** Transcriber's Notes **

Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface;Vowels followed by a colon represent a long vowel (printed with a macron inthe original text). 

To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions areused:

- The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals signs (==). - Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (--). - Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\). - Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no horizontal line under them. - Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (. . )- Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (')- Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes (`)- Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this:

 ----, helping '---------

- Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like this:

 \wai \ ting ---------** End Transcriber's Notes **

HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 

A WORK ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION, IN WHICH THE SCIENCE OF THE LANGUAGE IS MADE TRIBUTARY TO THE ART OFEXPRESSION. 

A COURSE OF PRACTICAL LESSONS CAREFULLY GRADED, AND ADAPTED TO EVERY-DAYUSE IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 

BYALONZO REED, A. M. , FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, ANDBRAINERD KELLOGG, LL. D. , PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE POLYTECHNICINSTITUTE, BROOKLYN. 

Revised Edition, 1896. 

PREFACE. 

The plan of "Higher Lessons" will perhaps be better understood if we firstspeak of two classes of text-books with which this work is brought intocompetition. 

+Method of One Class of Text-books+. --In one class are those that aimchiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order ofOrthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large spaceto grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing, --work of whicha considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and haslittle value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developinghis reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful, old-time method. 

+Method of Another Class of Text-books. +--In another class are those thatpresent a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and GeneralInformation, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes thesebooks will have gained something by practice and will have picked up somescraps of knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected, and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a goodtext-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents aclear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science orits art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being. 

+The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words. +--It is the plan of_this_ book to trace with easy steps the natural development of thesentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to thedetails. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and todisregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcelyintelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined onlyby its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the officesand relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained todiscover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organicwhole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is notbecause he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he fallsinto such errors as "How many sounds _have_ each of the vowels?" "Fiveyears' interest _are_ due. " "She is older than _me_. " He probably would notsay "each _have_, " "interest _are_, " "_me_ am. " One thoroughly familiarwith the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in usingcorrectly the few inflectional forms in English. 

+The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse. +--Through the studyof the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the partsof speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the lawsof discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law ofunity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists ofgood sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation orunit of discourse, it is all-important that the pupil should know thesentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate partsin their proper relation; he should know the exact function of everyelement, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. Heshould know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that, when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find thedifficulty and the remedy for it. 

+The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation. +--The laws ofthought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of thesentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired aknowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreignlanguage, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his ownlanguage he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must behis confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue! A study ofthe parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to thoseof other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages arebeginning to appreciate these facts. 

+The Study of the Sentence for Discipline+. --As a means of disciplinenothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of thesentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and todiscover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the partsof the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupilsthoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences cometo their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. Theseresults can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experiencedteachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at thebeginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline andlittle knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence begained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. Tocompel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as"complex adverbial element of the second class" and "compound prepositionaladjective phrase, " in order to comprehend a few simple functions, isgrossly unjust; it is a substitution of form for content, of words forideas. 

+Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence. +--Teachers familiarwith text-books that group all grammatical instruction around the eightparts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the followinglessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it isremembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is thesentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order ofsequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices ofthe different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is tocontinue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. Theinflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes aseparate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enableone to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent. 

+Sentences in Groups--Paragraphs+. --In tracing the growth of the sentencefrom the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it isintroduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosenwith the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupilto confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand. Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, withquestions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and toprepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessonson these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. Theylead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped intoparagraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other; they also leadhim on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of theseveral models presented. 

+The Use of the Diagram+. --In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directlyand vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase--to picturethe complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate partsin their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic wholemade up of many parts performing various functions and standing in variousrelations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeingall these things by piecemeal or in succession. 

But if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, theymay be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan ofthis book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams. 

+The Objections to the Diagram+. --The fact that the pictorial diagramgroups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is, onthe contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through theliterary order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what theliterary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, solong as the logical relations are kept clear. 

The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borneout by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than inwritten. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination ofthe sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels adecision on every point. 

+The Abuse of the Diagram+. --Analysis by diagram often becomes sointeresting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to beoverdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When theordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used onlyfor the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only forthe more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis thereis danger of repeating what needs no repetition. When the diagram hasserved its purpose, it should be dropped. 

AUTHORS' NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. 

During the years in which "Higher Lessons" has been in existence, we haveourselves had an instructive experience with it in the classroom. We haveconsidered hundreds of suggestive letters written us by intelligentteachers using the book. We have examined the best works on grammar thathave been published recently here and in England. And we have done more. Wehave gone to the original source of all valid authority in our language--the best writers and speakers of it. That we might ascertain what presentlinguistic usage is, we chose fifty authors, now alive or living tillrecently, and have carefully read three hundred pages of each. We haveminutely noted and recorded what these men by habitual use declare to begood English. Among the fifty are such men as Ruskin, Froude, Hamerton, Matthew Arnold, Macaulay, De Quincey, Thackeray, Bagehot, John Morley, James Martineau, Cardinal Newman, J. R. Green, and Lecky in England; andHawthorne, Curtis, Prof. W. D. Whitney, George P. Marsh, Prescott, Emerson, Motley, Prof. Austin Phelps, Holmes, Edward Everett, Irving, and Lowell inAmerica. When in the pages following we anywhere quote usage, it is to theauthority of such men that we appeal. 

Upon these four sources of help we have drawn in the Revision of "HigherLessons" that we now offer to the public. 

In this revised work we have given additional reasons for the opinions wehold, and have advanced to some new positions; have explained more fullywhat some teachers have thought obscure; have qualified what we think wasput too positively in former editions; have given the history ofconstructions where this would deepen interest or aid in composition; havequoted the verdicts of usage on many locutions condemned by purists; havetried to work into the pupil's style the felicities of expression found inthe lesson sentences; have taught the pupil earlier in the work, and morethoroughly, the structure and the function of paragraphs; and have led himon from the composition of single sentences of all kinds to the compositionof these great groups of sentences. But the distinctive features of "HigherLessons" that have made the work so useful and so popular stand as theyhave stood--the Study of Words from their Offices in the Sentence, Analysisfor the sake of subsequent Synthesis, Easy Gradation, the Subdivisions andModifications of the Parts of Speech after the treatment of these in theSentence, etc. , etc. We confess to some surprise that so little of what wasthought good in matter and method years ago has been seriously affected bycriticism since. 

The additions made to "Higher Lessons"--additions that bring the work up tothe latest requirements--are generally in foot-notes to pages, andsometimes are incorporated into the body of the Lessons, which in numberand numbering remain as they were. The books of former editions and thoseof this revised edition can, therefore, be used in the same class withoutany inconvenience. 

Of the teachers who have given us invaluable assistance in this Revision, we wish specially to name Prof. Henry M. Worrell, of the PolytechnicInstitute; and in this edition of the work, as in the preceding, we takepleasure in acknowledging our great indebtedness to our critic, thedistinguished Prof. Francis A. March, of Lafayette College. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 1. 

A TALK ON LANGUAGE. 

Let us talk to-day about a language that we never learn from a grammar orfrom a book of any kind--a language that we come by naturally, and usewithout thinking of it. 

It is a universal language, and consequently needs no interpreter. Peopleof all lands and of all degrees of culture use it; even the brute animalsin some measure understand it. 

This Natural language is the language of cries, laughter, and tones, thelanguage of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the whole face; the language ofgestures and postures. 

The child's cry tells of its wants; its sob, of grief; its scream, of pain;its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his eyebrows in surprise and his nosein disgust, leans forward in expectation, draws back in fear, makes a fistin anger, and calls or drives away his dog simply by the tone in which hespeaks. 

But feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate. Early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to think, and then wefeel the need of a better language. 

Suppose, for instance, you have formed an idea of a day; could you expressthis by a tone, a look, or a gesture?

If you wish to tell me the fact that _yesterday was cloudy_, or that _thedays are shorter in winter than in summer_, you find it wholly impossibleto do this by means of Natural language. 

To communicate, then, your thoughts, or even the mental pictures we havecalled ideas, you need a language more nearly perfect. 

This language is made up of words. 

These words you learn from your mothers, and so Word language is yourmother-tongue. You learn them, also, from your friends and teachers, yourplaymates and companions, and you learn them by reading; for words, as youknow, may be written as well as spoken. 

This Word language we may, from its superiority, call +Language Proper+. 

Natural language, as was said, precedes this Word language, but gives wayas Word language comes in and takes its place; yet Natural language may beused, and always should be used, to assist and strengthen Word language. Inearnest conversation we enforce what we say in words, by the tone in whichwe utter them, by the varying expression of the face, and by the movementsof the different parts of the body. 

The look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word, or it maycontradict it, and thus convict the speaker of ignorance or deception. 

The happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all goodreading and speaking. The teacher of elocution is ever trying to recall thepupil to the tones, the facial expression, and the action, so natural tohim in childhood and in animated conversation. 

+DEFINITION. --_Language Proper_ consists of the spoken and the writtenwords used to communicate ideas and thoughts+. 

+DEFINITION. --_English Grammar_ is the science which teaches the forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English language. +

 * * * * *

LESSON 2. 

A TALK ON THOUGHTS AND SENTENCES. 

To express a thought we use more than a single word, and the words arrangedto express a thought we call a sentence. 

But there was a time when, through lack of words, we compressed our thoughtinto a single word. The child says to his father, _up_, meaning, _Take meup into your lap_; or, _book_, meaning, _This thing in my hand is a book_. 

These first words always deal with the things that can be learned by thesenses; they express the child's ideas of these things. 

We have spoken of thoughts and sentences; let us see now whether we canfind out what a thought is, and what a sentence is. 

A sentence is a group of words expressing a thought; it is a body of whicha thought is the soul. It is something that can be seen or heard, while athought cannot be. Let us see whether, in studying a sentence, we may notlearn what a thought is. 

In any such sentence as this, _Spiders spin_, something is said, orasserted, about something. Here it is said, or asserted, of the animals, spiders, that they spin. 

The sentence, then, consists of two parts, --the name of that of whichsomething is said, and that which is said of it. 

The first of these parts we call the +Subject+ of the sentence; the second, the +Predicate+. 

Now, if the sentence, composed of two parts, expresses the thought, theremust be in the thought two parts to be expressed. And there are two: viz. , something of which we think, and that which we think of it. In the thoughtexpressed by _Spiders spin_, the animals, spiders, are the something ofwhich we think, and their spinning is what we think of them. In thesentence expressing this thought, the word _spiders_ names that of which wethink, and the word _spin_ tells what we think of spiders. 

Not every group of words is necessarily a sentence, because it may not bethe expression of a thought. _Spiders spinning_ is not a sentence. There isnothing in this expression to show that we have formed a judgment, _i. E. _, that we have really made up our minds that spiders do spin. The spinning isnot asserted of the spiders. 

_Soft feathers_, _The shining sun_ are not sentences, and for similarreasons. _Feathers are soft_, _The sun shines_ are sentences. Here theasserting word is supplied, and something is said of something else. 

_The shines sun_ is not a sentence; for, though it contains the assertingword _shines_, the arrangement is such that no assertion is made, and nothought is expressed. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 3. 

A TALK ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 

We have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts we usetwo kinds of words, spoken words and written words. 

We learned the spoken words first. Mankind spoke long before they wrote. Not until people wished to communicate with those at a distance, or hadthought out something worth handing down to aftertimes, did they need towrite. 

But speaking was easy. The air, the lungs, and the organs of the throat andmouth were at hand. The first cry was a suggestion. Sounds and noises wereheard on every side, provoking imitation, and the need of speech for thepurposes of communication was imperative. 

Spoken words are made up of sounds. There are over forty sounds in theEnglish language. The different combinations of these give us all the wordsof our spoken tongue. That you may clearly understand these sounds, we willtell you something about the human voice. 

In talking, the air driven out from your lungs beats against two flatmuscles, stretched, like bands, across the top of the windpipe, and causesthem to vibrate up and down. This vibration makes sound. Take a thread, putone end between your teeth, hold the other with thumb and finger, draw ittight and strike it, and you will understand how voice is made. The shorterthe string, or the tighter it is drawn, the faster will it vibrate, and thehigher will be the pitch of the sound. The more violent the blow, thefarther will the string vibrate, and the louder will be the sound. Just sowith these vocal bands or cords. The varying force with which the breathstrikes them and their different tensions and lengths at different times, explain the different degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of thevoice. 

If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, aclass of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds. 

But if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue, teeth, or lips, one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made. If thebreath is driven out without voice, and is held back by these same parts ofthe mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is formed. 

The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which represent tothe eye these sounds that address the ear. 

You are now prepared to understand us when we say that +vowels+ are the+letters+ that stand for the +open sounds+ of the +voice+, and that+consonants+ are the +letters+ that stand for the sounds made by the+obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+. 

The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A perfectalphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one. 

Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways:--

1. Some of the letters are superfluous; _c_ stands for the sound of _s_ orof _k_, as in _city_ and _can_; _q_ has the sound of _k_, as in _quit_; and_x_ that of _ks_, _gz_, or _z_, as in _expel_, _exist_, and _Xenophon_. 

2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds; as, _th_ inthine, _th_ in _thin_, _ng_ in _sing_, and _sh_ in _shut_. 

3. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters representover forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty; _e_ stands fortwo sounds, as in _mete_ and _met_; _i_ for two, as in _pine_ and _pin_;_o_ for three, as in _note, not_, and _move_; _u_ for four, as in _tube, tub, full_, and _fur_; _a_ for six, as in _fate, fat, far, fall, fast_, and_fare_. 

_W_ is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a vowelsound, and _y_ is a vowel when it has the sound of _i_, as in _now, by, boy, newly_. _W_ and _y_ are consonants at the beginning of a word orsyllable. 

The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same vowel arecaused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes. These changes inits cavity produce, also, the two sounds that unite in each of thecompounds, _ou_, _oi_, _ew_, and in the alphabetic _i_ and _o_. 

 1. 2. _Vocal Consonants_. _Aspirates_. B. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . P d. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . T g. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . K -------------------h j. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Ch l------------------ m------------------ n------------------ r------------------ th. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Th (in _thine_) (in _thin_) v. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . F w------------------ y------------------ z (in _zone_). .. .. . S z (in _azure_). .. .. Sh

The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the obstructedvoice; those in column 2, except _h_ (which represents a mere forciblebreathing), represent those made by the obstructed breath. 

The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, lips, andpalate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds of bothletters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of the letters of anypair is simply this: there is voice in the sounds of the letters in column1, and only whisper in those of column 2. Give the sound of any letter incolumn 1, as _b, g, v_, and the last or vanishing part of it is the soundof the other letter of the pair. 

TO THE TEACHER. --Write these letters on the board, as above, and drill thepupils on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Drillthem on the vowels also. 

In closing this talk with you, we wish to emphasize one point broughtbefore you. Here is a pencil, a real thing; we carry in memory a picture ofthe pencil, which we call an idea; and there are the two words naming thisidea, the spoken and the written. Learn to distinguish clearly these fourthings. 

TO THE TEACHER. --In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular emphasison Lesson 2. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 4. 

ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. 

TO THE TEACHER. --If the pupils have been through "Graded Lessons" or itsequivalent, some of the following Lessons may be passed over rapidly. 

+DEFINITION. --A _Sentence_ is the expression of a thought in words+. 

+Direction+. --_Analyze the following sentences_:--

+Model+. --_Spiders spin_. Why is this a sentence? Ans. --Because itexpresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans. --Spiders. Whichword tells what is thought? Ans. --_Spin_. [Footnote: The word _spiders_, standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing; _spin_, used merely asa word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the pupil willplease note here and elsewhere. ]

1. Tides ebb. 2. Liquids flow. 3. Steam expands. 4. Carbon burns. 5. Iron melts. 6. Powder explodes. 7. Leaves tremble. 8. Worms crawl. 9. Hares leap. 

In each of these sentences there are, as you have learned, two parts--the+Subject+ and the +Predicate+. 

+DEFINITION. --The _Subject of a sentence_ names that of which something isthought. +

+DEFINITION. --The _Predicate of a sentence_ tells what is thought. +

+DEFINITION. --The _Analysis of a sentence_ is the separation of it into itsparts. +

+Direction+. --_Analyze these sentences_:--

+Model+. --_Beavers build_. This is a sentence because it expresses athought. _Beavers_ is the subject because it names that of which somethingis thought; _build_ is the predicate because it tells what is thought. [Footnote: When pupils are familiar with the definitions, let the form ofanalysis be varied. The reasons may be made more specific. Here andelsewhere avoid mechanical repetition. ]

1. Squirrels climb. 2. Blood circulates. 3. Muscles tire. 4. Heralds proclaim. 5. Apes chatter. 6. Branches wave. 7. Corn ripens. 8. Birds twitter. 9. Hearts throb. 

+Explanation+. --Draw a heavy line and divide it into two parts. Let thefirst part represent the subject of a sentence; the second, the predicate. 

If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that this wordis the subject of a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, youwill understand that this word is the predicate of a sentence. 

 Love | conquers========|============ |

You see, by looking at this figure, that _Love conquers_ is a sentence;that _love_ is the subject, and _conquers_ the predicate. 

Such figures, made up of straight lines, we call _Diagrams_. 

+DEFINITION. --A _Diagram_ is a picture of the offices and the relations ofthe different parts of a sentence. +

+Direction+. --_Analyze these sentences_:--

1. Frogs croak. 2. Hens sit. 3. Sheep bleat. 4. Cows low. 5. Flies buzz. 6. Sap ascends. 7. Study pays. 8. Buds swell. 9. Books aid. 10. Noise disturbs. 11. Hope strengthens. 12. Cocks crow. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 5. 

COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE. --The first word of every sentence must begin with a_capital letter_+. 

+PERIOD--RULE. --A _period_ must be placed after every sentence that simplyaffirms, denies, or commands. +

+Direction+. --_Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of thefollowing predicates_:--

Ask yourselves the questions, What tarnishes? Who sailed, conquered, etc. ?

1. ----- tarnishes. 2. ----- capsize. 3. ----- radiates. 4. ----- sentence. 5. ----- careen. 6. ----- sailed. 7. ----- descends. 8. ----- glisten. 9. ----- absorb. 10. ----- corrode. 11. ----- conquered. 12. ----- surrendered. 13. ----- refines. 14. ----- gurgle. 15. ----- murmur. 

+Direction+. --_Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of thefollowing subjects_:--

Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what?

1. Glycerine -----. 2. Yankees -----. 3. Tyrants -----. 4. Pendulums -----. 5. Caesar -----. 6. Labor -----. 7. Chalk -----. 8. Nature -----. 9. Tempests -----. 10. Seeds -----. 11. Heat -----. 12. Philosophers -----. 13. Bubbles -----. 14. Darkness -----. 15. Wax -----. 16. Reptiles -----. 17. Merchants -----. 18. Meteors -----. 19. Conscience -----. 20. Congress -----. 21. Life -----. 22. Vapors -----. 23. Music -----. 24. Pitch -----. 

TO THE TEACHER. --This exercise may profitably be extended by supplyingseveral subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 6. 

ANALYSIS. 

The predicate sometimes contains more than one word. 

+Direction+. --_Analyze as in Lesson 4_. 

1. Moisture is exhaled. 2. Conclusions are drawn. 3. Industry will enrich. 4. Stars have disappeared. 5. Twilight is falling. 6. Leaves are turning. 7. Sirius has appeared. 8. Constantinople had been captured. 9. Electricity has been harnessed. 10. Tempests have been raging. 11. Nuisances should be abated. 12. Jerusalem was destroyed. 13. Light can be reflected. 14. Rain must have fallen. 15. Planets have been discovered. 16. Palaces shall crumble. 17. Storms may be gathering. 18. Essex might have been saved. 19. Caesar could have been crowned, 20. Inventors may be encouraged. 

+Direction+. --_Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence inLessons 12 and 17_. 

Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting _who_ or _what_before this predicate, the subject may easily be found. 

TO THE TEACHER. --Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readilypoint out the subject and the predicate in ordinary simple sentences. 

When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step inanalysis will have been taken. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 7. 

COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

+Direction+. --_Make at least ten good sentences out of the words in thethree columns following_:--

The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 3 inorder to make complete predicates. Analyze your sentences. 

1 2 3Arts is progressing. Allen was tested. Life are command. Theories will prolonged. Science would released. Truth were falling. Shadows may be burned. Moscow has been measured. Raleigh have been prevail. Quantity should have been lost. 

Review Questions. 

What is language proper? What is English grammar? What is a sentence? Whatare its two parts? What is the subject of a sentence? The predicate of asentence? The analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What rule has beengiven for the use of capital letters? For the period? May the predicatecontain more than one word? Illustrate. 

TO THE TEACHER. --Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before theclose of this recitation. See "Introductory Hints" below. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 8. 

CLASSES OF WORDS. 

NOUNS. 

+Introductory Hints+. --We have now reached the point where we must classifythe words of our language. But we are appalled by their number. If we mustlearn all about the forms and the uses of a hundred thousand words bystudying these words one by one, we shall die ignorant of English grammar. 

But may we not deal with words as we do with plants? If we had to study andname each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, we should never masterthe botany even of our garden-plants. 

But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from oneanother; and, as he has given us the power to detect resemblances anddifferences, we are able to group things that have like qualities. 

From certain likenesses in form and in structure, we put certain flowerstogether and call them roses; from other likenesses, we get another classcalled lilies; from others still, violets. Just so we classify trees andget the oak, the elm, the maple, etc. 

The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. Studyingeach class, we learn all we need to know of every object in it. 

From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify words. We group themaccording to their similarities in use, or office, in the sentence. Sortingthem thus, we find that they all fall into eight classes, which we callParts of Speech. 

We find that many words name things--are the names of things of which wecan think and speak. These we place in one class and call them +Nouns+(Latin _nomen_, a name, a noun). 

PRONOUNS. 

Without the little words which we shall italicize, it would be difficultfor one stranger to ask another, "Can _you_ tell _me who_ is the postmasterat B?" The one would not know what name to use instead of _you_, the otherwould not recognize the name in the place of _me_, and both would bepuzzled to find a substitute for _who_. 

_I, you, my, me, what, we, it, he, who, him, she, them, _ and other wordsare used in place of nouns, and are, therefore, called +Pronouns+ (Lat. _pro_, for, and _nomen_, a noun). 

By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every objectin existence. We could hardly speak or write without them now, they sofrequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion and repetition. 

+DEFINITION. --A _Noun_ is the name of anything. +

+DEFINITION. --A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun. +

The principal office of nouns is to name the things of which we say, orassert, something in the sentence. 

+Direction+. ---_Write, according to the model, the names of things that canburn, grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve. _

+Model. +-- _Nouns. _ Wood | Paper | Oil | Houses + burn or burns. Coal | Leaves | Matches | Clothes |

+Remark. +--Notice that, when the subject adds _s_ or _es_ to denote morethan one, the predicate does not take _s_. Note how it would sound if bothshould add _s_. 

+Every subject+ of a sentence is a +noun+, or some word or words used as anoun. But not every noun in a sentence is a subject. 

+Direction. +--_Select and write all the nouns and pronouns, whethersubjects or not, in the sentences given in Lesson_ 18. 

_In writing them observe the following rules_:--

+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE. --_Proper, _ or _individual, names_ and _words derivedfrom them_ begin with capital letters. +

+PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER--RULE. --_Abbreviations_ generally begin withcapital letters and are always followed by the period. +

 * * * * *

LESSON 9. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

+Direction. +--_From the following words select and write in one columnthose names that distinguish individual things from others of the sameclass, and in another column those words that are derived from individualnames_:--

Observe Rule 1, Lesson 8. 

ohio, state, chicago, france, bostonian, country, england, boston, milton, river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city, englishman, messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plato, christian, broadway, america, jehovah, british, easter, europe, man, scriptures, god. 

+Direction. +--_Write the names of the days of the week and the months ofthe year, beginning each with a capital letter; and write the names of theseasons without capital letters. _

+Remember+ that, when a class name and a distinguishing word combine tomake one individual name, each word begins with a capital letter; as, _Jersey City_. [Footnote: _Dead Sea_ is composed of the class name _sea_, which applies to all seas, and the word _Dead_, which distinguishes one seafrom all others. ]

But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a completename, the class name begins with a small letter; as, _river Rhine_. 

+Examples+. --Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspension Bridge, NewYork city, Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, Red River, Lake Erie, General Jackson, White Mountains, river Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew, North Pole. 

+Direction+. --_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:--

ohio river, professor huxley, president adams, doctor brown, clintoncounty, westchester county, colonel burr, secretary stanton, lake george, green mountains, white sea, cape cod, delaware bay, atlantic ocean, unitedstates, rhode island. 

+Remember+ that, when an individual name is made up of a class name, theword _of_, and a distinguishing word, the class name and the distinguishingword should each begin with a capital letter; as, _Gulf of Mexico_. But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name, the class name should begin with a small letter; as, _city of London_. [Footnote: The need of some definite instruction to save the young writerfrom hesitation and confusion in the use of capitals is evident from thefollowing variety of forms now in use: _City_ of New York, _city_ of NewYork, New York _City_, New York _city_, New York _State_, New York _state_, Fourth _Avenue_, Fourth _avenue_, Grand _Street_, Grand _street_, Grand_st. _, Atlantic _Ocean_, Atlantic _ocean_, Mediterranean _Sea_, Mediterranean _sea_, Kings _County_, Kings _county_, etc. 

The usage of newspapers and of text-books on geography would probably favorthe writing of the class names in the examples above with initial capitals;but we find in the most carefully printed books and periodicals a tendencyto favor small letters in such cases. 

In the superscription of letters, such words as _street_, _city_, and_county_ begin with capitals. 

Usage certainly favors small initials for the following italicized words:_river_ Rhine, Catskill _village_, the Ohio and Mississippi _rivers_. If_river_ and _village_, in the preceding examples, are not essential partsof the individual names, why should _river_, _ocean_, and _county_, inHudson _river_, Pacific _ocean_, Queens _county_, be treated differently?We often say the _Hudson_, the _Pacific_, _Queens_, without adding theexplanatory class name. 

The principle we suggest may be in advance of common usage; but it is inthe line of progress, and it tends to uniformity of practice and to animproved appearance of the page. About a century ago every noun began witha capital letter. 

The American Cyclopedia takes a position still further in advance, asillustrated in the following: Bed _river_, Black _sea_, _gulf_ of Mexico, Rocky _mountains_. In the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Little, Brown, & Co. , 9th ed. ) we find Connecticut _river_, Madison _county_, etc. , quiteuniformly; but we find _Gulf_ of Mexico, Pacific _Ocean_, etc. ]

+Direction+. --_Write these words, using capital letters when needed:_--

city of atlanta, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isthmusof darien, sea of galilee, queen of england, bay of naples, empire ofchina. 

+Remember+ that, when a compound name is made up of two or moredistinguishing words, as, Henry Clay, John Stuart Mill, each word beginswith a capital letter. 

+Direction+. --_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:--

great britain, lower california, south carolina, daniel webster, newengland, oliver wendell holmes, north america, new orleans, james russelllowell, british america. 

+Remember+ that, in writing the titles of books, essays, poems, plays, etc. , and the names of the Deity, only the chief words begin with capitalletters; as, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Supreme Being, ParadiseLost, the Holy One of Israel. 

+Direction+. --_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:--

declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebellion, webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, johnson's lives of the poets, son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, bancroft'shistory of the united states. 

+Direction+. --_Write these miscellaneous names, using capital letters whenneeded_:--

erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of good hope, pope'sessay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent ofamerica, new testament, goldsmith's she stoops to conquer, milton's hymn onthe nativity, indian ocean, cape cod bay, plymouth rock, anderson's historyof the united states, mount washington, english channel, the holy spirit, new york central railroad, old world, long island sound, flatbush village. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 10. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

+Direction+. --_Some words occur frequently, and for convenience may heabbreviated in writing. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate these wordsby writing the first five letters_:--

Thursday and lieutenant. 

_These by writing the first four letters_:--

Connecticut, captain, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Oregon, professor, president, Tennessee, andTuesday. 

_These by writing the first three letters_:--

Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Delaware, England, esquire, Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, Illinois, Indiana, major, Monday, Nevada, reverend, Saturday, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names of the months except May, June, and July. 

_These by writing the first two letters_:--

Company, county, credit, example, and idem (the same). 

_These by writing the first letter_:--

East, north, south, and west. [Footnote: When these words refer to sectionsof the country, they should begin with capitals. ]

_These by writing the first and the last letter_:--

Doctor, debtor, Georgia, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Master, Mister, numero (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, Vermont, andVirginia. 

_These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with aperiod after each letter_:--

Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year of ourLord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (before noon), before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, divinitatisdoctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medicinae doctor (doctorof medicine), member (of) Parliament, North America, North Carolina, NewHampshire, New Jersey, New York, postmaster, post meridiem (afternoon), post-office, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and United States. 

+Direction. +--_The following abbreviations and those you have made shouldbe committed to memory_:--

Acct. _or_ acct. , account. Bbl. _or_ bbl. , barrel. Chas. , Charles. Fla. , Florida. LL. D. , legum doctor (doctor of laws). [Footnote: The doubling of the _l_ to _ll_ and in _LL. D. , _ and of _p_ in _pp. , _ with no period between the letters, comes from pluralizing the nouns _line, lean_, and _page_. ]Messrs. , messieurs (gentlemen). Mme. , madame. Mo. , Missouri. Mrs. , (pronounced missis) mistress. Mts. , mountains. Ph. D. , philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy). Recd. , received. Robt. , Robert. Supt. , superintendent. Thos. , Thomas. Bu. , bushel. Do. , ditto (the same)doz. , dozen. E. G. , exempli gratia (for example)etc. , et caetera (and others). Ft. , foot, feet. Hhd. , hogshead. Hdkf. , handkerchief. I. E. , id est (that is). L. , line. Ll. , lines. Lb. , libra (pound). Oz. , ounce. P. , page. Pp. , pages. Qt. , quart. Vs. , versus (against). Viz. , videlicet (namely). Yd. , yard. 

+Remark. +--In this Lesson we have given the abbreviations of the states asnow regulated by the "U. S. Official Postal Guide. " In the "Guide" _Iowa_and _Ohio_ are not abbreviated. They are, however, frequently abbreviatedthus: _Iowa, Ia. _ or _Io. ; Ohio, 0. _

The similarity, when hurriedly written, of the abbreviations _Cal. , Col. ;Ia. , Io. ; Neb. , Nev. ; Penn. , Tenn. , _ etc. , has led to much confusion. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 11. 

VERBS. 

+Introductory Hints+. --We told you in Lesson 8 how, by noticing theessential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, we couldthrow the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes. 

We began to classify words according to their use, or office, in thesentence; we found one class of words that name things, and we called them_nouns_. 

But in all the sentences given you, we have had to use another class ofwords. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert thatthey are, or exist. 

When we say _Clocks tick_, _tick_ is not the name of anything; it tellswhat clocks do: it asserts action. 

When we say _Clocks are_, or _There are clocks_, _are_ is not the name of. Anything, nor does it tell what clocks do; it simply asserts existence, orbeing. 

When we say _Clocks hang, stand, last, lie_, or _remain_, these words_hang, stand, last_, etc. , do not name anything, nor do they tell thatclocks act or simply exist; they tell the condition, or state, in whichclocks are, or exist; that is, they assert state of being. 

All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call +Verbs+(+Lat+. _verbum_, a word). The name was given to this class because it wasthought that they were the most important words in the sentence. 

Give several verbs that assert action. Give some that assert being, andsome that assert state of being. 

+DEFINITION+. --+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being-, or state ofbeing+. 

There are, however, two forms of the verb, the participle and theinfinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), that express action, being, or state ofbeing, without asserting it. 

+Direction. +--_Write after each of the following nouns as many appropriateverbs as you can think of_:--

Let some express being and some express state of being. 

+Model. --_Noun. _ | burns. | melt. | scorches. Fire | keep. (or) + spreads. Fires | glow. | rages. | heat. | exists. 

+Remark. +--Notice that the simple form of the verb, as, _burn, melt, scorch_, adds _s_ or _es_ when its subject noun names but one thing. 

Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind. 

A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words; as, _is learning, maybe learned, could have been learned_. [Footnote: Such groups of words aresometimes called _verb-phrases_. For definition of _phrase_, see Lesson17. ]

+Direction. +--_Unite the words in columns_ 2 _and_ 3 _below, and append theverbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column_ 1 _so as to makegood sentences_:--

+Remark. +--Notice that _is, was_, and _has_ are used with nouns naming onething, and with the pronouns _he, she_, and _it_; and that _are, were_, and_have_ are used with nouns naming more than one thing, and with thepronouns _we, you_, and _they_. _I_ may be used with _am, was_, and _have_. 

1 2 3Words am confused. Cotton is exported. Sugar are refined. Air coined. Teas was delivered. Speeches were weighed. I, we, you has been imported. He, she, it, they have been transferred. 

As verbs are the only words that assert, +every predicate+ must be a verb, or must contain a verb. 

+Naming the class+ to which a word belongs is the +first step in parsing. +

+Direction+. --_Parse five of the sentences you have written_. 

+Model+. --_Poland was dismembered_. 

+Parsing+. --_Poland_ is a noun because ----; _was dismembered_ is a verbbecause it asserts action. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 12. 

MODIFIED SUBJECT. 

ADJECTIVES. 

+Introductory Hints+. --The subject noun and the predicate verb are notalways or often the whole of the structure that we call the sentence, though they are the underlying timbers that support the rest of the verbalbridge. Other words may be built upon them. 

We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from oneanother. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities. Things are alike whose qualities are the same, as, two oranges having thesame color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, as an orange and an apple, whose qualities are different. 

It is by their qualities, then, that we know things and group them. 

_Ripe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful. _ In these twosentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class ofthings; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking opposite qualitiesin the apples, separate the apples into two kinds--the ripe ones and theunripe ones. 

These prefixed words _ripe_ and _unripe_, then, limit the word _apples_ inits scope; _ripe apples_ or _unripe apples_ applies to fewer things than_apples_ alone applies to. 

If we say _the, this, that_ apple, or _an, no_ apple, or _some, many, eight_ apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit; but _the, this, _ or_that_ points out a particular apple, and limits the word _apple_ to theone pointed out; and _an, no, some, many_, or _eight_ limits the word inrespect to the number of apples that it denotes. 

These and all such words as by marking quality, by pointing out, or byspecifying number or quantity limit the scope or add to the meaning of thenoun, +modify+ it, and are called +Modifiers+. 

In the sentence above, _apples_ is the +Simple Subject+ and _ripe apples_is the +Modified Subject+. 

Words that modify nouns and pronouns are called +Adjectives+ (Lat. _ad_, to, and _jacere_, to throw). 

+DEFINITION. --A _Modifier_ is a word or a group of words joined to somepart of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+. 

The +Subject+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified Subject+, or_Logical Subject_. 

+DEFINITION. --An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The cold November rain is falling. 

 rain | is falling=========================|============== \The \cold \November |

+Explanation. +--The two lines shaded alike and placed uppermost stand forthe subject and the predicate, and show that these are of the same rank, and are the principal parts of the sentence. The lighter lines, placedunder and joined to the subject line, stand for the less important parts, the modifiers, and show what is modified. [Footnote: TO THE TEACHER. --Whenseveral adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjective does not alwaysmodify the unlimited noun. _That old wooden house was burned. _ Here_wooden_ modifies _house_, _old_ modifies _house_ limited by _wooden_, and_that_ modifies _house_ limited by _old_ and _wooden_. This may beillustrated in the diagram by numbering the modifiers in the order of theirrank, thus:--

 |==================|======= \3 \2 \1 |

Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in rank in thesame way. If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it will be wellto have them made in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuationand the arrangement. See Lessons 13 and 21. ]

+TO THE TEACHER. +--While we, from experience, are clear in the belief thatdiagrams are very helpful in the analysis of sentences, we wish to say thatthe work required in this book can all be done without resorting to thesefigures. If some other form, or no form, of written analysis is preferred, our diagrams can be omitted without break or confusion. 

When diagrams are used, only the teacher can determine how many shall berequired in any one Lesson, and how soon the pupil may dispense with theiraid altogether. 

+Oral Analysis. +--(Here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysisand parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Lessons. ) _The, cold, _ and _November_ are modifiers of the subject. _The cold Novemberrain_ is the modified subject. 

TO THE TEACHER. --While in these "models" we wish to avoid repetition, weshould require of the pupils full forms of oral analysis for at least someof the sentences in every Lesson. 

+Parsing. +--_The, cold, _ and _November_ are adjectives modifying_rain_--_cold_ and _November_ expressing quality, and _the_ pointing out. 

2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed. 3. A free people should be educated. 4. The old Liberty Bell was rung. 5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned. 6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed. 7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote. 8. The long Hoosac Tunnel is completed. 9. I alone should suffer. 10. All nature rejoices. 11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked. 12. The melancholy autumn days have come. 13. A poor old wounded soldier returned. 14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed. 15. Immense suspension bridges have been built. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 13. 

COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVES. 

+Caution. +--When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must betaken in their arrangement. If they differ in rank, place nearest the nounthe one most closely modifying it. If of the same rank, place them wherethey will sound best--generally in the order of length, the shortest first. 

+Explanation. +--_Two honest young men were chosen, A tall, straight, dignified person entered. _ _Young_ tells the kind of men, _honest_ tellsthe kind of young men, and _two_ tells the number of honest young men;hence these adjectives are not of the same rank. _Tall_, _straight_, and_dignified_ modify _person_ independently--the person is tall and straightand dignified; hence these adjectives are of the same rank. 

Notice the comma after _tall_ and _straight_; _and_ may be supplied; in thefirst sentence _and_ cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21. 

+Direction. +--_Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasons:_--

1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog. 2. Level low five the fields. 3. A wooden rickety large building. 4. Blind white beautiful three mice. 5. An energetic restless brave people. 6. An enlightened civilized nation. 

+Direction. +--_Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to thesepredicates:_--

1. ------ have been invented. 2. ------ were destroyed. 3. ------ are cultivated. 4. ------ may be abused. 5. ------ was mutilated. 6. ------ were carved. 7. ------ have been discovered. 8. ------ have fallen. 9. ------ will be respected. 10. ------ have been built. 

+Direction. +--_Construct ten sentences, each of which shall contain asubject modified by three adjectives--one from each of these columns:_--

Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson 21. 

The dark sunnyThat bright wearisomeThis dingy commercialThose short blueThese soft adventurousFive brave fleecySome tiny parallelSeveral important cheerlessMany long goldenA warm turbid

+Direction+. --_Prefix to each of these nouns several appropriateadjectives:_--

River, frost, grain, ships, air, men. 

+Direction+. --_Couple those adjectives and nouns below that mostappropriately go together:_--

Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited, violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly, waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, sparrow, blackbird, cow, hen, cackling. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 14. 

MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

ADVERBS. 

+Introductory Hints+. --You have learned that the subject may be modified;let us see whether the predicate may be. 

If we say, _The leaves fall_, we express a fact in a general way. But, ifwe wish to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say, The leaves fall _early_; of the place of their falling, The leaves fall_here_; of the manner, The leaves fall _quietly_; of the cause, _Why_ dothe leaves fall?

We may join a word to one of these modifiers and say, The leaves fall_very_ quietly. Here _very_ modifies _quietly_ by telling the degree. 

_Very quietly_ is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predicatewith its modifiers is called the +Modified Predicate+. Such words as _very, here_, and _quietly_ form another part of speech, and are called +Adverbs+(Lat. _ad_, to, and _verbum_, a word, or verb). 

Adverbs may modify adjectives; as, _Very ripe_ apples are healthful. Adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns--by limiting them. Thehorse has a _proud step_ = The horse _steps proudly_. 

The +Predicate+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified +Predicate, or_Logical Predicate_. 

+DEFINITION. --An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, oran adverb. + [Footnote: See Lesson 92 and foot-note. ]

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The leaves fall very quietly. 

 leaves | fall========|====== \The | \quietly \very

+Oral Analysis+. --_Very quietly_ is a modifier of the predicate; _quietly_is the principal word of the group; _very_ modifies _quietly_; _the leaves_is the modified subject; _fall very quietly_ is the modified predicate. 

+Parsing+. --_Quietly_ is an adverb modifying _fall_, telling the manner;_very_ is an adverb modifying _quietly_, telling the degree. 

2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down. 3. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshiped there. 4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. 6. The timely suggestion was very kindly received. 7. We turned rather abruptly. 8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided. 9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed. 10. Why will people exaggerate so!11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unexpectedly. 12. We now travel still more rapidly. 13. Therefore he spoke excitedly. 14. You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed. 15. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by. 16. The Hell Gate reef was slowly drilled away. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 15. 

COMPOSITION--ADVERBS. 

+Caution+. --So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what youintend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. 

+Direction+. --_Place the, italicized words below in different positions, and note the effect on the sound and the sense_:--

1. I _immediately_ ran out. 2. _Only_ one was left there. 3. She looked down _proudly_. 4. _Unfortunately_, this assistance came too late. 

+Direction+. --_Construct on each of these subjects three sentences havingmodified subjects and modified predicates_:---

For punctuation, see Lesson 21. 

+Model+. ---- _clouds_ ----. 1. _Dark, heavy, threatening clouds are slowly gathering above_. 2. _Those, brilliant, crimson clouds will very soon dissolve_. 3. _Thin, fleecy clouds are scudding over_. 

l. ---- ocean ----. 2. ---- breeze ----. 3. ---- shadows ----. 4. ---- rock ----. 5. ---- leaves ----. 

+Direction+. --_Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modifyverbs_:--

Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, legibly, evasively, everywhere, aloof, forth. 

+Direction+. --_Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shallmodify adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs_:--

Far, unusually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost, too, rather. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 16. 

REVIEW. 

TO THE TEACHER. --In all school work, but especially here, where thephilosophy of the sentence and the principles of construction are developedin progressive steps, success depends largely on the character of thereviews. 

Let reviews be, so far as possible, topical. Require frequent outlines ofthe work passed over, especially of what is taught in the "IntroductoryHints. " The language, except that of Rules and Definitions, should be thepupil's own, and the illustrative sentences should be original. 

+Direction+. --_Review from Lesson 8 to Lesson 15, inclusive_. 

Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, whatthree things such words as _tick, are, _ and _remain_ do in the sentence, what office they have in common, what such words are called, and why; whatcommon office such words as _ripe, the, _ and _eight_ have, in what threeways they perform it, what such words are called, and why, etc. ). Repeatand illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate what is taught of thecapitalization and the abbreviation of names, and of the position ofadjectives and adverbs. 

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

(SEE PAGES 150-153. )

TO THE TEACHER. --After the pupil has learned a few principles of analysisand construction through the aid of short detached sentences that excludeeverything unfamiliar, he may be led to recognize these same principles inlonger related sentences grouped into paragraphs. The study of paragraphsselected for this purpose may well be extended as an informal preparationfor what is afterwards formally presented in the regular lessons of thetext-book. 

These "Exercises" are offered only as suggestions. The teacher must, ofcourse, determine where and how often this composition should beintroduced. 

We invite special attention to the study of the paragraph. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 17. 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSITIONS. 

+Introductory Hints+. --To express our thoughts with greater exactness wemay need to expand a word modifier into several words; as, A _long_ ridebrought us _there_ = A ride _of one hundred miles_ brought us _to Chicago_. These groups of words, _of one hundred miles_ and _to Chicago_--the onesubstituted for the adjective _long_, the other for the adverb _there_--wecall +Phrases+. A phrase that does the work of an adjective is called an+Adjective Phrase+. A phrase that does the work of an adverb is called an+Adverb Phrase+. 

As adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their equivalentphrases; as, The train stops _only at the station_. They sometimes modifyonly the introductory word of the phrase--this introductory word beingadverbial in its nature; as, He sailed _nearly around_ the globe. 

That we may learn the office of such words as _of, to_, and _at_, used tointroduce these phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to anothermay be expressed. _Wealthy men_. These two words express two ideas asrelated. We have learned to know this relation by the form and position ofthe words. Change these, and the relation is lost--_men wealth_. But byusing _of_ before _wealth_ the relation is restored---_men of wealth_. Theword _of_, then, shows the relation between the ideas expressed by thewords _men_ and _wealth_. 

All such relation words are called +Prepositions+ (Lat. _prae_, before, and_positus_, placed--their usual position being before the noun with whichthey form a phrase). 

A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a +Prepositional Phrase+. This, however, is not the only kind of phrase. 

+DEFINITION. --A _Phrase_ is a group of words denoting related ideas, andhaving a distinct office, but not expressing a thought+. 

+DEFINITION. --A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the wordmodified. +

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of vibration. 

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning the use ofdiagrams. 

pitch depends==========|================= \The \of \upon \ \ \ note \ rapidity \-------- \------------ \the \musical \the \of \ \vibration \---------

+Explanation+. --The diagram of the phrase is made up of a slanting linestanding for the introductory word, and a horizontal line representing theprincipal word. Under the latter are drawn the lines which represent themodifiers of the principal word. 

+Oral Analysis+. ---_The_ and the adjective phrase _of the musical note_ aremodifiers of the subject; the adverb phrase _upon the rapidity ofvibration_ is a modifier of the predicate. _Of_ introduces the firstphrase, and _note_ is the principal word; _the_ and _musical_ are modifiersof _note_; _upon_ introduces the second phrase, and _rapidity_ is theprincipal word; _the_ and the adjective phrase _of vibration_ are modifiersof _rapidity_; _of_ introduces this phrase, and _vibration_ is theprincipal word. 

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning oral analysis. 

+Parsing+. --_Of_ is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of _note_to _pitch_; etc. , etc. 

TO THE TEACHER. --Insist that, in parsing, the pupils shall give specificreasons instead of general definitions. 

2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United States by the blueness of the water. 3. The North Pole has been approached in three principal directions. 4. In 1607, Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the North Pole. [Footnote: "1607" may be treated as a noun, and "six hundred" as one adjective. ]5. The breezy morning died into silent noon. 6. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis. 7. Coal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants. 8. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. 

