seedwas abundant, they began at once to gather it; but they found that, through want of skill, they could scarcely obtain enough for two meals aday by working from morning till night; and, when evening came, they hadto clean, roast, and grind it; and, besides this, whatever it might havebeen to the blacks, to them it was by no means nutritious--it made themsick, and gave them no strength. 

Whilst they were thus dwelling on the lower part of Cooper's Creek, several miles away from the depōt, Brahe had returned to find them andbring them relief. On his way home he had met with Wright leisurelycoming up, and had hastened back with him to the depōt; but whenthey reached it they saw no signs of Burke and Wills, although theunfortunate explorers had been there only a few days before. Brahe, therefore, concluded that they were dead, and once more set out forhome. Meanwhile Burke thought it possible that a relief party might inthis way have reached the creek, and Wills volunteered to go to thedepōt to see if any one was there. He set out by himself, and afterjourneying three or four days reached the place; but only to find itstill and deserted. He examined it carefully, but could see no trace ofits having been recently visited; there could be no advantage inremaining, and he turned back to share the doom of his companions. Henow began to endure fearful pangs from hunger. One evening he entered anencampment that had just been abandoned by the natives, and around thefire there were some fish bones, which he greedily picked. Next day hesaw two small fish floating dead upon a pool, and they made a deliciousfeast; but, in spite of these stray morsels, he was rapidly sinking fromhunger, when suddenly he was met by a native tribe. The black men wereexceedingly kind; one carried his bundle for him, another supported hisfeeble frame, and gently they led the gaunt and emaciated white man totheir camp. They made him sit down and gave him a little food. Whilst hewas eating he saw a great quantity of fish on the fire. For a fewminutes he wondered if all these could possibly be for him, till atlength they were cooked and the plentiful repast was placed before him. The natives then gathered round and clapped their hands with delightwhen they saw him eat heartily. He stayed with them for four days, andthen set out to bring his friends to enjoy likewise this simplehospitality. It took him some days to reach the place where he had leftthem; but when they heard his good news they lost no time in seekingtheir native benefactors. Yet, on account of their weakness, theytravelled very slowly, and when they reached the encampment it wasdeserted. They had no idea whither the natives had gone. They struggleda short distance farther; their feebleness overcame them, and they wereforced to sink down in despair. All day they toiled hard to preparenardoo seed; but their small strength could not provide enough tosupport them. Once or twice they shot a crow, but such slight repastsserved only to prolong their sufferings. Wills, throughout all hisjourneyings, had kept a diary, but now the entries became very short; inthe struggle for life there was no time for such duties, and the grimfight with starvation required all their strength. 

At this time Wills records that he cannot understand why his legs are soweak; he has bathed them in the stream, but finds them no better, and hecan hardly crawl out of the hut. His next entry is, that unless reliefcomes shortly he cannot last more than a fortnight. After this his mindseems to have begun to wander; he makes frequent and unusual blunders inhis diary. The last words he wrote were that he was waiting, like Mr. Micawber, for something to turn up, and that, though starving on nardooseed was by no means unpleasant, yet he would prefer to have a littlefat and sugar mixed with it. 

#4. Death of Burke and Wills. #--Burke now thought that their only chancewas to find the blacks, and proposed that he and King should set out forthat purpose. They were very loath to leave Wills, but, under thecircumstances, no other course was possible. They laid him softly withinthe hut, and placed at his head enough of nardoo to last him for eightdays. Wills asked Burke to take his watch, and a letter he had writtenfor his father; the two men pressed his hands, smoothed his couchtenderly for the last time, and set out. There, in the utter silence ofthe wilderness, the dying man lay for a day or two: no ear heard hislast sigh, but his end was as gentle as his life had been free fromreproach. 

Burke and King walked out on their desperate errand. On the first daythey traversed a fair distance; but, on the second, they had notproceeded two miles when Burke lay down, saying he could go no farther. King entreated him to make another effort, and so he dragged himself toa little clump of bushes, where he stretched his limbs very wearily. Anhour or two afterwards he was stiff and unable to move. He asked King totake his watch and pocket-book, and, if possible, to give them to hisfriends in Melbourne; then he begged of him not to depart till he wasquite dead: he knew he should not live long, and he should like some oneto be near him to the last. He spoke with difficulty, but directed Kingnot to bury him, but to let him lie above the ground, with a pistol inhis right hand. They passed a weary and lonesome night; and in themorning, at eight o'clock, Burke's restless life was ended. Kingwandered for some time forlorn, but, by good fortune, he stumbled uponan abandoned encampment, where, by neglect, the blacks had left a bag ofnardoo, sufficient to last him a fortnight; and, with this, he hastenedback to the hut where Wills had been laid. All he could do now, however, was to dig a grave for his body in the sand, and, having performed thatlast sad duty, he set out once more on his search, and found a tribe, differing from that which he had already seen. They were very kind, butnot anxious to keep him, until, having shot some birds and cured theirchief of a malady, he was found to be of some use, and soon became agreat favourite with them. They made a trip to the body of Burke, but, respecting his last wishes, they did not seek to bury it, and merelycovered it gently with a layer of leafy boughs. 

#5. Relief Parties. #--When Wright and Brahe returned to Victoria with thenews that, though it was more than five months since Burke and Wills hadleft Cooper's Creek, there were no signs of them at the depōt, all thecolonies showed their solicitude by organising parties to go to therelief of the explorers, if, perchance, they should be still alive. Victoria was the first in the field, and the Royal Society equipped asmall party, under Mr. A. W. Howitt, to examine the banks of Cooper'sCreek. Queensland offered five hundred pounds to assist in the search, and with this sum, an expedition was sent to examine the Gulf ofCarpentaria. Landsborough, its leader, was conveyed in the Victoriasteamer to the gulf, and followed the Albert almost to its source, inhopes that Burke and Wills might be dwelling with the natives on thatstream. Walker was sent to cross from Rockhampton to the Gulf ofCarpentaria; he succeeded in reaching the Flinders River, where Burkeand Wills had been; but, of course, he saw nothing of them. M'Kinlay wassent by South Australia to advance in the direction of Lake Torrens andreach Cooper's Creek. These various expeditions were all eager inprosecuting the search, but it was to Mr. Howitt's party that successfell. In following the course of Cooper's Creek downward from the depōthe saw the tracks of camels, and by these he was led to the district inwhich Burke and Wills had died. 

Several natives, whom he met, brought him to the place where, beneath anative hut, King was sitting, pale, haggard, and wasted to a shadow. Hewas so weak that it was with difficulty Howitt could catch the feeblewhispers that fell from his lips; but a day or two of European foodserved slightly to restore his strength. Howitt then proceeded to thespot where the body of Wills was lying partly buried, and, after readingover it a short service, he interred it decently. Then he sought thethicket where the bones of Burke lay with the rusted pistol beside them, and, having wrapped a union jack around them, he dug a grave for themhard by. 

Three days later the blacks were summoned, and their eyes brightened atthe sight of knives, tomahawks, necklaces, looking-glasses, and soforth, which were bestowed upon them in return for their kindness toKing. Gay pieces of ribbon were fastened round the black heads of thechildren, and the whole tribe moved away rejoicing in the possession offifty pounds of sugar, which had been divided among them. 

When Howitt and King returned, and the sad story of the expedition wasrelated, the Victorian Government sent a party to bring the remains ofBurke and Wills to Melbourne, where they received the melancholy honoursof a public funeral amid the general mourning of the whole colony. Inafter years, a statue was raised to perpetuate their heroism and testifyto the esteem with which the nation regarded their memory. 

#6. M'Douall Stuart. #--Burke and Wills were the first who ever crossedthe Australian Continent; but, for several years before they set out, another traveller had, with wonderful perseverance, repeatedly attemptedthis feat. John M'Douall Stuart had served as draughtsman in Sturt'sexpedition to the Stony Desert, and he had been well trained in thatschool of adversity and sufferings. He was employed, in 1859, by anumber of squatters, who wished him to explore for them new lands inSouth Australia, and having found a passage between Lake Eyre and LakeTorrens, he discovered, beyond the deserts which had so muchdisheartened Eyre, a broad district of fine pastoral land. 

Next year the South Australian Government offered £2, 000 as a reward tothe first person who should succeed in crossing Australia from south tonorth; and Stuart set out from Adelaide to attempt the exploit. Withonly two men he travelled to the north, towards Van Diemen's Gulf, andpenetrated much farther than Sturt had done in 1844. Indeed, he was only400 miles from the other side of Australia, when the hostility of theblacks forced him to return: he succeeded, however, in planting a flagin the centre of the continent, at a place called by him Central MountStuart. Next year he was again in the field, and following exactly thesame course, approached very near to Van Diemen's Gulf; being no morethan 250 miles distant from its shores, when want of provisions forcedhim once more to return. The report of this expedition was sent to Burkeand Wills, just before they set out from Cooper's Creek on their fataltrip to the Gulf of Carpentaria. 

It was not until the following year, 1862, that Stuart succeeded in hispurpose. He had the perseverance to start a third time, and follow hisformer route; and on this occasion he was successful in reaching VanDiemen's Gulf, and returned safely, after having endured many sufferingsand hardships. 

His triumphal entry into Adelaide took place on the very day whenHowitt's mournful party entered that city, bearing the remains of Burkeand Wills, on their way to Melbourne. Stuart then learnt that thesebrave explorers had anticipated him in crossing the continent, for theyhad reached the Gulf of Carpentaria in February, 1861; whilst he did notarrive at Van Diemen's Gulf until July, 1862. However, Stuart had shownso great a courage, and had been twice before so near the completion ofhis task, that every one was pleased when the South AustralianGovernment gave him the well-merited reward. 

#7. Warburton. #--In a subsequent chapter it will be told how a line oftelegraph was, in 1872, constructed along the track followed by Stuart;and as the stations connected with this line are numerous, it is now aneasy matter to cross the continent from south to north. But in recentyears a desire has arisen among the adventurous to journey overland fromeast to west. Warburton, in 1873, made a successful trip of this kind. With his son, two men, and two Afghans to act as drivers of hisseventeen camels, he started from Alice Springs, a station on thetelegraph line close to the tropic of Capricorn. 

The country immediately round Alice Springs was very beautiful, but ajourney of only a few days served to bring the expedition into a dry andbarren plain, so desolate that Warburton declared it could never betraversed without the assistance of camels. After travelling about fourhundred miles, he reached those formidable ridges of fiery red sand inwhich the waters of Sturt's Creek are lost, and where A. C. Gregory wasin 1856 compelled to turn back. In traversing this district, the partysuffered many hardships; only two out of seventeen camels survived, andthe men were themselves frequently on the verge of destruction. It wasonly by exercising the greatest care and prudence that Warburtonsucceeded in bringing his party to the Oakover River, on the north-westcoast, and when he arrived once more in Adelaide it was found that hehad completely lost the sight of one eye. 

#8. Giles and Forrest. #--Towards the close of the same year, 1873, a youngVictorian named Giles started on a similar trip, intending to cross fromthe middle of the telegraph line to West Australia. He held his coursecourageously to the west, but the country was of such appallingbarrenness that, after penetrating half-way to the western coast, hewas forced to abandon the attempt and return. But when three yearsafterwards he renewed his efforts, he succeeded, after suffering muchand making long marches without water. He had more than one encounterwith the natives, but he had the satisfaction of crossing from thetelegraph line to the West Australian coast, through country neverbefore traversed by the foot of civilised man. In 1874 this regionwas successfully crossed by Forrest, a Government surveyor of WestAustralia, who started from Geraldton, to the south of Shark Bay, and, after a journey of twelve hundred miles almost due east, succeeded inreaching the telegraph line. His entry into Adelaide was like atriumphal march, so great were the crowds that went out to escort him tothe city. Forrest was then a young man, but a most skilful and sagacioustraveller. Lightly equipped, and accompanied by only one or twocompanions, he has on several occasions performed long journeys throughthe most formidable country with a celerity and success that are indeedsurprising. 

His brother, Alexander Forrest, and a long list of bold and skilfulbushmen, have succeeded in traversing the continent in every direction. It is not all desert. They have found fine tracts of land in the courseof their journeys. Indeed, more than half of the recently exploredregions are suitable for sheep and cattle, but there are other greatdistricts which are miserable and forbidding. However, thanks to theheroic men whose names have been mentioned, and to such others as theJardine Brothers, Ernest Favenc, Gosse, and the Baron von Mueller, almost the whole of Australia is now explored. Only a small part ofSouth Australia and the central part of West Australia remain unknown. We all of us owe a great debt of gratitude to the men who endured somuch to make known to the world the capabilities of our continent. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

TASMANIA, 1837-1890. 

#1. Governor Franklin. #--Sir John Franklin, the great Arctic explorer, arrived in 1837 to assume the Governorship of Tasmania. He had been amidshipman, under Flinders, during the survey of the Australian coasts, and for many years had been engaged in the British Navy in the cause ofscience. He now expected to enjoy, as Governor of a small colony, thatease and retirement which he had so laboriously earned. But his hopeswere doomed to disappointment. Although his bluff and hearty mannersecured to him the good-will of the people, yet censures on hisadministration were both frequent and severe; for during his rulecommenced that astonishing decline of the colony which continued, withscarcely any interruption, for nearly thirty years. 

[Illustration: SIR JOHN FRANKLIN. ]

#2. Flood of Convicts. #--After the cessation of transportation to NewSouth Wales, in 1840, hopes were entertained that Tasmania wouldlikewise cease to be a penal settlement; and, under this impression, great numbers of immigrants arrived in the colony. But, ere long, itbecame known that Tasmania was not only to continue, as before, areceptacle for British felons, but was, in fact, to be made the _only_convict settlement, and was destined to receive the full stream ofcriminals, that had formerly been distributed over several colonies. The result was immediately disastrous to the free settlers, for convictlabour could be obtained at very little cost, and wages therefore fellto a rate so miserable that free labourers, not being able to earnenough for the support of their families, were forced to leave theisland. Thus, in 1844, whilst the arrival of energetic and hard-workingimmigrants was adding greatly to the prosperity of the other colonies, Tasmania was losing its free population, and was sinking more and moreinto the degraded position of a mere convict station. 

Lord Stanley, the British Colonial Secretary, in 1842, proposed a newplan for the treatment of convicts, according to which they were to passthrough various stages, from a condition of absolute confinement to oneof comparative freedom; and, again, instead of being all collected intoone town, it was arranged that they should be scattered throughout thecolony in small gangs. By this system it was intended that the prisonersshould pass through several periods of probation before they were set atliberty; and it was, therefore, called the Probation Scheme. The greatobjection to it was that the men could scarcely be superintended withdue precaution when they were scattered in so many separate groups, andmany of them escaped, either to the bush or to the adjacent colonies. 

#3. Franklin's Difficulties. #--The feelings of personal respect with whichthe people of Van Diemen's Land regarded Sir John Franklin were greatlyincreased by the amiable and high-spirited character of his wife. LadyFranklin possessed, in her own right, a large private fortune, which sheemployed in the most generous and kindly manner; her counsel and herwealth were ever ready to promote prosperity and alleviate sufferings. And yet, in spite of all this personal esteem, the experience of the newGovernor among the colonists was far from being agreeable. 

Before the arrival of Sir John Franklin, two nephews of Governor Arthurhad been raised to very high positions. One of them, Mr. Montagu, wasthe Chief Secretary. During his uncle's government he had contrived toappropriate to himself so great a share of power that Franklin, onassuming office, was forced to occupy quite a secondary position. Bysome of the colonists the Governor was blamed for permitting thearbitrary acts of the Chief Secretary; while, on the other hand, he wasbitterly denounced as an intermeddler by the numerous friends of theambitious Montagu, who, himself, lost no opportunity of bringing theGovernor's authority into contempt. At length Montagu went so far as towrite him a letter containing--amid biting-sarcasm and mock courtesy--astatement equivalent to a charge of falsehood. In consequence of this hewas dismissed; but Sir John Franklin, who considered Montagu to be aman of ability, magnanimously gave him a letter to Lord Stanley, recommending him for employment in some other important position. Thisletter, being conveyed to Lord Stanley, was adduced by Montagu as aconfession from the Governor of the superior ability and special fitnessof the Chief Secretary for his post. Lord Stanley ordered his salary tobe paid from the date of his dismissal; and Franklin, shortly after thisinsult to his authority, suddenly found himself superseded by SirEardley Wilmot, without having received the previous notice which, as amatter of courtesy, he might have expected. In 1843 he returned toEngland, followed by the regrets of nearly all the Tasmanians. 

Two years afterwards he sailed with the ships _Erebus_ and _Terror_ tosearch for a passage into the Pacific Ocean through the Arctic regionsof North America. He entered the ice-bound regions of the north, and formany years no intelligence regarding his fate could be obtained. LadyFranklin prosecuted the search with a wife's devotion, long after othershad given up hope; and, at last, the discovery of some papers and ruinedhuts proved that the whole party had perished in those frozen wastes. 

#4. Governor Wilmot. #--Sir Eardley Wilmot had gained distinction as adebater in the British Parliament. Like Governors Bligh and Gipps, inNew South Wales, Wilmot found that to govern at the same time a convictpopulation and a colony of free settlers was a most ungrateful task. Alarge proportion of the convicts, after being liberated, renewed theirformer courses: police had to be employed to watch them, judges andcourts appointed to try them, gaols built to receive them, andprovisions supplied to maintain them. If a prisoner was arrested andagain convicted for a crime committed in Tasmania, then the colony wasobliged to bear all the expense of supporting him, and amid so large apopulation of criminals these expenses became intolerably burdensome. Itis true that colonists had to some extent a compensating advantage inreceiving, free of charge, a plentiful supply of convict labour fortheir public works. But when Lord Stanley ordered that they should infuture pay for all such labour received, they loudly complained of theirgrievances. "Was it not enough, " they asked, "to send out the felons ofGreat Britain to become Tasmanian bushrangers, without forcing the freesettlers to feed and clothe them throughout their lives, after thecompletion of their original sentences?" To all such remonstrances LordStanley's answer was that Tasmania had always been a convict colony; andthat the free settlers had no right to expect that their interests wouldbe specially consulted in the management of its affairs. Sir EardleyWilmot found it impossible to obtain the large sums required for themaintenance of the necessary police and gaols, and he proposed to theLegislative Council to borrow money for this purpose. Those of theCouncil who were Government officials were afraid to vote in oppositionto the wishes of the Governor, who, therefore, had a majority at hiscommand. But the other members, six in number, denounced the proposedscheme as injurious to the colony; and when they found that the Governorwas determined to carry it out, they all resigned their seats. For thisaction they were honoured with the title of the "Patriotic Six". 

About this time Mr. Gladstone succeeded Lord Stanley in England as theSecretary of State for the Colonies; and as he had shortly afterwards tocomplain that, in reporting on these and other important matters, SirEardley had sent home vague statements for the purpose of deceiving theImperial authorities, the Governor was recalled. But he was destinednever to leave the scene of his troubles; for, two or three months afterhis recall, he became ill and died in the colony. 

#5. Denison and the Transportation Question. #--On the arrival of thenext Governor, Sir William Denison, in 1847, the Queen reinstated the"Patriotic Six"; and the colonists, encouraged by this concession, vigorously set to work to obtain their two great desires--namely, government by elective parliaments, and the abolition of transportation. It was found that, between the years 1846 and 1850, more than 25, 000convicts had been brought into Tasmania; free immigration had ceased, and the number of convicts in the colony was nearly double the number offree men. In all parts of the world, if it became known that a man hadcome from Tasmania, he was looked upon with the utmost distrust andsuspicion, and was shunned as contaminated. On behalf of the colonists, a gentleman named M'Lachlan went to London for the purpose of layingbefore Mr. Gladstone the grievances under which they suffered; at thesame time, within the colony, Mr. Pitcairn strenuously exerted himselfto prepare petitions against transportation, and to forward them to theImperial authorities. These representations were favourably entertained, and, in a short time, Sir W. Denison received orders to inquirewhether it was the unanimous desire of the people of Tasmania thattransportation should cease entirely. The question was put to all themagistrates of the colony, who submitted it to the people in publicmeetings. The discussion was warm, and party feeling ran high. Therewere some who had been benefited by the trade and the English subsidieswhich convicts brought to the colony, and there were others who desired, at all hazards, to retain the cheap labour of the liberated convicts. These exerted themselves to maintain the system of transportation; butthe great body of the people were determined on its abolition, and theanswer returned by every meeting expressed the same unhesitatingsentiment--Transportation ought to be abolished entirely. Accordingly, it was not long before the Tasmanians were informed by the Governor thattransportation should, in a short time, be discontinued. But Earl Greywas now preparing another scheme for the treatment of convicts: theywere to be kept for a time in English prisons; after they had served apart of their sentence, if they had been well conducted, the BritishGovernment would take them out to the colonies and land them there asfree men, so as to give them a chance of starting an honourable careerin a new country. It was a scheme of kind intention for the reformationof criminals that were not utterly bad, while the English Governmentwould keep all the worst prisoners at home under lock and key. But thecolonies had no desire to receive even the better half of the prisoners. They were afraid that cunning criminals would sham a great deal ofreformation in order to be set free, and would then revert to theirformer ways whenever they were let loose in the colonies. But Earl Greywas resolved to give the criminal a fair chance. Ships filled withconvicts were sent out to the various colonies, but the prisoners werenot allowed to land. In 1849 the _Randolph_ appeared at Port PhillipHeads; but the people of Melbourne forbade the captain to enter. He paidno attention to the order, and sailed up the bay to Williamstown. Butwhen he was preparing to land the convicts, he perceived among thecolonists signs of resistance so stern and resolute that he was glad totake the advice of Mr. Latrobe and sail for Sydney. But in Sydney alsothe arrival of the convicts was viewed with the most intense disgust. The inhabitants held a meeting on the Circular Quay, in which theyprotested very vigorously against the renewal of transportation to NewSouth Wales. West Australia alone accepted its share of the convicts;and we have seen how the reputation of that colony suffered inconsequence. 