\in \ \ _____\below \atmosphere \just \ \___________ \Falls \ \______ \only \ \the

+Explanation+. ----_Only_ modifies the whole phrase, and _just_ modifies thepreposition. 

9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just below the Falls. 10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over the moon. 11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the fifteenth century. 12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at Seville by the Saracens. 13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100, 000, 000 miles. 14. The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St. Helena to France. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 18. 

COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

+COMMA-RULE. --Phrases that are placed out of their usual order [Footnote:For the usual order of words and phrases, see Lesson 51. ] and madeemphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, should be set off by the comma. + [Footnote: An expression in the body of asentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by onecomma. ]

+Remark. +--This rule must be applied with caution. Unless it is desired tomake the phrase emphatic, or to break the continuity of the thought, thegrowing usage among writers is not to set it off. 

+Direction. +--_Tell why the comma is, or is not, used in thesesentences_:--

1. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. 2. Of the scenery along the Rhine, many travelers speak with enthusiasm. 3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor. 4. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday. 5. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached. 

+Direction+. --_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation_:--

1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans. 2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died. 3. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of its natural order. 4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced with wit. 5. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth. 6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest times to the present day. 

+Direction+. --_See in how many places the phrases in the sentences abovemay stand without obscuring the thought. _

+Caution+. --So place phrase modifiers that there can be no doubt as to whatyon intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors in position, and use the comma whenneeded_:--

1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by the president. 2. That small man is speaking with red whiskers. 3. A message was read from the President in the Senate. 4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning. 5. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at the old brick church was delivered. 

+Direction+. --_Form a sentence out of each of these groups of words_:--

(Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation. )

1. Of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty. 2. Of affectation of the young fop in the face impertinent an was seen smile. 3. Has been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of the earth over the face. 4. To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through deep roads we after much fatigue came. 5. At the distance a flood of flame from the line from thirty iron mouths of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth. 

+Direction+. --_See into how many good, clear sentences you can convertthese by transposing the phrases_:--

1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood. 2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the tenth of May in 1775. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 19. 

COMPOSITION--PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

+Direction+. --_Rewrite these sentences, changing the italicized words intoequivalent phrases_:--

+Model+. --The sentence was _carefully_ written. The sentence was written_with_ care. 

1. A _brazen_ image was _then_ set up. 2. Those _homeless_ children were _kindly_ treated. 3. Much has been said about the _Swiss_ scenery. 4. An _aerial_ trip to Europe was _rashly_ planned. 5. The _American_ Continent was _probably_ discovered by Cabot. 

+Direction+. --_Change these adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases;and then, attending carefully to the punctuation, use these phrases insentences of your own_:--

1. Bostonian2. Why3. Incautiously4. Nowhere5. There6. Hence7. Northerly8. National9. Whence10. Here11. Arabian12. Lengthy13. Historical14. Lucidly15. Earthward

+Direction+. --_Compose sentences, using these phrases as modifiers_:--

Of copper; in Pennsylvania; from the West Indies; around the world; betweenthe tropics; toward the Pacific; on the 22d of February; during the reignof Elizabeth; before the application of steam to machinery; at theCentennial Exposition of 1876. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 20. 

COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. 

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 

+Introductory Hints. +--_Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in England. _The three words _Edward, Mary, _ and _Elizabeth_ have the samepredicate--the same act being asserted of the king and the two queens. _Edward, Mary_, and _Elizabeth_ are connected by _and_, _and_ beingunderstood between Edward and Mary. Connected subjects having the samepredicate form a +Compound Subject+. 

_Charles I. Was seized, was tried, and was beheaded. _ The three predicates_was seized, was tried_, and _was beheaded_ have the same subject--thethree acts being asserted of the same king. Connected predicates having thesame subject form a +Compound Predicate. +

A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate; as, _Mary_ and _Elizabeth lived_ and _reigned_ in England. 

The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a compoundpredicate are called +Conjunctions+ (Lat. _con_, or _cum_, together, and_jungere_, to join). 

A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two wordmodifiers--A dark _and_ rainy night follows; Some men sin deliberately_and_ presumptuously. 

It may connect two phrases; as, The equinox occurs in March _and_ inSeptember. 

It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone, would be sentences; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, _but_ theleaves of the maple drop in autumn. 

+Interjections+ (Lat. _inter_, between, and _jacere_, to throw) are theeighth and last part of speech. 

_Oh! ah! pooh! pshaw!_ etc. , express bursts of feeling too sudden andviolent for deliberate sentences. 

_Hail! fudge! indeed! amen! _etc. , express condensed thought as well asfeeling. 

Any part of speech may be wrenched from its construction with other words, and may lapse into an interjection; _as, behold! shame! what!_

Professor Sweet calls interjections _sentence-words_. 

Two or more connected subjects having the same predicate form a +CompoundSubject+. 

Two or more connected predicates having the same subject form a +CompoundPredicate+. 

+DEFINITION. --A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, orclauses. +

+DEFINITION. --An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or suddenfeeling. +

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Ah! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news. 

 Ah ----wives========\ '\ ' \ | waitsisters 'x \=====|===================' \ \anxious \for 'and/ \ ' / \newsmothers ' / -----========'/ \the

+Explanation+. --The three short horizontal lines represent each a part ofthe compound subject. They are connected by dotted lines, which stand forthe connecting word. The x shows that a conjunction is understood. The linestanding for the word modifier is joined to that part of the subject linewhich represents the entire subject. Turn this diagram about, and theconnected horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compoundpredicate. 

+Oral Analysis+. ---_Wives, sisters_, and _mothers_ form the compoundsubject; _anxious_ is a modifier of the compound subject; _and_ connects_sisters_ and _mothers_. 

+Parsing+. --_And_ is a conjunction connecting _sisters_ and _mothers_; _ah_is an interjection, expressing a sudden burst of feeling. 

2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. 

(For diagram see the last sentence of the "Explanation" above. )

3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use. 

 powers came================= ========= \The \ X \ and \ \ and \of \. .. \. .. .. \ \. .. .. .. \ parentage \ \ \muscular \ \----------- \ \moral \from \mental \ land \---------

4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a strange parentage. 5. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, and there spreads out. 6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the nerves of the human body. 7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are found in the body. 8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of all the faculties. 9. Ugh! I look forward with dread to to-morrow. 10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and solemn, is seen. 11. Tush! tush! 't will not again appear. 12. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and in other parts of Asia. 13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. 14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century. 15. The opinions of the New York press are quoted in every port and in every capital. 16. Both friend and foe applauded. 

 friend-------------------\ ' \ ' \ | applauded 'and. .. . Both >===|=========== ' / foe ' /--------'----------/

+Explanation+. --The conjunction _both_ is used to strengthen the realconnective _and_. _Either_ and _neither_ do the same for _or_ and _nor_ in_either--or_, _neither--nor_. 

+Remark. +--A phrase that contains another phrase as a modifier is called a+Complex Phrase+. Two or more phrases connected by a conjunction form a+Compound Phrase+. 

+Direction. +--_Pick out the simple, the complex, and the compound phrasesin the sentences above. _

 * * * * *

LESSON 21. 

COMPOSITION---CONNECTED TERMS AND INTERJECTIONS. 

+COMMA--RULE. --Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separatedfrom each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed. +

+Remark+. --When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs are separatedaccording to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not. 

When one of two terms has a modifier that without the comma might bereferred to both, or, when the parts of compound predicates and of otherphrases are long or differently modified, these terms or parts areseparated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted. 

When two terms connected by or have the same meaning, the second islogically explanatory of the first, and is set off by the comma, _i. E. _, when it occurs in the body of a sentence, a comma is placed after theexplanatory word, as well as before the _or_. 

+Direction. +--_Justify the punctuation of these sentences:_--

1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca. 2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 3. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States. 4. The brain is protected by the skull, or cranium. 5. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute. 6. The room was furnished with a table, and a chair without legs. 7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 

+Explanation. +--No comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. _Oaken_limits _bucket_, _old_ limits _bucket_ modified by _oaken_, and _the_limits _bucket_ modified by _old_ and _oaken_. See Lesson 13. 

8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female, friend or foe. 9. We climbed up a mountain for a view. 

+Explanation+. --No comma. _Up a mountain_ tells where we climbed, and _fora view_ tells why we climbed up a mountain. 

10. The boy hurries away from home, and enters upon a career of business or of pleasure. 11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the realm, and the brothers and sons of the king. 

+Direction+. --_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation, andgive your reasons_:--

1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run. 2. Bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton. 3. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life. 

(Where is the conjunction omitted?)

4. Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England. 5. That relates to the names of animals or of things without sex. 6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the Syriac and the Chaldee. 7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet. 8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and were fed with abundance of hay and grain. 9. Spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick succession. 10. A few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted village. 

+EXCLAMATION POINT--RULE. --All _Exclamatory Expressions_ must be followedby the exclamation point. +

+Remark+. --Sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes an interjectionand the words following it form the exclamatory expression; as, _Oh! ithurts. Oh, the beautiful snow!_

_O_ is used in direct address; as, _O father, listen to me. Oh_ is used asa cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appeal. This distinction, however desirable, is not strictly observed, _O_ being frequently used inplace of _Oh_. 

+CAPITAL LETTERS--RULE. --The words _I_ and _O_ should be written in capitalletters. +

+Direction. +--_Correct these violations of the two rules given above:_--

1. O noble judge o excellent young man. 2. Out of the depths have i cried unto thee. 3. Hurrah the field is won. 4. Pshaw how foolish. 5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed. 6. O life how uncertain o death how inevitable. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 22. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

+Direction+. --_Beginning with the 8th sentence of the first group ofexercises in Lesson_ 21, _analyze thirteen sentences, omitting the_ 4_th ofthe second group. _

+Model+. --_A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male orfemale, friend or foe. _

 spirit |should be shown / Jew===============|================ __/'--------\A \Christian | \ /' ' Greek \ / ' \-------- \ / ' \to / x ' / male \--/ '_/'-------- \ ' ' female \ x ' \-------- \ ' \ ' / friend \__/'--------- ' foe \---------

 * * * * *

LESSON 23. 

COMPOSITION--CONNECTED TERMS. 

Direction. +--_Using the nouns below, compose sentences with compoundsubjects; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predicates;and others in which the adjectives, the adverbs, and the phrases shall formcompound modifiers:_--

In some let there be three or more connected terms. Observe Rule, Lesson21, for punctuation. Let your sentences mean something. 

NOUNS. 

Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry, lightning, Lincoln, electricity, copper, silver, flowers, gold, rose, lily. 

VERBS. 

Examine, sing, pull, push, report, shout, love, hate, like, scream, loathe, approve, fear, obey, refine, hop, elevate, skip, disapprove. 

ADJECTIVES. 

+Direction. +--_See Caution, Lesson_ 13. 

Bright, acute, patient, careful, apt, forcible, simple, homely, happy, short, pithy, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous. 

ADVERBS. 

+Direction. +--_See Caution, Lesson 15. _ Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly, now, here, never, hereafter. 

PHRASES. 

On sea; in the city; by day; on land; by night; in the country; by hook;across the ocean; by crook; over the lands; along the level road; up themountains. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 24. 

REVIEW. 

CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 

Direction. +--_Give the reason for every capital letter and for every markof punctuation used below:_--

1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or skin. 2. The degrees of A. B. , A. M. , D. D. , and LL. D. Are conferred by the colleges and the universities of the country. 3. Oh, I am so happy!4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the news. 5. Plants are nourished by the earth, and the carbon of the air. 6. A tide of American travelers is constantly flooding Europe. 7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs slowly and steadily to the zenith. 8. He retired to private life on half pay, and on the income of a large estate in the South. 

+Direction. +--_Write these expressions, using capital letters and marks ofpunctuation where they belong:_--

1. A fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied2. Maj, cal, bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl, st3. O father o father i cannot breathe here4. Ha ha that sounds well5. The edict of nantes was established by henry the great of france6. Mrs, vs, co, esq, yd, pres, u s, prof, o, do, dr7. Hurrah good news good news8. The largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents and dimes and dollars9. The baltic sea lies between sweden and russia10. The mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico11. Supt, capt, qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz12. Benjamin franklin was born in boston in 1706 and died in 1790

+Direction. +--_Correct all these errors in capitalization and punctuation, and give your reasons:_--

1 Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People, 2. Halloo. I must speak to You!3. John Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and, stayed, for some time, with the Scholars of Italy, 4. Most Fuel consists of Coal and Wood from the Forests5. Books are read for Pleasure and the Instruction and improvement of the Intellect, 6. In rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or galoches7. Hark they are coming!8. A, neat, simple and manly style is pleasing to Us. 9. Alas poor thing alas, 10. I fished on a, dark, and cool, and mossy, trout stream. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 25. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 

ANALYSIS. 

1. By the streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the house of Never. --_Spanish Proverb_ [Footnote: By-and-by has no real streets, the London journals do not actually thunder, nor were the cheeks of William the Testy literally scorched by his fiery gray eyes. _Streets, house, colored, thunder_, and _scorched_ are not, then, used here in their first and ordinary meaning, but in a secondary and figurative sense. These words we call +Metaphors+. By what they denote and by what they only suggest they lend clearness, vividness, and force to the thought they help to convey, and add beauty to the expression. 

 For further treatment of metaphors and other figures of speech, see pages 87, 136, 155, 156, 165, and Lesson 150. ]

2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest navigators. --_Gibbon_. 3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the center of each and every town or city. --_Holmes_. 4. The arrogant Spartan, with a French-like glorification, boasted forever of little Thermopylae. --_De Quincey_. 5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling of pleasure or pain. --_Hamilton_. 6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through every clime. --_Marsh_. 7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky red by two fiery little gray eyes. --_Irving_. 8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand with the culture of the imagination. --_Tyndall_. [Footnote: _Hand in hand_ may be treated as one adverb, or _with_ may be supplied. ]9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and washed and winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism in the sea. --_Swain_. 10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese Wall, and from the shores of the Caspian Sea to those of the Indian Ocean. --_Draper_. 11. One half of all known materials consists of oxygen. --_Cooke_. 12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham, looked down on the plain of Memphis. --_Stanley_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 26. 

WRITTEN PARSING. 

+Direction+. --_Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this +Modelfor Written Parsing_. 

 | Nouns. | Pron. | Verbs. | Adj. | Adv. | Prep. | Conj. | Int. | |--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----|1st |streets, | | |the, the. | |By, of, | | |sentence|By-and- | one. |arrives. | | |at, of | | | | by, | | | | | | | | |house, | | | | | | | | |Never. | | | | | | | |--------|--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----| | | | | | | | | |2d | | | | | | | | |sentence| | | | | | | | |

TO THE TEACHER. --Until the +Subdivisions+ and +Modifications+ of parts ofspeech are reached, +Oral and Written Parsing+ can be only a classificationof the words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson likethis is needed, and how much parsing should be done orally day by day. Intheir +Oral Analysis+ let the pupils give at first the reasons for everystatement, but guard against their doing this mechanically and in setterms; and, when you think it can safely be done, let them drop it. But asknow and then, whenever you think they have grown careless or are guessing, for the reason of this, that, or the other step taken. 

Here it may be well to emphasize the fact that the part of speech to whichany word belongs is determined by the use of the word, and not from itsform. Such exercises as the following are suggested:--

 Use _right_ words. Act _right_. _Right_ the wrong. You are in the _right_. 

Pupils will be interested in finding sentences that illustrate thedifferent uses of the same word. It is hardly necessary for us to makelists of words that have different uses. Any dictionary will furnishabundant examples. It is an excellent practice to point out such words inthe regular exercises for analysis. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 27. 

REVIEW. 

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions, Lesson 16. 

+Direction+. --_Review from Lesson_ 17 _to Lesson_ 21, _inclusive_. 

Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, whatsuch words as _long_ and _there_ may be expanded into, how these expandedforms may be modified, how introduced, what the introductory words arecalled, and why, etc. ). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules;illustrate fully what is taught of the position of phrases, and of thepunctuation of phrases, connected terms, and exclamatory expressions. Howmany parts of speech are there?

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

(SEE PAGES 153-156. )

TO THE TEACHER. --See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 28. 

NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory Hints. +--In saying _Washington captured_, we do not fullyexpress the act performed by Washington. If we add a noun and say, _Washington captured Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming thatwhich receives the act. 

Whatever fills out, or completes, is a +Complement+. As _Cornwallis_completes the expression of the act by naming the thing acted upon--theobject--we call it the +Object Complement+. Connected objects completingthe same verb form a +Compound Object Complement+; as, Washington captured_Cornwallis_ and his _army_. 

+DEFINITION. --The _Object Complement of a Sentence_ completes thepredicate, and names that which receives the act. +

The complement with all its modifiers is called the +Modified Complement. +

+Analysis. +

1. Clear thinking makes clear writing. 

 thinking | makes | writing============|===================== \ clear | \clear

+Oral Analysis+. ---_Writing_ is the object complement; _clear writing_ isthe modified complement, and _makes clear writing_ is the entire predicate. 

2. Austerlitz killed Pitt. 3. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism. 4. Liars should have good memories. 5. We find the first surnames in the tenth century. 6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held rank with the greatest schools of Europe. 

 took /---------\ Oxford | / ' \ | rank========|=and' ========== | \ ' / \ ' held / \-------/

 revolves /------------ moon | / '======|== and' | \ ' \ ' keeps | side \---------------

9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. 10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread and butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings. 11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity. 12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a proportion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art. 13. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk, and thatch roofs with the leaves, of the cocoa-nut palm. 14. Richelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the brother, and banished the confessor, of the king. 15. James and John study and recite grammar and arithmetic. 

 James study grammar=========\ /===========\ /=============== ' \ | / ' \ | / ' 'and ==|== and' ===== and' John ' / | \ ' recite / \ ' arithmetic=========/ \===========/ \===============

 * * * * *

LESSON 29. 

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS. 

+Introductory Hints+. --The subject presents one idea; the predicatepresents another, and asserts it of the first. _Corn is growing_ presentsthe idea of the thing, corn, and the idea of the act, growing, and assertsthe act of the thing. _Corn growing_ lacks the asserting word, and _Corn_is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted. 

In logic, the asserting word is called the _copula_--it shows that the twoideas are coupled into a thought--and the word expressing the idea assertedis called the predicate. But, as one word often performs both offices, e. G. , Corn _grows_, and, as it is disputed whether any word can assertwithout expressing something of the idea asserted, we pass this distinctionby as not essential in grammar, and call both that which asserts and thatwhich expresses the idea asserted, by one name--the predicate. [Footnote:We may call the verb the predicate; but, when it is followed by acomplement, it is an incomplete predicate. ]

The _maple leaves become_. The verb become does not make a completepredicate; it does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The idea maybe completely expressed by adding the adjective _red_, denoting the qualitywe wish to assert of leaves, or attribute to them--_The maple leaves becomered_. 

_Lizards are reptiles_. The noun _reptiles_, naming the class of theanimals called lizards, performs a like office for the asserting word are. _Rolfe's wife was Pocahontas_. _Pocahontas_ completes the predicate bypresenting a second idea, which _was_ asserts to be identical with that ofthe subject. 

When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does notunite with the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish it asthe +Attribute Complement. + [Footnote: _Subjective Complement_ may, ifpreferred, be used instead of Attribute Complement. ] Connected attributecomplements of the same verb form a +Compound Attribute Complement+. 

Most grammarians call the adjective and the noun, when so used, the+Predicate Adjective+ and the +Predicate Noun+. 

+DEFINITION. --The _Attribute Complement_ of a Sentence completes thepredicate and belongs to the subject. +

Analysis. 

1. Slang is vulgar. 

 Slang | is \ vulgar==========|================= |

+Explanation+. --The line standing for the attribute complement is, like theobject line, a continuation of the predicate line; but notice that the linewhich separates the incomplete predicate from the complement slants towardthe subject to show that the complement is an attribute of it. 

+Oral Analysis+. --_Vulgar_ is the attribute complement, completing thepredicate and expressing a quality of slang; _is vulgar_ is the entirepredicate. 

2. The sea is fascinating and treacherous. 3. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. 4. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial. 5. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dignified, and artificial. [Footnote: The assertion in this sentence is true only in the main. ]6. The ear is the ever-open gateway of the soul. 7. The verb is the life of the sentence. 8. Good-breeding is surface-Christianity. 9. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 

+Explanation+. --The subject names that of which the speaker says something. The terms in which he says it, --the predicate, --he, of course, assumes thatthe hearer already understands. Settle, then, which--plant or ivy--Dickenssupposed the reader to know least about, and which, therefore, Dickens wastelling him about; and you settle which word--_plant_ or _ivy_--is thesubject. (Is it not the writer's poetical conception of "the green ivy"that the reader is supposed not to possess?)

10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. 11. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks of good-breeding. 12. The north wind is full of courage, and puts the stamina of endurance into a man. 13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and adventure in it. 14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and grumbling, and curls one up in the chimney-corner. 15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and effeminate suggestions of luxurious ease. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 30. 

ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS--CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

1. He went out as mate and came back captain. 

 as --- ' went \ ' mate /======================= He | / ' \out====|=and ' | \ ' came \ captain \======================= \back

+Explanation+. --_Mate_, like _captain_, is an attribute complement. Somewould say that the conjunction _as_ connects _mate_ to _he_; but we thinkthis connection is made through the verb _went_, and that _as_ is simplyintroductory. This is indicated in the diagram. 

2. The sun shines bright and hot at midday. 3. Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy. 4. She grew tall, queenly, and beautiful. 5. Plato and Aristotle are called the two head-springs of all philosophy. 6. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave. 7. He came a foe and returned a friend. 8. I am here. I am present. 

+Explanation+. --The office of an adverb sometimes seems to fade into thatof an adjective attribute and is not easily distinguished from it. _Here_, like an adjective, seems to complete _am_, and, like an adverb to modifyit. From their form and usual function, _here, _ in this example, should becalled an adverb, and _present_ an adjective. 

9. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and gratitude. 10. The warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless corpse. 11. The apple tastes and smells delicious. 12. Lord Darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband. 13. In the fable of the Discontented Pendulum, the weights hung speechless. 14. The brightness and freedom of the New Learning seemed incarnate in the young and scholarly Sir Thomas More. 15. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and the gentleman and idol of the time. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 31. 

OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_He made the wall white. _ Here _made_ does not fullyexpress the act performed upon the wall. We do not mean to say, He _made_the white _wall_, but, He _made-white_ (_whitened_) the wall. _White_ helps_made_ to express the act, and at the same time it denotes the qualityattributed to the wall as the result of the act. 

_They made Victoria queen_. Here _made_ does not fully express the actperformed upon Victoria. They did not _make_ Victoria, but _made-queen_(_crowned_) Victoria. _Queen_ helps _made_ to express the act, and at thesame time denotes the office to which the act raised Victoria. 

A word that, like the adjective _white_ or the noun _queen_, helps tocomplete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the objectcomplement, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to thesubject but to the object complement, and so is called an +ObjectiveComplement+. 

As the objective complement generally denotes what the receiver of the actis made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the _factitivecomplement_ or the _factitive object_ (Lat. _facere_, to make). [Footnote:See Lesson 37, last foot-note. ]

Some of the other verbs which are thus completed are _call_, _think_, _choose_, and _name_. 

+DEFINITION. --The _Objective Complement_ completes the predicate andbelongs to the object complement. +

Analysis. 

1. They made Victoria queen. 

 They | made / queen | Victoria======|========================= |

+Explanation+. --The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants towardthe object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object. 

+Oral Analysis+. --_Queen_ is an objective complement completing _made_ andbelonging to _Victoria_; _made Victoria queen_ is the complete predicate. 

2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul. 3. Destiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster. 4. President Hayes chose the Hon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of State. 5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English nobility, James I. Created the worthless Villiers Duke of Buckingham. 6. We should consider time as a sacred trust. 

+Explanation+. --_As_ may be used simply to introduce an objectivecomplement. 

7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane. 8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to foreign courts. 9. Shylock would have struck Jessica dead beside him. 10. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. 11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny. 12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music. 13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. 14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very ark of the constitution. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 32. 

COMPOSITION--COMPLEMENTS. 

+Caution. +--Be careful to distinguish an adjective complement from anadverb modifier. 

+Explanation. +--Mary arrived _safe_. We here wish to tell the condition ofMary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. My head feels_bad_ (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). Thesun shines _bright_ (is bright, as perceived by its shining). 

When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. 

+Direction. +--_Justify the use of these adjectives and adverbs_:--

1. The boy is running wild. 2. The boy is running wildly about. 3. They all arrived safe and sound. 4. The day opened bright. 5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies. 6. He felt around awkwardly for his chair. 7. The sun shines bright. 8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops. 9. He appeared prompt and willing. 10. He appeared promptly and willingly. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors and give your reasons_:--

1. My head pains me very bad. 2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter. 3. Don't speak harsh. 4. It can be bought very cheaply. 5. I feel tolerable well. 6. She looks beautifully. 

+Direction+. --_Join to each of the nouns below three appropriate adjectivesexpressing the qualities as assumed, and then make complete sentences byasserting these qualities_:--

+Model. + Hard | brittle + glass. Transparent |

Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent. 

Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships. 

+Direction+. --_Compose sentences containing these nouns as attributecomplements_:--

Emperor, mathematician, Longfellow, Richmond. 

+Direction+. --_Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, andthese pronouns as attribute complements_:--

Is, was, might have been; I, we, he, she, they. 

+Remark+. --Notice that these forms of the pronouns--_I, we, thou, he, she, ye, they_, and _who_--are never used as object complements or as principalwords in prepositional phrases; and that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_, and _whom_ are never used as subjects or as attribute complements ofsentences. 

+Direction+. --_Compose sentences in which each of the following verbs shallhave two complements--the one an object complement, the other an objectivecomplement:_--

Let some object complements be pronouns, and let some objective complementsbe introduced by _as_. 

+Model+. --They call _me chief_. We regard composition _as_ very_important_. 

Make, appoint, consider, choose, call. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 33. 

NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_Solomon's temple was destroyed. Solomon's_ limits_temple_ by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is therefore amodifier of _temple_. 

The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apostrophe and_s_ ('_s_) added to the noun _Solomon_. When _s_ has been added to the nounto denote more than one, this relation of possession is expressed by theapostrophe alone ('); as, _boys'_ hats. This same relation of possessionmay be expressed by the preposition _of_; _Solomon's_ temple = the temple_of Solomon_. 

_Dom Pedro, the emperor, was welcomed by the Americans_. The noun _emperor_modifies _Dom Pedro_ by telling what Dom Pedro is meant. Both words namethe same person. 

_Solomon's_ and _emperor_, like adjectives, modify nouns; but they arenames of things, and are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs; as, _the wise_ Solomon's temple; Dom Pedro, _the Brazilian_ emperor. These areconclusive reasons for calling such words nouns. 

They represent two kinds of +Noun Modifiers+--the +Possessive+ and the+Explanatory+. 

The Explanatory Modifier is often called an +Appositive+. It identifies orexplains by adding another name of the same thing. 

Analysis. 

1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I. 

 favorite (Raleigh) | was beheaded====================|============== \Elizabeth's | \by \ James I \-----------

+Oral Analysts+. --_Elizabeth's_ and _Raleigh_ are modifiers of the subject;the first word telling whose favorite is meant, the second what favorite. _Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh_ is the modified subject. 

2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are derived from Tyndale's version. 3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 4. A fool's bolt is soon shot. 5. The tadpole, or polliwog, becomes a frog. 6. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born in the year 569 and died in 632. 8. They scaled Mount Blanc--a daring feat. 

 They | scaled | Mount Blanc ( feat )======|===================== ======= | \a \daring

+Explanation+. --_Feat_ is explanatory of the sentence, _They scaled MountBlanc_, and in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short lineplaced after the sentence line. 

9. Bees communicate to each other the death of the queen, by a rapid interlacing of the antennae. [Footnote: For uses of _each other_ and _one another_, see Lesson 124. ]

+Explanation+. --_Each other_ may be treated as one term, or _each_ may bemade explanatory of _bees_. 

10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks--brain, blood, and breath. 

+Explanation. +--Several words may together be explanatory of one. 

11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone--its shell and coat of armor--are on the outside of its body. 

 back-bone shell=============\ ========\ '\ /' \ | are and' \==========(======/ 'and \=)=|======= ' / \turtle's \its \ ' / | breast-bone '/ \The ' coat /=============/ ========/

12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1653 and ended in 1658. 

+Explanation+. --_As, namely, to wit, viz. , i. E. , e. G. , _ and _that is_ mayintroduce explanatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect them tothe words modified. In the diagram they stand like _as_ in Lesson 30. _Protector_ is explanatory of _Cromwell's_. 

13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful nations, namely, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, united for the dismemberment of Poland. 14. John, the beloved disciple, lay on his Master's breast. 15. The petals of the daisy, _day's-eye_, close at night and in rainy weather. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 34. 

COMPOSITION--NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 

+COMMA--RULE. --An _Explanatory Modifier_, when it does not restrict themodified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma. +[Footnote: See foot-note, Lesson 18]

+Explanation+. --_The words I and O should be written in capital_ _letters_. The phrase _I and O_ restricts _words_, that is, limits its application, and no comma is needed. 

_Jacob's favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were Rachel's children_. Thephrase _Joseph and Benjamin_ explains sons without restricting, andtherefore should be set off by the comma. 

In each of these expressions, _I myself, we boys, William the Conqueror_, the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained, and no commais needed. 

+Direction+. --_Give the reasons for the insertion or the omission of commasin these sentences_:--

1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat-club. 2. The author of Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the son of a tinker. 3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary reputation. 4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of Montezuma. 5. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard. 6. The Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast friends on a raft at Tilsit. 

+Direction+. --_Insert commas below, where they are needed, and give yourreasons_:--

1. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name to France. 2. My son Joseph has entered college. 3. You blocks! You stones! 0 you hard hearts!4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans. 5. He himself could not go. 6. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth. 7. Elizabeth Queen of England ruled from 1558 to 1603. 

+Direction. +--_Compose sentences containing these expressions asexplanatory modifiers_:--

The most useful metal; the capital of Turkey; the Imperial City; the greatEnglish poets; the hermit; a distinguished American statesman. 

+Direction. +--_Punctuate these expressions, and employ each of them in asentence_:--

See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit _or_, and note the effect. 

1. Palestine or the Holy Land ----. 2. New York or the Empire State ----. 3. New Orleans or the Crescent City ----. 4. The five Books of Moses or the Pentateuch ----. 

+Remember+ that (_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs--(_'_) being usedwhen _s_ has been added to denote more than one, and (_'s_) in other cases. 

+Direction. +--_Copy the following, and note the use of the possessivesign_:--

The lady's fan; the girl's bonnet; a dollar's worth; Burns's poems; Brown &Co. 's business; a day's work; men's clothing; children's toys; those girls'dresses; ladies' calls; three years' interest; five dollars' worth. 

+Direction. +--_Make possessive modifiers of the following words, and jointhem to appropriate nouns_:--

Woman, women; mouse, mice; buffalo, buffaloes; fairy, fairies; hero, heroes; baby, babies; calf, calves. 

+Caution. +--Do not use (_'s_) or (_'_) with the pronouns _its, his, ours, yours, hers, theirs_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 35. 

NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS. 

+Introductory Hints. +--_He gave me a book_. Here we have what manygrammarians call a _double object_. _Book_, naming the thing acted upon, they call the _direct_ object; and _me_, naming the person toward whom theact is directed, they call the +indirect+, or _dative_, +object+. 

You see that _me_ and _book_ do not, like _Cornwallis_ and _army_, in_Washington captured Cornwallis and his army_, form a compound objectcomplement; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for they do notstand in the same relation to the verb _gave_. The meaning is not, He gaveme _and_ the book. 

We treat these indirect objects, which generally denote the person to orfor whom something is done, as equivalent to phrase modifiers. If we changethe order of the words, a preposition must be supplied; as, He gave a book_to me_. He bought _me_ a _book_; He bought a book _for me_. He asked _me_a _question_; He asked a _question of me_. When the indirect objectprecedes the direct, no preposition is expressed or understood. 

_Teach, tell, send, promise, permit_, and _lend_ are other examples ofverbs that take indirect objects. 

Besides these indirect objects, +nouns denoting measure+, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverbially, beingequivalent to phrase modifiers. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_; It weighsone _pound_; It is worth a _dollar_ a _yard_; I went _home_ that _way_; Thewall is ten _feet_ six _inches_ high. 

The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before nounsdenoting measure, direction, etc. In your analysis you need not supply one. 

+Analysis. +

1. They offered Caesar the crown three times. 

 They | offered | crown========|========================== | \ \ times \the \ ------- \ \three \ \ Caesar -----------

+Oral Analysis. +--_Caesar_ and _times_ are nouns used adverbially, beingequivalent to adverb phrases modifying the predicate _offered_. 

2. We pay the President of the United States $50, 000 a year. 3. He sent his daughter home that way. 4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound for his sugar. 5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death. 6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. 7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn. , fell Aug. 21, 1856. 8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an acre. 9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water. 10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. 11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means of gills. 12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor. 13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. 14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce. 15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 36. 

REVIEW. 

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions, Lesson 16. 

+Direction. +--_Review from Lesson 28 to Lesson 35, inclusive_. 

Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (for example, show clearlywhat two things are essential to a complete predicate; explain what ismeant by a complement; distinguish clearly the three kinds of complements;show what parts of speech may be employed for each, and tell what generalidea--action, quality, class, or identity--is expressed by each attributecomplement or objective complement in your illustrations, etc. ). Repeat andillustrate definitions and rules; explain and illustrate fully thedistinction between an adjective complement and an adverb modifier;illustrate what is taught of the forms _I, we, _ etc. , _me, us, _ etc. ;explain and illustrate the use of the possessive sign. 

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

(SEE PAGES 156-159. )

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 37. 

VERBS AS ADJECTIVES AND AS NOUNS--PARTICIPLES. 

+Introductory Hints. +--_Corn grows; Corn growing. _ Here _growing_ differsfrom _grows_ in lacking the power to assert. _Growing_ is a form of theverb that cannot, like _grows_, make a complete predicate because it onlyassumes or implies that the corn does the act. _Corn_ may be called theassumed subject of _growing_. 

_Birds, singing, delight us. _ Here _singing_ does duty (1) as an adjective, describing birds by assuming or implying an act, and (2) as a verb byexpressing the act of singing as going on at the time birds delight us. 

_By singing their songs birds delight us. _ Here _singing_ has the nature ofa verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement, _songs_;and as a noun it names the act, and stands as the principal word in aprepositional phrase. 

_Their singing so sweetly delights us_. Here, also, _singing_ has thenature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier, _sweetly_, and as a noun it names an act and takes a possessive modifier. 

This form of the verb is called the +Participle+ (Lat. _pars_, a part, and_capere_, to take) because it partakes of two natures and performs twooffices--those of a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun. (For definition see Lesson 131. )

_Singing birds delight us_. Here _singing_ has lost its verbal nature, andexpresses a permanent quality of birds--telling what kind of birds, --andconsequently is a mere adjective. _The singing of the birds delights us_. Here _singing_ is simply a noun, naming the act and taking adjectivemodifiers. 

There are two kinds of participles; [Footnote: Grammarians are not agreedas to what these words that have the nature of the verb and that of thenoun should be called. Some would call the simple forms _doing_, _writing_, and _injuring_, in sentences (1), (6), and (7), Lesson 38, _Infinitives_. They would also call by the same name such compound forms as _beingaccepted_, _having been shown_, and _having said_ in these expressions:"for the purpose of being accepted;" "is the having been shown over aplace;" "I recollect his having said that. " But does it not tax evencredulity to believe that a simple Anglo-Saxon infinitive in _-an_, onlyone form of which followed a preposition, and that always _to_, could havedeveloped into many compound forms, used in both voices, following almostany preposition, and modified by _the_ and by nouns and pronouns in thepossessive? No wonder the grammarian Mason says, "An infinitive in _-ing_, set down by some as a modification of the simple infinitive in _-an_ or_-en_, is a perfectly unwarranted invention. "

Others call these words modernized forms of the Anglo-Saxon _Verbal Nouns_in _-ung_, _-ing_. But this derivation of them encounters the stubborn factthat those verbal nouns never were compound, and never were or could befollowed by objects. These words, on the contrary, are compound, as we haveseen, and have objects. That they are from nouns in _-ung_ is otherwise, and almost for the same reasons, as incredible as that they are frominfinitives in _-an_. 

Others call these words _Gerunds_. A gerund in Latin is a simple form ofthe verb in the active voice, never found in the nominative, and never inthe accusative (objective) after a verb. A gerund in Anglo-Saxon is asimple form of the verb in the active voice--the dative case of theinfinitive merely--used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded bythe preposition _to_. To call these words in question gerunds is to stretchthe term _gerund_ immensely beyond its meaning in Anglo-Saxon, and make itcover words which sometimes (1) are highly compounded; sometimes (2) areused in the passive voice; sometimes (3) follow other prepositions than_to_; sometimes (4) do not follow any preposition; sometimes (5) areobjects of verbs; sometimes (6) are subjects of verbs; sometimes (7) aremodified by _the_; sometimes (8) are modified by a noun or pronoun in thepossessive; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose. We submit that theextension of a class term so as to include words having these relationsthat the Anglo-Saxon gerund never had, is not warranted by any precedentexcept that furnished above in the extension of the term _infinitive_ or ofthe term _verbal noun_!

Still others call some of these words _Infinitives_; some of them _VerbalNouns_; and some of them _Gerunds_. 

The forms in question--_seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen_, and _having been seeing_, for instance--are now made from the verb inprecisely the same way when partaking the nature of the noun as whenpartaking the nature of the adjective. What can they possibly be but theforms that all grammarians call _participles_ extended to new uses? If theuses of the original participles have been extended, why may we not carryover the name? The name _participle_ is as true to its etymology whenapplied to the nounal use of the verb as when applied to the adjectivaluse. For convenience of classification we call these disputed forms_participles_, as good grammarians long ago called them and still callthem, though some of them may be traced back to the Saxon verbal noun or tothe infinitive, and though the Saxon participle was adjectival. The name_participle_ neither confounds terms nor misleads the student. The nounaland the adjectival uses of participial forms we distinguish very sharply. ]one sharing the nature of the verb and that of the adjective; the other, the nature of the verb and that of the noun. Participles commonly end in_ing_, _ed_, or _en_. 

The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an objectcomplement or an attribute complement. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

The +participle+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+. 

1. Hearing a step, I turned. 

 I | turned ===|========= \ | \ hea \ ring | step --------|------ \a

+Explanation+. --The line standing for the participle is broken; one partslants to represent the adjective nature of the participle, and the otheris horizontal to represent its verbal nature. 

+Oral Analysis+. --The phrase _hearing a step_ is a modifier of the subject;[Footnote: Logically, or in sense, _hearing a step_ modifies the predicatealso. I _turned when_ or _because_ I heard a step. See Lesson 79. ] theprincipal word is _hearing_, which is completed by the noun _step_; _step_is modified by _a_. 

+Parsing+. --_Hearing_ is a form of the verb called participle because theact expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of anadjective and that of a verb. 

2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. 

+Explanation+. --The complement is here modified by a participle phrase. 

3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down-ward through the back-bone. 4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the celebrated forest of the Hague. 

+Explanation+. --The principal word of a prepositional phrase is heremodified by a participle phrase. 

5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the populace with the sports of the amphitheater. 

The +participle+ may be used as an +attribute complement+. 

6. The natives came crowding around. 

+Explanation+. --_Crowding_ here completes the predicate _came_, and belongsto the subject _natives_. The natives are represented as performing the actof coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of thepredicate _came_ seems to extend over both verbs. [Footnote: Somegrammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions asadverbial. But is _crowding_ any more adverbial here than are _pale_ and_trembling_ in "The natives came _pale_ and _trembling_"?]

7. The city lies sleeping. 8. They stood terrified. 9. The philosopher sat buried in thought. 

 \and \and \ \. .. . \. .. . \ \ \ \star \ \ \ ving \ \sav \------- \ \ ing \gru \---------- \ bbing \------------- |miser | kept \ / \======|====================== |

10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving. 

The +participle+ may be used as an +objective complement+. 

11. He kept me waiting. 

+Explanation+. --_Waiting_ completes _kept_ and relates to the objectcomplement _me_. _Kept-waiting_ expresses the complete act performed uponme. _He kept-waiting me_=_He detained me_. The relation of _waiting_ to_me_ may be seen by changing the form of the verb; as, I _was keptwaiting_. See Lesson 31. 

12. I found my book growing dull. [Footnote: It will be seen by this andfollowing examples that we extend the application of the term _objectivecomplement_ beyond its primary, or factitive, sense. In "I struck the man_dead_, " the condition expressed by _dead_ is the result of the actexpressed by _struck_. In "I found the man _dead_, " the condition is notthe result of the act, and so grammarians say that in this second example_dead_ should be treated simply as an "appositive" adjective modifying_man_. While _dead_ does not belong to _man_ as expressing the result ofthe act, it is made to belong to _man_ through the asserting force of theverb, and therefore is not a mere modifier of _man_. _Dead_ helps _found_to express the act. Not _found_, but _found-dead_ tells what was done tothe man. 

If we put the sentence in the passive form, "The man was found _dead_, " itwill be seen that _dead_ is more than a mere modifier; it belongs to _man_through the assertive force of _was found_. If _dead_ is here merely an"appositive" adjective, "I found the man dead" must equal "I found the man, who was dead" (or, "and he was dead"). The two sentences obviously are notequal. "I caught him asleep" does not mean, "I caught him, and he wasasleep. "

If, in the construction discussed above, _dead_ is an objective complement, _quiet_, _stirring_, and (to) _stir_ in thefollowing sentences are objective complements:--

 I saw the leaves quiet. I saw the leaves stirring. I saw the leaves stir. 

The adjective, the participle, and the infinitive do not here seem todiffer essentially in office. See Lesson 31 and page 78. ]

 \grow \ wing \ dull \--------------- | I | found / / \ | book=====|============================== | \my

+Explanation+. --The diagram representing the phrase complement is drawnabove the complement line, on which it is made to rest by means of asupport. All that stands on the complement line is regarded as thecomplement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward theobject complement. The adjective _dull_ completes _growing_ and belongs to_book_, the assumed subject of _growing_. 

13. He owned himself defeated. 14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent mobs. 15. I felt my heart beating faster. 16. You may imagine me sitting there. 17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned into a king. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 38. 

PARTICIPLES--CONTINUED. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

The +participle+ may be used as +principal word+ in a +prepositionalphrase+. 

1. We receive good by doing good. 

 We | receive | good=====|==================== | \by \-----, doing | good --------------

+Explanation+. --The line representing the participle here is broken; thefirst part represents the participle as a noun, and the other as a verb. 

+Oral Analysis+. --The phrase _by doing good_ is a modifier of thepredicate; _by_ introduces the phrase; the principal word is _doing_, whichis completed by the noun _good_. 

+Passing+. --_Doing_ is a participle; like a noun, it follows thepreposition _by_, and, like a verb, it takes an object complement. 

2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain. 3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand persons. 4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. 5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suffered. (_Suffering_ is here a noun. )

The +participle+ may be the +principal word+ in a phrase used as a+subject+ or as an +object complement+. 

6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. 

---, writing | letter '------------------------ \Your | \neatly \that | \so | / \ | secured | position =========|========='=========== | \the

+Explanation+. --The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above thesubject line. All that rests on the subject line is regarded as thesubject. 

+Oral Analysis+. --The phrase _your writing that letter so neatly_ is thesubject; the principal word of it is _writing_, which is completed by_letter; writing_, as a noun, is modified by _your_, and, as a verb, by theadverb phrase _so neatly_. 

7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent. 9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment. 

The +participial form+ may be used as a +mere noun+ or a +mere adjective+. 

10. The cackling of geese saved Rome. 

11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many a long-forgotten song. [Footnote: "_Manig man_ in Anglo-Saxon was used like German _mancher mann_, Latin _multus vir_, and the like, until the thirteenth century; when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number. "--_Prof. F. A. March. _]

+Explanation+. --_Many_ modifies _song_ after _song_ has been limited by _a_and _long-forgotten_. 

12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. 13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner. 

The +participle+ may be used in +independent+ or +absolute phrases+. 

14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river. 

+Explanation+. --The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of anoun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See lesson 44. 

15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's "constitutionals. "

 * * * * *

LESSON 39. 

COMPOSITION--PARTICIPLES. 

+COMMA--RULE. --The Participle used as an adjective modifier, with the wordsbelonging to it, is set off+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of asentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by onecomma. ] +by the comma unless restrictive+. 

+Explanation+. --_A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song. The bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting_ describes withoutrestricting; _sitting_ restricts--limits the application of _bird_ to aparticular bird. 

+Direction+. --_Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson_37. 

+Caution+. --In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as to whatyou intend it to modify. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, givingyour reasons:--_

1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small family containing all the improvements. 2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of brick. 3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap. 4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger. 

+Direction+. --_Recast these sentences, making the reference of theparticiple clear, and punctuating correctly_:--

+Model+. --_Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen. _Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing. 

_Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean_. 

1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock. 

+Direction+. --_Compose sentences in which each of these three participlesshall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in aprepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subjector as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in anabsolute phrase_:--

Buzzing, leaping, waving. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 40. 

VERBS AS NOUNS--INFINITIVES. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_I came to see you_. Here the verb _see_, like theparticiple, lacks asserting power--_I to see_ asserts nothing. _See_, following the preposition _to_, [Footnote: For the discussion of _to_ withthe infinitive, see Lesson 134. ] names the act and is completed by _you_, and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like the secondkind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from many grammarians hasreceived the same name--some calling both _gerunds_, and others callingboth _infinitives_. It differs from this participle in form, and infollowing only the preposition _to_. Came _to see_=came _for seeing_. 

This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used asa subject or as an object, complement; as, _To read good books_ isprofitable; I like _to read good books_. Here also the form with _to_ isequivalent to the participle form _reading_. _Reading good books_ isprofitable. 

As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, withoutlimiting it to a subject, we call it the +Infinitive+ (Lat. _infinitus_, without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, like theparticiple, may have what is called an _assumed subject_. The _assumedsubject_ denotes that to which the action or being expressed by theparticiple or the infinitive belongs. 

Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first examplegiven above, and in such cases _to_ expresses relation, and performs itsfull function as a preposition; but, when the infinitive phrase is used assubject or as object complement, the _to_ expresses no relation. It servesonly to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of theverb. 

The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by thedifferent complements. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ or an+adverb modifier+. 

1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams. 

 hot-house | is \ trap============|================ \The | \a \to \ catch | sunbeams \-------'----------

+Oral Analysis+. --_To_ introduces the phrase; _catch_ is the principalword, and _sunbeams_ completes it. 

+Parsing+. --_To_ is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing therelation, in sense, of the principal word to _trap; catch_ is a form of theverb called _infinitive_; like a noun, it follows the preposition _to_ andnames the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by _sunbeams_. 

2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and decision of character. 3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated. 4. We will strive to please you. 

+Explanation+. --The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modifythe predicate. 

5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy. 

+Explanation+. --_Happy_ completes _make_ and relates to _us_. 

7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

+Explanation+. --The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modifythe adjective _hard_. _To heal = to be healed_. 

8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and again to sell off and wander. 9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat. 

+Explanation+. --The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modifythe adverb _enough_. _To eat = to be eaten_. 

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +subject+ or +complement. +

10. To be good is to be great. 

\To \to \ be \good \ be \ great \----------------------- | | / \ | is \ / \========|================== |

Explanation. --_To_, in each of these phrases, shows no relation--it servesmerely to introduce. The complements _good_ and _great_ are adjectives usedabstractly, having no noun to relate to. 

11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 14. He seemed to be innocent. 

+Explanation+. --The infinitive phrase here performs the office of anadjective. _To be innocent = innocent_. 

15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him. 16. We should learn to govern ourselves. 

+Explanation+. --The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement. 

17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 41. 

INFINITIVES--CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +after a preposition+ as the +principalterm+ of another phrase. 

1. My friend is about to leave me. 

 \to \ leave | me \-------'---- \ about | \ / \ \----------------- | friend | is \ / \========|===================== \My |

+Explanation+. --The preposition _about_ introduces the phrase used asattribute complement; the principal part is the infinitive phrase _to leaveme_. 

2. Paul was now about to open his mouth. 3. No way remains but to go on. 

+Explanation+. --_But_ is here a preposition. 

The +infinitive+ and its +assumed subject+ may form the +principal term+ ina phrase introduced by the preposition +for+. 

4. For us to know our faults is profitable. 

 us ------- | \to \ | \ know | faults \For | \------'-------- \ / \ \our \------- | / \ | is \ profitable=============|====================== |

+Explanation+. --_For_ introduces the subject phrase; the principal part ofthe entire phrase is _us to know our faults;_ the principal word is _us_, which is modified by the phrase _to know our faults_. 

5. God never made his work for man to mend. 

+Explanation+. ---The principal term of the phrase _for man to mend_ is not_man_, but _man to mend_. 

6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance. 

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +explanatory modifier. +

7. It is easy to find fault. 

\to \ find | fault \-----'------ |It (/ \) | is \ easy=========|=========== |

+Explanation+. --The infinitive phrase _to find fault_ explains the subject_it_. Read the sentence without _it_, and you will see the real nature ofthe phrase. This use of _it_ as a substitute for the real subject is a verycommon idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow theverb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts. 

8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 10. It is not all of life to live. 11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful. 

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +objective complement. +

12. He made me wait. 

+Explanation+. --The infinitive _wait_ (here used without _to_) completes_made_ and relates to _me_. _He made-wait me = He detained me_. 

See "Introductory Hints, " Lesson 31, and participles used as objectivecomplements, Lesson 37. Compare _I saw him do it_ with _I saw him doingit_. Compare also _He made the stick bend_--equaling _He made-bend _(=bent) _the stick_--with _He made the stick straight_--equaling _Hemade-straight _(= straightened) _the stick_. 

The relation of these objective complements to _me, him_, and _stick_ maybe more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus: I was made _towait_; He was seen _to do it_, He was seen _doing it_; The stick was made_to bend_; The stick was made _straight_. 

13. We found the report to be true. [Footnote: Some prefer to treat _the report to be true_ as an object clause because it is equivalent to the clause _that the report is true_. But many expressions logically equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction; as, I desire _his promotion_; I desire _him to be promoted_; I desire _that he should be promoted_. Besides, to teach that _him_ is the subject, and _to be promoted_ the predicate, of a clause would certainly be confusing. ]

 \to \ be \ true \-------------- |We | found / / \ | report===|========================== |

14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. [Footnote: Notice the difference in construction between this sentence and the sentence _He commanded him to lower the bridge_. _Him_ represents the one to whom the command is given, and _to lower the bridge_ is the object complement. This last sentence = He commanded _him that he should lower the bridge_. Compare _He told me to go_ with _He told (to) me a story_; also _He taught me to read_ with _He taught (to) me reading. _ In such sentences as (13) and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding noun and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the infinitive and its assumed subject may be treated as a kind of phrase object, equivalent to a clause. This construction is similar to the Latin "accusative with the infinitive. "]

15. I saw the leaves stir. [Footnote: See pages 68 and 69, foot-note. ]

+Explanation+. --_Stir_ is an infinitive without the _to_. 

16. Being persuaded by Poppaesa, Hero caused his mother, Agrippina, to be assassinated. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 42. 

INFINITIVES--CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +independently+. [Footnote: Theseinfinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79. 

For the infinitive after _as, than_, etc. , see Lesson 63. Participles andinfinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms; as, have_walked_, shall _walk_. ]

+Explanation+. --In the diagram the independent element must stand byitself. 

1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4, 000, 000, 000. 2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. And Marie Antoinette were executed. 

Infinitives and Participles. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of the sun. 6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having changed so. 7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. 8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole, 9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 10. To be, or not to be, --that is the question. 11. I supposed him to be a gentleman. 12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and repairing its waste, is a necessity. 13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time. 14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of the window, to drown herself. 15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smoking and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 43. 

COMPOSITION--THE INFINITIVE. 

+Direction+. --_Change the infinitives in these sentences into participles, and the participles into infinitives_:--

Notice that _to_, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is changedto _toward, for, of, at, in, _ or _on_, when the infinitive is changed to aparticiple. 

1. I am inclined to believe it. 2. I am ashamed to be seen there. 3. She will be grieved to hear it. 4. They trembled to hear such words. 5. It will serve for amusing the children. 6. There is a time to laugh. 7. I rejoice to hear it. 8. You are prompt to obey. 9. They delight to do it. 10. I am surprised at seeing you. 11. Stones are used in ballasting vessels. 

+Direction+. --_Improve these sentences by changing the participles intoinfinitives, and the infinitives into participles_:--

1. We began ascending the mountain. 2. He did not recollect to have paid it. 3. I commenced to write a letter. 4. It is inconvenient being poor. 5. It is not wise complaining. 

+Direction+. --_Vary these sentences as in the model_:--

+Model+. --_Rising early_ is healthful; _To rise_ early is healthful; _It_is healthful _to rise_ early; _For one to rise_ early is healthful. 

(Notice that the explanatory phrase after _it_ is not set off by thecomma. )

1. Reading good books is profitable. 2. Equivocating is disgraceful. 3. Slandering is base. 4. Indorsing another's paper is dangerous. 5. Swearing is sinful. 

+Direction. +--_Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitivephrase shall be used as an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in threeas a noun_. 

+Direction. +--_Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followedby an infinitive without the to_:--

+Model. +--We _saw_ the sun _sink_ behind the mountain. 

Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 44. 

WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY. 

+Introductory Hints. +--In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrasesthat in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of thesentence. 

_The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus_ serves only toarrest attention, and is independent by address. 

_Poor man! he never came back again. Poor man_ is independent byexclamation. 

_Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me_. _Rod_ and _staff_ simply callattention to the objects before anything is said of them, and areindependent by pleonasm--a construction used sometimes for rhetoricaleffect, but out of place in ordinary speech. 

_His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master beingabsent_ logically modifies the verb _was neglected_ by assigning the cause, but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and is thereforegrammatically independent. This is called the _absolute phrase_. An_absolute phrase_ consists of a noun or a pronoun used independently with amodifying participle. 

_His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking_ is a participlewithout connection, and with the adverb _generally_ forms an independentphrase. 

_To confess the truth, I was wrong. _ The infinitive phrase is independent. 

The adverbs _well, now, why, there_ are sometimes independent; as, _Well_, life is an enigma; _Now_, that is strange; _Why_, it is already noon;_There_ are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees. 

Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, andhence are independent. 

Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of therest of the sentence; as, I stake my fame (_and I had fame_), my heart, myhope, my soul, upon this cast. 

+Analysis+. 

1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows. 

+Explanation. +--_Tom_ is independent by address. _But_ is an adjectivemodifying _shadows_. 

2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three-story intellects with skylights. 

+Explanation+. --Often, as in this sentence, _there_ is used idiomatically, merely to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having fadedout of the word. To express place, another _there_ may follow thepredicate; as, _There_ is gold _there_. 

3. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 4. Hope lost, all is lost. 5. The smith, a mighty man is he. 6. Why, this is not revenge. 7. Well, this is the forest of Arden. 8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. 9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies. 10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow. 11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. 12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts. 13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. 14. But the enemies of tyranny--their path leads to the scaffold. 15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman!) managed the matter extremely well. 

 retreat | began =========|======= \later \---\ \ day \------- \A

16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand Army, from Moscow. 

See Lesson 35. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 45. 

COMPOSITION--INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES. 

+COMMA--RULE. --Words and phrases independent or nearly so are set off bythe comma. +

+Remark+. --Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by theexclamation point; and _there_, used merely to introduce, is never set offby the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in(5), Lesson 44, the comma is used; but, if it is more abrupt, as in (14), the dash is required. If the independent expression can be omitted withoutaffecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis, as in(15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis, seeLesson 148. )

Words and phrases nearly independent are those which, like _however, ofcourse, indeed, in short, by the bye, for instance_, and _accordingly_, donot modify a word or a phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole;as, Lee did not, _however_, follow Washington's orders. 

+Direction. +--_Write sentences illustrating the several kinds ofindependent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained_. 

+Direction. +--_Write short sentences in which these words and phrases, usedin a manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate themproperly_:--

In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover, however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, too, of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore. 

+Direction. +--_Write short sentences in which these words shall modify sameparticular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma_:--

Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still. 

+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. +

(SEE PAGES 160-162. )

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 46. 

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. 

+Introductory Hints+. --In the previous Lessons we have considered thesentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let us nowlook at it as a whole. 

_The mountains lift up their heads_. This sentence is used simply toaffirm, or to declare a fact, and is called a +Declarative Sentence. +

_Do the mountains lift up their heads?_ This sentence expresses a question, and is called an +Interrogative Sentence. +

_Lift up your heads_. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an+Imperative Sentence+. Such expressions as _You must go_, _You shall go_are equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperativeform. 

_How the mountains lift up their heads!_ In this sentence the thought isexpressed with strong emotion. It is called an +Exclamatory Sentence+. _How_ and _what_ usually introduce such sentences; but a declarative, aninterrogative, or an imperative sentence may become exclamatory when thespeaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelings; as, _It is impossible!How can I endure it! Talk of hypocrisy after this!_

+DEFINITION. --A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or todeny. +

+DEFINITION. --An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses aquestion. +

+DEFINITION. --An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command oran entreaty. +

+DEFINITION. --An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses suddenthought or strong feeling. + [Footnote: For punctuation, see page 42. ]

+INTERROGATION POINT--RULE. --Every direct interrogative sentence should befollowed by an interrogation point. +

+Remark. +--When an interrogative sentence is made a part of anothersentence, it may be direct; as, He asked, "_What is the trouble?_" orindirect; as, He asked _what the trouble was_. (See Lesson 74. )

Analysis. 

+Direction. +--_Before analyzing these sentences, classify them, and justifythe terminal marks of punctuation:_--

1. There are no accidents in the providence of God. 2. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of the mortal part?3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. 

(The subject is _you_ understood. )

4. How wonderful is the advent of spring!5. Oh! a dainty plant is the ivy green!6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work. 7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of his age. 8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself!9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 10. Lend me your ears. 11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has!12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character?13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead!15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon and the shouts of his triumph?

 * * * * *

LESSON 47. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW

Analysis. 

1. Poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religion. --_Wordsworth_. 2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu would permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence. --_Stephen_. 3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry; a flag, floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory ministry to-day. --_Conway_. 4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of foaming phrase. --_Lowell_. 5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art. --_De Quincey_. 6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words-- health, peace, and competence. --_Pope_. 7. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye. --_Tyler_. [Footnote: Weighty thoughts tersely expressed, like (7), (8), and (10) in this Lesson, are called Epigrams. What quality do you think they impart to one's style?]8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun. -- _Longfellow_. 9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plantagenets, become noble by association. --_F. W. Robertson_. 10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night. -- _Beecher_. 11. In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went gleaning the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain still golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair. --_Curtis_. [Footnote: In _Ruth_ of this sentence, we have a type of the metaphor called +Personification+--a figure in which things are raised above their proper plane, taken up toward or to that of persons. Things take on dignity and importance as they rise in the scale of being. 

 Note, moreover, that in this instance of the figure we have an +Allusion+. All the interest that the Ruth of the Bible awakens in us this allusion gathers about so common a thing as memory. ]

 * * * * *

LESSON 48. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 

Analysis. 

1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of Aeolus's bag, and carries the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat. --_Emerson_. 2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of Resurrection. --_Holmes_. 3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old. --_Canning_. 4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the constant linguistic exercise of that organ. --_Warner_. 5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed upon it. --_Earle_. 6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of despotism. --_Phillips_. 7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so. --_Gail Hamilton_. 8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds. --_Lamb_. 9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual calm. --_Addison_. 10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved beyond the power of science. 

+Explanation+. --_Beyond the power of science = impossible_, and istherefore an attribute complement. The preposition _beyond_ shows therelation, in sense, of _power_ to the subject phrase. 

11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories by turning somersets in the air. --_Longfellow_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 49. 

REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION. 

+Direction+. --_Give the reasons, so far as you have been taught, for themarks of punctuation used in Lessons_ 44, 46, 47, _and_ 48. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 50. 

REVIEW. 

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions, Lesson 16. 

+Direction+. --_Review from Lesson_ 37 _to Lesson_ 46, _inclusive_. 

Give, in some such way as we have outlined in preceding Review Lessons, thesubstance of the "Introductory Hints;" repeat and illustrate definitionsand rules; illustrate the different uses of the participle and theinfinitive, and illustrate the Caution regarding the use of the participle;illustrate the different ways in which words and phrases may begrammatically independent, and the punctuation of these independentelements. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 51. 

ARRANGEMENT--USUAL ORDER. 

TO THE TEACHER. --If, from lack of time or from the necessity of conformingto a prescribed course of study, it is found desirable to abridge theseLessons on Arrangement and Contraction, the exercises to be written may beomitted, and the pupil may be required to illustrate the positions of thedifferent parts, in both the Usual and the Transposed order, and then toread the examples given, making the required changes orally. 

The eight following Lessons may thus be reduced to two or three. 

Let us recall the +Usual Order+ of words and phrases in a simpledeclarative sentence. 

The verb follows the subject, and the object complement follows the verb. 

+Example+. --_Drake circumnavigated the globe_. 

+Direction+. --_Observing this order, write three sentences each with anobject complement. _

An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, and an explanatorymodifier follows it. 

+Examples+. --_Man's life is a brief span. Moses, the lawgiver_, came downfrom the Mount. 

+Direction+. --_Observing this order, write four sentences, two withpossessive modifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing anadjective. _

The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, follows the verb, theobjective complement follows the object complement, and the indirect objectprecedes the direct. 

+Examples+. --Egypt _is the valley_ of the Nile. Eastern life _is dreamy_. They made _Bonaparte consul_. They offered _Caesar a crown_. 

+Direction+. --_Observing this order, write four sentences illustrating thepositions of the noun and of the adjective when they perform theseoffices_. 

If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely modifying the nounstands nearest to it; if of the same rank, they stand in the order of theirlength--the shortest first. 

+Examples+. --_Two honest young_ men enlisted. Cassino has a _lean_ and_hungry_ look. A rock, _huge_ and _precipitous_, stood in our path. 

+Direction+. --_Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating therelative position of adjectives before and after the noun_. 

An adverb precedes the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which itmodifies; precedes or follows (more frequently follows) the simple verb orthe verb with its complement; and follows one or more words of the verb ifthe verb is compound. 

+Examples+. --The light _far in the distance_ is _so very bright_. I _soonfound him_. I _hurt him badly_. He _had often been there_. 

+Direction+. --_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating theseseveral positions of the adverb_. 

Phrases follow the words they modify; if a word has two or more phrases, those most closely modifying it stand nearest to it. 

+Examples+. --_Facts once established_ are facts forever. He _sailed forLiverpool on Monday_. 

+Direction+. --_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating thepositions of participle and prepositional phrases_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 52. 

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER. 

+Introductory Hints+. --The usual order of words, spoken of in the precedingLesson, is not the only order admissible in an English sentence; on thecontrary, great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is sometimesallowable. Let the relation of the words be kept obvious and, consequently, the thought clear, and in poetry, in impassioned oratory, in excited speechof any kind, one may deviate widely from this order. 

A writer's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words; more of itlies in some words than in others. Under the influence of strong feeling, one may move words out of their accustomed place, and, by thus attractingattention to them, give them additional importance to the reader or hearer. 

When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place, appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the end, we have whatwe may call the +Transposed Order+. _I dare not venture to go down into thecabin--Venture to go down into the cabin I dare not. You shall die--Die youshall. Their names will forever live on the lips of the people--Their nameswill, on the lips of the people, forever live_. 

When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or theprincipal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme example ofthe transposed order; as, _A yeoman had he. Strange is the magic of aturban. _ The whole of a verb is not placed at the beginning of adeclarative sentence except in poetry; as, _Flashed all their sabers bare_. 

TO THE TEACHER. ----Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangementand Contraction, we say _change, transpose_, or _restore_, the pupils neednot write the sentences. They should study them and be able to read them. Require them to show what the sentence has lost or gained in the change. 

+Direction+. --_Change these sentences from the usual to the transposedorder by moving words or phrases to the front, and explain the effect_:--

1. He could not avoid it. 2. They were pretty lads. 3. The great Queen died in the year 1603. 4. He would not escape. 5. I must go. 6. She seemed young and sad. 7. He cried, "My son, my son!"8. He ended his tale here. 9. The moon shone bright. 10. A frozen continent lies beyond the sea. 11. He was a contentious man. 12. It was quoted so. 13. Monmouth had never been accused of cowardice. 

+Direction+. --_Change these sentences from the transposed order to theusual, and explain the effect_:--

1. Him, the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 2. Volatile he was. 3. Victories, indeed, they were. 4. Of noble race the lady came. 5. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 6. Once again we'll sleep secure. 7. This double office the participle performs. 8. That gale I well remember. 9. Churlish he often seemed. 10. One strong thing I find here below. 11. Overhead I heard a murmur. 12. To their will we must succumb. 13. Him they hanged. 14. Freely ye have received. 

+Direction+. --_Write five sentences, each with one of the following nounsor adjectives as a complement; and five, each with one of the adverbs orphrases as predicate modifier; then transpose the ten with these same wordsmoved to the front, and explain the effect_:--

Giant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in the market, long anddeeply, then, under foot. 

+Direction+. --_Transpose these sentences by placing the italicized wordslast, and note the effect_:--

1. The clouds lowering upon our house are _buried_ in the deep bosom of the ocean. 2. Aeneas did _bear_ from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the old Anchises. 3. Such a heart _beats_ in the breast of my people. 4. The great fire _roared_ up the deep and wide chimney. 

+Direction+. --_Change these to the usual order_:--

1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won. 2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its proper price, displayed. 3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of the family, suddenly stopped. 4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the earth, concealed. 5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable. 

+Direction+. --_Write three sentences, each with the following noun oradjective or phrase in its usual place in the predicate, and thentranspose, placing these words wherever they can properly go_:--

Mountains, glad, by and by. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 53. 

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER. 

+Direction+. --_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving theobject complement and the verb to their customary places, and tell what islost by the change_:--

1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth. 2. "Exactly so, " replied the pendulum. 3. Me restored he to mine office. 4. A changed France have we. 5. These evils hath sin wrought. 

+Direction+. --_Transpose these sentences by moving the object complementand the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:--

1. The dial-plate exclaimed, "Lazy wire!"2. The maiden has such charms. 3. The English character has faults and plenty of them. 4. I will make one effort more to save you. 5. The king does possess great power. 6. You have learned much in this short journey. 

+Direction+. --_Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as objectcomplements, and then restore them to their usual order_:--

Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift. 

+Direction+. --_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving theattribute complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell what islost by the change_:--

1. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 2. Feet was I to the lame. 3. A mighty man is he. 4. As a mark of respect was the present given. 5. A giant towered he among men. 

+Direction+. --_Transpose these sentences by moving the attribute complementand the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:--

1. We are merry brides. 2. Washington is styled the "Father of his Country. "3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot. 4. The man seemed an incarnate demon. 5. Henry VIII. Had become a despot. 

+Direction+. --_Using these nouns as attribute complements, write threesentences in the usual order, and then transpose them_:--

Rock, desert, fortress. 

+Direction+. --_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving theadjective complement and the verb to their customary places_:--

1. Happy are we to-night, boys. 2. Good and upright is the Lord. 3. Hotter grew the air. 4. Pale looks your Grace. 5. Dark rolled the waves. 6. Louder waxed the applause. 7. Blood-red became the sun. 8. Doubtful seemed the battle. 9. Wise are all his ways. 10. Wide open stood the doors. 11. Weary had he grown. 12. Faithful proved he to the last. 

+Direction+. --_Transpose these sentences by moving the adjective complementand the verb_:--

1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 2. The anger of the righteous is weighty. 3. The air seemed deep and dark. 4. She had grown tall and queenly. 5. The peacemakers are blessed. 6. I came into the world helpless. 7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless. 8. The fall of that house was great. 9. The uproar became intolerable. 10. The secretary stood alone. 

+Direction+. --_Write five transposed sentences, each with one of theseadjectives as attribute complement, and then restore the sentences to theusual order_:--

Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 54. 

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER. 

+Direction+. --_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving theadverb and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:--

1. Then burst his mighty heart. 2. Here stands the man. 3. Crack! went the ropes. 4. Down came the masts. 5. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 6. Tictac! tictac! go the wheels of thought. 7. Away went Gilpin. 8. Off went his bonnet. 9. Well have ye judged. 10. On swept the lines. 11. There dozed the donkeys. 12. Boom! boom! went the guns. 13. Thus waned the afternoon. 14. There thunders the cataract age after age. 

+Direction+. --_Transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and theverb_:--

1. I will never desert Mr. Micawber. 2. The great event occurred soon after. 3. The boy stood there with dizzy brain. 4. The Spaniard's shot went whing! whing!5. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin. 6. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 7. It stands written so. 8. Venus was yet the morning star. 9. You must speak thus. 10. Lady Impudence goes up to the maid. 11. Thy proud waves shall be stayed here. 

+Direction+. --_Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using theseadverbs_:--

Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never. 

+Direction+. --_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving thephrase and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:--

1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 2. Seven years after the Restoration appeared Paradise Lost. 3. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 4. To such straits is a kaiser driven. 5. Upon such a grating hinge opened the door of his daily life. 6. Between them lay a mountain ridge. 7. In purple was she robed. 8. Near the surface are found the implements of bronze. 9. Through the narrow bazaar pressed the demure donkeys. 10. In those days came John the Baptist. 11. On the 17th of June, 1775, was fought the battle of Bunker Hill. 12. Three times were the Romans driven back. 

+Direction+. --_Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and theverb_:--

1. The disciples came at the same time. 2. The dreamy murmur of insects was heard over our heads. 3. An ancient and stately hall stood near the village. 4. His trusty sword lay by his side. 5. Pepin eventually succeeded to Charles Martel. 6. The house stands somewhat back from the street. 7. Our sphere turns on its axis. 8. The bridle is red with the sign of despair. 9. I have served in twenty campaigns. 10. Touch proper lies in the finger-tips and in the lips. 

+Direction+. --_Write ten sentences in the usual order, using theseprepositions to introduce phrases, and then transpose the sentences, andcompare the two orders_:--

Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to. 

+Direction+. --_Write six sentences in the transposed order, beginning themwith these words_:--

There (independent), nor, neither. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 55. 

ARRANGEMENT--INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, the order isusual. 

+Examples+. --_Who_ came last evening? _What star_ shines brightest?

+Direction+. --_Write five interrogative sentences, using the first wordbelow as a subject; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of thesubject; the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject_:--

Who, which, what. 

If the interrogative word is object complement or attribute complement or amodifier of either, the order is transposed. 

+Examples+. --_Whom_ did you see? _What_ are personal consequences? _Whichcourse_ will you choose?

+Direction+. --_Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below asobject complement, and another with the second word as attributecomplement. Write four with the third and the fourth as_ _complements, andfour with the third and the fourth as modifiers of the complement_:--

Whom, who, which, what. 

If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is transposed. 

+Examples+. --_Why_ is the forum crowded? _Where_ are the flowers, the fairyoung flowers?

+Direction+. --_Write five interrogative sentences, using these adverbs_:--

How, when, where, whither, why. 

If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands after the verb whenthis is simple; after the first word of it when it is compound. 

+Examples+. --_Have you_ your lesson? _Has the gentleman_ finished?

+Direction+. --_Write six interrogative sentences, using these words_:--

Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must see. 

+Direction+. --_Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson intodeclarative sentences_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 56. 

ARRANGEMENT--IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sentence; but, when it isexpressed, the sentence is in the transposed order. 

+Examples+. --_Praise ye_ the Lord. _Give_ (_thou_) me three grains of corn. 

+Direction+. --_Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which thesubject shall be omitted; and in five, expressed_:--

Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, strive, devote. 

Although any sentence may without change of order become exclamatory(Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sentences ordinarily begin with _how_ or_what_, and are usually in the transposed order. 

+Examples+. --_How quietly_ the child sleeps! _How excellent_ is thyloving-kindness! _What visions_ have I seen! _What a life_ his was!

+Direction+. --_Write six exclamatory sentences with the word how modifying(1) an adjective, (2) a verb, and (3) an adverb--in three sentences let theverb follow, and in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences withthe word what modifying (1) an object complement and (2) an attributecomplement--in two sentences let the verb follow, and in two precede, thesubject_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 57. 

CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. 

+Direction+. --_Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiersand prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the last_:--

1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, and a great writer. 2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alliances, they became powerful. 3. Samuel Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious. 4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental!5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy. 6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remonstrances and resolutions and defiance. 7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations. 

+Direction+. --_Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, thepreposition, and the conjunction_:--

1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend. 2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine. 3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous. 4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart. 

+Direction+. --_Write six sentences, each with one of these words used fourtimes; and then contract them as above, and note the effect of therepetition and of the omission_:--

Poor, how, with, through, or, and. 

+Direction+. --Expand these sentences by supplying subjects:--

1. Give us this day our daily bread. 2. Why dost stare so?3. Thank you, sir. 4. Hear me for my cause. 5. Where hast been these six months?6. Bless me!7. Save us. 

+Direction+. --_Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it_:--

1. Nobody there. 2. Death to the tyrant. 3. All aboard!4. All hands to the pumps!5. What to me fame?6. Short, indeed, his career. 7. When Adam thus to Eve. 8. I must after him. 9. Thou shalt back to France. 10. Whose footsteps these?

+Direction+. --_Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and notethe loss in vivacity_:--

1. Upon them with the lance. 2. At your service, sir. 3. Why so unkind?4. Forward, the light brigade!5. Half-past nine. 6. Off with you. 7. My kingdom for a horse!8. Hence, you idle creatures!9. Coffee for two. 10. Shine, sir?11. Back to thy punishment, false fugitive. 12. On with the dance. 13. Strange, strange!14. Once more unto the breach. 15. Away, away!16. Impossible!

+Direction+. --_Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb_:--

1. Art thou gone?2. Will you take your chance?3. His career was ably run. 4. Are you a captain?5. May long life be to the republic. 6. How great is the mystery!7. Canst thou wonder?8. May a prosperous voyage be to you. 9. Are you here?

+Direction+. --_Contract these by omitting both subject and verb, and notethe gain in force and animation_:--

1. I offer a world for sale. 2. Now, then, go you to breakfast. 3. Sit you down, soothless insulter. 4. I want a word with you, wife. 5. Those are my sentiments, madam. 6. Bring ye lights there. 7. It is true, sir. 8. We will drink a health to Preciosa. 9. I offer a penny for your thoughts. 10. Whither are you going so early?

+Direction+. --_Construct ten full sentences, using in each, one of theseadverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract the sentences by omittingboth subject and verb_:--

Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, for theguns, water. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 58. 

REVIEW. 

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions, Lesson 16. 

+Direction+. --_Review from Lesson_ 51 _to Lesson_ 57, _inclusive_. 

Illustrate the different positions--Usual and Transposed--that the wordsand phrases of a declarative sentence may take; illustrate the differentpositions of the parts of an interrogative, of an imperative, and of anexclamatory sentence; illustrate the different ways of contractingsentences. 

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

(SEE PAGES 162-165. )

TO THE TEACHER. --See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 59. 

COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 

+Introductory Hints+. --The sentences given for analysis in the precedingLessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They are called+Simple Sentences+. 

_A discreet youth makes friends_. In Lesson 17 you learned that you couldexpand the adjective _discreet_ into a phrase, and say, A youth ofdiscretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it intoan expression that asserts, and say, A youth _that is discreet_ makesfriends. This part of the sentence and the other part, _A youth makesfriends_, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call +Clauses+. 

The adjective clause _that is discreet_, performing the office of a singleword, we call a +Dependent Clause+; _A youth makes friends_, not performingsuch office, we call an +Independent Clause+. 

The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, wecall a +Complex Sentence+. 

A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an+Adjective Clause+. 

Analysis. 

1. They that touch pitch will be defiled. 

 They | will be defiled=======|===================== ` | ` `that ` | touch | pitch--------|--------'------- |

+Explanation+. --The relative importance of the two clauses is shown bytheir position, by their connection, and by the difference in the shadingof the lines. The pronoun _that_ is written on the subject line of thedependent clause. _That_ performs the office of a conjunction also. Thisoffice is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slantinglines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _thattouch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_. 

+Oral Analysis+. --This is a complex sentence because it consists of anindependent clause and a dependent clause. _They will be defiled_ is theindependent clause, and _that touch pitch_ is the dependent. _That touchpitch_ is a modifier of _they_ because it limits the meaning of _they_; thedependent clause is connected by its subject _that_ to _they_. 

TO THE TEACHER. --Illustrate the connecting force of _who, which_, and_that_ by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and notingthe loss of connection. 

2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press. 3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits. 

+Explanation+. --The adjective clause does not always modify the subject. 

4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like genius. 5. In 1685 Louis XIV. Signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of Nantes. 6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel Adams framed. 

+Explanation+. --The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always asubject. 

7. The guilt of the slave-trade, [Footnote: See Lesson 61, foot-note. ] which sprang out of the traffic with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. 8. I found the place to which you referred. 

 I | found | place====|================== | \the ` ` you | referred ` ------|---------- ` | \to ` \ which ` \-------

9. The spirit in which we act is the highest matter. 10. It was the same book that I referred to. 

+Explanation+. --The phrase _to that_ modifies _referred_. _That_ connectsthe adjective clause. When the pronoun _that_ connects an adjective clause, the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8). 

11. She that I spoke to was blind. 12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him. 

+Explanation+. --A preposition is wanting. _That = in which_. (Can you finda word that would here sound better than _that_?)

13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 14. It is to you that I speak. 

+Explanation+. --Here the preposition, which usually would stand last in thesentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. Inanalysis restore the preposition to its usual place--It is you that I speak_to_. _That I speak to_ modifies the subject. 

15. It was from me that he received the information. 

(_Me_ must be changed to _I_ when _from_ is restored to its usualposition. )

16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of the ocean. 

 mountains----------- ` ` base | is ` ------|----- ` \ `. .. .. \whose

+Explanation+. --The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of_base_. 

17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 60. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES--CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time you take to breathe. 

+Explanation+. --The connecting pronoun _that_ [Footnote: When _whom_, _which_, and _that_ would, if used, be object complements, they are oftenomitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or neveromits them. ] is omitted. 

2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on. 3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. 

+Explanation+. --The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of_whom_. Supply _him_. 

5. He did what was right. 

 He | did | x====|====================== | ` ` what ` | was \ right ---------|-------------

+Explanation+. --The adjective clause modifies the omitted word _thing_, orsome word whose meaning is general or indefinite. [Footnote: Manygrammarians prefer to treat _what was right_ as a noun clause (see Lesson71), the object of _did_. They would treat in the same way clausesintroduced by _whoever_, _whatever_, _whichever_. 

"_What_ was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirectinterrogative; it is confined to clauses which may be parsed assubstantives, and before which no antecedent is needed, or permitted to beexpressed. Its possessive _whose_ has, however, attained the fullconstruction of a relative. "--_Prof. F. A. March_. ]

6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show. 7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 8. What men he had were true. 

The relative pronoun _what_ here precedes its noun like an adjective. Analyze as if arranged thus: The men _what_ (= _that_ or _whom_) _he had_were true. 

9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled. 

+Explanation+. --The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (_man_ or_he_) of the independent clause. 

10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. 11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited. 

 depot | is \ place=======|============== \A | \a ` \where stores | ` are deposited -------|--------------------- |

+Explanation+. --The line representing _where_ is made up of two parts. Theupper part represents _where_ as a conjunction connecting the adjectiveclause to _place_, and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying_are deposited_. As _where_ performs these two offices, it may be called a_conjunctive adverb_. By changing _where_ to the equivalent phrase _inwhich_, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature ofthe conjunctive adverb will be seen. 

13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply _the place_ before _where_. )14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit against Antonio. 16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the operations of the universe are conducted. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 61. 

COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 

+COMMA--RULE. --The _Adjective Clause_, when not restrictive, is set off bythe comma. +

+Explanation+. --I picked the apple _that was ripe_. I picked the apple, _which was ripe_. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts orlimits _apple_, telling which one was picked; in the second the adjectiveclause is added merely to describe the apple picked, the sentence beingnearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, _and it_ was ripe. Thisdifference in meaning is shown by the punctuation. [Footnote: There areother constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to _andhe_ or _and it_; as, I gave the letter to my friend, _who will return it toyou_. 

Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logicalrelation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentencecompound, making the relative clause independent, or co-ordinate with itsantecedent clause. 

Such classification will often require very careful discrimination; as, forinstance, between the preceding sentence and the following: I gave theletter to my friend, _who can be trusted_. 

But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification ofphrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine thefollowing sentences:--

 John, _who did not know the law_, is innocent. John is innocent; _he did not know the law_. John is innocent _because he did not know the law_. 

No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clausesas an adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force? The studentshould carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical formand the logical force differ. (See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143. )]

+Caution+. --The adjective clause should be placed as near as possible tothe word it modifies. 

+Direction+. --_Correct the following errors of position, and insert thecomma when needed_:--

1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we had for breakfast. 4. I have no right to decide who am interested. 

+Direction+. --_Construct five complex sentences, each containing anadjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives_:--Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable. 

+Direction+. --_Change the following simple sentences to complex sentencesby expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses_:--

1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our liberties. 3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night. 4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of their native land. 5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphanage, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber. 

+Direction+. --_Change these simple sentences to complex sentences byexpanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses_:--

1. I have many things to tell you. 2. There were none to deliver. 3. He had an ax to grind. 4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear. 

+Direction+. --_Form complex sentences in which these pronouns andconjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses_:--

Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever. 

When, where, and why. 

+Direction+. --_Change "that which", in the following sentences to "what", and "what" to "that which"; "whoever" to "he who", and "whatever" to"anything" or "everything which"; "where" and "when" to "at", "on", or "inwhich"; "wherein" to "in which"; and "whereby" to "by which"_:--

1. _That which_ is seen is temporal. 2. _What_ God hath joined together let not man put asunder. 3. _Whoever_ lives a pious life blesses his race. 4. _Whatever_ we do has an influence. 5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands on the very spot _where_ brave men died. 6. The year _when_ Chaucer was born is uncertain. 7. The play's the thing _wherein_ I'll catch the conscience of the king. 8. You take my life in taking the means _whereby_ I live. 

+Direction+. --_Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers intoadjective clauses_:--

1. A man's heart deviseth _his_ way. 2. _Reason's_ whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three words--_health, peace_, and _competence_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 62. 

+Direction+. --_Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Lesson, and write illustrative sentences as here directed_:--

Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject; one modifying acomplement; one modifying the principal word of a phrase; one modifyingsome word omitted; one whose connective is a subject; one whose connectiveis a complement; one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase;one whose connective is a possessive modifier; one whose connective isomitted; one whose connective is an adverb. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 63. 

COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADVERB CLAUSE. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_He arrived late_. You have learned that you canexpand the adverb _late_ into a phrase, and say, He arrived _at midnight_. You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of +Time+, andsay, He arrived _when the clock struck twelve_. 

_He stood where I am_. The clause introduced by _where_ expresses +Place+, and is equivalent to the adverb _here_ or to the phrase _in this place_. 

_This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant_. The clause introducedby _as . .. As_ modifies _profitable_, telling the +Degree+ of the qualityexpressed by it. 

A clause that does the work of an adverb is an +Adverb Clause+. 

Analysis. 

The +adverb clause+ may express +time+. 

1. When pleasure calls, we listen. 

 we | listen ===|========= | \ `When `pleasure | \ calls---------|---\------- |

+Explanation+. --_When_ modifies both _listen_ and _calls_, denoting thatthe two acts take place at the same time. It also connects _pleasurecalls_, as an adverb modifier, to _listen_. The offices of the conjunctiveadverb _when_ may be better understood by expanding it into two phrasesthus: We listen _at the time at which_ pleasure calls. _At the time_modifies _listen_, _at which_ modifies _calls_, and _which_ connects. 

The line representing _when_ is made up of three parts to picture thesethree offices. The part representing _when_ as a modifier of _calls_ is, for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it. 

2. While Louis XIV. Reigned, Europe was at war. 3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then ths Lord will take me up. 

Lord | will take | me======|===================== \The | \up \ . . \ then ` \ ` `When father \------------'\ \ \my ' \ \ ' \ \ ' \ | \ forsake | me 'and \----|--------------------- ' / | ' / mother ' /------------'/ \my

+Explanation+. --By changing _then_ into _at the time_, and _when_ into _atwhich_, the offices of these two words will be clearly seen. Forexplanation of the line representing _when_, see Lesson 14 and (1) above. 

4. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in reading Plato's "Immortality. " [Footnote: Some prefer, in constructions like this, to treat _before_, _ere_, _after_, _till_, _until_, and _since_ as prepositions followed by noun clauses. ]5. Many a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave. [Footnote: See (11), Lesson 38, and foot-note. ]

+Explanation+. --_Many_ here modifies _year_, or, rather, _year_ as modifiedby _a_. 

6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon. 

 Blucher | arrived===========|=========== | \ \------\ \ `as \ just ` \ ` \ Wellington | \ was meeting | onslaught --------------|-----\------------------------ |

+Explanation+. --_Just_ may be treated as a modifier of the dependentclause. A closer analysis, however would make it a modifier of _as_. _Justas_=_just at the time at which_. _Just_ here modifies _at the time_. _Atthe time_ is represented in the diagram by the first element of the _as_line. 

The +adverb clause+ may express +place+. 

7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could find it. 9. The wind bloweth where it listeth. 

The +adverb clause+ may express +degree+. 

10. Washington was as good as he was great. 

+Explanation+. --The adverb clause _as he was great_ modifies the first_as_, which is an adverb modifying _good_. The first _as_, modified by theadverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree? Thesecond _as_ modifies _great_ and performs the office of a conjunction, andis therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding _as . .. As_into two phrases, we have, Washington was good _in the degree in which_ hewas great. See diagram of (3) and of (20). 

11. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. [Footnote: _The_, here, is not the ordinary adjective _the_. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first _the_ = _by how much_, and modifies _wiser_; the second _the_ = _by so much_, and modifies _humbler_. ]

+Explanation+. --The words _the . .. The_ are similar in office to _as . .. As_--He became humbler _in that degree in which_ he became wiser. 

12. Gold is heavier than iron. 

 Gold | is \ heavier=======|============== | \ ` than ` iron | x \ \ x -------|---------------

+Explanation+. --_Heavier_ = _heavy beyond the degree_, and _than_ = _inwhich_. The sentence = _Gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron isheavy_. _Is_ and _heavy_ are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after_than_ and _as_. _Than_ modifies _heavy_ (understood) and connects theclause expressing degree to _heavier_, and is therefore a conjunctiveadverb. 

13. To be right is better than to be president. 

+Explanation+. --To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to bepresident (would be good). 

14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. [Footnote: In this sentence, also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different logical relations, and cannot always be classed under Degree. ]

+Explanation+. --The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect itproduced. The adverb _so_, modified by the adverb clause _that the mercuryfroze_, answers the question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It wascold _to that degree in which_ the mercury froze. _That_, as you see, modifies _froze_ and connects the clauses; it is therefore a conjunctiveadverb. 

15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. 

+Explanation+. --It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate orrequire). 

16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for it. 17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded. 18. To preach is easier than to practice. 19. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion. [Footnote: For the use of _he_ instead of the indefinite pronoun _one_ repeated, see Lesson 124. ]20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it. 

 I | like | it=====|=========== | \ \----\ better \the \ . .. \ ` \ ` I | ` see | it ----|--`-------------- ` \ `The \ `. .. .. \oftener \

 * * * * *

LESSON 64. 

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_He lived as the fool lives_. The adverb clause, introduced by _as_, is a clause of +Manner+, and is equivalent to theadverb _foolishly_ or to the phrase _in a foolish manner_. 

_The ground is wet because it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced by_because_, assigns the +Real Cause+ of the ground's being wet. 

_It has rained, for the ground is wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by_for_, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of ourbelieving that it has rained; it gives the +Evidence+ of what is asserted. [Footnote: Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Causeproduces an effect; Evidence produces knowledge of an effect. 

Clauses of Evidence are sometimes treated as independent. ]

Analysis. 

The +adverb clause+ may express +manner+. 

1. He died as he lived. 

+Explanation+. --He died _in the manner in which_ he lived. For diagram, see(1), Lesson 63. 

2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks. 

(For diagram of _as_ . .. _so_, see _when_ . .. _then_ (3), Lesson 63. )

4. As is the boy so will be the man. 5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore. 

The +adverb clause+ may express +real cause+. 

6. The ground is wet because it has rained. 

 ground | is \ wet==========|============= \The | ` ` ` because ` it | ` has rained ----|---------------

+Explanation+. --_Because_, being a mere conjunction, stands on a linewholly dotted. 

7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. 8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood throws off its impurities. 9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people ventilate their sleeping rooms. 10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it combines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits. 11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its flour. 

The +adverb clause+ may express +evidence+. 

12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the wilderness. 13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh found them here. 14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. 15. We Americans must all be cuckoos, for we build our homes in the nests of other birds. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 65. 

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_If it rains, the ground will be wet_. The adverbclause, introduced by _if_, assigns what, if it occurs, will be the causeof the ground's being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a +Condition+ready to become a cause. 

_He takes exercise that he may get well_. The adverb clause, introduced by_that_, assigns the cause or the motive or the +Purpose+ of his exercising. 

_The ground is dry, although it has rained_. The adverb clause, introducedby _although_, expresses a +Concession+. It is conceded that a cause forthe ground's not being dry exists; but, in spite of this opposing cause, itis asserted that the ground is dry. 

All these dependent clauses of real cause, evidence, condition, purpose, and concession come, as you see, under the general head of +Cause+, although only the first kind assigns the cause proper. 

Analysis. 

The +adverb clause+ may express +condition+. 

1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to produce combustion. 2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always use prose. (_Unless_ = _if not_. )3. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an image of a dull speaker and a lively listener. 4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors and the rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part of the year. 

+Explanation+. --The relative position of the subject and the verb rendersthe _if_ unnecessary. This omission of _if_ is a common idiom. 

5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is thrown into the grate to keep the furnace in play. 

The +adverb clause+ may express +purpose+. 

6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each other. 

+Explanation+. --_That_, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mereconjunction. 

7. Spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many directions at one time. 

+Explanation+. --The phrases _in order that_, _so that_ = _that_. 

8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that European vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Orient. 9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains them dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it may drop them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth. 

The +adverb clause+ may express +concession+. 

10. Although the brain is only one-fortieth of the body, about one-sixth of the blood is sent to it. 11. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its weight. 12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his foolishness depart from him. 13. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, it arrested its progress for a hundred years. 

+Explanation+. --_If_ here = _even if_ = _though_. 

14. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not sufficient to make up the loss caused by evaporation. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 66. 

COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES. 

+COMMA--RULE. --An _Adverb Clause_ is set off by the comma unless it closelyfollows and restricts the word it modifies+. 

+Explanation+. --I met him in Paris, _when I was last abroad_. I will notcall him villain, _because it would be unparliamentary_. Paper was inventedin China, _if the Chinese tell the truth_. In these sentences the adverbclauses are not restrictive, but are supplementary, and are added almost asafterthoughts. 