#6. The Anti-Transportation League. #--The vigorous protest of the othercolonies had procured their immunity from this evil in its direct form;but many of the "ticket-of-leave men" found their way to Victoria andNew South Wales, which were, therefore, all the more inclined toassist Tasmania in likewise throwing off the burden. A grandAnti-Transportation League was formed in 1851; and the inhabitantsof all the colonies banded themselves together to induce the HomeGovernment to emancipate Tasmania. Immediately after this, the discoveryof gold greatly assisted the efforts of the league, because the BritishGovernment perceived that prisoners could never be confined in Tasmania, when, by escaping from the colony, and mixing with the crowds on thegoldfields, they might not only escape notice but also make theirfortunes; and there was now reason to suppose that banishment toAustralia would be rather sought than shunned by the thieves andcriminals of England. 

#7. End of Transportation. #--In 1850 Tasmania, like the other colonies, received its Legislative Council; and when the people proceeded to elect_their_ share of the members, no candidate had the slightest hope ofsuccess who was not an adherent of the Anti-Transportation League. After this new and unmistakable expression of opinion, the Englishauthorities no longer hesitated, and the new Secretary of State, theDuke of Newcastle, directed that, from the year 1853, transportation toTasmania should cease. 

Up to this time the island had been called Van Diemen's Land. But thename was now so intimately associated with ideas of crime and villainy, that it was gladly abandoned by the colonists, who adopted, from thename of its discoverer, the present title of the colony. 

Sir Henry Young, formerly Governor of South Australia, was appointed toTasmania in 1855, and held office till 1861. During this periodresponsible government was introduced. When the Legislative Councilundertook the task of drawing up the new Constitution, it was arrangedthat the nominee element, which had now become extremely distasteful, should be entirely abolished, and that both of the legislative bodiesshould be elected by the people. 

After Sir Henry Young, the next three Governors were Colonel Browne, Mr. Du Cane, and Mr. Weld--all men of ability, and very popular among theTasmanians. After the initiation of responsible government in 1856, various reforms were introduced. By a very liberal Land Act of 1863, inducements were offered to industrious men to become farmers in thecolony. For the purpose of opening up the country by means of railways, great facilities were given to companies who undertook to constructlines through the country districts; and active search was made for goldand other metals. But, in spite of these reforms, the population wassteadily decreasing, owing to the attractions of the gold-producingcolonies. No great amount of land was occupied for farming purposes, andeven the squatters on the island were contented with smaller runs thanthose in the other colonies. They reared stock on the English system, and their domains were sheep-farms rather than stations. Indeed, thewhole of Tasmania wore rather the quiet aspect of rural England than thebustling appearance of an Australian colony. But the efforts to throwoff the taint of convictism were crowned with marked success; and, frombeing a gaol for the worst of criminals, Tasmania has become one of themost moral and respectable of the colonies. 

Of late years Tasmania has made great advances. Her population has risento about 150, 000, and her resources have been enormously increased bythe rapid development of her mineral enterprise. Tin mines of greatvalue are now widely spread over the west of the island, and gold minesof promising appearance are giving employment to many persons whoformerly could find little to do. There is room for a very great furtherdevelopment of the resources of Tasmania; but the colony is now on theright track, and her future is certain to be prosperous. 

[Illustration: QUEEN TRUGANINA, THE LAST OF THE TASMANIANS. ]

The Tasmanian natives were of a different type from those of Australia, having more of the negro in them. They were even ruder and less advancedin their habits, although not without qualities of simplicity andgood-humour that were attractive. When white men first landed in theirisland there were about 7, 000 of them roving through the forest andliving upon opossums. But by the year 1869 all were gone but a man andthree women. In that year, the man died, and one by one the womendisappeared, till at last with the death of Truganina in 1877 the racebecame extinct. 

CHAPTER XX. 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA, 1850-1890. 

#1. Temporary Decline. #--In 1851 the prosperity of South Australia wassomewhat dimmed by the discovery of gold in Victoria; for, before themiddle of the following year, the colony was deserted by a very largeproportion of its male inhabitants. The copper mines were withdifficulty worked, for want of men; the fields were uncultivated, thesheep untended, and the colony experienced a short period of rapiddecline. However, the results obtained on the goldfields by most ofthese fortune-seekers were hardly to be compared with the steady yieldof the fertile cornfields and rich copper mines of South Australia; andthe majority of those who had thus abandoned the colony returned in ashort time to their families and their former employments. 

Governor Young adroitly turned the discovery of gold to the advantage ofhis own colony by establishing an escort between Bendigo and Adelaide;and, as this was remarkably well equipped, many of the diggers senttheir gold by this route rather than to Melbourne, thus giving to SouthAustralia some of the advantages of a gold-producing country. The crowdsof people rushing to the goldfields had carried with them nearly all thecoins of the colony; and the banks, although they had plenty of roughgold, were yet unable, from scarcity of coined money, to meet thedemands upon them. In this emergency, Sir Henry Young took the extremeand somewhat illegal step of instituting a new currency, consisting ofgold cast into small bars or ingots; and, although afterwards mildlycensured by the Home Government for exceeding his powers, yet he couldjustly assert that this measure had saved the colony from seriouscommercial disaster. 

But South Australia was still more benefited by the great market openedfor its flour and wheat among the vast crowds on the goldfields; and, when the first period of excitement was over, it was found that thecolony was, at any rate, not a loser by the success of its neighbours. 

#2. The Real Property Act. #--In 1858 South Australia took the lead in areform which is now being adopted by nearly all the civilised nations ofthe world. According to English law, each time an estate was transferredfrom one person to another, a deed had to be made out for the purpose;and if changes in its ownership had been frequent, it would be held bythe last purchaser in virtue of a long series of documents. Now, if anyone wished to buy a piece of land, he was obliged for safety to examineall the preceding deeds in order to be quite certain that they werevalid; even then, if he bought the land, and another person, for anyreason whatever, laid claim to it, the owner had to prove the validityof each of a long series of documents, going back, perhaps, forcenturies. A flaw in any one of these would give rise to a contest whichcould be settled only after a very tedious investigation; and thus arosethe long and ruinous Chancery suits which were the disgrace of Englishlaw. When a man's title to his estate was disputed, it often happenedthat he had to spend a fortune and waste half a lifetime in protractedlitigation before all the antecedent deeds could be proved correct. 

Mr. R. Torrens had his attention drawn to this very unsatisfactory stateof things by the ruin of one of his relatives in a Chancery suit. Hethought long and carefully over a scheme to prevent the occurrence ofsuch injustice, and drafted a bill for a new method of transferringproperty. He proposed to lay this before the South AustralianParliament, but his friends discouraged him by declaring it wasimpossible to make so sweeping a change; and the lawyers activelyopposed any innovation. But Torrens brought forward the bill; itssimplicity and justice commended themselves to the people and to theHouse of Assembly, and it was carried by a large majority. According tothe new scheme, all transferences of land were to be registered in apublic office called the Lands Titles Office, the purchaser's name wasto be recorded, and a certificate of title given to him; after thishis right to the property was indisputable. If his possession waschallenged, he had simply to go to the Lands Titles Office and producehis certificate to the officer in charge, who could turn to the registerand at once decide the question of ownership. After this, no dispute waspossible. If he sold his land, his name was cancelled in the publicregister, and the buyer's name was inserted instead, when he becamethe undisputed owner. Mr. Torrens was appointed to be registrar of theoffice, and soon made the new system a great success; it was adoptedone after another in all the colonies of Australia, and must becomeeventually the law of all progressive nations. 

#3. The Northern Territory. #--In 1864 the Northern Territory was addedto the dominion of South Australia, and from Adelaide an expedition wasdespatched by sea to the shores of Van Diemen's Gulf, in order to form anew settlement. After many difficulties, caused chiefly by the disputesbetween the first Government Resident, or Superintendent, and theofficers under him, a branch colony was successfully founded at PortDarwin, opposite to Melville Island. This settlement has become aprosperous one: all the fruits and grains of tropical countries flourishand thrive to perfection; gold has been discovered; and it is assertedthat there exist in the neighbourhood rich mines of other metals, whichwill, in the future, yield great wealth, while the stations that are nowbeing formed are peculiarly favourable to the rearing of cattle and ofhorses. Yet the number of people who settle there continues small onaccount of the very hot climate; Palmerston, the capital, is as yet atown of only a few hundred inhabitants, and all the really hard work ofthe district is done by Chinese. 

#4. Overland Telegraph. #--In a previous chapter it has been described howM'Douall Stuart, after two unsuccessful efforts, managed to cross thecontinent from Adelaide to Van Diemen's Gulf. Along the route which hethen took, the people of South Australia resolved to construct atelegraph line. A gentleman named Charles Todd had frequently urged thedesirability of such a line, and in 1869 his representations led to theformation of the British Australian Telegraph Company, which engaged tolay a submarine cable from Singapore to Van Diemen's Gulf, whilst theSouth Australian Government pledged itself to connect Port Darwin withAdelaide by an overland line, and undertook to have the work finished bythe 1st of January, 1872. Mr. Todd was appointed superintendent, anddivided the whole length into three sections, reserving the centralportion for his own immediate direction, and entrusting the sections atthe two ends to contractors. It was a daring undertaking for so young acolony. For thirteen hundred miles the line would have to be carriedthrough country which never before had been traversed by any white menbut Stuart's party. Great tracts of this land were utterly destitute oftrees, and all the posts required for the line had to be carted throughrocky deserts and over treacherous sand-hills. Todd had, with wonderfulskill and energy, completed his difficult portion of the task, and thepart nearest to Adelaide had also been finished before the time agreedupon; but it fared differently with those who had undertaken toconstruct the northern section. Their horses died, their provisionsfailed, and the whole attempt proved a miserable collapse. TheGovernment sent a party to the north, in order to make a fresh effort. Wells were dug, at intervals, along the route, and great teams ofbullocks were employed to carry the necessary provisions and materialsto the stations; and yet, in spite of every precaution, the result was afailure. Meanwhile the cable had been laid, and the first message sentfrom Port Darwin to England announced that the overland telegraph wasnot nearly finished. The 1st of January, 1872, being now close at hand, Mr. Todd was hastily sent to complete the work. But the time agreed uponhad expired before he had even made a commencement, and the companythreatened to sue the South Australian Government for damages, onaccount of the losses sustained by its failure to perform its share ofthe contract. For the next eight months the work was energeticallycarried forward; Mr. Todd rode all along the line to see that itsconstruction was satisfactory throughout. He was at Central Mount Stuartin the month of August, when the two ends of the wire were joined, andthe first telegraphic message flashed across the Australian Continent. But, meantime, a flaw had occurred in the submarine cable, and it wasnot until October that communication was established with England. Onthe second day of that month, the Lord Mayor of London, standing at oneend of the line, sent his hearty congratulations through twelve thousandfive hundred miles of wire to the Mayor of Adelaide, who conversedwith him at the other extremity. The whole work was undertaken andaccomplished within two years; and already not only South Australia, but all the colonies, are reaping the greatest benefits from thisenterprising effort. Another undertaking of a similar character has beencompleted by the efforts of both South and West Australia; along thebarren coast on which Eyre so nearly perished there stretches a longline of posts, which carries a telegraph wire from Perth to Adelaide. 

[Illustration: KING WILLIAM STREET, ADELAIDE. ]

A period of depression began in South Australia after 1882. For a timeeverything was against the colony. Long droughts killed its sheep andruined its crops; while the copper mines were found to be worked out. But fortune began to smile again after a few years of dull times, andwhen in 1887 an exhibition was held in Adelaide to commemorate thejubilee of the colony, it was also the commemoration of the return ofbrighter prospects. In the growth of wheat and fruits as well as in themaking of wine South Australia has great openings for future prosperity. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, 1860-1890. 

#1. The Land Act. #--Sir John Young became Governor of New South Wales in1861. He was a man of great talent; but, at this stage of the colony'shistory, the ability of the Governor made very little difference in thegeneral progress of affairs. The political power was now chiefly in thehands of responsible Ministers, and without their advice the Governorcould do nothing. The Ministry of the period--headed by Charles Cowperand John Robertson--prepared a bill to alter the regulations for thesale of land, and to give to the poor man an opportunity of obtaining asmall farm on easy terms. Any person who declared his readiness to liveon his land, and to cultivate it, was to be allowed to select a portion, not exceeding a certain size, in any part of the colony which he thoughtmost convenient. The land was not to be given gratuitously; but, although the selector was to pay for it at the rate of one pound peracre, yet he was not expected to give more than a quarter of the priceon taking possession. Three years afterwards he had the option of eitherpaying at once for the remaining three-quarters, or, if this were beyondhis means, of continuing to hold the land at a yearly rental of oneshilling an acre. This was an excellent scheme for the poorer class offarmers; but it was not looked upon with favour by the squatters, whoseruns were only rented from the State, and were, therefore, liable, underthis new Act, to be invaded by selectors, who would pick out all themore fertile portions, break up the runs in an awkward manner, and causemany annoyances. 

[Illustration: GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY. ]

Hence, though the Legislative Assembly passed the bill, the Upper House, whose members were mostly squatters, very promptly rejected it; and uponthis there arose a struggle, the Ministry being determined to carry thebill, and the Council quite as resolute never to pass it. Acting on theadvice of his Ministers, Sir John Young entreated the Upper House togive way; but it was deaf to all persuasions, and the Ministersdetermined to coerce it by adopting extreme measures. Its members hadbeen nominated by a previous Governor for a period of five years, as apreliminary trial before the nominations for life; the term of theirappointment was now drawing to a close, and Sir John Young, by waitingsome little time, might easily have appointed a new Council of his ownway of thinking. But the Ministers were impatient to have their measurepassed, and, instead of waiting, they advised the Governor to nominatetwenty-one new members of Council, who, being all supporters of thebill, would give them a majority in the Upper House; so that, on thevery last night of its existence, it would be obliged to pass themeasure and make it law. But when the opponents of the bill saw thetrick which was being played upon them, they rose from their seats andresigned in a body. The President himself vacated his chair; and as nobusiness could then be carried on, the Land Bill was delayed until theCouncil came to an end, and the Ministers thus found themselvesoutwitted. They were able, somewhat later, to effect their purpose; butthis little episode in responsible government caused considerable stirat the time, and Sir John subsequently received a rebuke from theColonial Secretary for his share in it. 

#2. Prince Alfred. #--In 1868 Lord Belmore became Governor of New SouthWales, and during his term of office all the colonies passed through aperiod of excitement on the occasion of a visit from the Queen's secondson, Prince Alfred. He was the first of the Royal Family who had evervisited Australia, and the people gave to him a hearty and enthusiasticreception. As he entered the cities flower-decked arches spanned thestreets; crowds of people gathered by day to welcome him, and at nightthe houses and public buildings were brilliantly illuminated in hishonour. But during the height of the festivities at Sydney acircumstance occurred which cast a gloom over the whole of Australia. The Prince had accepted an invitation to a picnic at Clontarf, and waswalking quietly on the sands to view the various sports of theholiday-makers, when a young man named O'Farrell rushed forward anddischarged a pistol at him. The ball entered his back, and he felldangerously wounded. For a day or two his life trembled in the balance, and the colonists awaited the result with the greatest excitement, untilit was made known that the crisis was past. No reason was alleged forthe crime except a blind dislike to the Royal Family; and O'Farrell wassubsequently tried and executed. 

[Illustration: THE LITHGOW ZIGZAG, THE BLUE MOUNTAINS. ]

#3. Railway Construction. #--New South Wales has three main lines ofrailway with many branches. One starts from Sydney, and passes throughGoulburn to Albury on its way to Melbourne; one goes north to Newcastle, then through the New England district, and so to Brisbane; and the thirdruns from Sydney over the Blue Mountains to Bathurst, and away toBourke, on the Darling River. Those rugged heights, which so longopposed the westward progress of the early colonists, have proved noinsuperable barrier to the engineer; and the locomotive now slowlypuffs up the steep inclines and drags its long line of heavily-ladentrucks where Macquarie's road, with so much trouble, was carried in1815. The first difficulty which had to be encountered was at a longvalley named Knapsack Gully. Here the rails had to be laid on a greatviaduct, where the trains run above the tops of the tallest trees. Theengineers had next to undertake the formidable task of conducting theline up a steep and rocky incline, seven hundred feet in height. Thiswas effected by cutting a "zigzag" in the rock; the trains run first tothe left, rising upon a slight incline; then, reversing, they go to theright, still mounting slightly upwards; then, again, to the left; and soon till the summit is reached. By these means the short distance isrendered long, but the abrupt steepness of the hill is reduced to agentle inclination. The trains afterwards run along the top of theridge, gradually rising, till, at the highest point, they are threethousand five hundred feet above the level of the Sydney station. Thepassengers look down from the mountain tops on the forest-clad valleysfar below; they speed along vast embankments or dash through passagescut in the solid rock, whose sides tower above them to the height of anordinary steeple. In some places long tunnels were bored, so that thetrains now enter a hill at one side and emerge from the other. 

One of these tunnels was thought to be unsafe; the immense mass of rockabove it seemed likely to crush downwards upon the passage, and theengineers thought that their best course would be to remove the hillfrom above it. Three and a half tons of gunpowder were placed atintervals in the tunnel, and connected by wires with a galvanic batteryplaced a long distance off. The operation of firing the mine was made apublic occasion, and Lady Belmore agreed to go up to the mountains andperform the ceremony of removing the hill. When all was ready, shetouched the knob which brought the two ends of the wire together. A dulland rumbling sound was heard, the solid rock heaved slowly upward, andthen settled back to its place, broken in a thousand pieces, and coveredwith rolling clouds of dust and smoke. All that the workmen had then todo was to carry away the immense pile of stone, and the course was clearfor laying the rails. 

When the line reached the other side of the Blue Mountains there weregreat difficulties in the descent, and here the engineers had to lay outzigzags of greater extent than the former. By these the trains nowdescend easily and safely from the tops of the mountains down into theLithgow Valley far below. 

[Illustration: THE TOWN HALL, SYDNEY. ]

By the southern railway to Albury, crowds of people are daily whirled ina few hours to places which, forty years ago, were reached by Sturt, andHume, and Mitchell, only after weeks of patient toil, through unknownlands that were far removed from civilisation. 

#4. Sydney Exhibition. #--So on every hand the colony made progress. Herrailways expanded in scores of branches; her telegraph lines stretchedout their arms in every direction; her sheep increased so that now thereare nearly sixty millions of them; her wheat and maize extended to morethan half a million of acres; her orangeries and vineyards and orchards, her mines of coal and tin, and her varied and extensive manufactures, make her people, now numbering a million, one of the most prosperous onthe face of the earth. Her pride was pardonable when, in 1879, she heldan international exhibition to compare her industries side by side withthose of other lands, so as to show how much she had done and todiscover how much she had yet to learn. A frail, but wonderfully prettybuilding rapidly arose on the brow of the hill between Sydney Cove andFarm Cove; and that place, the scene of so much squalor and misery ahundred years before, became gay with all that decorative art could do, and busy with daily throngs of gratified visitors. The place had a mostdistinguished appearance; seen from the harbour, its dome and flutteringflags rose up from among the luxuriant foliage of the Botanic Gardens, as if boldly to proclaim that New South Wales had completed the periodof her infancy and was prepared to take her place among the nations asone grown to full and comely proportions. When the building had servedits purpose, the people were too fond and too proud of it to dismantleand destroy it, but unfortunately it was not long after swept away by anaccidental fire. 