Glass bends easily _when it is red-hot_. Leaves do not turn red _becausethe frost colors them_. It will break _if you touch it_. Here the adverbclauses are restrictive; each is very closely related in thought to theindependent clause, and may almost be said to be the essential part of thesentence. 

When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off. 

+Direction+. ---_Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off inLessons_ 63 _and_ 64. 

+Direction+. ---_Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses oftime, place, degree, etc. (for connectives, see Lesson _100_), andpunctuate according to the Rule_:--

1. The leaves of the water-maple turn red--_time_. 2. Our eyes cannot bear the light--_time_. 3. Millions of soldiers sleep--_place_. 4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands--_place_. 5. Every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew--_degree_. 6. Vesuvius threw its lava so far--_degree_. 7. The tree is inclined--_manner_. 8. The lion springs upon his prey--_manner_. 9. Many persons died in the Black Hole of Calcutta--_cause_. 10. Dew does not form in a cloudy night--_cause_. 11. That thunderbolt fell a mile away--_evidence_. 12. We dream in our sleep--_evidence_. 13. Peter the Great worked in Holland in disguise--_purpose_. 14. We put salt into butter and upon meat--_purpose_. 15. Iron bends and molds easily--_condition_. 16. Apples would not fall to the ground--_condition_. 17. Europe conquered Napoleon at last--_concession_. 18. Punishment follows every violation of nature's laws--_concession_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 67. 

+COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLASSES+. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

The adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between theparts of it, or after it. 

+Direction+. ---_Think, if you can, of another adverb clause to follow eachindependent clause in the preceding Lesson, and by means of a caret (^)indicate where this adverb clause may properly stand in the sentence. Noteits force in its several positions, and attend to the punctuation. Some ofthese adverb clauses can stand only at the end_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 68. 

COMPOSITION--ADVERB CLAUSES. 

An adverb clause may be contracted into a participle or a participlephrase. 

+Example+. --_When he saw me_, he stopped = _Seeing me_, he stopped. 

+Direction+. --_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:--

1. Coral animals, when they die, form vast islands with their bodies. 2. The water will freeze, for it has cooled to 32 deg. 3. Truth, though she may be crushed to earth, will rise again. 4. Error, if he is wounded, writhes with pain, and dies among his worshipers. 5. Black clothes are too warm in summer, because they absorb heat. 

An adverb clause may be contracted to an absolute phrase. 

+Example+. --_When night came_ on, we gave up the chase = _Night coming_ on, we gave up the chase. 

+Direction+. --_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:--

1. When oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels, heat is produced. 2. It will rain to-morrow, for "Probabilities" predicts it. 3. Washington retreated from Long Island because his army was outnumbered. 4. If Chaucer is called the father of our later English poetry, Wycliffe should be called the father of our later English prose. 

An adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional phrase having for itsprincipal word (1) a participle, (2) an infinitive, or (3) a noun. 

+Direction+. --_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositionalphrase having a participle for its principal word_:--

+Model+. --They will call _before they leave_ the city = They will call_before leaving_ the city. 

1. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the Atlantic. 2. If we use household words, we shall be better understood. 3. He grew rich because he attended to his business. 4. Though they persecuted the Christians, they did not exterminate them. 

+Direction+. --_Contract each of these adverb clauses to an infinitivephrase_:--

+Model+. --She stoops _that she may conquer_ = She stoops _to conquer_. 

1. The pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors. 2. Philip II. Built the Armada that he might conquer England. 3. He is foolish, because he leaves school so early in life. 4. What would I not give if I could see you happy!5. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently. 

+Direction+. --_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositionalphrase having a noun for its principal word_:--

+Model+. --He fought _that he might obtain glory_ = He fought _for glory_. 

1. Luther died where he was born. 2. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs. 3. The general marched as he was ordered. 4. Criminals are punished that society may be safe. 5. If you are free from vices, you may expect a happy old age. 

An adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting such words as mayeasily be supplied. 

+Example+. --_When you are right_, go ahead = _When right_, go ahead. 

+Direction+. --_Contract these adverb clauses_:--

1. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis I. 2. Error must yield, however strongly it may be defended. 

+Explanation+. --_However_ modifies _strongly_, and connects a concessiveclause. 

3. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease. 4. No other English author has uttered so many pithy sayings as Shakespeare has uttered. 

(Frequently, clauses introduced by _as_ and _than_ are contracted. )

5. The sun is many times larger than the earth is large. 

(Sentences like this never appear in the full form. )

6. This is a prose era rather than it is a poetic era. 

An adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an adjective clause or phrase. 

+Example+. --This man is to be pitied, _because he has no friends_ = Thisman, _who has no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _having no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _without friends_, is to be pitied. 

+Direction+. --_Change each of the following adverb clauses first to anadjective clause and then to an adjective phrase_:--

1. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. 2. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three good things. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 69. 

ANALYSIS. 

+Direction. +--_Tell the kind of adverb clause in each of the sentences inLesson 68, and note the different positions in which these clauses stand. 

Select two sentences containing time clauses; one, a place clause; two, degree; one, manner; two, real cause; two, evidence; two, purpose; two, condition; and two, concession, and analyze them_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 70. 

REVIEW. 

+Direction. +--_Compose sentences illustrating the different kinds of adverbclauses named in Lessons 63, 64, 65, and explain fully the office of each. For connectives, see Lesson 100. Tell why the adverb clauses in Lesson 68are or are not set off by the comma. Compose sentences illustrating thedifferent ways of contracting adverb clauses_. 

+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. +

(SEE PAGES 165-168. )

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 71. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE-NOUN CLAUSE. 

+Introductory Hints. +--In Lessons 40 and 41 you learned that an infinitivephrase may perform many of the offices of a noun. You are now to learn thata clause may do the same. 

_Obedience_ is better than sacrifice = _To obey_ is better than sacrifice =_That men should obey_ is better than sacrifice. The dependent clause _thatmen should obey_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Subject+ of _is_. 

_Many people believe that the beech tree is never struck by lightning_. Thedependent clause, introduced by _that_, is equivalent to a noun, and is the+Object Complement+ of _believe_. 

_The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful_. The clauseintroduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is +Explanatory+ of_fact_. 

_A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words_. Theclause introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is an +AttributeComplement+ relating to _peculiarity_. 

_Your future depends very much on who your companions are_. The clause _whoyour companions are_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Principal Term+of a +Phrase+ introduced by the preposition _on_. 

A clause that does the work of a noun is a +Noun Clause+. 

Analysis. 

The +noun clause+ may be used as +subject+. 

1. That the earth is round has been proved. 

 That -------- ' earth | is ' \ round-------|-------------- \the | | | / \ | has been proved=============|================= |

+Explanation+. --The clause _that the earth is round_ is used like a noun asthe subject of _has been proved_. The conjunction _that_ [Footnote: "_That_was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun, used to point to the factstated in an independent sentence; as, It was good; he saw _that_. By aninversion of the order this became, He saw _that_ (namely) it was good, andso passed into the form _He saw that it was good_, where _that_ has beentransferred to the accessory clause, and has become a mere sign ofgrammatical subordination. "--_C. P. Mason. _] introduces the noun clause. 

This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence. Strictly speaking, there ishere no principal clause, for the whole sentence cannot be called a clause, _i. E. _, a part of a sentence. We may say that it is a complex sentence inwhich the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause. 

2. That the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass of gin is singular. 3. "What have I done?" is asked by the knave and the thief. 4. Who was the discoverer of America is not yet fully determined by historians. 

+Explanation+. --The subject clause is here an indirect question. See Lesson74. 

5. When letters were first used is not certainly known. 6. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty Cain. 7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem never solved by some. 

+Explanation+. --_When to quit business and enjoy their wealth_ is anindirect question. _When to quit business = When they are to quitbusiness_, or _When they ought to quit business_. Such constructions may beexpanded into clauses, or they may be treated as phrases equivalent toclauses. 

The +noun clause+ may be used as +object complement+. 

8. Galileo taught that the earth moves. 

 that ------- ' earth | ' moves ------|------- \the | | Galileo | taught | / \=========|============== |

+Explanation+. --Here the clause introduced by _that_ is used like a noun asthe object complement of _taught_. 

9. The Esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber are the dishes for his table. 10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 11. It will ask of you, "What can you do?"12. The peacock struts about, saying, "What a fine tail I have!"13. He does not know which to choose. 

(See explanation of (7), above. )

14. No one can tell how or when or where he will die. 15. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control over the current of thought in our dreams. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 72. 

NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

The +noun clause+ may be used as +attribute complement+. 

1. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. 2. Tweed's defiant question was, "What are you going to do about it?"3. The question ever asked and never answered is, "Where and how am I to exist in the Hereafter?"4. Hamlet's exclamation was, "What a piece of work is man!"5. The myth concerning Achilles is, that he was invulnerable in every part except the heel. 

The +noun clause+ may be used as +explanatory modifier+. 

6. It has been proved that the earth is round. 

 that ------- 'earth | is ' \ round------|-------------- \the | |It (/ \) | has been proved==========|================== |

+Explanation+. --The grammatical subject _it_ has no meaning till explainedby the noun clause. 

7. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply of blood to the brain. 8. The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful. 9. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might save a tree mentioned by Caesar. 

+Explanation+. --Unless _in order that_ is taken as a conjunction connectingan adverb clause of purpose (see (7), Lesson 65), the clause introduced by_that_ is a noun clause explanatory of _order_. [Footnote: A similarexplanation may be made of _on condition that, in case that_, introducingadverb clauses expressing condition. ]

10. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Night's candles are burnt out, " is one of the finest in literature. 11. The advice that St. Ambrose gave St. Augustine in regard to conformity to local custom was in substance this: "When in Rome, do as the Romans do. "12. This we know, that our future depends on our present. 

The +noun clause+ may be used as +principal term+ of a +prepositionalphrase+. 

13. Have birds any sense of why they sing?

 birds | Have | sense=======|================ they | sing | \any \ -----|------ \ of | \why \ / \ \-------------

+Explanation+. --_Why they sing_ is an indirect question, here used as theprincipal term of a prepositional phrase. 

14. There has been some dispute about who wrote "Shakespeare's Plays. "15. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole. 

+Explanation+. --By supposing _of_ to stand before _that_, the noun clausemay be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase modifyingthe adjective _certain_. By supplying _of the fact_, the noun clause willbecome explanatory. 

16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and triumph. 17. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor of his slain enemy pass into himself. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 73. 

COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE. 

+COMMA--RULE. --The _Noun Clause_ used as attribute complement is generallyset off by the comma. +

+Remarks+. --Present usage seems to favor the omission of the comma with theclause used as subject or as object complement, except where the commawould contribute to clearness. 

The punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other explanatorymodifiers. See Lesson 34. But the real subject made explanatory of _it_ isseldom set off. See next Lesson for the punctuation of noun clauses thatare questions or quotations. 

+Direction+. --_Give the reasons for the use or the omission of the commawith the noun clauses in the preceding Lesson_. 

By using _it_ as a substitute for the subject clause, this clause may beplaced last. 

+Example+. --_That the story of William Tell is a myth_ is now believed =_It_ is now believed _that the story of William Tell is a myth_. 

+Direction+. --_By the aid of the expletive it, transpose five subjectclauses in Lesson 71_. 

Often the clause used as object complement may be placed first. 

+Direction+. --_Transpose such of the clauses used as object complements, inthe preceding Lessons, as admit transposition. Punctuate them if they needpunctuation_. 

The noun clause may be made prominent by separating it and inserting theindependent clause between its parts, +Example+. --The story of William Tell, _it is now believed_, is a myth. (Notice that the principal clause, used parenthetically, is set off by thecomma. )

+Direction+. --_Write the following sentences, using the independent clausesparenthetically_:--

1. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up in Mexico in 1536. 2. I am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually result from grammatical studies. 3. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace. 

+Direction+. --_Vary the following sentence so as to illustrate fivedifferent kinds of noun clauses_:--

+Model+. -- 1. _That stars are suns_ is the belief of astronomers. 2. Astronomers believe _that stars are suns_. 3. The belief of astronomers is, _that stars are suns_. 4. The belief _that stars are suns_ is held by astronomers. 5. Astronomers are confident _that stars are suns_. 

1. Our conclusion is, that different forms of government suit different stages of civilization. 

The noun clause may be contracted by changing the predicate to aparticiple, and the subject to a possessive. 

+Example+. --_That he was brave_ cannot be doubted = _His being brave_cannot be doubted. 

+Direction+. --_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing thenoun clauses to phrases_:--

1. That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious fact. 2. Everybody admits that Cromwell was a great leader. 3. A man's chief objection to a woman is, that she has no respect for the newspaper. 4. The thought that we are spinning around the sun at the rate of twenty miles a second makes us dizzy. 5. She was aware that I appreciated her situation. 

The noun clause may be contracted by making the predicate, when changed toan infinitive phrase, the objective complement, and the subject the objectcomplement. 

+Direction+. --_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing thepredicates of the noun clauses to objective complements, and the subjectsto object complements_:--

+Model+. --King Ahasuerus commanded that _Haman should be hanged_ = KingAhasuerus commanded _Haman to be hanged_. 

1. I believe that he is a foreigner. 2. The Governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free. 3. Many people believe that Webster was the greatest of American statesmen. 4. How wide do you think that the Atlantic ocean is?5. They hold that taxation without representation is unjust. 

+Direction+. --_Expand into complex sentences such of the sentences inLesson_ 41 _as contain an objective complement and an object complementthat together are equivalent to a clause_. 

A noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase. 

+Example+. --_That he should vote_ is the duty of every American citizen =_To vote_ is the duty of every American citizen. 

+Direction+. --_Contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases_:--

1. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty. 2. Every one desires that he may live long and happily. 3. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded. 4. Caesar Augustus issued a decree that all the world should be taxed. 5. We are all anxious that we may make a good impression. 6. He does not know whom he should send. 7. He cannot find out how he is to go there. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 74. 

COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED. 

+QUOTATION MARKS--RULE. --Quotation marks ("") inclose a copied word orpassage+. 

+Remarks+. --Single marks (' ') inclose a quotation within a quotation. If, within the quotation having single marks, still another quotation is made, the double marks are again used; as, "The incorrectness of the dispatchesled Bismarck to declare, 'It will soon come to be said, "He lies like thetelegraph. "'" This introduction of a third quotation should generally beavoided, especially where the three marks come at the end, as above. 

When a quotation is divided by a parenthetical expression, each part of thequotation is inclosed; as, "I would rather be right, " said Clay, "than bepresident. "

In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within thequotation marks; as, He asked, "What are you living for?" but, when aquestion contains a quotation, this order is reversed; as, May we not find"sermons in stones"? So also with the exclamation point. 

+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE. --The first word of a direct quotation makingcomplete sense or of a direct question introduced into a sentence shouldbegin with a capital letter+. 

+Remarks+. --A +direct quotation+ is one whose exact words, as well asthought, are copied; as, Nathan said to David, "_Thou art the man_. " An+indirect quotation+ is one whose thought, but not whose exact words, iscopied; as, Nathan told David _that he was the man_. The reference here ofthe pronoun _he_ is somewhat ambiguous. Guard against this, especially inindirect quotations. 

The direct quotation is set off by the comma, begins with a capital letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted. Theindirect quotation is not generally set off by the comma, does notnecessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed withinquotation marks. 

A +direct question+ introduced into a sentence is one in which the exactwords and their order in an interrogative sentence (see Lesson 55) arepreserved, and which is followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked, "_Am I my brother's keeper_?" An +indirect question+ is one which isreferred to as a question, but not directly asked or quoted as such, andwhich is not followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked _whether hewas his brother's keeper_. 

The direct question introduced into a sentence is set off by the comma (butno comma is used after the interrogation point), begins with a capitalletter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may beomitted. An indirect question is not generally set off by a comma, does notnecessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed withinquotation marks. 

If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally introduced(see Lesson 147), it is preceded by the colon; as, Nathan's words to Davidwere these: "_Thou art the man_. " He put the question thus: "_Can you doit_?"

+Direction+. --_Point out the direct and the indirect quotations andquestions in the sentences of Lesson_ 71, _tell why they do or do not beginwith capital letters, and justify the use or the omission of the comma, theinterrogation point, and the quotation marks_. 

+Direction+. --_Rewrite these same sentences, changing the direct quotationsand questions to indirect, and the indirect to direct_. 

+Direction+. --_Write five sentences containing direct quotations, some ofwhich shall be formally introduced, and some of which shall be questionsoccurring at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence. Change theseto the indirect form, and look carefully to the punctuation and thecapitalization. _

+Direction+. --_Write sentences illustrating the last paragraph of theRemarks under the Rule for Quotation Marks_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 75. 

ANALYSIS. 

+Direction+. --_Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contractionin Lesson_ 73. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 76. 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_Cromwell made one revolution, and Monk madeanother_. The two clauses are independent of each other. The second clause, added by the conjunction _and_ to the first, continues the line of thoughtbegun by the first. 

_Man has his will, but woman has her way_. Here the conjunction connectsindependent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast with each other. 

_The Tudors were despotic, or history belies them_. The independentclauses, connected by _or_, present thoughts between which you may choose, but either, accepted, excludes the other. 

_The ground is wet, therefore it has rained_. Here the inferred fact, theraining, really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, ascause to effect--the raining made the ground wet. _It has rained_, _hencethe ground is wet_. Here the inferred fact, the wetness of the ground, really stands to the other fact, the raining, as effect to cause--theground is made wet by the raining. But this the real, or logical relationbetween the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sentence of thecompound form--an _and_ may be placed before _therefore_ and _hence_. Unless the connecting word expresses the dependence of one of the clauses, the grammarian regards them both as independent. 

_Temperance promotes health, intemperance destroys it_. Here theindependent clauses are joined to each other by their very position in thesentence--connected without any conjunction. This kind of connection iscommon. 

Sentences made up of independent clauses we call +Compound Sentences. 

+DEFINITION. --A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing' a subject andits predicate. +

+DEFINITION. --A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. +

+DEFINITION. --An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on anotherclause. +

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM. 

+DEFINITION. --A _Simple Sentence_ is a sentence that contains but onesubject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound. +

+DEFINITION. --A _Complex Sentence_ is a sentence composed of an independentclause and one or more dependent clauses. +

+DEFINITION. --A _Compound Sentence_ is a sentence composed of two or moreindependent clauses. +

Analysis. 

+Independent Clauses+ in the +same line+ of thought. 

1. Light has spread, and bayonets think. 

 Light | has spread=======|============= | ' ' ' and . .. .. .. ' ' bayonets | ' think ===========|========== |

+Explanation+. --The clauses are of equal rank, and so the lines on whichthey stand are shaded alike, and the line connecting them is not slanting. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line isdrawn between the predicates merely for convenience. 

+Oral Analysis+. --This is a compound sentence because it is made up ofindependent clauses. 

2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. 3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them. 

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +contrast. +

4. The man dies, but his memory lives. 5. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. 6. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings on ready writing. 

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +alternation+. 

7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age. 8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they extremely warm in summer. 

(Here a choice is denied. )

9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably. 

(See (16), Lesson 20. )

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts one of which is an +inference+from the other. 

10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be raining. 11. I have seen, therefore I believe. 

 I | have seen===|=========== | ' ' I | ' believe ===|='========= |' \therefore

+Explanation+. --In such constructions _and_ may be supplied, or the adverbmay be regarded as the connective. The diagram illustrates _therefore_ asconnective. 

+Independent Clauses+ joined in the sentence +without a conjunction+. 

12. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand; the reindeer is the camel of the desert of snow. 13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is master of thee. 14. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. 

+Explanation+. --_As it were_ is an independent clause used parenthetically. _As_ simply introduces it. 

15. Religion--who can doubt it?--is the noblest of themes for the exercise of intellect. 16. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the two Pitts) contains such a father and such a son!

 * * * * *

LESSON 77. 

COMPOSITION--COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

+COMMA and SEMICOLON--RULE. --_Independent Clauses_, when short and closelyconnected, are separated by the+ +comma; but, when the clauses are slightlyconnected, or when they are themselves divided into parts by the comma, thesemi-colon is used+. 

+Remark+. --A parenthetical clause may be set oil by the comma or by thedash, or it may be inclosed within marks of parenthesis--the marks ofparenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense. See the lastthree sentences in the preceding Lesson. 

+Examples+. -- 1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us. 2. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself. 3. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil; but good is in the ascendant, and must triumph at last. 

(The rule above is another example. )

+Direction+. --_Punctuate the following sentences, and give your reasons_:--

1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. 2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. 3. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought. 4. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood finds its greatest satisfaction in self-abasement. [Footnote: In this sentence we have a figure of speech called +Antithesis+, in which things unlike in some particular are set over against each other. Each part shines with its own light and with the light reflected from the other part. Antithesis gives great force to the thought expressed by it. Sentences containing it furnish us our best examples of +Balanced Sentences+. You will find other antitheses in this Lesson and in the preceding. ]6. The more discussion the better if passion and personality be avoided and discussion even if stormy often winnows truth from error. 

+Direction+. --_Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independentclauses in the preceding Lesson_. 

+Direction+. --_Using the copulative and, the adversative but, and thealternative or or nor, form compound sentences out of the following simplesentences, and give the reasons for your choice of connectives_:--

Read not that you may find material for argument and conversation. The raindescended. Read that you may weigh and consider the thoughts of others. Canthe Ethiopian change his skin? Righteousness exalteth a nation. The floodscame. Great was the fall of it. Language is not the dress of thought. Canthe leopard change his spots? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sinis a reproach to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell. 

Compound sentences may be contracted by using but once the parts common toall the clauses, and compounding the remaining parts. 

+Example+. --_Time_ waits for no man, and _tide waits for no man_ = _Time_and _tide wait for no man_. 

+Direction+. --_Contract these compound sentences, attending carefully tothe punctuation_:--

1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben fought for American independence. 2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the mind to benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn dispose the mind for contemplation. 3. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Almighty is around us, and the spirit of the Almighty is above us. 

A compound sentence may be contracted by simply omitting from one clausesuch words as may readily be supplied from the other. 

_Example_. --He is witty, _but he is vulgar_ = He is witty _but vulgar_. 

+Direction+. --_Contract these sentences_:--

1. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should not be the web. 2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so. 3. Was Cabot the discoverer of America, or was he not the discoverer of America?4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has justly been likened to him. 5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress that pleased me. 

A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a complex sentence withoutmaterially changing the sense. 

+Example+. --_Take care of the minutes_, and the hours will take care ofthemselves = _If you take care of the minutes_, the hours will take care ofthemselves. (Notice that the imperative form adds force. )

+Direction+. --_Change these compound sentences to complex sentences_:--

1. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. 2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. 3. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming. 4. He converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult piece of music. 5. He was faithful, and he was rewarded. 

+Direction+. --_Change one of the independent clauses in each of thesesentences to a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause to aparticiple phrase_:--

+Model+. --The house was built upon a rock, _and therefore_ it did not fall= The house did not fall, _because_ it was built upon a rock = The house, _being built_ upon a rock, did not fall. 

1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered. 2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us. 

+Direction+. --_Using and, but, and or as connectives, compose threecompound sentences, each containing three independent clauses_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 78. 

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_Sun and moon and stars_ obey. Peter the Great went_to Holland, to England_, and _to France_. _I came, I saw, I conquered_. Here we have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, and co-ordinateclauses, that is, words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order. 

Leaves fall _so very quietly_. They ate _of the fruit from the tree in thegarden_. Regulus would have paused _if he had been the man that he wasbefore captivity had unstrung his sinews_. Here just as the word modifier_quietly_ is itself modified by _very_, and _very_ by _so_; and just as_fruit_, the principal word in a modifying phrase, is modified by anotherphrase, and the principal word of that by another: so _man_, in the adverbclause which modifies _would have paused_, is itself modified by theadjective clause _that he was_, and _was_ by the adverb clause _beforecaptivity had unstrung his sinews_. These three dependent clauses in thecomplex clause modifier, like the three words and the three phrases in thecomplex word modifier and the complex phrase modifier, are not co-ordinate, or of equal rank. 

_Mary married Philip; but Elizabeth would not marry, although Parliamentfrequently urged it, and the peace of England demanded it_. This is acompound sentence, composed of the simple clause which precedes _but_ andthe complex clause which follows it--the complex clause being composed ofan independent clause and two dependent clauses, one co-ordinate with theother, and the two connected by _and_. 

Analysis. 

The +clauses+ of +complex+ and +compound+ sentences may themselves be+complex+ or +compound+. 

insects---------- ` ` ` ` ` `which | are admired ` ` `=====|============= ` ` | ' ` ` ' x ` ` . .. .. ` ` ' ` `which | are decorated ` ======|=============== ` | ' ` 'and ` . .. .. .. . ` ' ` which | soar ' `======|======= |

 hour | had passed=========|============= \The |` ' ` ' and ` . .. .. .. ` 'opportunity | ` had escaped============|==`============ \the | ` \ ` ' ` ' `' ` `while ` he | ` tarried ----|------------- | that ----- ' earth | ' is \ round =========|======'======== | ' that ' and ----- . .. .. . ' ' it | ' revolves ' ===|='============'= |He | proved | / \====|============= |

+Explanation+. --The first diagram illustrates the analysis of the compoundadjective clause in (3) below. Each adjective clause is connected to_insects_ by _which_. _And_ connects the co-ordinate clauses. The seconddiagram shows that the clause _while he tarried_ modifies both predicatesof the independent clauses. _While_ modifies _had passed, had escaped_, and_tarried_, as illustrated by the short lines under the first two verbs andthe line over _tarried_. The office of _while_ as connective is shown bythe dotted lines. The third diagram illustrates the analysis of a complexsentence containing a compound noun clause. 

1. Sin has a great many tools, but a lie is a handle which fits them all. 2. Some one has said that the milkman's favorite song should be, "Shall we gather at the river?"3. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated with the most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal wings, have passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of the earth. 4. Still the wonder grew, that one small head could carry all he knew. 5. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing, or making furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration tubes pour out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled. 6. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the languages, because one tongue was enough for a woman. [Footnote: In _tongue_, as here used, we have a +Pun+--a witty expression in which a word agreeing in sound with another word, but differing in meaning from it, is used in place of that other. ]7. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers; the upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the center faster than the adjacent sides. 8. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New England thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the catechism. 9. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the frogs and worms that would injure the dikes. 10. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural world that, though hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is destructive to fire. 11. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by disaster, when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the Northwest had surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency hung, like a cloud, over the land, who first relit the fires of national glory, and made the welkin ring with the shouts of victory? [Footnote: The _when_ clauses in (11), as the _which_ clauses in (3), are formed on the same plan, have their words in the same order. This principle of +Parallel Construction+, requiring like ideas to be expressed alike, holds also in phrases, as in (10) and (14), Lesson 28, and in (14) and (15), Lesson 46, and holds supremely with sentences in the paragraph, as is explained on page 168. Parallel construction contributes to the clearness, and consequently to the force, of expression. ]

 * * * * *

LESSON 79. 

EXPANSION. 

+Participles+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+. 

+Direction+. --_Expand the participles in these sentences into the clausesindicated_:--

1. Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adjective clause. )2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession. )3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose. )4. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are cool in summer. (Cause. )5. Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition. (Evidence. )6. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition. )7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of "Fire!" (Time. )8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause. )9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around, (Independent clause. )

+Absolute phrases+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+. 

+Direction+. --_Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indicated_:--

1. Troy being taken by the Greeks, Aeneas came into Italy. (Time. )2. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause. )3. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition. )4. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. (Concession. )5. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or windy last night. (Evidence. )6. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Independent clause. )

+Infinitive+ phrases may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+. 

+Direction+. --_Expand these infinitive phrases into the clausesindicated_:--

1. They have nothing to wear. (Adjective clause. )2. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree. )3. Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose. )4. The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on _but_. (Condition. )5. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause. )6. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time. )7. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause. )

+Direction+. --_Complete these elliptical expressions_:--

1. And so shall Regulus, though dead, fight as he never fought before. 2. Oh, that I might have one more day!3. He is braver than wise. 4. What if he is poor?5. He handles it as if it were glass. 6. I regard him more as a historian than as a poet. 7. He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman. 8. Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better. 9. I will go whether you go or not. 10. It happens with books as with mere acquaintances. 11. No examples, however awful, sink into the heart. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 80. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 

Analysis. 

1. Whenever the wandering demon of Drunkenness finds a ship adrift, he steps on board, takes the helm, and steers straight for the Maelstrom. --_Holmes_. 2. The energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steamships through the waves comes from the sun. --_Cooke_. 3. No scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human labor, smooth in field, fair in garden, full in orchard. --_Ruskin_. 4. What is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth, which takes a thief by the throat every morning?--_German Proverb_. 5. The setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the level landscape, and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds, and they became as blood. --_Longfellow_. 6. Were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as the felicities of this, it were a martyrdom to live. --_Sir T. Browne_. 7. There is a good deal of oratory in me, but I don't do as well as I can, in any one place, out of respect to the memory of Patrick Henry. --_Nasby_. 8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll of everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and streaked with dusky red, like a spitzenburg apple. --_Irving_. 9. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human race. --_Mill_. 10. There is no getting along with Johnson; if his pistol misses fire, he knocks you down with the butt of it. --_Goldsmith_. 11. We think in words; and, when we lack fit words, we lack fit thoughts. --_White_. 12. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the bottom of his subject. --_Whately_. 13. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it will disgrace every man who is not. --_Holland_. 14. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve, are the men and women who bless their species. --_Parton_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 81. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 

Analysis. 

1. A ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his dominions another man better qualified for it sins against God and against the state. --_Koran_. 2. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was not Lot's wife in solution. --_Curtis_. 3. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid the roof will come down if you sweep off the cobwebs. --_Phillips_. 4. Kind hearts are more than coronets; and simple faith, than Norman blood. --_Tennyson_. 5. All those things for which men plow, build, or sail obey virtue. --_Sallust_. 6. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for you; but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that. --_Holmes_. 7. Of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these: "It might have been. "--_Whittier_. 8. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets. --_Napoleon_. 9. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is trodden on. --_Kant_. 10. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand on the water or the sand. --_Gladstone_. 11. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old England's ale. --_Higginson_. 12. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land. --_Sir H. Gilbert_. 13. No language that cannot suck up the feeding juices secreted for it in the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound and lusty book. --_Lowell_. 14. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience what are human ills and what is human wrong. --_Boyd_. 15. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both [Footnote: See Lesson 20. ] great and small; for the dear God, who loveth us, he made and loveth all. --_Coleridge_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 82. 

REVIEW. 

Show that an adjective may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. Give examples of adjective clauses connected by _who, whose, which, what, that, whichever, when, where, why_, and show that each connective performsalso the office of a pronoun or that of an adverb. Give and illustratefully the Rule for punctuating the adjective clause, and the Cautionregarding the position of the adjective clause. Show that an adjectiveclause may be equivalent to an Infinitive phrase or a participle phrase. 

Show that an adverb may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. Illustrate the different kinds of adverb clauses, and explain the office ofeach and the fitness of the name. Give and explain fully the Rule for thepunctuation of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different positions of adverbclauses. Illustrate the different ways of contracting adverb clauses. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 83. 

REVIEW. 

Illustrate five different offices of a noun clause. Explain the twodifferent ways of treating clauses introduced by _in order that_, etc. Explain the office of the expletive _it_. Illustrate the differentpositions of a noun clause used as object complement. Show how the nounclause may be made prominent. Illustrate the different ways of contractingnoun clauses. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for quotation marks. Illustrate and explain fully the distinction between direct and indirectquotations, and the distinction between direct and indirect questionsintroduced into a sentence. Tell all about their capitalization andpunctuation. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 84. 

REVIEW. 

Illustrate and explain the distinction between a dependent and anindependent clause. Illustrate and explain the different ways in whichindependent clauses connected by _and, but, or_, and _hence_ are related insense. Show how independent clauses may be joined in sense without aconnecting word. Define a clause. Define the different kinds of clauses. Define the different classes of sentences with regard to form. Give theRule for the punctuation of independent clauses, and illustrate fully. Illustrate the different ways of contracting independent clauses. Illustrate and explain the difference between compound and complex wordmodifiers; between compound and complex phrases; between compound andcomplex clauses. Give participle phrases, absolute phrases, and infinitivephrases, and expand them into different kinds of clauses. What three partsof speech may connect clauses?

GENERAL REVIEW. 

TO THE TEACHER. --This scheme will be found very helpful in a generalreview. The pupils should be able to reproduce it except the Lessonnumbers. 

Scheme for the Sentence. 

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_. )

+PARTS. +

 +Subject. + Noun or Pronoun (8). Phrase (38, 40). Clause (71). 

 +Predicate. + Verb (11). 

 +Complements. + +Object. + Noun or Pronoun (28). Phrase (38, 40). Clause (71). +Attribute. + Adjective (29, 30). Participle (37). Noun or Pronoun (29, 30). Phrase (37, 40). Clause (72). +Objective. + Adjective (31). Participle (37). Noun (or Pronoun) (31). Phrase (37, 41). 

 +Modifiers. + Adjectives (12). Adverbs (14). Participles (37). Nouns and Pronouns (33, 35). Phrases (17, 37, 38, 40, 41). Clauses (59, 60, 63, 64, 65). 

 +Connectives. + Conjunctions (20, 64, 65, 71, 76). Pronouns (59, 60). Adverbs (60, 63, 64). 

 +Independent Parts+ (44). 

+Classes. + +Meaning. + Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (46). +Form. + Simple, Complex, Compound (76). 

Additional Selections. 

TO THE TEACHER. --We believe that you will find the preceding pagesunusually full and rich in illustrative selections; but, should additionalwork be needed for reviews or for maturer classes, the following selectionswill afford profitable study. Let the pupils discuss the thought and thepoetic form, as well as the logical construction of these passages. We donot advise putting them in diagram. 

 Speak clearly, if you speak at all; Carve every word before you let it fall. --_Holmes_. 

 The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud, Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee; The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be; And hungry crows, assembled in a crowd, Clamored their piteous prayer incessantly, Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said, "Give us, O Lord, this day, our daily bread!" --_Longfellow_, Better to stem with heart and hand The roaring tide of life than lie, Unmindful, on its flowery strand, Of God's occasions drifting by. Better with naked nerve to bear The needles of this goading air Than, in the lap of sensual ease, forego The godlike power to do, the godlike aim to know. --_Whittier_. 

 Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her wretched crust, Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 't is prosperous to be just; Then it is the brave man chooses, while the coward stands aside, Doubting in his abject spirit, till his Lord is crucified. --_Lowell_. 

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

TO THE TEACHER. --These and similar "Exercises" are entirely outside of theregular lessons. They are offered to those teachers who may not, from lackof time or of material, find it convenient to prepare extra ormiscellaneous work better suited to their own needs. 

The questions appended to the following sentences are made easy of answer, but in continuing such exercises the teacher will, of course, so frame thequestions as more and more to throw responsibility on the pupil. 

It will be evident that this work aims not only to enforce instructiongiven before Lesson 17, but, by an easy and familiar examination of wordsand groups of words, to prepare the way for what is afterwards presentedmore formally and scientifically. ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK. "

1. From this piazza the wondering Ichabod entered the hall. 2. This hall formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual residence. 3. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, dazzled his eyes. 4. In one corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun. 5. In another corner stood a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom. 6. Ears of Indian corn and strings of dried apples and peaches hung in gay festoons along the walls. 7. These were mingled with the gaud of red peppers. 8. A door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor. 9. In this parlor claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like mirrors. 10. Andirons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, glistened from their covert of asparagus tops. [Footnote: _Asparagus tops_ were commonly used to ornament the old-fashioned fireplace in summer. ]11. Mock-oranges and conch-shells decorated the mantelpiece. 12. Strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it. 13. A corner-cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china. 

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+. --Find the two chief words in eachof the first three sentences. As a part of the sentence what is each ofthese words called? To what class of words, or part of speech, does eachbelong? Notice that in the fourth and the fifth sentence the subject is putafter the predicate. Change the order of words and read these sentences. Read in their regular order the two chief words of each. In the sixthsentence what word says, or asserts, something about both ears and strings?In the ninth sentence put _what_ before the predicate _shone_ and find twonouns that answer the question. In the eleventh sentence what two thingsdoes _decorated_ tell something about? In the seventh sentence _these_stands for what two nouns, or names, found in the preceding sentence? Findthe subject and the predicate of each sentence from the sixth to thethirteenth inclusive. To what class of words does each of these chief partsbelong? Find in these sentences nouns that are not subjects. Find severalcompound nouns the parts of which are joined with the hyphen. 

_The_ and _wondering_ in the first sentence go with what noun? The group ofwords _from this piazza_ goes with what word? In the second sentence put_what_ before, and then after, _formed_, and find the names that answerthese questions. What does _of the mansion_ go with? What does _of usualresidence_ describe? In the third sentence what word tells where thedazzling occurred? Find a group of three words telling what the rows werecomposed of. What group of words tells the position of the rows? In thefourth sentence what group of words shows where the bag stood? _Of woolready to be spun_ describes what? _A_ and _huge_ are attached to what?

TO THE TEACHER. --We have here suggested some of the devices by which pupilsmay be led to see the functions of words and phrases. We recommend thatthis work be varied and continued through the selection above and throughothers that may easily be made. Such exercises, together with the moreformal and searching work of the regular lessons, will be found ofincalculable value to the pupil. They will not only afford the best mentaldiscipline but will aid greatly in getting thought and in expressingthought. 

+The Force and the Beauty of the Description above. --+ Can you find anyreason why we are invited to see this picture through the eyes of theinterested and wondering Ichabod? Do you think the word _wondering_ wellchosen and suggestive? Look through this picture carefully and tell whatthere is that indicates thrift, industry, and prosperity. Find more commonexpressions for _center of the mansion_ and _place of usual residence_. Notice in the third sentence the effect of _resplendent_ and _dazzled_. Howis a similar effect produced in the ninth and the tenth sentence? You seethat this great artist in words does not here need to repeat his language. We can easily imagine that he could produce the same effect in a greatvariety of ways. In the fourth sentence does the expression _ready to bespun_ tell what is actually seen, or what is only suggested? What is gainedby this expression and by _just from the loom_ in the next sentence? Do youthink an unskillful artist would have used _in gay festoons?_ Read theseventh and make it more common but less quaint. Do you think the picturegains, or loses, by representing the door as "ajar" instead of wide open?Why? Can you see any similar effect from introducing _their covert_ in thetenth sentence? What does the expression _knowingly left open_ suggest toyou? This selection from Irving illustrates the +Descriptive+ style ofwriting. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. 

In the description above we have taken some liberties with the original, for we have broken it up into single sentences. The parts of this pictureas made by Irving were smoothly and delicately blended together. 

You may rewrite this description; and, where it can be done to advantage, you may join the sentences neatly together. Perhaps some of these sentencesmay be changed to become parts of other sentences, TO THE TEACHER. --It will be found profitable for pupils to break up forthemselves into short sentences model selections from classic English, and, after examining the structure and style as suggested above, to note and, sofar as possible, explain how these were blended together in the original. Awritten reproduction of the selection may then be made from memory. 

This study of the thought, the structure, and the style of the greatmasters in language must lead to a discriminating taste for literature; andthe effect upon the pupil's own habits of thought and expression willnecessarily be to lift him above the insipid, commonplace matter andlanguage that characterize much of the so-called "original" compositionwork. 

In the study of these selections, especially in the work of copying, therules for punctuation, and other rules, formally stated further on, mayeasily be anticipated informally. 

For composition work more nearly original the class might read together ordiscuss, descriptions of home scenes; then, drawing from imagination orexperience, they might make descriptions of their own. In thesedescriptions different persons might be introduced, with their attitudes, employments, and acts of hospitality. 

For exercises in narration pupils might write about trips to these homes, telling about the preparation, the start, the journey, and the reception. (For studies on narrative style, see pages 157-162. )

To insure thoroughness, all such compositions should he short. 

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK. "

1. Every window and crevice of the vast barn seemed bursting forth with the treasures of the farm. 2. The flail was busily resounding within from morning till night. 3. Swallows and martins skimmed twittering about the eaves. 4. Rows of pigeons were enjoying the sunshine on the roof. 5. Some sat with one eye turned up as if watching the weather. 6. Some sat with their heads under their wings or buried in their bosoms. 7. Others were swelling and cooing and bowing about their dames. 8. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abundance of their pens. 9. From these pens sallied forth, now and then, troops of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air. 10. A stately squadron of snowy geese was riding in an adjoining pond, convoying whole fleets of ducks. 11. Regiments of turkeys were gobbling through the farmyard. 12. Guinea fowls fretted about, like ill-tempered housewives, with their peevish, discontented cry. 13. Before the barn-door strutted the gallant cock, clapping his burnished wings, and crowing in the pride and gladness of his heart--sometimes tearing up the earth with his feet, and then generously calling his ever-hungry family of wives and children to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered. 

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+. --In the first sentence _seemed_asserts something about what two things? _Every_ goes with what word orwords? What word or words does the phrase _of the vast barn_ make moredefinite in meaning? The two words _window_ and _crevice_ are joinedtogether by what word? The group of words _bursting forth with thetreasures of the farm_ describes what? Notice that _bursting_ also helps_seemed_ to say something about window and crevice. _Seemed_ does not makesense, but _seemed bursting_ does. What does _forth_ modify? What does_with the treasures of the farm_ modify? In the third sentence what twonouns form the subject of _skimmed?_ What connects these two nouns? In thefourth what word tells what the rows were enjoying? In the fifth _turned upas if watching the weather_ describes what? _As if watching the weather_goes with what? The expression introduced by _as if_ is a shortened form. Putting in some of the words omitted, we have _as if they were watching theweather. They were watching the weather_, if standing by itself, would makea complete sentence. You see that one sentence may be made a part ofanother sentence. What does each of the two phrases _under their wings_ and_buried in their bosoms_ describe? What connects these two phrases? In theseventh sentence _were_ is understood before _cooing_ and before _bowing_. How many predicate verbs do you find, each asserting something about thepigeons represented by _others_? Why are these verbs not separated bycommas? What two nouns form the principal part of the phrase in the eighthsentence? What connects these two nouns? Read the ninth sentence and putthe subject before the predicate. You may now explain _as if to snuff theair_, remembering that a similar expression in the fifth sentence wasexplained. In the tenth sentence _convoying whole fleets of ducks_describes what? Does _convoying_ assert anything about the squadron? Changeit into a predicate verb. In the twelfth sentence find one word and twophrases joined to _fretted_. _Clapping, crowing, tearing_, and _calling_, in the thirteenth, all describe what? Notice that all the other wordsfollowing the subject go with these four. Find the three words that answerthe questions made by putting _what_ after _clapping, tearing, calling_. What phrase tells the cause of crowing? The phrase _to enjoy the richmorsel which he had discovered_ tells the purpose of what? _Which he haddiscovered_ limits the meaning of what? The pronoun _which_ here stands for_morsel_. _Which he had discovered_ = _He had discovered morsel_. Here youwill see a sentence has again been made a part of another sentence. Noticethat without _which_ there would be no connection. 

TO THE TEACHER. --It may be well to let the pupils complete the examinationof the structure of the sentences above and point out nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 

It will be noticed that in the questions above we especially anticipate theregular lessons that follow Lesson 27. This we do in all such "Exercises. "

+The Beauty and the Force of the Description above+. --Why may we say thatthis farmyard scene is surrounded by an atmosphere of plenty, happiness, and content? Which do you prefer, the first sentence above, or thissubstitute for it: "The large barn was entirely full of the products of thefarm"? Give every reason that you can find for your preference. We oftenspeak of a barn or storehouse as "bursting with plenty, " or of a table as"groaning with a load of good things, " when there is really no bursting norgroaning. Such expressions are called +Figures of Speech+. Examine thesecond sentence and compare it with the following: "The men were busy allday pounding out the grain with flails. " Do the words _busily resounding_joined to _flail_ bring into our imagination men, grain, pounding, sound, and perhaps other things? A good description mentions such things and usessuch words as will help us to see in imagination many things not mentioned. In the third sentence would you prefer _skimmed_ to _flew_? Why? Comparethe eighth sentence with this: "Large fat hogs were grunting in their pensand reposing quietly with an abundant supply of food. " _Sleek, unwieldyporkers_ would be too high-sounding an expression for you to useordinarily, but it is in tone with the rest of the description. _In therepose and abundance of their pens_ is much better than the wordssubstituted above. It is shorter and stronger. It uses instead of the verb_reposing_ and the adjective _abundant_ the nouns _repose_ and _abundance_, and makes these the principal words in the phrase. Repose and abundance arethus made the striking features of the pen. Arrange the ninth sentence inas many ways as possible and tell which way you prefer. Is a real squadronreferred to in the tenth sentence? and were the geese actually convoyingfleets? These are figurative uses of words. What can you say of _regiments_in the eleventh? In the twelfth Guinea fowls are compared to housewives. Except in this one fancied resemblance the two are wholly unlike. Suchcomparisons frequently made by _as_ and _like_ are called +Similes+. If weleave out _like_ and say, "Guinea fowls are fretting housewives, " we have afigure of speech called +Metaphor+. This figure is used above when flocksare called "squadrons" and "fleets. " In the thirteenth sentence notice howwell chosen and forceful are the words _strutted, gallant, burnished, generously, ever-hungry, rich morsel_. See whether you can find substitutesfor these italicized words. Were the wings actually burnished? What can yousay of this use of _burnished_?

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. 

The sentences in the description above, when read together, have a somewhatbroken or jerky effect. You may unite smoothly such as should be joined. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh can all be put into one. There isdanger of making your sentences too long. Young writers find it difficultto make very long sentences perfectly clear in meaning. 

TO THE TEACHER. --While the pupils' thoughts and style are somewhat toned upby the preceding exercises, it may he well to let them write similardescriptions drawn from their reading, their observation, or theirimagination. 

If the compositions contain more than two or three short paragraphs each, it will be almost impossible to secure good work. 

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

FROM FRANKLIN'S "AUTOBIOGRAPHY. "

1. I was dirty from my journey, my pockets were stuffed out with shirts andstockings, and I knew no soul nor where to look for lodging. 2. I wasfatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest; I was very hungry; andmy whole stock of cash consisted of a Dutch dollar and about a shilling incopper. 3. The latter I gave the people of the boat for my passage, who atfirst refused it on account of my rowing; but I insisted on their takingit. 

1. Then I walked up the street, gazing about, till near the markethouse Imet a boy with bread. 2. I had made many a meal on bread, and, inquiringwhere he got it, I went immediately to the baker's he directed me to, inSecond Street, and asked for biscuit, intending such as we had in Boston;but they, it seems, were not made in Philadelphia. 3. Then I asked for athree-penny loaf, and was told they had none such. 4. So not considering orknowing the difference of money, or the greater cheapness and the names ofhis bread, I bade him give me three-penny worth of any sort. 5. He gave me, accordingly, three great puffy rolls. 6. I was surprised at the quantity, but took it; and, having no room in my pockets, walked off with a rollunder each arm, and eating the other. 

 * * * * *

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+. --Break up sentence 1, paragraph 1, into three distinct sentences, and tell what changes this will make incapitals and punctuation. Do the same for 2. Which read more closelytogether, and are more closely connected, the parts of 2, or of 1? How isthis shown to the eye? Analyze the first two sentences you made from 1. Find two object complements of _knew_, one a noun and the other a group offive words. Find in 2 a phrase whose principal part is made up of threenouns. What have you learned about the commas used with these nouns? Inmaking separate sentences of 3 what words do you change or drop? Are thesethe words that bind the parts of 3 together? What noun is used adverbiallyafter _gave_? Supply a preposition and then tell what phrases modify_gave_. Find the object complement of _gave_. What modifies _refused_ bytelling when? What, by telling _why_?

In 1, paragraph 2, who is described as gazing about? What does _gazingabout_ modify? Read the group of words that tells how far or how longFranklin walked up the street. Notice that this whole group is used like anadverb. Find in it a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. Drop_till_ and see whether the parts of 1 make separate sentences. What word, then, binds these two sentences into one? Read 2 and make of it threedistinct sentences by omitting the first _and_ and the word _but_. Thesecond of these three sentences just made contains several sentences whichare not so easily separated, as some are used like single words to make upthe main, or principal, sentence. In this second part of 2 find the leadingsubject and its two predicates. Find a phrase belonging to _I_ andrepresenting Franklin as doing something. Put _what_ after _inquiring_ andfind the object complement. What phrase belongs to _went_, telling where?_He directed me to (whom)_ belongs to what? Who is represented asintending? _Intending such as we had in Boston_ belongs to what? _As we hadin Boston_ goes with what? Notice that _it seems_ is a sentence thrown inloosely between the parts of another sentence. Such expressions are said tobe parenthetical. Notice the punctuation. 

Notice that _gazing, inquiring, intending, considering, knowing_, and_having_ are all modifiers of _I_ found in the different sentences ofparagraph 2. Put _I_ before any one of these words, and you will see thatno assertion is made. These words illustrate one form of the verb (theparticiple), and _look_ in 1, paragraph 1, illustrates the other form (theinfinitive), spoken of in Lesson 11 as not asserting. Change each of theseparticiples to a predicate, or asserting form, and then read the sentencesin which these predicates are found. You will notice that giving thesewords the asserting form makes them more prominent and forcible--bringsthem up to a level with the other predicate verbs. Participles are veryuseful in slurring over the less important actions that the more importantmay have prominence. Show that they are so used in Franklin's narrative. 

Examine the phrase _with a roll under each arm, and eating the other_, andsee if you do not find an illustration of the fact that even great mensometimes make slips. Does _other_ properly mean one of three things? Tryto improve this expression. 

+The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+. --The sentences above, as yousee, stand in two groups. Those of each group are more closely related toone another than they are to the sentences of the other group. Do you seehow? In studying this short selection you may find the general topic, orheading, to be something like this: _My First Experiences in Philadelphia_. Now examine the first group of sentences and see whether its topic mightnot be put thus: _My Condition on Reaching Philadelphia_. Then examine thesentences of the second group and see whether all will not come under thisheading: _How I Found Something to Eat_. You see that even a shortcomposition like this has a general topic with topics under it. As _sub_means _under_, we will call these under topics _sub-topics_. There are twogroups of sentences in this selection because there are two distinctsub-topics developed. The sentences of each group stand together becausethey jointly develop one sub-topic. 

A group of sentences related and held together by a common thought we calla +Paragraph+. How is the paragraph indicated to the eye? What help is itto the reader to have a composition paragraphed? What, to the writer toknow that he must write in paragraphs?

+The Style of the Author+. --This selection is mainly +Narrative+. Thematter is somewhat tame, and the expression is commonplace. The words areordinary, and they stand in their usual place. Figures of speech are notused. Yet the piece has a charm. The thoughts are homely; the expression isin perfect keeping; the style is clear, simple, direct, and natural. Theclosing sentence is slightly humorous. Benjamin Franklin trudging along thestreet, hugging a great roll of bread under each arm, and eating a thirdroll, must have been a laughable sight. 

Have you ever known boys and girls in writing school compositions, orreporters in writing for the newspapers, to use large words for smallideas, and long, high-sounding phrases and sentences for plain, simplethoughts? Have you ever seen what could be neatly said in three or fourlines "padded out" to fill a page of composition paper or a column in anewspaper?

When Franklin said. "My pockets were stuffed out with shirts andstockings, " he said a homely thing in a homely way; that is, he fitted thelanguage to the thought. To fit the expression to the thought on everyoccasion is the perfection of style. If Franklin had been a weak, foolishwriter, his sentence might have taken this form:--

"Not having been previously provided with a satchel or other receptacle formy personal effects, my pockets, which were employed as a substitute, wereprotruding conspicuously with extra underclothing. "

Compare this sentence with Franklin's and point out the faults you see inthe substitute. Can you find anything in the meaning of _provided_ thatmakes previously unnecessary? Do you now understand what Lowell meant when, in praise of Dryden, he said, "His phrase is always a short cut to hissense"?

TO THE TEACHER. --What is here taught of the paragraph and of style willprobably not be mastered at one reading. It will be found necessary toreturn to it occasionally, and to refer pupils to it for aid in theircomposition work. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. 

TO THE TEACHER. --We suggest that the pupils reproduce from memory theextract above, and that other selections of narrative be found in theReaders or elsewhere and studied as above. 

The pupils may be able to note to what extent the narrative follows theorder of time and to what extent it is topical. They may also note theamount of description it contains. They should, so far as possible, findthe topic for each paragraph, thus making an outline for a composition tobe completed from reproduction. 

It will now require little effort to write simple original narratives ofreal or imagined experiences. 

 * * * * *

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

FROM C. D. WARNER'S "MY SUMMER IN A GARDEN. "

1. In the driest days, my fountain became disabled; the pipe was stoppedup. 2. A couple of plumbers, with the implements of their craft, came outto view the situation. 3. There was a good deal of difference of opinionabout where the stoppage was. 4. I found the plumbers perfectly willing tosit down and talk about it--talk by the hour. 5. Some of their guesses andremarks were exceedingly ingenious; and their general observations on othersubjects were excellent in their way, and could hardly have been better ifthey had been made by the job. 6. The work dragged a little--as it is aptto do by the hour. 

1. The plumbers had occasion to make me several visits. 2. Sometimes theywould find, upon arrival, that they had forgotten some indispensable tool;and one would go back to the shop, a mile and a half, after it; and hiscomrade would await his return with the most exemplary patience, and sitdown and talk--always by the hour. 3. I do not know but it is a habit tohave something wanted at the shop. 4. They seemed to me very good workmen, and always willing to stop, and talk about the job or anything else, when Iwent near them. 5. Nor had they any of that impetuous hurry that is said tobe the bane of our American civilization. 6. To their credit be it saidthat I never observed anything of it in them. 7. They can afford to wait. 8. Two of them will sometimes wait nearly half a day, while a comrade goesfor a tool. 9. They are patient and philosophical. 10. It is a greatpleasure to meet such men. 11. One only wishes there was some work he coulddo for them by the hour. 

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+. --How can you make the last part of1 express more directly the cause of becoming disabled? Would you use asemicolon to separate the sentences thus joined, or would you use a comma?Give a reason for the comma after _days_, Find in 2 an adverb phrase thatexpresses purpose. Use an equivalent adjective in place of _a couple of_. Explain the use of _there_ in 3. What adjective may be used in place of_good_ in _a good deal_? What long complex phrase modifies _deal_? Put_what_ after the preposition _about_ and find a group of words that takesthe place of a noun. Find in this group a subject and a predicate. Find in4 an objective complement. Find a compound infinitive phrase and tell whatit modifies. Notice that the dash helps to show the break made by repeating_talk_. When 5 is divided into two sentences, what word is dropped? This, then, must be the word that connected the two sentences. Notice that thetwo main parts of 5 are separated by a semicolon. This enables the writerto show that the two main divisions of 5 are more widely separated inmeaning than are the parts of the second division where the comma is used. Give the three leading predicate verbs in 5 and their complements. _If theyhad been made by the job_ is joined like an adverb to what verb? What isthe predicate of this modifying group?

The infinitive phrase in 1, paragraph 2, modifies what? Is _me_, or_visits_, the object complement of _make_? Put _what_ after _would find_ in2 and get the object complement. Can you make a sentence of this group?What are its principal parts? Does the writer make an unexpected turn after_talk_? How is this shown to the eye? Put _what_ after _do know_ in 3 andfind the object complement. Can you make a sentence of this objectcomplement? What phrase can you put in place of the pronoun _it_ withoutchanging the sense? By using the word _it_, a better arrangement can bemade. What group of words in 5 is used like an adjective to modify _hurry_?Change the pronoun _that_ to _hurry_ and make a separate sentence of thisgroup. What word, then, must have made an adjective of this sentence andjoined it to _hurry_? What is the object complement of _can afford_ in 7?Supply a preposition after _will wait_ in 8, and then find two groups ofwords that tell the time of waiting. Find a subject and a predicate in thesecond group. What explains _it_ in 10? Find the object complement of_wishes_ in 11. What is the subject of _was_? The office of _there_? After_work_ supply the pronoun _that_ and tell the office of the group itintroduces. What is the object complement of _could do_? What connects thisgroup to _work_?

+The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+. --There are two distinct setsof sentences in this selection--distinct because developing two distinctsub-topics. Accordingly, there are two paragraphs. Let us take for thegeneral topic _The Visits of the Plumbers_. Let us see whether all thesentences of the first paragraph will not come under the sub-topic _FirstVisit_, and those of the second under the sub-topic _Subsequent Visits_. The sentences of each paragraph should be closely related to one anotherand to the sub-topic. They should stand in their proper order. Do theparagraphs above stand such tests? If they do, they possess the primequality of +Unity+. 

+The Author's Style+. --This selection we may call +Narrative+, though thereare descriptive touches in it. It is a story of what? Is the story clearlytold throughout? If not, where is it obscure? Is it made interesting andentertaining? Is Mr. Warner here giving us a bit of his own experience? Ordo you think he is drawing upon his imagination? Would you call the styleplain, or does it abound with metaphors, similes, or other figures ofspeech? Are the sentences generally long, or generally short? What are thefaults or foibles of these real or fancied plumbers? Does the author speakof them in a genial and lenient way? or is he hostile, and does he hold uptheir foibles to scorn and derision? Does he make us laugh with, or does hemake us laugh at, the plumbers? If the former, the style is humorous; ifthe latter, the style is satirical or sarcastic. Would you call Mr. Warner's quality of style +Humor+? or that +form of wit+ known as +Satire+?Is our author's use of it delicate and refined? or is it gross and coarse?Does it stop short of making its object grotesque, or not? Can you name anywriters whose humor or satire is coarse?

SUGGESTIONS FOB COMPOSITION WORK. 

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions, pages 159, 160. 

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

FROM BEECHER'S "LECTURES TO YOUNG MEN. "

1. Indolence inclines a man to rely upon others and not upon himself, toeat their bread and not his own. 2. His carelessness is somebody's loss;his neglect is somebody's downfall. 3. If he borrows, the article remainsborrowed; if he begs and gets, it is as the letting out of waters--no oneknows where it will stop. 4. He spoils your work, disappoints yourexpectations, exhausts your patience, eats up your substance, abuses yourconfidence, and hangs a dead weight upon all your plans; and the very bestthing an honest man can do with a lazy man is to get rid of him. 

1. Indolence promises without redeeming the pledge; a mist of forgetfulnessrises up and obscures the memory of vows and oaths. 2. The negligence oflaziness breeds more falsehoods than the cunning of the sharper. 3. Aspoverty waits upon the steps of indolence, so upon such poverty broodequivocations, subterfuges, lying denials. 4. Falsehood becomes theinstrument of every plan. 5. Negligence of truth, next occasionalfalsehood, then wanton mendacity--these three strides traverse the wholeroad of lies. 

1. Indolence as surely runs to dishonesty as to lying. 2. Indeed, they arebut different parts of the same road, and not far apart. 3. In directingthe conduct of the Ephesian converts, Paul says, "Let him that stole stealno more; but rather let him labor, working with his hands the thing whichis good. " 4. The men who were thieves were those who had ceased to work. 5. Industry was the road back to honesty. 6. When stores are broken open, theidle are first suspected. 

 * * * * *

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+. --Find in 1 two compound infinitivephrases and tell their use. Supply the words omitted from the last part ofeach compound. What shows that the parts of 2 are not closely connected?Would a conjunction bring them more closely together? If a conjunction isused, would you change the punctuation? A sentence that unites with anotherto make one greater sentence we call a _clause_. Read the first part of 2and change _somebody's_ first to a phrase and then to a clause used like anadjective. What distinction can you make between the use of the semicolonand the use of the comma in 3? The clause _if he borrows_ is joined like anadverb to what verb? _If he begs and gets_? What pronoun more indefinitethan _your_ might take its place in 4? What noun? Explain the use of thesemicolon and the comma in 4. Supply _that_ after _thing_ and tell whatclause is here used like an adjective. Find the office of _that_ by placingit after _do_. Find in 4 an infinitive phrase used as attribute complement. 

Change the phrase in 1, paragraph 2, to a clause. Find in 2 the omittedpredicate of the clause introduced by _than_. Find a compound subject in 3. Are _negligence_, _falsehood_, and _mendacity_, in 5, used as subjects?Explain their use and punctuation. (See Remark, Lesson 45. )

In 3, paragraph 3, how are the words borrowed from Paul marked? Change thequotation from Paul so as to give his thought but not his exact words. Arethe quotation marks now needed? In 3 and 4 find clauses introduced by_that_, _which_, and _who_, and used like adjectives. 

+The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+. --You can easily learn thesub-topic, or thought, each of these paragraphs develops. See whether youcan find it in the first sentence of each. Give the three sub-topics. Puttogether the three thoughts established in these paragraphs and tell whatthey prove. What they prove is that for which Mr. Beecher is contending; itmay be written at the head of the extract as the general topic. What meritsof the paragraph, already treated, are admirably illustrated in thisextract?

+The Style of the Author+. --This selection is neither descriptive nornarrative; it is +Argumentative+. Mr. Beecher is trying to establish acertain proposition, and in the three paragraphs is giving three reasons, or arguments, to prove its truth. But the argument is not all thought, isnot purely intellectual. It is suffused with feeling, is impassioned. Mr. Beecher's heart is in his work. This feeling warms and colors his style, and stimulates his fancy. As a consequence, figures of speech abound. 

Notice that in 1, paragraph 1, the thought is repeated by means of theinfinitive phrases. Read the words _Indolence inclines a man_ with each ofthe four infinitive phrases that follow. You will see that the thought isrepeated. It is first expressed in a general way; by the aid of the secondphrase we see the same thought from the negative side; the third phrasemakes the statement more specific; the fourth puts the specific statementnegatively. The needless repetition of the same thought in different wordsis one of the worst faults in writing. But Mr. Beecher's repetition is notneedless. By every repetition here, Mr. Beecher makes his thought clearerand stronger. Examine the other sentences of this paragraph and see whetherthey enforce the leading thought by illustration, example, or consequence. 

In what sentence is the style made +energetic+ by the aid of shortpredicates? How does the alternation of short sentences with longthroughout the extract affect you? The alternation of plain with figurativesentences? Can you show that the author's style has +Variety+? Pick out themetaphors in 1, 2, 3, and 5, paragraph 2; and in 1 and 2, paragraph 3. Pickout the comparisons, or similes, in 3, paragraph 1, and in 3, paragraph 2. Figures of speech should add clearness and force. If you think these do, tell how. _Indolence_ in 1 and 3, paragraph 2, and _laziness_ in 2, introduce us to another figure. Something belonging to the men, a quality, is made to represent the men themselves. Such a figure is called+Metonymy+. 

SUGGESTIONS FOB COMPOSITION WORK. 

TO THE TEACHER. --Exercises in argumentative writing may be continued bymaking selections from the discussion of easy topics. 

For original work we suggest debates on current topics. Compositions shouldbe short. 

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. 

EXTRACT FROM DANIEL WEBSTER. 

1. The assassin enters, through the window already prepared, into anunoccupied apartment. 2. With noiseless foot he paces the lonely hall, halflighted by the moon; he winds up the ascent of the stairs and reaches thedoor of the chamber. 3. Of this he moves the lock, by soft and continuedpressure, till it turns on its hinges without noise; and he enters, andbeholds his victim before him. 

1. The face of the innocent sleeper is turned from the murderer, and thebeams of the moon, resting on the gray locks of his aged temple, show himwhere to strike. 2. The fatal blow is given! and the victim passes, withouta struggle or a motion, from the repose of sleep to the repose of death. 3. It is the assassin's purpose to make sure work; and he plies the dagger, though it is obvious that life has been destroyed by the blow of thebludgeon. 4. He even raises the aged arm that he may not fail in his aim atthe heart, and places it again over the wounds of the poniard. 5. To finishthe picture, he explores the wrist for the pulse. 6. He feels for it, andascertains that it beats no longer. 7. It is accomplished. 8. The deed isdone. 

1. He retreats, retraces his steps to the window, passes out through it ashe came in, and escapes. 2. He has done the murder. No eye has seen him, noear has heard him. 3. The secret is his own, and it is safe. 

1. Ah! gentlemen, that was a dreadful mistake. 2. Such a secret can be safenowhere. 3. The whole creation of God has neither nook nor corner where theguilty can bestow it, and say it is safe. 4. Not to speak of that eye whichpierces through all disguises and beholds everything as in the splendor ofnoon, such secrets of guilt are never safe from detection even by men. 5. True it is, generally speaking, that "Murder will out. " 6. True it is thatProvidence hath so ordained, and doth so govern things, that those whobreak the great law of heaven by shedding man's blood seldom succeed inavoiding discovery. 

 * * * * *

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+. --Do the phrases in 1, paragraph1, stand in their usual order, or are they transposed? In what differentplaces may they stand? Does either phrase need to be transposed foremphasis or for clearness? Explain the punctuation. Begin 2 with _thelonely hall_, and notice that the sentence is thrown out of harmony withthe other sentences, and that the assassin is for the moment lost sight of. Can you tell why? Notice that in the latter part of 2 the door ismentioned, and that 3 begins with _of this_, referring to the door. Can youfind any other arrangement by which 3 will follow 2 so naturally? Can youchange 3 so as to make the reference of _it_ clearer? What is the office ofthe _till_ clause? Does the clause following the semicolon modify anything?Would you call such a clause _dependent_, or would you call it_independent_? Explain the punctuation of 3. 

Give the effect of changing _resting_ in 1, paragraph 2, to the assertiveform. Find in 1 a pronoun used adverbially and a phrase used as objectcomplement. Expand the phrase into a clause. Give the modifiers of _passes_in 2. Read the first part of 3 and put the explanatory phrase in place of_it_. What is the office of the _though_ clause? Find in this a clausedoing the work of a noun and tell its office. In 4 would _his_ in place of_the_ before _aged_ and before _heart_ be ambiguous? If so, why? Find inthis paragraph an infinitive phrase used independently. Find the objectcomplement of _ascertains_ in 6. Are 7 and 8 identical in meaning?

Give the modifiers of _passes_ in paragraph 3. Explain the _as_ clause. What does _that_ in 1, paragraph 4, stand for? What kind of clause isintroduced by _where_ in 3? By _which_ in 4? Expand the _as_ clause in 4and tell its office. Find in 4 and 5 an infinitive phrase and a participlephrase used independently. Tell the office of the _that_ clauses in 5 and6, and of the _who_ clause in 6. 

+The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+. --Look (1) at the order of thesentences in each paragraph, and (2) at the order of the paragraphsthemselves. Neither order could be changed without making the stream ofevents run up hill, for each order is the order in which the eventshappened. Look (3) at the unity of each paragraph, and (4) at the largerunity of the four paragraphs--that of each paragraph determined by therelation of each sentence to the sub-topic of the paragraph, and that ofthe four paragraphs determined by their relation to the general topic ofthe extract. We add that the obvious reference of the repeated _he_ to thesame person, and of _that_ and _secret_ in paragraph 4 demonstrates bothunities. Look (5), and lastly, at the fact that the sub-topic of eachparagraph is found in the first line of each paragraph. Could Webster havedone more to make his thought seen and felt?

+The Style of the Author. +--This selection is largely +Narrative. + Itsleading facts were doubtless supplied by the testimony given in the case;but much of the matter must have come from the imagination of Mr. Webster. Everything is so skillfully and vividly put that the story, touched withdescription, has all the effect of an argument. One quality of it is itsclearness, its perspicuity. It is noticeable also that very little imageryis used, that the language is plain language. But it is impossible to readthese paragraphs without being most profoundly impressed with their energy, their force. 

The style is forcible because (1) the +subject-matter+ is +easily grasped+;(2) because +simple words+ are +used+, words understood even by children;because (3) these +words+ are +specific+ and +individual+, not generic;because (4) of the grateful +variety of sentences+; (5) because of the+prevalence of short sentences+; because (6) of the +repetition of thethought+ in successive sentences; because (7), though the murder took placesome time before, Webster speaks as if it were +now taking place+ in ourvery sight. Find proof of what we have just said--proof of (2), inparagraphs 1 and 3; proof of (3), in sentences 3, 4, and 5, paragraph 2;proof of (4), throughout; of (5) and (6), in paragraphs 3 and 4; and of(7), in the first three paragraphs. 

In paragraph 3, a remarkable sameness prevails. The sentences here areframed largely on one plan. They are mostly of the same length. The orderof the words in them is the same; often the words are the same; and, evenwhen they are not, those in one clause or sentence seem to suggest those inthe next. This sameness is not accidental. The more real the murderer'sfancied security is made in this paragraph to appear, the more startling inthe next paragraph will be the revelation of his mistake. Hence no noveltyin the words or in their arrangement is allowed to distract our attentionfrom the dominant thought. The sentences are made to look and sound alikeand to be alike that their effect may be cumulative. The principle of+Parallel Construction+, the principle that sentences similar in thoughtshould be similar in form, is here allowed free play. 

TO THE TEACHER. --Do not be discouraged should your pupils fail to grasp atfirst all that is here taught. They probably will not fully comprehend ittill they have returned to it several times. It will, however, beimpossible for them to study it without profit. The meaning will grow uponthem. In studying our questions and suggestions the pupils should have the"Extract" before them, and should try to verify in it all that is taughtconcerning it. 

 * * * * *

PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED

LESSON 85. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

+Introductory Hints+. --You have now reached a point where it becomesnecessary to divide the eight great classes of words into subclasses. 

You have learned that nouns are the names of things; as, _girl_, _Sarah_. The name _girl_ is held in common by all girls, and hence does notdistinguish one girl from another. The name _Sarah_ is not thus held incommon; it does distinguish one girl from other girls. Any name whichbelongs in common to all things of a class we call a +Common Noun+; and anyparticular name of an individual, distinguishing this individual fromothers of its class, we call a +Proper Noun+. The "proper, or individual, names" which in Rule 1, Lesson 8, you were told to begin with capitalletters are proper nouns. 

Such a word as _wheat_, _music_, or _architecture_ does not distinguish onething from others of its class; there is but one thing in the class denotedby each, each thing forms a class by itself; and so we call these wordscommon nouns. 

In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not names, but words used insteadof names. Any one speaking of himself may use _I_, _my_, etc. , instead ofhis own name; speaking to one, he may use _you_, _thou_, _your_, _thy_, etc. , instead of that person's name; speaking of one, he may use _he_, _she_, _it_, _him_, _her_, etc. , instead of that one's name. These littlewords that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the onespoken of are called +Personal Pronouns+. 

By adding _self_ to _my_, _thy_, _your_, _him_, _her_, and _it_, and_selves_ to _our_, _your_, and _them_, we form what are called +CompoundPersonal Pronouns+, used either for emphasis or to reflect the action ofthe verb back upon the actor; as, _Xerxes himself_ was the last to crossthe Hellespont; The _mind_ cannot see _itself_. 

If a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, is to be modified by aclause, the clause is introduced by _who_, _which_, _what_, or _that_; as, I know the man _that_ did that. These words, relating to words in anotherclause, and binding the clauses together, are called +Relative Pronouns+. By adding _ever_ and _soever_ to _who_, _which_, and _what_, we form whatare called the +Compound Relative Pronouns+ _whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, etc. , used in a general way, and without any wordexpressed to which they relate. 

If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks forit, he uses _who_, _which_, or _what_; as, _Who_ did that? These pronouns, used in asking questions, are called +Interrogative Pronouns+. 

Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words pointing themout as near or remote; as, Is _that_ a man? What is _this_? or by wordstelling something of their number, order, or quantity; as, _None_ areperfect; The _latter_ will do; _Much_ has been done. Such words we call+Adjective Pronouns+. 

DEFINITIONS. 

+A _Noun_ is the name of anything+. [Footnote: Most common nouns arederived from roots that denote qualities. The root does not necessarilydenote the most essential quality of the thing, only its most obtrusivequality. The sky, a shower, and scum, for instance, have this mostnoticeable feature; they are a cover, they hide, conceal. This the root+sku+ signifies, and _sku_ is the main element in the words _sky_, _shower_(Saxon _scu:r_), and _scum_ that name these objects, and in the adjective_obscure_. 

A noun denoting at first only a single quality of its object comesgradually, by the association of this quality with the rest, to denote themall. 

Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived, as _Smith_ is fromthe man's office of smoothing, or _White_ from his color, the name soonceases to denote quality, and becomes really meaningless. ]

+A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+. 

+A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+. 

+Remark+. --It may be well to note two classes of common nouns--_collective_and _abstract_. A +Collective Noun+ is the name of a number of things takentogether; as, _army_, _flock_, _mob_, _jury_. An +Abstract Noun+ is thename of a quality, an action, a being, or a state; as, _whiteness_, _beauty_, _wisdom_, (the) _singing_, _existence_, (the) _sleep_. 

+A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+. [Footnote: In our definition andgeneral treatment of the pronoun, we have conformed to the traditionalviews of grammarians; but it may be well for the student to note thatpronouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns, and that theirprimary function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns. 

1. Pronouns are not the names of things. They do not, like nouns, lay holdof qualities and name things by them. They seize upon relations thatobjects sustain to each other and denote the objects by these relations. _I_, _you_, and _he_ denote their objects by the relations these objectssustain to the act of speaking; _I_ denotes the speaker; _you_, the onespoken to; and _he_ or _she_ or _it_, the one spoken of. _This_ and _that_denote their objects by the relative distance of these from the speaker;_some_ and _few_ and _others_ indicate parts separated from the rest. Gestures could express all that many pronouns express. 

2. It follows that pronouns are more general than nouns. Any person, oreven an animal or a thing personified, may use _I_ when referring tohimself, _you_ when referring to the one addressed, and _he_, _she_, _it_, and _they_ when referring to the person or persons, the thing or things, spoken of--and all creatures and things, except the speaker and the onespoken to, fall into the last list. Some pronouns are so general, and henceso vague, in their denotement that they show the speaker's completeignorance of the objects they denote. In, _Who_ did it? _Which_ of them didyou see? the questioner is trying to find out the one for whom _Who_stands, and the person or thing that _Which_ denotes. To what does _it_refer in, _it_ rains; How is _it_ with you?

3. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, going beforeor coming after. _To be_ or _not to be_--_that_ is the question. _It_ isdoubtful _whether the North Pole will ever be reached_. _The sails turned, the corn was ground_, after _which_ the wind ceased. _Ought you to go_? Icannot answer _that_. In the first of these sentences, _that_ stands for aphrase; in the last, for a sentence. _It_ and _which_ in the second andthird sentences stand for clauses. 

4. _Which_, retaining its office as connective, may as an adjectiveaccompany its noun; as, I craved his forbearance a little longer, _whichforbearance_ he allowed me. ]

+A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+. 

+A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or wordsand connects clauses+. 

+An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+. 

+An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both anadjective and a noun+. 

The simple personal pronouns are:--_I, thou, you, he, she, and it_. 

The compound personal pronouns are:--_Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, and itself_. 

The simple relative pronouns are:--_Who, which, that_, and _what_. [Footnote: _As_, in such sentences as this: Give such things _as_ you canspare, may be treated as a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence_as_ is seen to be a conjunctive adverb--Give such things _as those arewhich_ you can spare. 

_But_ used after a negative is sometimes called a "negative relative" =_that not_; as, There is not a man here _but_ would die for such a cause. When the sentence is expanded, _but_ is found to be a preposition--There isnot a man here _but_ (= _except_) the one who would die, etc. ]

The compound relative pronouns are:--

_Whoever or whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever_, _whatever_ or_whatsoever_. 

The interrogative pronouns are:--

_Who, which_, and _what_. 

Some of the more common adjective pronouns are:--

All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, these, this, those, whole, etc. [Footnote: The adjective pronouns _this, that, these_, and _those_ are called +Demonstrative+ pronouns. _All, any, both, each, either, many, one, other_, etc. Are called +Indefinite+ pronounsbecause they do not point out and particularize like the demonstratives. _Each, either_, and _neither_ are also called +Distributives+. 

But for the fact that such words as _brave, good_, etc. In the phrases _thebrave_, _the good_, etc. Describe--which pronouns never do--we might callthem adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectivesmodifying nouns to be supplied. 

Some adjectives preceded by _the_ are abstract nouns; as, the _grand_, the_sublime_, the _beautiful_. ]

The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used iscalled an +Antecedent+. 

+Direction+. --_Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in thesesentences_:--

Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. Tolie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and his companionswere fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is torepair and renew the body. 

+Remark+. --When the interrogatives _who_, _which_, and what introduceindirect questions, it is not always easy to distinguish them fromrelatives whose antecedents are omitted. For example--I found _who_ calledand _what_ he wanted; I saw _what_ was done. The first sentence does notmean, I found the _person who_ called and the _thing that_ he wanted. "_Who_ called" and "_what_ he wanted" here suggest questions--questionsreferred to but not directly asked. I saw _what_ was done = I saw the_thing that_ was done. No question is suggested. 

It should be remembered that _which_ and _what_ may also be interrogativeadjectives; as, _Which_ side won? _What_ news have you?

+Direction+. --_Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns_:--

1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and who said it?8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever is done must be done quickly. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 86. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. 

TO THE TEACHER. --In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors forcorrection, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should beread by you. To insure care in preparation, and close attention in theclass, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specificreasons. 

+Caution+. --Avoid _he_, _it_, _they_, or any other pronoun when itsreference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of theirambiguity_:--

+Model+. --The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him_, _he_ would die = The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave_his father, his father_ would die. Lysias promised his father never toabandon _his_ friends = Lysias gave his father this promise: "I will neverabandon _your_ (or _my_) friends. "

1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bookseller, he told him it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home. 

(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you maysuppose were the speaker's words. )

3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss. 

+Caution+. --Do not use pronouns needlessly. 

+Direction+. --_Write, these sentences, omitting needless pronouns_:--

1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English. 

+Caution+. --In addressing a person, do not, in the same sentence, use thetwo styles of the pronoun. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news?2. You cannot always have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thyself last, and others will love you. 

+Caution+. --The pronoun _them_ should not be used for the adjective_those_, nor the pronoun _what_ for the conjunction _that_. [Footnote:_What_ properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirectquestion, but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction_that_. _But_ may be placed before this conjunction to give a negativeforce to the noun clause. 

This use of _but_ requires careful discrimination. For example--"I have nofear _that_ he will do it"; "I have no fear _but that_ he will do it. " Theformer indicates certainty that he will not do it, and the latter certaintythat he will do it. "No one doubts but that he will do it" is incorrect, for it contains three negatives--_no_, _doubts_, and _but_. Two negativesmay be used to affirm, but not three. The intended meaning is, "_No_ one_doubts_ that he will do it, " or "_No_ one believes _but_ that he will doit, " or "Every one _believes_ that he will do it. "

_But what_, for _but that_ or _but_, is also incorrectly used to connect anadverb clause; as, "He is not so bad _but what_ he might be worse. " Forthis office of _but_ or _but that_ in an adverb clause, see Lesson 109, fourth "Example" of the uses of _but_. ]

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail?3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. 4. We ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good. 

+Caution+. --The relative _who_ should always represent persons; _which_, brute animals and inanimate things; _that_, persons, animals, and things;and _what_, things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Those which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends which I know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was called Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose. 6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus. 

+Direction+. --_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in thesefive Cautions_. 

LESSON 87. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED. 

+Caution+. --Several connected relative clauses relating to the sameantecedent require the same relative pronoun. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget him. 3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last. 4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first mate. 

+Caution+. --When the relative clause is not restrictive, [Footnote: SeeLesson 61. ] _who_ or _which_, and not _that_, is generally used. 

+Example+. --Water, _which_ is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, coversthree-fourths of the earth's surface. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of oxygen. And nitrogen. 2. Longfellow, that is the most popular American poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a precious gift, should not be wasted. 4. Man, that is born of woman, is of few days and full of trouble. 

+Caution+. --The relative _that_ [Footnote: _That_ is almost alwaysrestrictive. However desirable it may seem to confine _who_ and _which_ tounrestrictive clauses, they are not confined to them in actual practice. 

The wide use of _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses is not accountedfor by saying that they occur after _this_, _these_, _those_, and _that_, and hence are used to avoid disagreeable repetitions of sounds. This mayfrequently be the reason for employing _who_ and _which_ in restrictiveclauses; but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that _who_ and _which_ standin such clauses oftener without, than with, _this_, _these_, _those_, or_that_ preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than _that_itself does. Especially may this be said of _which_. ] should be usedinstead of _who_ or _which_ (1) when the antecedent names both persons andthings; (2) when _that_ would prevent ambiguity; and (3) when it wouldsound better than _who_ or _which_, _e. G. _, after _that_, _same_, _very_, _all_, the interrogative _who_, the indefinite _it_, and adjectivesexpressing quality in the highest degree. 

+Example+. --He lived near a _pond that_ was a nuisance. (_That_ relates to_pond_--the pond was a nuisance. _Which_ might have, for its antecedent, _pond_, or the whole clause _He lived near a pond_; and so its use herewould be ambiguous. )

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief material which is used now in building is brick. 3. Who who saw him did not pity him?4. He is the very man whom we want. 5. He is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him. 8. It was not I who did it. 9. That man that you just met is my friend. 

+Caution+. --The relative clause should be placed as near as possible to theword which it modifies. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors_:--

1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. 2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 6. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride. 

+Caution+. --When _this_ and _that_, _these_ and _those_, _the one_ and _theother_ refer to things previously mentioned, _this_ and _these_ refer tothe last mentioned, and _that_ and _those_ to the first mentioned; _theone_ refers to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last mentioned. When there is danger of obscurity, repeat the nouns. 

+Examples+. --_High_ and _tall_ are synonyms: _this_ may be used in speakingof what grows--a tree; _that_, in speaking of what does not grow--amountain. Homer was a genius; Virgil, an artist: in _the one_ we mostadmire the man; in _the other_, the work. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar; tact, triumphantly: this is complimented by the bench; that gets the fees. 2. Charles XII. And Peter the Great were sovereigns: the one was loved by his people; the other was hated. 3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community; these are shunned, while those are sought after. 

+Direction+. --_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in thesefive Cautions_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 88. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED. 

Miscellaneous Errors. 

+Direction+. --_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correctthe errors_:--

1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father died before he was born. 3. Whales are the largest animals which swim. 4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. 5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served under Washington, had been a British officer. 8. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need no spectacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12. Do you know that gentleman that is speaking?13. There is no book which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it. 14. The reporter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed. 17. _Reputation_ and _character_ do not mean the same thing: the one denotes what we are; the other, what we are thought to be. 18. Kosciusko having come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 19. What pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general appearance of the class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were infants. 21. Witness said that his wife's father came to his house, and he ordered him out, but he refused to go. 22. Shall you be able to sell them boots?23. I don't know but what I may. 24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad: the one is made from grapes; the other, from barley. 25. There is one marked difference between shiners and trout; these have scales, and those have not. 26. They know little of men, who reason thus. 27. Help thyself, and Heaven will help you. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 89. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

+Introductory Hints+. --You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentences_Ripe apples are healthful, Unripe apples are hurtful_, the adjectives_ripe_ and _unripe_ limit, or narrow, the application of _apples_ bydescribing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You learnedalso that _the_, _this_, _an_, _no_, _some_, and _many_ limit, or narrow, the application of any noun which they modify, as _apple_ or _apples_, bypointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting thequantity of it. 

Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called +DescriptiveAdjectives+; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or denotingquantity are called +Definitive Adjectives+. 

Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application (1)when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named; as, _yellow_ gold, the _good_ God, the _blue_ sky; or (2) when they areattribute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb; as, Thefields were _green_; The ground was _dry_ and _hard_. 

+DEFINITIONS+. 

+An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+. [Footnote:Pronouns, like nouns, are often modified by an "appositive" adjective, thatis, an adjective joined loosely without restricting: thus--_Faint_ and_weary_, _he_ struggled on or, _He_, _faint_ and _weary_, struggled on. Adjectives that complete the predicate belong as freely to pronouns as tonouns. ]

+A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+. 

+A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+. [Footnote: The definitive adjectives _one_, _two_, _three_, etc. ; _first_, _second_, _third_, etc. Are called +Numeral+adjectives. _One_, _two_, _three_, etc. Are called +Cardinal+ numerals; and_first_, _second_, _third_--etc. Are called +Ordinal+ numerals]

The definitive adjectives _an_ or _a_ and _the_ are commonly called+Articles+. _An_ or _a_ is called the _Indefinite Article_, and _the_ iscalled the _Definite Article_. 

A noun may take the place of an adjective. 

+Examples+. --_London_ journals, the _New York_ press, _silver_ spoons, _diamond_ pin, _state_ papers, _gold_ bracelet. 

+Direction+. --_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectivesbelow, and name such as do not limit_:--

Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, Mansardroof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt diamond, thepatient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, moving spectacle, themartyr president, tin pans, few people, less trouble, this toy, any book, brave Washington, Washington market, three cats, slender cord, that libel, happy children, the broad Atlantic, The huge clouds were dark andthreatening, Eyes are bright, What name was given? Which book is wanted?

+Direction+. --_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives inLessons 80 and 81, and tell whether they denote color, motion, shape, position, size, moral qualities, or whether they modify in some other way_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 90. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

+Caution+. --_An_ and _a_ are different forms of _one_. _An_ is used beforevowel sounds. For the sake of euphony, _an_ drops _n_ and becomes _a_before consonant sounds. [Footnote: Some writers still use _an_ before wordsbeginning with unaccented _h_; as, _an historian_. ]

+Examples+. --_An_ inkstand, _a_ bag, _a_ historian, _a_ humble petition, _an_ hour (_h_ is silent), _a_ unit (_unit_ begins with the consonant soundof _y_), such _a_ one (_one_ begins with the consonant sound of _w_). +Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an uniform, an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero. 

+Caution. +--_An_ or _a_ is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class--toany one. _The_ is used to distinguish (1) one thing or several things fromothers, and (2) one class of things from other classes. 

+Explanation. +--We can say _a horse_, meaning _any one horse_; but wecannot say, _A gold_ is heavy, This is a poor kind of a _gas_, William Pittreceived the title of _an earl_ because _gold, gas, _ and _earl_ are heremeant to denote each the whole of a class, and a limits its noun to onething of a class. 

_The horse_ or _the horses_ must be turned into _the lot_. Here _the_before _horse_ distinguishes a certain animal, and the before horsesdistinguishes certain animals, from others of the same class; and _the_before _lot_ distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable--things inother classes. _The horse_ is a noble animal. Here _the_ distinguishes_this class_ of animals from other classes. But we cannot say, _The man_(meaning the race) is mortal, _The anger_ is a short madness, _The truth_is eternal, _The poetry_ and _the painting_ are fine arts, because _man, anger, truth, poetry, _ and _painting_ are used in their widest sense, andname things that are sufficiently distinguished without _the_. 

+Direction. +--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--

1. This is another kind of a sentence. 2. Churchill received the title of a duke. 3. A _hill_ is from the same root as _column_. 4. Dog is a quadruped. 5. I expected some such an offer. 6. The woman is the equal of man. 7. The sculpture is a fine art. 8. Unicorn is kind of a rhinoceros. 9. Oak is harder than the maple. 

+Caution. +--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before _each_ of two or more connectedadjectives, when these adjectives modify different nouns, expressed orunderstood; but, when they modify the same noun, the article should not berepeated. 

+Explanation+. --_A cotton and a silk umbrella_ means two umbrellas--onecotton and the other silk; the word umbrella is understood after _cotton_. _A cotton and silk umbrella_ means one umbrella partly cotton and partlysilk; _cotton_ and _silk_ modify the same noun--_umbrella_. _The wise andthe good_ means two classes; _the wise and good_ means one class. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--

1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. A Pullman and Wagner sleeping-coach. 5. The fourth and the fifth verses. 6. The fourth and fifth verse. 7. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary. 

+Caution+. --Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before each of two or more connectednouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other oremphasized. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 2. We criticise not the dress but address of the speaker. 3. A noun and pronoun are alike in office. 4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb. 5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. 6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached. 7. The secretary and treasurer were both absent. 

(_The secretary and treasurer was absent_--referring to one person--iscorrect. )

+Caution+. --_A few_ and _a little_ mean _some_ as opposed to _none_; _few_means _not many_, and _little_ means _not much_. 

+Examples+. --He saved _a few_ things and _a little_ money from the wreck. _Few_ shall part where many meet. _Little_ was said or done about it. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy month. 2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the night. 3. Few men live to be & hundred years old, but not many. 4. Little can be done, but not much. 

+Direction+. --_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in theseCautions_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 91. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES--CONTINUED. 

+Caution+. --Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them needlessly; avoidsuch as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. 

+Remark+. --The following adjectives are obviously needless: _Good_ virtues, _verdant_ green, _painful_ toothache, _umbrageous_ shade. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was splendid fun. 2. It was a tremendous dew. 3. He used less words than the other speaker. 4. The lad was neither docile nor teachable. 5. The belief in immortality is common and universal. 6. It was a gorgeous apple. 7. The arm-chair was roomy and capacious. 8. It was a lovely bun, but I paid a frightful price for it. 

+Caution+. --So place adjectives that there can be no doubt as to what youintend them to modify. If those forming a series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If they are ofthe same rank, place them where they will sound best--generally in theorder of length, the shortest first. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. A new bottle of wine. 2. The house was comfortable and large. 3. A salt barrel of pork. 4. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 5. A fried dish of bacon. 6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, towering mountain. 7. Two gray fiery little eyes. 8. A docile and mild pupil. 9. A pupil, docile and mild. 

+Direction+. --_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in thesetwo Cautions_. 

Miscellaneous Errors. 

+Direction+. --_Give the Cautions which these expressions violate, andcorrect the errors_:--

1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. 2. The North and South Pole. 3. The eldest son of a duke is called _a marquis_. 4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him. 5. An old and young man. 6. A prodigious snowball hit my cheek. 7. The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 8. The fat, two lazy men. 9. His penmanship is fearful. 10. A white and red flag were flying. 11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him. 12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple. 13. A dried box of herrings. 14. He received a honor. 15. Such an use!16. The day was delightful and warm. 17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious, frugal, and simple. 18. The victory was complete, though a few of the enemy were killed or captured. 19. The truth is mighty and will prevail. 20. The scepter, the miter, and coronet seem to me poor things for great men to contend for. 21. A few can swim across the Straits of Dover, for the width is great and the current strong. 22. I have a contemptible opinion of you. 23. She has less friends than I. 

LESSON 92. 

CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS. 

+Introductory Hints+. --You learned in Lesson 28 that in saying _Washingtoncaptured_ we do not fully express the act performed. Adding _Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming the one that receives the act thatpasses over from the doer. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so allverbs that represent an act as passing over from a doer to a receiver arecalled +Transitive Verbs+. If we say _Cornwallis was captured byWashington_, the verb is still transitive; but the object, _Cornwallis_, which names the receiver, is here the subject of the sentence, and not, asbefore, the object complement. You see that the object, the word that namesthe receiver of the act, may be the subject, or it may be the objectcomplement. 

All verbs that, like _fall_ in _Leaves fall_, do not represent the act aspassing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state ofbeing are called +Intransitive Verbs+. 

A verb transitive in one sentence; as, He _writes_ good English, may beintransitive in another; as, He _writes_ well--meaning simply He _is_ agood _writer_. A verb is transitive only when an object is expressed orobviously understood. 