In 1885, the colony was stirred by a great wave of enthusiasm when itwas known that its Government had sent to England the offer of aregiment of soldiers to fight in the Soudan side by side with Britishtroops. The offer was accepted, and some seven or eight hundredsoldiers, well equipped and full of high hopes, sailed for Africa. Thewar was too soon over for them to have any chance of displaying whatan Australian force may be like upon a battle-field. There were manypersons who held that the whole expedition was a mistake. But it hadone good effect; for it showed that, for the present at least, theAustralian colonies are proud of their mother-country; that their eyesare fondly turned to her, to follow all her destinies in that greatcareer which she has to accomplish as the leading nation of the earth;and that if ever she needed their help, assistance would flowspontaneously from the fulness of loving hearts. The idea of thisexpedition and its execution belonged principally to C. B. Dalley. Butthe great leader of New South Wales during the last quarter of acentury, and the most zealous worker for its welfare and prosperity, has been the veteran statesman Sir Henry Parkes. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

VICTORIA, 1855-1890. 

#1. Responsible Government. #--In 1855, when each of the colonies wasengaged in framing for itself its own form of government, Victoria, like all the others, chose the English system of two Houses ofLegislature. At first it was resolved that the Lower House, called theLegislative Assembly, should consist of only sixty members; but bysubsequent additions, the number has been increased to eighty-six: in1857 the right of voting was conferred upon every man who had resided asufficient length of time in the colony. With regard to the Upper HouseVictoria found the same difficulty as had been experienced in New SouthWales; but, instead of introducing the system of nomination by theGovernment, it decided that its Legislative Council should be elected bythe people. In order, however, that this body might not be identical inform and opinion with the Lower House, it was arranged that no oneshould be eligible for election to it who did not possess at least fivethousand pounds worth of real property, and that the privilege of votingshould be confined to the wealthier part of the community. 

Along with this new Constitution responsible government was introduced;and Mr. Haines, being sent for by the Governor, formed the firstMinistry. Before the close of the year, the first contest under the newsystem took place. Mr. Nicholson, a member of the Assembly, moved thatthe voting for elections should in future be carried on in secret, bymeans of the ballot-box, so that every man might be able to give hisopinion undeterred by any external pressure, such as the fear ofdispleasing his employer or of disobliging a friend. The Government ofMr. Haines refused its assent to this proposal, which was, nevertheless, carried by the Assembly. Now, the system of responsible governmentrequired that, in such a case, Mr. Haines and his fellow-Ministers, being averse to such a law and declining to carry it out, should resignand leave the government to those who were willing and able toinaugurate the newly-appointed system. Accordingly they gave in theirresignations, and the Governor asked Mr. Nicholson to form a newMinistry; but, though many members had voted for his proposal, they werenot prepared to follow him as their leader. He could obtain very fewassociates, and was thus unable to form a Ministry; so that thereappeared some likelihood of a total failure of responsible governmentbefore it had been six months in existence. In the midst of this crisisSir Charles Hotham was taken ill. He had been present at a prolongedceremony--the opening of the first gasworks in Melbourne--and a coldsouth wind had given him a dangerous chill. He lay for a day or two ingreat danger; but the crisis seemed past, and he had begun to recover, when news was brought to him of Mr. Nicholson's failure. He lay broodingover these difficulties, which pressed so much upon his mind that he wasunable to rally, and on the last day of the year 1855 he died. This wasa great shock to the colonists, who had learnt highly to respect him. The vacant position was for a year assumed by Major-General Macarthur, who invited Mr. Haines and his Ministry to return. They did so, and thecourse of responsible government began again from the beginning. At theend of 1856 another Governor--Sir Henry Barkly--arrived; and during theseven years of his stay the new system worked smoothly enough, the onlypeculiarity being the rapid changes in the Government. Some of theMinistries lasted only six weeks, and very few protracted theirexistence to a year. 

[Illustration: COLLINS STREET, MELBOURNE. ]

#2. The Deadlock. #--Sir Henry Barkly left the colony in 1863, and hisplace was immediately filled by Sir Charles Darling, nephew of Sir RalphDarling, who, forty years before, had been Governor of New South Wales. Sir Charles was destined to troublous times; for he had not been long inthe colony ere a most vexatious hitch took place in the working ofconstitutional government. It arose out of a straggle with regard towhat is called "Protection to Native Industry". 

The colony was filled with vigorous and enterprising men, who had cometo it for the purpose of digging for gold. For four or five years golddigging had been on the average a fairly remunerative occupation. Butwhen all the surface gold had been gathered, and it became necessary todig shafts many hundreds of feet into the earth, and even then in manycases only to get quartz, from which the gold had to be extracted bycrushing and careful washing, then the ordinary worker, who had nocommand of capital, had to take employment with the wealthier people, who could afford to sink shafts and wait for years before the goldappeared. These men, therefore, had to take small wages for toiling at amost laborious occupation. But most of them had learnt trades of somesort in Europe; and the idea sprang up that if the colony preventedboots from coming into it from outside there would be plenty of workfor the bootmakers; if it stopped the importation of engines there wouldno longer be any reason why engineers should work like navvies at thebottom of gold mines--they would be wanted to make the engines of thecolony. After a long agitation, therefore, James M'Culloch, the Premierof the colony, in 1864 brought a bill into the Victorian LegislativeAssembly according to which taxes were to be placed on all goods cominginto the colony if they were of a sort that might be made within thecolony. M'Culloch proposed to make this change because it was ardentlydesired by the working men of the colony, and these could by their votescontrol the action of the Legislative Assembly. But the Upper House, called the Legislative Council, composed of wealthy men, who had beenelected by the wealthier part of the community, thought, after carefuldecision, that any such plan would ruin the commerce of the colonywithout much benefiting its industries. They therefore rejected theproposed bill. 

M'Culloch tried to persuade them to pass it, but they were obstinate. Hethen resorted to a trick which is in itself objectionable, but which isperhaps excusable when the great body of the people wish a certain thingand a small body like the Legislative Council are resolved to thwartthem. It is part of our constitutional law that all bills dealing withmoney matters must be prepared in the Lower House; the Upper House canthen accept them or reject them as they stand, but is not allowed toalter them. 

Now, once a year Parliament has to pass a bill called the AppropriationAct, by which authority is given to the Government to spend the publicmoney in the various ways that Parliament directs. In 1865 M'Culloch putthe whole of the Protective Tariff Bill into the Appropriation Act as ifit were a part of that Act, though really it had nothing to do with it. The Legislative Assembly passed the Appropriation Act with thisinsertion. The Legislative Council now found itself in a most unluckyposition. If it passed the Appropriation Act it would also pass theProtective Tariff Bill, which it detested. But if it rejected theAppropriation Act, then the Government would have no authority to payaway any money, and so all the officers of the State, the civilservants and the policemen, the teachers, the gaolers, the surveyorsand the tide-waiters, would all have to go on for a year without anysalaries. There was no middle course open, for the Council could notalter the Appropriation Act and then pass it. 

Whether was it to pass the Act and make the protective tariff the law ofthe land; or reject it, and run the risk of making a number of innocentpeople starve? It chose the latter alternative, and threw out the bill. The whole country became immensely excited, and seemed like one debatingclub, where men argued warmly either for or against the Council. 

Matters were becoming serious, when the Ministry discovered an ingeniousdevice for obtaining money. According to British law, if a man is unableto obtain from the Government what it owes him, he sues for it in theSupreme Court; and then, if this Court decides in his favour, it ordersthe money to be paid, quite independently of any Appropriation Act, outof the sums that may be lying in the Treasury. In their emergency, theMinistry applied to the banks for a loan of money; five of them refused, but the sixth agreed to lend forty thousand pounds. With this theGovernment servants were paid, and then the bank demanded its money fromthe Government; but the Government had no authority from Parliament topay any money, and could not legally pay it. The bank then brought itsaction at law. The Supreme Court gave its order, and the money was paidto the bank out of the Treasury. Thus a means had been discovered ofobtaining all the money that was required without asking the consent ofParliament. Throughout the year 1865 the salaries of officers wereobtained in this way; but in 1866 the Upper House, seeing that it wasbeing beaten, offered to hold a conference. Each House made concessionsto the other, the Tariff Bill was passed, with some alterations, theAppropriation Bill was then agreed to in the ordinary way, and the"Deadlock" came to an end. 

#3. The Darling Grant. #--But, in its train, other troubles followed; forthe English authorities were displeased with Sir Charles Darling forallowing the Government to act as it did. They showed how he might haveprevented it, and, to mark their dissatisfaction, they recalled him in1866. He bitterly complained of this harsh treatment; and the Assembly, regarding him as, in some measure, a martyr to the cause of the people, determined to recompense him for his loss of salary. In theAppropriation Act of 1867 they therefore passed a grant of £20, 000 toLady Darling, intending it for the use of her husband. The Upper Houseowed no debt of gratitude to Sir Charles, and, accordingly, it once morethrew out the Appropriation Bill. Again there was the same bitterdispute, and again the public creditors were obliged to sue for theirmoney in the Supreme Court. In a short time four thousand five hundredsuch pretended actions were laid, the Government making no defence, andthe order being given in each case that the money should be paid. 

In 1866 the new Governor--Viscount Canterbury--arrived; but the strugglewas still continued, till, in 1868, Sir Charles Darling informedM'Culloch that Lady Darling would decline to receive the money, as hewas receiving instead five thousand pounds as arrears of salary and alucrative position in England. The Upper House then passed theAppropriation Bill, and the contest came to an end. 

#4. Payment of Members. #--But they had other things to quarrel about. Theworking men of the colony thought that they never would get fairtreatment in regard to the laws until working men were themselves inParliament. But that could not be, so long as they had to leave theirtrades and spend their time in making laws while getting nothing for it. Hence they were resolved on having all members of Parliament paid, andthey elected persons to the Lower House who were in favour of thatprinciple. But the better-off people sent persons into the Upper Housewho were against it. Thus for twenty years a struggle took place, but inthe end the working men carried their point; and it was settled thatevery member of Parliament should receive three hundred pounds a year. The two Houses also quarrelled about the manner in which the land wasto be sold; the Lower House being anxious to put it into the hands ofindustrious people who were likely to work on it as farmers, even thoughthey could pay very little for it; the Upper House preferring that itshould be sold to the people who offered the most money for it. On thisand other questions in dispute the Lower House gained the victory. 

#5. Exhibitions. #--It was not till the year 1880 that all thesecontentions were set at rest, but from that time the colony passed intoa period of peace, during which it made the most astonishing progress inall directions. That progress was indicated in a most decided way by theexhibitions held in the colony. It had from time to time in previousyears held inter-colonial exhibitions at which all the colonies had metin friendly competition. But in 1880, and again in 1888, Victoriainvited all the world to exhibit their products at her show. Amagnificent building was erected in one of the parks of Melbourne, andbehind it were placed acres of temporary wooden erections, and the wholewas filled with twenty acres of exhibits. A similar show, held in 1888, was much larger, and helped, by its fine collection of pictures, itsgrand displays of machinery, its educational courts, its fine orchestralmusic, and so on, in a hundred ways to stimulate and develop the mindsof the people. During recent years Victoria has been very busy insocial legislation. While enjoying peace under the direction of acoalition Government with Mr. Duncan Gillies and Mr. Alfred Deakin atits head, the colony has tried experiments in regulating the liquortraffic; in closing shops at an early hour; in irrigating the waterlessplains of the north-west, and in educating farmers and others into themost approved methods of managing their businesses. What is to be theeventual result no one can as yet very definitely prophesy. But the eyesof many thoughtful persons throughout the world are at present turned toVictoria to see how those schemes are working which have been sozealously undertaken for the good of the people. 

[Illustration: THE TOWN HALL, MELBOURNE. ]

[Illustration: THE PORT OF MELBOURNE. ]

Up till 1890 the progress of the colony was astonishing. Its centralhalf forms a network of railways. Its agriculture and its trades havedoubled themselves every few years; and though a period of restlessactivity and progress was in 1890 followed by a time of severedepression, the community, like all the other Australian colonies, has great times of prosperity in store for it. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

THE TIMES OF THE MAORIS. 

#1. The Maoris. #--So far as we know, the original inhabitants of NewZealand were a dark-skinned race called Maoris, a people lithe andhandsome of body, though generally plain of features: open, frank andhappy in youth, grave and often melancholy in their older years. 

They numbered forty thousand in the North Island, where the warmth ofthe climate suited them, but in the South Island there were only twothousand. They were divided into tribes, who fought fiercely with oneanother; cooked and ate the bodies of the slain, and carried off thevanquished to be slaves. They dwelt in houses sometimes neatly built ofwooden slabs, more often of upright poles with broad grass leaves wovenbetween them. The roofs were of grass, plaited and thatched. 

To these abodes the entrances were only some two or three feet high, andafter crawling through, the visitor who entered at night would see themaster of the house, his wives, his children, his slaves, indeed all hishousehold, to the number of twenty or thirty, lying on mats in rows downeither side, with their heads to the walls and their feet to the centre, leaving a path down the middle. In these rooms they slept, with a fireburning all night, till, what with the smoke and the breaths of so manypeople, the place was stifling. The roofs were only four feet higherthan the ground outside, but, then, inside, the earth was hollowed afoot or two to make the floor so that a man could just stand upright. 

These houses were gathered in little villages, often pleasantly situatedbeside a stream, or on the sea-shore; but sometimes for defence theywere placed on a hill and surrounded by high fences with ditches andearthen walls so as to make a great stronghold of the kind they calleda "pah". The trenches were sometimes twenty or thirty feet deep; butgenerally the pah was built so that a rapid river or high precipiceswould defend two or three sides of it, while only the sides not soguarded by nature were secured by ditches and a double row of palisades. Within these enclosures stages were erected behind the palisades so thatthe fighting men could hurl stones and spears and defy an attackingparty. 

[Illustration: A MAORI DWELLING. ]

#2. Maori Customs. #--Round their villages and pahs they dug up the soiland planted the sweet potato, and the taro, which is the root of a kindof arum lily; they also grew the gourd called calabash, from whose hardrind they made pots and bowls and dishes. When the crops of sweet potatoand taro were over they went out into the forest and gathered the rootsof certain sorts of ferns, which they dried and kept for their winterfood. They netted fish and eels; they caught sharks with hook and lineand dried their flesh in the sun. To enjoy these meals in comfort theyhad a broad verandah round their houses which formed an open andgenerally pleasant dining-room, where they gathered in family circlesbound by much affection for one another. The girls especially were sweetand pretty; their mild manners, their soft and musical voices, the longlashes of their drooping eyes, with the gloss of their olive-tintedskins made them perfect types of dusky beauty. Grown a little older theywere by no means so attractive, and then when married they deeply scoredtheir faces by the process of tattooing. 

The men had their faces, hips, and thighs tattooed, that is, all carvedin wavy lines which were arranged in intricate patterns. The womentattooed only their lips, chins, and eyelids, but often smeared theirfaces with red ochre, and soaked their hair with oil. Men and women woreround the waist a kilt of beautifully woven flax, and over the shouldersa mat of the same material. They were expert sailors, and builtthemselves large canoes which thirty or forty men would drive forward, keeping time with their paddles. Their large war canoes were sixty andseventy feet long, and would carry 100 men. 

Thus they were by no means uncivilised, but their condition was in somerespects most barbarous. In person they were dirty, and in manners proudand arrogant. They were easily offended, and never forgave what theyconsidered as an injury or insult. This readiness to take offence and toavenge themselves caused the neighbouring tribes to be for ever at war. They fought with great bravery, slaughtered each other fiercely, and atethe bodies. Sometimes they killed their captives or slaves in order tohold a cannibal feast. 

According to their own traditions they had not been always in theseislands. Their ancestors came from afar, and each tribe had its ownlegendary account. But they all agreed that they came from an islandaway to the north in the Pacific, which they called Hawaiki, and thereis little doubt but that some hundreds of years ago their forefathersmust in truth have emigrated from some of the South Sea Islands. Whetherthey found natives on the islands and killed them all, we cannot nowdiscover. There are no traces of any earlier people, but the Maoris intheir traditions say that people were found on the islands and slainand eaten by the invaders. 

One tribe declared that long ago in far-off Hawaiki a chief hatedanother, but was too weak to do him harm. He fitted out a canoe for along voyage, and suddenly murdered the son of his enemy. He then escapedon board the canoe with his followers and sailed away for ever from hishome. This legend declared how after many adventures he at lengthreached New Zealand. Another legend relates that in Hawaiki the peoplewere fighting, and a tribe being beaten was forced to leave the island. Sorrowfully it embarked in two canoes and sailed away out upon thetossing ocean, till, directed by the voice of their god sounding fromthe depths below them, they landed on the shores of New Zealand. 

How many centuries they lived and multiplied there it is impossible tosay, as they had no means of writing and recording their history. 

#3. Tasman. #--The earliest we know of them for certain is in the journalof Tasman, who writes under the date of 13th December, 1642, that he hadthat day seen shores never before beheld by white men. He was thenholding eastward after his visit to Tasmania, and the shore he saw wasthe mountainous land in the North Island. He rounded what we now callCape Farewell, and anchored in a fine bay, whose green and pleasantshores were backed by high snow-capped mountains. Several canoes cameoff from the beach filled by Maoris, who lay about a stone's throwdistant and sounded their war trumpets. The Dutch replied by a flourishof their horns. For several days the Maoris would come no nearer, but onthe sixth they paddled out with seven canoes and surrounded bothvessels. Tasman noticed that they were crowding in a somewhatthreatening manner round one of his ships, the _Heemskirk_, and he senta small boat with seven men to warn the captain to be on his guard. Whenthe Maoris saw these seven men without weapons sailing past their canoesthey fell on them, instantly killed three and began to drag away theirbodies; no doubt to be eaten. The other four Dutchmen, by diving andswimming, escaped and reached the ship half dead with fright. Then withshouts the whole line of Maori canoes advanced to attack the ships; buta broadside startled them. They were stupefied for a moment at theflash and roar of the cannon and the crash of the wood-work of theircanoes; then they turned and fled, carrying with them, however, one ofthe bodies. Tasman sailed down into Cook Strait, which he very naturallytook to be a bay, the weather being too thick for him to see the passageto the south-east. He then returned and coasted northwards to theextreme point of New Zealand, which he called Cape Maria Van Diemen, probably after the wife of that Governor of Batavia who had sent out theexpedition. Tasman called the lands he had thus discovered "NewZealand, " after that province of Holland which is called Zealand, or theSea-land. The bay in which he had anchored was called Murderers' orMassacre Bay. 

#4. Captain Cook. #--For more than a hundred years New Zealand had no whitemen as visitors. It was in 1769 that Captain Cook, on his way home fromTahiti, steering to the south-west in the hope of discovering new lands, saw the distant hills of New Zealand. Two days later he landed on theeast coast of the North Island, a little north of Hawke Bay. There laythe little ship the _Endeavour_ at anchor, with its bulging sides afloaton a quiet bay, in front a fertile but steeply sloping shore with a pahon the crown of a hill, and a few neat little houses by the side of arapid stream. In the evening Cook, Banks, and other gentlemen took thepinnace and rowed up the streamlet. They landed, leaving some boys incharge of the boat, and advanced towards a crowd of Maoris, makingfriendly signs as they approached. The Maoris ran away, but some of themseeing their chance made a dash at the boys in the boat and tried tokill them. The boys pushed off, and dropped down the stream; the Maorischased them, determined on mischief. Four of them being very murderous, the coxswain fired a musket over their heads. They were startled, butcontinued to strike at the boys with wooden spears. Seeing the dangerthe coxswain levelled his musket and shot one of the Maoris dead on thespot. The others fled, and Cook, hearing the report of the gun, hurriedback and at once returned to the ship. 

Over and over again Cook did everything he could devise to secure thefriendship of these people; but they always seemed to have only onedesire, and that was to kill and eat the white visitors. One day fivecanoes came out to chase the _Endeavour_ as she was sailing along thecoast. Another time nine canoes densely filled with men sailed afterher, paddling with all their might to board the vessel. In these andmany other cases cannon had to be fired over their heads to frightenthem before they would desist from their attempt to capture the ship. Atone bay, the Maoris made friends and went on board the _Endeavour_ tosell provisions, but when all was going forward peaceably they suddenlyseized a boy and pulled him into their canoe. They were paddling awaywith him when some musket shots frightened them, and in the confusionthe boy dived and swam back. 