_Washington captured Cornwallis_. Here _captured_ represents the act ashaving taken place in past time. _Tense_ means _time_, and hence this verbis in the past tense. _Cornwallis captured, the war speedily closed_. Here_captured_ is, as you have learned, a participle; and, representing the actas past at the time indicated by _closed_, it is a past participle. Noticethat _ed_ is added to _capture_ (final _e_ is always dropped when _ed_ isadded) to form its past tense and its past participle. All verbs that formthe past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present arecalled +Regular Verbs+. 

All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding_ed_ to the present; as, _fall, fell, fallen; go, went, gone_, are called+Irregular Verbs+. 

_Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently_, etc. , used to modify anyverb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go soon_--by expressing time, are called+Adverbs of Time+. 

_Away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within_, etc. , used to modify anyverb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go away_--by expressing direction or place, are called +Adverbs of Place+. 

_Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very_, etc. , used to modifya word--as the adjective _hot_ in, The tea is _very hot_--by expressingdegree, are called +Adverbs of Degree+. 

_Plainly, so, thus, well, not_, [Footnote: It may be worth remarking thatwhile there are many negative nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, andconjunctions in oar language, negation is more frequently expressed inEnglish by the adverb than by any other part of speech--than by all otherparts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. That is to say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicateexpresses is declared not to be true of the thing named by the subject. Itis very suggestive that much of what is said consists of denial--is takenup in telling not what is true of things but what is not true of them. 

"The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant +n+. InSaxon it existed as a word +ne+; but we have lost that word, and it is nowa letter only, which, enters into many words, as into _no, not, nought, none, neither, nor, never_. "--_Earle_. 

_No_ and _yes_ (_nay_ and _yea_), when used to answer Questions, show howthe thought presented is regarded, and may therefore be classed withadverbs of manner. They are sometimes called _independent adverbs_. Theyseem to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question;as, Did you see him? _No_ = I did _no_ (_not_) see him; Will you go? _Yes_. The force of _yes_ may be illustrated by substituting _certainly_--Will yougo? _Certainly_. _Certainly_ I will go, or I will _certainly_ go. As _no_and _yes_ represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called+sentence-words+. ] etc. , used to modify a word--as, _spoke_ in, He _spokeplainly_--by expressing manner, are called +Adverbs of Manner+. 

_Hence, therefore, why_, etc. , used in making an inference or in expressingcause--as, It is dark, _hence_, or _therefore_, the sun is down; _Why_ isit dark?--are called +Adverbs of Cause+. 

Some adverbs fall into more than one class; as, _so_ and _as_. 

Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and are thereforecalled +Conjunctive Adverbs+. 

DEFINITIONS. 

+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+. 

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. 

+A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The+object+ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of theaction, may be the +object complement+, or it may be the +subject+; as, Brutus stabbed _Caesar_; _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus. See page 187. ]

+An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+. 

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM. 

+A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle byadding _ed_ to the present+. 

+An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and pastparticiple by adding _ed_ to the present+. 

+An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. [Footnote: Adverbs have several exceptional uses. They may be usedindependently; as, _Now, there_ must be an error here. They may modify aphrase or a preposition; as, He came _just_ in time; It went _far_ beyondthe mark. They may modify a clause or a sentence; as, He let go _simply_because he was exhausted; _Certainly_ you may go. 

It may also be noted here that adverbs are used interrogatively; as, _How, when_, and _where_ is this to be done? and that they may add to the officeof the adverb that of the conjunction; as, I go _where_ I am sent. ]

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

+_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_

+_Adverbs of Place_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Where?_

+_Adverbs of Degree_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Towhat extent?_

+_Adverbs of Manner_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Inwhat way?_

+_Adverbs of Cause_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Why?_

+Direction+. --_Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regularand the irregular verbs in Lesson_ 14, _and classify the adverbs_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 93. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

+Caution+. --Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them needlessly or insteadof other forms of expression; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerateit. 

+Examples+. --I could _ill_ (not _illy_) afford the time. Do _as_ (not_like_) I do. A diphthong is _the union of_ two vowels (not _where_ or_when_ two vowels unite) in the same syllable. _This_ (not _this here_ or_this 'ere_) sentence is correct. He wrote _that_ (not _how that_) he hadbeen sick. The belief in immortality is _universally_ held (not_universally_ held _everywhere_). His nose was _very_ (not _terribly_ or_frightfully_) red, +Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct theseerrors_. --

1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute to spare. 3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peacefully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull. 6. That 'ere horse has the heaves. 7. A direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. 9. He seldom or ever went home sober. 10. The belief in immortality is universally held by all. 11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 12. This is a fearfully long lesson. 13. He said how that he would go. 

+Caution+. --So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what youintend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. They seldom standbetween _to_ and the infinitive. [Footnote: Instances of the "cleft, orsplit, infinitive"--the infinitive separated from its _to_ by anintervening adverb--are found in Early English and in English all the waydown, Fitzedward Hall and others have shown this. 

But there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against anadverb's standing between _to_ and the infinitive. Few writers ever placean adverb there at all; and these few, only an occasional adverb, and thatadverb only occasionally. 

Whether the adverb should be placed before the _to_ or after the infinitiveis often a nice question, sometimes to be determined by the ear alone. Itshould never stand, however, where it would leave the meaning ambiguous orin any way obscure. ]

+Examples+. --_I only_ rowed across the river = _I only_ (= _alone_, anadjective), and no one else, rowed etc. , or = I _only rowed_ etc. , +but+did not _swim_ or _wade_. I rowed _only across_ the river = _across_, not_up_ or _down_ etc. I rowed across the _river only_ = the _river only_, notthe _bay_ etc. _Merely to see_ (not _to merely see_) her was sufficient. _Not every collegian_ is a scholar (not _Every collegian_ is _not_ ascholar). 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct theseerrors_:--

1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals a day. 3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glitters. 5. He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak. 7. All that glitters is not gold. 8. His sagacity almost appears miraculous. 

+Caution+. --Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two negative words sothat they shall contradict each other. [Footnote: _Not in_frequently we usetwo negatives to make an affirmation; as, He is _not un_just; _No_ man cando _nothing_. ]

+Examples+. --No one _has_ (not _hasn't_) yet reached the North Pole. _Noun_pleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended toaffirm). 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct theseerrors_:--

1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He doesn't do nothing. 3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There must be something wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother. 5. He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found. 

+Caution+. --Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for adverbs. 

+Examples+. --The moon looks _calm_ and _peaceful_ (not _calmly_ and_peacefully_, as the words are intended to describe the moon). The moonlooks down _calmly_ and _peacefully_ on the battlefield (not _calm_ and_peaceful_, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act). Islept _soundly_ (not _good_ or _sound_). 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct theseerrors_:--

1. It was a softly blue sky. 2. The river runs rapid. 3. You must read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest. 5. She is most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The prima donna sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels badly. 10. He spoke up prompt. 11. He went most there. 12. He behaved very bad. 13. This is a mighty cold day. 

+Direction+. --_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in thesefour Cautions_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 94. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS-CONTINUED. 

Miscellaneous Errors. 

+Direction+. --_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correctthe errors_:--

1. Begin it over again. 2. This can be done easier. 3. The house is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. I have a pencil that long. 6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 7. A circle can't in no way be squared. 8. This is a remarkable cold winter. 9. The one is as equally deserving as the other. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is pretty near finished. 12. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 13. It is a wonderful fine day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. Generally every morning we went to the spring. 16. I wish to simply state this point. 17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. 18. The lesson was prodigiously long. 19. The cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good as any one can. 21. Most everybody talks so. 22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't believe. 23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. 24. That 'ere book is readable. 25. I will not go but once. 26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. 27. They were nearly dressed alike. 28. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again. 29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely, and prodigally spent. 30. I am real glad to see you. 31. We publish all the information, official and otherwise. 

LESSON 95. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

+DEFINITION. --A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the wordmodified. +

Composition. 

+Direction+. --_We give below a list of the prepositions in common use. Makeshort sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two orthree of them in a single sentence if you wish_:--

Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, but, by, down, ere, for, from, in, into, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without. 

+Remarks+. --_Bating_, _concerning_, _during_, _excepting_, _notwithstanding_, _pending_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _saving_, and_touching_ are still participles in form and sometimes are such in use. Butin most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, and theyexpress mere relations. 

_But_, _except_, and _save_, in such a sentence as, All _but_ or _except_or _save him_ were lost, are usually classed with prepositions. 

The phrases _aboard of_, _according to_, _along with_, _as to_, _becauseof_ (by cause of), _from among_, _from between_, _from under_, _instead of_(in stead of), _out of_, _over against_, and _round about_ may be calledcompound prepositions. But _from_ in these compounds; as, He crawled _fromunder the ruins_, really introduces a phrase, the principal term of whichis the phrase that follows _from_. 

Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily followsthem is omitted; as, He rode _past_; He stands _above_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 96. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

+To the Teacher+. --Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and sodelicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them basedupon etymology would mislead. A happy and discriminating use ofprepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors. Wedo below all that we think it prudent or profitable to do with them. Heshould he a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupilsthat such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That grammarianexceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrowerthan the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has castup. [Footnote: Take a single illustration. Grammarians, in general, teachthat _between_ and _betwixt_ "refer to two, " are used "only when two thingsor sets of things are referred to. " Ordinarily, and while clinging to theirderivation, they are so used, but are they always, and must they be? "Therewas a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox. "--_L'Estrange_. "A Triple Alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden. "--_J. B. Green_. "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, andEthiopia. "--_Gibbon_. "His flight between the several worlds. "--_Addison_. "The identity of form between the nominative, accusative, and vocativecases in the neuter. " --_G. P. Marsh_. "The distinction between these threeorders has been well expressed by Prof. Max Mueller. "--_W. D. Whitney_. "Between such dictionaries as Worcester's, The Imperial, and Webster's. "--_B. G. White_. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivoryneck. "--_Bryant_. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech befilled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology! Whatsimple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in thissentence, for instance: There were forty desks in the room with ample space_between them_?

"We observe that _between_ is not restricted to two. "--_ImperialDictionary_. "In all senses _between_ has been, from its earliestappearance, extended to more than two. It is still the only word availableto express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally andindividually--_among_ expressing a relation to them collectively andvaguely: we should not say, 'The choice lies among the three candidates, 'or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower. '"--_The NewEnglish Dictionary_. 

We have collected hundreds of instances of _between_ used by good writerswith three or more. 

Guard against such expressions as _between each_ page; a choice _betweenone_ of several. ]

+Direction+. --_We give below a few words with the prepositions whichusually accompany them. Form short sentences containing these wordscombined with each of the prepositions which follow them, and notecarefully the different relations expressed by the differentprepositions_:--

(Consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompanyingword. )

Abide _at, by, with_; accommodate _to, with_; advantage _of, over_; agree_to, with_; angry _at, with_; anxious _about, for_; argue _against, with_;arrive _at, in_; attend _on_ or _upon, to_; careless _about, in, of_;communicate _to, with_; compare _to, with_; consists _in, of_; defend_against, from_; die _by, for, of_; different _from_; disappointed _in, of_; distinguish _by, from_; familiar _to, with_; impatient _for, of_;indulge _in, with_; influence _on, over, with_; insensible _of, to_; sat_beside_; many _besides_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 97. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED. 

+Direction+. --_Do with the following words as with those above_:--

Inquire _after, for, into, of_; intrude _into, upon_; joined _to, with_;liberal _of, to_; live _at, in, on_; look _after, for, on_; need _of_;obliged _for, to_; part _from, with_; placed _in, on_; reconcile _to, with_; regard _for, to_; remonstrate _against, with_; sank _beneath, in, into_; share _in, of, with_; sit _in, on_ or _upon_; smile _at, on_;solicitous _about, for_; strive _for, with, against_; taste _for, of_;touch _at, on_ or _upon_; useful _for, in, to_; weary _of, in, with_; yearn_for, towards_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 98. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED. 

+Caution+. --Great care must be used in the choice of prepositions. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors_:--

1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. They two quarreled among each other. 4. He is in want for money. 5. I was followed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in the water. [Footnote: _In_ denotes motion or rest in a condition or place; _into_, change from one condition or place into another. "When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get _into_ it; but he cannot do anything _in_ it until he has got _into_ it. "]7. He fought into the Revolution. [See previous footnote]8. He bears a close resemblance of his father. 9. He entered in the plot. 10. He lives at London. 11. He lives in the turn of the road. 12. I have need for a vacation. 13. The child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disappointed of it. 15. He did not take a walk; he was disappointed in it. 16. He was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a mark between each leaf. 19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. 22. What is the matter of him?23. I saw him over to the house. 24. These plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to the hotel. 26. I board in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. I have other reasons beside these. [Footnote: Beside = _by the side of_; besides = _in addition to_. ]29. You make no use with your talents. 30. He threw himself onto the bed. 31. The boys are hard to work. 32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park. 34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 38. Can you accommodate me in one of those?39. What a change a century has produced upon our country!40. He stays to school late. 41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 99. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED. [Footnote: "A preposition is afeeble word to end a sentence _with_, " we are told. Sentences (10) and(13), Lesson 59, (2), Lesson 60, and many in succeeding Lessons violate therule so carelessly expressed. 

Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Prof. Austin Phelps says, "A preposition as such is by no means a feebleword;" and he quotes a burst of feeling from Rufus Choate which ends thus:"Never, so long as there is left of Plymouth Rock a piece large enough tomake a gunflint _of_!" "This, " Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomaticEnglish. " He adds, "The old Scotch interrogative, 'What _for_?' is as pureEnglish in written as in colloquial speech. "

Sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly commonin English--"The language itself is inseparable _from_, or essentially apart _of_, the _thoughts_. " Such sentences have been condemned, but theworst that can be urged against them is, that they lack smoothness. Butsmoothness is not always desirable. 

Sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun arevery common--"Powerless to _affect_, or to be affected _by_, the _times_. "]

CAUTION. --Do not use prepositions needlessly. 

DIRECTION. --_Correct these errors_:--

1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in?3. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last Saturday. 5. He was born August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a horse about. 9. By what states is Kentucky bounded by?10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where are you going to?12. They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book off of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of what is the air composed of?16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where have you been to?18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy be likened to?25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. 26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answering of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river. 29. Keep off of the grass. 

+Caution+. --Do not omit prepositions when they are needed. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors_:--

1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I was prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is unworthy our charity. 6. What use is this to him?7. He was born on the 15th August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. 11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. 12. He received dispatches from England and Russia. 

+Direction+. --_Point out the prepositions in Lessons_ 80 _and_ 81, _andname the words between which, in sense, they show the relation_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 100. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES. 

+Introductory Hints+. --The stars look down upon the roofs of the living_and_ upon the graves of the dead, _but neither_ the living _nor_ the deadare conscious of their gaze. Here _and_, _but_, _neither_, and _nor_connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so arecalled +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+. Both clauses may be independent, or bothdependent but of equal rank. 

At the burning of Moscow, it seemed _as_ [it would seem] _if_ the heavenswere lighted up _that_ the nations might behold the scene. Here _as_, _if_, and _that_ connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause ofhigher rank, and hence are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+. One clausemay be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but ofunequal rank. 

+DEFINITIONS. +

+A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+. [Footnote: Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as _and_ and _but_, connect, in thought, sentences separated by the period, and even connectparagraphs. In analysis and parsing, we regard only the individual sentenceand treat such connectives as introductory. ]

+_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clausesof the same rank+. 

+_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+. 

+Remark+. --Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some arerelative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, inaddition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of theconjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses. 

To THE TEACHER. --We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupilsshould he able to name the different groups, and some of the most commonconnectives of each group. 

+Co-ordinate Connectives. + [Footnote: +Copulative+ conjunctions join partsin the same line of thought; +Adversative+ conjunctions join partscontrasted or opposed in meaning; +Alternative+ conjunctions join parts soas to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76. ]

+Copulative+. --_And_, _both_ . .. _and_, _as well as_ [Footnote: The _aswell as_ in, _He, as well as I, went_; and not that in, _He is as well as Iam_. ] are conjunctions proper. _Accordingly_, _also_, _besides_, _consequently_, _furthermore_, _hence_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _now_, _so_, _then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs. 

+Adversative+. --_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _However_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _on the contrary_, _on the other hand_, _still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs. 

+Alternative+. --_Neither_, _nor_, _or_, _either_ . .. _or_, and _neither_. .. _nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctiveadverbs. 

+Subordinate Connectives. +

CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

_That_, _what_, _whatever_, _which_, _whichever_, _who_, and _whoever_ arerelative pronouns. _When_, _where_, _whereby_, _wherein_, and _why_ areconjunctive adverbs. 

CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES. 

_Time_. --_After_, _as_, _before_, _ere_, _since_, _till_, _until_, _when_, _whenever_, _while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs. 

_Place_. --_Whence_, _where_, and _wherever _are conjunctive adverbs. 

_Degree_. --_As_, _than_, _that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, correlative with adjectives or adverbs. 

_Manner_. --_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with anadjective or an adverb. 

_Real Cause_. --_As_, _because_, _for_, _since_, and _whereas_ areconjunctions proper. 

_Evidence_. --_Because_, _for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper. 

_Purpose_. --_In order that_, _lest_ (= _that not_), _that_, and _so that_are conjunctions proper. 

Condition. --Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, providedthat, and unless are conjunctions proper. 

_Concession_. --_Although_, _if_ (= _even if_), _notwithstanding_, _though_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb. _Whatever_, _whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns usedindefinitely. 

CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES. 

_If_, _lest_, _that_, and _whether_ [Footnote: Etymologically, _whether_ isrestricted to two; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is veryfreely used with three or more. 

The repetition of _whether_, like the use of it with three or more things, has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it. 

_Whether or no_ is also allowed. ] are conjunctions proper. _What_, _which_, and _who_ are pronouns introducing questions; and _how_, _when_, _whence_, _where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions. 

+Direction+. --_Study the lists above_, _and point out all the connectivesin Lessons_ 80 and 81, _telling which are relative pronouns_, _which areconjunctions proper_, _and which are conjunctive adverbs_. 

+TO THE TEACHER+. --If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessaryto abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six following Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider theseexercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in thecourse. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 101. 

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES. 

+Direction+. --_Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall bejoined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ordinateconnectives_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 102. 

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. 

+Direction+. --_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joinedby connectives of adjective clauses, and by connectives of adverb clausesof time, place, degree, and manner_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 103. 

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. 

+Direction+. --_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joinedby connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose, condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 104. 

CONNECTIVES. 

Analysis. 

+Direction+. --_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, andwhat are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze thesentences_:--

+As+ may connect a clause expressing +manner+, +time+, +degree+, +cause+, or +evidence+. 

1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. 2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. 5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand. 

+If+ may connect a clause expressing +condition+, +time+, or +concession+, or it may introduce a +noun+ clause. 

6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. 7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride. 

8. Who knows if one of the Pleiads is really missing? [Footnote: Many grammarians say that _if_ here is improperly used for _whether_. But this use of _if_ is common with good authors in early and in modern English. ]

9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. 

+Lest+ may connect a clause expressing +purpose+, or it may introduce a+noun+ clause. 

10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India. 11. Watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation. 

+Since+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +evidence+. 

12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. 13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were built. 14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 105. 

CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

+Direction+. --_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, andwhat are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze thesentences_:--

+That+ may connect a +noun+ clause, an +adjective+ clause, or a clauseexpressing +degree+, +cause+, or +purpose+. 

1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men. 2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. 3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may harden the metal. 4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. 5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them. 

+When+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +condition+, an+adjective+ clause or a +noun+ clause, or it may connect +co-ordinate+clauses. 

6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses. 7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns. 8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present. 9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question. 10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common people?11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and weights protested their innocence. 

+Where+ may connect a clause expressing +place+, an +adjective+ clause, ora +noun+ clause. 

12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried. 13. Where Moses was buried is still a question. 14. No one has been where Moses was buried. 

+While+ may connect a clause expressing +time+ or +concession+, or it mayconnect +co-ordinate+ clauses. 

15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents. 16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt. 17. While Charles I. Had many excellent traits, he was a bad king. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 106. 

CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

+Direction+. --_Use the appropriate connectives, and change these compoundsentences to complex without changing the meaning, and then analyzethem_:--

(Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause; let three express cause;five, condition; and two, concession. )

1. Caesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain have had it. 2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it becomes carnage. 3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee. 4. You must eat, or you will die. 5. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. 6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds. 7. Men are carrying umbrellas; it is raining. 8. Have ye brave sons? look in the next fierce brawl to see them die. 9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor lives. 10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and Washington is a rebel instead of the purest of patriots. 11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon. 

+Direction+. --_Two of the dependent clauses below express condition, andthree express concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, andthen analyze the sentences_:--

12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us. 13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France, there would never have been an England. 14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him. 15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader. 16. Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, _more frigates_ would be found written on my heart. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 107. 

CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES. 

+Caution+. --Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs may stand incorrelation with other words. _And_ may be accompanied by _both_; _as_, by_as_, by _so_, or by _such_; _but_ (_but also_ and _but likewise_), by _notonly_; _if_, by _then_; _nor_, by _neither_; _or_, by _either_ or by_whether_; _that_, by _so_; _the_, by _the_; _though_, by _yet_; _when_, by_then_; and _where_, by _there_. 

Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and stand where theybelong. 

+Examples+. --Give me neither riches _nor_ (not _or_) poverty. I cannot findeither my book _or_ (not _nor_) my hat. Dogs not only bark (not _not onlydogs_ bark) but also bite. _Not only dogs_ (not _dogs not only_) bark butwolves also. He _was neither_ (not _neither was_) rich nor poor. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. He not only gave me advice but also money. 2. A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulation of my real sentiments. 3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. 4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New York. 5. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature but also for his moral wisdom. 6. Not only he is successful but he deserves to succeed. 7. There was nothing either strange nor interesting. 

+Caution+. --Choose apt connectives, but do not use them needlessly orinstead of other parts of speech. 

+Examples+. --Seldom, _if_ (not _or_) ever, should an adverb stand between_to_ and the infinitive. I will try _to_ (not _and_) do better next time. No one can deny _that_ (not _but_) he has money. [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176. ] A harrow is drawn over the ground, _which_ (not _and which_)covers the seed. Who doubts _that_ (not _but that_ or _but what_) Napoleonlived [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176. ] The doctor had scarcely left_when_ (not _but_) a patient called. He has no love for his father _or_(not _nor_) for his mother (the negative _no_ is felt throughout thesentence, and need not be repeated by _nor_). He was not well, _nor_ (not_or_) was he sick (_not_ is expended in the first clause; _nor_ is neededto make the second clause negative). 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct theseerrors_:--

1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other poets, is tenderness. 2. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow. 3. Who can doubt but that there is a God?4. No one can eat nor drink while he is talking. 5. He seldom or ever went to church. 6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season. 7. I do not know as I shall like it. 8. He said that, after he had asked the advice of all his friends, that he was more puzzled than before. 

+Caution+. --_Else_, _other_, _otherwise_, _rather_, and adjectives andadverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed by _than_. But _else_, _other_, and _more_, implying something additional, but not different inkind, may be followed by _but_ or _besides_. 

+Examples+. --A diamond is nothing _else than_ carbon. Junius was no _otherthan_ Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk _otherwise than_ oncrutches. Americans would _rather_ travel _than_ stay at home. I rose_earlier than_ I intended. He can converse on _other_ topics _besides_politics. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct theseerrors_:--

1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 2. The moon is something else but green cheese. 3. Cornwallis could not do otherwise but surrender. 4. It was no other but the President. 5. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran. 

+Caution+. --Two or more connected words or phrases referring to anotherword or phrase should each make good sense with it. 

+Examples+. --I have always (add _said_) and still do say that labor ishonorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add_lived_) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but not sotall (not The boy is _stronger_, but not _so tall, as_ his sister). 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct theseerrors_:--

1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. 2. Gold is not so useful, but heavier, than iron. 3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than that. 4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn their lessons. 5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 6. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or may be published. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 108. 

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors, telling what Caution each violates_:--

1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers: this city in Africa, and that in Europe; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the other on the southern. 2. The right and left lung were diseased. 3. The right and the left lungs were diseased. 4. My friend has sailed for Europe, who was here yesterday. 5. There are some men which are always young. 6. I cannot think but what God is good. 7. Thimbles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. 8. A told B that he was his best friend. 9. Them scissors are very dull. 10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada. 11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked up insensible, died. 12. The eye and ear have different offices. 13. I only laugh when I feel like it. 14. This is the same man who called yesterday. 15. He was an humble man. 16. He was thrown forward onto his face. 17. A knows more, but does not talk so well, as B. 18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. 19. At what wharf does the boat stop at?20. The music sounded harshly. 21. He would neither go himself or send anybody. 22. It isn't but a short distance. 23. The butter is splendid. 24. The boy was graceful and tall. 25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much. 26. One would rather have few friends than a few friends. 27. He is outrageously proud. 28. Not only the boy skated but he enjoyed it. 29. He has gone way out West. 30. Who doubts but what two and two are four?31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt water. 32. The problem was difficult to exactly understand. 33. It was the length of your finger. 34. He bought a condensed can of milk. 35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 36. The death is inevitable. 37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress. 38. When shall we meet together?39. He talks like you do. [Footnote: The use of the verb _do_ as a substitute for a preceding verb is one of the most remarkable idioms in the language. In its several forms it stands for the finite forms and for the infinitive and the participle of verbs, transitive and intransitive, regular and irregular. It prevents repetition, and hence is euphonic; it abbreviates expression, and therefore is energetic. ]40. This word has a different source than that. 41. No sooner did I arrive when he called. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 109. 

VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT. 

+What+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +interrogative pronoun+, a+definitive adjective+, an +adverb+, and an +interjection+. 

+Examples+. --He did _what_ was right. _What_ did he say? _What_ man ishappy with the toothache? _What_ with confinement and _what_ with bad diet, the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton (here _what_ = _partly_, and modifies the phrase following it). _What_! you a lion?

+That+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +adjective+ +pronoun+, a+definitive adjective+, a +conjunction+, and a +conjunctive adverb+. 

+Examples+. --He _that_ does a good deed is instantly ennobled. _That_ isheroism. _That_ man is a hero. We eat _that_ we may live. It was so cold_that_ the mercury froze. 

+But+ may be used as a +conjunction+, an +adverb+, an +adjective+, and a+preposition+. 

+Examples+. --The ostrich is a bird, _but_ (adversative conjunction) itcannot fly. Not a sparrow falls _but_ (= unless--subordinate conjunction)God wills it. He was all _but_ (conjunction or preposition) dead = He wasall dead, _but_ he was not dead, or He was all (anything in that line)_except_ (the climax) dead. No man is so wicked _but_ (conjunctive adverb)he loves virtue = No man is wicked _to that degree in which_ he loves _not_virtue (_so_ = _to that degree_, _but_ = _in which not_). We meet _but_(adverb = _only_) to part. Life is _but_ (adjective = _only_) a dream. All_but_ (preposition = _except_) him had fled. The tears of love werehopeless _but_ (preposition = _except_) for thee. I cannot _but_ remember =I cannot do anything _but_ (preposition = _except_) remember. There is nofireside _but_ (preposition) has one vacant chair (_except the one which_has); or, regarding _but_ as a negative relative = _that not_, the sentence= There is no fireside _that_ has _not_ one vacant chair. 

+Direction+. --_Study the examples given above, point out the exact use ofwhat, that, and but in these sentences, and then analyze the sentences_:--

1. He did nothing but laugh. 2. It was once supposed that crystal is ice frozen so hard that it cannot be thawed. 3. What love equals a mother's?4. There is nobody here but me. 5. The fine arts were all but proscribed. 6. There's not a breeze but whispers of thy name. 7. The longest life is but a day. 8. What if the bee love not these barren boughs?9. That life is long which answers life's great end. 10. What! I the weaker vessel?11. Whom should I obey but thee?12 What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed a fortune. 13. I long ago found that out. 14. One should not always eat what he likes. 15. There's not a white hair on your face but should have its effect of gravity. 16. It was a look that, but for its quiet, would have seemed disdain. 17. He came but to return. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 110. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

_Lesson_ 85. --Define a noun. What is the distinction between a common and aproper noun? Why is _music_ a common noun? What is a collective noun? Anabstract noun? Define a pronoun. What are the classes of pronouns? Definethem. What is an antecedent?

_Lesson_ 86. --Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting _he_, _it_, and_they_; the needless use of pronouns; the two styles of the pronoun; theuse of _them_ for _those_, and of _what_ for _that_; and the use of _who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_. 

_Lesson_ 87. --Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connectedrelative clauses; the relative in clauses not restrictive; the use of_that_ instead of _who_ or _which_; the position of the relative clause;and the use of _this_ and _that_, _the one_ and _the other_. 

_Lesson_ 89. --Define an adjective. What two classes are there? Define them. What adjectives do not limit? Illustrate. 

_Lesson_ 90. --Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of theadjectives _an_, _a_, and _the_; and the use of _a few_ and _few_, _alittle_ and _little_. 

_Lesson_ 91. --Give and illustrate the Cautious respecting the choice andthe position of adjectives. 

Lesson_ 93. --Define a verb. What are transitive verbs? Intransitive?_Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and the objectcomplement? What are regular verbs? Irregular? Illustrate. What are theseveral classes of adverbs? Define them. What is a conjunctive adverb?

_Lesson_ 93. --Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice andthe position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use ofadverbs for adjectives and of adjectives for adverbs. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 111. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS--CONTINUED. 

_Lesson_ 95. --Define a preposition. Name some of the common prepositions. What is said of some prepositions ending in _ing_? Of _but_, _except_, and_save_? Of certain compound prepositions? When do prepositions becomeadverbs?

_Lesson_ 98. --Give and illustrate the Caution as to the choice ofprepositions. What, in general, is the difference between _in_ and _into_?

_Lesson_ 99. --Give and illustrate the two Cautions relating to the use ofprepositions. 

_Lesson_ 100. --Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes ofconjunctions, and what is their difference? What other parts of speechbesides conjunctions connect? What are adverbs that connect called? Intowhat three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided? Give some of theconjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of each class. What three kinds ofclauses are connected by subordinate connectives? The connectives of adverbclauses are subdivided into what classes? Give a leading connective of eachclass. 

_Lessons_ 104, 105. --Illustrate two or more offices of each of theconnectives _as_, _if_, _lest_, _since_, _that_, _when_, _where_, and_while_. 

_Lesson_ 107. --Give and illustrate the four Cautions relating to theconstruction of connectives. 

_Lesson_ 109. --Illustrate the offices of _what_, _that_, and _but_. 

 * * * * *

GENERAL REVIEW. 

Schemes for the Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection. 

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_. )

 | Co-Ordinate. |THE CONJUNCTION. +Classes+. + Subordinate + 106-107. | |

THE PREPOSITION. No Classes (95, 98, 99). 

THE INTERJECTION. No Classes (20, 21). 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 112. 

+Introductory Hints+. --You have learned that two words may express athought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. Youare now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simplychanging its form. The English language has lost most of its inflections, or forms, so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of wordsare not now marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, themeaning, and the use of the parts of speech we call their +Modifications+. [Footnote: Those grammarians that attempt to restrict number, case, mode, etc. --what we here call _Modifications_--to form, find themselves withinbounds which they continually overleap. They define number, for instance, as a form, or inflection, and yet speak of nouns "plural in form butsingular in sense, " or "singular in form but plural in sense;" that is, ifyou construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form but singular orplural form in sense. They tell you that case is a form, and yet insistthat nouns have three cases, though only two forms; and speak of thenominative and the objective case of the noun, "although in fact the twocases are always the same in form"--the two forms always the same in form!

On the other hand, those that make what we call _Modifications_ denote onlyrelations or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. Forinstance, they ask the pupil to "pronounce and write the possessive ofnouns, " hardly expecting, we suppose, that the "condition" of a noun willbe sounded or written; and they speak of "a noun in the singular with aplural application, " in which expression _singular_ must be taken to mean_singular form_ to save it from sheer nonsense. 

We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to dowhat by the common use of the word we are allowed; viz. , to take_Modifications_ with such breadth of signification that it will apply tomeaning and to use, as well as to form. Primarily, of course, it meantinflections, used to mark changes in the meaning and use of words. But weshall use _Modifications_ to indicate changes in meaning and use when theform in the particular instance is wanting, nowhere, however, recognizingthat as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form. ]

Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. 

NUMBER. 

_The boy shouts_. _The boys shout_. The form of the subject _boy_ ischanged by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes onelad; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and the meaning ofnouns is called +Number+; the word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the+Singular Number+; and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the+Plural Number+. Number expresses only the distinction of one from morethan one; to express more precisely how many, we use adjectives, and say_two boys_, _four boys_, _many_ or _several boys_. 

+DEFINITIONS+. 

+_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning, and use+. 

+_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thingor more than one. +

+The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+. 

+The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+. 

NUMBER FORMS. 

+RULE. --The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to thesingular+. 

To this rule there are some exceptions. 

When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with that of _s_, _es_is added and forms another syllable. [Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, _as_ was theplural termination for a certain class of nouns. In later English, _as_ waschanged to _es_, which became the regular plural ending; as, _bird-es_, _cloud-es_. In modern English, _e_ is dropped, and _s_ is joined to thesingular without increase of syllables. But, when the singular ends in an_s_-sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, as two hissing soundswill not unite. ]

+Remark+. --Such words as _horse_, _niche_, and _cage_ drop the final _e_when _es_ is added. See Rule 1, Lesson 137. 

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and notewhat letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of +s+_:--

Ax _or_ axe, arch, adz _or_ adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz. 

The following nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_ withoutincrease of syllables. 

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto, mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico (_oes_ or _os_), potato, tornado, torpedo, veto, volcano. 

The following nouns in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _s_ only. 

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Canto, domino (_os_ or _oes_), duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero (_os_ or_oes_). 

Nouns in _o_ preceded by a vowel add _s_. 

Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio. 

Common nouns [Footnote: See Rule 2, Lesson 127. In old English, such wordsas _lady_ and _fancy_ were spelled _ladie_, _fancie_. The modern pluralsimply retains the old spelling and adds _s_, ] in _y_ after a consonantchange _y_ into _i_ and add _es_ without increase of syllables. Nouns in_y_ after a vowel add _s_. 

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, [Footnote: _U_ after _q_ isa consonant] daisy, essay, fairy, fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, vanity. 

The following nouns change _f_ or _fe_ into _ves_. 

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, [Footnote: _Staff_ (a stick or support), _staves_ or _staffs_; _staff_ (abody of officers), _staffs_. The compounds of _staff_ are regular; as, _flagstaffs_. ] thief, wharf, [Footnote: In England, generally _wharfs_. ]wife, wolf. 

The following nouns in _f_ and _fe_ are regular. 

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif. 

(Nouns in _ff_, except _staff_, are regular; as, _cuff_, _cuffs_. )

The following plurals are still more irregular. 

+Direction+. --_Learn to form the following plurals_:--

Child, children; foot, feet; goose, geese; louse, lice; man, men; mouse, mice; Mr. , Messrs. ; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; woman, women. 

(For the plurals of pronouns, see Lesson 124. )

 * * * * *

LESSON 113. 

NUMBER FORMS--CONTINUED. 

Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain their originalplural forms. Some of these take the English plural also. 

+Direction+. --_Learn to form the following plurals_:--

Analysis, analyses; antithesis, antitheses; appendix, appendices _or_appendixes; automaton, automata _or_ automatons; axis, axes; bandit, banditti _or_ bandits; basis, bases; beau, beaux _or_ beaus; cherub, cherubim _or_ cherubs; crisis, crises; datum, data; ellipsis, ellipses;erratum, errata; focus, foci: fungus, fungi _or_ funguses; genus, genera;hypothesis, hypotheses; ignis fatuus, ignes fatui; madame, mesdames; magus, magi; memorandum, memoranda _or_ memorandums; monsieur, messieurs; nebula, nebulae; oasis, oases; parenthesis, parentheses; phenomenon, phenomena;radius, radii _or_ radiuses; seraph, seraphim _or_ seraphs; stratum, strata; synopsis, synopses; terminus, termini; vertebra, vertebrae; vortex, vortices _or_ vortexes. 

The following compound nouns, in which the principal word stands first, vary the first word; as, _sons_-in-law. 

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of the following words_:--

Aid-de-camp, attorney-at-law, billet-doux, [Footnote: Plural, billets-doux, pronounced _bil'-la:-doo:z_ ] commander-in-chief, court-martial, cousin-german, father-in-law, hanger-on, man-of-war. 

The following, and most compounds, vary the last word; as, pailfuls, gentle_men_. [Footnote: _Pails full_ is not a compound. This expressiondenotes a number of pails, each full. ]

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Courtyard, dormouse, Englishman, fellow-servant, fisherman, Frenchman, forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man-trap, mouthful, pianoforte, portemonnaie, spoonful, stepson, tete-a-tete, tooth-brush. 

The following nouns (except _Norman_) are not compounds of _man_--add _s_to all. 

Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman. 

The following compounds vary both parts; as, _man-singer_, _men-singers_. 

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:--

Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer. 

Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a title form the pluralby varying either the title or the name; as, the Miss _Clarks_ or the_Misses_ Clark; but, when the title _Mrs. _ is used, the name is usuallyvaried; as, the Mrs. _Clarks_. [Footnote: Of the two forms, the _MissClarks_ and the _Misses Clark_, we believe that the former is most used bythe best authors. The latter, except in formal notes or when the title isto be emphasized, is rather stiff if not pedantic. Some authorities saythat, when a numeral precedes the title, the name should always be varied;as, the _two Miss Clarks_. 

The forms, the _Misses Clarks_ and the _two Mrs. Clark_, have littleauthority. ]

+Direction+. --_Form the plural of the following compounds_:--

Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green. 

A title used with two or more different names is made plural; as, _Drs_. Grimes and Steele, _Messrs_. Clark and Maynard. 

+Direction+. --_Put each of the following expressions in its proper form_:--

General Lee and Jackson; Miss Mary, Julia, and Anna Scott; Mr, Green, Stacy, & Co. 

Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe and _s_ to formthe plural; [Footnote: Some good writers form the plural of words namedmerely as words, in the same way; as, the _if's_ and _and's_; but the (')is here unnecessary. ] as, _a's, 2's, ----'s_. 

+Direction. +--_Form the plural of each of the following characters_:--S, i, t, +, x, [Dagger], 9, 1, 1/4, [Yough], [Cyrillic: E]. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 114. 

NUMBER FORMS--CONTINUED. 

Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. 

+Direction. +--_Learn these plurals and their meanings:_--

Brother, brothers (by blood), brethren (of the same society). Cannon, cannons (individuals), cannon (in a collective sense). Die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (cubes for gaming). Fish, fishes (individuals), fish (collection). [Footnote: The names of several sorts of fish, as, _herring, shad, trout_, etc. Are used in the same way. The compounds of _fish_, as _codfish_, have the same form in both numbers. ]Foot, feet (parts of the body), foot (foot-soldiers). Genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). Head, heads (parts of the body), head (of cattle). Horse, horses (animals), horse (horse-soldiers). Index, indexes (tables of reference), indices (signs in algebra). Penny, pennies (distinct coins), pence (quantity in value). Sail, sails (pieces of canvas), sail (vessels). Shot, shots (number of times fired), shot (number of balls). 

The following nouns and pronouns have the same form in both numbers. 

+Direction. +--_Study the following list:_--

Bellows, corps, [Footnote: The singular is pronounced _ko:r_, the plural_ko:rz_. ] deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds, pains (care), series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, who, which, that (relative), what, any, none. 

(The following have two forms in the plural). 

Apparatus, apparatus _or_ apparatuses; heathen, heathen _or_ heathens. 

(The following nouns have the same form in both numbers when used withnumerals; they add _s_ in other cases; as, _four score, by scores_. )

Dozen, score, yoke, hundred, thousand. 

The following nouns have no plural. 

(These are generally names of materials, qualities, or sciences. )

Names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can have noplural, but they may be plural when kinds of the material or things made ofit are referred to; as, _cottons, coffees, tins, coppers_. 

+Direction. +--_Study the following list of words:_--

Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not abook), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, molasses, music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water. 

The following plural forms are commonly used in the singular. 

Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences in_ics_), amends, measles, news. 

The following words are always plural. 

(Such words are generally names of things double or multiform in theircharacter. )

+Direction+. --_Study the following list_:--

Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterics, literati, mumps, nippers, oats, pincers, rickets, scissors, shears, snuffers, suds, thanks, tongs, tidings, trousers, victuals, vitals. 

The following were originally singular forms, but they are now treated asplural. 

Alms (Anglo-Saxon _aelmaesse_), eaves (A. S. _efese_), riches (NormanFrench _richesse_). 

The following have no singular corresponding in meaning. 

Colors (flag), compasses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs), letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service); morals(character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), stays (corsets), vespers (evening service). 

(The singular form is sometimes an adjective. )

Bitters, greens, narrows, sweets, valuables, etc. 

Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individuals in thecollection are thought of, and as singular when the collection as a wholeis thought of. 

+Examples+. --The _committee were_ unable to agree, and _they_ asked to bedischarged. A _committee was_ appointed, and _its_ report will soon bemade. 

(Collective nouns have plural forms; as, _committees, armies_. )

 * * * * *

LESSON 115. 

REVIEW IN NUMBER. 

+Direction+. --_Write the plural of the singular nouns and pronouns in thefollowing list, and the singular of those that are plural; give the Rule orthe Remark that applies to each; and note those that have no plural, andthose that have no singular:_--

Hope, age, bench, bush, house, loss, tax, waltz, potato, shoe, colony, piano, kangaroo, pulley, wharf, staff, fife, loaf, flagstaff, handkerchief, Mr. , child, ox, beaux, cherubim, mesdames, termini, genus, genius, bagnio, theory, galley, muff, mystery, colloquy, son-in-law, man-of-war, spoonful, maid-servant, Frenchman, German, man-servant, Dr. Smith, Messrs. Brown andSmith, x, 1/2, deer, series, bellows, molasses, pride, politics, news, sunfish, clothes, alms, goods, grounds, greens, who, that. 

+Direction. +--_Give five words that have no plural, five that have nosingular, and five that have the same form in both numbers. _

+Direction. +--_Correct the following plurals, and give the Remark thatapplies to each:_--

Stagees, foxs, mosquitos, calicos, heros, soloes, babys, trioes, chimnies, storys, elfs, beefs, scarves, oxes, phenomenons, axises, terminuses, genuses, mother-in-laws, aldermans, Mussulmen, teeth-brushes, mouthsful, attorney-at-laws, man-childs, geese-quills, 2s, ms. Swines. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 116. 

NUMBER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. 

The number of a noun may be determined not only by its form but also by theverb, the adjective, and the pronoun used in connection with it. 

+Remark. +--_These scissors are_ so dull that I cannot use _them_. Theplurality of _scissors_ is here made known in four ways. In the followingsentence _this, is_, and _it_ are incorrectly used: _This_ scissors _is_ sodull that I cannot use _it_. 

+Direction+. --_Construct sentences in which the number of each of thefollowing nouns shall be indicated by the form of the verb, by theadjective, and by the pronoun used in connection with it_:--

(With the singular nouns use the verbs _is, was_, and _has been_; theadjectives _an, one, this_, and _that_; the pronouns _he, his, him, she, her, it_, and _its_. )

(With the plural nouns use the verbs _are, were_, and _have been_; theadjectives _these, those_, and _two_; the pronouns _they, their_, and_them_. )

Bellows, deer, fish, gross, means, series, species, heathen, trout, iron, irons, news, eaves, riches, oats, vermin, molasses, Misses, brethren, dice, head (of cattle), pennies, child, parent, family, crowd, meeting. 

+Direction+. --_Compose sentences in which the first three of the followingadjective pronouns shall be used as singular subjects, the fourth as aplural subject, and the remainder both as singular and as pluralsubjects_:--

Each, either, neither, both, former, none, all, any. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 117. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--GENDER. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_The lion was caged. The lioness was caged_. In thefirst sentence something is said about a male lion, and in the secondsomething is said about a female lion. The modification of the noun todenote the sex of the thing which it names is called +Gender+. _Lion_, denoting a male animal, is in the +Masculine Gender; and _lioness_, denoting a female animal, is in the +Feminine Gender+. Names of things thatare without sex are said to be in the +Neuter Gender+. Such nouns as_cousin, child, friend, neighbor_ are either masculine or feminine. Suchwords are sometimes said to be in the _Common Gender_. 

Sex belongs to the thing; and gender, to the noun that names the thing. Knowing the sex of the thing or its lack of sex, you know the gender of thenoun in English that names it; for in our language gender follows the sex. But in such modern languages as the French and the German, and in Latin andGreek, the gender of nouns naming things without reference to sex isdetermined by the likeness of their endings in sound to the endings ofwords denoting things with sex. The German for table is a masculine noun, the French is feminine, and the English, of course, is neuter. [Footnote:In Anglo-Saxon, the mother-tongue of our language, gender was grammatical, as in the French and the German; but, since the union of the Norman-Frenchwith the Anglo-Saxon to form the English, gender has followed sex. ]

 * * * * *

+DEFINITIONS+. 

+_Gender_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex+. 

+The _Masculine Gender_ denotes the male sex+. 

+The _Feminine Gender_ denotes the female sex+. 

+The _Neuter Gender_ denotes want of sex+. 

Gender Forms. 

No English nouns have distinctive neuter forms, but a lew have differentforms to distinguish the masculine from the feminine. 

The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:--

1st. By a difference in the ending of the words. 

2d. By different words in the compound names. 

3d. By using words wholly or radically different. 

_Ess_ is the most common ending for feminine nouns. [Footnote: The suffix_ess_ came into the English language from the Norman-French. It displacedthe feminine termination of the mother-tongue (A. S. _estre_, old English_ster_). The original meaning of _ster_ is preserved in _spinster_. _Er_(A. S. _ere_) was originally a masculine suffix; but it now generallydenotes an agent without reference to sex; as, _read-er, speak-er. _]

+Direction+. --_Form the feminine of each of the following masculine nounsby adding e s s :--_

Author, baron, count, deacon, giant, god (see Rule 3, Lesson 127), heir, host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule 1, Lesson 127), prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor. 