Cook sailed completely round the North Island, charting the shores withgreat care, often landing, sometimes finding tribes who made friends, more often finding tribes whose insolence or treachery led to thenecessity of firing upon them with small shot. If he had only known thecustoms of these people he would have understood that to be friendlywith one tribe meant that the next tribe would murder and eat them forrevenge. He then sailed round the South Island, landing less frequently, however, till at length he took his leave of New Zealand at what hecalled Cape Farewell, and sailed away to Australia. He had been nearlysix months exploring the coasts of these islands, and that in a verysmall vessel. During this time he had left pigs and goats, fowls andgeese to increase in the forests, where they soon multiplied, especiallythe pigs. Potatoes and turnips were left with many tribes, who quicklylearnt how to grow them, so that after ten or twelve years had passedaway these vegetables became the chief food of all the Maoris. 

#5. French Visitors. #--Whilst Cook was sailing round the North Island, aFrench vessel anchored in a bay of that island in search of fresh water. The Ngapuhi tribe received them with pleasure and gave them all theassistance in their power, but some of them stole a boat. The captain, named De Surville, then seized one of the chiefs and put him in irons. The boat not being given up, he burnt a village and sailed to SouthAmerica, the chief dying on the road. 

Three years later in 1772 came another Frenchman, Marion du Fresne, withtwo ships; this time for the express purpose of making discoveries. Hesailed up the west coast, rounded the North Cape and anchored in the Bayof Islands. He landed and made friends with the Ngapuhi tribe and tookhis sick sailors ashore. The Maoris brought him plenty of fish, and DuFresne made them presents in return. For a month the most pleasantrelations continued, the Maoris often sleeping on board and the Frenchofficers spending the night in the Maori houses. One day Captain Marionwent ashore with sixteen others to enjoy some fishing. At night they didnot return. Captain Crozet, who was second in command, thought they hadchosen to sleep ashore, but the next day he sent a boat with twelve mento find where they were. These men were scattering carelessly throughthe woods when suddenly a dense crowd of Maoris, who had concealedthemselves, attacked and killed all the Frenchmen but one. He whoescaped was hidden behind some bushes, and he saw his comrades brainedone after another; then he saw the fierce savages cut their bodies inpieces, and carry them away in baskets to be eaten. When the Maoris weregone he crept along the shore and swam to the ship, which he reachedhalf dead with terror. Crozet landed sixty men, and the natives gatheredfor a fight; but the Frenchmen merely fired volley after volley into asolid mass of Maori warriors, who, stupefied at the flash and roar, weresimply slaughtered as they stood. Crozet burnt both the Maori villagesand sailed away. In later times the Maoris explained that the French haddesecrated their religious places by taking the carved ornaments out ofthem for firewood. 

#6. Cook's Later Visits. #--In his second voyage Cook twice visited NewZealand in 1773 and 1774. He had two vessels, one of them under thecommand of Captain Furneaux. While this latter vessel was waiting inQueen Charlotte Sound, a bay opening out of Cook Strait, CaptainFurneaux sent a boat with nine men who were to go on shore and gathergreen stuff for food. A crowd of Maoris surrounded them, and one offeredto sell a stone hatchet to a sailor, who took it; but to tease thenative, in silly sailor fashion, this sailor would neither give anythingfor it nor hand it back. The Maori in a rage seized some bread and fishwhich the sailors were spreading for their lunch. The sailors closed toprevent their touching the victuals; a confused struggle took place, during which the English fired and killed two natives, but before theycould load again they were all knocked on the head with the green stoneaxes of the Maoris. An officer sent ashore later on with a strong forcefound several baskets of human limbs, and in one of them a head which herecognised as that of a sailor belonging to the party. The officerattacked some hundreds of the Maoris as they were seated at theircannibal feast, and drove them away from the half-gnawed bones. 

[Illustration: MILFORD SOUND, SOUTH ISLAND, NEW ZEALAND. ]

Cook again touched at New Zealand in the course of his third voyage, andthis time succeeded in maintaining friendly relations with the Maorisduring a short visit. But when the story of Cook's voyage was publishedin later years the people of Europe conceived a deep horror of thesefierce man-eating savages. 

#7. The Whalers. #--For ten or twelve years New Zealand was not visited bywhite men, but the foundation of a town at Sydney, in 1788, broughtships out much more often into these waters, and before long it wasfound that the seas round New Zealand were well stocked with whales. Vessels came out to carry on the profitable business of catching themand taking their oil to Europe. For fresh water and for fuel for theirstoves they called at the shores of New Zealand, chiefly at QueenCharlotte Sound, at Dusky Bay on the west coast of South Island, butespecially at the Bay of Islands near the extreme north of North Island. There they not only got fresh water but bought fish and pork andpotatoes from the friendly tribes of natives, paying for them withknives and blankets; and although quarrels sometimes occurred and deathstook place on both sides, the whalers continued more and more tofrequent these places. Sometimes the sailors, attracted by the goodlooks of the Maori girls, took them as wives and lived in New Zealand. These men generally acted as sealers. They caught the seals thatabounded on some parts of the coast, and gathered their skins until theships called back, when the captain would give them tobacco and rum, guns and powder in exchange for their seal-skins. These the sealersgenerally shared with the Maoris, who therefore began to find out thatit was good to have a white man to be dwelling near them: he broughtships to trade, and the ships brought articles that the Maoris began tovalue. 

#8. Maoris visit Sydney. #--In 1793, Governor Hunter at Sydney directedthat the convicts at Norfolk Island should be set to weave the fine flaxthat grew wild in that island. They tried, but could make no cloth sofine and soft as that made by the Maoris out of very much the same sortof plant. A ship was sent to try and persuade some Maoris to come overand teach the art. The captain of the ship, being lazy or impatient, didnot trouble to persuade; he seized two Maoris and carried them off. Theywere kept for six months at Norfolk Island, but Captain King treatedthem very well, and sent them back with ten sows, two boars, a supply ofmaize-seed and other good things to pay them for their time. When Kingbecame Governor of New South Wales he sent further presents over to TePehi, chief of the tribe to which these young men belonged, and hence TePehi longed to see the sender of these things. He and his four sonsventured to go in an English vessel to Sydney, where they wereastonished at all they saw. On his return Te Pehi induced a sailor namedGeorge Bruce, who had been kind to him when he was sick on board ship, to settle in the tribe; the young Englishman married Te Pehi's mostcharming daughter, and was tattooed and became the first of the PakehaMaoris, or white men who lived in Maori fashion. Pleased by Te Pehi'saccount of what he had seen, other Maoris took occasional trips toSydney, working their passages in whaling ships. 

#9. Friendly Relations. #--Meanwhile English vessels more and morefrequently visited New Zealand for pork and flax and kauri pine, or elseto catch seals, or merely to take a rest after a long whaling trip. TheBay of Islands became the chief anchorage for that purpose, and thitherthe Maoris gathered to profit by the trade. Some of the moreadventurous, when they found that the English did them no harm, shippedas sailors for a voyage on board the whalers; but though they made goodseamen they were sometimes sulky and revengeful, and rarely continued atit more than two or three years. 

In 1805 a Maori went with an English surgeon all the way to England, andreturned with the most astounding tales of London and English wonders. During the next four or five years several other Maoris went to England, while, on the other hand, a few very respectable white men began tosettle down in New Zealand. They were far superior to the rough sailorsand liberated convicts of Sydney, who so far had been the most frequentvisitors, so that mutual good-will seemed to be established, as theMaoris found that there was much they could gain by the visits of thewhite men. But all this friendliness was marred by an unfortunateoccurrence. 

#10. The Boyd Massacre. #--In 1809 a ship named the _Boyd_ sailed fromSydney to go to England round Cape Horn. She had on board seventy whitepeople, including some children of officers at Sydney who were on theirway to England to be educated. As she was to call at New Zealand to getsome kauri spars, five Maoris went with her, working their passage over. One of these Maoris, named Tarra, was directed during the voyage to dosomething which he refused to do. The captain caused him to be twiceflogged. When the ship anchored in a bay a little to the north of theBay of Islands, Tarra went ashore, and showed to his tribe his back allscarred with the lash. Revenge was agreed on. The captain was enticedashore with a few men; and they were suddenly attacked and all killed. Then the Maoris quietly got alongside the ship, rushed on board andcommenced the work of massacre among men, women and children, who wereall unarmed. Some of the children fell and clasped the feet of Tarra, begging him to save them, but the young savage brained them withoutmercy. All were slain except a woman and two children who hid themselvesduring the heat of the massacre, and a boy who was spared because he hadbeen kind to Tarra. All the bodies were taken ashore and eaten. One ofthe chiefs while curiously examining a barrel of gunpowder caused it toexplode, blowing himself and a dozen others to pieces. 

Te Pehi, the head chief of the Ngapuhi, was extremely vexed when heheard of this occurrence, and took some trouble to rescue the foursurvivors, but five whaling vessels gathered for revenge; they landedtheir crews, who shot thirty Maoris whether belonging to Tarra's tribeor not, and in their blind fury burnt Te Pehi's village, severelywounding the chief himself. This outrage stopped all friendlyintercourse for a long time. The whalers shot the Maoris whenever theysaw them, about a hundred being killed in the next three years, whilethe Maoris killed and ate any white people they could catch. Thus in1816 the _Agnes_, an American brig, happened to be wrecked on theirshores. They killed and ate everybody on board, except one man, who wastattooed and kept for a slave during twelve years. 

#11. The Missionaries. #--In spite of all these atrocities a band ofmissionaries had the courage to settle in New Zealand and begin the workof civilising these Maori tribes. This enterprise was the work of anotable man named Samuel Marsden, who had in early life been ablacksmith in England, but had devoted himself with rare energy to thelaborious task of passing the examinations needed to make him aclergyman. He was sent out to be the chaplain to the convicts at Sydney, and his zeal, his faith in the work he had to do, and his roughlyeloquent style, made him successful where more cultured clergymen wouldhave failed. For fourteen years he toiled to reform convicts, soldiers, and officers in Sydney; and when Governor King went home to England in1807, after his term was expired, Marsden went with him on a visit tohis friends. While in London, Marsden brought before the Mission Societythe question of doing something to Christianise these fierce butintelligent people, and the society not only agreed, but employed twomissionaries named Hall and King to undertake the work. 

[Illustration: THE REV. SAMUEL MARSDEN, "THE APOSTLE OF NEW ZEALAND". ]

When Marsden, along with these two courageous men, started back toSydney in the _Ann_ convict ship, in 1809, there was on board, strangelyenough, a Maori chief called Ruatara. This young fellow was a nephew ofHongi, the powerful head chief of the Ngapuhi tribe. Four years before, being anxious to see something of the wonders of civilised life, he hadshipped as a sailor on board a whaler. He had twice been to Sydney andhad voyaged up and down all the Pacific. At length, in 1809, he had goneto London, where he was lost in surprise at all he saw. The climate, however, tried him severely, and he was sick and miserable on the voyageback to Sydney. Marsden was kind to him and gave him a home in his ownhouse. Ruatara had many troubles and dangers to meet, through manymonths, before he was at last settled among his own people. 

Meantime, the new Governor of Sydney refused to allow the missionariesto go to New Zealand. The massacre of the sixty-six people of the _Boyd_had roused a feeling of horror, and it seemed a wicked waste of life totry to live among savages so fierce. The missionaries were thereforeemployed in Sydney. In 1813 Governor Macquarie directed that everyvessel leaving for New Zealand should give bonds to the extent of athousand pounds to guarantee that the white men should not carry offthe natives or interfere with their sacred places. Then the troublebetween the two races quieted down a little, and in 1814 themissionaries thought they might at least make further inquiries. A brigcalled the _Active_ of 100 tons was bought; and on board it went Hallwith another missionary called Kendall (grandfather of the poet) who hadlately come out. They reached the Bay of Islands, taking with themabundance of presents. They saw Ruatara, and persuaded him with hisuncle, Hongi, and other chiefs to go to Sydney in the _Active_, andthere discuss the question of a mission station. They went, and Hongiguaranteed the protection of his tribe, the Ngapuhi, if the missionarieswould settle in their territory. 

#12. The Mission Station. #--It was in November, 1814, that the _Active_sailed with the mission colony, consisting of Kendall, King, and Hall, their wives and five children and a number of mechanics; in alltwenty-five Europeans, together with eight Maoris. They took threehorses, a bull, two cows, and other live stock, and after a quickpassage anchored near the north of the North Island. Marsden was withthem as a visitor, to see the place fairly started. He was troubled onlanding to find that the Ngapuhi were at war with their near neighbours, the Wangaroans, and he saw that little progress would be made till thesetribes were reconciled. Marsden fearlessly entered with only onecompanion into the heart of the hostile tribe; met Tarra, the instigatorof the _Boyd_ massacre, and slept that night in the very midst of theWangaroans. Wrapt up in his greatcoat, he lay close by Tarra, surroundedby the sleeping forms of men and women who, only a few years before, hadgathered to the horrid feast. Surprised at this friendly trust, theWangaroans were fascinated, and subsequently were led by him likechildren. They were soon induced to rub noses with the chiefs of Ngapuhias a sign of reconciliation, and were then all invited on board the_Active_, where a merry breakfast brought old enemies together infriendly intercourse. 

The missionaries with twelve axes bought 200 acres of land on the shoreof the Bay of Islands. Half an acre was soon enclosed by a fence; a fewrough houses were built and a pole set up, upon which floated a whiteflag with a cross and a dove and the words "Good tidings"; Ruatara madea pulpit out of an old canoe, covered it with cloth, and put seats roundit. There, on Christmas Day, 1814, Marsden preached the first sermon inNew Zealand to a crowded Maori audience, who understood not one word ofwhat was said, but who, perhaps, were benefited by the generalimpressiveness of the scene. 

In the following February, Marsden returned to Sydney, thinking themission in a fair way of success. But all was not to be so harmonious ashe dreamt; the liberated convicts, who formed the bulk of the crews ofsealing and whaling vessels, treated the natives with coarseness andarrogance; the Maoris were quick to revenge themselves, and the murders, thefts, and quarrels along all the shore did more harm than the handfulof missionaries could do good. Three or four times they wished to leave, and as often did Marsden return and persuade them to stay. Their livesat least were safe; for Hongi, the Ngapuhi chief, found that they wereuseful in the way of bringing trade about, but he was dissatisfiedbecause they would not allow guns and powder to be sold by the white mento him and his people. 

#13. Tribal Wars. #--Hongi saw that the tribe which possessed most guns wassure to get the upper hand of all the others. He therefore contrived inanother way to secure these wonderful weapons. For in 1820 when Kendallwent home to England for a trip Hongi went with him, and saw withconstant wonder the marvels of the great city. The sight of the fineEnglish regiments, the arsenals, the theatres, the big elephant atExeter Change Menagerie, all impressed deeply the Maori from New Zealandforests. He stayed for a while at Cambridge, assisting a professor tocompile a dictionary of the Maori language, and going to churchregularly all the time. Then he had an audience from George IV. , whogave him many presents, and among others a complete suit of ancientarmour. For a whole season, Hongi was a sort of lion among Londonsociety. People crowded to see a chief who had eaten dozens of men, andso many presents were given him that when he came back to Sydney he wasa rich man. He sold everything, however, except his suit of armour, andwith the money he bought 300 muskets and plenty of powder, which he tookwith him to New Zealand. Having reached his home he informed his tribeof the career of conquest he proposed; with these muskets he was goingto destroy every enemy. "There is but one king in England, " he said;"there shall be only one among the Maoris. " He soon had a force of athousand warriors, whom he embarked on board a fleet of canoes, and tookto the southern shores of the Hauraki Gulf, where the Ngatimaru lived, ancient enemies of the Ngapuhi, who, however, felt secure in theirnumbers and in the strength of their great pah Totara. But Hongicaptured the pah, and slew five hundred of the unfortunate inmates. TheNgatimaru tribe then retreated south into the valley of the WaikatoRiver, and summoned their men and all their friends; a total of overthree thousand were arrayed on that fatal battle-field. Hongi with hismuskets gained a complete victory. He shot the hostile chief with hisown gun, and tearing out his eyes, swallowed them on the field ofbattle. Over a thousand were killed, and Hongi and his men feasted onthe spot for some days till three hundred bodies had been eaten. Thevictors then returned, bearing in their canoes another thousandcaptives, of whom many were slain and cooked to provide a share of thehorrid feast to the women of the tribe. 

In his bloodthirsty wars Hongi showed great skill and energy. During thetwo following years he defeated, slaughtered, and ate large numbers ofthe surrounding tribes, and when a number of these unfortunate peoplewithdrew to a pah of enormous strength, nearly surrounded by a bend ofthe Waikato River, he dragged his canoes over to that river, ascendedit, dashed at the steep cliffs, the ditches and palisades, and once morethe muskets won the day. A thousand fell in the fight; then the womenand children were slaughtered in heaps. The strong tribe of the Arawafurther south had their chief pah on an island in the middle of LakeRotorua. Hongi with great labour carried his canoes over to the lake. The spear-armed Maoris could do nothing in defence while he shot at themfrom the lake; and when he assaulted the island, though they came downto the water's edge to repel him, again there was victory for themuskets. Thus did Hongi conquer till the whole North Island owned hisascendancy. But in 1827 his career came to an end, for having quarrelledwith his former friends, the tribe of which Tarra was chief, he killedthem all but twenty, but in the fight was himself shot through thelungs; for that tribe had now many muskets also, and a ball fired whenthe massacre was nearly over passed through Hongi's chest, leaving ahole which, though temporarily healed, caused his death a few monthslater. Pomaré succeeded him as chief of the Ngapuhi, and made that tribestill the terror of the island. At one pah Pomaré killed 400 men; and hehad his own way for a time in all his fights. But the other tribes nowbegan to see that they could not possibly save themselves except bygetting muskets also, and as they offered ten times their value for themin pork and flax and other produce, English vessels brought them over inplenty. The remnant of the Waikato tribe having become well armed andwell exercised in shooting under Te Whero Whero, they laid an ambush forPomaré and killed him with almost the whole of the 500 men who were withhim. The other tribes joined Te Whero Whero, and in successive battlesruined the Ngapuhi. Te Whero Whero held the leadership for a time, during which he almost exterminated the Taranaki tribe. He waspractically lord of all the North Island till he met his match inRauparaha, the most determined and wily of all the Maori leaders. He wasthe chief of a tribe living in the south of the North Island, and hegathered a wild fighting band out of the ruined tribes of his own andthe surrounding districts. Many battles were fought between him and TeWhero Whero, in which sometimes as many as a thousand muskets were inuse on each side. Rauparaha was at length overcome, and with difficultyescaped across the strait to the South Island, while Te Whero Wheromassacred and enslaved all over the North Island, cooking as many as 200bodies after a single fight. And yet the evil was in a way its own cure, for, through strenuous endeavours, by this time every tribe had acertain proportion of its men well armed with muskets; and thus nosingle tribe ever afterwards got the same cruel ascendancy that wasobtained first by the Ngapuhi and then by the Waikato tribe. But fightsand ambushes, slaughters, the eating of prisoners and all the horridscenes of Maori war went on from week to week all over the NorthIsland. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

NEW ZEALAND COLONISED. 

#1. Kororarika. #--All this fighting of the Maori tribes made them moredependent on the trade they had with white men. They could neither makeguns nor powder for themselves, and the tribe that could purchase noneof the white man's weapons was sure to be slaughtered and eaten by othertribes. Hence white men were more eagerly welcomed, and in course oftime nearly two hundred of them were living Maori fashion with thetribes. But it was at the Bay of Islands that the chief trading wascarried on. For it was there that the kauri timber grew; it was therethat the pigs were most plentiful and the cargoes of flax most easilyobtained; and when a man named Turner set up a grog-shop on the shoresof the bay all the whaling ships made this their usual place for restingand refitting. Behind the beach the hills rise steeply, and on thesehills a number of white men built themselves homes securely fenced, anddefended, sometimes even by a cannon or two. But down on the littlegreen flat next to the beach, rude houses were more numerous. In theyear 1838 there were about 500 persons resident in the little town, which was now called Kororarika, but at times there were nearly doublethat number of people resident in it for months together. A wild andreckless place it was, for sailors reckoned themselves there to bebeyond the reach of English law. 