(Drop the vowel _e_ or _o_ in the ending of the masculine, and add _ess_. )

Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor, enchanter, hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter. 

(Drop the masculine _er_ or _or_, and add the feminine _ess_. )

Adventurer, caterer, governor, murderer, sorcerer. 

(The following are somewhat irregular. )

+Direction+. --_Learn these forms:_--

Abbot, abbess; duke, duchess; emperor, empress; lad, lass; marquis, marchioness; master, mistress; negro, negress. 

_Ess_ was formerly more common than now. Such words as _editor_ and_author_ are now frequently used to denote persons of either sex. 

+Direction+. --_Give five nouns ending in e r or o r that may be applied toeither sex. _

Some words, mostly foreign, have various endings in the feminine. 

+Direction+. --Learn the following forms:--

Administrator, administratrix; Augustus, Augusta; beau, belle; Charles, Charlotte; Cornelius, Cornelia; czar, czarina; don, donna; equestrian, equestrienne; executor, executrix; Francis, Frances; George, Georgiana;Henry, Henrietta; hero, heroine; infante, infanta; Jesse, Jessie; Joseph, Josephine; Julius, Julia _or_ Juliet; landgrave, landgravine; Louis, Louisa_or_ Louise; Paul, Pauline; signore _or_ signor, siguora; sultan, sultana;testator, testatrix; widower, widow. 

In some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed or affixed. 

+Direction+. --_Learn the following forms_:--

Billy-goat, nanny-goat; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow;Englishman, Englishwoman; gentleman, gentlewoman; grandfather, grandmother;he-bear, she-bear; landlord, landlady; man-servant, maid-servant; merman, mermaid; Mr. Jones, Mrs. Or Miss Jones; peacock, peahen. 

Words wholly or radically different are used to distinguish the masculinefrom the feminine. 

(This is a matter pertaining to the dictionary rather than to grammar. )

+Direction+. --_Learn the following forms_:--

Bachelor, maid; buck, doe; drake, duck; earl, countess; friar _or_ monk, nun; gander, goose; hart, roe; lord, lady; nephew, niece; sir, madam; stag, hind; steer, heifer; wizard, witch; youth, damsel _or_ maiden. 

The pronoun has three gender forms:--Masculine _he_, feminine _she_, andneuter _it_. [Footnote: _It_, although a neuter form, is used idiomaticallyto refer to a male or a female as, _It_ was _John_; _It_ was _Mary_. ]

+Direction+. --_Give five examples of each of the three ways ofdistinguishing the masculine from the feminine. _

 * * * * *

LESSON 118. 

GENDER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. 

Gender as a matter of orthography is of some importance, but in grammar itis chiefly important as involving the correct use of the pronouns _he_, _she_, and _it_. 

When a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of both sexes, it iscommonly represented by a masculine pronoun. [Footnote: When it isnecessary to distinguish the sexes, both the masculine and the femininepronoun should be used; as, _Each person was required to name his or herfavorite flower. _]

+Example+. --Every _person_ has _his_ faults. 

The names of animals are often considered as masculine or feminine withoutregard to the real sex. 

+Examples+. --The _grizzly bear_ is the most savage of _his_ race. The _cat_steals upon _her_ prey. 

+Remark+. --The writer employs _he_ or _she_ according as he fancies theanimal to possess masculine or feminine characteristics. _He_ is morefrequently employed than _she_. 

The neuter pronoun _it_ is often used with reference to animals and veryyoung children, the sex being disregarded. 

+Examples+. --When the _deer_ is alarmed, _it_ gives two or three gracefulsprings. The little _child_ reached out _its_ hand to catch the sunbeam. 

+Remark+. --_It_ is quite generally used instead of _he_ or _she_, inreferring to an animal, unless some masculine or feminine quality seems topredominate. 

Inanimate things are often represented as living beings, that is, they arepersonified, and are referred to by the pronoun _he_ or _she_. 

+Example+. --The _oak_ shall send _his_ roots abroad and pierce thy mold. 

+Remark+. --The names of objects distinguished for size, power, or sublimityare regarded as masculine; and the names of those distinguished for grace, beauty, gentleness, or productiveness are considered as feminine. Personification adds beauty and animation to style. 

+Direction+. --_Study what is said above, and then fill each of the blanksin the following sentences with a masculine, a feminine, or a neuterpronoun, and in each case give the reason for your selection_:--

1. No one else is so much alone in the universe as ---- who denies God. 2. A person's manners not unfrequently indicate ---- morals, 3. Everybody should think for ----. 4. The forest's leaping panther shall yield ---- spotted hide. 5. The catamount lies in the boughs to watch ---- prey. 6. The mocking-bird poured from ---- little throat floods of delirious music. 7. The wild beast from ---- cavern sprang, the wild bird from ---- grove. 8. The night-sparrow trills ---- song. 9. The elephant is distinguished for ---- strength and sagacity. 10. The bat is nocturnal in ---- habits. 11. The dog is faithful to ---- master. 12. The child was unconscious of ---- danger. 13. The fox is noted for ---- cunning. 14. Belgium's capital had gathered then ---- beauty and ---- chivalry. 15. Despair extends ---- raven wing. 16. Life mocks the idle hate of ---- arch-enemy, Death. 17. Spring comes forth ---- work of gladness to contrive. 18. Truth is fearless, yet ---- is meek and modest. 

+Direction+. --_Write sentences in which the things named below shall bepersonified by means of masculine pronouns_:--

Death, time, winter, war, sun, river, wind. 

+Direction+. --Write sentences in which the things named below shall bepersonified by means of feminine pronouns:--

Ship, moon, earth, spring, virtue, nature, night, England. 

+Caution+. --Avoid changing the gender of the pronoun when referring to thesame antecedent. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors_:--

1. The polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries, as it suffers so much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement. 2. The cat, when it comes to the light, contracts and elongates the pupil of her eye. 3. Summer clothes herself in green, and decks itself with flowers. 4. War leaves his victim on the field, and homes desolated by it mourn over her cruelty. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 119. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--PERSON AND CASE. 

+Introductory Hints+. --Number and gender, as you have learned, aremodifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns--number beingalmost always indicated by form, or inflection; gender, sometimes. Thereare two modifications which do not refer to changes in the meaning of nounsand pronouns but to their different uses and relations. These uses andrelations are not generally indicated by form, or inflection. 

_I, Paul_, have written. _Paul, thou_ art beside thyself. _He_ brought_Paul_ before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word _Paul_ has threedifferent uses, though, as you see, its form is not changed. In the firstit is used to name the speaker; in the second, to name the one spoken to;in the third, to name the one spoken of. These different uses of nouns andpronouns and the forms used to mark these uses constitute the modificationcalled +Person+. _I, thou, and he_ are personal pronouns, and, as you see, distinguish person by their form. _I_, denoting the speaker, is in the+First Person+; _thou_, denoting the one spoken to, is in the +SecondPerson+; and _he_, denoting the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+. 

Instead of _I_ a writer or speaker may use the plural _we_; and throughcourtesy it came to be customary, except among the Friends, or in thelanguage of prayer and poetry, to use the plural _you_ instead of _thou_. 

_The bear killed the man_. _The man killed the bear_. _The bear's greasewas made into hair oil_. In the first sentence the bear is represented asperforming an act; in the second, as receiving an act; in the third, aspossessing something. These different uses of nouns and pronouns and theforms used to mark these uses constitute the modification called +Case+. Anoun used as subject is in the +Nominative Case+; used as object complementit is in the +Objective Case+; and used to denote possession it is in the+Possessive Case+. 

Some of the pronouns have a special form for each case; but of nouns thepossessive case is the only one that is now marked by a peculiar form. Weinflect below a noun from the Anglo-Saxon, [Footnote: The Anglo-Saxon casesare nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative; the Latin arenominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative; theEnglish are nominative, possessive (genitive), and objective. 

ANGLO-SAXON. Hlaford, _lord_. Singular. Plural. Nom. Hlaford, hlaford-_as_. Gen. Hlaford-_es_, hlaford-_a_. Dat. Hlaford-_e_, hlaford-_um_. Acc. Hlaford, hlaford-_as_. Voc. Hlaford, hlaford-_as_. 

LATIN. Dominus, _lord_. Singular. Plural. Nom. Domin-_us_, domin-_i_. Gen. Domin-_i_, domin-_orum_. Dat. Domin-_o_, domin-_is_. Acc. Domin-_um_, domin-_os_. Voc. Domin-_e_, domin-_i_. Ab. Domin-_o_, domin-_is_. 

ENGLISH. Lord. Singular. Nom. Lord, Pos. Lord-_'s_, Obj. Lord;Plural. Nom. Lord-_s_, Pos. Lord-_s'_, Obj. Lord-_s_. ]

and one from the Latin, the parent of the Norman-French, in order that youmay see how cases and the inflections to mark them have been dropped inEnglish. In English, prepositions have largely taken the place of caseforms, and it is thought that by them our language can express the manyrelations of nouns to other words in the sentence better than otherlanguages can by their cumbrous machinery of inflection. 

+DEFINITIONS+. 

+_Person_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes thespeaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+. 

+The _First Person_ denotes the one speaking+. 

+The _Second Person_ denotes the one spoken to+. 

+The _Third Person_ denotes the one spoken of+. 

A noun is said to be of the first person when joined as an explanatorymodifier to a pronoun of the first person; as, _I, John_, saw these things;_We Americans_ are always in a hurry. [Footnote: It is doubtful whether anoun is ever of the first person. It may be said that, in the sentence _I, John, saw these things_, John speaks of his own name, the expressionmeaning, _I_, _and my name is John_, etc. ]

A noun is of the second person when used as explanatory of a pronoun of thesecond person, or when used independently as a term of address; as, _Yecrags_ and _peaks_; Idle time, _John_, is ruinous. 

+Direction+. --_Compose sentences in which there shall be two examples ofnouns and two of pronouns used in each of the three persons_. 

+Person Forms+. 

Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words that havedistinctive person forms. 

+Direction+. --_From the forms of the pronouns given in Lesson 124, selectand write in one list all the first person forms; in another list, all thesecond person forms; and in another, all the third person forms. _

Person is regarded in grammar because the verb sometimes varies its form toagree with the person of its subject; as, _I see_; _Thou seest_; _He sees_. 

+DEFINITIONS+. 

+_Case_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its officein the sentence+. 

+The _Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as subjector as attribute complement+. 

+The _Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office aspossessive modifier+. 

+The _Objective Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as objectcomplement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+. 

A noun or pronoun used independently is said to be in the nominative case. 

+Examples+. --I am, _dear madam_, your friend. Alas, _poor Yorick_! _Hebeing dead_, we shall live. _Liberty_, it has fled! (See Lesson 44. )

A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as theword explained--"is put by apposition in the same case. "

+Examples+. --The first colonial _Congress_, _that_ of 1774, addressed the_King_, _George III_. He buys is goods at _Stewart's_, the dry-goods_merchant_. 

A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case. 

+Examples+. --They made him _speaker_. He made it _all_ it is. 

A noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of a participle or aninfinitive is in the same case (_Nom. _ or _Obj. _) as the word to which itrelates as attribute. 

+Examples+. --Being an _artist_, _he_ appreciated it. I proved _it_ to be_him_. 

+Remark+. --When the assumed subject of the participle or the infinitive isa possessive, the attribute complement is said to be in the nominativecase; as, Its _being he_ [Footnote: The case of _he_ in these examples israther doubtful. The nominative and the objective forms of the pronounoccur so rarely in such constructions that it seems impossible to determinethe usage. It is therefore a matter of no great practical importance. 

Some, reasoning from the analogy of the Latin, would put the attributecomplement of the abstract infinitive in the objective, supposing _for_ andsome other word to be understood; as, _For one to be him_, etc. Others, reasoning from the German, to which our language is closely allied, wouldput this complement in the nominative. 

The assumed subject of the infinitive being omitted when it is the same insense as the principal subject, _him_, in the sentence _I wish_ (_me_ or_myself_) _to be him_, is the proper form, being in the same case as _me_. ]should make no difference. When the participle or the infinitive is usedabstractly, without an assumed subject, its attribute complement is alsosaid to be in the nominative case; as, To _be he_ [Footnote: See footnoteabove. ] is to be a scholar; _Being_ a _scholar_ is not _being_ an _idler_. 

+Direction+. --_Study carefully the Definitions and the Remark above, andthen compose sentences in which a noun or a pronoun shall be put in thenominative case in four ways; in the objective in five ways; in thepossessive in two ways_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 120. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

+Direction. +--_Analyze the following sentences, and give the case of eachnoun and pronoun:_--

1. Not to know what happened before we were born is to be always a child. 2. His being a Roman saved him from being made a prisoner. 3. I am this day weak, though anointed king. 

+Explanation. +--Nouns used adverbially are in the objective case becauseequivalent to the principal word of a prepositional phrase. (See Lesson35. )

4. What made Cromwell a great man was his unshaken reliance on God. 5. Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son. 6. Arnold's success as teacher was remarkable. 

+Explanation. +--_Teacher_, introduced by _as_ and used without a possessivesign, is explanatory of _Arnold's_. 

7. Worship thy Creator, God; and obey his Son, the Master, King, and Saviour of men. 8. Bear ye one another's [Footnote: For the use of _one another_, see Lesson 124. ] burdens. 

+Explanation. +--The singular _one_ is explanatory of the plural _ye_, or_one another's_ may be treated as a compound. 

9. What art thou, execrable shape, that darest advance?10. O you hard hearts! you cruel men of Rome!11. Everybody acknowledges Shakespeare to be the greatest of dramatists. 12. Think'st thou this heart could feel a moment's joy, thou being absent?13. Our great forefathers had left him naught to conquer but his country. 

(For the case of _him_ see explanation of (3) above. )

14. I will attend to it myself. 

+Explanation+. --_Myself_ may be treated as explanatory of _I_. 

15. This news of papa's puts me all in a flutter. [Footnote: See second foot-note, page 247. ]16. What means that hand upon that breast of thine? [Footnote: See second foot-note, page 247. ]

 * * * * *

LESSON 121. 

PARSING. 

+TO THE TEACHER+. --We do not believe that the chief end of the study ofgrammar Is to be able to parse well, or even to analyze well, thoughwithout question analysis reveals more clearly than parsing the structureof the sentence, and is immeasurably superior to it as intellectualgymnastics. We would not do away with parsing altogether, but would give ita subordinate place. 

But we must be allowed an emphatic protest against the needless andmechanical quoting, in parsing, of "Rules of Syntax. " When a pupil has saidthat such a noun is in the nominative case, subject of such a verb, what isgained by a repetition of the definition in the Rule: "A noun or a pronounwhich is the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case"? Let thereasons for the disposition of words, when given at all, be specific. 

+Parsing+--a word is giving its classification, its modifications, and itssyntax, _i. E. _, its relation to other words. 

+Direction+. --_Select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns found inthe first ten sentences of Lesson_ 120. _For the agreement of pronouns, seeLesson_ 142. 

+Model for Written Parsing+. --_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheadedby James I_. 

CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. | SYNTAX. -----------------|-----------------------|------------------------------ |_Per- Num- Gen-_ |_Nouns. Kind_. |_son. Ber. Der. Case_. |-----------------|-----------------------|------------------------------Elizabeth's Prop. | 3d Sing. Fem. Pos. | Mod. Of _favorite_. Favorite Com. | 3d Sing. Mas. Nom. | Sub. Of _was beheaded_. Raleigh Prop. | 3d Sing. Mas. Nom. | Expl. Mod. Of _favorite_. James I. Prop. | 3d Sing. Mas. Obj. | Prin. Word of Prep. Phrase. 

TO THE TEACHER. --For exercises in parsing nouns and pronouns, see Lessons28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 44, 46, 59, 60, 71, 73, 78, 80, and 81. Otherexercises may be selected from examples previously given for analysis, andparsing continued as long as you think it profitable. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 122. 

CASE FORMS--NOUNS. 

Nouns have two case forms, the simple form, common to the nominative andthe objective case, and the possessive form. 

+RULE. --The _Possessive Case_ of nouns is formed in the singular by addingto the nominative the apostrophe and the letter _s_ (_'s_); in the pluralby adding (_'_) only. If the plural does not end in _s_, (_'s_) are bothadded. [Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, _es_ was a genitive (possessive) endingof the singular; as, _sta:n_, genitive _sta:n-es_. In old English, _es_ and_is_ were both used. In modern English, the vowel is generally dropped, and(') stands in its place. The use of the apostrophe has been extended todistinguish the possessive from other forms of the plural. 

Some have said that our possessive ending is a remnant of the pronoun_his_. Phrases like, "Mars _his_ sword, " "The Prince _his_ Players, " "KingLewis _his_ satisfaction" are abundant in Early, and in Middle, English. But it has been proved that the _his_ in such expressions is an error thatgained its wide currency largely through the confusion of early Englishorthography. 

Professor Hadley has clearly shown that the Saxon termination has neverdropped out of the language, but exists in the English possessive endingto-day. ]

+Examples+. --_Boy's, boys', men's_. 

+Remark+. --To avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing sounds, the _s_ inthe possessive singular is sometimes omitted; as, _conscience' sake_, _goodness' sake_, _Achilles' sword_, _Archimedes' screw_ (the _s_ in thewords following the possessive here having its influence). In prose thisomission of the _s_ should seldom occur. The weight of usage inclines tothe use of _s_ in such names as _Miss Rounds's_, _Mrs. Hemans's_, _KingJames's_, _witness's_, _prince's_. Without the _s_ there would be nodistinction, in spoken language, between _Miss Round's_ and _Miss Rounds'_, _Mrs. Heman's_ and _Mrs. Hemans'_. 

+Remark+. --Pronounce the ('_s_) as a separate syllable (= _es_) when thesound of _s_ will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. 

+Remark+. --When the singular and the plural are alike in the nominative, some place the apostrophe after the _s_ in the plural to distinguish itfrom the possessive singular; as, singular, _sheep's_; plural, _sheeps'_. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Rule and the Remarks given above, and then writethe possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of the followingnouns_:--

Actor, elephant, farmer, king, lion, genius, horse, princess, buffalo, hero, mosquito, negro, volcano, junto, tyro, cuckoo, ally, attorney, fairy, lady, monkey, calf, elf, thief, wife, wolf, chief, dwarf, waif, child, goose, mouse, ox, woman, beau, seraph, fish, deer, sheep, swine. 

Compound names and groups of words that may be treated as compound namesadd the possessive sign to the last word; as, a _man-of-war's_ rigging, the_queen of England's_ palace, [Footnote: In parsing the words _queen_ and_England_ separately, the ('_s_) must be regarded as belonging to _queen_;but the whole phrase _queen of England's_ may be treated as one noun in thepossessive case. ] _Frederick the Great's_ verses. 

+Remark+. --The possessive plural of such terms is not used. 

The preposition _of_ with the objective is often used instead of thepossessive case form--_David's_ Psalms = Psalms _of David_. 

+Remarks+. --To denote the source from which a thing proceeds, or the ideaof belonging to, _of_ is used more frequently than ('_s_). 

The possessive sign (_'s_) is confined chiefly to the names of persons, andof animals and things personified. We do not say the _tree's_ leaves, butthe leaves _of the tree_. 

The possessive sign however is often added to names of things which wefrequently hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and to names ofperiods of time, and to words denoting value; as, the _earth's_ surface, _fortune's_ smile, _eternity's_ stillness, a _year's_ interest, a _day's_work, a _dollar's_ worth, _two cents'_ worth. 

By the use of _of_, such expressions as _witness's statement_, _mothers-in-law's faults_ may be avoided. 

+Direction+. --_Study carefully the principles and Remarks given above, andthen make each of the following terms indicate possession, using either thepossessive sign or the preposition of, as may seem most appropriate, andjoin an appropriate name denoting the thing possessed_:--

Father-in-law, William the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid-de-camp, Henry the Eighth, attorney-at-law, somebody else, [Footnote: In suchexpressions as _everybody else's business_, the possessive sign is removedfrom the noun and attached to the adjective. (See Lesson lai. ) Thepossessive sign should generally be placed immediately before the name ofthe thing possessed. ] Jefferson, enemy, eagle, gunpowder, book, house, chair, torrent, sun, ocean, mountain, summer, year, day, hour, princess, Socrates. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 123. 

CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE FORMS. 

As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a distinctiveinflection, it is only with this case that mistakes can occur inconstruction. 

+Caution+. --When several possessive nouns modify the same word and implycommon possession, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If theymodify different words, expressed or understood, the sign is added toeach. 

+Explanation+. --_William_ and _Henry's_ boat; _William's_ and _Henry's_boat. In the first example, William and Henry are represented as jointlyowning a boat; in the second, each is represented as owning a separateboat--_boat_ is understood after _William's_. 

+Remark+. --When the different possessors are thought of as separate oropposed, the sign may be repeated although joint possession is implied; as, He was his _father's_, _mother's_, and _sister's_ favorite; He was the_King's_, as well as the _people's_, favorite. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors, and give your reasons_:--

1. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's reign. 2. Messrs. Leggett's, Stacy's, Green's, & Co. 's business prospers. 3. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate. 4. America was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign. 5. We were comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victories. 6. This was the sage and the poet's theme. 

+Explanation+. --If an article precedes the possessive, the sign isrepeated. 

7. It was the king, not the people's, choice. 8. They are Thomas, as well as James's, books. 

+Caution+. --When a possessive noun is followed by an explanatory word, thepossessive sign is added to the explanatory word only. But, if theexplanatory word has several modifiers, or if there are more explanatorywords than one, only the principal word takes the sign. 

+Remarks+. --When a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun, and thename of the thing possessed is omitted, the possessive sign may be addedeither to the modifying or to the principal word; as, We stopped atTiffany, the _jeweler's_, or We stopped at _Tiffany's_, the jeweler. 

If the name of the thing possessed is given, the noun immediately before ittakes the sign. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors_:--

1. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. 2. I took tea at Brown's, my old friend and schoolmate's. 3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen of England's, dominion. 4. This province is Victoria's, queen of England's. 5. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's. 6. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's statesman's. 7. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. 

+Direction+. ---Tell which of the sentences above may be improved by usingother forms to denote possession. (See the following Caution. )

+Caution+. --The relation of possession may be expressed not only by (_'s_)and by _of_ but by the use of such phrases as _belonging to_, _propertyof_, etc. In constructing sentences be careful to secure smoothness andclearness and variety by taking advantage of these different forms. 

+Direction+. --_Improve the following sentences_:--

1. This is my wife's father's opinion. 

+Correction+. --This is the opinion _of my wife's father_, or _held by mywife's father_. 

2. This is my wife's father's farm. 3. France's and England's interest differs widely. 4. Frederick the Great was the son of the daughter of George I. Of England. 5. My brother's wife's sister's drawings have been much admired. 6. The drawings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been much admired. 

_Of_ is not always equivalent to the (_'s_), +Explanation+. --_The president's reception_ means the reception given bythe president, but _the reception of the president_ means the receptiongiven to the president. 

+Direction+. --_Construct sentences illustrating the meaning of thefollowing expressions_:--

A mother's love, the love of a mother; a father's care, the care of afather; my friend's picture, a picture of my friend. 

+Caution+. --Often ambiguity may be prevented by changing the assumedsubject of a participle from a nominative or an objective to a possessive. 

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors_:--

1. The writer being a scholar is not doubted. 

+Correction+. --This is ambiguous, as it may mean either that the writer isnot doubted because he is a scholar, or that the writer's scholarship isnot doubted. It should be, _The writer's being_ [Footnote: The participlemay be modified not only, as here, by a noun in the possessive but by thearticles _a_ and _the_---as said in Lesson 37. Whether it be _the imposinga tax_ or _the issuing a paper currency. --Bagehot_. Not _a making war_ onthem, not _a leaving them_ out of mind, but _the putting_ a new_construction_ upon them, _the taking them_ from under the old conventionalpoint of view. --_Matthew Arnold_. Poltroonery is _the acknowledging_ an_infirmity_ to be incurable. --_Emerson_. _The giving_ away a man's_money_. --_Burke_. It is not _the finding of a thing_ but _the makingsomething_ out of it, after it is found, that is of consequence. --_Lowell_. 

As seen in this last quotation, the participle may be followed by apreposition and so become a pure noun (Lesson 38). ] _a scholar_ is notdoubted, or _That the writer is a scholar_ is not doubted. 

2. I have no doubt of the writer being a scholar. 3. No one ever heard of that man running for office. 4. Brown being a politician prevented his election. 5. I do not doubt him being sincere. 6. Grouchy being behind time decided the fate of Waterloo. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 124. 

NUMBER AND CASE FORMS. 

Declension. 

+DEFINITION. --_Declension_ is the arrangement of the cases of nouns andpronouns in the two numbers+. 

+Direction+. --_Learn the following declensions_:--

Declension of Nouns. 

 LADY. BOY. MAN. _Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_. 

Nom. Lady, ladies, boy, boys, man, men, Pos. Lady's, ladies', boy's, boys', man's, men's, Obj. Lady; ladies. Boy; boys. Man; men. 

Declension of Pronouns. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON-- SECOND PERSON-- _common form_ _old form_. _Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Nom. I, we, * you, you, thou, ye(++) _or_ youPos. My _or_ our _or_ your _or_ your _or_ thy _or_ ye(++) _or_ you mine, + ours, yours, yours, thine, yours, Obj. Me; us. You; you. Thee; you. 

[Footnote *: Strictly speaking, _we_ can hardly be the plural of _I_, saysProfessor Sweet, for _I_ does not admit of plurality. _We_ means _I_ and_you_, _I_ and _he_, _I_ and _she_, or _I_ and _they_, etc. ]

[Footnote +: The forms _mine_, _ours_, _yours_, _thine_, _hers_, and_theirs_ are used only when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as, _Yours_ is old, _mine_ is new = _Your book_ is old, etc. _Mine_ and _thine_were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound; as, _thineenemy_, _mine honor_. 

The expression _a friend of mine_ presents a peculiar construction. Theexplanation generally given is, that _of_ is partitive, and that theexpression is equivalent to _one friend of my friends_. 

It is said that this construction can be used only when more than one thingis possessed such expressions as _This heart of mine_, _That temper ofyours_ are good, idiomatic English. This naughty world _of ours. --Byron_. This moral life _of mine. --Sheridan Knowles_. Dim are those heads _oftheirs. ---Carlyle_. 

Some suggest that the word possessing or owning is understood after thesepossessives; as, This _temper of yours_ (your possessing); others say that_of_ simply marks identity, as does of in _city of_ (=viz. ) _New York_ (seeLesson 34). They would make the expression = _This temper, your temper_. 

The _s_ in _ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_ is the _s_ of _his_ and _its_extended by analogy to _our, your, her_, and _their_, forms alreadypossessive. _Ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_ are consequently doublepossessives. ]

[Footnote ++: _Ye_ is used in Chaucer and in the King James version of theBible exclusively in the nominative, as was its original _ge__ in theSaxon. Shakespeare uses _you_ in the nominative. _You_ (the Saxonaccusative _eow_) has now taken the place of _ye_, and is both nominativeand objective. 

THIRD PERSON--_Mas_. THIRD PERSON--_Fem_. THIRD PERSON--_Neut_. _Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_. Nom. He, they, she, they, it, they, Pos. His, their _or_ her or their _or_ its, * their _or_ theirs, hers, theirs, theirs, Obj. Him; them. Her; them. It; them. 

[Footnote *: The possessive _its_ is our only personal pronoun form notfound in Saxon. _His_, the possessive of the masculine _he_, was there thepossessive (genitive) of the neuter _hit_ also--our _it_. But it came to bethought improper to employ _his_ to denote inanimate things as well asanimate. The literature of the 16th and 17th centuries shows a growingsense of this impropriety, and abounds with _of it_, _thereof_, _her_, _it_, _the_, and _it own_ in place of _his_ as the possessive of _it_. Thefirst appearance of the new coinage _its_ is placed in 1598. Long after itsintroduction many looked askance at _its_, because of the grammaticalblunder it contains--the_ t_ in _its_ being a nominative neuter ending, andthe _s_ a possessive ending. But no one thinks now of shunning what wasthen regarded as a grammatical monstrosity. ]

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. __Nom. And Nom. And Nom. And Nom. And Nom. And Nom. And__Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. _

myself* thyself himself; _or_ ourselves. _or_ yourselves. Herself; themselves. Ourself; yourself; itself;

[Footnote *: The compound personal pronouns are used (1) for emphasis; as, _I myself_ saw it: and (2) as reflexives, to turn the action of the verbback upon the actor; as, _He_ found _himself_ deserted by his friends. Theyare not the only words used in this last relation; where no obscurity wouldarise, we may use the simple personal pronouns instead. And _millions_ inthose solitudes . .. Have laid _them_ down in their last sleep. --_Bryant_. My uncle stopped a minute to look about _him_. --_Dickens_. 

The compound personal pronouns should not be used as subjects. ]

+Remark+. --The possessive of these pronouns is wanting. 

_Ourself_ and _we_ are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide theirindividuality, and give authority to what they say. 

+Relative Pronouns+. 

_Sing. And Plu. Sing. And Plu. Sing. And Plu. Sing. And Plu. __Nom_. Who, which, that, what, _Pos_. Whose, whose, ------, ------, _Obj_. Whom. Which. That. What. 

+Remark+. --From the composition of _which_--_hwa:_-lic, or _hwaet-lic_ =_who-like_, or _what-like_, it is evident that _whose_ is not formed from_which_. It is, in fact, the possessive of _what_ transferred to _which_. Much has been said against this _whose_, but it is in general use. Thosewho regard usage as the final arbiter in speech need not avoid this form ofthe pronoun. 

+Interrogative Pronouns+. 

The interrogative pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are declined like therelatives _who, which_, and _what_. 

+Compound Relative Pronouns+. 

_Singular and Plural_. _Singular and Plural_. _Nom_. Whoever, whosoever, _Pos_. Whosever, whosesoever, _Obj_. Whomever. Whomsoever. 

_Whichever, whichsoever, whatever_, and _whatsoever_ do not change theirform. 

+Adjective Pronouns+. 

_This_ and _that_ with their plurals, _these_ and _those_, have nopossessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the objective. _One_and _other_ are declined like nouns; and _another_, declined like _other_in the singular, has no plural. _Either, neither, former_, and _latter_sometimes take the apostrophe and _s_ ('_s_) in the singular. _Each_, _either_, and _neither_ are always singular; _both_ is always plural; and_all, any, farmery latter, none, same, some_, and _such_ are eithersingular or plural. [Footnote: On the pages immediately preceding Lesson 1, we said that +usage+, as determined by the majority of the best writers andspeakers of the generation, is the only authority in language; and we thereexplained how we are able to appeal to usage as we all along have done. Intreating of the adjective pronouns we now appeal to it again. In the firsttwelve paragraphs below we give alternative expressions. Only the second ofthese alternative locutions in each paragraph is allowed by manygrammarians; they utterly condemn the first. On the warrant of usage we saythat both expressions are correct. 

1. We may use +each other+ with more than two; we may use _one another_ insuch a case. We may say, "_Several_ able _men_ were in correspondence with_each other_, " or "with _one another_. "

2. We may use +one another+ with only two; we may use _each other_ in sucha case. We may say, "The _two countries_ agreed to stand by _one another_, "or "by _each other_. "

3. We may use +all, both+, and +whole+ with a preposition and a nounfollowing; we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun. We maysay, "_All of_ the _people_, " "_Both of_ the _trees_, " "The _whole of_ thefarm, " or "_All_ the _people_, " "_Both trees_, " "The _whole farm_. "

4. We may use the pronouns +either+ and +neither+, as we do theconjunctions _either_ and _neither_, with more than two; we may use _anyone_ and _none_ in such cases. We may say, "Here are _three candidates_;you may vote for _either_ or for _neither_ of them, " or "for _any one_ orfor _none_ of them. "

5. We may use +he+ or some other personal pronoun after the indefinite one;we may repeat the _one_ in such a case. We may say, "The home _one_ mustquit, yet taking much of its life along with _him_, " or "along with _one_. "

6. We may use +such+ before an adjective and its noun; we may use _so_ withthe adjective in such a case. We may say, "_Such a strong argument_, ""_Such admirable talent_, " or "_So strong an argument_, " "_Talent soadmirable_. "

7. We may use the plural +ones+; we may use the noun for which _ones_stands. We may say, "You have red roses, I have white _ones_, " or "white_roses_. "

8. We may apply +the other two+ to those that remain when one of threethings has been taken from the rest; we may use _the two others_ in such acase. We may say, "One of them kept his ground; _the other two_ ran away, "or "_the two others_ ran away. "

9. We may use +a+ before a noun in the singular and +or two+ after it; wemay use _one or two_ before the noun in the plural. We may say, "I will goin _a day or two_, " or "in _one or two days_. "

10. We may use +either+ in the sense of _each_; we may use _each_ instead. We may say, "He wrested the land on _either_ side of the Seine, " or "on_each_ side of the Seine. "

11. We may insert a noun, or a noun and other words, between +other+ and+than+; we may place the _than_ immediately after _other_. We may say, "Wemust look for somee _other reasons for it than_ those suggested, " or "forsome _reasons for it other than_ those suggested. "

12. We may use +none+ in the plural; we may use _none_ in the singular. Wemay say, "_None hear_ thy voice, " or "_None hears_ thy voice. "

The paragraphs below contain noteworthy uses of adjective pronouns but noreally alternative expressions. 

13. Usage is overwhelmingly in favor of +any one else's, no one else's, somebody else's, nobody else's+, instead of _any one's else_, etc. There isscarcely any authority for placing the (_'s_) upon _one_ or _body_. "Written by Dickens for his own or _any one else's_ children. " This form iscommon and convenient. We are advised to shun it, but we need not. 

14. Usage is also decidedly in favor of +first two, last three+, etc. , instead of _two first, three last_, etc. ]

Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and are not declined. Suchexpressions as "the _wretched's_ only plea" and "the _wicked's_ den" areexceptional. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 125. 

CASE FORMS--PRONOUNS. 

The pronouns _I_, _thou_, _he_, _she_, and _who_ are the only words in thelanguage that have each three different case forms. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Declensions, and correct these errors_:--

Our's, your's, hi's, her's, it's, their's, yourn, hisn, hern, theirn. 

Construction of Case Forms--Pronouns. 

+Caution. --I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, + and +who+ are +nominative+forms, and must not be used in the objective case. +Me, us, thee, him, her, [Footnote: _Her_ is also a possessive. ] them, + and +whom+ are objectiveforms, and must not be used in the nominative case. 

Remark. --The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms heregiven are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in thelanguage. All the rules of syntax given in the grammars to guide in the useof the nominative and the objective case apply, practically, only to thesefifteen words. 

+Direction. +--_Study carefully the Definitions and principles given underthe head of case, Lesson 119, and then correct these errors, giving yourreasons in every instance:--_

1. It is not me you are in love with. [Footnote: Dr. Latham defends _It is me, _ but condemns _It is him, _ and _It is her_. Dean Alford regards as correct the forms condemned by Latham, and asserts that _thee_ and _me_ are correct in, "The nations not so blest as _thee_" "Such weak minister as me may the oppressor bruise. " Professor Bain justifies _If I were him, It was her, He is better than me, _ and even defends the use of _who_ as an objective form by quoting from Shakespeare, "_Who_ servest thou under?" and from Steele, "_Who_ should I meet?"

 They justify such expressions as _It is me_ from the analogy of the French _c'est moi_, and on the ground that they are "more frequently heard than the prescribed form. " But such analogy would justify _It are them (ce sont eux)_; and, if the argument from the speech of the uneducated is to have weight, we have good authority for _"Her ain't a calling we: us don't belong to she. "_ A course of reading will satisfy one that the best writers and speakers in England are not in the habit of using such expressions as _It is me_, and that these are almost, if not quite unknown in American literature. No one has freed himself from the influence of early associations that are in a careless moment some vicious colloquialism may not creep into his discourse. A Violation of every principle of grammar may be defended, if such inadvertencies are to be erected into authority. To whatever is the prevailing, the habitual, usage of a majority of the best writers and speakers the grammarian should bow without question; but not to the accidental slips of even the greatest writers, or to the common usage of the unreflecting and the uncultivated. ]

2. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me. [See previous Footnote. ]3. Who servest thou under? [See previous footnote. ]4. It was not them, it was her. 5. Its being me should make no difference. 6. Him and me are of the same age. 7. Them that study grammar talk no better than me. 8. I am not so old as her; she is older than me by ten years. 9. He was angry, and me too. 10. Who will go? Me. 11. It isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. 12. Not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him. 13. Him being a stranger, they easily misled him. 14. Oh, happy us! surrounded thus with blessings. 15. It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted. 16. I referred to my old friend, he of whom I so often speak. 17. You have seen Cassio and she together. 18. Between you and I, I believe that he is losing his mind. 19. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend? 20. Who did he refer to, he or I?21. Who did he choose? Did he choose you and I?22. He that is idle and mischievous reprove. 23. We will refer it to whoever you may choose. 24. Whosoever the court favors is safe. 25. They that are diligent I will reward. 20. Scotland and thee did in each other live. 27. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to such as thee. 28. I knew that it was him. 29. I knew it to be he. 30. Who did you suppose it to be?31. Whom did you suppose it was?32. I took that tall man to be he. 33. I thought that tall man was him. 

Although _than_ is not a preposition, it is sometimes followed by _whom, _as in the familiar passage from Milton: "Beelzebub. .. _than whom, _ Satanexcept, none higher sat. " _Than whom_ is an irregularity justified only onthe basis of good usage. _Whom_ here may be parsed as an objective caseform used idiomatically in place of _who_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 126. 

CONSTRUCTION OF CASE FORMS. 

MISCELLANEOUS--REVIEW. 

Direction. --_Correct these errors, and give your reasons:--_

1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother?2. It did not occur during Washington, Jefferson, or Adams's administration. 3. I consulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary. 4. This state was south of Mason's and Dixon's line. 5. These are neither George nor Fanny's books. 6. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a noble one. 7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's. 8. He visited his sons-in-law's homes. 

+Explanation. +--If the possessive plural of such nouns were used, thiswould be correct; but it is better to avoid these awkward forms. 

9. A valuable horse of my friend William's father's was killed. 10. For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife. 11. For the queen's sake, his sister's. 12. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 13. He spoke of you studying Latin. 14. It being difficult did not deter him. 15. What need is there of the man swearing?16. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again. 17. He thought it was us. 18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or me. 19. I shall not learn my duty from such as thee. 20. A lady entered, whom I afterwards found was Miss B. 21. A lady entered, who I afterwards found to be Miss B. 22. Ask somebody's else opinion. 23. Let him be whom he may. 24. I am sure it could not have been them. 25. I understood it to be they. 26. It is not him whom you thought it was. 27. Let you and I try it. 28. All enjoyed themselves, us excepted. 29. Us boys enjoy the holidays. 30. It was Virgil, him who wrote the "Aeneid. "31. He asked help of men whom he knew could not help him. 

TO THE TEACHER. --These schemes and questions under the head of GeneralReview are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technicalgrammar. 

The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or onlyfor outlines. In some cases a single question may suffice for a wholelesson. 

Scheme for the Noun. 

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_. )

NOUN. Uses. Subject (4, 8). Object Complement (28). Attribute Complement (29, 30). Objective Complement (31). Adjective Modifier (33). Adverb Modifier (35). Principal word in Prep. Phrase (17). Independent (44). Classes. Common (85). (Abstract and Collective. ) Proper (85). Modifications. Number. Singular (112-116). Plural (112-116). Gender. Masculine (117, 118). Feminine (117, 118). Neuter (117, 118). Person. First (119). Second (119). Third (119). Case. Nominative (119). Possessive (119, 122, 123). Objective (119). 

Questions on the Noun. 

1. Define the noun and its classes. --Lesson 85. 

2. Name and define the modifications of the noun. --Lessons 112, 117, 119. 

3. Name and define the several numbers, genders, persons, andcases. --Lessons 112, 117, 119. 

4. Give and illustrate the several ways of forming the plural. --Lessons112, 113, 114. 

5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing thegenders. --Lesson 117. 

6. How is the possessive case formed?--Lesson 122. 

7. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of thepossessive forms. --Lesson 128. 

+Scheme for the Pronoun. +

PRONOUN. +Uses+. --Same as those of the Noun. +Classes+. Personal (85, 86, 87). Relative (85, 86, 87). Interrogative (85). Adjective (85, 87). +Modifications+. --Same as those of the Noun (112, 117, 118, 119, 124, 125, 142). 

Questions on the Pronoun. 

1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists. --Lesson 85. 

2. Decline the several pronouns. --Lesson 124. 

3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of thedifferent pronouns. --Lessons 86, 87. 

4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the numberforms, the gender forms, and the case forms. --Lessons 118, 125, 142. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 127. 

COMPARISON. 

+Introductory Hints. +--_That apple is sweet, that other is sweeter, butthis one is the sweetest. _ The adjective _sweet_, expressing a quality ofthe three apples, is, as you see, inflected by adding _er_ and _est_. 

Adjectives, then, have one modification, and this is marked by form, orinflection. This modification is called +Comparison+, because it is usedwhen things are compared with one another in respect to some quality commonto them all, but possessed by them in different degrees. The form of theadjective which expresses the simple quality, as _sweet_, is of the+Positive Degree+; that which expresses the quality in a greater or a lessdegree, as _sweeter_, _less sweet_, is of the +Comparative Degree+; andthat which expresses the quality in the greatest or the least degree, as_sweetest_, _least sweet_, is of the +Superlative Degree+. 

But even the positive implies a comparison; we should not say, This _apple_is _sweet_, unless this particular fruit had more of the quality thanordinary apples possess. 

Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and superlative degreesalways expresses the quality relatively. When we say, This _apple_ is_sweeter than that_, or, This _apple_ is the _sweetest of the three_, we donot mean that any one of the apples is very sweet, but only that one appleis sweeter than the other, or the sweetest of those compared. 

The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may beincreased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective. We can say_very_, _exceedingly_, _rather_, or _somewhat_ sweet; _far_, _still_, or_much_, sweeter; _by far_ or _much_ the sweetest. 

Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are compared. 

Adjectives have one modification; viz. , +Comparison+. [Footnote: Twoadjectives, _this_ and _that_, have number forms--_this_, _these_; _that_, _those_. In Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms to indicategender, number, and case. ]

+DEFINITIONS+. 

+_Comparison_ is a modification of the adjective (or the adverb) to expressthe relative degree of the quality in the things compared. + [Footnote:Different degrees of quantity, also, may sometimes be expressed bycomparison. ]

+The _Positive Degree_ expresses the simple quality. +

+The _Comparative Degree_ expresses a greater or a less degree of thequality. 

+The _Superlative Degree_ expresses the greatest or the least degree of thequality+. 

+RULE. --Adjectives are regularly compared by adding _er_ to the positive toform the comparative, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative+. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

+RULE I. --Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, _fine, finer; love, loving. _

+Exceptions. +--The _e_ is retained (1) after _c_ and _g_ when the suffixbegins with _a_ or _o_; as, _peaceable, changeable;_ (2) after _o;_ as, _hoeing;_ and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word;as, _singeing, dyeing. _

+RULE II. ---Y after a consonant becomes _i_ before a suffix net beginningwith _i;_ as, + _witty, wittier; dry, dried. _

Exceptions. ---Y does not change before 's, nor in forming the plural ofproper nouns; as, _lady's, _ the _Marys, _ the _Henrys. _

+RULE III. --In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, afinal consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning witha vowel; as+, _hot, hotter; begin, beginning. _

Exceptions. --_X, k, _ and _v_ are never doubled, and _gas_ has _gases_ inthe plural. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing_more_ and _most. _ This method is often used with adjectives of twosyllables and sometimes with those of one. 

+Remark+. --_More beautiful, most beautiful_, etc. Can hardly be calleddegree forms of the adjective. The adverbs _more_ and _most_ have thedegree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words. Theadjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the inflections_er_ and _est_ are added. 

Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing _less_ and_least_[Footnote: This use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowedfrom the Norman-French. But note how the adverb is compared, The Saxonsuperlative ending +st+ is in _most_ and _least_; and the Saxon comparativeending +s+, unchanged to +r+, is the last letter in _less_--changed to +r+, as it regularly was, in coming into English, it is the _r_ in _more_. 

When it was forgotten that _less_ is a comparative, _er_ was added, and wehave the double comparative _lesser_--in use to-day. 

After the French method of comparing was introduced into English, bothmethods were often used with the same adjective; and, for a time, doublecomparatives and double superlatives were common; as, _worser_, _mostboldest_. In "King Lear" Shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozentimes. ]; as, _valuable_, _less valuable_, _least valuable_. Mostdefinitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared, as theirmeaning will not admit of different degrees. 

Direction. --_From this list of adjectives select those that cannot becompared, and compare those that remain:--_

Observe the Rules for Spelling given above. 

Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, handsome, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, lunar, superior. 

Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily pronounced andmore agreeable to the ear is to be preferred. 

+Direction+. --_Correct the following_:--

Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest. 

Some +adverbs+ are compared by adding _er_ and _est_, and some by prefixing_more_ and _most_. 

+Direction+. --_Compare the following_:--

Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely. 

Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their comparison. 

+Direction+. --_Learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs_:--

Adjectives Irregularly Compared. 

_Pos. Comp. Superlative_. (Aft), * after, aftmost _or_ aftermost. Bad, |Evil, + worse, worst. Ill |Far, farther, fartherest _or_ fathermostFore, former, foremost _or_ first. (Forth), further, furtherest _or_ furthermost. Good, better, best. Hind, hinder, hindmost _or_ hindermost. (In), inner, inmost _or_ innermost. Late, later _or_ latest _or_ latter last. Little, + less _or_ least. Lesser, Many _or_ more, most. Much, Near, nearer nearest _or_ next. Old, older _or_ oldest _or_ elder, eldest. (Out), outer _or_ outmost _or_ utter, outermost; utmost _or_ uttermost. Under, ----, undermost. (Up), upper, upmost _or_ uppermost. Top, ----, topmost. 