At one time as many as thirty-six ships lay off the town of Kororarika, and in a single year 150 ships visited the bay; generally staying amonth or more at anchor. The little church and the Catholic missionstation up on the hill did less good to the natives than these roughsailors did harm, and at length the more respectable white men couldstand the disorder no longer. They formed an association to maintaindecency. They seized, tried, fined or sometimes locked up for a time theworst offenders, and twice they stripped the ruffians naked, gave them acoat of tar, stuck them all over with white down from a native plant, and when they were thus decorated, expelled them from the town, with apromise of the same treatment if ever they were seen back in it. 

#2. Hokianga. #--Long before this the capacities of New Zealand and thechances of making wealth there became well known in England, and in 1825an association was formed to colonise the country. It sent out an agent, who reported that Hokianga, a deep estuary on the west coast, justopposite to Kororarika, and only thirty miles away from it, was acharming place for a settlement. The agent bought a square mile of landfrom the Maoris and also two little islands in the harbour. The companyfitted out a ship the _Rosanna_, and sixty colonists sailed out in herto form the pioneers of the new colony. They landed, and liked the lookof the place, but they were timid by reason of the tales they had heardof Maori ferocity. Now at this time the Ngapuhis were at war with theArawas, and the latter were getting up a war dance, which the settlerswere just in time to see. Five or six hundred men stood in four longrows, stamping in time to a chant of their leader. It was night, a firelit up their quivering limbs and their rolling eyes; they joined in achorus, and when they came to particular words they hissed like athousand serpents; they went through the performance of killing theirenemies, cutting up their bodies and eating them. The settlers fell intodeep meditation and departed. Not half a dozen remained in New Zealand, the others went to Sydney, and so after an expense of £20, 000 thisassociation, which had been formed for the kindly purpose of puttingpeople in lands less crowded than their own, failed and was disbanded. 

#3. Settled Government. #--Between 1825 and 1835 the Maoris of the NorthIsland were in a miserable state. Wars and massacres and cannibal feastsmade the country wretched, and though the missionaries were respectedthey could not secure peace. But they persuaded the chiefs of some ofthe weaker tribes to appeal to England for protection against theconquering warriors who oppressed and destroyed their people. It was in1831 that this petition was sent to King William, and about the sametime the white men at Kororarika, terrified at the violence with whichthe Waikato men were ravaging the surrounding lands, asked the Governorat Sydney to interfere. The result was that although the English wouldnot regularly take possession of New Zealand, they chose Mr. Busby, agentleman well known in New South Wales, to be the Resident there, hisbusiness being, so far as possible, to keep order. How he was to keeporder without men or force to make his commands obeyed it is hard tosee; but he was expected to do whatever could be done by persuasion, andto send for a British war-ship if ever he thought it was needed. 

The first war-ship that thus came over did more harm than good. Itsvisit was caused by a disastrous wreck. The whaling barque _Harriet_, under the command of a man named Guard, a low fellow who had formerlybeen a convict, was trading among the islands when she was wrecked offthe coast of Taranaki. The Maoris attacked the stranded ship, but thecrew stayed on her and fired into the assailants, and it was not tillafter quite a siege, in which twelve seamen were killed, that the restfled from the wreck, leaving Mrs. Guard and her two children in thehands of the Taranaki tribe. Guard and twelve seamen, however, thoughthey escaped for a time were caught by a neighbouring tribe, to whom hepromised a cask of gunpowder if they would help him to reach an Englishship. This they did, and Guard reached Sydney, where he begged SirRichard Bourke to send a vessel for the rescue of his wife and children. Bourke sent the _Alligator_, with a company of soldiers, who landed anddemanded the captive seamen. These were given up, but the captain of theship supported Guard in breaking his promise and refusing to give thepowder, under the plea that it was a bad thing for natives. The_Alligator_ then went round to Taranaki for the woman and children. Thechief of the tribe came down to the beach and said they would be givenup for a ransom. The white men seized him, dragged him into their boatto be a hostage, but he jumped out of the boat and was speared withbayonets. He was taken to the ship nearly dead. Then the natives gave upthe woman and one child in return for their chief. After some parley anative came down to the beach with the other child on his shoulders. Hesaid he would give it up if a proper ransom was paid. The English saidthey would give no ransom, and when the man turned to go away again, they shot him through the back, quite dead. The child was recovered, but Mrs. Guard and the children testified that this native had been agood friend to them when in captivity. Nevertheless, his head was cutoff and tumbled about on the beach. The _Alligator_ then bombarded thenative pah, destroyed all its houses to the number of 200, with all theprovisions they contained, killing from twenty to thirty men in theprocess. This scarcely agreed with the letter which Mr. Busby had justreceived, in which he was directed to express to the Maori chiefs theregret which the King of England felt at the injuries committed by whitemen against Maoris. 

#4. Captain Hobson. #--But there were many difficulties in securing justicebetween fickle savages and white men who were in general so ruffianly asthose who then dwelt in New Zealand. The atrocities of the _Harriet_episode did some good, however, for along with other circumstances theystirred up the English Government to make some inquiries into the mannerin which Englishmen treated the natives of uncivilised countries. Theseinquiries showed much injustice and sometimes wanton cruelty, and when apetition came from the respectable people of Kororarika, asking thatsome check should be put upon the licence of the low white men whofrequented that port, the English Government resolved to annex NewZealand if the Maoris were willing to be received into the BritishEmpire. For that purpose they chose Captain Hobson, a worthy and uprightsea-captain, who in his ship of war, the _Rattlesnake_, had seen much ofAustralia and New Zealand. It was he who had taken Sir Richard Bourke toPort Phillip in 1837, and Hobson's Bay was named in his honour. Afterthat he had been sent by Bourke to the Bay of Islands to inquire intothe condition of things there, and when he had gone home to England hehad given evidence as to the disorder which prevailed in New Zealand. Hewas sent in a war-ship, the _Druid_, with instructions to keep the whitemen in order, and to ask the natives if they would like to becomesubjects of Queen Victoria and live under her protection. If they agreedto do so, he was to form New Zealand into an English colony and he wasto be its Lieutenant-Governor under the general control of the Governorof New South Wales. 

Hobson reached Sydney at the end of 1839 and conferred with GovernorGipps, who helped him to draw up proclamations and regulations for thework to be done. On leaving Sydney, Hobson took with him a treasurer anda collector of customs for the new colony, a sergeant of police and fourmounted troopers of the New South Wales force, together with a policemagistrate to try offenders, and two clerks to assist in the work ofgovernment. It was the 29th of January, 1840, when he landed at the Bayof Islands. Next day, on the beach, he read several proclamations, oneof which asserted that all British subjects, even though resident in NewZealand, were still bound to obey British laws; and another declaredthat as white men were tricking the Maoris into selling vast tracts ofland for goods of little value, all such bargains made after that datewould be illegal, while all made before that date would be inquired intobefore being allowed. It was declared that if the Maoris in futurewished to sell their land the Governor would buy it and pay a fair pricefor it. All white men who wished for land could then buy from theGovernor. Three days later the respectable white men of Kororarikawaited on Captain Hobson to congratulate him on his arrival and topromise him their obedience and assistance. 

#5. Treaty of Waitangi. #--Meantime Hobson had asked the missionaries tosend word round to all the neighbouring chiefs that he would like to seethem, and on the 5th of February, 1840, a famous meeting took place onthe shore of the Bay of Islands near the mouth of the pretty riverWaitangi. There on a little platform on a chair of state sat the newGovernor, with the officers of the ship in their uniform, and a guard ofmariners and sailors; while beside the platform stood the leading whitemen of Kororarika. Flags fluttered all round the spot. At noon, whenHobson took his seat, there were over five hundred Maoris, of whom fiftywere chiefs, in front of the platform. Then one of the missionaries roseand in the Maori tongue explained what the Queen of England proposed. First, that the Maoris, of their own accord, should allow their countryto be joined to the British Empire. Second, that the Queen would protectthem in their right to their land and all their property, and see thatno white men interfered with them in it, but that if they chose to sellany of their land, then the Governor would buy it from them. Third, that the Queen would extend to the Maoris, if they so desired, all therights and privileges of British subjects and the protection of Britishlaw. 

When these proposals had been fully explained the Maoris were asked tosay what they thought of them. Twenty-six chiefs spoke in favour ofaccepting, and so bringing about peace and order in the land. Six spokeagainst them, declaring that thus would the Maoris be made slaves. Thenatives seemed very undecided, when Waka Nene arose and in an eloquentaddress showed the miseries of the land now that fire-arms had beenintroduced, and begged his countrymen to place themselves under the ruleof a queen who was able and willing to make the country quiet and happy. The Maoris were greatly excited, and Hobson therefore gave them a day tothink over the matter. There was much discussion all night long amongthe neighbouring pahs and villages; but the next day when the Maorisgathered, forty-six chiefs put their marks to the parchment now alwaysknown as the treaty of Waitangi. 

This treaty was taken by missionaries and officers from tribe to tribe, and in the course of two or three months over five hundred chiefs hadsigned it. On the 21st May, Hobson proclaimed that the islands of NewZealand were duly added to the British Empire, and that he would assumethe rule of the new colony as Lieutenant-Governor. Meantime houseshad been built at Kororarika for the Governor and his officers; acustom-house had been set up, and taxes were levied on all goods landed, so as to provide a revenue with which to pay these and other Governmentexpenses. 

#6. Auckland. #--But the people at Kororarika had bought from the nativesall the level land in the place, and thinking their town would soon be agreat city, and the capital of an important colony, they would not sellit except at very high prices. Now Captain Hobson had seen at the headof the Hauraki Gulf a place which seemed to him to be more suitable forthe capital of the future colony. To this lovely spot he changed hisresidence. He bought from the natives about thirty thousand acres, andon an arm of the gulf, where the Waitemata harbour spreads its shiningwaters, he caused a town to be surveyed and streets to be laid out. InApril, 1841, after he had reserved sufficient land for Governmentoffices, parks and other public purposes, he caused the rest to beoffered in allotments for sale by auction. There was a general beliefthat now, when the islands were formally annexed to the British Empire, New Zealand would be a most prosperous colony, and that land in itscapital would go up rapidly in value. Many speculators came over fromSydney. The bidding was brisk, and the allotments were sold at the rateof about six hundred pounds per acre. A few months later a sale was heldof lands in the suburbs and of farming lands a little way out from thetown. This was again successful. Houses began to spring up, most of themslender in structure, but with a few of solid appearance. Next yearships arrived from England with 560 immigrants, who rapidly settled onthe land, and before long a thriving colony was formed. The little townwas very pretty, with green hills behind the branching harbour that layin front, dotted with volcanic islets. The whole district was green; andthe figures of Maoris in the grassy streets, their canoes bringing invegetables to market, their pahs seen far off on the neighbouring hills, gave the scene a charming touch of the romantic. A company of sixsoldiers with four officers came from Sydney to defend the settlers, andbarracks were built for them. The name chosen for the city was Auckland, after a gentleman named Eden, who had taken for half a century a deepinterest in colonising experiments, and who had been raised to thepeerage with the title of Lord Auckland. 

[Illustration: AUCKLAND FROM THE WHARF. ]

#7. New Zealand Company. #--Meantime another part of New Zealand had beencolonised under very different circumstances. The English association, which in 1825 attempted to form a settlement at Hokianga and failed, hadconsisted of very influential men. They had not given up their plansaltogether, and in 1837 they formed a new association called the NewZealand Company. That restless theorist Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who hadalready sent out the settlers who had just founded Adelaide, joined thisassociation, and impressed the members with his own idea alreadydescribed on page 67. It was arranged that a colony should be sent outto New Zealand on the plan of a complete little community. There wereto be gentlemen and clergymen and teachers; so many farmers, so manycarpenters, so many blacksmiths; every trade was to be represented sothat everybody would have something to do, and there would be none toomany of any one kind. A bill was brought before Parliament for thepurpose of establishing a colony after this fashion, and at firstParliament was inclined to favour the bill. But the missionaries in NewZealand were hostile to the proposal. They were steadily converting theMaoris to Christianity. They hoped to turn them into quiet, industriousand prosperous people, if white men did not come and take away theirland from them. Parliament, therefore, refused to pass the bill. But thecompany had gone too far to retreat. It had already arranged with manysettlers to take them and their families out to New Zealand, and hadbegun to sell land at so much an acre, nobody knew where except that itwas to be in New Zealand. They therefore quietly purchased and fittedout a vessel named the _Tory_ to go to New Zealand and makearrangements. The party was under the charge of Colonel Wakefield, brother of Edward Gibbon Wakefield; and he took with him surveyors tolay out the land, farming experts to judge of the soil, and a scientificman to report on the natural products. This vessel sailed away quietlyin May, 1839, hoping to reach New Zealand unnoticed. The EnglishGovernment heard of it however, informed the company that its action wasillegal, and immediately afterwards sent off Captain Hobson in the_Druid_, as has been already described, to take possession on behalf ofthe British nation. The New Zealand Company then apologised; said thatthey would direct their agents who had gone out to New Zealand to obeythe Governor in all things, and promised that the new settlement shouldabide by the law. 

#8. Wellington. #--Meantime the _Tory_ was ploughing the deep on her way toNew Zealand. Her passengers first saw the new country on the west coastof the South Island. They were then very much disappointed, for theshore was high and wild, the mountains were close behind it, and theirlofty sides were gloomy and savage. The whole scene was grand, but didnot promise much land that would be suitable for farming. They turnedinto Cook Strait, and anchored in Queen Charlotte Sound, a lovelyharbour, but surrounded by high hills clothed in dark and heavy forests. When they landed, they were amazed at the depth and richness of theblack soil and the immense size to which the trees grew. Such a soilcould grow all sorts of produce in rich abundance, but it would costforty pounds an acre to clear it for ploughing. Boats were got out, however, and parties rowed up into all the branches of the beautifulharbour, but without seeing any sufficient extent of level or open land. Then they crossed the strait, and sailing in by a narrow entrance, viewed all the wide expanse of Port Nicholson. It was a great harbourwith a little wooded island in its middle; it opened out into quiet armsall fringed with shelly beaches, and behind these rose range after rangeof majestic mountains. The trouble was that here too the land which wasfairly level was too limited in extent to satisfy the colony's needs;for already in England the company had sold 100, 000 acres of farmingland, and the purchasers would soon be on their way to occupy it. Afterexamining the shores with care they chose the beach of the east side asthe site for their town. Behind it stretched the beautiful valley of theHutt River, enclosed by mountains, but with broad grassy meadows lyingbetween. Here they started to build a town which they called Britannia, and they made friends with the Maoris of the district. A Pakeha Maorinamed Barrett acted as interpreter. The natives went on board the_Tory_, were shown 239 muskets, 300 blankets, 160 tomahawks and axes, 276 shirts, together with a quantity of looking-glasses, scissors, razors, jackets, pots, and scores of other things, with eighty-one kegsof gunpowder, two casks of cartridges and more than a ton of tobacco. They were asked if they would sell all the land that could be seen fromthe ship in return for these things. They agreed, signed some papers andtook the goods on shore, where they at once began to use the muskets ina grand fight among themselves for the division of the property. It wassoon discovered that the site of the town was too much exposed towesterly gales, and the majority of the settlers crossed Port Nicholsonto a narrow strip of grassy land between a pretty beach and some steephills. Here was founded the town called Wellington, after the famousduke. 

By this time the settlers were arriving thick and fast. The first camein the _Aurora_, which reached the settlement on 22nd January, 1840;other ships came at short intervals, till there were twelve at anchor inPort Nicholson. The settlers were pleased with the country; they landedin good spirits and set to work to make themselves houses. All wasactivity--surveyors, carpenters, bricklayers, blacksmiths, every onebusy, and rapidly a smart little town of some hundred houses rose behindthe beach. The Maoris came and helped in the work, getting three or fourshillings a day for their services, and proving themselves very handy inmany ways. All were in sanguine spirits, when word came from GovernorHobson at Auckland that, in accordance with his proclamation, allpurchases of land from the natives were illegal, he having come toprotect the Maoris from imposition. 

#9. The Land Question. #--Now Colonel Wakefield had fancied that he hadbought 20, 000, 000 acres for less than £9, 000 worth of goods, and he wasassigning it as fast as he could to people who had paid £1 an acre tothe company in England. Here was a sad fix. The Governor sent down hischief officer, Mr. Shortland, who rode across the island with themounted police, and told the settlers not to fancy the land theirs, ashe would ere long have to turn them off. Disputes arose, for it seemedabsurd that fifty-eight Maori chiefs should sell the land on which manythousands of people dwelt, the majority of these people never having somuch as heard of the bargain. The settlers talked of starting for SouthAmerica and forming a colony in Chili, but more kept on coming, so thatthey had not ships enough to take them across. And, besides, they hadpaid a pound an acre to the company and demanded their land. ColonelWakefield went off to Auckland to talk the matter over with GovernorHobson, who left the difficulty to be settled by his superior, GovernorGipps, at Sydney. 

Wakefield then went to Sydney to see Governor Gipps, who said that thewhole thing was irregular, but that he would allow the settlers tooccupy the land, supposing that every Maori who had a proper claim toany part of it got due compensation, and if twenty acres of the centralpart of Wellington were reserved for public buildings. These conditionsWakefield agreed to, and, very glad to have got out of a seriousdifficulty, he returned with the good tidings. Shortly afterwardsGovernor Hobson himself visited Wellington, but was very coldly receivedby the settlers there. 

In the next two years 350 ships arrived at Wellington, bringing out over4, 000 settlers. Of these about 1, 000 went up into the valleys and madefarms; but 3, 000 stayed in and around Wellington, which then grew to bea substantial little town, with four good piers, about 200 houses ofwood or brick and about 250 houses of more slender construction. Morethan 200 Maoris could be seen in its streets clad in the Europeanclothes given as payment for the land. In all there were about 700Maoris in the district, and for their use the company set apart 11, 000acres of farm lands, and 110 acres in the town. Roads were being madeinto the fertile valleys, where eight or ten thousand acres wereoccupied as farms and being rapidly cleared and tilled. Parties wereorganised to go exploring across the mountains. They brought back wordthat inland the soil was splendid, sometimes covered with forests, sometimes with meadows of long grass or New Zealand flax, but alwayswatered by beautiful rivers and under a lovely climate. The Maoris wereeverywhere friendly throughout their journey. 

#10. Taranaki. #--In the beginning of the year 1840, an emigration societyhad been formed in the south-west of England to enable the farmlabourers and miners of Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset to settle in lesscrowded lands. The Earl of Devon was its president, and Plymouth itsheadquarters. They chose New Zealand for the site of their colony, andunderstanding that the New Zealand Company had bought half of the NorthIsland they gave that company £10, 000 for the right to select 60, 000acres of it. It was in March, 1841, that the pioneers of this new colonyarrived at Wellington under the guidance of Mr. Carrington, a surveyorin the ship _William Bryant_. The exploring party had just come back, and its report of the Taranaki land was very tempting. Immediately afterreceiving that report Colonel Wakefield had gone off to purchase it. Hefound a few natives left there, the remnant of the tribes whom Te WheroWhero had either destroyed or carried into slavery. These few people hadtaken refuge up in the awful solitudes of the giant Mount Egmont, buthad come back to dwell, a sorrow-stricken handful, in the homes of theirfathers. Barrett was left to arrange a bargain with them, and in returnfor a quantity of goods they sold all the land along sixty miles ofcoast with a depth of fifteen miles inland. This was the land whichWakefield recommended for the new settlers, and he lent them a ship totake them round. There they landed, and in spite of their disappointmentat the want of a safe harbour, they set to work and built up theirlittle town, which they called New Plymouth. 

In September of the same year the main body of settlers arrived for thisnew colony, and were landed at Taranaki, when they immediately scatteredout over the country, as fast as Carrington could survey it for them. But there was now a difficulty. For Te Whero Whero and his tribe hadreleased many hundreds of the Taranaki natives who had been carried offas slaves. Whether it was because they had now become Christians orbecause the slaves were more in number than they could use, it was noteasy to determine; but at any rate, in that very month of September whenhundreds of white men were arriving to occupy the land, hundreds ofMaoris were coming back to re-occupy it. They begged the settlers not tofell their big trees, but were very mild in their conduct. They choseplaces not yet claimed by the white men, and there fenced in the land onwhich to grow their sweet potatoes. 

Meanwhile there was another complication. By Maori custom a warrior hadthe ownership of the lands he conquered. Governor Hobson thereforeregarded Te Whero Whero as the owner of the Taranaki land, and gave him£400 for his right to it. Hobson declared that the Auckland Governmentwas the owner of this land, and that all settlers must buy it from him. Eventually the trouble was cleared up for the time being, when Hobsonallowed the company to keep ten miles of coast running back five or sixmiles, the rest to belong to the Government, which would set aside acertain part for the use of the Maoris. In December, 1842, a settlerclaimed a piece of land which a Maori had fenced in; he pulled down thefence; the Maoris put it up again. The settler assisted by an officerpulled it down once more. A young chief who brandished a tomahawk andthreatened mischief was arrested, and carried into New Plymouth where amagistrate liberated him, and declared the action of the settlerillegal. Matters for a time kept in this unfriendly state, ominouslyhinting the desperate war that was to follow. 

#11. Wanganui. #--Meanwhile the settlers in the Wellington district werefinding that by crossing difficult mountains they could get sufficientlevel land for their purpose, and at the close of 1840 two hundred ofthem sailed 150 miles north to where the river Wanganui falls into CookStrait. The land was rich and the district beautiful. Colonel Wakefieldsupposed that he had bought the whole of it, though the nativesafterwards proved that they sold only a part on the north side of theriver. Here, about four miles from the mouth of the stream, the settlersformed a little town which they called Petre, but which is now known asWanganui. The natives were numerous; on the river banks their villageswere frequent, and up on the hills, that rose all around like anamphitheatre, the palisades of their fortified pahs were easily visible. But the fine black soil of the district, in places grassy, in placeswith patches of fine timber, proved very attractive to the settlers, andsoon there came half a dozen ships with more colonists direct fromEngland. The natives were friendly to white men, and gave them a cordialwelcome. Down the river came their canoes laden with pigs, potatoes, melons, and gourds for sale in the market of the little town. All wasgood-will until the Maoris found that the white men had come not merelyto settle among them, but to appropriate all the best of the land. Thentheir tempers grew sour and the prospect steadily grew more unpleasant. 

#12. Nelson. #--The emigration spirit was at this time strong in England;for it was in the year 1840 to 1841 that free settlers chiefly colonisedboth Victoria and South Australia. New Zealand was as much a favouriteas any, and when the New Zealand Company proposed in 1841 to form a newcolony somewhere in that country to be called Nelson, nearly 100, 000acres were sold at thirty shillings an acre to men who did not know evenin which island of New Zealand the land was to be situated. In April ofthe same year the pioneers of the new settlement started in the ships_Whitby_ and _Will Watch_, with about eighty settlers, their wives, families and servants. Captain Arthur Wakefield was the leader, and hetook the ships to Wellington, where they waited while he went out tosearch for a suitable site. He chose a place at the head of Tasman Bay, where, in a green hollow fringed by a beautiful beach and embosomed deepin majestic hills, the settlers soon gathered in the pretty little townof Nelson. The soil was black earth resting on great boulders; out of itgrew low bushes easily cleared away, and here and there stood a fewclumps of trees to give a grateful shade. The place was shut in by thehills so as to be completely sheltered from the boisterous gales of CookStrait, and altogether it was a place of dreamy loveliness. Itspossession was claimed by Rauparaha, the warrior, on the ground ofconquest. With him and other chiefs the settlers had a conference, theresult of which was that a certain specified area round the head of thebay was purchased. But the white men regarded themselves as having theright of superior beings to go where they wished and do with the landwhat they wished. Finding a seam of good coal at a place outside theirpurchase they did not in any way scruple to send a vessel to carry itoff, in spite of the protests of the Maoris. 

#13. Death of Governor Hobson. #--These things hinted at troubles whichwere to come, but in 1842 all things looked promising for the coloniesof New Zealand. There were altogether about 12, 000 white persons, mostof them being men who wore blue shirts and lived on pork and potatoes. Auckland the capital had 3, 000 but, Wellington was the largest town with4, 000 people. Next to that came Nelson with 2, 500; New Plymouth andWanganui were much smaller but yet thriving places. They had no lessthan nine newspapers, most of them little primitive sheets, butwonderful in communities so young. In October, 1841, Dr. George Selwynwas appointed to be Bishop of New Zealand; and he left England with anumber of clergymen who settled in Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, and NewPlymouth. Churches began to spring up, and schools not only for whitechildren, but also for Maoris. An immense change for the better hadappeared among the Maoris. The last case of cannibalism took place aboutthis time; and though they still fought among one another, it was notwith the same awful bloodshed that had characterised the previous twentyyears. 

On the 16th November, 1840, the Queen declared New Zealand anindependent colony. Hobson was then no longer Lieutenant-Governormerely, and subject to the Governor at Sydney. He was Governor Hobson, and of equal rank with all the other Governors. He now had aLegislative Council to assist him in making for New Zealand such laws asmight be needed in her peculiar circumstances. In that council the ChiefJustice, the Colonial Secretary, the Surveyor-General, theAttorney-General and the Protector of the Maoris had seats. But Hobsondid not long enjoy his new dignity. He had had a difficult task toperform, and his duty had led him into conflict with many people whowished to purchase their land from the natives at ridiculous prices. Inthe midst of his worries he had several strokes of paralysis, of whichthe last killed him in September, 1842; and he was buried in thecemetery at Auckland. He had lived, however, to see New Zealandcolonised, and had died much liked by the Maoris, without seeing any ofthat bitter struggle between the two races which was soon to shed somuch blood and waste so much treasure. 

CHAPTER XXV. 

WHITE MEN AND MAORIS. 

#1. Govenor Fitzroy. #--When Governor Hobson died, his place was taken byhis friend Lieutenant Shortland until a new Governor could be sent out. The English people were at this time very anxious to see that thenatives of new lands which they colonised should be fairly treated, andfor that purpose they chose Captain Fitzroy to be the new Governor. Upto this time he had been the captain of a ship and had made himselffamous in surveying and mapping little known shores in his ship the_Beagle_, in which he had visited New Zealand on a trip round the world, and he was therefore called to give evidence as to its condition beforethe Committee of the House of Lords in 1838. He was well known to haveshown much consideration to native tribes, and his strong wish to dealjustly by them had often been shown. This was the main reason for hisappointment. He landed in November, 1843, and found the colony in astate of great depression, the public treasury being not only empty butin debt. For many officials had been appointed, judges, magistrates, policemen, customs receivers and so on; and to pay the salaries of theseevery one had relied on the continued sale of land. 

But in 1841 there had come out the first Land Commissioner, WilliamSpain, who began to inquire into the disputes about land which hadarisen between white men and Maoris. Out of every ten acres the whitemen said they had bought he allowed them to keep only one. This was butfair to the Maoris, who had been induced very often to make most foolishbargains; but the settlers ceased to buy land when they were not certainof keeping it. Hence the land sales stopped; the Governor owed £20, 000more than he could pay, and so he was confronted with troubles from hisvery first arrival. 

#2. Wairau Massacre. #--Just before he came an incident had happened whichdeepened the trouble of the colony. At the north of the South Island, not far from Nelson, there was a fine valley watered by the streamWairau, which Colonel Wakefield claimed, alleging that it was part ofthe land he had bought with the Nelson district. Rauparaha and hisson-in-law, Rangihaeata, claimed it by right of conquest, and they had acouple of hundred stout warriors at their back, all well armed withmuskets. Mr. Spain sent word that he was coming to settle the dispute, but, in spite of that, Captain Wakefield sent surveyors to measure outthe land for occupation by the settlers. The surveyors were turned offby Rauparaha, who carried their instruments and other property carefullyoff the land and then burnt the huts they had put up. The Maoris did noviolence, and were courteous though determined. The surveyors returnedto Nelson, and Captain Wakefield induced the local magistrates to issuea warrant for the arrest of Rauparaha and Rangihaeata. To execute thiswarrant Mr. Thompson, the police magistrate, himself went in a smallvessel, and with him went Captain Wakefield, seven other gentlemen, andforty labourers, in all a party of forty-nine, of whom thirty-five werearmed with guns. 

When they landed at the mouth of the Wairau River, Piraha, a Christiannative, met them and begged them not to go on, as Rauparaha was ready tofight, but they paid no attention, and after marching eight miles up thepretty valley they saw the Maoris about 100 in number standing behindthe stream, which though only waist-deep had a rushing current of chillywater. Rauparaha said: "Here am I. What do you want with me?" Mr. Thompson said he must go to Nelson; and an irritating conversationensued. Rangihaeata drew up his tall form, his curly black hair settingoff a face of eagle sharpness, and from his eye there gleamed an angrylight. Behind him stood his wife, the daughter of Rauparaha, and nearthem this latter chief himself, short and broad, but strong andwiry-looking, a man with a cunning face, yet much dignity of manner. When the handcuffs were produced by Mr. Thompson, Rauparaha warned himnot to be so foolish. The magistrates gave the order to fix bayonets andadvance; as the white men were crossing the stream a shot was fired byone of them. It struck dead the wife of Rangihaeata. Thereupon theMaoris fired a volley and the white men hesitated on the brink of thewater; a second volley and a third told upon them with deadly effect, and the labourers, who carried arms but had neither martial spirit norexperience, turned and fled. 

Five of the gentlemen with four of the labourers stood their ground, andwhen the Maoris crossed they surrendered. Rauparaha called out to sparethem; but Rangihaeata, mad at the loss of a wife he loved, brained themwith his tomahawk one after another, while the young men hunted thelabourers through the trees and slew such as they overtook. Twenty-sevenwhite men reached the shore and were carried quickly in the boats to thebrig, five of them badly wounded. Twenty-two lay dead alongside of fivenatives whom the white men had slain. 

Rauparaha feared the vengeance of the white man. He had few resources inthe South Island, while the Nelson settlers could send 500 armed menagainst him. He crossed in his own war canoes, over a stormy strait inwild weather; weary and wet with spray, he landed in the south of theNorth Island, roused his countrymen by his fervid oratory, to which hegave a fine effect by jingling before them the handcuff's with which hewas to have been led a prisoner to Nelson. A day or two after themassacre, a Wesleyan clergyman went out from Nelson to Wairau andreverently buried those ghastly bodies with the cloven skulls. Not onehad been mangled, far less had there been any cannibalism. 

#3. Effects of Wairau Massacre. #--The Maoris were clearly less ferociousthan they had been, and more than half of them had become fervidChristians after a fashion, but in some respects they were getting theireyes opened. The missionaries had told them that the white men werecoming for their benefit; yet now they began to see that the white menwere soon to be the lords of the soil, and that the natives must sinkback into the position of servants. If a white man visited a Maorivillage he was received as a man of distinction and entertained. If aMaori chief went to a white man's town, he was allowed to wander in thestreet; or if at all accosted it was with the condescension of asuperior race to a race of servants. The Maori blood was firing up. Thestory of Wairau made them change their mind about the white man'scourage. The whalers had been hearts of daring; these new-comers had runand bawled for their lives. The natives were anxious also as to theresult which would happen when all the lands near the shore should havebeen occupied by white men, and they themselves hemmed up in theinterior. 

A special interest was given to these feelings when in 1844 Te WheroWhero gave a great feast, only two miles out of Auckland, partly as awelcome to Governor Fitzroy, and partly as a demonstration in regard tothe land question. He displayed a lavish bounty; 11, 000 baskets ofpotatoes and 9, 000 sharks, with great stores of other provisions, weredistributed. But when the settlers saw a war dance of 1, 600 men, allwell armed with muskets, and drilled with wonderful precision, they feltthat their lives were at the mercy of the native tribes. Not one-fourthof that number of armed men with any training for battle could have beensent forth from the settlement for its own defence. This gave asignificance to the Wairau massacre that created quite a panic. Freshsettlers ceased to come; many that were there already now left. Thosewho had taken up farms far out in the country abandoned them andwithdrew to the towns. 

#4. Honi Heke. #--And yet the great majority of the Maoris seem to have hadno unfriendly purpose. When Governor Fitzroy went down to see Rauparahahe had no more than twelve white men with him, when he entered anassemblage of 500 Maoris. He said he had come to inquire about the sadquarrel at Wairau, and Rauparaha told him his story while otherssupported it by their evidence. Fitzroy stated that the Maoris had beenvery wrong to kill those who had surrendered, but as the white men hadfired first he would take no vengeance for their death. Indeed, atWellington and Nelson, Fitzroy openly said that the magistrates werewholly misguided in trying to arrest the native chief; and at Nelson herebuked all those who had been concerned in the affair. This gave greatoffence to the white men. They asked if the blood of their friends andrelatives was thus to be shed and no sort of penalty to be exacted forthe slaughter. Many of the magistrates resigned, and a deep feeling ofirritation was shown towards the Governor, some of the settlerspetitioning the English Government to recall him. 

In the August of 1844 a young chief named Honi Heke, who dwelt at theBay of Islands, on account of a private quarrel with a rough whaler, entered the town of Kororarika with a band of armed followers. Heplundered a few shops and cut down a flagstaff on which the Union Jackfloated from a steep hill behind the town. There were then not more thanninety soldiers in New Zealand, and when Heke threatened to burnKororarika, and do the same to Auckland, there was too good reason tofear that he might be as good as his word, for he had 200 well-armed menat his back, and a comrade of his, named Kawiti, had nearly as many. Achief named Waka-Nene with his men kept Heke in check, while Fitzroysent to Sydney and received 160 soldiers with two cannon. These landedat the Bay of Islands, but Waka-Nene begged the Governor not to hurryinto hostilities. He arranged for a friendly meeting. Fitzroy met nineprincipal chiefs, who apologised and made Heke send also a writtenapology. Fitzroy said he would redress some wrongs the natives said theysuffered, and having obtained from Heke ten muskets by way of fine andhaving again set up the flagstaff he returned to Auckland. 

But before the year was ended Heke approached the town once more with100 armed men. He insulted it from the hills, cut down the flagstaffagain, and then withdrew to the forests. Fitzroy published aproclamation offering £100 for his capture, and Heke replied by offering£100 for the head of Fitzroy. The Governor now caused a new flagstaff tobe set up, all sheathed with iron at the bottom, and with a strongwooden house attached to it, in which a score of soldiers were always tokeep guard. A block-house or small wooden fortress was set up at alittle distance down the hill towards Kororarika. Nevertheless, Hekesaid he would come and cut down the flagstaff again. Then theinhabitants of Kororarika began to drill in order to give him a warmreception if he came. Lieutenant Philpott, the commander of the _Hazard_ship of war, came ashore to drill them, and to mount one or two cannon. Yet Heke, lurking among the hills, contrived by a sudden dash to captureLieutenant Philpott. However, after dealing courteously with him, hereleased him. 

#5. Kororarika Burnt. #--On 11th March, 1845, at daylight, Heke with 200men crept up to the flagstaff, surprised the men in the house attached, and when twenty men came out of the lower block-house to help theirfriends on the top of the hill, he attacked them and drove them down tothe town in the hollow beside the shore. Close to the beach was a littlehill, and on the top of this hill stood a house with a garden surroundedby a high fence. Behind this the soldiers and all the people ofKororarika took refuge. From the rocky high ground round about theMaoris fired down upon them, while the white men fired back, and theguns of the _Hazard_, which had come close in to the shore, kept up aconstant roar. For three hours this lasted, ten white men being killedas well as a poor little child, while thirty-four of the natives wereshot dead. The Maoris were preparing to retreat when, by some accident, the whole of the powder that the white men possessed was exploded. Thenthey had to save themselves. The women and children were carried outboat after boat to the three ships in the harbour. Then the men wentoff, and the Maoris, greatly surprised, crept cautiously down into thedeserted town. They danced their war dance; sent off to their parents inthe ships some white children who had been left behind, and then setfire to the town, destroying property to the value of £50, 000. 

Heke's fame now spread among the Maoris. When the settlers fromKororarika were landed at Auckland, homeless, desperate, and haggard, apanic set in, and some settlers sold their houses and land for a trifle, and departed. Others with more spirit enrolled themselves as volunteers. Three hundred men were armed and drilled. Fortifications were thrown upround the town, and sentries posted on all the roads leading to it. AtWellington and Nelson also men were drilled and stockades were built fordefence. 

#6. First Maori War. #--But Honi Heke was afraid of the soldiers, and whenColonel Hulme arrived from Sydney with several companies he withdrew toa strong pah of his, eighteen miles inland. Hulme landed at the nearestpoint of the coast, with a force of 400 men; these were joined by 400friendly allies under Waka-Nene, whose wife led the tribe in a diabolicwar dance, not a little startling to the British soldiers. The road thatwas to lead them to Honi Heke was only a track through a dense forest. Carts could not be taken, but each man carried biscuits for five daysand thirty rounds of ammunition. Under four days of heavy rain theytrudged along in the dripping pathway, all their biscuits wet and muchof their powder ruined. At last on a little plain, between a lake and awooded hill, they saw before them the pah of Honi Heke. Two great rowsof tree trunks stuck upright formed a palisade round it. They were morethan a foot thick, and twelve feet high, and they were so close thatonly a gun could be thrust between them. Behind these there was a ditchin which stood 250 Maoris, who could shoot through the palisades insecurity. 

The British slept that night without tents round fires of kauri gum, butnext morning all was astir for the attack. A rocket was sent whizzingover the palisades. It fell and burst among the Maoris, frighteningthem greatly, but succeeding discharges were failures, and the Maorisgathered courage to such an extent that a number under Kawiti came outto fight. The soldiers lowered their bayonets and charged, driving themback into the pah. During the night while the white men were smokinground their fires, the sound of the plaintive evening hymn rising in thestill air from the pah suggested how strong was the hold that the newfaith now had on the Maori mind. Next day Colonel Hulme, seeing that aplace defended on all sides by such a strong palisade could not becaptured without artillery, dug the graves of the fourteen soldierskilled, and marched back carrying with him thirty-nine wounded men. 

[Illustration: STRONGHOLD OF THE MAORIS AT RANGIRIRI. ]

There was dismay in Auckland when this news arrived. What could be saidwhen 400 English soldiers retreated from 250 savages? But, on the otherhand, the Maoris had learnt a lesson. They could not fight againstEnglish bayonets in the open, but while taking aim from behindpalisades they were safe. Therefore they began in different places tostrengthen their fortresses, and Honi Heke added new defences to his pahof Oheawai, which stood in the forest nineteen miles from the coast. 

#7. Oheawai. #--More soldiers were sent from Sydney, and with them, to takethe chief command, Colonel Despard, who had seen much fighting againsthill tribes in India. He landed 630 men and six cannons; but theselatter, being ship's cannons on wooden carriages with small wheels, stuck in the boggy forest roads. The men had to pull the guns, and theywere assisted by 250 friendly Maoris. On the evening of 22nd June, 1845, they spread out before the pah during the gathering dusk. It was astrong place. In the midst of a deep and gloomy forest, a square hadbeen cleared about a third of a mile in length and in breadth. Greattrunks of trees had been set up in the earth, and they stood fifteenfeet high; between their great stems, a foot or eighteen inches thick, there was just room enough left for firing a musket. Three rows of thesegigantic palings, with a ditch five feet deep between the inner ones, made the fortress most dangerous to assault; and in the ground withinhollows had been dug where men could sleep secure from shells androckets. Two hundred and fifty warriors were there with plenty ofmuskets and powder. 

On the second morning the British had got their guns planted within ahundred yards of the palisade, but the small balls they threw did littleharm to such huge timber. The whole expedition would have had to retirehad not a heavier gun come up. This threw shot thirty-two pounds inweight, and after twenty-six of these had struck the same place, abreach was seen of a yard or two in width. Colonel Despard ordered 200men with ropes and hatchets and ladders to be ready for an assault atdaybreak. In the still dawn of a wintry morning, the bugles rang out andthe brave fellows gathered for the deadly duty. They rushed at thebreach, and for ten minutes a wild scene ensued. The place was verynarrow, and it was blocked by resolute Maoris, who shot down exactlyhalf of the attacking party. Many of the soldiers forced their waythrough, but only to find a second and then a third palisade in front ofthem. Then they returned, losing men as they fled, and the whole Britishforce fell back a little way into the forest. That night the groans andcries of the wounded, lying just outside the pah, were mingled with thewild shouts of the war dance within. Two days later the Maoris hoisted aflag of truce, and offered to let the white men carry off the dead andwounded. Thirty-four bodies lay at the fatal breach, and sixty-six menwere found to have been wounded. 

A week later another load of cannon balls for the heavy gun was broughtup, and the palisades were further broken down. A second assault wouldhave been made, but during the night the Maoris tied up their dogs, andquietly dropping over the palisades at the rear of the pah, got far awayinto the forest before their retreat was known, for the howling of thedogs all night within the pah kept the officers from suspecting that theMaoris were escaping. The British destroyed the palisades, and carriedoff the stores of potatoes and other provisions which they found inside. 