[Footnote *: The words inclosed in curves are adverbs--the adjectivesfollowing having no positive form. ]

[Footnote +: For the comparative and the superlative of _little_, in thesense of small in size, _smaller_ and _smallest_ are substituted; as, _little_ boy, _smaller_ boy, _smallest_ boy. ]

Adverbs Irregularly Compared. 

_Pos. Comp. Superlative. _

Badly, | worse, worst. Ill, |Far, farther, farthest, Forth, further, furthest. Little, less, least, Much, more, most. Well, better, best. 

TO THE TEACHER. --We give below a model for writing the parsing ofadjectives. A similar form may be used for adverbs. 

Exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected fromLessons 12, 14, 29, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 63, 64, 65. 

Model for Written Parsing. --_All the dewy glades are still_. 

CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATION. |SYNTAX-------------------|---------------|----------------------------------Adjectives. | Kind. | Deg. Of Comp. |All | Def. | ------ | Modifier of _glades_. The | " | ------ | " " "dewy | Des. | Pos. | " " "still | " | " | Completes _are_ and modifies _glades_. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 128. 

CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 

+Caution+. --In stating a comparison avoid comparing a thing with itself. [Footnote: A thing may, of course, be compared with itself as existingunder different conditions; as, The _star_ is _brighter to-night_; The_grass_ is _greener to-day_. ]

+Remark+. --The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of things)as distinct from each other, and implies that one has more of the qualitythan the other. The comparative degree is generally followed by _than_. [Footnote: The comparative is generally used with reference to two thingsonly, but it may be used to compare one thing with a number of things takenseparately or together as, _He_ is no _better_ than _other men_; _It_contains _more_ than _all_ the _others_ combined. ]

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct theseerrors:_--

1. London is larger than any city in Europe. 

+Correction+. --The second term of comparison, _any city in Europe_, includes London, and so London is represented as being larger than itself. It should be, _London_ is _larger_ _than any other city in Europe_, or, _London_ is the _largest city in Europe_. 

2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 3. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is no metal so useful as iron. 

(A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is employed. )

5. All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, above all kinds of property, to be free from invasion. 

+Caution+. --In using the superlative degree be careful to make the latterterm of the comparison, or the term introduced by _of_, include the former. 

+Remarks+. --The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things)as belonging to a group or class, and as having more of the quality thanany of the rest. The superlative is generally followed by _of_. 

Good writers sometimes use the superlative in comparing two things; as, This is the _best of the two_. But in such cases usage largely favors thecomparative; as, This is the _better of the two_. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Remarks, and correct theseerrors:_--

1. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings. 

+Correction+. --_Of_ (= _belonging to_) represents Solomon as belonging to agroup of kings, and _other_ excludes him from this group--a contradictionin terms. It should be, _Solomon_ was the _wisest of Hebrew kings_, or_Solomon_ was _wiser_ than _any other Hebrew king_. 

2. Of all the other books I have examined, this is the most satisfactory. 3. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcusable. 4. He was the most active of all his companions. 

(He was not one of his own companions. )

5. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort. 6. John is the oldest of any boy in his class. 

+Caution+. --Avoid double comparatives and double superlatives, and thecomparison of adjectives whose meaning will not admit of differentdegrees. [Footnote: Many words which grammarians have considered incapableof comparison are used in a sense short of their literal meaning, and arecompared by good writers; as, My _chiefest_ entertainment. --_Sheridan_. The_chiefest_ prize. --_Byron_. _Divinest_ Melan- choly. --_Milton_. _Extremest_hell. --_Whittier_. _Most perfect_ harmony--_Longfellow_. _Less perfect_imitations. --_Macaulay_. The extension of these exceptional forms shouldnot be encouraged. ]

+Direction+. --_Correct these errors:_--

1. A more beautifuler location cannot be found. 2. He took the longest, but the most pleasantest, route. 3. Draw that line more perpendicular. 

+Correction+. --Draw that line _perpendicular_, or more nearly_perpendicular_. 

4. The opinion is becoming more universal. 5. A worser evil awaits us. 6. The most principal point was entirely overlooked. 7. That form of expression is more preferable. 

+Caution+. --When an adjective denoting one, or an adjective denoting morethan one, is joined to a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree innumber. 

+Remark+. --A numeral denoting more than one may be prefixed to a singularnoun to form a compound adjective; as, a _ten-foot_ pole (not a _ten-feet_pole), a _three-cent_ stamp. 

+Direction+. --_Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct theseerrors:_--

1. These kind of people will never be satisfied. 2. The room is fifteen foot square; I measured it with a two-feet rule. 3. The farmer exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 4. These sort of expressions should be avoided. 5. We were traveling at the rate of forty mile an hour. 6. Remove this ashes and put away that tongs. 

Miscellaneous. 

1. He was more active than any other of his companions. 

+Correction+. --As he is not one of his companions, _other_ is unnecessary. 

2. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that preceded or followed him. 3. The younger of the three sisters is the prettier. 

(This is the construction which requires the superlative. See the secondRemark in this Lesson. )

4. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 5. She was willing to take a more humbler part. 6. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 7. I don't like those sort of people. 8. I have the most entire confidence in him. 9. This is the more preferable form. 10. Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North America?11. He writes better than any boy in his class. 

GENERAL REVIEW. 

TO THE TEACHER. --See suggestions to the teacher, page 255. 

Scheme for the Adjective. 

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_. )

ADJECTIVE. Uses. Modifier (12). Attribute Complement (29, 30). Objective Complement (31). Classes. Descriptive (89-91). Definitive (89-91). Modification. --Comparison. Pos. Deg. | Comp. " + 127, 128. Sup. " |

Questions on the Adjective. 

1. Define the adjective and its classes. --Lesson 89. 

2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison. --Lesson 127. 

3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methodsof comparison. --Lesson 127. 

4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use ofadjectives. --Lessons 90, 91. 

5. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of comparativeand superlative forms. --Lesson 128. 

Scheme for the Adverb. 

ADVERB. Classes. Time. | Place. | Degree. + 92-94. Manner. | Cause. | Modification. --Comparison. Pos. Deg. | Comp. " + 127, 128. Sup. " |

Questions on the Adverb. 

1. Define the adverb and its classes. --Lesson 92. 

2. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison. --Lesson 127. 

3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adverbs. --Lesson 93. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 129. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 

VOICE. 

+Introductory Hints+. --_He picked a rose. A rose was picked by him. _ Thesame thing is here told in two ways. The first verb, _picked_, shows thatthe subject names the actor; the second verb, _was picked_, shows that thesubject names the thing acted upon. These different forms and uses of theverb constitute the modification called +Voice+. The first form is in the+Active Voice+; the second is in the +Passive Voice+. 

The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent;the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passivevoice may be used when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we donot care to name the agent; as, The _ship was wrecked; Money is coined_. 

DEFINITIONS. 

+_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whetherthe subject names the _actor_ or the thing _acted upon_+. 

+The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+. 

+The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. +

The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into an asserting word(some form of the verb _be_) and an attribute complement (a past participleof a transitive verb). An expression consisting of an asserting wordfollowed by an adjective complement or by a participle used adjectively maybe mistaken for a verb in the passive voice. 

+Examples. +--The coat _was_ sometimes _worn_ by Joseph (_was worn_--passive voice). The coat _was_ badly _worn_ (_was_--incomplete predicate, _worn_--adjective complement). 

+Remark. +--To test the passive voice note whether the one named by thesubject is acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed by _by_ beforethe name of the agent without changing the sense. 

+Direction. +---_Tell which of the following completed predicates may betreated as single verbs, and which should not be so treated:--_

1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This task was not accomplished in a day. 3. Are you prepared to recite?4. Dinner was soon prepared. 5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. 6. You are mistaken. 7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The house is situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am obliged to you. 10. I am obliged to do this. 11. The horse is tired. 12. A fool and his money are soon parted. 13. The tower is inclined. 14. My body is inclined by years. 

+Direction. +--_Name all the transitive verbs in Lesson 78, and give theirvoice. _

 * * * * *

LESSON 130. 

COMPOSITION--VOICE. 

The +object complement+ of a verb in the +active voice+ becomes the+subject+ when the verb is changed to the +passive voice. +

+Example. +--The Danes invaded _England = England_ was invaded by the Danes. 

+Remark. +--You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is madeprominent; in the second sentence, the receiver. 

+Direction. +--_In each of these sentences change the voice of thetransitive verb without altering the meaning of the sentence, and note theother changes that occur:--_

1. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and winged shoes. 2. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the Teutonic, or Gothic. 3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress was chosen, not for a fine, glossy surface, but for such qualities as would wear well. 4. Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshiped in many parts of Greece and Rome. 5. The minds of children are dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed--in the prevailing fashion. 6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood circulates. 7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman legions, vanquished the victorious Carthaginians. 8. His eloquence had struck them dumb. 

+Remark. +--Notice that the objective complement becomes the attributecomplement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice. 

9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. 10. The town had nicknamed him Beau Seymour. 11. Even silent night proclaims my soul immortal. 12. We saw the storm approaching. 

(Notice that the objective complement is here a participle. )

13. He kept his mother waiting. 14. We found him lying dead on the field. 15. We all believe him to be an honest man. 

(Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase. )

16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 17. Everybody acknowledged him to be a genius. 

The +indirect, + or _dative, _ +object+ is sometimes made the +subject+ of averb in the passive voice, while the object complement is retained afterthe verb. [Footnote: Some grammarians condemn this construction. It is truethat it is a violation of the general analogies, or laws, of language; butthat it is an idiom of our language, established by good usage, is beyondcontroversy. 

Concerning the parsing of the noun following this passive, there isdifference of opinion. Some call it an adverbial modifier, some call it a"retained object, " and some say that it is a noun without grammaticalconstruction. In "I offered him money, " _him_ represents the one to whomthe act was directed, and _money_ names the thing directly acted upon. In"He was offered money, " the relation of the act to the person and to thething is not changed; _money_ still names the thing directly acted upon. ]

+Example. +--The porter refused _him_ admittance = _He_ was refused_admittance_ by the porter. 

+Direction. +--_Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences, and note the other changes that occur:--_

18. They were refused the protection of the law. 19. He was offered a pension by the government. 20. I was asked that question yesterday. 21. He told me to leave the room. 

+Explanation. +--Here the infinitive phrase is the object complement, and_(to) me_ is used adverbially. _To leave the room = that I should leave theroom. _

22. I taught the child to read. 23. I taught the child reading. 24. They told me that your name was Fontibell. 

+Direction. +--_Change the following transitive verbs to the passive form, using first the regular and then the idiomatic construction_:--

+Model. +--_He promised me a present = A present was promised me_ (regular)= _I was promised a present_ (idiomatic). 

25. They must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves. 26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion. 

An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the aid of apreposition. 

+Example. +--All his friends _laughed_ at him = He _was laughed at_(ridiculed) by all his friends. 

+Remark. +---_Was laughed at_ may be treated as one verb. Some grammarians, however, would call _at_ an adverb. The intransitive verb and prepositionare together equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice. 

+Direction. +--_Change the voice of the following verbs:--_

27. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. 28. The speaker did not even touch upon this topic. 29. He dropped the matter there, and did not refer to it afterward. 

+Remark. +--The following sentences present a peculiar idiomaticconstruction. A transitive verb which, in the active voice, is followed byan object complement and a prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, theprincipal word of the phrase for its subject, retaining the complement andthe preposition to complete its meaning; as, They _took care of it, It wastaken care of. _

+Direction. +--_Put the following sentences into several different forms, and determine which is the best:--_

30. His original purpose was lost sight of (forgotten). [Footnote: Some would parse _of_ as an adverb relating to _was lost, _ and _sight_ as a noun used adverbially to modify _was lost;_ others would treat _sight_ as an object [complement] of _was lost;_ others would call _was lost sight of_ a compound verb; and others, believing that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze the expression as if arranged thus: _Sight of his original purpose was lost. _]31. Such talents should be made much of. 32. He was taken care of by his friends. 33. Some of his characters have been found fault with as insipid. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 131. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED. 

MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON. 

+Introductory Hints. +--_James walks_. Here the walking is asserted as anactual fact. _James may walk. _ Here the walking is asserted not as anactual, but as a possible, fact. _If James walk out, he will improve. _ Herethe walking is asserted only as thought of, without regard to its being orbecoming either an actual or a possible fact. _James, walk out. _ Here thewalking is not asserted as a fact, but as a command--James is ordered tomake it a fact. These different uses and forms of the verb constitute themodification which we call +Mode. + The first verb is in the +IndicativeMode;+ the second in the +Potential Mode;+ the third in the +SubjunctiveMode;+ the fourth in the +Imperative Mode. +

For the two forms of the verb called the +Participle+ and the +Infinitive, +see Lessons 37 and 40. 

_I walk. I walked. I shall walk. _ In these three sentences the manner ofasserting the action is the same, but the time in which the action takesplace is different. _Walk_ asserts the action as going on in present time, and, as +Tense+ means time, is in the +Present Tense. + _Walked_ asserts theaction as past, and is in the +Past Tense. + _Shall walk_ asserts the actionas future, and is in the +Future Tense. +

_I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall havewalked out by to-morrow. _ Have walked asserts the action as completed atthe present, and is in the +Present Perfect Tense. + _Had walked_ assertsthe action as completed in the past, and is in the +Past Perfect Tense. +_Shall have walked_ asserts action to be completed in the future, and is inthe +Future Perfect Tense. +

_I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk. _ In the second sentence _walk_is changed by adding +est+; in the third sentence, by adding +s. + Verbs aresaid to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. But thisagreement is not generally marked by a change in the form of the verb. 

+DEFINITIONS+. 

+_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner ofasserting the action or being+. 

+The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+. [Footnote:In "Are you going?" or "You are going?" a fact is referred to the hearerfor his admission or denial. In "Who did it?" the fact that some person didit is asserted, and the hearer is requested to name the person. It will beseen that the Indicative Mode may be used in asking a question. ]

+The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessityof acting or being+. 

+The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish+. 

+The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or anentreaty+. 

+The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being ina general way, without asserting it of anything+. 

+The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of anadjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+. 

+The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the timeindicated by the predicate+. 

+The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at thetime indicated by the predicate+. 

+The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at atime previous to that indicated by the predicate+. 

+_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of theaction or being+. 

+The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+. 

+The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+. 

+The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+. 

+The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at thepresent time+. 

+The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at somepast time+. 

+The _Future Perfect Tense _expresses action or being to be completed atsome future time+. 

+_Number _and _Person _of a verb are those modifications that show itsagreement with the number and person of its subject+. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 132. 

FORMS OF THE VERB. 

CONJUGATION. 

+DEFINITIONS+. 

+_Conjugation_ is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+. 

+_Synopsis _is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number andperson in all the modes and tenses+. 

+_Auxiliary Verbs _are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs. +

The auxiliaries are _do, did, have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, _ and _be_ (with all its variations, see Lesson135). 

+The _Principal Parts_ of a verb, or those from which the other parts arederived, are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the pastindicative, and the past participle. +

List of Irregular Verbs. [Footnote: Grammarians have classed verbs on thebasis of their form or history as Strong (or Old) and Weak (or New). 

Strong verbs form their past tense by changing the vowel of the presentwithout adding anything; weak verbs form their past tense by adding _ed, d, _ or _t. _ Some weak verbs change the vowel of the present; as, _tell, told; teach, taught. _ These are weak because they add _d_ or _t. _

Some weak verbs shorten the vowel of the present without adding anything;as, _feed, fed; lead, led;_ and some have the present and the past alike;as, _set, set; rid, rid. _ They have dropped the past tense ending. 

The past participle of all strong verbs once ended in _en_ or _n, _ but inmany verbs this ending is now lost. 

Since most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding _ed, _we call such Regular, and all others Irregular. Our irregular verbs includeall strong verbs and those that may be called "irregular weak" verbs. 

Of the _ed_ added to form the past tense of regular verbs, _d_ is whatremains of _did;_ _we did love, _ for instance, being written _love-did-we. _This derivation of _d_ in _ed_ is questioned. The _d_ of the participle isnot from _did_ but is from an old participle suffix. The _e_ in the _ea_ ofboth these forms is the old connecting vowel. ]

TO THE TEACHER. --It would be well to require the pupils, in studying and inreciting these lists of irregular verbs, to frame short sentencesillustrating the proper use of the past tense and the past participle, _e. G. _ I _began_ yesterday; He has _begun_ to do better. In this way thepupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing forms which theyalready know how to use, and they will be led to correct what has beenfaulty in their use of other forms. 

+Remarks. +--Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are called+Redundant. +

Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts, as _can_ and _may, _ arecalled +Defective. +

The present participle is not here given as a principal part. It may alwaysbe formed from the present tense by adding _ing. _

In adding _ing_ and other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (seeLesson 127) should be observed. 

The forms below in Italics are regular; and those in smaller type areobsolete, and need not be committed to memory. 

_Present. Past. Past Par. _Abide, abode, abode. Awake, awoke, _awaked. Awaked. _Be _or_ am, was, been. Bear, bore, born, (_bring forth_) bare, borne. Bear, bore, borne. (_carry_) bare, Beat, beat, beaten, beat. Begin, began, begun. Bend, bent, bent, _bended, bended. _Bereave, bereft, bereft, _bereaved, bereaved. _Beseech, besought, besought. Bet, bet, bet, _betted, betted. _Bid, bade, bid, bidden, bid. Bind, bound, bound. Bite, bit, bitten, bit. Bleed, bled, bled. Blend, blent, blent, _blended, blended. _Bless, blest, blest, blessed, blessed. Blow, blew, blown. Break, broke, broken. Brake, Breed, bred, bred. Bring, brought, brought. Build, built, built. Burn burnt, burnt, burned, burned. Burst, burst, burst. Buy, bought, bought. Can, [1] could, -----. Cast, cast, cast. Catch, caught, caught. Chide, chid, chidden, chid. Choose, chose, chosen. Cleave, _cleaved, cleaved. _(_adhere_) clave, Cleave cleft, cleft, (_split_) clove, cloven, clave, _cleaved. _Cling, clung, clung. Clothe, clad, clad, _clothed clothed. _(Be)Come, came, come. Cost, cost, cost. Creep, crept, crept. Crow crew, _crowed. _ _crowed_, Cut, cut, cut. Dare, durst, _dared_. (_venture_) _dared_, Deal, dealt, dealt. Dig, dug, dug, _digged_, _digged. _Do, did, done. Draw, drew, drawn. Dream, dreamt, dreamt, _dreamed, dreamed. _Dress drest, drest, _dressed, dressed. _Drink, drank, drunk. Drive, drove, driven. Dwell dwelt, dwelt, _dwelled, dwelled. _Eat, ate, eaten. (Be) Fall, fell, fallen. Feed, fed, fed. Feel, felt, felt. Fight, fought, fought. Find, found, found. Flee, fled, fled. Fling, flung, flung. Fly, flew, flown. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. Forbear, forbore, forborne. Freeze, froze, frozen. (For)Get, got, got, gotten. [2]Gild, gilt, gilt, _gilded, gilded. _Gird, girt, girt, _girded, girded. _(For)Give, gave, given. Go, went, [3] gone. (En)Grave _graved, graved, _ graven. Grind, ground, ground. Grow, grew, grown. Hang, hung, hung, _hanged, hanged_. [4]Have, had, had. Hear, heard heard. Heave hove, hove, [5] _heaved, heaved. _Hew, _hewed, hewed, _ hewn. Hide, hid, hidden, hid. Hit, hit, hit. (Be)Hold, held, held, holden. Hurt, hurt, hurt. Keep, kept, kept. Kneel knelt, knelt, _kneeled, kneeled. _Knit knit, knit, _knitted, knitted. _Know, knew, known. Lade, _laded, laded, _(load) laden. Lay, laid, laid. Lead, led, led. 

[Footnote 1: Can, may, shall, will, must, and ought were originally pastforms. This accounts for their having no change in the third person. ]

[Footnote 2: Gotten is obsolescent except in forgotten. ]

[Footnote 3: _Went_ is the past of _wend, _ to _go_. ]

[Footnote 4: _Hang, _ to execute by hanging, is regular. ]

[Footnote 5: _Hove_ is used in sea language. ]

 * * * * *

LESSON 133. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS--CONTINUED. 

_Present. Past. Past Par. _

Lean, leant, leant, _leaned, leaned_. Leap, leapt, leapt, _leaped, leaped_. Learn, learnt, learnt, _learned, learned_. Leave, left, left. Lend, lent, lent. Let, let, let. Lie, lay, lain. (_recline_)Light, _lighted, lighted_, lit, lit. [1]Lose, lost, lost. Make, made, made. May, might, ----. Mean, meant, meant. Meet, met, met. Mow, _mowed, mowed_, mown. Must, ----, ----. Ought, ----, ----. Pay, paid, paid. Pen, pent, pent, (_inclose_) _penned, penned_. Put, put, put. Quit, quit, quit, _quitted, quitted_. ----, quoth, [2] ----. Rap, rapt, rapt, _rapped, rapped_. Read, read, read. Rend, rent, rent. Rid, rid, rid. Ride, rode, ridden. Ring, rang, rung, _rung_, (A)Rise, rose, risen. Rive, _rived_, riven, _rived_. Run, ran, run. Saw, _sawed, sawed_, sawn. Say, said, said. See, saw, seen. Seek, sought, sought. Seethe, _seethed, seethed_, sod, sodden. Sell, sold, sold. Send, sent, sent. (Be)Set, set, set. Shake, shook, shaken. Shall, should, ------. Shape, _shaped, shaped_, shapenShave, _shaved, shaved_, shaven. Shear, _sheared, sheared_, shore, shorn. Shed, shed, shed. Shine, shone, shone. Shoe, shod, shod. Shoot, shot, shot. Show, _showed_, shown, _showed_. Shred, shred, shred. Shrink, shrank, shrunk, shrunk, shrunken. Shut, shut, shut. Sing, sang, sung. Sung, Sink, sank, sunk, sunk, sunken. Sit, sat, sat. Slay, slew, slain. Sleep, slept, slept. Slide, slid, slidden, slid. Sling, slung, slung. SlangSlink, slunk, slunk. Slit, slit, slit, _slitted, slitted_. Smell, smelt, smelt, _smelled, smelled_. Smite, smote, smitten, smit. Sow, _sowed_, sown, _sowed_. Speak, spoke, spoken. Spake, Speed, sped, sped. Spell, spelt, spelt, _spelled, spelled_. Spend, spent, spent. Spill, spilt, spilt, _spilled, spilled_. Spin, spun, spun. Span, Spit, spit, spit, spat, spitten. Split, split, split. Spoil, spoilt, spoilt, _spoiled, spoiled_. Spread, spread, spread. Spring, sprang, sprung. Sprung, Stand, stood, stood. Stave, stove, stove, _staved, staved_. Stay, staid, staid, _stayed, stayed_. Steal, stole, stolen. Stick, stuck, stuck. Sting, stung, stung. Stink, stunk, stunk. Stank, Strew, _strewed_, strewn, _strewed_. Stride, strode, stridden. Strike, struck, struck, stricken. String, strung, strung, Strive, strove, striven. Strow, _strowed_, strown, _strowed_. Swear, swore, sworn sware, Sweat, sweat, sweat, _sweated, sweated_. Sweep, swept, swept. Swell, _swelled_, _swelled_, swollen. Swim, swam, swum. Swum, Swing, swung, swung. Take, took, taken, Teach, taught, taught. Tear, tore, torn. Tare, Tell, told, told. Think, thought, thought. Thrive, throve, thriven, _thrived_, _thrived_. Throw, threw, thrown. Thrust, thrust, thrust. Tread, trod, trodden, trod. Wake, _waked_, _waked_, woke, woke. Wax, _waxed_, _waxed_, waxen. Wear, wore, worn. Weave, wove, woven. Weep, wept, wept. Wet, wet, wet. Will, would, ----. Win, won, won. Wind, wound, wound. Work, wrought, wrought, _worked_, _worked_. (to)wit, wot, wist, ----. Wring, wrung, wrung. Write, wrote, written. 

[Footnote 1: _Lighted_ Is preferred to _lit_. ]

[Footnote 2: _Quoth_, now nearly obsolete, is used only in the first andthe third person of the past tense. _Quoth_ I = _said_ I. Other formsnearly obsolete are sometimes met in literature; as, "_Methinks_ I scentthe morning air"; "Woe _worth_ the day. " _Methinks_ (A. S. _thincan_, toseem, not _thencan_, to think) = _seems to me_. In the sentence above, _Iscent the morning air_ is the subject, _thinks_ is the predicate, and _me_is a "dative, " or a pronoun used adverbially. Woe _worth_ (A. S. _weorthan_, to _be_ or _become_) the day = Woe _be_ to the day, or _Let_woe _be_ to the day, or _May_ woe _be_ to the day. ]

NOTE. --Professor Lounsbury says, "Modern English has lost not a single one[irregular, or strong, verb] since the reign of Queen Elizabeth"; and adds, "The present disposition of the language is not only to hold firmly to thestrong verbs it already possesses but . .. Even to extend their numberwhenever possible. " And he instances a few which since 1600 have desertedfrom the regular conjugation to the irregular. 

But it should be said that new English verbs, from whatever source derived, form their past tense and participle in _ed_. So that while the regularverbs are not increasing by desertions from the irregular, the regularverbs are slowly gaining in number. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 134. 

FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED. 

CONJUGATION [Footnote: We give the conjugation of the verb in the simplestform consistent with what is now demanded of a text-book. Much of thisscheme might well be omitted. 

Those who wish to reject the Potential Mode, and who prefer a moreelaborate and technical classification of the mode and tense forms, arereferred to pages 373, 374. ]--SIMPLEST FORM. 

REMARK. --English verbs have few inflections compared with those of otherlanguages. Some irregular verbs have seven forms--+see+, +saw+, +seeing+, +seen+, +sees+, +seest+, +sawest+; regular verbs have six--+walk+, +walked+, +walking+, +walks+, +walkest+, +walkedst+. As a substitute forother inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs, and make what are called_compound_, or _periphrastic_, forms. 

+Direction+. --_Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts ofthe verb walk--present +walk+; past +walked+; past participle +walked+:_--

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

 Singular. Plural. 1. (I) /Pres. /, 1. (We) /Pres. /, 2. (You) /Pres. /, 2. (You) /Pres. /, (Thou) /Pres. /+est, [1], 3. (He) /Pres. /+s;[1] 3. (They) /Pres. /. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (I) /Past/, 1. (We) /Past/, 2. (You) /Past/, 2. (You) /Past/, (Thou) /Past/+st+, 3. (He) /Past/; 3. (They) /Past/. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. (I) shall /Pres. /, 1. (We) shall /Pres. /, 2. (You) will /Pres. /, 2. (You) will /Pres. /, (Thou) wil-+t+ /Pres. /, 3. (He) will /Pres. /; 3. (They) will /Pres. /. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) have /Past Par. /, 1. (We) have /Past Par. /, 2. (You) have /Past Par. /, 2. (You) have /Past Par. /, (Thou) ha-+st+ /Past Par. /, 3. (He) ha-+s+ /Past Par. /; 3. (They) have /Past Par. /. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) had /Past Par. /, 1. (We) had /Past Par. /2. (You) had /Past Par. /, 2. (You) had /Past Par. / (Thou) had-+st+ /Past Par. /, 3. (He) had /Past Par. /; 3. (They) had /Past Par. /

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) shall have /Past Par. /, 1. (We) shall have /Past Par. /, 2. (You) will have /Past Par. /, 2. (You) will have /Past Par. /, (Thou) wil-+t+ have /Past Par. /, 3. (He). .. Will have. .. . /Past Par. /; 3. (They) will have /Past Par. /. 

[Footnote 1: In the indicative present, second, singular, old style, _st_is sometimes added in stead of _est_; and in the third person, commonstyle, _es_ is added when _s_ will not unite. In the third person, oldstyle, _eth_ is added. ]

POTENTIAL MODE. [2]

PRESENT TENSE. 

 Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) may /Pres. /, 1. (We) may /Pres. /, 2. (You) may /Pres. /, 2. (You) may /Pres. /, (Thou) may-+st+ /Pres. /, 3. (He) may /Pres. /; 3. (They) may /Pres. /. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (I) might /Pres. /, 1. (We) might /Pres. /, 2. (You) might /Pres. /, 2. (You) might /Pres. /, (Thou) might-+st+ /Pres. /, 3. (He) might /Pres. /; 3. (They) might /Pres. /. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) may have /Past Par. /, 1. (We) may have /Past Par. /, 2. (You) may have /Past Par. /, 2. (You) may have /Past Par. /, (Thou) may-+st+ have /Past Par. /, 3. (He) may have /Past Par. /. 3. (They) may have /Past Par. /. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) might have /Past Par. /, 1. (We) might have /Past Par. /, 2. (You) might have /Past Par. /, 2. (You) might have /Past Par. /, (Thou) might-+st+ have /Past Par. /, 3. (He) might have /Past Par. /. 3. (They) might have /Past Par. /. 

Singular. 

[Footnote 2: Those who do not wish to recognize a Potential Mode, butprefer the unsatisfactory task of determining when _may, can, must, might, could, would, and should_ are independent verbs in the indicative, and whenauxiliaries in the subjunctive, are referred to pages 370-374. ]

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. [3]

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

2. (If thou) /Pres. / 3. (If he) /Pres. /

[Footnote 3: The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of thelanguage. The only distinctive forms remaining (except for the verb _be_)are the second and the third person singular of the present, and even theseate giving way to the indicative. Such forms as If he _have loved_, etc. Are exceptional. It is true that other forms, as, If he _had known, Had_ he_been_, _Should_ he _fall_, may be used in a true subjunctive sense, toassert what is a mere conception of the mind, i. E. , what is merely thoughtof, without regard to its being or becoming a fact; but in these cases itis not the form of the verb but the connective or something in theconstruction of the sentence that determines the manner of assertion. Inparsing, the verbs in such constructions may be treated as indicative orpotential, with a subjunctive meaning. 

The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantlyinterchanging; a classification based strictly on meaning would be verydifficult, and would confuse the learner. ]

IMPERATIVE MODE. [4]

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. /Pres. / (you or thou); 2. /Pres. / (you or ye). 

[Footnote 4: From such forms as _Let us sing, Let them talk_, somegrammarians make a first and a third person imperative. But _us_ is not thesubject of the verb-phrase _let-sing_, and _let_ is not of the firstperson. _Us_ is the object complement of _let_, and the infinitive _sing_is the objective complement, having us for its assumed subject. 

Some would find a first and a third person imperative in such sentences as"Now tread _we_ a measure"; "_Perish_ the _thought_. " But these verbsexpress strong wish or desire and by some grammarians are called "optativesubjunctives. " "Perish the thought" = "May the thought perish, " or "Idesire that the thought may perish, " or "Let the thought perish. "]

INFINITIVES. 

PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

 (To)[5] /Pres. / (To) have /Past Par. /

[Footnote 5: _To_, as indicated by the (), is not treated as a part of theverb. Writers on language are generally agreed that when _to_ introduces aninfinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb, it performs its properfunction as a preposition, meaning _toward_, _for_, etc. ; as, I am inclined_to_ believe; I came _to_ hear. When the infinitive phrase is used as anoun, the _to_ expresses no relation; it seems merely to introduce thephrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on thefunction of some other part of speech, we do not see why it should changeits name. In the expressions, _For_ me to do this would be wrong; _Over_the fence is out of danger, few grammarians would hesitate to call _for_and _over_ prepositions, though they have no antecedent term of relation. 

We cannot see that _to_ is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects themeaning, as does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Thosewho call it a part of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the"preposition _to_" (which, as they have said, is not a preposition) "placedbefore the infinitive, " _i. E. _, placed before that of which it forms a part--placed before itself. 

In the Anglo-Saxon, _to_ was used with the infinitive only in the dativecase, where it had its proper function as a preposition; as, nominative_etan_ (to eat); dative _to etanne_; accusative _e:tan_. When the dativeending _ne_ was dropped, making the three forms alike, the _to_ came to beused before the nominative and the accusative, but without expressingrelation. 

This dative of the infinitive, with _to_, was used mainly to indicatepurpose. When, after the dropping of the _ne_ ending, the idea of purposehad to be conveyed by the infinitive, it became usual in Elizabethanliterature to place _for_ before the _to_, "And _for to_ deck heaven'sbattlements. "-_Greene_. "What went ye out _for to_ see?"-_Bible_. "Shut thegates _for to_ preserve the town. "--_K. Hen. VI. , Part III_. ]

PARTICIPLES

PRESENT PAST PAST PERFECT. /Pres. /+ing+. /Past Par. / Having /Past Par. /

+May+, +can+, and +must+ are potential auxiliaries in the present and thepresent perfect tense; +might+, +could+, +would+, and +should+, in the pastand the past perfect. 

The +emphatic+ form of the present and the past tense indicative is made byprefixing +do+ and +did+ to the present. _Do_ is prefixed to the imperativealso. 

TO THE TEACHES. --Require the pupils to fill out these forma with otherverbs, regular and irregular, using the auxiliaries named above. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 135. 

FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +BE+. 

[Footnote: The conjugation of _be_ contains three distinct roots--_as, be, was_. _Am, art, is, are_ are from _as_. _Am_ = _as-m_ (_m_ is the _m_ in_me_). _Art_ = _as-t_ (_t_ is the _th_ in _thou_). 

Be was formerly conjugated, I _be_, Thou _beest_, He _beth_ or _bes_; _Webe_, _Ye be_, _They be_. ]

+Direction+. --Learn the following forms, paying no attention to the line atthe right of each verb:--

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. _Singular. Plural. _

1. (I) am ----, 1. (We) are ----, 2. (You) are ---- _or_ 2. (You) are ----, (Thou) art ----, 3. (He) is ----; 3. (They) are ----. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (I) was ----, 1. (We) were ----, 2. (You) were ---- _or_ 2. (You) were ----, (Thou) wast ----, 3. (He) was ----; 3. (They) were ----. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. (I) shall be ----, 1. (We) shall be ----, 2. (You) will be ---- _or_ 2. (You) will be ----, (Thou) wilt be ----, 3. (He) will be ----; 3. (They) will be ----. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) have been ----, 1. (We) have been ----, 2. (You) have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) have been ----, (Thou) hast been ----, 3. (He) has been ----; 3. (They) have been ----. 

PAST PERFECT

1. (I) had been ----, 1. (We) had been ----, 2. (You) had been ---- _or_ 2. (You) had been ----, (Thou) hadst been ----, 3. (He) had been ----; 3. (They) had been ----. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) shall have been ----, 1. (We) shall have been ----, 2. (You) will have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) will have been ----, (Thou) wilt have been ----, 3. (He) will have been ----; 3. (They) will have been ----. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

 _Singular. Plural. _1. (I) may be ----, 1. (We) may be ----, 2. (You) may be ---- _or_ 2. (You) may be ----, (Thou) mayst be ----, 3. (He) may be ----; 3. (They) may be ----. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (I) might be ----, 1. (We) might be ----, 2. (You) might be ---- _or_ 2. (You) might be ----, (Thou) mightst be ----, 3. (He) might be ----; 3. (They) might be ----. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) may have been ----, 1. (We) may have been ----, 2. (You) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) may have been ----, (Thou) mayst have been ----, 3. (He) may have been ----; 3. (They) may have been ----. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE, 1. (I) might have been ----, 1. (We) might have been ----, 2. (You) might have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) might have been ----, (Thou) mightst have been ----, 3. (He) might have been ----; 3. (They) might have been ----. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PBESENT TENSE. 

 _Singular. Plural. _1. (If I) may have been ----, 1. (If we) may have been ----, 2. (If you) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (If you) may have been ----, (If thou) mayst have been ----, 3. (If he) may have been ----; 3. (If they) may have been ----. 

PAST TENSE. 

 _Singular. _1. (If I) were -----, 2. (If you) were ----, _or_ (If thou) wert ----, 3. (If he) were ----;

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

 _Singular. Plural. _2. Be (you or thou) ----; 2. Be (you or ye) ----. 

INFINITIVES. 

 PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. (To) be ----. (To) have been ----. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. Being ----. Been. Having been ----. 

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LESSON 136. 

FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED. 

CONJUGATION--PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. 

A verb is conjugated in the +progressive form+ by joining its presentparticiple to the different forms of the verb _be_. 

A transitive verb is conjugated in the +passive voice+ by joining its pastparticiple to the different forms of the verb _be_. 

+Remark+. --The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action orbeing; as, The birds _are singing_. 

Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance--such as _love_, _respect_, _know_--should not be conjugated in the progressive form. Wesay, I _love_ the child--not I _am loving_ the child. 

+Remarks+. --The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning;as, The house _is building_. In such cases the word in _ing_ was once averbal noun preceded by the preposition _a_, a contraction from _on_ or_in_; as, While the ark _was a preparing_; While the flesh _was inseething_. In modern language the preposition is dropped, and the word in_ing_ is treated adjectively. 

Another passive progressive form, consisting of the verb _be_ completed bythe present passive participle, has recently appeared in our language--Thehouse _is being built_, or _was being built_. Although condemned by manylinguists as awkward and otherwise objectionable, it has grown rapidly intogood use, especially in England, Such a form seems to be needed when thesimpler form would be ambiguous, _i. E. _, when its subject might be taken toname either the actor or the receiver; as, The child _is whipping_; Theprisoner _is trying_. Introduced only to prevent ambiguity, the so-calledneologism has pushed its way, and is found where the old form would not beambiguous. As now used, the new form stands to the old in about the ratioof three to one. 

+Direction+. --_Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by fillingall the blanks left after the different forms of the verb be, in thepreceding Lesson, with the present participle choosing; and then in thepassive form by filling these blanks with the past participle chosen_. 

Notice that after the past participle of the verb _be_ no blank is left. The past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of _be_; it isnever compound. The past participle of a transitive verb is always passiveexcept in such forms as _have chosen, had chosen_. (See _have written_, Lesson 138. ) In the progressive, the past participle is wanting. All theparticiples of the verb _choose_ are arranged in orderbelow. 

 _Present. Past. Past Perfect_. 

_Simplest form_. Choosing, chosen, having chosen. _Progressive form_. Being choosing, * ------, having been choosing. _Passive form_. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen. 

[Footnote *: This form is not commonly used. ]

+Direction+. --_Write and arrange as above all the participles of the verbsbreak, drive, read, lift_. 

TO THE TEACHER. --Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugatethem in the progressive and in the passive form. Require them to givesynopses of all the forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use_it_ or some noun for the subject in the third person. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 137. 

CONJUGATION--CONTINUED. 

INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS. 

A verb may be conjugated +interrogatively+ in the indicative and potentialmodes by placing the subject after the first auxiliary; as, _Does he sing?_

A verb may be conjugated +negatively+ by placing _not_ after the firstauxiliary; as, He _does not sing_. _Not_ is placed before the infinitiveand the participles; as, _not to sing, not singing_. 

A question with negation is expressed in the indicative and potentialmodes by placing the subject and _not_ after the first auxiliary; as, _Doeshe not sing?_

+Remark+. --Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the presentand past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus: _Loves he? I knownot_. Such forms are still common in poetry, but in prose they are nowscarcely used. We say, _Does he love?_ _I do not know_. The verbs _be_ and_have_ are exceptions, as they do not take the auxiliary _do_. We say, _Isit right? Have you another?_

+Direction+. --_Write a synopsis in the third person, singular, of the verbwalk conjugated_ (1) _interrogatively_, (2) _negatively, and _(3) _so as toexpress a question with negation. Remember that the indicative and thepotential are the only modes that can be used interrogatively. _

To THE TEACHER. --Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugatethem negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and in the passiveform. Require the pupils to give synopses of all the forms. 

 * * * * *

LESSON 138. 

MODE AND TENSE FORMS. 

COMPOUND FORMS--ANALYSIS. 

The +compound+, or +periphrastic, forms+ of the verb consisting of twowords may each be resolved into an +asserting word and a participle+ or an+infinitive+. 

If we look at the original meaning of the forms +I do write, I shall write, I will write+, we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb, and that _write_ is an infinitive used as object complement. +I do write =I do+ or +perform+ the action (_to_) write. +I shall write = I owe+ (_to_)+write. I will write = I determine+ (_to_) +write+. 

+May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, would write+, and +should write+ may each be resolved into an asserting word and aninfinitive. 

The forms +is writing, was written+, etc. Consist each of an asserting word(the verb _be_), and a participle used as attribute complement. 

The forms +have written+ and +had written+ are so far removed from theiroriginal meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond withtheir history. They originated from such expressions as _I have a letterwritten_, in which _have_ ( = _possess_) is a transitive verb taking_letter_ for its object complement, and _written_ is a passive participlemodifying _letter_. The idea of possession has faded out of _have_, and theparticiple has lost its passive meaning. The use of this form has beenextended to intransitive verbs--Spring _has come_, Birds _have flown_, etc. Being now regularly used instead of the more logical perfect tense forms, Spring _is come_, Birds _are flown_. (_Is come, are flown_, etc. Must notbe mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive voice. ) [Footnote: Apeculiar use of _had_ is found in the expressions _had rather go_ and _hadbetter go_, condemned by many grammarians who suppose _had_ to be here usedincorrectly for _would_ or _should_. Of these expressions the "StandardDictionary, " an authority worthy of our attention, says:--

"Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of SamuelJohnson, the critics insisting upon the substitution of _would_ or_should_, as the case may demand, for _had_; but _had rather_ and _hadbetter_ are thoroughly established English, idioms having the almostuniversal popular and literary sanction of centuries. 'I _would rather_ notgo' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the element ofchoice, or will, in the matter; but in all ordinary cases 'I _had rather_not go' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universallyunderstood. 

"If for 'You _had better_ stay at home' we substitute 'You _should better_stay at home, ' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea ofexpediency giving place to that of obligation. "

In the analysis of "_I had rather go_, " _had_ is the predicate verb, theinfinitive _go_ is the object complement, and the adjective _rather_completes _had_ and belongs to _go_, i. E. , is objective complement. _Had_(= _should hold_ or _regard_) is treated as a past subjunctive. _Rather_ isthe comparative of the old adjective _rathe_ = _early_, from which comesthe idea of preference. The expression means, "I should hold goingpreferable. "

The expressions "You _had better_ stay, " "I _had as lief_ not be, " aresimilar in construction to "I _had rather_ go. " "I _had sooner_ go" iscondemned by grammarians because _sooner_ is never an adjective. If_sooner_ is here allowed as an idiom, it is a modifier of _had_. Theexpression equals, "I should more willingly have going. "]

Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus: +May have beenwritten+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have been+ and theparticiple +written; may have been+ is composed of the compound auxiliary+may have+ and the participle +been+; and +may have+ is composed of theauxiliary +may+ and the infinitive +have+. _May_ is the asserting word--thefirst auxiliary is always the asserting word. 

+Direction+. --_Study what has been said above and analyze the followingverbal forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that may beconsidered as part of the verb and words that must be treated as attributecomplements_:--

1. I may be mistaken. 2. The farm was sold. 3. I shall be contented. 4. Has it been decided?5. You should have been working. 6. The danger might have been avoided. 7. He may have been tired and sleepy. 8. She is singing. 9. I shall be satisfied. 10. The rule has not been observed. 11. Stars have disappeared. 12. Times will surely change. 

TENSE FORMS--MEANING. 

The +Present Tense+ is used to express (1) what is actually present, (2)what is true at all times, (3) what frequently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place in the future, and it is used (5) in describingpast or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking. 

+Examples+. --I _hear_ a voice (action as present). The sun _gives_ light(true at all times). He _writes_ for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips_speaks_ in Boston to-morrow night (future). He _mounts_ the scaffold; theexecutioners _approach_ to bind him; he _struggles, resists_, etc. (pastevents pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden _are_scattered in fight; they _rally_, they _bleed_, etc. (future events nowseen in vision). 

The +Past Tense+ may express (1) simply past action or being, (2) a pasthabit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) it may refer to present time. 

+Examples+. --The birds _sang_ (simply past action). He _wrote_ for thenewspapers (past habit). If I _should go_, you _would miss_ me (futureevents). If he _were_ here, he _would enjoy_ this (refers to present time). 

The +Future Tense+ may express (1) simply future action or being, (2) ahabit or custom as future or as indefinite in time. 

+Examples+. --I _shall write_ soon (simply future action). He _will sit_there by the hour (indefinite in time). 

The +Present Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed inpresent time (_i. E. _, a period of time--an hour, a year, an age--of whichthe present forms a part), and (2) action or being to be completed in afuture period. 

+Examples+. --Homer _has written_ poems (the period of time affected by thiscompleted action embraces the present). When I _have finished_ this, you_shall have_ it (action to be completed in a future period). 

The +Past Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed at somespecified past time, and (2) in a conditional or hypothetical clause it mayexpress past time. 

+Examples+. --I _had seen_ him when I met you (action completed at aspecified past time). If I _had had_ time, I _should have written_ (I _had_not time--I _did_ not _write_. )

The +Future Perfect Tense+ expresses action to be completed at somespecified future time. 

+Example+. --I _shall have seen_ him by to-morrow noon. 

+Direction+. --_Study what has been said above about the meaning of thetense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of thefollowing verbs_:--

1. I go to the city to-morrow. 2. The village master taught his little school. 3. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three sides. 5. To-morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many important facts. 7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings well. 9. Cicero has written orations. 10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail arrives, 12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble. 13. He will occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of this week I shall have been in school four years. 15. If I were you, I would try that. 16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it. 17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel. 

+Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+. _Oh! it has avoice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away. _

[Transcriber's Note: The following two tables have been split to fit within