[Illustration: SIR GEORGE GREY. ]

#8. Governor Grey. #--Fitzroy was preparing to chase Heke and Kawiti intotheir fastnesses, when he was recalled. The English Government thoughthe had not acted wisely in some ways and they blamed him for disobeyingtheir instructions. They had more faith in that young officer, GeorgeGrey, who, after exploring in Western Australia, was now the Governor ofSouth Australia. He arrived in November, 1845, to take charge of NewZealand; and at once went to Kororarika, where he found 700 soldierswaiting for orders. But he did not wish for fighting, if it could beavoided. He sent out a proclamation that Maoris who wished peace were tosend in their submission by a certain day. If they did, he would seethat the treaty of Waitangi was kept, and that justice was done to them. 

Honi Heke sent two letters, but neither of them was satisfactory; and asmore than a year passed without any signs of his submitting, ColonelDespard was directed to go after him. Heke was at a pah called Ikorangi;but Kawiti had 500 Maoris at a nearer pah called Ruapekapeka. 

#9. Ruapekapeka. #--Despard took his men sixteen miles in boats up a river;then nine miles through the forest, and on the 31st December he had1, 173 soldiers with 450 friendly natives in a camp 800 yards from thepah. It was like the other pahs, but bigger and stronger, for behind thepalisades there were earthen walls into which cannon balls would onlyplunge without doing any harm. Three heavy guns, however, were mounted, and when the Maoris sent up their flag, the first shot was so well aimedas to bring its flagstaff down amid the ringing cheers of the white men. All New Year's Day was spent in pouring in cannon balls by the hundred, but they did little harm. Next day the Maoris made a sally, but weredriven back with the bayonet. Meantime, Heke came in one night with mento help his friend, and heavy firing on both sides was kept up for aweek, after which two small breaches appeared near one of the corners ofthe palisades. The next day was Sunday, which the Maoris thought wouldbe observed as a day of rest, but the soldiers, creeping cautiously up, pushed their way through the breaches; a number of the Maoris ran toarms and fired a volley or two, but before the main body could doanything several hundred soldiers were in the place. A stout fight tookplace, during which thirteen white men were killed. The Maoris, now nolonger under cover, were no match for the soldiers, and they fled, leaving behind them all the provisions that were to have kept them fora whole season. This discouraged them, and Heke and Kawiti saw their menscatter out and join themselves to the quieter tribes for the sake offood. They therefore wrote to Grey asking peace, and promising to giveno further trouble. Grey agreed, but left 200 soldiers at Kororarika inorder to keep the Maoris of the district in check. 

#10. Rauparaha. #--During the eighteen months while Heke's war was goingon, troubles had been brewing at Wellington, where Rauparaha andRangihaeata kept up an agitation. The latter declared his enmity; heplundered and sometimes killed the settlers; and when soldiers were sentround to keep him in order he surprised and killed some of them. ButRauparaha pretended to be friendly, though the Governor well knew he wasthe ringleader in the mischief. Grey quietly sent a ship, which by nightlanded 130 soldiers just in front of Rauparaha's house on the shore. They seized him sleeping in bed, and he was carried round to Auckland, where for some months he was kept a prisoner, though allowed to goabout. Rangihaeata fled into the wildly wooded mountain ranges of theinterior. Once or twice he made a stand, but was driven from his rockypositions, with the slaughter of men on both sides. At last he and hisfollowers scattered out as fugitives into lonely and savage regions intowhich they could not be followed. 

Thinking that good roads would do much to keep the country quiet, Greyoffered half a crown a day to Maoris who would work at making roads. Quite a crowd gathered to the task, and for a while white men and Maoristoiled happily together, making good carriage roads into the heart ofthe country. But at Wanganui, in May, 1847, land disputes roused a tribeto bloodshed. They killed a white woman and her four little children;they attacked the town, and when the inhabitants withdrew to a stockadethey had made, a fight took place which lasted for five hours, afterwhich the Maoris burnt the town and retreated, carrying off all thecattle. Two months later, Governor Grey reached Wanganui, with 500 men. He chased the Maoris up the valley and fought them, gaining a decisivevictory over them with the loss of two white men killed. He gave them norest till the chiefs applied for peace, and early in the next year ameeting was held, and the principal chiefs of the district promised toobey the Queen's laws. The war had lasted five years, had cost a millionpounds, and the lives of eighty-five white men, besides those of perhapsa hundred Maoris. 

The English Government withdrew the larger part of the soldiers from NewZealand; but the colonists, to make themselves safe, enrolled a bodythey called the New Zealand Fencibles. They were all old soldiers whohad retired from the British army, and who were offered little farms anda small payment. Five hundred came out from England on these terms, andwere placed in four settlements round Auckland for the protection ofthat town. They were really farmers, who were paid to be ready to fightif need should arise. With their wives and children they made apopulation of 2, 000 souls. 

In this same year Rauparaha was allowed to go home. He was surprised atthe permission and grateful for it; but he was an old man and died inthe following year. In 1850 Honi Heke died, but Rangihaeata lingered ontill 1856, giving no further trouble. 

Governor Grey dealt fairly with the Maoris. He paid them for theirlands. He hung such white men as murdered them. He set up schools toeducate their children, and distributed ploughs and carts, harrows andhorses, and even mills, so that they might grow and prepare forthemselves better and more abundant food than they had ever knownbefore. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

NEW ZEALAND, 1843-1890. 

#1. Otago. #--Meantime the New Zealand Company had not been idle, andE. G. Wakefield's busy brain was filled with fresh schemes. In 1849 anassociation had been formed at Glasgow in connection with the FreeChurch of Scotland, to send Scottish families out to New Zealand. Notknowing anything of the country, the new association asked the help ofthe New Zealand Company, which was readily given, as the new settlersproposed to buy land from the company. In 1844 an exploring party wassent out, and, after some inquiry, chose a place on the east coast ofthe South Island, called Otago. With the consent of the Governor 400, 000acres were there bought from the natives, and it seemed as if a newcolony would soon be formed. But the news of the Wairau massacre and theunsettled state of the natives frightened intending settlers for a time. It was not till November, 1847, that the _John Wycliff_ and the _PhilipLang_ sailed from Greenock with the first company of settlers. Theyreached their new home in March, 1848, under the guidance of CaptainCargill, an old soldier, who had been chosen as leader of the newsettlement. At the head of a fine harbour, which they called PortChalmers, they laid the foundations of a town, to which they gave thepatriotic name of Dunedin, Gaelic for Edinburgh. It was in a finedistrict, troubled by few natives, and it steadily grew. Less than ayear later, it had 745 inhabitants, who could boast of a good jetty, anda newspaper. The life of pioneers cannot be very easy, but these were ofthe right sort and prospered, and more would have joined them but fortwo circumstances. First came the news of the rich gold discoveries inCalifornia; and the most adventurous spirits hurried thither. Not onlydid this keep settlers from coming to New Zealand, but indeed a thousandof those she possessed left her shores for the goldfields. Then in thissame year, 1848, a violent earthquake took place, which knocked down£15, 000 worth of buildings in Wellington, and killed a man with his twochildren. 

[Illustration: KNOX CHURCH, DUNEDIN. ]

#2. Canterbury. #--Yet these unlucky accidents only delayed the progress ofthe colony by a year or two, and in the year 1850 a new settlement wasformed. Seven years before this, Wakefield had conceived the idea of asettlement in connection with the Church of England. A number of leadingmen took up the notion, and among them was the famous ArchbishopWhately. An association was formed which bought 20, 000 acres of the NewZealand Company's land, to be selected later on. The settlers paid ahigh price for this land, but the greater part of the money so receivedwas to be used for their own benefit, either in bringing out freshsettlers or in building churches and schools. A bishop and schoolmasterswere to go out; a nobleman and other men of wealth bought land andprepared to take stock and servants out to the fine free lands of thesouth. Wakefield had enlisted in the new scheme a gentleman named JohnRobert Godley, who became very ardent, and under his direction threeships were filled with 600 settlers and their property, and left Englandon their long voyage to the Antipodes. They reached their destination, the east coast of the South Island, on 16th December, 1850, and gladlyfelt the soil of a lovely land under their feet. In their enthusiasmthey sang the National Anthem, and scattered out to view their newhomes. A high and rugged hill prevented their seeing inland till theyclimbed to its brow, and then they perceived long plains of fertilesoil, watered by numerous streams of bright and rapid water. Theyresolved to found their city on the plains, making only a port upon thesea-shore. Governor Grey and his wife came over from Wellington towelcome them, and they found that much had been done to make themcomfortable. Large sheds had been put up in which they could findshelter till they should build their own homes. A pretty spot by a rivernamed the Avon was chosen for the town, which was laid out in a square;and a church and schoolroom were built among the first erections. Inkeeping with the religious fervour that lay at the basis of the wholeundertaking, the town was called Christchurch; while the name ofLyttelton was given to the seaport, a road being made between the twoand over the hill. 

[Illustration: CHRISTCHURCH CATHEDRAL. ]

During the next year 2, 600 settlers arrived. Some of these were youngmen of birth and fortune, who brought with them everything needed totransplant to New Zealand the luxuries of England. A large proportion ofthe settlers were labouring men of a superior class, who were broughtout as servants at the expense of the wealthy settlers. There was a gooddeal of disappointment. Many of the labourers crossed over to Australia, where the gold discoveries offered every man a chance of fortune, andwhere wages were very high. The wealthiest people therefore had to dotheir own work, and few of them liked it. The result was that many leftthe settlement and never came back to it. But from Australia camerelief. For some of the squatters who had been dislodged by theinroad of diggers to Victoria, hearing of the great grassy plains ofCanterbury, with never a tree to be cleared from the natural pasturage, crossed with flocks of sheep, and bought land in the new settlement. In1853 Canterbury had 5, 000 people; it produced £40, 000 worth of wool ayear, and seventy vessels reached its seaport. For a place in its thirdyear such progress was wonderful. 

#3. New Zealand Prosperous. #--The natives being at peace, and the price ofland being reduced, settlers streamed steadily into New Zealand. In 1853there were 31, 000 white people in the colony, and they had bought fromthe natives 24, 000, 000 acres of land. They had a million of sheep, andtheir exports were over £300, 000 in value. The Government was quitesolvent again, having a revenue of £140, 000 a year. A very large numberof farms were by this time in full work, those in the North Island beingchiefly used for crops, those in the South Island chiefly for sheep. Butthe New Zealand Company had disappeared. In 1850 it was a quarter of amillion pounds in debt, and it was wound up, leaving its shareholderswith heavy losses. 

An important event in the history of New Zealand occurred on 30th June, 1852, when the English Parliament gave the colony power to make its ownlaws and manage its own affairs, practically without interference fromLondon. A bill was passed providing that there should be six provinces, each with its own provincial council, consisting of not less than ninepersons to be chosen to manage local affairs. There was also to be theGeneral Assembly, consisting of a legislative council, appointed by theGovernor, and a House of Representatives consisting of forty members tobe chosen by the colonists. The Governor, who was now Sir George Grey, did much to bring these new arrangements into force and to adapt them tothe needs of the settlers. Having ruled well for eight years and broughtthe colony into a prosperous condition, and being required to set inorder the affairs of Cape Colony, he left New Zealand on the last day of1853, much regretted by the Maoris and also by the majority of thecolonists. 

[Illustration: THE MAORI KING. ]

Colonel Wynyard acted as Governor for the time being, and summoned thefirst Parliament of New Zealand to meet in May, 1854. He had muchdifficulty in getting the system of Cabinets of responsible Ministers towork smoothly. The colonists from different provinces had interestswhich lay in opposite directions, and political matters did not moveeasily. He was glad when the new Governor, Colonel Gore Browne, arrivedin September, 1855. At that time New Zealand had 45, 000 white settlersin it, and the discovery next year of rich goldfields in Otago attractedmany more, and gave a great impetus to Dunedin. Everything promised asplendid future, when again the Maoris became troublesome. 

#4. The King Movement. #--The Waikato tribe had always been averse to theselling of their land. They said truly enough that the money the whitemen gave for it was soon spent, but the land was gone for ever, and thesettlers were fencing in 40, 000 additional acres every year. Theycalled a meeting on the banks of Lake Taupo to discuss the question. Alarge number of chiefs were present, and they agreed to form a LandLeague, all members of which undertook to sell no more land to whitemen. At this time also a new project was formed. The Maoris felt theirweakness whilst divided up into so many tribes. Union would make themstrong. They resolved to select one chief to be king of all the Maoris, and for that purpose they chose the redoubted Te Whero Whero, whohoisted the Maori flag. But he was old and inclined to die in peace, and, dying soon afterwards, was succeeded by his son, a young man of noability. Many of the Maoris held aloof from these leagues; they were oftribes hostile to the Waikatos, or else they were glad to get the whiteman's money, and felt that they had still plenty of land for their ownuse. But in the heart of the North Island, some 4, 000 or 5, 000 Maoriwarriors nursed a wild project of driving the English out of thecountry. They gathered muskets and powder; they strengthened their pahsand filled them with potatoes and yams. Governor Browne took no steps tocheck them, and suffered several thousand muskets to be bought fromEnglish ships along the coasts. 

#5. Taranaki War. #--Meantime a quarrel had been going forward which gavethe Maoris a pretext for fighting. In 1859 Governor Browne had visitedTaranaki, and announced that if any of the natives had land to sell hewas ready to buy it. A Maori offered him 600 acres, proving that he wasthe owner of the land. The Governor gave him £200 for it; but the chiefof the tribe to which this Maori belonged was one of the Land League, and refused to let the land be sold. The Governor after inquiry came tothe conclusion that as the rightful owner of the land was willing tosell it, no one else had a claim to interfere. He sent surveyors up tomeasure the land. They were stopped by the chief. The Governor sent somesoldiers to protect the surveyors. The whole of the Taranaki Maoris rosein arms, and swept the few soldiers down to the coast. They then ravagedthe whole district, burning houses, crops, and fences; and all thesettlers of Taranaki crowded for defence into the town of New Plymouth. Most of them were ruined, and many of them left for other colonies. Governor Browne now sent round from Auckland all the soldiers he had;but, in accordance with their agreement, the Waikato tribes sentwarriors to assist the Taranaki tribe. Their Maori king having no greatinfluence, these were placed under the command of Te Waharoa, a Maorichief of much skill and popularity. Many skirmishes took place, in whichthe natives, through their quickness and subtle plans, inflicted moreinjury than they received. But General Pratt having arrived from Sydneywith fresh soldiers, and prepared to sap the pahs and blow them up, theMaoris became afraid, and Te Waharoa proposed that peace should be made, which was done in May, 1861. 

#6. Second Maori War. #--Governor Browne then called upon the Waikatotribes, who were then in arms, to make submission and take the oath ofobedience to the Queen's laws. Very few did so; and when Sir DuncanCameron arrived to take the chief command with more troops and big guns, he stated that he would invade the Waikato territory and punish thosetribes for their disobedience. 

But then came news that the English Government, being dissatisfied withthe way in which matters were drifting into war, was going to send backSir George Grey. He arrived in September, 1861, to take the place ofColonel Browne, and after a month or two summoned a great meeting ofthe Waikatos to hear him speak. They gathered and discussed the landquestion. Grey said that those who did not wish to sell their land couldkeep it by the treaty of Waitangi; but that no one must hinder anotherman from selling what was his own. The land for which Governor Brownehad given £200 at Taranaki was still in the occupation of armed Maoris, and it must be given up. Grey reasoned with them, but they wereobstinate. Bishop Selwyn went among them and exhorted them to peace, but made no impression. 

Meanwhile General Cameron set his men at work to make roads, and duringthe year and a half while the Governor was trying to bring the Maoris toreason, he was making good military highways throughout the NorthIsland. 

In October, 1862, the Maoris held another great meeting among themselvesto discuss their position. They had grown confident, and thought thatthe Governor's mildness arose from weakness. They resolved to fight. TheGovernor sent soldiers to take possession of the land at Taranaki. TeWaharoa sent word to the Taranaki Maoris to begin shooting, and he wouldsoon be with them. He was as good as his word, and laid a trap for abody of English soldiers and killed ten of them. 

The Waikatos sent an embassy to all the other tribes, urging them tojoin and drive the white men out of the country. Te Waharoa was chosento command in a grand attack at Auckland, and for that purpose theMaoris in two columns moved stealthily through the forest down theWaikato valley towards the town, threatening to massacre every white manin it. But General Cameron was there in time to meet them. They fellback to a line of rifle pits they had formed, and from that shelter didmuch damage to the British troops. But at last the Maoris were dislodgedand chased with bayonets up the Waikato, losing fifty of their men. Theyhad stronger entrenchments farther up, where a thousand men wereencamped with women to cook for them and to make cartridges. So stronglywere they posted that Cameron waited for four months whilst guns andsupplies were being brought up along the roads, which were now good andwell made. By getting round to the side of their camp, and behind it, hemade it necessary for them to fall back again, which they did. 

#7. Rangiriri. #--They now made themselves very secure at a place calledRangiriri, where a narrow road was left between the Waikato River and aboggy lake. This space they had blocked with a fence of thick treestwenty feet high, and with two ditches running across the whole length. In the midst of this strong line they had set up a redoubt, a sort ofsquare fortress, from the walls of which they could fire down upon theattackers in any direction. About 500 Maoris well armed took up theirposition in this stronghold. Cameron advanced against them with 770 menand two guns, each throwing shot of forty pounds weight. At the sametime four gunboats with 500 soldiers were sent up the river to take theMaori position in flank. At half-past four on a July morning the Britishbugles sounded the attack, and the fight lasted until the darkness ofnight put an end to it. During that fierce day the British charged againand again, to be met by a murderous fire from behind the palisades andfrom the walls of the redoubt. Forty-one soldiers had been killed andninety-one wounded, the line of palisades had been captured, but theMaoris had all gathered safely within the redoubt. During the night thetroops were quartered all round so as to prevent them from escaping, anda trench was cut to lead to a mine under the redoubt so that it could beblown up with gunpowder in the morning. The Maoris saw this project andcould not prevent it. In the early dawn, after a night spent in wardances and hideous yelling, some of them burst out by the side towardsthe lake, and rushed past or jumped over the soldiers who were restingthere. A heavy fire, poured into them from their rear, killed a greatmany of them. Seeing this, a large party of the Maoris, and among themTe Waharoa and the Maori king, stayed in the redoubt. But they knew thatthey were trapped, and next day they surrendered, in all 183 men with afew women. Sixty or seventy of the Maoris had been killed, but severalhundreds escaped. 

[Illustration: RANGIRIRI, FROM THE WAIKATO. ]

#8. Orakau. #--Meantime General Carey, who was next in command to GeneralCameron, had been chasing another large body of the Waikato tribe far upthe river more than half way to its source in Lake Taupo. It was a wildand mountainous district, and the Maoris were sheltered at Orakau, a pahin a very strong position. Carey spent three days in running a mineunder the walls, while his guns and mortars kept up a perfect storm ofshot and shell. Then he offered to accept their surrender. They refusedto give in. He begged them at least to let the women and children go andthey would be allowed to pass out unhurt. They said that men and womenwould fight for ever and ever. Yet when the mines began to burst, andthe guns poured in redoubled showers of death, they found they couldhold the place no longer. They formed a column, and made a sudden rushto escape. So quick were they and so favourable the ground, that theywould have escaped if the British had not had a body of 300 or 400cavalry, who rode after them and sabred all who would not surrender. About 200 were killed, and although several hundreds escaped yet theywere so dispersed that they made no further stand. They left their pahs, and though a series of skirmishes took place, yet the Waikato rebellionwas ended, and Cameron had only to leave a sufficient number of militarysettlers along the Waikato Valley to make certain that peace and orderwould be maintained. 

#9. The Gate Pah. #--There was a tribe at Tauranga, on the Bay of Plenty, with whom Governor Grey was displeased, for they had sent men, guns andfood to help the Waikatos, and they showed a warlike disposition. Hedemanded their submission, and they refused it. He then sent GeneralCameron with 1, 500 soldiers to deal with them. This force found theTauranga tribe prepared to fight in a strong place called the Gate Pah, built on a ridge with a swamp at each side. They had 500 men in it, allwell armed. Cameron had three heavy guns placed in position, and duringthe night 700 soldiers passed round one of the swamps to get at the rearof the Maoris. In the morning a terrific fire was opened, and for twohours the place was swept by shot and shell, but the Maoris had dugunderground shelters for themselves, and were little injured. After thatthe guns were used to break a hole in the palisades, and at four o'clockthere was a sufficient breach to admit an attacking party. Three hundredmen were chosen, and put in front of the place. A rocket was sent up asa signal, and the attacking party dashed at the breach. As they enteredit, not a Maori could be seen, but puffs of smoke all along the earthenbank showed where they were concealed. The assailants were a densecrowd, on whom every shot told. All the officers were killed. More menkept crowding in, only to drop before the murderous fire. Suddenly apanic seized the men. A rush was made to get out of the breach again, and while the soldiers were running away volley after volley was firedinto the crowd. General Cameron did not renew the attack, for eveningwas falling. There came on a dark wet night; and although surrounded onall hands, the Maoris contrived to slip gently past the sentries, leaving some wounded men behind them. 

#10. Te Ranga. #--The Maoris fell back a few miles and chose a strongposition at Te Ranga for a new pah. They had only dug the ditches andmade some rifle pits when the British were upon them. The troops carriedthe position with a rush, the Maoris standing up against the bayonetswith the coolest courage. A hand-to-hand fight forced the natives out ofthe ditches, and then they turned and fled. The horse soldiers pursuedand killed many. Altogether 123 of the Maoris were killed and a largenumber captured, while the English lost ten men killed. 

#11. Wereroa. #--After this action, though skirmishes were frequent, theMaoris made no determined stand, and on the English side affairs werecarried on in a slow fashion. General Cameron had under him 10, 000regular soldiers, and nearly 10, 000 colonial volunteers. He had nearly adozen vessels of different sorts, either on the coasts or up the river, and he had an abundance of heavy guns. There arose quarrels between himand the Governor, who thought that with less than 1, 000 Maoris underarms more progress ought to have been made. General Cameron resigned anddeparted in the middle of 1865. The Governor wished him before he wentto attack a pah called Wereroa, but the general said he required 2, 000more men to do it, and refused. Yet Sir George Grey, taking himself thecommand of the colonial forces, captured the fort without losing a man. The bulk of the Maoris escaped, and kept up for a time a guerillawarfare in forests and on mountain sides; but at last the Taurangatribes, or the miserable remnant that was left, surrendered to theGovernor. Grey, in admiration of their generous and often noble conductand their straightforward mode of fighting, allowed all the prisoners togo free; and though he punished them by confiscating a quarter of theirland, he did his best to settle them on the other three-fourths in peaceand with such advantages as British help could secure them. So therecame quietness round the Bay of Plenty. 

#12. The Hau Hau Religion. #--Meantime new trouble was brewing in theTaranaki district. There the soldiers were skirmishing with the Maoris, but had them well in control, when a pair of mad or crafty nativepriests set the tribes in wild commotion, by declaring that the AngelGabriel had told them in a vision that at the end of the year 1864 allwhite men would be driven out of New Zealand, that he himself woulddefend the Maoris, and that the Virgin Mary would be always with them;that the religion of the white men was false, and that legions of angelswould come and teach the Maoris a better religion. In the meantime allgood Maoris who shouted the word Hau Hau as they went into battle wouldbe victorious, and angels would protect their lives. A body of thesefanatics, deeply impressed with the belief in these and many otherfollies, tried their fortunes against the soldiers at Taranaki, butwith small success. Forty of them, in spite of shouting their Hau Hau, fell before the muskets and guns of the white men. Then 300 of them madean effort in another direction, and, moving down the river Wanganui, threatened the little town at its mouth. Wanganui was defended by 300soldiers; but all the out settlers up the valley were leaving theirfarms and hurrying in for shelter, when 300 men of the Wanganui tribe, who liked the white men and were friendly with them, offered to fightthe Hau Haus. The challenge was accepted; and about 200 of the fanaticslanded on a little island called Moutoa, in the middle of the river. Though surrounded by a pretty margin of white pebbles, it was coveredwith ferns and thick scrub. Through this at daybreak the combatantscrept towards each other, the Hau Haus gesticulating and making queersounds. At last they fell to work, and volley after volley wasdischarged at only ten yards distance. The friendly natives, having seenthree of their chiefs fall, turned and fled. Many had plunged into theriver, when one of their chiefs made a stand at the end of the island, and gathering twenty men around him poured in a volley and killed theHau Hau leader. This surprised the fanatics and they hesitated; then asecond volley and a charge routed them. Back came the friendly Maoriswho had fled, and chased their enemies into the stream, wherein a heavyslaughter took place. About seventy of the Hau Haus were slain. Thetwelve who fell on the friendly side were buried in Wanganui withmilitary honours, and a handsome monument now marks the place wheretheir bones rest. 

#13. Conclusion of Maori Wars. #--In 1866 General Chute came to takecommand of the troops, in place of General Cameron. A vigorous campaigncrushed the Hau Haus after much skirmishing in different parts of theWellington district. But the chief trouble arose from another source. The 183 prisoners taken at Rangiriri, together with some others takenafterwards, were detained on board a hulk near Auckland. Sir George Greywished to deal in a kindly fashion with them, and proposed to releasethem if they gave their word not to give further trouble. The Ministersof his Cabinet were against this proposal, but agreed that he shouldsend them to an island near Auckland to live there without any guards. They gave their promise, but broke it and all but four escaped, TeWaharoa being among them. They chose the top of a circular hillthirty-five miles from Auckland and there fortified themselves in a pahcalled Omaha. But they did no harm to any one, and as they soon quietlydispersed they were not meddled with. 

A wild outburst of Hau Hau fanaticism on the east coast of the Bay ofPlenty stirred up the fires of discord again, when a worthy old Churchof England missionary named Mr. Volkner was seized, and, after somesavage rites had been performed, was hanged on a willow tree as avictim. More fighting followed, in which a large share was taken by aMaori chief named Ropata, who, clad in European uniform and with thetitle of Major Ropata, fought stoutly against the Hau Haus, and capturedseveral pahs. 

#14. Te Kooti. #--When the last of these pahs was captured an Englishofficer declared that one of the friendly chiefs named Te Kooti wasplaying false and acting as a spy. Thinking to do as Governor Grey haddone with Rauparaha, this officer seized the chief, who, without trialof any sort, was sent off to the Chatham Islands, a lonely group 300miles away, which New Zealand was now using as a penal establishment forprisoners. This conduct was quite unfair, as Te Kooti, so far as can nowbe known, was not a spy, and was friendly to the English. 

Nearly 300 Maoris were on the Chatham Islands, most of them Hau Hauprisoners. They were told that if they behaved well they would beallowed to return in two years. When two years were past and no signs oftheir liberation appeared, Te Kooti planned a bold escape. An armedschooner, the _Rifleman_, having come in with provisions the Maorissuddenly overpowered the twelve soldiers who formed their guard, andseized the vessel. One soldier was killed whilst fighting, but all therest were treated gently. The whole of the Maoris went on board and thenthe crew were told that unless they agreed to sail the vessel back toNew Zealand they would all be killed. Day and night Maori guardspatrolled the deck during the voyage, and one of them with loaded gunand drawn sword always stood over the helmsman and compelled him tosteer them home. They reached the shores of New Zealand a little northof Hawke Bay, and landed, taking with them all the provisions out ofthe vessel, but treating the crew in a kindly way. A ship was sent roundwith soldiers who attacked the runaways, but they were too few, and toohastily prepared, so that Te Kooti easily defeated them. Three times washe attacked by different bodies of troops, and three times did he driveoff his assailants. Cutting a path for himself through the forests, heforced his way a hundred miles inland to a place of security. But hispeople had no farms, and no means of raising food in these wild mountainregions, and the provisions they had taken from the _Rifleman_ were usedin a few months. 

#15. Poverty Bay Massacre. #--Then, roused to madness by hunger, of whichsome of them had died, they crept cautiously back to the Poverty Baydistrict. Falling at night upon the little village, they slaughteredmen, women, and children, as well as all the quiet Maoris they couldcatch. The dawn woke coldly on a silent village, wherein fifty or sixtybodies lay gashed and mangled in their beds, or at their doors, or upontheir garden paths. An old man and a boy escaped by hiding. After takingall the provisions out of the place, Te Kooti set fire to the houses andretreated to the hills, where, on the top of a peak 2, 000 feet high, hehad made a pah called Ngatapa, which was defended on every side byprecipices and deep gorges. There was only one narrow approach, and thathad been fortified with immense care. The colonial troops under ColonelWhitmore, and bodies of friendly Maoris under Ropata, attacked him here. The work was very difficult, for after climbing those precipitous hillsthere were two palisades to be carried, one seven feet high and theother twelve. But science prevailed. After great exertions and appallingdangers the place was captured by Ropata, who climbed the cliffs andgained a corner of the palisades, killing a great number of Te Kooti'smen in the action. During the night the rest escaped from the pah, sliding from the cliffs by means of ropes. But in the morning they werechased, and for two days the fugitives were brought back to the pah intwos and threes. Ropata took it for granted that they were all concernedin the massacre at Poverty Bay. Each of the captives as he arrived wasstripped, taken to the edge of the cliff, shot dead, and his body thrownover. About a hundred and twenty were thus slaughtered. But Te Kootihimself escaped, and for the next two years he lived the life of ahunted animal, chased through the gloomy forests by the relentlessRopata. He fought many fights; his twenty Hau Hau followers were oftennear to death from starvation; but at length wearied out he threwhimself on the mercy of the white men, was pardoned, sunk intoobscurity, and died in peace. 

War was not really at an end till 1871; as up to that date occasionalskirmishes took place. But there never was any fear of a general risingof the Maoris after 1866. 

#16. Progress of New Zealand. #--These wars were confined to the NorthIsland. Otago, Canterbury, and Nelson felt them only by way of increasedtaxes. Otherwise they were left in peace to pursue their quiet progress. They multiplied their population sixfold; they opened up the countrywith good roads; a railway was cut through the mountain to joinChristchurch with its seaport, Lyttelton, by a tunnel half a mile long. A similar but easier railway was made to join Dunedin to Port Chalmers;gold was found in various parts, especially in Otago, and on the westcoast round Hokitika. For a time New Zealand sent out gold every year tothe value of two and a half million pounds, and this lucrative pursuitbrought thousands of stout settlers to her shores. 

[Illustration: THE CARGILL FOUNTAIN, DUNEDIN. ]

In 1864 the New Zealand Parliament chose Wellington to be the capital ofthe colony, as being more central than Auckland. In 1868 an Act waspassed to abolish the provinces, and to make New Zealand more completelya united colony. A great change began in this same year, when the firstMaori chief was elected to be a member of the New Zealand Parliament. Before long there were six Maoris seated there, two of them being inthe Upper House. These honourable concessions, together with a fairertreatment in regard to their land, did much to show the Maoris thattheir lives and liberties were respected by the white men. They had lostmuch land, but what was left was now of more use to them than the wholehad formerly been. Their lives and their property were now safer thanever, and they learnt that to live as peaceful subjects of QueenVictoria was the happiest course they could follow. The Government builtschools for them and sent teachers; it built churches for them and caredfor them in many ways. Thus they became well satisfied, even if theysometimes remembered with regret the freer life of the olden times. 

But Sir George Grey, who was the warm friend of the Maori, was no longerGovernor. He had finished his work and his term of office had expired. Sir George Bowen came out to take his place. Grey after a trip toEngland returned to take up his residence in New Zealand, and a fewyears later allowed himself to be elected a member of its Parliament. Subsequently he became its Prime Minister, sinking his own personalpride in his desire to do good to the country. 

From 1870 to 1877 the affairs of the country were chiefly directed byministries in which Sir Julius Vogel was the principal figure. Hestarted and carried out a bold policy of borrowing and spending themoney so obtained in bringing out fresh settlers and in opening up theland by railways. This plan plunged the colony deeply into debt, but itchanged the look of the place, and although it had its dangers and itsdrawbacks, it has done a great deal for the colony. At first the nativesrefused to let the railways pass through their districts, but in 1872 agreat meeting of chiefs agreed that it would be good for all to have thecountry opened up. Some maintained a dull hostility till 1881, but allthe same the railways were made, until at length 2, 000 miles were openfor traffic. 

Between 1856 and 1880 nineteen different ministries managed the affairsof New Zealand, one after the other, the same Prime Minister howeverpresiding over different ministries. The most notable of these havebeen, Sir William Fox, Edward W. Stafford, Major Atkinson, and SirJulius Vogel. 

In 1880 the colony had increased to 500, 000 white people, owning12, 000, 000 sheep and exporting nearly £6, 000, 000 worth of goods. TheMaoris were 44, 000, but while the whites were rapidly increasing, theMaoris were somewhat decreasing. They had 112, 000 sheep and nearly50, 000 cattle, with about 100, 000 pigs. 

The heavy expenditure of the borrowing years from 1870 to 1881 wasfollowed by a time of depression from 1880 to 1890, during which SirRobert Stout and Major Atkinson were Prime Ministers; but at the endof that period the colony began rapidly to recover. Its populationapproached 750, 000, with 42, 000 Maoris; its sheep were nearly 20, 000, 000in number; and its farms produced 20, 000, 000 bushels of wheat and oats. It sent £4, 000, 000 worth of wool to England, and about £1, 000, 000 worthof frozen meat. The general history of the last twenty years may besummed up as consisting of immense progress in all material and socialinterests. 

[Illustration: VICTORIA DEFENCE FLEET. ]

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INDEX. 

 PAGE Abolition of Transportation 83 _Active_ 196 Adelaide 70 Agricultural Co. , N. S. W. 44 Albany 118, 136 Alexander, Mount 97 Alexandrina, Lake 53 Alfred, Prince 171 _Alligator_ 202 Anti-Transportation 161 Arthur, Governor 36 Atkin, Judge-Advocate 30 Auckland 205 Australia, name given 2 Australian Bight 133 Ballarat 95 Bass 18, 20, 40 Bathurst 42 Batman 37, 58, 62 Baudin 23 Bentley 103 Bligh 29 Blue Mountains 40 Botany Bay 9, 11 Bourke 45, 64 Bowen, Lieutenant 32 Bowen, Sir George 129 _Boyd_ 193 Brady 37 Brisbane, Governor 42 Brisbane River 120 Britannia 209 Browne, Colonel 162 Browne, Colonel Gere 232 Buccaneers' Archipelago 7 Buckley 63 Burke and Wills 143 Burra Mines 86 Busby 202 Caen, De 24 Caley's Repulse 40 Cameron, Sir Duncan 234 Canterbury 229 Carpenter, General 5 Castlemaine 97 Castlereagh 40 Chisholm, Mrs. 79 Christchurch 230 Clarke 20 Clarke, Rev. W. B. 91 Clunes 95 Collins, Governor 12, 32, 57 Convicts Prevention Act 99 Cook's Voyages 8, 118 Corner Inlet 21 Cotton Plantations 125 Cowper, Charles 170 Crawford 37 Crozet, Captain 190 _Cumberland_, vessel 24 Cunningham, Allan 49 Dalley 175 Dalrymple 22, 34 Dampier 6 Darling River 52 Darling, Sir Charles 178 Darling, Sir Ralph 43 Davey, Governor 34 Denison, Governor 108, 159 D'Entrecasteaux 11 Despard, Colonel 223 Du Cane 162 Du Fresne 190 _Dunbar_ 110 Dunedin 229 _Duyfhen_ 4 Edel 5 _Endeavour_ 8, 188 Esmond 95 Eureka Stockade 104 Exhibitions-- Sydney 174 Melbourne 182 Adelaide 168 Eyre, Edward 132 Fawkner 57, 62, 66 Fisher 70 Fitzroy, Governor 215 Fitzroy, Sir Charles 83 Flinders 18, 22, 24 Forrest 154 Foveaux, Colonel 31 Franklin, Sir John 38, 155 Fremantle 112 Furneaux 11 Garden Island 112 Gate Pah 238 Gawler, Colonel 71, 75 Geelong 60 Giles 154 Gipps, Governor 75 Glenelg River 54 Godley, John Robert 229 Gold, early rumours of 90 Gold in Queensland 123 Goldfields, aspect of 99 Goldfields, rush to 93 Gregory, A. C. 143 Grey, Earl 82 Grey, Governor 75, 84, 224 Grimes 56 Grose, Major 16 Hacking, Port 20 Haines 176 Hargraves 91 Hartog, Dirk 4 Hau Hau 239 Hawaiki 186 Hawkesbury 16 Henty Bros. 61 Hervey Bay 23 Hindmarsh, Governor 71 Hobart Town 32 Hobson, Governor 203, 214 Hokianga 201 Hongi 195 Honi Heke 218 Hotham, Sir Charles 103 Howe, Cape 9 Howitt 151 Hulme, Colonel 221 Hume and Hovell 49 Humffray 104 Hunter, Captain 12, 16 _Investigator_, vessel 23 Jackson, Port 10, 12 Johnstone, Major 28, 30 Kangaroo Island 23, 70 Kapunda Mines 85 Keer-weer, Cape 4 Kennedy, the explorer 141 Kennedy, a miner 103 Kororarika 200, 220 King, Lieutenant 15, 25 King George's Sound 111, 118, 136 Lalor 104, 105 Lancey, Captain 62 Land Grants, W. A. 113 Land Laws, N. S. W. 76 Land League 233 Land Question 46, 210 Landsborough 152 Lang, Dr. 80 La Perouse 11 Latrobe 65, 80 _Leeuwin_ 4 Legislative Assembly 108, 175 Legislative Council 44, 80, 108, 215 Leichardt 140 Licence Fee 101 Lonsdale 65 Lyttelton 230 Macarthur, John 28 M'Culloch 179 M'Kinlay 152 Macleay 52 Macquarie, Governor 38 Macquarie River 42, 49 Marion 11 Marsden, Samuel 194 Melbourne 60, 65 Merri Creek 60 Mitchell 54 Moreton Bay 10, 119 Murray, Lieutenant 23, 55 Murray River 52 Nelson 213 New Hebrides 2 New Plymouth 212 New South Wales Corps 26 New South Wales named 10 New Zealand 9, 188 New Zealand Company 207 New Zealand Fencibles 227 Norfolk Island 15, 35 _Norfolk_, sloop 22 Nuggets 98 Nuyts 5 Oheawai 223 Orakau 237 Otago 227 Ovens River 50, 101 Oxley 48, 119 Parkes, Sir H. 175 Patriotic Six 159 Patterson, Colonel 16, 31, 34 Peel, Mr. 116 Perth 113 Phillip, Governor 12 Polynesian Labour 126 Poole 137 Portland Bay 55 Port Chalmers 229 Port Phillip 55 Poverty Bay 242 Queen Charlotte Sound 190, 208 Queensland 123 Quiros, De 2 Railways in N. S. W. 171 Rangihaeata 216, 226 Rangiriri 235 Rauparaha 216, 226 Ruapekapeka 225 Ruatara 195 _Rebecca_, vessel 59 Redcliff Peninsula 120 Representative Government 80, 232 Risdon 32 Robe, Governor 88 Robertson, John 170 Rockhampton 124 _Roebuck_ 7 Saltwater River 60 Sandhurst 97 Selwyn, Dr. George 214 Separation of Port Phillip 79 Separation of Queensland 122 Settled Government 201 Shoalhaven River 21 Shortland, Lieutenant 17, 210, 215 _Sirius_, war-ship 12 Sorell, Governor 35 Soudan Expedition 175 South Australian Association 68 Spain, William 216 Spencer's Gulf 23 Stony Desert 139 Strzelecki 90 Stuart, M'Douall 137, 153 Sturt 15, 136 _Supply_, war-ship 12 Surville De 189 Sydney Cove 13 Tamar River 22 Taranaki 211, 233 Tarra 193 Tasman 5, 187 Tasmania named 162 Taylor 37 Te Kooti 241 Telegraph, overland 166 Te Pehi 192, 194 Te Ranga 238 Te Whero Whero 199, 212, 233 Todd, Charles 166 _Tom Thumb_, boat 18 Torrens' Real Property Act 164 Torrens, Colonel 70 Torres 3 Tribulation, Cape 10 Twofold Bay 21 University of Sydney 111 Vancouver 11 Van Diemen 5 Vern 105 Victoria 83, 175 Vlaming 112 Wairau 216 Waitangi 204 Wakefield, Edward Gibbon 67, 207, 227 Wakefield Colonel 208 Walker 152 Wanganui 212 Warburton 154 Weld, Governor 162 Wellington 208 Wentworth 40, 109 Wereroa 239 Western Port 21, 58 West Australia 111 Wilmot, Sir Eardley 158 Wilson's Promontory 21 Windsor 40 Wool-growing 28 Wynyard, Colonel 232 Yarra 59 York, Cape 4, 24, 142 Young, Sir Henry 89, 162 Young, Sir John 168 Zaachen 4

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